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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dime_(United_States_coin) | Dime (United States coin) | The dime, in United States usage, is a ten-cent coin, one tenth of a United States dollar, labeled formally as "one dime". The denomination was first authorized by the Coinage Act of 1792.
The dime is the smallest in diameter and is the thinnest of all U.S. coins currently minted for circulation, being 0.705 inches (17.91 millimeters) in diameter and 0.053 in (1.35 mm) in thickness. The obverse of the current dime depicts the profile of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the reverse has an olive branch, a torch, and an oak branch, from left to right respectively.
The word dime comes from the Old French disme (Modern French dîme), meaning "tithe" or "tenth part", from the Latin decima [pars]. The dime is currently the only United States coin in general circulation that is not denominated in terms of dollars or cents. As of 2024, the dime cost 5.76 cents to produce.
== History ==
The Coinage Act of 1792 established the dime (spelled "disme" in the legislation), cent, and mill as subdivisions of the dollar equal to 1⁄10, 1⁄100 and 1⁄1000 dollar respectively.
The first known proposal for a decimal-based coinage system in the United States was made in 1783 by Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Alexander Hamilton, and David Rittenhouse. Hamilton, the nation's first Secretary of the Treasury, recommended the issuance of six such coins in 1791, in a report to Congress. Among the six was a silver coin, "which shall be, in weight and value, one-tenth part of a silver unit or dollar".
From 1796 to 1837, dimes were composed of 89.24% silver and 10.76% copper, the value of which required the coins to be physically very small to prevent their commodity value from being worth more than face value. Thus dimes are made small and thin. The silver percentage was increased to 90.0% with the introduction of the Seated Liberty dime; the use of a richer alloy was offset by reducing the diameter from 18.8 millimeters (0.740 inches) to its current figure of 17.9 millimeters (0.705 inches).
With the passage of the Coinage Act of 1965, the dime's silver content was removed. Dimes from 1965 to the present are struck from a clad metal composed of outer layers of 75% copper and 25% nickel alloy, bonded to a pure copper core. Pre-1965 dimes followed Gresham's law and vanished from ordinary currency circulation at face value. Most now trade as informal bullion coins known as junk silver, priced at some multiple of face value, which price follows the spot price of silver on commodity markets.
Starting in 1992, the U.S. Mint began issuing Silver Proof Sets annually, which contain dimes composed of the pre-1965 standard of 90% silver and 10% copper, then switched to .999 fine silver from 2019 onward. These sets are intended solely for collectors and are not meant for general circulation.
== Design history ==
Since its introduction in 1796, the dime has been issued in six different major types, excluding the 1792 "disme". The name for each type (except for the Barber dime) indicates the design on the coin's obverse.
Draped Bust 1796–1807
Capped Bust 1809–1837
Seated Liberty 1837–1891
Barber 1892–1916
Winged Liberty Head (Mercury) 1916–1945
Roosevelt 1946–present
=== "Disme" (1792) ===
The Coinage Act of 1792, passed on April 2, 1792, authorized the mintage of a "disme", one-tenth the silver weight and value of a dollar. The composition of the disme was set at 89.24% silver and 10.76% copper. In 1792, a limited number of dismes were minted but never circulated. Some of these were struck in copper, indicating that the 1792 dismes were in fact pattern coins. The first dimes minted for circulation did not appear until 1796, due to a lack of demand for the coin and production problems at the United States Mint.
=== Draped Bust (1796–1807) ===
The first dime to be circulated was the Draped Bust dime, in 1796. It featured the same obverse and reverse as all other circulating coins of the time, the so-called Draped Bust/Small Eagle design. This design was the work of then-Chief Engraver Robert Scot. The portrait of Liberty on the obverse was based on a Gilbert Stuart drawing of prominent Philadelphia socialite Ann Willing Bingham, wife of noted American statesman William Bingham. The reverse design is of a small bald eagle surrounded by palm and olive branches, and perched on a cloud. Since the Coinage Act of 1792 required only that the cent and half cent display their denomination, Draped Bust dimes were minted with no indication of their value.
All 1796 dimes have 15 stars on the obverse, representing the number of U.S. states then in the Union. The first 1797 dimes were minted with 16 stars, reflecting Tennessee's admission as the 16th state. Realizing that the practice of adding one star per state could quickly clutter the coin's design, U.S. Mint Director Elias Boudinot ordered a design alteration, to feature just 13 stars (for the original Thirteen Colonies). Therefore, 1797 dimes can be found with either 13 or 16 stars.
Also designed by Robert Scot, the Heraldic Eagle reverse design made its debut in 1798. The obverse continued from the previous series, but the eagle on the reverse was changed from the widely criticized "scrawny" hatchling to a scaled-down version of the Great Seal of the United States. The Draped Bust/Heraldic Eagles series continued through 1807 (although no dimes dated 1799 or 1806 were minted). Both Draped Bust designs were composed of 89.24% silver and 10.76% copper.
=== Capped Bust (1809–1837) ===
The Draped Bust design was succeeded by the Capped Bust, designed by Mint Assistant Engraver John Reich. Both the obverse and reverse were changed extensively. The new reverse featured a bald eagle grasping three arrows (symbolizing strength) and an olive branch (symbolizing peace). Covering the eagle's breast is a U.S. shield with six horizontal lines and 13 vertical stripes. Also on the reverse is the lettering "10C," making it the only dime minted with the value given in cents (subsequent issues are inscribed with the words "ONE DIME"). The lack of numeric value markings on subsequent dime coins causes some confusion amongst foreign visitors, who may be unaware of the value of the coin. Also, the Capped Bust dime was the first dime to have its value written on the coin. Previous designs of the dime had no indication of its value, the way people determined its value was by its size
Capped Bust dimes minted through 1828 are known as the Large type. This is partially because they were struck without a restraining collar, which gave them a broader appearance. In 1828, Chief Engraver William Kneass introduced the close collar method of coining (which automated the process of placing reeds on a coin's edge). In addition to standardizing the diameter of coins, the new method allowed the Mint to produce thicker coins. To maintain a standard weight and alloy, the diameter of most coins was reduced. In particular, the dime was reduced in diameter from 18.8 to 18.5 millimeters. This new Capped Bust dime, which began production in 1828, is known as the Small type. There are 123 varieties known of Capped Bust Dimes.
=== Seated Liberty (1837–1891) ===
Christian Gobrecht completed the design of the Seated Liberty dime, whose obverse was used with every circulating silver U.S. coin of the period. Mint Director Robert Maskell Patterson requested a new coin design, to be reminiscent of the Britannia image found on coinage of the United Kingdom. Chief Engraver William Kneass drew the original sketches, but suffered a stroke and was too ill to finish them or to oversee preparation of the dies. The task then fell to Gobrecht, who was promoted to Second Engraver.
The obverse features an image of Liberty sitting on a rock, wearing a dress and holding a staff with a liberty cap on top. Her right hand is balancing a shield with the inscription "LIBERTY." The reverse featured the inscription "ONE DIME," surrounded by a wreath. All Seated Liberty dimes contain 90% silver and 10% copper, and are 17.9 millimeters (0.705 inch) in diameter. This size and metal composition would continue until 1965, when silver was permanently removed from circulating dimes.
There were several minor varieties during the Seated Liberty's run. The initial design (1837) had no stars on the obverse and, further, the dates were minted in a Large Date and Small Date variety. These two types can be distinguished by noting the "3" and the "7" in the date. In the Large Date variety, the "3" has a pointed serif at top, and the horizontal element of the "7" is straight. In the Small Date variety, the "3" has a rounded serif, and there is a small knob, or bulge, in the "7" horizontal element. Only the Philadelphia Mint made both varieties. The Small Date is slightly rarer. The New Orleans Mint also made the Seated Liberty Dime in this year, but only in the Small Date variety.
Thirteen stars (symbolizing the 13 original colonies) were added to the perimeter of the obverse in 1838. These were replaced with the legend "United States of America," which was moved from the reverse in mid-1860. At the same time, the laurel wreath on the reverse was changed to a wreath of corn, wheat, maple, and oak leaves and expanded nearly to the rim of the coin. This reverse design continued through the end of the series in 1891 and was changed only slightly in 1892, when the Barber dime debuted. Another variety is the 1838–40 dime minted with no drapery underneath the left elbow of Liberty.
Arrows at the date in 1853 and 1873 indicated changes made in the coin's mass (from 2.67 grams to 2.49 grams in 1853, then to 2.50 grams in 1873). The first change was made in response to rising silver prices, while the latter alteration was brought about by the Mint Act of 1873 which, in an attempt to make U.S. coinage the currency of the world, added a small amount of mass to the dime, quarter, and half-dollar to bring their weights in line with fractions of the French 5-franc piece. The change also ensured the quarter dollar (which is valued 2.5 times the dime) weighed 2.5 times the dime (6.25g), and the half dollar (twice the value of the quarter dollar) weighed twice what the quarter dollar weighed (12.5g). In this way, a specific weight of these coins, no matter the mixture of denominations, would always be worth the same. This relation in weight and value continued in the cupronickel coins from 1965 on.
This produced the greatest rarities in the Seated Dime Series, the 1873 and 1874 Carson City Dimes, with arrows and the unique 1873 Carson City Dime without arrows.
=== Barber (1892–1916) ===
The Barber dime is named for its designer, Charles E. Barber, who was Chief Engraver of the U.S. Mint from 1879 to 1917. The design was shared with the quarter and half-dollar of the same period. Extensive internal politics surrounded the awarding of the design job, which had initially been opened to the public. A four-member committee (which included Barber), appointed by then-Mint Director James Kimball, accorded only two of more than 300 submissions an honorable mention. Kimball's successor, Edward O. Leech, decided to dispense with the committees and public design competitions and simply instructed Barber to develop a new design. It has been speculated that this is what Barber had wanted all along.
The Barber dime, as with all previous dimes, featured an image of Liberty on the obverse. She is wearing a Phrygian cap, a laurel wreath with a ribbon, and a headband with the inscription "LIBERTY". This inscription is one of the key elements used in determining the condition of Barber dimes. Liberty's portrait was inspired by two sources—French coins and medals of the period, as well as ancient Greek and Roman sculpture. The obverse also contains the long-used 13 stars (for the 13 colonies) design element. The reverse contained a wreath and inscription almost identical to the one used on the final design of the Seated Liberty dime. Dimes were produced at all four of the mints that operated during the period. While circulated coins of the entire series are readily available to collectors there is one outstanding rarity, the 1894-S Barber Dime. Twenty-four were minted, with 9 currently known.
=== Winged Liberty Head ("Mercury") (1916–1945) ===
Although most commonly referred to as the "Mercury" dime, the Winged Liberty Head does not depict the Roman messenger god. The obverse figure is a depiction of the mythological goddess Liberty wearing a Phrygian cap, a classic Western symbol of liberty and freedom, with its wings intended to symbolize freedom of thought. Designed by noted sculptor Adolph A. Weinman, the Winged Liberty Head dime is considered by many to be one of the most beautiful U.S. coin designs ever produced. The composition (90% silver, 10% copper) and diameter (17.9 millimeters) of the "Mercury" dime was unchanged from the Barber dime.
Weinman (who had studied under Augustus Saint-Gaudens) won a 1915 competition against two other artists for the design job, and is thought to have modeled his version of Liberty on Elsie Kachel Stevens, wife of noted poet Wallace Stevens. The reverse design, a fasces juxtaposed with an olive branch, was intended to symbolize America's readiness for war, combined with its desire for peace. Although the fasces was later officially adopted by Benito Mussolini and his National Fascist Party, the symbol was also common in American iconography and has generally avoided any stigma associated with its usage in wartime Italy.
=== Franklin D. Roosevelt (1946–present) ===
Soon after the death of President Franklin D. Roosevelt in April 1945, legislation was introduced by Virginia Congressman Ralph H. Daughton that called for the replacement of the Mercury dime with one bearing Roosevelt's image. The dime was chosen to honor Roosevelt partly due to his efforts in the founding of the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis (later renamed the March of Dimes), which originally raised money for polio research and to aid victims of the disease and their families.
Due to the limited amount of time available to design the new coin, the Roosevelt dime was the first regular-issue U.S. coin designed by a Mint employee in more than 40 years. Chief Engraver John R. Sinnock was chosen, as he had already designed a Mint presidential medal of Roosevelt. Sinnock's first design, submitted on October 12, 1945, was rejected, but a subsequent one was accepted on January 6, 1946. The dime was released to the public on January 30, 1946, which would have been Roosevelt's 64th birthday. Sinnock's design placed his initials ("JS") at the base of Roosevelt's neck, on the coin's obverse. His reverse design elements of a torch, olive branch, and oak branch symbolized, respectively, liberty, peace, and strength.
Controversy immediately ensued, as strong anti-Communist sentiment in the United States led to the circulation of rumors that the "JS" engraved on the coin was the initials of Joseph Stalin, placed there by a Soviet agent in the mint. The Mint quickly issued a statement denying this, confirming that the initials were indeed Sinnock's. The same rumor arose after the release of the Sinnock designed Franklin half dollar in 1948.
Another controversy surrounding Sinnock's design involves his image of Roosevelt. Soon after the coin's release, it was claimed that Sinnock borrowed his design of Roosevelt from a bas relief created by African American sculptor Selma Burke, unveiled at the Recorder of Deeds Building in Washington, D.C. in September 1945. Sinnock denied this and stated that he simply utilized his earlier design on the Roosevelt medal.
With the passage of the Coinage Act of 1965, the composition of the dime changed from 90% silver and 10% copper to a clad "sandwich" of pure copper inner layer between two outer layers of cupronickel (75% copper, 25% nickel) alloy giving a total composition of 91.67% Cu and 8.33% Ni. This composition was selected because it gave similar mass (now 2.268 grams instead of 2.5 grams) and electrical properties (important in vending machines)—and most importantly, because it contained no precious metal.
The Roosevelt dime has been minted every year, beginning in 1946. Through 1955, all three mints, Philadelphia, Denver, and San Francisco produced circulating coinage; production at San Francisco ended in 1955, resuming in 1968 with proof coinage only. Through 1964 "D" and "S" mintmarks can be found to the left of the torch. From 1968, the mintmarks have appeared above the date. None were used in 1965–1967, and Philadelphia did not show a mintmark until 1980 (in 1982, an error left the "P" off a small number of dimes, which are now valuable). To commemorate the 50th anniversary of the design, the 1996 mint sets included a "W" mintmarked dime made at the West Point Mint. A total of 1,457,000 dimes were issued in the sets, making it the lowest mintage Roosevelt dime up to that time. Since then, the "P" mint mark 2015 reverse proof dime and "W" mint mark 2015 proof dime, minted at Philadelphia and West Point for inclusion in the March of Dimes collector set, have the lowest mintages with 75,000 pieces struck for each.
=== Semiquincentennial Dime (2026) ===
In 2026, the United States Mint will be producing for only the one year a dime featuring a capped Liberty on the obverse, and eagle carrying arrows on the reverse, dual dated as 1776–2026.
The Great Seal of the United States features an eagle carrying an olive branch in one talon, representing peace, and 13 arrows in the other talon, representing readiness for war. The head of the eagle points to the olive branch, showing that it prefers peace to war. The semiquincentennial dime removes the olive branch, and features only the arrows representing war. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_Sebastian | Guy Sebastian | Guy Theodore Sebastian (born 26 October 1981) is an Australian singer, songwriter and record producer who rose to fame after winning the first season of Australian Idol, in 2003. Born in Malaysia and raised in Adelaide, Australia, Sebastian has since released eleven top ten albums, including three number ones. Eight have gained either platinum or multi-platinum certification. He has also achieved twenty three top twenty singles, with fourteen of them, reaching the top ten, including six number ones. He is the only Australian male artist in Australian chart history to achieve six number one singles, and places third overall for all Australian acts. Twelve of his singles have been certified multi-platinum, including the 14× platinum "Battle Scars". His debut single "Angels Brought Me Here" was the highest selling song in Australia in the decade 2000 to 2009. With eighty-two platinum and seven gold certifications and combined album and single sales of over six million in Australia, he has the highest certifications and sales of any Australian Idol contestant.
Sebastian has worked with a number of notable American musicians, including Brian McKnight, Robin Thicke, Steve Cropper, John Mayer, Jordin Sparks, Eve and Lupe Fiasco. "Battle Scars", a collaboration with Fiasco, spent 20 weeks on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, peaking at number 71 and achieved 3× platinum certification. "Battle Scars" also reached number two in Norway and New Zealand. Sebastian has reached the top ten in New Zealand with an album and six singles, including two number ones, and gained eleven platinum and five gold certifications there. In 2015, he represented Australia in its debut in the Eurovision Song Contest with the song "Tonight Again", finishing in fifth place.
Throughout his career, Sebastian has received 34 ARIA Award nominations, winning seven including Best Pop Release and Best Live Act. Other awards include the APRA Urban Work of the Year, the [V] Oz Artist of the Year, Urban Music Awards for Best Male Artist and Best R&B Album, and an International Songwriting Competition award for "Battle Scars". Sebastian has sung at many notable events, including performing for Pope Benedict XVI, Oprah Winfrey and Queen Elizabeth II. Sebastian was previously an ambassador for World Vision Australia and the Australian Red Cross. Together with his spouse Jules, Sebastian created "The Sebastian Foundation." Sebastian was made a Member of the Order of Australia (AM) in the 2019 Queen's Birthday Honours in recognition of his significant service to music and charity. He was a judge on Australia's The X Factor from 2010 to 2012 and again from 2015 to 2016, and coach on The Voice Australia from 2019 to 2024. In 2024 Sebastian was inducted into the South Australian Music Hall of Fame
== Early life ==
Guy Theodore Sebastian was born in Klang, Selangor, on 26 October 1981. His father, Ivan Sebastian, was born in Malaysia and is of Sri Lankan Tamil descent with colonial Portuguese roots, while his mother Nellie is an ethnic Eurasian with English and Portuguese ancestry and was raised in Kanpur, India. They met while Ivan was studying geology in India, and married a year later.
Sebastian is the second of four sons. His older brother Ollie was born in India, and his younger brothers Chris and Jeremy were born in Australia. His family originally migrated to Melbourne when Sebastian was six. Four years later at the age of ten, his family migrated to Adelaide, presumably due to Ivan's work as a geologist at the time. This was where Sebastian spent his teenage years and began expanding his musical career.
As a child, Sebastian took violin lessons; he would later learn to play guitar, drums and piano, although he has had no formal training in these other musical instruments. After attending St Paul's College, Gilles Plains in 1991, Sebastian attended King's Baptist Grammar School after his family moved to Golden Grove. He then began studies in medical radiation at the University of South Australia, but left to pursue a career in music. He taught vocals at Temple Christian College and other high schools while also working as a recording engineer and studying music technology at the University of Adelaide's Elder Conservatorium.
Sebastian, former member of the Planetshakers band from 2002 to 2005, was a worship leader, sang background vocals, recording albums for Planetshakers Church at Paradise Community Church conferences, and went on to win the first Australian Idol and become a massive star in the country. He attended Paradise Community Church, an Assemblies of God church and one of the largest churches in Australia, and he became one of their main worship singers, after winning Australian Idol he recorded two albums, Adore in 2004 and Set Me Free in 2008.
== Recording career ==
=== 2003–2004: Australian Idol and Just as I Am ===
In May 2003, Sebastian successfully auditioned for Australian Idol, singing Stevie Wonder's "Ribbon in the Sky". He progressed through the Idol series, establishing a strong fanbase and praise from the judges, who often made reference to his afro hairstyle which became a focal point of his image. He was declared the winner on 19 November 2003, and gained a recording contract with BMG, which later merged with Sony. Following his Idol win Sebastian was required to record his debut album in six days, but despite this time restriction the album included three songs co-written by him. He then travelled to the UK to compete in World Idol. Although he impressed the judges, with several suggesting he could win the competition, he finished seventh.
Sebastian's winner's single "Angels Brought Me Here" debuted at number one and was the highest selling single in Australia in 2003, reaching 5× platinum certification. In 2010 it was named the highest selling song of the decade 2000 to 2009, ahead of Anthony Callea's "The Prayer". "Angels Brought Me Here" held the record for being the highest selling single ever released by an Australian act until 2011. Sebastian's debut album Just as I Am was released in December 2003 and also achieved number one. Its first week sales of 163,711 units are the second highest one week sales in Australian chart history, the highest for an Australian act. It eventually reached sales just short of 7× platinum, and is the highest selling album ever released by an Australian Idol contestant. "Angels Brought Me Here" also reached number one in Malaysia, Singapore, the Philippines, Indonesia and New Zealand. Just as I Am reached number three and double platinum certification in New Zealand, with "Angels Brought Me Here" achieving platinum certification there. The second single "All I Need Is You" reached number one and platinum in Australia, and peaked at number five in New Zealand. In early 2004 Sebastian appeared at the Asian MTV Awards, was a guest judge on New Zealand Idol and performed on Indonesian Idol. After a promotional trip to Malaysia in April he travelled to Europe and the US to write for his next album, performing on American Idol while in the US.
=== 2004–2007: Beautiful Life and Closer to the Sun ===
Beautiful Life, Sebastian's second album, had a more R&B edge to it and included songs he co-wrote with Robin Thicke and Brian McKnight and "Forever with You", a duet with American R&B singer Mýa. The lead single "Out with My Baby" debuted at number one in October 2004, and gained platinum certification. Sebastian performed at the 2004 ARIA Music Awards where he received the award for the Highest Selling Single for "Angels Brought Me Here", and the Channel V Oz Artist of the Year Award. He was also nominated for Highest Selling Album for Just as I Am. Beautiful Life peaked at number two and was also certified platinum. Sebastian embarked on a national tour in November, with a second stage from March to June 2005. Sebastian performed at the 20th Anniversary SAFM Sky Show in Adelaide in front of approximately 150,000 people along with Slinkee Minx, one of the largest open-air concerts held in Australia in 2005. Two further singles were released from the album, "Kryptonite" which peaked at number fifteen, and "Oh Oh" at number eleven. In 2005 Sebastian received awards for Favourite Video, Favourite Music Artist, and Favourite Aussie at the Nickelodeon Kid's Choice Awards, and a MTV Video Music Award for "Out with my Baby". He also received a Highest Selling Album ARIA Award nomination for Beautiful Life, and was named as a state finalist in the Young Australian of the Year Awards.
Between May and August 2006, Sebastian appeared as a mentor on the inaugural It Takes Two, in which performers from non-musical fields are teamed with professional singers to perform a duet each week. Sebastian's partner was three-time Australian Olympic swimmer Sarah Ryan and they finished second. During this period Sebastian also recorded his third album Closer to the Sun which was a mix of genres including pop, R&B, soul, pop rock and jazz and mainly co-written with Australian musicians. The lead single "Taller, Stronger, Better" debuted at number three in August 2006, and achieved gold certification. The album peaked at number four and was certified platinum. The second single "Elevator Love" reached number 11 and gold certification. The video featured Jennifer Hawkins as his love interest. Sebastian received an award for most played Urban work for "Oh Oh" at the 2006 APRA Music Awards. "Oh Oh" was also awarded Best Video and Sebastian named Best Male Artist at the Urban Music Awards, and for the second year in succession he received the Fav Aussie award at the Nickelodeon Kids Choice Awards. Closer to the Sun's third single "Cover on My Heart" was released in August 2007, peaking at number thirty two on the ARIA Singles Chart. Closer to the Sun was named Best Album at the 2007 Urban Music Awards and Most Popular Album at the Dolly Teen Choice Awards.
=== 2007–2008: The Memphis Album and Tour ===
In early 2007 it had been announced Sebastian would be recording a tribute album of soul classics in Memphis, Tennessee, with Stax musicians who played on and wrote some of the original songs. The album was recorded at Ardent Studios, Memphis in August 2007, with Steve Cropper, Donald 'Duck' Dunn, and Steve Potts (a.k.a. The MGs), with Lester Snell on keyboards. Cropper also co-produced the album with Sebastian, which was recorded on analogue tape live in the studio. Sebastian wrote about his time in Memphis in a series of blogs for Australian newspapers, "I started recording four days ago with the band members from Booker T and the MGs. And in the four days, we cut 15 tracks. It's been such a great experience to watch these guys work. I mean, they are mostly in their late 60s and have such a wealth of experience." Cropper later spoke on AllMemphisMusic, an online Memphis radio station, "This kid came into Memphis, and just blew everybody's socks off. [...] he just took us by storm." Shortly after Sebastian's return to Australia it was announced that The MGs would tour Australia with him in early 2008. The Memphis Album debuted at number three in November 2007, and was the seventh highest selling Australian artist album of the year. The critically acclaimed album reached double platinum certification in 2008. Memphis Flyer, a weekly alternative newspaper serving the Memphis area wrote a series of articles about Sebastian recording with The MGs. AllMemphisMusic, which specialises in playing music originating from Memphis, began playing The Memphis Album songs in late December 2007. They also had two special programs featuring songs from the album and interviews with some of the people involved in recording it.
The MGs came to Australia in February 2008 to be Sebastian's backing band for his national tour. He spoke on radio about what it felt like fronting the MGs, "There were so many moments when I just had to take a step back and think 'This is unbelievable'. Like the history that is behind me, and I'm singing these songs. You know they start playing Dock of the Bay, and the guys that played it are on the stage. You know the guy who wrote the song with Otis Redding is playing guitar." Cropper later spoke on AllMemphisMusic, "hearing him singing our music, which was born and raised and produced and recorded in Memphis, Tennessee. [...] It just filled our hearts." One of the Melbourne concerts was filmed for a live DVD/CD titled The Memphis Tour. Sebastian was nominated for a Helpmann Award for Best Performance in an Australian Contemporary Concert for The Memphis Tour, and was awarded two Australian Club Entertainment Awards, best Original Music Performer and Outstanding Club Performer of the Year. The Memphis Album received a nomination for Highest Selling Album at the 2008 ARIA Awards, his third album to be nominated in this ARIA Awards category. He travelled to the US several times after The Memphis Tour to write for his fifth album, spending time with Cropper in Nashville on these trips.
=== 2008–2010: Like It Like That ===
In 2008 Sebastian was signed to release an album in the US, and in November he returned to America to work on it. He recorded songs with John Mayer's band, and John Mayer himself played guitar and sang backing vocals on three of the tracks. He moved to New York in early 2009 to prepare for the release of the US album which was a mix of Memphis soul covers and original songs. He performed showcases at the SXSW Music Festival in Austin Texas, and a residency at the Drom in New York. His song "Like It Like That" was chosen as the theme song for the NBC network's summer promotional campaign. The US release was then delayed due to restructuring of Victor Records, but it was later reaffirmed the album would be released in 2010. "Like It Like That", the title track of Sebastian's fifth album, was released in Australia in August 2009 and reached number one. It was the highest selling Australian artist song in 2009, and achieved 5× platinum certification. Like It Like That, an original soul album with all songs written or co-written by Sebastian, was released in October 2009. It reached number six and was certified platinum.
"Art of Love", a duet with Jordin Sparks, was released as the second single. It peaked at number eight and reached 2× platinum certification.
It also charted at number seven in New Zealand, gaining platinum certification there.
Two further singles, "All to Myself" and "Never Hold You Down", did not chart in the ARIA top 50. Sebastian toured in Australia during February 2010 and again in June and July. The US album, now identical to the Australian album, was given limited release on the Red Ink label in June 2010, with distribution via iTunes and Barnes & Noble stores. He was chosen as a judge on the 2010 series of Australia's The X-Factor, and to fulfil commitments to X-Factor and also the release of his album in America Sebastian divided his time between Australia and the US during the show. He toured the US West Coast between July and September, including guest performances singing "Art of Love" with Sparks at three of her Battlefield Tour concerts, and also played support for Chicago at a concert in Oregon. Sebastian was nominated for six ARIA Music Awards for Like It Like That. He received nominations for Best Pop Release, Best Male Artist, Most Popular Australian Album and Most Popular Australian Artist, with "Like It Like That" and "Art of Love" receiving nominations for Most Popular Single.
=== 2010–2011: The X Factor and Twenty Ten ===
In 2010, Sebastian was selected as a judge on the Australian series of The X Factor to replace Mark Holden. It is a reality talent competition where the judges also mentor the contestants. The contestants are selected by all the judges at the auditions, and the chosen contestants are divided into four categories, Boys, Girls, Over 25s and Groups. Each judge is given a category and has to reduce their contestants to three. The top three contestants from each category then compete in the live shows with continuing help from their mentors. Sebastian was given Groups in 2010, and was assisted in choosing his top three contestants by Rai Thistlethwayte, lead singer of Thirsty Merc, Snoop Dogg and Usher. Sebastian released a retrospective album titled Twenty Ten in November 2010. The album reached number four on the ARIA Album Chart. It spent twelve weeks in the top ten and was the fifth highest selling Australian artist album of 2010. It was certified double platinum in 2014. It also reached number twenty four on the New Zealand Albums Chart, and has been certified gold there. The album was a two disc release. The first disc had 18 songs from his previous albums and two new tracks, with the second disc containing acoustic versions of ten of the songs. "Who's That Girl" featuring US rapper Eve, was released as the only single. The dance-driven electro R&B song was a departure from Sebastian's previous pop, R&B and soul releases. Eve performed the song with Sebastian on The X Factor Grand Final. "Who's That Girl" reached number one and 6× platinum certification in Australia, and number one and 2× platinum in New Zealand.
With the release of Twenty Ten Sebastian had completed the terms of his original contract with Sony, but re-signed with them for another long-term contract. He supported Boyzone on their 2011 UK tour, and Lionel Richie on his Australian and New Zealand tour. They re-recorded Richie's 1983 single "All Night Long" to raise money for Australian and New Zealand flood and earthquake relief. The track was produced by RedOne. Richie and Sebastian performed the song together at most of the concerts on the Australian leg of the tour. It peaked at number twelve in New Zealand and number twenty six in Australia. Sebastian received the 2011 Australian Club Entertainment Award for best Original Music Performer, and a Mo Award for Rock Performer of the Year. He also won the Highest Selling Single ARIA Award for "Who's That Girl", and received nominations for Single of the Year, Best Pop Release and Most Popular Australian Artist. Sebastian continued as a judge on the 2011 The X Factor. He mentored the Boys and was assisted in choosing his final three by Wynter Gordon and Beyoncé. Reece Mastin who was in his group was the winner.
=== 2011–2013: Armageddon ===
In November 2011 "Don't Worry Be Happy", a pop song Sebastian wrote after encountering an angry motorist in Los Angeles, was released as the lead single of his seventh album Armageddon. It peaked at number five and reached 5× platinum certification. Sebastian spent time in the US in early 2012 working on the album, and "Gold", an uptempo soul track, was released as the second single in May. It peaked at number ten, gaining platinum certification. Sebastian toured nationally during June and July to showcase new songs. In 2012, Sebastian appeared as a judge on The X Factor for a third and final year (until 2015). He was given the Over 25s, and was assisted in selecting his top three contestant by Alicia Keys. His contestant Samantha Jade was the winner. Armageddon's third single "Battle Scars", an R&B ballad featuring a hip hop rap by Lupe Fiasco, was released in August. It debuted at number one, Sebastian's sixth number one single in Australia. He has the most number one singles for an Australian male artist in Australian music history, and is third overall for all Australian acts. Only Kylie Minogue and Delta Goodrem have achieved more. "Battle Scars" was the third-highest selling single in Australia in 2012 and the highest-selling single by an Australian act. It reached 14× platinum in 2023. "Battle Scars" also reached number two and 3× platinum certification in New Zealand.
Fiasco added "Battle Scars" to his fourth album, Food & Liquor II: The Great American Rap Album Pt. 1 in countries other than Australia, and it was released as the fourth single on 28 August 2012. He came to Australia in mid September to promote the single and the release of his album, and he and Sebastian performed "Battle Scars" live for the first time on The X Factor. They also performed the song in America on the Late Show with David Letterman. It was used in the US in the TV promotion for the movie Red Dawn. "Battle Scars" spent 20 weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, peaking at number 71. It also reached number 23 on the Billboard Digital Song Chart and number one on the R&B/Hip-Hop Digital Song Chart. It has been certified 3× platinum in the US for sales of three million. The song also spent 13 weeks in the top ten in Norway, including six weeks at number two, and reached 46 and gold certification in Sweden.
Armageddon was released on 12 October 2012. It reached number one in its seventh week and achieved 3× platinum certification. After only 12 weeks of sales the album was the ninth highest selling album in Australia in 2012, the second highest selling album by an Australian act. Armageddon also charted at number 20 and gained platinum certification in New Zealand. Sebastian was nominated for three 2012 ARIA Awards. He received nominations for Best Pop Release and Best Male Artist for "Battle Scars", and "Don't Worry Be Happy" was nominated for Song of the Year. Sebastian and Fiasco performed "Battle Scars" at the Awards. "Battle Scars" was also nominated for an American NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Duo, Group or Collaboration. The fourth single "Get Along", a song about the harm caused by religious, cultural and racial intolerance reached number five and triple platinum certification. The song also reached number nine and gold certification in New Zealand. In early 2013 Fiasco and Sebastian continued the US promotion of "Battle Scars", performing on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon and Conan. From March to June 2013 he toured Australia with the 47-date Get Along Tour. Sebastian won two 2013 ARIA Awards, Best Pop Release for Armageddon, and Best Live Act for the Get Along Tour. He was also nominated for Album of the Year and Best Male Act for Armageddon and Song of the Year for "Get Along".
=== 2013–2016: Madness and Eurovision Song Contest ===
In October 2013, Sebastian released "Like a Drum", the lead single from his eighth studio album. Debuting at number four, it became his 12th top ten single in Australia, and his tenth to reach the top five. It was certified 5× platinum in Australia. Sebastian opened for Taylor Swift on the Australian leg of her Red Tour. "Like a Drum" was released in the United States, Canada, and Europe in January 2014 through The Cherry Party and RCA Records. The song reached number 20 on the Billboard Dance Club Chart and 49 and platinum certification in Sweden. The second single, "Come Home With Me", reached number 13 on the Aria Singles Chart and platinum certification. The third single, "Mama Ain't Proud" featuring 2 Chainz, peaked at number 17 and reached gold certification. Sebastian received two 2014 ARIA nominations, Best Male Artist for "Come Home With Me" and Song of the Year for "Like a Drum". Sebastian's eighth album, Madness, was released on 21 November 2014 and debuted at number six and was certified gold. The album also reached number 34 in Sweden in 2015.
The fourth single "Linger" reached number 17 and platinum certification. Sebastian held an arena tour in Australia in February 2015 to support the album release. "Like a Drum" received 2015 APRA nominations for Pop Work of the Year and Most Played Australian Work. Sebastian was chosen as the Australian entrant in the Eurovision Song Contest 2015, making him the first artist to represent Australia in the competition. He performed the song "Tonight Again", and placed fifth in the competition overall. "Tonight Again" debuted at number 12 in Australia. It also charted at number five in Iceland, 16 in Austria, 22 in Sweden and reached the top 50 of the German and Swiss charts. It achieved gold certification in Sweden. Sebastian toured in Europe in August and September, performing in Sweden, Germany, Norway and The Netherlands. He was nominated for 2015 ARIA Award for Best Male Artist for "Tonight Again". He returned to the judging panel of the Australian version of The X Factor after a two-year absence to replace Redfoo. In November 2015 he released "Black & Blue". The song reached number 17, and achieved platinum certification. In January and February 2016 he held a 35 date Australian regional tour. Sebastian received 2016 ARIA Award nominations for Best Male Artist and Best Video for "Black & Blue".
=== 2016–2017: Part 1 EP and Conscious ===
In late 2016, Sebastian released two singles, "Candle", which peaked at 59, and "Set in Stone", which reached number 11 and has been certified double platinum. Sebastian released Part 1 EP in December 2016. It was released digitally on 2 December, and peaked at number 31 on the ARIA Album Chart. The physical cd was released on 16 December. A third single, "Mind On You", did not chart. In March and April 2017 Sebastian toured the Australian eastern states to preview songs from his next album. In September 2017, Sebastian released the single "High On Me" and announced his album Conscious would be released on 3 November 2017. He also announced a November tour of the mainland capital cities and Newcastle. "Keep Me Coming Back" and "Vesuvius" were released as promotional singles from Conscious, ahead of the album release. It was also confirmed "Set in Stone" was also included in the album. "Set in Stone" was nominated for an ARIA Award for Song of the Year. "Bloodstone", the second official single peaked at number 59 and was certified platinum, with Conscious debuting at number four.
=== 2018–2022: T.R.U.T.H. ===
On 4 October 2018, Sebastian released "Before I Go", the lead single from his tenth album, T.R.U.T.H. The single peaked at number 43 and was certified 2× platinum. "Before I Go" also reached number 41 and platinum certification in the Netherlands. Sebastian was a coach on The Voice Australia from 2019 to 2024, and was replaced by Richard Marx for the 2025 season. Sebastian was made a Member of the Order of Australia (AM) in the 2019 Queen's Birthday Honours in recognition of his "significant service to the music industry and charitable initiatives". In June 2019 he released the single "Choir", reached number seven, and has been certified 6× platinum. Sebastian toured Australia in September and October with his Ridin' With You Tour. On 1 October 2019, it was announced that Sebastian would host the ARIA Music Awards of 2019. He received 2019 ARIA Award nominations for Best Male Artist and Best Pop Release, and won for Best Video and Song of the Year for "Choir".
The single "Standing with You" was released in June 2020 and peaked at number ten, Sebastian's 14th top ten single in Australia. It has reached 2× platinum certification. In October 2020, Sebastian released his tenth album T.R.U.T.H., which debuted at number one on the ARIA charts, becoming Sebastian's third career ARIA number one album. The album has been certified platinum
Sebastian was nominated for Best Male Artist for "Standing With You" at the
2020 ARIA Music Awards, and the song won the
ARIA Award for Best Video.
=== 2023–present : 100 Times Around the Sun ===
In August 2023, Sebastian announced the release of "I Choose Good"; the first new music in three years. In 2024 he was inducted into the South Australian Music Hall of Fame at the South Australian Music Awards.
In 2025 Sebastian made his acting debut in the film Hindi Vindi. 100 Times Around the Sun, his eleventh album, was released in August 2025, and debuted at number two. All Sebastian's albums have reached the top ten in Australia, with nine peaking inside the top five, including three number ones. 100 Times Around the Sun also charted at number 37 in New Zealand.
== Artistry ==
=== Musical style and influences ===
Sebastian cites a number of musicians as his musical influences, including Sam Cooke, Otis Redding, Donny Hathaway, Stevie Wonder, Chicago, and Boyz II Men. His music has crossed many genres, including pop, R&B, funk, smokey soul, gospel, jazz, pop rock, Memphis soul covers, '60s soul/pop and electro R&B. While Sebastian's first three albums showed elements of soul, it was The Memphis Album which consolidated his reputation as a soul musician. Reviewers almost unanimously agreed he had captured the spirit and essence of the Memphis soul classics. It was the critical and public reception for The Memphis Album which gave Sebastian the confidence to stay with the soul genre for his fifth album, Like It Like That. In an interview with The Age he said he was told early in his career, "If you self-indulge and just do what you're into, you're going to corner your market. Soul music isn't big here." but "the most comfortable I've ever felt in the studio was during The Memphis Album. And the success of that prompted me to make a record like this one. Because I realised that this isn't obscure music."
The Daily Telegraph music editor Kathy McCabe said: "Sometimes it takes four records, with a detour into 'concepts' covers territory to find where you fit. Sebastian has found his niche with Like It Like That, which expertly balances the line between radio friendly pop and classic soul." Paul Cashmere from Undercover wrote: "By covering the classics on The Memphis Album Guy Sebastian discovered Guy Sebastian. [...] If The Memphis Album was Guy's initiation into becoming a Soul Man then Like It Like That is the graduation." In an interview for the release of his seventh album Armageddon, Sebastian spoke of how much The Memphis Album still influences his music: "I got to work with some people who were instrumental in shaping the careers of artists who heavily influence me. Artists like Otis Redding, Sam & Dave and Sam Cooke. Being entrenched in that sort of environment really caused me to go 'You know what dude. Do what you want to do. Do what comes natural to you'. [...] From that Memphis thing a few years ago it's always going to start with me being true to who I want to be and what I enjoy singing."
=== Songwriting and production ===
Sebastian began writing songs before entering Australian Idol. "All I Need Is You", the second single from his debut album Just as I Am, was written when he was a teenager, and he fine-tuned during his time on Idol. He also wrote gospel songs for his church during his teenage years. One of them, "Adore", was included in their 2004 album Paradise Live: Adore. Sebastian wrote or co-wrote most of the songs on his albums Beautiful Life and Closer to the Sun, and all the tracks on his albums Like It Like That and Armageddon. In an article in The Daily Telegraph, Kathy McCabe said of his songwriting skills, "Sebastian has matured into a genuine hitmaker, his gift with melody so finely-honed he can pretty much punch out a catchy number in his sleep." Jamie Horne wrote in The Border Mail, "The inaugural winner's longevity [...] can be attributed to the fact that he's an accomplished musician and songwriter" and AllMusic reviewer Jon O'Brien said, "it's a testament to his vocal abilities and songwriting skills that, unlike many of his fellow winners, he's remained popular enough to see out his rather ambitious Sony contract [...] a subtle and natural progression with each album, explains why he's managed to survive once the show's publicity machine died down."
In 2008 "Receive the Power", a gospel song written by Sebastian and Gary Pinto, was chosen as the official anthem for the Roman Catholic Church's XXIII World Youth Day. "Art of Love", co-written by Adam Reilly, was shortlisted for the APRA Song of the Year in 2010. "All to Myself", written with Carl Dimataga, and "Who's That Girl" were shortlisted for the 2011 APRA Song of the Year, with "Who's That Girl" winning the APRA Award for Urban Work of the Year. "Don't Worry Be Happy" was shortlisted for the 2012 APRA Song of the Year. "Battle Scars" won the R&B/Hip category in the 2013 International Songwriting Competition. "Get Along" was a finalist in the Pop/Top 40 category, and was awarded an honourable mention. "Get Along" was also one of the final five nominees for the 2013 APRA Song of the Year. "Set in Stone" was shortlisted for the 2017 APRA Song of the Year, and "Black & Blue" was nominated for Pop Work of the Year.
Sebastian has a worldwide, long-term publishing agreement with Universal Music Publishing. He has written songs for other artists, including co-writing "Dot Com", a song performed by Usher on Rhythm City Volume One: Caught Up. He also has an interest in production and co-produced The Memphis Album with Steve Cropper. He has his own recording studio, Cooper Lane Studio, where he produces and engineers some of his music, and which is also used by other musicians. He produced a song called "Think of Me" for 2009 Australian Idol Stan Walker's debut album, as well as playing most of the musical instruments on the track.
== Notable performances ==
On World Youth Day, July 2008, "Receive the Power", a song written by Sebastian and Gary Pinto, was chosen as the official anthem for the Roman Catholic Church's XXIII World Youth Day (WYD08) held in Sydney in 2008. The song also features the vocals of Paulini Curuenavuli, who competed with Sebastian on the first season of Australian Idol. "Receive the Power" was released in English and also an international version with the chorus in English and verses in Italian, Spanish and French. It was used extensively throughout the six days of World Youth Day in July 2008, and also in the television coverage which went around the world. Sebastian and Curuenavuli performed both the English and International versions at the final Mass at Randwick Race Course on 20 July which was attended by 400,000 people. They also performed "Receive the Power" at the Pope's Farewell.
Olivia Newton-John & Friends Concert, September 2008: This concert was held at the State Theatre in Sydney to raise funds for Newton-John's Cancer and Wellness Centre Appeal. Sebastian was chosen to sing a duet with Newton-John. They sang her iconic hit from Grease, "Summer Nights".
Oscar Haven – Los Angeles, February 2009: Sebastian was a headline act at an Oscar Haven party hosted by Stardust Pictures and Jamie Kennedy. Haven is held during Oscar week and invitees include Film Academy nominees as well as actors and insiders from film, television and music industries.
9th Annual NON-COMMvention – Philadelphia, May 2009: Sebastian performed with Steve Cropper and David Ryan Harris at the 9th Annual NON-COMMvention. The event is the premier annual conference for North America's non-commercial Triple A radio.
Australian launch of Michael Jackson's This Is It DVD, March 2010: Sebastian and Delta Goodrem were chosen by the Jackson estate to perform at the Australian launch of This Is It. They performed "Earth Song". The invitation only event was attended by the film's director Kenny Ortega and Jackson's brother Jackie Jackson
Oprah Winfrey's official welcome to Sydney and wrap up party, December 2010: Sebastian was the guest performer at an event at Sydney's Botanical Gardens to officially welcome Oprah Winfrey and her American audience members to Australia. Winfrey was in Australia to record two of her shows at the Sydney Opera House. Sebastian sang for Winfrey a second time when she requested he perform at her private crew wrap-up party.
G'Day USA, January 2011 and 2012: G'Day USA is an annual two-week program designed to showcase Australian business capabilities, and is the largest foreign country promotion held in the US. Sebastian and the Qantas Choir were the entertainers at the 2011 Black Tie Gala in Los Angeles. Sebastian performed his own songs and also a medley of Bee Gees songs prior to Barry Gibb being honoured for excellence in Music at the event. During G'Day USA 2012 he performed at the American Australian Association Black Tie Gala in New York and the Australian American Chamber of Commerce Gala in Houston, Texas.
Grammy week – Los Angeles, February 2011: During Grammy week each year there are many events leading up to the Grammy Awards night. Sebastian was invited to perform at two of these events in 2011. He performed at The Black Eyed Peas Peapod Benefit Concert which was attended by musicians, DJ's, philanthropists, Hollywood celebrities and industry executives. He also performed at the Roots Pre Grammy Jam Session. The Roots are a Grammy Award winning hip hop and neo soul American band. During Grammy week they hold a jam session and invite other musicians to perform with them. Their 2011 jam session was hosted by Jimmy Fallon and other performers included Sara Bareilles, Lalah Hathaway, Booker T. Jones and Chaka Khan.
CHOGM 2011 Opening Ceremony – Perth, Western Australia October 2011: Sebastian performed "Agents of Change", a song written by him especially for the event, at the opening ceremony of the biannual Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM). In attendance at the ceremony were Queen Elizabeth II, Prime Minister Julia Gillard, the Secretary-General of the Commonwealth and heads of government from all 53 Commonwealth nations.
The GRAMMY Foundation's 15th Annual Music Preservation Project – Los Angeles, February 2013: Held each year during Grammy Week, in 2013 the event was "Play It Forward: A Celebration Of Music's Evolution And Influencers". It explored the history of legendary influencers in music, the music they inspired and their impact on the American cultural landscape. Lupe Fiasco and Sebastian were chosen to perform "Battle Scars" as the finale of the concert. Other performers included Dionne Warwick, LeAnn Rimes and Ed Sheeran.
== Court ==
In May 2022, Sebastian started a court case against his former manager, Titus Day, accused of embezzling $900,000. Several days into the trial, District Court of New South Wales Judge Peter Zahra died after suffering a stroke before the court session on Friday 6 May. On Monday 9 May, Judge James Bennett addressed the court and announced his colleague's death and that the case would resume before another judge a week later. In June, Day was found guilty of having embezzled Sebastian of $620,000. Upon appeal, a retrial was ordered and, in July 2025, a jury acquitted Day of four charges and remained hung on the remaining allegations. The case was dismissed, though a civil trial is expected to be heard by the Federal Court.
== Personal life ==
In late 2007, after eight years of courtship, Sebastian and girlfriend Jules Egan became engaged. They were married in Manly, New South Wales, on 17 May 2008. They have two sons, born on 3 March 2012 and 17 April 2014.
== Charitable work ==
Throughout his career, Sebastian has had a strong commitment to charity. He has been an ambassador for the Ronald McDonald House charities, and is currently an ambassador for the Australian Red Cross and Golden Stave, which is the Australian music and entertainment industry's charity fund raising organisation. He is also an ambassador for World Vision Australia, and in 2005 he travelled to Uganda to film a World Vision documentary "An Idol in Africa" for a Network Ten television special. Sebastian has continued his work with World Vision, supporting the Child Rescue program and the 40 Hour Famine. He has also been involved in the Make Poverty History coalition of which World Vision is a part. In 2008 he was presented with the Extreme Inspiration Award at the Dolly Teen Choice Awards for his continuing support of World Vision. Sebastian is also strongly committed to the Sony Foundation, which raises funds to help young Australians facing homelessness, severe illness, disability and isolation. In 2009 the Sony CEO Denis Handlin said: "Every time I've asked Guy to get involved with the Sony Foundation through charity he's been completely proactive. Guy's been such a great ambassador for that, and a lot of it is under the radar but it just tells you so much about what a decent human being he is."
Sebastian contributes to many other charitable projects. In 2005 he was the guest performer on the annual Indian Pacific Outback Christmas Journey which raises money for the Royal Flying Doctor's Service. In 2008 he performed a series of 11 concerts with the Australian Army Band to raise funds for Legacy. Legacy is a voluntary organisation which supports the families of deceased veterans. The concerts were held in theatre venues around Australia and the funds raised went to the local Legacy branch in the area each concert was held. Sebastian regularly performs at other fundraising events including Brisbane radio station B105's Christmas appeal for the Royal Children's Hospital, and Perth's annual Telethon. He also donates his time to annual Christmas carol events such as Carols in the Domain, Vision Australia's Carols by Candlelight, and Brisbane's Carols in the City. His songs are frequently featured on charity CDs including the Salvation Army Christmas fundraising CDs, The Spirit of Christmas albums. Sebastian also makes unofficial appearances at hospitals several times a year. Sebastian was an ambassador for the 2020 MEN-tality project for Beyond Blue shot by Peter Brew-Bevan, alongside Osher Gunsberg, Rodger Corser and Andrew Tierney. In 2013, Sebastian and his wife Jules formed The Sebastian Foundation.
== Discography ==
Studio albums
Just as I Am (2003)
Beautiful Life (2004)
Closer to the Sun (2006)
The Memphis Album (2007)
Like it Like That (2009)
Armageddon (2012)
Madness (2014)
Conscious (2017)
T.R.U.T.H. (2020)
100 Times Around the Sun (2025)
Compilation albums
Twenty Ten
== Awards and nominations ==
Sebastian has been nominated for numerous awards during his career, winning many of them. These awards and nominations include ARIA Awards, ARIA No. 1 Chart Awards, APRA Awards, Australian Club Entertainment Awards, Nickelodeon Kids Choice Awards, Urban Music Awards, and a Channel V Artist of the Year Award.
== Tours ==
2004–05: Beautiful Life Tour
2007: Closer to the Sun Tour
2007: Acoustic Tour
2008: The Memphis Tour
2009: Live & By Request Tour
2010: Like It Like That Tour
2010: Bring Yourself Tour
2010: Like It Like That Tour (USA)
2012: Armageddon tour
2013: Get Along Tour
2015: Madness Tour
2015: Madness European Tour
2016: You...Me...Us Tour
2017: Sub-Conscious Tour
2017: Conscious Tour
2018: Then and Now Tour
2019: Ridin' With You Tour.
2022: T.R.U.T.H. Tour
2022: T.R.U.T.H. on the East Side Tour
Joint tours
2004: Australian Idol in Concert
2007: Guy & the Australian Philharmonic Orchestra
2008: Army in Concert with Guy Sebastian
Support tours
2011: Boyzone Tour (United Kingdom)
2011: Lionel Richie Tour (Australia and New Zealand)
2013: Red Tour (Australia)
2017: Love Always Tour (United Kingdom) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannah_Montana | Hannah Montana | Hannah Montana is an American teen sitcom created by Michael Poryes, Rich Correll, and Barry O'Brien that aired on Disney Channel for four seasons between March 2006 and January 2011. The series centers on Miley Stewart (played by Miley Cyrus), a teenage girl living a double life as famous pop singer Hannah Montana, an alter ego she adopted so she could maintain her anonymity and live a normal life as a typical teenager. Episodes deal with Miley's everyday struggles to cope with the social and personal issues of adolescence while maintaining the added complexities of her secret identity, which she sustains by wearing a blonde wig. Miley has strong relationships with her brother Jackson (Jason Earles) and father Robby Ray (Billy Ray Cyrus), as well as her best friends Lilly Truscott (Emily Osment) and Oliver Oken (Mitchel Musso), who become aware of her secret. Overarching themes include a focus on family and friendships as well as the importance of music and discovering one's identity.
The Walt Disney Company commissioned the series after the success of Disney Channel's previous music-based franchises, such as the made-for-television film High School Musical (2006). Hannah Montana was produced by It's a Laugh Productions in association with Poryes's production company, and premiered on Disney Channel on March 24, 2006. A concert film, Hannah Montana & Miley Cyrus: Best of Both Worlds Concert, in which Miley Cyrus performs as Hannah Montana and herself, was released in 2008. The following year, the feature film Hannah Montana: The Movie was released. The series concluded on January 16, 2011, as a result of Cyrus's growing popularity and music career, and her desire to move into more mature acting roles.
Hannah Montana is one of Disney Channel's most commercially successful franchises. It received consistently high viewership in the United States on cable television and influenced the development of merchandise, soundtrack albums, and concert tours; however, television critics disliked the writing and depiction of gender roles and stereotypes. Hannah Montana helped launch Cyrus's musical career and established her as a teen idol; after Cyrus began developing an increasingly provocative public image, commentators criticized Hannah Montana as having a negative influence on its audience. The series was nominated for four Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Children's Program between 2007 and 2010; Cyrus won a Young Artist Award for Best Performance in a TV Series, Leading Young Actress in 2008.
== Premise ==
=== Story and characters ===
Miley Stewart is a 14-year-old middle school student who appears to live a normal life but has a secret identity, pop singer Hannah Montana, an alias she chose so she could have a private life away from the public spotlight. To conceal her true identity, she wears a blonde wig when she appears as Hannah. Miley's father, Robby Ray Stewart, was a famous country music singer before retiring after his wife's death to focus on raising Miley and her older brother Jackson. At the start of the series, the family have moved from Tennessee to Malibu, California, to allow Miley to develop her musical career; Robby Ray works as her manager. As her schoolmates idolize Hannah Montana, Miley is often tempted to reveal her secret and assume a celebrity status at school. In the pilot episode, Miley's best friend Lilly Truscott uncovers the truth about her alter ego and adopts the alias Lola Luftnagle to help protect Miley's secret. Miley later reveals her secret to close friend Oliver Oken, leaving him and Lilly as the only schoolmates she has trusted with the secret; he adopts the alias Mike Stanley III. Jackson works for Rico Suave at a local beach food stand; he and Rico often feature in the show's subplots. Miley and her friends begin attending high school at the start of the second season, and in the following season, Lilly and Oliver develop a romantic relationship.
In the third season finale, Miley relocates her horse Blue Jeans to California after she feels homesick for Tennessee. The horse is uncomfortable after being moved, and Miley contemplates permanently returning to her hometown. The Stewart family compromise and move out of their house in Malibu to a nearby ranch. In the final season, Miley is faced with extra difficulties in maintaining her double life, which affect her capacity to attend college with Lilly. Faced with the choice between continuing being Hannah Montana and divulging her secret, she ultimately reveals her true identity to the world and has to deal with the effects of this decision before leaving for college. She merges her celebrity persona with her former private identity, and Miley Stewart enters adulthood with a newfound celebrity status.
=== Themes ===
The central conflict of the series is the disconnect between the public and private lives of Miley Stewart, and the lengths to which she must go to secure her life as a normal teenager and protect her relationships with her friends. She values her core identity as "just Miley" and endeavors to protect her sense of self. This is made evident in the pilot when she fears her friends might not treat her the same way if they become aware of her celebrity status; Miley's friendships and social opportunities at school are important to her. Jacques Steinberg of The New York Times said the series suggests celebrity status should not be confused with real life and that happiness comes as a result of staying true to one's self. In the Celebrity Studies journal, Melanie Kennedy states Miley must learn to remain as her "authentic self" while still being a celebrity; Tyler Bickford of Women's Studies Quarterly observes that lyrics in the theme song "celebrate authenticity" while also accentuating the benefits of a celebrity lifestyle. Morgan Genevieve Blue of Feminist Media Studies distinguished Hannah Montana from other programs about secret identities because of the public nature of Miley's alter ego.
Series creator Michael Poryes said his goal was not to focus on the gimmick but to write about characters and relationships, exploring the real issues Miley faces and how they would be affected by her celebrity lifestyle. While Miley discloses her secret to her close friends, she largely continues to hide her identity because the loss of the anonymity would, to her, represent a loss of her youth. When she reveals her true identity to the world, it is a symbolic representation of the end of her childhood. The final episodes reflect Miley's struggle to say goodbye to her alter ego.
According to Kennedy, Hannah Montana parallels the idea of "becoming a celebrity" with "growing up female" and teaches young women the perceived importance of investing in celebrity culture. This intensifies and normalizes the desire of young people to become famous. Bickford said the series discusses themes of publicness and consumerism. Friendship is an important theme of the series, which is evident between Miley and her best friend Lilly. When Miley tells Lilly about her hidden persona in the pilot episode, Lilly promises not to divulge the secret to anyone. Bickford described these relationships as the "emotionally fraught", "intensely valued" core of the series, reflecting the way best-friendship is an important element of childhood.
== Production ==
=== Development ===
In the early 2000s, The Walt Disney Company found success with its pay television network Disney Channel, which had a pattern of original programming for a preadolescent audience that featured music. The girl group The Cheetah Girls was made popular by the eponymous television film and found commercial success outside the movie, and Hilary Duff's music was used to cross-promote the series Lizzie McGuire. Disney sponsored concerts featuring music from the network and used their talent to build on the brands; Gary Marsh, the president of Disney Channels Worldwide, cited Lizzie McGuire as its "first success". The network believed the new series Hannah Montana could be marketed in a similar manner. Disney Channel had also found success with musical episodes of its earlier comedy series Even Stevens and That's So Raven. Hollywood.com said the show could build on the success of Disney's television film High School Musical (2006), which also includes music. The sitcom premiered two months after High School Musical. The concept of Hannah Montana was originally labeled "cast contingent", meaning the series would not progress until the central roles were appropriately cast. The project was publicly announced in 2004; casting advertisements for the filming of a pilot were published in January 2005.
Disney Channel officially greenlit Hannah Montana as a new, half-hour sitcom in August 2005. Twenty episodes were initially ordered for the first season and six extra episodes were later added to the commission. The series was developed by Michael Poryes, who had previously co-created and produced That's So Raven for Disney Channel. Poryes created Hannah Montana with director Rich Correll and writer Barry O'Brien, while Steven Peterman joined Poryes as an executive producer. Disney selected the pilot for Hannah Montana to progress to a series against a potential spin-off of Lizzie McGuire, which the network also considered during the 2004–05 pilot season. The full main cast were attached to the project in August and filming for the remainder of the first season was scheduled to begin in November 2005. It's a Laugh Productions produced the program in association with the network. Former president of Disney Channels Worldwide Rich Ross stated the concept of the series conforms to the typical Disney Channel formula; "an ordinary person in an extraordinary situation". The series is primarily aimed at a preadolescent female audience, however, its framework as a family sitcom allows it to have a wider appeal.
=== Casting ===
The program and its primary cast were announced in August 2005; Miley Cyrus would be portraying the central character of Miley Stewart. After receiving the script from her agents, Miley Cyrus, aged eleven at the time, auditioned against over 1,000 applicants for the lead role, originally named Chloe Stewart. She was rejected for being too young to play the character; Marsh cited her lack of professional experience. Cyrus persistently sent the producers more audition tapes. After six months of further casting searches, Marsh asked Cyrus, aged twelve, to audition again, and she received the role. Poryes later stated Marsh was responsible for selecting Cyrus over other "safe" choices who were more in-line with the producers' original vision. After Cyrus was cast, the character's name was changed to Miley Stewart in an attempt to limit confusion about the show's characters and premise. Network executives cited her confidence, comic timing, and "husky" singing voice as reasons for her casting on the series. In 2006, Time commented that Disney typically selected actors who had the potential to become popular celebrity figures and that Cyrus would likely experience the same process.
Cyrus's father, Billy Ray Cyrus, joined the cast as Miley's father Robby Ray Stewart; he was only asked to audition after his daughter had received the role. Peterman praised the pair's "natural chemistry". Billy Ray Cyrus was initially apprehensive about being cast in the series—he did not want to "screw up Miley's show" and suggested a "real actor" be cast instead—but later accepted the role.
The series also stars Emily Osment as Lilly Truscott, Mitchel Musso as Oliver Oken, and Jason Earles as Miley's older brother Jackson Stewart. Moisés Arias appears as Rico Suave in a supporting role throughout the first season; he was promoted to the main cast for the show's second season. The network dropped Musso's character Oliver to a recurring role in the fourth season because he had been cast in Pair of Kings, which was developed for the sister channel Disney XD.
Guest stars including Vicki Lawrence, Jesse McCartney, and the Jonas Brothers appear throughout the series. Brooke Shields portrays Miley's deceased mother in dream sequences, through which she typically offers advice. Singer Dolly Parton, Cyrus's real life godmother, had a recurring role as Miley's godmother, Aunt Dolly. Parton stated Cyrus persuaded executives to write her into the series and credited her role for gaining her a following among young people. The final season includes guest roles from musicians Sheryl Crow and Iyaz; actors Christine Taylor, Ray Liotta, and Angus T. Jones; and television personalities Phil McGraw, Jay Leno, and Kelly Ripa.
=== Music ===
Hannah Montana includes original music; Disney released albums of songs from the series. Miley Cyrus performs as Hannah Montana and sings the show's theme song, "The Best of Both Worlds". By April 2006, a soundtrack was scheduled for release in the latter half of the year; this would be followed by a studio album by Cyrus the following year. The soundtrack album Hannah Montana was released in October 2006; many of the songs' lyrics allude to the show's premise and Miley Stewart's secret identity. Songwriter Matthew Gerrard intended to encompass the show's premise in the lyrics of the songs. Jeannie Lurie, another key songwriter, explained that it was important for their team to capture the character's voice and feelings within each song's lyrics. The soundtrack albums Hannah Montana 2: Meet Miley Cyrus (2007), Hannah Montana 3 (2009), and Hannah Montana Forever (2010) were released to coincide with their respective seasons. The lyrical themes later became more mature, and reflected storylines from the series such as romantic relationships.
The show's music includes elements of teen pop, pop rock, and country pop genres. Steve Vincent, an executive of Disney Channel music, had previously worked on The Cheetah Girls and High School Musical, and helped to develop the sound of the projects. Vincent drew inspiration from country pop artists Shania Twain and Carrie Underwood, as well as pop artists such as Kelly Clarkson, to establish Hannah Montana's musical style. The music makes prominent use of acoustic guitars, synthesizers, and backing vocals. "Ready, Set, Don't Go", a song Billy Ray Cyrus wrote when Miley was cast, was used in the program. Guest stars, such as singer-songwriter David Archuleta, also contributed to songs on the series.
=== Filming ===
Hannah Montana was recorded in front of a live studio audience at Sunset Bronson Studios on Thursdays and Fridays. Cyrus was required to attend school on set, while Osment attended an external prep school. While filming the pilot, Cyrus performed a concert as Hannah Montana at Glendale Centre Theatre to acquire footage for the show.
Production of the second season began in Los Angeles, California, in November 2006, and concluded in September 2007. In April 2008, the program was renewed for a third season, which had commenced production by August. By this time, Disney had optioned the program for a fourth season.
That December, the network ordered another six episodes, extending the third season to 30 episodes. Filming for the third season concluded in mid-2009.
The series also filmed episodes which aired as part of network crossover specials. The first special, That's So Suite Life of Hannah Montana, aired on July 28, 2006, as a crossover featuring That's So Raven and The Suite Life of Zack & Cody. The second special, Wizards on Deck with Hannah Montana, aired on July 17, 2009, and contained episodes of Wizards of Waverly Place and The Suite Life on Deck.
=== Conclusion and impact on Cyrus ===
Hannah Montana was renewed for a fourth season on June 1, 2009. The new set of episodes has a new setting; the Stewart family move out of their Malibu home to a nearby ranch. Billy Ray Cyrus stated this would be the final season and that Miley Cyrus hoped there would be a conclusion to the show's story. Production for the season began in January 2010, when Disney confirmed the program would be officially concluding. The series finale was scheduled to air in early 2011. As the final season was filmed, Cyrus said she wanted to move on from the series, stating, "I can't base my career off of the six-year-olds". She became increasingly uncomfortable wearing the extravagant, colorful costumes associated with Hannah and stated she had "grown out of it". In 2019, Cyrus said at the time she felt she had matured beyond working on the series and dressing up as Hannah Montana. The final season premiered on July 11, 2010.
== Episodes ==
== Reception ==
=== Critical reception ===
Bickford said Hannah Montana helped Disney return to a level of commercial success that had been absent since its musical films of the 1990s, and built on the success of the network's programs Lizzie McGuire and That's So Raven. He explained that Hannah Montana adopted a business model of combining celebrity acts with film, television, and popular music for a pre-adolescent audience and compared this model to 1990s teen pop artists such as Britney Spears and NSYNC, who were also marketed to children. Heather Phares of AllMusic described the melodies of the featured songs as strong and Cyrus's vocals as charismatic. Ruthann Mayes-Elma said in a journal article Hannah Montana is a wholesome, "bubble-gum" television show, and that the use of Miley's catchphrase "sweet nibblets" in the place of profanity in the scripts helped solidify the show's family-friendly appeal. The A.V. Club's Marah Eakin found fault with the writing of Hannah Montana, criticizing its "oppressive" laugh track, and its use of stereotypes.
The series has been examined for its depiction of gender roles and stereotypes. Blue said the series establishes stereotypical femininity as part of girlhood. She explained that the primary female characters, Miley and her alter ego—Hannah, are positioned as post-feminist subjects in a way their representation is confined to notions of celebrity and consumerism. Bickford interpreted the theme song "The Best of Both Worlds" as an expression of Miley's choice between her contradictory identities, saying the choice is "as simple as choosing a pair of shoes" and that the character is privileged because she has multiple shoes and identities. Blue noted the contradiction of Miley's "normal life" being directly influenced by her celebrity status in ways such as financial security and a spacious home; she suggested Miley supports the family financially. Mayes-Elma criticized the portrayal of Miley as an "airhead" rather than as a "strong, agentic girl", and Blue said Lilly is depicted as a tomboy who does not uphold the femininity Miley represents.
In the book The Queer Fantasies of the American Family Sitcom, Tison Pugh analyzed the subtle sexualization present within the characters of Hannah Montana, such as Jackson's girlfriend Siena, who works as a bikini model. In a journal article, Shirley Steinberg cites Miley as a character who maintains chastity but wears objectifying clothing. Mayes-Elma said guest stars such as the Jonas Brothers were incorporated by Disney to encourage the viewership of young teenage girls. Pugh stated that the program obscures the divergence between fiction and reality, due to the character of Miley Stewart sharing similarities to Miley Cyrus, Robby Ray Stewart being difficult to distinguish from Billy Ray Cyrus, and guest actors such as Parton and the Jonas Brothers playing fictional versions of themselves. Kennedy added that featuring celebrity guests, such as Leno and his real talk-show The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, contributed to Miley being placed in the "real world" and thus becoming easily confusable with Cyrus. Pugh explained that displaying Miley as an authentic and likable character was a key marketing strategy, which led to Cyrus becoming closely associated with the Hannah Montana branding; Mayes-Elma explicated that Disney was selling Cyrus—a then-sixteen-year-old girl—to consumers as a "form of pop cultural prostitution". Blue also took note of the intersection between the world of the fictional characters and that of Cyrus.
=== U.S. television ratings ===
The series premiere of Hannah Montana was aired on March 24, 2006, as a lead-in to a rerun of High School Musical, and received 5.4 million viewers. This was the highest-rating premiere episode in the history of Disney Channel as of 2006. By April 2006, Hannah Montana had an average of more than 3.5 million viewers for each episode, many whom were aged between six and fourteen. The show's most-viewed episode, "Me and Mr. Jonas and Mr. Jonas and Mr. Jonas", was aired on August 17, 2007, as a lead-out to the premiere of High School Musical 2 and was viewed by 10.7 million people.
=== Awards and nominations ===
== Controversies ==
=== Cyrus's public image ===
In 2008, Marsh commented on the importance of Cyrus maintaining a wholesome public image while starring on the network. He said, "for Miley Cyrus to be a 'good girl' is now a business decision for her". Cyrus, however, continued to develop an increasingly provocative image as Hannah Montana progressed and the series received criticism for appearing to be a negative influence on its younger audience. Pugh writes that the series acted as a natural appendage to Cyrus's "controversial transition into a sexual provocateur". Cyrus performed a pole dance the following year during her act at the Teen Choice Awards, later defending it as "right for the song and that performance", while Disney representatives did not comment. Her suggestive persona continued with the music video for "Can't Be Tamed" in 2010. The following year, Cyrus was listed as the worst celebrity influence in a JSYK poll voted on by children, following the leakage of a video showing her smoking the psychoactive plant Salvia divinorum at the age of eighteen. In the journal Tobacco Control, Cyrus's high-risk actions were described as a "turning point" for how fans perceived her behavior. Cyrus's public image continued to become more provocative and sexualized following the conclusion of the series. After a controversial performance at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards, Melissa Henson of the Parents Television Council said parents would no longer feel comfortable allowing their children to watch Hannah Montana due to Cyrus's sexualized stage persona.
Billy Ray Cyrus blamed the program for damaging his family and causing Miley's unpredictable behavior. Miley Cyrus expressed her annoyance at her history with the program in 2013, stating she wanted to suppress her previous music and re-establish her career as a mature artist. By 2019, while Cyrus believed many had viewed her as a "Disney mascot" rather than as a person during her time working for the company, she said she was proud of her work on the series. She said she would like to play the character of Hannah Montana again. Cyrus explained in 2021 that she found it difficult to separate herself from the persona of Hannah Montana.
=== Depiction of diabetes ===
A second-season episode titled "No Sugar, Sugar" was planned to air in the United States on November 2, 2008, but was removed from the schedule after complaints about its subject matter. The episode, in which Oliver is diagnosed with type 1 diabetes, was previewed online; viewers said it presented inaccurate information about the disorder. Some viewers said there was a risk of uninformed children following the episode's health information, while others commended the episode's themes of acceptance and support for diabetics. The network revised the episode after consulting diabetes research-funding organization JDRF and filming new scenes; an updated version of the episode titled "Uptight (Oliver's Alright)" was aired during the program's third season on September 20, 2009.
=== Lawsuits ===
Television writer Buddy Sheffield alleged he pitched the concept for a television series titled Rock and Roland to Disney Channel in 2001; it would have focused on a junior-high school student who leads a secret double life as a rock star. The initial proposal was unsuccessful, and in August 2007, Sheffield filed a lawsuit against the network based on the similarities between his pitch and Hannah Montana. The lawsuit said Sheffield was owed millions of dollars in damages. A trial was scheduled to begin in August 2008, but the case was resolved privately beforehand.
In April 2010, Correll and O'Brien filed a lawsuit against Disney Channel for $5 million over profits from the program. The pair alleged they were denied their share of profits based on requirements for creators from the Writers Guild of America West. Correll, who also directed a number of episodes, further alleged he was unfairly terminated by Disney in response to giving testimony within the arbitration. By 2016, it was reported the arbitrator found $18 million in under-reported amounts, but the franchise was still operating at a $24 million deficit so no compensation was owed. The pair took their case to open court and claimed they were prejudiced by their arbitrator; in 2018, however, the request to overturn the ruling was refused. Poryes had filed a similar lawsuit in October 2008, but this was ultimately settled.
== Other media ==
=== Films ===
In 2008, Walt Disney Pictures released a concert film, Hannah Montana and Miley Cyrus: Best of Both Worlds Concert, as a three-dimensional film for a limited theatrical run. The film consists of footage of Cyrus performing as herself and as Hannah Montana at a concert during the 2007–2008 Best of Both Worlds Tour. It earned a gross of $70.6 million worldwide. A soundtrack album of the live performances, Best of Both Worlds Concert, was released in April 2008.
In 2007, Cyrus reported plans to adapt the television series into a theatrical feature film had commenced, and that she would like to film it in her hometown, Nashville, Tennessee; production began in Los Angeles and Nashville in April 2008. Hannah Montana: The Movie, was originally scheduled for release on May 1, 2009, but its release was preponed to April 10 that year. The film, directed by Peter Chelsom, follows Miley as the popularity of Hannah Montana begins to take control of her life. It grossed $169.2 million worldwide. A soundtrack album, Hannah Montana: The Movie, was released in March 2009.
=== Merchandising ===
In December 2006, Disney released its first line of merchandise linked to Hannah Montana, which included clothing, jewelry, toys, and dolls; the line of clothing duplicated outfits Hannah wears in the series. A line of video games was also developed; the first, Hannah Montana, was released on the Nintendo DS on October 5, 2006. By February 2008, the Hannah Montana franchise had become so profitable Disney convened an "80-person, all-platform international meeting" to discuss its future. Disney's 2008 annual report to shareholders listed the brand as one of the leading contributors to growth across the company. MSNBC estimated the Hannah Montana franchise was worth $1 billion by the end of 2008. The program was a commercially successful franchise for Disney Channel.
=== Potential spin-off ===
In 2011, Billy Ray Cyrus had said he wanted to produce a prequel series. Hollywood Life reported in 2020 that a potential prequel about Miley Stewart's rise to fame as a pop singer, with another child actor playing the character, was being discussed for Disney+. Billy Ray Cyrus again expressed his interest in being involved, while reports said Miley Cyrus would not be.
=== Hannah Montana 20th Anniversary Special ===
On February 17, 2026, the anniversary television special Hannah Montana 20th Anniversary Special was announced to premiere on Disney+ on March 24. It is filmed in front of a live studio audience and features an interview with Cyrus hosted by Alex Cooper. The special is produced by HopeTown Entertainment and Unwell Productions. Ashley Edens serves as showrunner, with Cyrus, Tish Cyrus-Purcell, Cooper, and Matt Kaplan as executive producers. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_dress_of_Meghan_Markle | Wedding dress of Meghan Markle | The wedding dress worn by Meghan Markle at her wedding to Prince Harry on 19 May 2018 was designed by the British fashion designer Clare Waight Keller, artistic director of the fashion house Givenchy. The bride's veil was embroidered with flowers representing the countries of the Commonwealth; the California poppy, in honour of Markle's home state of California; and wintersweet, a flower that grows at Kensington Palace.
== Pre-wedding speculation ==
The engagement of Meghan Markle and Prince Harry was announced on 27 November 2017, but the speculation about the bride's dress had started even earlier. Some commentators suggested that Markle would not wear a white wedding dress as she had been married previously. In December 2017, Israeli designer Inbal Dror was asked to submit designs for a wedding dress. It was rumoured that Erdem and Ralph & Russo were also contenders. By January 2018, British designer Stewart Parvin was the bookmakers' favourite. Betting was suspended after Alexander McQueen attracted a large amount of wagers. Markle had commented on wedding dress styles in 2016, as her character was getting married in Suits, saying that she preferred simple styles. Markle, long a vocal admirer of the style of Carolyn Bessette-Kennedy, described Bessette-Kennedy's wedding gown as "everything goals".
== Design ==
=== Designer ===
Markle chose designer Waight Keller because she "wanted to highlight the success of a leading British talent who has now served as the creative head of three globally influential fashion houses — Pringle of Scotland, Chloé, and now Givenchy."
She chose Keller to create her wedding dress due to the designer's "elegant aesthetic" and "relaxed demeanour." Waight Keller has been Givenchy's creative director since 2017. The dress was made in Paris by "a small team of ateliers". There was only five months to have the dress and the veil manufactured, and Waight Keller and Markle met for eight fittings.
Markle and Waight Keller worked closely together to design the dress, which shows a "timeless minimal elegance", according to a Kensington Palace announcement. The two contacted each other through discreet texts and phone calls, before and after nondisclosure agreements were signed, with Waight Keller unable to tell anyone that she had been selected to design the dress.
Waight Keller stated that the dress sought to "convey modernity through sleek lines and sharp cuts", while paying homage to the history of the Givenchy house.
=== Dress ===
The design of the simple white dress and the name of its maker were revealed only when the bride got out of the car and entered St George's Chapel at Windsor Castle for the wedding service. The dress was made of silk with three-quarter-length sleeves, an open boat neckline and a train with built-in triple silk organza underskirt. Waight Keller helped develop a double bonded silk cady for the construction of the dress, which featured only six seams. The dress was without lace or any other embellishments.
=== Veil ===
The dress is augmented by a long 5 metre (16-ft) veil, hand-embroidered with a variety of flowers on its hem, and symbolic sprays of wheat. It was 3 metres wide. The veil took longer to create than the dress itself, and the embroiderers spent 500 hours on completing it, washing their hands every 30 minutes to make sure that the veil would remain immaculate until the wedding day. A piece of the blue dress from Markle's first date with Prince Harry was stitched into the bridal veil. Markle also chose two favourite flowers – wintersweet (Chimonanthus praecox), which grows outside Nottingham Cottage at Kensington Palace, where she and Harry lived, and the California poppy (Eschscholzia californica), from where she was born – along with individual flowers representing the 53 countries of the Commonwealth, reflecting the couple's interest in the work of the Commonwealth. The countries and flowers are:
Antigua and Barbuda – agave (Agave karatto)
Australia – golden wattles (Acacia pycnantha)
Bahamas – yellow elder (Tecoma stans)
Bangladesh – sada shapla or white water lily (white form of Nymphaea nouchali)
Barbados – the pride of Barbados (Caesalpinia pulcherrima)
Belize – the black orchid (Prosthechea cochleata)
Botswana – ear of Sorghum and cat's claw (Uncaria tomentosa)
Brunei Darussalam – simpor (Dillenia suffruticosa)
Cameroon – red stinkwood (Prunus africana)
Canada – bunchberry (Cornus canadensis)
Cyprus – Cyclamen cyprium
Dominica – carib wood (Poitea carinalis)
Eswatini – fire heath (Erica cerinthoides)
Fiji – tagimaucia (Medinilla waterhousei)
Gambia – white variety orchid
Ghana – caladium (Caladium)
Grenada – bougainvillea (Nyctaginaceae)
Guyana – Queen Victoria water lily (Victoria amazonica)
India – Indian lotus (Nelumbo nucifera)
Jamaica – lignum vitae (Guaiacum officinale)
Kenya – the tropical orchid
Kiribati – Bidens kiribatiensis
Lesotho – spiral aloe (Aloe polyphylla)
Malawi – lotus (Nymphaea lotus)
Malaysia – bunga raya or tropical hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis)
Malta – Maltese centaury (Cheirolophus crassifolius)
Mauritius – Trochetia boutoniana
Mozambique – maroon bell bean (Markhamia zanzibarica)
Namibia – welwitschia (Welwitschia mirabilis)
Nauru – Calophyllum
New Zealand – kowhai (Sophora microphylla)
Nigeria – yellow trumpet (Costus spectabilis)
Pakistan – jasmine (Jasminum officinale)
Papua New Guinea – Sepik blue orchid (Dendrobium lasianthera)
Rwanda – torch lily (Kniphofia uvaria)
Saint Lucia – the rose and the marguerite
Samoa – teuila (Alpinia purpurata)
Seychelles – tropicbird orchid (Angraecum eburneum)
Sierra Leone – scadoxus (Scadoxus cinnabarinus)
Singapore – Vanda 'Miss Joaquim'
Solomon Islands – hibiscus (Hibiscus)
South Africa – protea (Protea cynaroides)
Sri Lanka – blue water lily (pale blue form of Nymphaea nouchali)
St Kitts and Nevis – poinciana (Delonix regia)
St Vincent & the Grenadines – Soufriere tree (Spachea perforata)
Tonga – heilala (Garcinia sessilis)
Trinidad & Tobago – chaconia (Warszewiczia coccinea)
Tuvalu – plumeria (Plumeria rubra)
Uganda – desert rose (Adenium obesum)
United Kingdom
England – rose (Rosa)
Northern Ireland – flax (Linum usitatissimum)
Scotland – thistle (Cirsium vulgare)
Wales – daffodil (Narcissus)
United Republic of Tanzania – African violet (Streptocarpus sect. Saintpaulia)
Vanuatu – anthurium (Anthurium)
Zambia – bougainvillea (Bougainvillea)
== Reception ==
Elizabeth Emanuel, co-designer of Lady Diana Spencer's wedding gown, thought that the gown made a "really solid fashion statement" and thought that Waight Keller "should be pleased because Meghan looked absolutely stunning and beautiful." Waight Keller stated that Prince Harry told her "Oh my God. Thank you. She is absolutely magnificent."
The media have noted similarities between Markle's dress and those worn by Angela Brown at her wedding to Prince Maximilian of Liechtenstein in 2000, and Mary Donaldson at her wedding to Frederik, Crown Prince of Denmark in 2004. It has also been compared to a Givenchy dress worn by Audrey Hepburn in the 1957 film Funny Face. Emilia Wickstead claimed that the dress was "identical" to one of her designs. Unfavorable comparisons of Markle's wedding dress in comparison to Catherine Middleton's wedding dress were proclaimed online and in the press, with Catherine's wedding dress being proclaimed as the "victor". Critics also noted that Markle's dress seemed an attempt to mimic the late fashionista Carolyn Bessette-Kennedy. Markle's wedding dress was compared to a formal dress Bessette-Kennedy once wore during her life, and her reception dress had similarities to Bessette-Kennedy's now-classic wedding gown at her wedding to John F. Kennedy Jr. in 1996, although Markle's reception dress was a 1990s-style halter dress.
Markle's wedding dress received mixed reviews from the public, some saying it was "beautiful" and "stunning" while others described it as "boring", "baggy", and "ill-fitting." Celebrity commentators, fashion editors, internet influencers, and Twitter commenters criticized the dress, calling it "boring", "ill-fitting", and "too big", criticizing the cut, the shape, and even the matte satin fabric, calling the finish "dull", criticizing a perceived lack of tailoring on the sleeves and waist, and others declaring the overall effect as "heavy". Fashion experts noted that the silk cady fabric would have been difficult to move in if the dress had been more form-fitting. Critics mocked the veil style and length, and created an Internet meme comparing it to a CVS receipt.
Robin Givhan of The Washington Post noted in her review of the gown that "It was not a Hollywood red carpet statement...it was not a Disney princess fantasy...the dress was a backdrop; it was in service to the woman." Desiree Cooper of the Detroit Free Press unfavorably compared the dress to a costume "straight from The Handmaid's Tale", but conceded, "She could have been wearing a paper bag (which she nearly was) and it wouldn't have mattered an iota. That girl was just plain stunning." Less than a week after the wedding, dresses based on Markle's were being sold.
The dress, veil and tiara were exhibited by the Royal Collection Trust at Windsor Castle from October 2018 until February 2019, and then at Holyrood Palace from June 2019 to October 2019. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulton_surface-to-air_recovery_system | Fulton surface-to-air recovery system | The Fulton surface-to-air recovery system (STARS), also known as Skyhook, is a system used by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), United States Air Force, and United States Navy for retrieving individuals on the ground using aircraft such as the MC-130E Combat Talon I and B-17 Flying Fortress. It involves using an overall-type harness and a self-inflating balloon with an attached lift line. An MC-130E engages the line with its V-shaped yoke and the person is reeled on board. Red flags on the lift line guide the pilot during daylight recoveries; lights on the lift line are used for night recoveries. Recovery kits were designed for one- and two-man retrievals.
This system was developed by inventor Robert Edison Fulton, Jr., for the CIA in the early 1950s. It was an evolution from a glider snatch pick-up, a similar system that was used during World War II by American and British forces to retrieve both personnel and downed assault gliders following airborne operations. Snatch pick-up did not use a balloon, but a line stretched between a pair of poles set in the ground on either side of the person or glider to be retrieved. An aircraft, usually a C-47 Skytrain, trailed a grappling hook that engaged the line, which was attached to the intended cargo.
== Development of the recovery system ==
Experiments with the recovery system began in 1950 by the CIA and Air Force. Using a weather balloon, nylon line, and weights of 10 to 15 pounds (4.5 to 6.8 kg), Fulton made numerous pickup attempts as he sought to develop a reliable procedure. Successful at last, Fulton took photographs and sent them to Admiral Luis de Florez, who had become the director of technical research at the CIA. Believing that the program could best be handled by the military, de Florez put Fulton in touch with the Office of Naval Research (ONR), where he obtained a development contract from ONR's Air Programs Division.
Over the next few years, Fulton refined the air and ground equipment for the pickup system. Based at El Centro, California, he conducted numerous flights over the Colorado Desert using a Navy P-2V Neptune. He gradually increased the weight of the pickup until the line began to break. A braided nylon line with a test strength of 4,000 pounds (1,800 kg) solved the problem. A major problem was the design of the locking device, or sky anchor, that secured the line to the aircraft. Fulton considered the solution of this issue the most demanding part of the entire developmental process.
Further tests were conducted at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, from 1 August 1959, using RB-69A, 54-4307, a CIA P2V-7U, according to an agency document.
After experiments with instrumented dummies, Fulton continued to experiment with live pigs, as pigs have a nervous system close to humans. Lifted off the ground, the pig began to spin as it flew through the air at 125 miles per hour (200 km/h). It arrived on board uninjured, but in a disoriented state. When it recovered, it attacked the crew.
By 1958, the Fulton aerial retrieval system, or "Skyhook", was finished. The ground system could be dropped from an aircraft and contained the necessary equipment for a pickup, including a harness, for cargo or a person, attached to 500 feet (150 m) of high-strength, braided nylon line and a dirigible-shaped balloon inflated by a helium bottle.
The pickup aircraft was equipped with two tubular steel "horns", 30 feet (9 m) long and spread at a 70° angle from its nose. The aircraft flew into the line, aiming at a bright mylar marker placed at the 425 foot (130 m) level. As the line was caught between the forks on the nose of the aircraft, the balloon was released and a spring-loaded trigger mechanism (sky anchor) secured the line to the aircraft. After the initial pickup, the line was snared by the pickup crew using a J-hook and attached to a powered winch and the person or cargo pulled on board. To prevent the pickup line from interfering with the aircraft's propellers in the case of an unsuccessful catch, the aircraft had deflector cables strung from the nose to the wingtips.
Later the US Navy tested the Fulton system fitted to modified S-2 Tracker carrier-based antisubmarine patrol aircraft for use in rescuing downed pilots. It is unknown whether a Fulton equipped S-2 was ever used on a combat mission.
== First human pickups ==
The CIA had secretly trained Special Activities Division paramilitary officers to use a predecessor system for human pickups as early as 1952. The first human recovery mission authorized for operational use of this "all American system" took place in Manchuria on 29 November 1952. CIA C-47 pilots Norman Schwartz and Robert Snoddy were trained in the aerial pickup technique towards the end of 1952. CIA paramilitary officers John T. Downey and Richard G. Fecteau, themselves hurriedly trained in the procedure during the week of 24 November, were to recover a courier who was in contact with anti-communist sympathizers in the area. The mission failed when Chinese forces downed the aircraft with small arms fire, capturing survivors Downey and Fecteau. The British allegedly also used the American system for personnel.
The first human pickup using Fulton's STARS took place on 12 August 1958, when Staff Sergeant Levi W. Woods of the U.S. Marine Corps was winched on board the Neptune. Because of the geometry involved, the person being picked up experienced less of a shock than during a parachute opening. After the initial contact, which was described by one individual as similar to "a kick in the pants", the person rose vertically at a slow rate to about 100 ft (30 m), then began to streamline behind the aircraft. Extension of arms and legs prevented spinning as the individual was winched on board. The process took about six minutes.
In August 1960, Capt. Edward A. Rodgers, commander of the Naval Air Development Unit, flew a Skyhook-equipped P2V to Point Barrow, Alaska, to conduct pickup tests under the direction of Dr. Max Brewer, head of the Navy's Arctic Research Laboratory. With Fulton on board to monitor the equipment, the Neptune picked up mail from Floating Ice Island T-3, also known as Fletcher's Ice Island, retrieved artifacts, including mastodon tusks, from an archaeological party on the tundra, and secured geological samples from Peters Lake Camp. The high point of the trials came when the P2V dropped a rescue package near the icebreaker USS Burton Island. Retrieved by a ship's boat, the package was brought on deck, the balloon inflated, and the pickup accomplished.
In July 1967, two MACV-SOG operators were retrieved by an MC-130E using the Fulton Skyhook system while operating in Vietnam.
== Project Coldfeet ==
The first operational use of Skyhook was Project Coldfeet, an examination of the Soviet drift station NP-8, abandoned on 19 March 1962. Two agents parachuted to station NP 8 on 28 May 1962. After 72 hours at the site, on 1 June 1962, a pick-up was made of the Soviet equipment and both men. The mission yielded information on the Soviet Union's Arctic research activities, including evidence of advanced research on acoustical systems to detect under-ice submarines and efforts to develop Arctic anti-submarine warfare techniques.
== Later use ==
The Fulton system was used from 1965 to 1996 on several variants of the C-130 Hercules including the MC-130s and HC-130s. It was also used on the C-123 Provider.
Despite the apparent high-risk nature of the system, only one fatal accident occurred in 17 years of use. On 26 April 1982, SFC Clifford Wilson Strickland was picked up by a Lockheed MC-130 Combat Talon of the 7th Special Operations Squadron at CFB Lahr, Germany, during Flintlock 82 exercise, using the Fulton STARS recovery system, but fell to his death due to a failed bushing at the top of the left yoke pivot bolt.
The increased availability of long-range helicopters such as the MH-53 Pave Low, HH-60 Pave Hawk, and MH-47 Chinook, and the V-22 Osprey tilt-rotor aircraft, all with aerial refueling capability, caused this system to be used less often. In September 1996, the Air Force Special Operations Command ceased maintaining the capability to deploy this system.
== In popular culture ==
The Skyhook has been featured in a number of films and video games. It was seen in the 1965 James Bond film Thunderball, where James Bond and his companion Domino Derval are rescued at sea by a modified Boeing B-17 equipped with the Fulton system at the end of the movie. In 1968, it was used in the John Wayne movie The Green Berets to fly a VC officer to South Vietnam.
The Skyhook system was also featured in the 2008 film The Dark Knight. First mentioned by Lucius Fox as a means of re-boarding an aircraft without its landing, the system is attached to a Lockheed L-100 Hercules.
In video games, the Skyhook can be seen in I.G.I.-2: Covert Strike where a C-130 extracts the protagonist connected with a weather balloon. The system is briefly mentioned during a conversation in Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater, and a heavily fictionalized interpretation of the Skyhook forms a core gameplay mechanic in Metal Gear Solid: Peace Walker, and Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain. More realistic depictions can be found in PUBG: Battlegrounds, Payday 2, Battlefield 4, Call of Duty: Modern Warfare, and its sequel, Call of Duty: Modern Warfare III. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spyro_2:_Ripto%27s_Rage! | Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage! | Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage!, known as Spyro 2: Gateway to Glimmer in PAL regions, is a 1999 platform game developed by Insomniac Games and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation. It is the second installment in the Spyro series and a sequel to Spyro the Dragon (1998).
The game begins with Spyro planning to take a vacation after his previous adventures. However, he is unexpectedly transported to the realm of Avalar, where the malevolent sorcerer Ripto has emerged and is wreaking havoc. Spyro joins forces with the inhabitants of Avalar to confront Ripto and put an end to his destructive reign.
Ripto’s Rage! introduced several new mechanics not present in its predecessor, such as swimming, climbing, and power-up gates that temporarily grant Spyro abilities like superflame or flight. Levels also feature side quests, mini-games, and boss battles, adding more variety and complexity than the first game.
The game received positive reviews from critics, who praised its colorful graphics, improved gameplay variety, and larger amount of content. It was followed by Spyro: Year of the Dragon in 2000, and later remade as part of the Spyro Reignited Trilogy in 2018.
== Gameplay ==
Players control Spyro the Dragon as he fights against various enemies and obstacles using his flame breath, charge attack, and glide abilities. His health is indicated by the color of his dragonfly partner, Sparx, who can replenish his health by eating butterflies. Bottled butterflies will both completely restore Sparx's health and give Spyro an extra life. If Sparx eats enough butterflies, Spyro will receive an extra life. Butterflies can be acquired by flaming, charging, or head-bashing the various fodder scattered throughout the game.
The game is split up into three main homeworlds containing portals to various realms. In order to progress through the first two homeworlds, the player must acquire a talisman from each realm, which is awarded for reaching the end of the realm. Once enough talismans are collected, the player can face the boss of each homeworld. Each realm also contains a certain number of orbs, which can be earned by completing secondary tasks for particular NPCs, such as lighting a series of lamps or protecting characters from attacks. These orbs are required for opening some of the portals to certain realms, as well as progressing through the third homeworld. Gems gathered throughout the game are required to pay fees that Moneybags, a money hungry bear, charges in order to progress through the game. As well as opening portals or granting access to certain areas, Moneybags also teaches Spyro three brand new abilities over the course of the game. Swimming lets Spyro dive underwater to reach submerged treasure and hidden tunnels, climbing lets Spyro climb up certain surfaces, and the headbash lets Spyro perform an overhead smashing attack which can break rocks and certain cages. In addition, each realm has a power-up gate, activated after defeating a specific number of enemies in a realm, which grants Spyro a temporary super-ability. The power-up can grant invulnerability or the abilities to fly, supercharge, super flame, breathe ice, or super jump to reach high up areas.
=== Characters and setting ===
The only characters from the original game to return as main characters in this game are Spyro, the game's protagonist, and Sparx, his dragonfly sidekick. Sparx functions as the player's health meter, and assists the player in gathering gems. This game introduces new characters into the Spyro series, many of whom would appear in later games. Both Hunter the Cheetah and Moneybags the bear make recurring appearances in the series, while Ripto would make more series appearances than any other antagonist, making him the key villain of the original series. The dragons of the previous installment have been replaced with an entirely new cast of characters, including fauns, satyrs, anthropomorphic animals, and robotic businessmen, among others.
The world of Avalar is divided into three homeworlds: Summer Forest, Autumn Plains, and Winter Tundra. In every realm, there is a castle that, during the course of the storyline, is captured by Ripto. Each homeworld features a number of different realms, a speedway realm, and a dungeon realm in which Ripto or his minions are hiding.
== Plot ==
Sometime after the defeat of Gnasty Gnorc, Spyro the Dragon and his dragonfly partner, Sparx, having had enough with the continuous raining in Artisans, decide to take a vacation to Dragon Shores. Upon going through the portal, however, Spyro instead ends up in Glimmer, one of the many realms of the fantasy land Avalar, having been summoned there by Elora the Faun, Hunter the Cheetah, and the Professor. They explain that one week prior, they were experimenting with a large portal device when they inadvertently summoned an angry, iron-fisted warlock known as Ripto, along with his minions Crush and Gulp. Pleased to find himself in a world without dragons, whom he views as pests, Ripto decided to conquer Avalar, prompting Elora and the others to deactivate the portal by scattering the mystical orbs powering it all across the homeworlds and in the realms. As Ripto and his henchmen leave to retrieve the orbs, Elora gets the idea to summon a dragon to fight against him, thus leading to Spyro's situation. After getting stranded in Avalar as a result of Ripto destroying the portal he came in through, Spyro agrees to help fight against him.
During his quest, Spyro must travel through the various realms of Avalar and help the inhabitants with certain problems they are facing in order to receive their realm's talisman, which Spyro must use to undo Ripto's tyranny. Spyro must also collect the orbs scattered across Avalar to empower portals and other various devices or spells, as well as gems to pay off the money hungry bear, Moneybags for certain favors. Hunter the Cheetah helps Spyro out on certain missions with his athletic abilities, and the Professor does the same using his intellect.
After collecting six talismans in Summer Forest, Spyro fights and defeats Crush, prompting Ripto and Gulp to retreat. The young dragon then pursues them to Autumn Plains, where he collects eight more talismans before engaging and vanquishing Gulp in combat. Then, Ripto seemingly falls to his demise, and Elora and her friends repay Spyro by returning to Winter Tundra and reactivating the portal device to send him to Dragon Shores. However, Ripto reveals himself to still be alive and steals the power crystal that was meant to power the portal, using it to create a new magic scepter (since Gulp ate the original in the intro). After collecting enough orbs, Spyro is able to confront Ripto; the warlock ironically perishes in a lake of lava which he himself created. With peace returned to Avalar, Elora and the others return all the gems that Moneybags had extorted from Spyro to fix the portal device, allowing Spyro to take his long-awaited vacation to Dragon Shores.
The game's epilogue, which is unlocked by completing the Skill Points list in the Guidebook, reveals what happened to various friends and enemies that Spyro encountered in Avalar, as well as moments such as Spyro and Elora missing their chance to kiss, the Professor teaching Crush how to spell, and one of the dragons from Spyro's home encountering Ripto. In the end, Spyro returns to the Dragon Realm, with Hunter joining him, setting the stage for the next game.
== Development ==
The sequel to Spyro the Dragon was tentatively titled Spyro the Dragon 2 during its pre-production phase. According to Ted Price, Insomniac's president and founder, the game was designed to provide a "greater challenge" for experienced players, as it was made to have greater depth and more gameplay variety than Spyro the Dragon. The music for Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage! was composed by Stewart Copeland and was engineered and co-produced by Jeff Seitz. Copeland's jungle-style beats and rhythmic style change throughout the game while remaining approachable and fun. The character Spyro is voiced by Tom Kenny, replacing Carlos Alazraqui from the first game, while additional voices are provided by Kenny, Gregg Berger, Melissa Disney, Milton James, Mary Linda Phillips and Marcelo Tubert. The game's sound effects were created by Mike Gollom, Harry Woolway and Ron Horwitz of Universal Sound Studios. The game was officially announced at the 1999 E3 convention in Los Angeles, CA. In Volume 3 Issue 1 of the Official US PlayStation Magazine, which was released in October 1999, the name "Ripto" originated from the Japanese katakana spelling of Spyro (スパイロ). The game was released in North America on November 2, 1999. Sony Computer Entertainment of America director of product development Ami Blaire stated, "Spyro 2 isn't just another sequel. Players will surely be lured by Spyro's playful antics, but they'll experience gameplay that's more challenging and more fun then ever before."
Following its release, the game received a "Gold" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 200,000 units in the UK. By December 1999, the game sold a million copies in North America. As of June 30, 2007, the game sold more than 3.4 million units.
=== Re-releases ===
The game became available for download on the European PlayStation Network on July 26, 2007, before its predecessor was released to the same market. Less than a week later, however, it was removed because the "Colossus" and "Idol Springs" levels failed to load. On April 17, 2008, it was released on the Japanese PlayStation Store. On May 7, 2009, the game became available for download from the North American PlayStation Store and a corrected version was re-released on the European PlayStation Store on December 12, 2012, although as the NTSC version instead of PAL. Spyro 2, alongside its predecessor and sequel, received a remastered release with updated visuals on November 13, 2018 as part of the Spyro Reignited Trilogy compilation for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. This compilation retains the game's North American name, Ripto's Rage!, as opposed to the title used for the original PAL regions release, Gateway to Glimmer.
== Reception ==
The game received favorable reviews according to the review aggregation website GameRankings. However, Chris Kramer of NextGen said that the game "feels like a kids' title, but it has more meat to it than the first, and the cute graphics may make your girlfriend finally stop cooing over those damn Pokémon." In Japan, where the game was ported for release under the name Spyro X Sparx: Tondemo Tours (スパイロ×スパークス トンでもツアーズ, Supairo × Supākusu Tondemo Tsuāzu) on March 16, 2000, Famitsu gave it a score of 30 out of 40. GamePro said of the game, "If you simply loved the first Spyro, or are very intrigued by the second, you can't go wrong with Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage. Once you get over its cute exterior, you'll find an excellent platform action/adventure game ripe with the goods that make gaming great."
Spyro 2: Ripto's Rage! received nominations for "Console Children's/Family Title of the Year", "Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction", and "Outstanding Achievement in Animation" during the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences (AIAS)' 3rd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards. They were ultimately awarded to Pokémon Snap (Children's/Family) and Final Fantasy VIII (Art Direction, Animation). |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Book_Awards | Irish Book Awards | The Irish Book Awards are Irish literary awards given annually to books and authors in various categories. It is the only literary award supported by all-Irish bookstores. The primary sponsor is An Post, the state owned postal service in Ireland.
== History ==
First awarded in 2006, the Irish Book Awards grew out of the Hughes & Hughes bookstore's Irish Novel of the Year Prize, which was inaugurated in 2003. Since 2007 the Awards have been an independent not-for-profit company funded by sponsorship. Bord Gáis Energy sponsored the awards from 2012 until 2018, when An Post took over sponsorship.
== Description ==
There are currently nine categories, seven of which are judged by the Irish Literary Academy, and two by a public vote. There is also a lifetime achievement award.
== Awards ==
=== Current awards ===
Novel of the Year
Crime Fiction Book of the Year
Best Irish Published Book of the Year
Non-Fiction Book of the Year
Cookbook of the Year
Popular Fiction Book of the Year
Children's Book of the Year, Junior
Children's Book of the Year, Senior
Teen & Young Adult Book of the Year
Sports Book of the Year
Newcomer of the Year
Irish Language Book of the Year
Lifestyle Book of the Year
Biography of the Year
Author of the Year
Short Story of the Year
Poem of the Year
Bookshop of the Year
The Last Word Listeners' Choice Award
New Voices: The An Post Writing Prize
Lifetime Achievement Award
=== Previous awards ===
International Recognition Award (last awarded 2020)
RTÉ Audience/Listeners' Choice Award (last awarded 2021)
Popular Non-Fiction Book of the Year (last awarded 2020)
=== An Post Irish Book of the Year ===
Since 2011, one of the award-winning books has been selected as the overall Irish Book of the Year.
== Winners ==
Book of the Year winners are indicated with a blue ribbon ().
=== 2003–2005 (Hughes & Hughes Award / Irish Novel) ===
Inaugurated in 2000 by Hughes & Hughes, the Hughes & Hughes Award ran until 2005 when it merged with the Irish Book Awards and became the Irish Novel category.
2003: That They May Face the Rising Sun by John McGahern
2004: Dancer by Colum McCann
2005: Havoc in its Third Year by Ronan Bennett
=== 2006 ===
In subsequent years the Children's Book category was split into two award categories; Junior and Senior.
=== 2007 ===
=== 2008 ===
=== 2009 ===
=== 2010 ===
=== 2011 ===
=== 2012 ===
=== 2013 ===
=== 2014 ===
The 2014 awards were presented on 26 November at the DoubleTree by Hilton Hotel in Dublin.
=== 2015 ===
The 2015 awards were presented on 25 November at the DoubleTree by Hilton Hotel in Dublin.
=== 2016 ===
The 2016 awards sponsored by Bord Gáis Energy were presented on 16 November at the DoubleTree by Hilton Hotel in Dublin. The awards ceremony was presented by Keelin Shanley.
On 14 December, Solar Bones by Mike McCormack was named as Ireland's best book of 2016. It was chosen by a public vote from the list of category winners below.
=== 2017 ===
The 2017 awards sponsored by Bord Gáis Energy were presented on 28 November at the Clayton Hotel in Dublin. The awards ceremony was presented by RTÉ's Keelin Shanley and Evelyn O'Rourke.
=== 2018 ===
The 2018 awards sponsored by An Post were presented on 27 November at the Clayton Hotel in Dublin. The awards ceremony was presented by RTÉ's Keelin Shanley while each winning author was interviewed Evelyn O'Rourke.
Notes to Self by Emilie Pine was voted the An Post Irish Book of the Year for 2018.
=== 2019 ===
The 2019 awards ceremony was held in Dublin on 20 November 2019. The event was hosted by Miriam O'Callaghan and Evelyn O'Rourke. Over 115,000 votes were cast by readers to select the winners in each category.
The winner of the An Post Irish Book of the Year was Overcoming by Vicky Phelan and Naomi Linehan.
=== 2020 ===
The 2020 awards ceremony was held virtually on 25 November 2020. A record number of votes were cast by the Irish public to select the winners in each category.
A Ghost in the Throat by Doireann Ní Ghríofa was announced as Irish Book of the Year in December 2020.
=== 2021 ===
The awards ceremony was broadcast online on 23 November 2021.
On 8 December, We Don't Know Ourselves: A Personal History of Ireland Since 1958 was announced as Irish Book of the Year during a one-hour television special on RTÉ One.
=== 2022 ===
The awards ceremony was broadcast online on 23 November 2022.
On 7 December, My Fourth Time, We Drowned was announced as Irish Book of the Year during a one-hour television special on RTÉ One.
=== 2023 ===
The awards were announced at a ceremony at Dublin's Convention Centre on 22 November 2023.
The Book of the Year winner was The Bee Sting by Paul Murray which was announced on 6 December 2023.
=== 2024 ===
The 2024 winners were announced on 27 November, again in the Convention Centre.
=== 2025 ===
The 2025 winners were announced on 27 November. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_Who_series_1 | Doctor Who series 1 | The first series of the 2005 revival of the British science fiction programme Doctor Who, and the twenty-seventh season overall, began on 26 March 2005 with the episode "Rose". This marked the end of the programme's 16 year absence from episodic television following its cancellation in 1989, and the first new televised Doctor Who story since the broadcast of the television movie starring Paul McGann in 1996. The finale episode, "The Parting of the Ways", was broadcast on 18 June 2005. The show was revived by longtime Doctor Who fan Russell T Davies, who had been lobbying the BBC since the late 1990s to bring the show back. The first series comprised 13 episodes, eight of which Davies wrote. Davies, Julie Gardner and Mal Young served as executive producers, Phil Collinson as producer.
The show depicts the adventures of a mysterious and eccentric Time Lord known as the Doctor, who travels through time and space in his time machine, the TARDIS, which normally appears from the exterior to be a blue 1950s British police box. With his companions, he explores time and space, faces a variety of foes and saves civilizations, helping people and righting wrongs.
The first series features Christopher Eccleston as the ninth incarnation of the Doctor, his only series in the role, accompanied by Billie Piper, as his only companion Rose Tyler, whom he plucks from obscurity on planet Earth, and to whom he grows increasingly attached. He also travels briefly with unruly boy-genius Adam Mitchell, played by Bruno Langley, and with 51st-century con man and former "Time Agent" Captain Jack Harkness, portrayed by John Barrowman. Episodes in the series form a loose story arc, based upon the recurring phrase "Bad Wolf", the significance of which goes unexplained until the two-part series finale. Alongside the "Bad Wolf" arc, the revived era re-introduces the Doctor as the sole survivor of an event known as the Time War, which the Doctor claims wiped out all of the Time Lords and the Daleks.
The series premiere was watched by 10.81 million viewers, and four days after the premiere episode was broadcast, Doctor Who was renewed for a Christmas special as well as a second series. The series was well received by both critics and fans, winning a BAFTA Award for the first time in Doctor Who's history. The approval from Michael Grade, who had previously forced an 18-month hiatus on the show in 1985, and had postponed Doctor Who out of personal dislike on several occasions, was cited as a factor in the show's resurgence. The show's popularity ultimately led to a resurgence in family-orientated Saturday night drama.
== Episodes ==
Unlike the classic era of the series that ended in 1989, the plan with the new series was to have each episode as a standalone story, with no serials. Of the thirteen episodes in the series, seven of them followed this format; the remaining six were grouped together into three two-part stories. Also, for the first time since The Gunfighters in the third season, each episode was given an individual title, which was the case with the standalone and two-part stories.
== Cast ==
=== Main cast ===
The production team was tasked with finding a suitable actor for the role of the Doctor. Most notably, they approached film stars Hugh Grant and Rowan Atkinson for the role. By the time Mal Young had suggested actor Christopher Eccleston to Davies, Eccleston was one of only three left in the running for the role: the other two candidates are rumoured in the industry to have been Alan Davies and Bill Nighy. His involvement in the programme was announced on 20 March 2004 following months of speculation. In the April 2004 issue of Doctor Who Magazine, Davies announced that Eccleston's Doctor would indeed be the Ninth Doctor, relegating Richard E. Grant's Shalka Doctor to non-official status. Russell T Davies revealed that Eccleston asked for the role in an e-mail.
After the announcement that the show would be returning, Davies revealed that the new companion would "probably" be called Rose Tyler in an edition of Doctor Who Magazine published in November 2003. This name was confirmed in March 2004, and it was announced at the same time that former pop star Billie Piper was being considered for the role. Piper was announced as portraying Rose Tyler on 24 May, a character which fulfilled the role of permanent companion during the series, and was welcomed by some fans of the show. Actress Georgia Moffett, daughter of Fifth Doctor actor Peter Davison and who would later appear as the title role in the fourth series episode "The Doctor's Daughter", also auditioned for the role. The original conception of Tyler was slightly different. Paul Abbott was scheduled to write an episode for the series which would have revealed that Rose's entire life had been manipulated by the Doctor in order to mould her into an ideal companion. Davies eventually wrote "Boom Town" to replace it when Abbott, after months of development, realised he was too busy to work on the script.
The first series was Christopher Eccleston's only series in the role of the Doctor. Eccleston's contract was for a single year because at the time it was uncertain whether the show would continue beyond a single revival series. Eccleston's intent to leave was revealed on 30 March 2005, shortly after the broadcast of the first episode. The BBC released a statement, attributed to Eccleston, saying that he had decided to leave because he feared becoming typecast. On 4 April, the BBC revealed that Eccleston's "statement" was falsely attributed and released without his consent. The BBC admitted that they had broken an agreement made in January not to disclose publicly that he only intended to do one season. In a 2010 interview, Eccleston revealed that he left the show because he "didn't enjoy the environment and the culture that [they], the cast and crew, had to work in", but that he was proud of having played the role.
=== Recurring and guest cast ===
The character of Adam Mitchell was first conceived, along with Henry van Statten, during Davies' pitch to the BBC, in a story heavily based on Robert Shearman's audio play Jubilee called "Return of the Daleks". The production team had always intended for Adam to join the TARDIS after Rose developed a liking for him. To play this role, Bruno Langley was chosen, previously known for his role on Coronation Street as Todd Grimshaw. It was never intended for Adam to be a long-term companion, Davies wanted to show that not everyone is suitable to join the TARDIS crew and dubbed him "The Companion That Couldn't", he "always wanted to do a show with someone who was a rubbish companion".
John Barrowman appears as Captain Jack Harkness, a character introduced in "The Empty Child", where he joined the TARDIS crew for the final five episodes of the series. In naming the character, Davies drew inspiration from the Marvel Comics character Agatha Harkness. Jack's appearances were conceived with the intention of forming a character arc in which Jack is transformed from a coward to a hero, and Barrowman consciously minded this in his portrayal of the character. Following on that arc, the character's debut episode would leave his morality as ambiguous, publicity materials asking, "is he a force for good or ill?" Barrowman himself was a key factor in the conception of Captain Jack. Barrowman says that at the time of his initial casting, Davies and co-executive producer, Julie Gardner had explained to him that they "basically wrote the character around [John]". On meeting him, Barrowman tried out the character using his native Scottish accent, his normal American accent, and an English accent; Davies decided it "made it bigger if it was an American accent". Barrowman recounts Davies as having been searching for an actor with a "matinée idol quality", telling him that "the only one in the whole of Britain who could do it was you".
David Tennant had been offered the role of the Doctor when he was watching a pre-transmission copy of the series with Davies and Gardner. Tennant initially believed the offer was a joke, but after he realised they were serious, he accepted the role and first appeared in the series finale "The Parting of the Ways". Tennant was announced as Eccleston's replacement on 16 April 2005. Other recurring characters for the series included Camille Coduri as Rose's mother Jackie Tyler, and Noel Clarke as Rose's boyfriend Mickey Smith. Other actors and television presenters who appeared in the series included Mark Benton, Zoë Wanamaker, Simon Callow, Eve Myles, Penelope Wilton, Annette Badland, David Verrey, Matt Baker, Andrew Marr, Corey Johnson, Simon Pegg, Anna Maxwell-Martin, Tamsin Greig, Shaun Dingwall, Florence Hoath, Richard Wilson, Jo Joyner, Davina McCall, Paterson Joseph, Anne Robinson, Trinny Woodall, and Susannah Constantine.
== Production ==
=== Development ===
During the late-1990s, Davies, a lifelong Doctor Who fan, lobbied the BBC to revive the show from its hiatus and reached the discussion stages in late 1998 and early 2002. His proposals would update the show to be better suited for a 21st-century audience, including the transition from videotape to film, doubling the length of each episode from twenty-five minutes to fifty, keeping the Doctor primarily on Earth in the style of the Third Doctor UNIT episodes, and removing "excess baggage" such as Gallifrey and the Time Lords. His pitch competed against three others: Dan Freedman's fantasy retelling, Matthew Graham's Gothic-styled pitch, and Mark Gatiss, Clayton Hickman and Gareth Roberts' reboot, which would make the Doctor the audience surrogate character, instead of his companions.
In August 2003, the BBC had resolved the issues regarding production rights that had surfaced as a result of the jointly produced Universal Studios–BBC–Fox 1996 Doctor Who film, leading the Controller of BBC One Lorraine Heggessey and Controller of Drama Commissioning Jane Tranter to approach Gardner and Davies to create a revival of the series to air in a primetime slot on Saturday nights, as part of the BBC's plan to devolve production to its regional bases. By mid-September, they accepted the deal to produce the series alongside Casanova.
Following Scream of the Shalka, an animated episode which was shown on the Doctor Who website, the 'real' return of Doctor Who was announced on 26 September 2003 in a press release from the BBC.
Davies voluntarily wrote a pitch for the series, the first time he had done so; he previously chose to jump straight to writing pilot episodes because he felt that a pitch would "feel like [he's] killing the work". The fifteen-page pitch outlined a Doctor who was "your best friend; someone you want to be with all the time"; the eighteen-year-old Rose Tyler as a "perfect match" for the new Doctor; avoidance of the forty-year back story "except for the good bits"; the retention of the TARDIS, sonic screwdriver, and Daleks; removal of the Time Lords; and also a greater focus on humanity. His pitch was submitted for the first production meeting in December 2003, with a series of thirteen episodes obtained by pressure from BBC Worldwide and a workable budget from Julie Gardner.
By early 2004, the show had settled into a regular production cycle. Davies, Gardner, and BBC Controller of Drama Mal Young took posts as executive producers, although Young vacated the role at the end of the series. Phil Collinson, an old colleague from Granada, took the role of producer. Keith Boak, Euros Lyn, Joe Ahearne, Brian Grant and James Hawes directed the series. Davies' official role as head writer and executive producer, or "showrunner", consisted of laying a skeletal plot for the entire series, holding "tone meetings" to correctly identify the tone of an episode, often being described in one word—for example, the "tone word" for Moffat's "The Empty Child" was "romantic"—and overseeing all aspects of production. During early production the word "Torchwood", an anagram of "Doctor Who", was used as a title ruse for the series while filming its first few episodes and on the daily rushes to ensure they were not intercepted. The word "Torchwood" was later seeded in Doctor Who and became the name of the spin-off series Torchwood.
Davies was interested in making an episode that would serve as a crossover with Star Trek: Enterprise, and involve the TARDIS landing on board the NX-01. The idea was officially discussed, but the plans were abandoned following the cancellation of Enterprise in February 2005.
=== Writing ===
The first series of Doctor Who featured eight scripts by Davies, the remainder being allocated to experienced drama writers and previous writers for the show's ancillary releases: Steven Moffat penned a two-episode story, while Mark Gatiss, Robert Shearman, and Paul Cornell each wrote one script. Davies also approached his friend Paul Abbott and Harry Potter author J. K. Rowling to write for the series, but both declined due to existing commitments. Shortly after securing writers for the show, Davies stated that he had no intention to approach writers for the old series; the only writer he would have wished to work with was Robert Holmes, who died in May 1986, halfway through writing his contribution to The Trial of a Time Lord.
Elwen Rowlands and Helen Raynor served as script editors for the series. They were hired simultaneous, marking the first time Doctor Who had female script editors. Rowlands left after the first series for Life on Mars. Compared to the original series the role of the script editors was significantly diminished, with the head writer taking most of those responsibilities. Unlike the original series they do not have the power to commission scripts. Instead, they act as liaisons between the production staff and the screenwriter, before passing their joint work to the head writer for a "final polish". Raynor said that the job is not a creative one, "you are a part of it, but you aren't driving it."
Under producer Davies, the new series had a faster pace than those of the classic series. Rather than four to six-part serials of 25-minute episodes, most of the Ninth Doctor's stories consisted of individual 45-minute episodes, with only three stories out of ten being two-parters. The thirteen episodes were, however, loosely connected in a series-long story arc which brought their disparate threads together in the series finale. Davies took cues from American fantasy television series such as Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Smallville, most notably Buffy's concepts of series-long story arcs and the "Big Bad". Also, like the original series, stories often flowed directly into one another or were linked together in some way. Notably, in common only with the seventh and twenty-sixth seasons of the original series, every story of the season takes place on or near Earth. This fact is directly addressed in the original novel The Monsters Inside, in which Rose and the Doctor joke about the fact that all their adventures to date have taken place on Earth or on neighbouring space stations.
The stories of the series varied quite significantly in tone, with the production team showcasing the various genres inhabited by Doctor Who over the years. Examples include the "pseudo-historical" story "The Unquiet Dead"; the far-future whodunnit of "The End of the World"; Earthbound alien invasion stories in "Rose" and "Aliens of London"/"World War Three"; "base under siege" in "Dalek"; and horror in "The Empty Child". Even the spin-off media were represented, with "Dalek" taking elements from writer Rob Shearman's own audio play Jubilee and the emotional content of Paul Cornell's "Father's Day" drawing on the tone of Cornell's novels in the Virgin New Adventures line. Davies had asked both Shearman and Cornell to write their scripts with those respective styles in mind. The episode "Boom Town" included a reference to the novel The Monsters Inside, becoming the first episode to acknowledge (albeit in a subtle way) spin-off fiction.
=== Filming ===
Principal photography for the series began on 18 July 2004 on location in Cardiff for "Rose". The series was filmed across South East Wales, mostly in or around Cardiff. Each episode took about two weeks to film. The start of filming created stress among the production team because of unseen circumstances: several scenes from the first block had to be re-shot because the original footage was unusable; the Slitheen prosthetics for "Aliens of London", "World War Three", and "Boom Town" were noticeably different from their computer-generated counterparts; and, most notably, the BBC came to a gridlock with the Terry Nation estate to secure the Daleks for the sixth episode of the series, to be written by Rob Shearman. After the first production block, which Davies described as "hitting a brick wall", the show's production was markedly eased as the crew familiarised themselves. Filming concluded on 23 March 2005. David Tennant, who was cast as Eccleston's replacement, recorded his appearance at the end of "The Parting of the Ways" on 21 April 2005 with a skeleton crew. Production blocks were arranged as follows:
=== Music ===
Murray Gold composed the incidental music for this series, having previously worked with Davies on Queer as Folk and The Second Coming. Gold expected to compose in the style of the classic series, using synthesiser-based arrangements, but Davies and Gardner requested a more orchestral and acoustic sound. Most cues were realised electronically. Gold was influenced by the work of classic series composer Dudley Simpson for Mickey's encounter with the bin in "Rose". Soprano pieces were recorded by Melanie Pappenheim. Gold's score was added to the edit in late November 2004.
== Release ==
=== Promotion ===
The new logo was revealed on the BBC website on 18 October 2004. The first official trailer was released as part of BBC One's Winter Highlights presentation on 2 December 2004 and subsequently posted on the Internet by the BBC. A media blitz including billboards and posters across the UK started early March 2005. Television trailers started showing up on 5 March and radio advertisements started two weeks before the series premiere and ran till the second episode aired. The official Doctor Who website was launched with exclusive content such as games and new Ninth Doctor information.
=== Leak ===
An early edit of the premiere was leaked onto the Internet three weeks before the scheduled series premiere. This attracted much media attention and discussion amongst fans, and caused interest in the show to skyrocket. The BBC released a statement that the source of the leak appeared to be connected to the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, which responded by stating that they "are looking into it. That's all I can say at this point because we don't know exactly what happened. It certainly wasn't done intentionally." Asa Bailey, founder of the Viral Advertising Association, said that the BBC hired them for viral marketing strategies, and that he told them "they should release things before their time", to create a "cool factor". Both the BBC and CBC denied any involvement, but Bailey believes that to be disingenuous, saying that it is "the best viral advert they could have done". The leak was ultimately traced to a third-party company in Canada which had a legitimate preview copy. The employee responsible was fired by the company.
=== Broadcast ===
"Rose" finally saw transmission on schedule on 26 March 2005 at 7 pm on BBC One, the first regular episode of Doctor Who since Part Three of Survival on 6 December 1989. To complement the series, BBC Wales also produced Doctor Who Confidential, a 13-part documentary series with each episode broadcast on BBC Three immediately after the end of the weekly instalment on BBC One. Both the series and documentary aired for 13 consecutive weeks, with the finale episode, "The Parting of the Ways", airing on 18 June 2005 along with its documentary counterpart. Davies had requested that the two first episodes be broadcast back-to-back, but the request was given to the BBC just two weeks before transmission, at which point everything was already set. In some regions, the first few minutes of the original BBC broadcast of "Rose" on 26 March were marred by the accidental mixing of a few seconds of sound from Graham Norton hosting Strictly Dance Fever.
In the United States, the Sci Fi Channel originally passed on the new series as it found it lacking and believed it did not fit in its schedule, but the network later changed its mind. After it was announced that the first series would start in March 2006, Sci Fi Channel executive vice president Thomas Vitale called Doctor Who "a true sci-fi classic", with creative storytelling and colorful history, and was excited to add it to its line up. The network also took an option on the second series. Candace Carlisle from BBC Worldwide found the Sci Fi Channel the perfect home for Doctor Who. Doctor Who finally debuted in the U.S. on the Sci Fi Channel on 17 March 2006 with the first two episodes airing back-to-back, one year after the Canadian and UK showings. The series concluded its initial U.S. broadcast on 9 June 2006.
=== Home media ===
==== DVD and Blu-ray releases ====
The series was first released in volumes; the first volume, containing the first three episodes, was released in Region 2 on 16 May 2005. The second, with "Aliens of London", "World War Three", and "Dalek", followed on 13 June 2005. "The Long Game", "Father's Day", "The Empty Child", and "The Doctor Dances" were released in the third volume on 1 August 2005 and the final three episodes were released in the fourth volume on 5 September 2005.
The entire series was then released in a boxset on 21 November 2005 in Region 2. Aside from the 13 episodes it included commentaries on every episode, a video diary from Davies during the first week of filming, as well as other featurettes. The boxset was released in Region 1 on 4 July 2006.
All releases are for DVD unless otherwise indicated:
(D) indicates a DVD release for a specific date
(B) indicates a Blu-ray release
==== UMD releases ====
== In print ==
== Reception ==
=== Ratings ===
"Rose" received average overnight ratings of 9.9 million viewers, peaking at 10.5 million, respectively 43.2% and 44.3% of all viewers at that time. The final figure for the episode, including video recordings watched within a week of transmission, was 10.81 million, making it the third highest for BBC One that week and seventh across all channels. The opening episode was the highest rated episode of the first series. The penultimate episode, "Bad Wolf", received the lowest viewers of the series with just 6.81 million viewers. The series also garnered the highest audience Appreciation Index of any non-soap drama on television. Besides the second episode, "The End of the World", which garnered a 79% rating, the lowest of the series, all episodes received an AI above 80%. The series finale "The Parting of the Ways" was the highest rated episode with an AI of 89%. The success of the launch saw the BBC's Head of Drama Jane Tranter confirming on 30 March that the series would return both for a Christmas Special in December 2005 and a full second series in 2006.
The initial Sci Fi Channel broadcasts of the series attained an average Nielsen Rating of 1.3, representing 1.5 million viewers in total. Although these ratings were less than those reached by Sci Fi's original series Battlestar Galactica, Stargate SG-1 and Stargate Atlantis, they reflect a 44% increase in ratings and a 56% increase in viewership over the same timeslot in the second quarter of 2005, as well as increases of 56% and 57% in two key demographics.
=== Critical reception ===
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes offers an 83% approval from 12 critic reviews, and an average rating of 8.6/10.
In April 2004, Michael Grade returned to the BBC, this time as the Chairman of the Board of Governors, although this position does not involve any commissioning or editorial responsibilities. Although he had previously disliked the show and imposed an eighteen-month hiatus on it during the Sixth Doctor era, he eventually wrote an e-mail to the Director-General of the BBC Mark Thompson in June 2005, after the successful new first series, voicing approval for its popularity. He also declared, "[I] never dreamed I would ever write this. I must be going soft!" The revival also impressed former Doctor Sylvester McCoy, who praised Eccleston and Piper as well as their characters, and the pacing of the first episode. His only criticism was about the new TARDIS interior, though he did comment that he was "also a bit dismayed that more wasn't made of the show's incidental music, which seemed fairly anonymous in the background".
Robin Oliver of The Sydney Morning Herald praised Davies for taking "an adult approach to one of television's most famous characters" that children would appreciate, and that he reinvented it in a way that would be "competitive in a high-tech market". Oliver also wrote that older viewers would find Eccleston "easily the best time lord since Tom Baker". Reviewing the first episode, The Stage's Harry Venning hailed it as a "fabulous, imaginative, funny and sometimes frightening reinvention" and particularly praised Rose for being an improvement upon previous female companions who were "fit only to scream or be captured". However, he found Eccleston to be "the show's biggest disappointment" as he looked "uncomfortable playing fantasy". Digital Spy's Dek Hogan found the final episode anticlimactic, but overall said that the series was "excellent Saturday night telly of the kind that many of us thought the BBC had forgotten how to make". He praised Eccleston's performance and named "The Empty Child" and "The Doctor Dances" as the best episodes. Arnold T Blumburg of Now Playing gave the series a grade of A−, praising its variety. However, he was critical of Davies' "annoying tendency to play to the lowest common denominator with toilet humor", but felt that from "Dalek" on the series was more dramatic and sophisticated.
DVD Talk's John Sinnott rated the first series four and a half out of five stars, writing that it "keeps a lot of the charm and excitement of the original (as well as the premise), while making the series easily accessible for new viewers". Sinnott praised the faster pace and the design changes that made it feel "fresh", as well as Eccleston's Doctor. However, he felt that Piper only did a "credible" job as Eccleston eclipsed her, and said that the writing was "uneven" with many of the episodes "just slightly flawed". Looking back on the series in 2011, Stephen Kelly of The Guardian wrote, "Eccleston's Doctor may have had many faults – looking like an EastEnders extra and bellowing "FANTASTIC!" at every opportunity being two of them – but he was merely a reflection of a show that, at the time, still didn't know what it wanted to be. The first series of the revived Doctor Who – which featured farting aliens – was a world away from the intelligent, populist science-fiction we know it as now. But then, it is thanks to Eccleston that it got this far at all – a big, respectable name who laid the foundations for Tennant to swag away with the show."
However, not everyone was pleased with the new production. Some fans criticised the new logo and perceived changes to the TARDIS model. According to various news sources, members of the production team even received hate mail and death threats. "The Unquiet Dead" was criticised by parents, who felt that the episode was "too scary" for their young children; the BBC dismissed the complaints, saying that it had never been intended for the youngest of children.
=== Awards and nominations ===
== Soundtrack ==
Selected pieces of score from the first series, second series, and "The Runaway Bride", as composed by Murray Gold, were released on 4 December 2006 by Silva Screen Records. The cues from the first series were re-recorded by the BBC National Orchestra of Wales, the original music having been created using orchestral samples.
Gold's arrangement of the main theme featured samples from the 1963 original with further elements added: an orchestral sound of low horns, strings and percussion and part of the Dalek ray-gun and TARDIS materialisation sound effects. Included on the album are two versions of the theme: the 44-second opening version, as arranged by Gold, and a longer arrangement that includes the "middle eight" (a name given to one of the sections of the melody), after Gold omitted it from both the opening and closing credits. Gold has said that his interpretation was driven by the title visual sequence he was given to work around. Often erroneously cited as being the same as the end credits version, this second version is in fact a new arrangement and recording. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_NBA | Race and ethnicity in the NBA | The composition of race and ethnicity in the National Basketball Association (NBA) has changed throughout the league's history. The first non-white player to play in the league was an Asian American, Wat Misaka, in 1947. African Americans entered the league beginning in 1950. According to racial equality activist Richard Lapchick, the NBA in 2023 was composed of 70.4 percent black players, 17.5 percent white players, 2.2 percent Latino players of any race, and 0.2 percent Asian players. Additionally, 9.7 percent of the players were classified as either multiracial or "other" races. The league has the highest percentage of black players of any major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada.
== History ==
=== Players ===
The NBA was founded in June 1946, with its first season played in 1946–47. Wat Misaka debuted in 1947–48 as the first non-white player and the first Asian American to play in the league.
African Americans first appeared in the NBA in 1950. Chuck Cooper was the first black player drafted in the NBA. On April 26, 1950, Harold Hunter signed with the Washington Capitols, becoming the first African American to sign a contract with any NBA team in history. However, Hunter was cut from the team during training camp and did not play professionally. On May 24, Nathaniel "Sweetwater" Clifton was the second African American player to sign an NBA contract. Earl Lloyd was the first to play in the NBA. Hank DeZonie also played that year. In 1953, Don Barksdale became the first African American to play in an NBA All-Star Game.
With the emergence of African American players by the 1960s, the NBA game was stylistically being played faster and above the rim. Many of the league's great players were black. At that time, African Americans believed they were limited by an unofficial league quota of four black players per team.
Puerto Rican Butch Lee in 1978 was the first Latino in the league. Wang Zhizhi became the first Chinese player in 2001. In 2010, Jeremy Lin became the first American of Chinese or Taiwanese descent to play in the NBA.
In 2011, Richard Lapchick with The Institute for Diversity and Ethics in Sport (TIDES) of the University of Central Florida reported in their annual Racial and Gender Report Card that 17 percent of the league's players were white, the lowest since the report began in 1990. Hall of Fame player and Indiana Pacers president of basketball operations Larry Bird, who is white, stated in 2004 that the league needed more white players since the league's fans are mostly white. "And if you just had a couple of white guys in there, you might get them [the fans, not the guys] a little excited. But it is a black man's game, and it will be forever. I mean, the greatest athletes in the world are African American," said Bird.
More recently, a number of commentators and fans have remarked on the league's dwindling number of white American players. While a TIDES study found that the NBA was 18.3 percent white in the 2015–16 season, this number also included non-Americans, most notably Europeans. During the entire 1996–97 season, only three NBA teams did not field an American-born white; on the opening day of the 2016–17 season, eight teams did not have a white American on their roster, and an additional 10 teams had only one. At the latter point in time, fewer than 10 percent of NBA players were American-born whites (43 out of a possible 450).
=== Coaches ===
Bill Russell in 1966 became the first non-white and African American head coach in the NBA. In the late 1980s, teams began hiring black coaches in large numbers. In the 2011–12 season, the league had an NBA-high 16 head coaches of color, including its then-high 14 black coaches. At the start of the 2015–16 season, there were seven black head coaches in the league, down 50 percent from three years earlier, and the fewest in 16 years. At the beginning of the 2022–23 season, the NBA had a record-high 15 black head coaches and matched its high of 16 head coaches of color.
=== Owners ===
Robert Johnson of the Charlotte Bobcats (now known as the Charlotte Hornets) was the first black majority team owner in the NBA in 2004–05. He was succeeded as Bobcats owner in 2010–11 by another African American, Michael Jordan. In 2013–14, Jordan and Sacramento Kings owner Vivek Ranadivé, who is Indian, marked the first time in the history of major pro sports leagues in the U.S. that there were two non-white majority owners in a league. The number of NBA teams with non-white majority owners increased to three in September 2019 with the league approval of Taiwanese Canadian entrepreneur Joseph Tsai's purchase of Russian Mikhail Prokhorov's 51 percent share in the Brooklyn Nets. Tsai had previously held a 49 percent interest in the team, having acquired that stake from Prokhorov in 2018, and exercised an option to purchase the remaining interest before its 2021 expiration date.
=== Viewership demographics ===
Among NBA fans during the 2013–14 season, African Americans (844 minutes) and Asian Americans (719) spent the most time watching the league, followed by Hispanics (of any race, 390) and whites (290). Furthermore, according to a Nielsen's survey, the NBA has the highest share of black viewers, with 45 percent of its viewers being black and 40 percent of viewers being white, making it the only top North American sport that did not have a white majority audience.
During the 2016–17 season, 66 percent of the league's viewers were racial and ethnic minorities. Its audience was 47 percent blacks, 34 percent whites, 11 percent Hispanics (of any race), and 8 percent Asians.
Timothy J. Piper examines how the NBA uses archival sports video in its advertising to give the impression that racial issues don't exist in the league, despite the fact that they do. The NBA tried to revitalize its brand prior to 2007 as a result of issues like dwindling attendance and broadcast ratings. In particular, it introduced a "business casual" attire policy for players in 2005 as part of its effort to distance itself from facets of hip-hop culture. The league's efforts to solve its economic fall were tied to this clothing code, which was intended to redefine player uniforms for NBA commerce, according to then-NBA Commissioner David Stern. This was all in order to enhance the league's image; some players welcomed this idea. The article also notes the NBA's 2007 advertising campaign, "Where Amazing Happens," which featured archival footage and signaled a change in the league's branding approach. The goal of this campaign, which marked a change from prior ones, was to portray the NBA as varied but "raceless". |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moxostoma | Moxostoma | Moxostoma, the redhorses or jumprocks, is a genus of North American ray-finned fish in the family Catostomidae. Redhorses are variable in size, geographic location, and other ecological traits such as spawning substrate. Several redhorses are long-lived (lifespans greater than 20 years), much like many other catostomid species. The silver redhorse is the longest-lived redhorse known by nearly a decade, with ages exceeding 40 years. Redhorses are broadly of conservation concern, as these long-lived species are highly intolerant to environmental pollution, habitat fragmentation, and are currently subject to unregulated 21st century sport bowfishing which is removing and wantonly wasting several of these species by the ton.
== Species ==
The following 26 species are recognized in this genus:
Additionally, two undescribed species are thought to belong to this genus:
Moxostoma sp. 1 "Apalachicola" Undescribed, (Apalachicola Redhorse)
Moxostoma sp. 4 "Brassy" Undescribed, (Brassy Jumprock) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ospedale_della_Piet%C3%A0 | Ospedale della Pietà | The Ospedale della Pietà was a convent, orphanage, and music school in Venice. Like other Venetian ospedali, the Pietà was first established as a hospice for the needy. A group of Venetian nuns, called the Consorelle di Santa Maria dell’Umiltà, established this charitable institution for orphans and abandoned girls in the fourteenth century.
By the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the Pietà – along with the three other charitable Ospedali Grandi – was well known for its all-female musical ensembles that attracted tourists and patrons from around Europe.
Its fame is largely connected to its resident composer and violin teacher Antonio Vivaldi.
== Musical activity ==
Infants could be left at the Pietà via the scaffetta, a window only large enough to admit infants. Not all infants were female, nor were they necessarily orphans. Through the seventeenth century all four of the surviving ospedali gained increasing attention through the performances of sacred music by their female musicians, known as figlie di coro. Formal rules for the training of figlie were carefully drafted and periodically revised. Many of these concerts were given for select audiences consisting of important visitors. The audience was separated from the performers by a metal grill, following the example of convents to protect the women from the gaze of the visitors. As the institution became celebrated, it sometimes received infants related (not always legitimately) to members of the nobility. In the later decades of the Venetian Republic, which collapsed in 1797, it also accepted adolescent music students – called figlie di spese – whose fees were paid by sponsoring foreign courts or dignitaries.
The Pietà produced many virtuose like the violinist Chiara della Pietà and the soprano vocalist Fortunata Cantora, as well as composers, such as Agata della Pietà, and at least two composers who made careers outside of the institutions: Anna Bon and Vincenta Da Ponte. The life of successful figlie was much coveted. Some were given lavish gifts by admirers, and many were offered periods of vacation in villas on the Italian mainland. Most remained there their entire lives, though as the Venetian economy declined in the eighteenth century, some left to make (usually advantageous) marriages. In this instance, the institution provided a future bride with a small dowry.
Each Ospedale Grande usually had an orchestra of at least thirty to forty musicians (La Pietà's orchestra counted up to sixty), all females, and the institutions competed with each other by hiring the best musicians in the city, promoting high quality concerts. Through such activities. they provided countless commissions for violin and other instruments makers to provide for the maintenance and repair of such instruments. These artisans were named "liuter del loco". The office of "liuter del loco" guaranteed a constant flow of income: curating the instruments of an entire orchestra was a burdensome activity which required the work of more than one person; instruments had to be picked up, continuously repaired because of breakage and ungluing from use, and sometimes instruments had to be built. The responsible violin maker also had to supply strings for the entire orchestra, keep an accounting book detailing all operations, and issue semi-annual or annual invoices. These invoices, or ‘policies’ as they were called at the time, were handwritten by the appointed violin maker and had to be approved by the "maestre del coro" or the maestro di cappella – who would usually be granted a discount – before being paid by the hospital administration. These ‘policies’ are not only a precious source of information for the study of an author (luthier) and his work, but they are also a valid tool to gather more information on the musical practice of the "sonadori" (players) of the time. There is also much information that can be gleaned from their organological study. For a reading of some of the most interesting invoices, we refer to the appendix of the book by Pio where some of them (the author has found and catalogued more than 110, totaling 400 pages) are listed in chronological order and cover the years from 1750 to 1810.
The composer Antonio Vivaldi was appointed a violin teacher in 1703 and served in various roles through 1715, and again from 1723 to 1740. Much of Vivaldi's sacred vocal and instrumental music was written for performance at the Pietà. The conservatory of the Pietà hospital was the only hospital to remain active until approximately 1830. All the other hospitals completely closed their musical activity during the first years of the nineteenth century. From an instrument inventory dated 1790 we learn that during that year the Pietà hospital had still “four violins with used bows, four cellos, seventeen violins, two marine trumpets (these may have been violini in tromba marina), six small violas, two viola d’amore, two mandolines, two lutes, one theorbo, four hunting horns with accessories, two psalteries with harmonic box, two cymbals, three flutes, two big cymbals with spinets, six spinets".
Jean-Jacques Rousseau's account of 1770 conveys his impressions but has been over-generalized as a description of the institution over an entire century. After describing how the performers were hidden behind metal grilles, he related in his Confessions (1770):
I have not an idea of anything so voluptuous and affecting as this music; the richness of the art, the exquisite taste of the vocal part, the excellence of the voices, the justness of the execution, everything in these delightful concerts concurs to produce an impression which certainly is not the mode, but from which I am of opinion no heart is secure.
He goes on to describe meeting the musicians.
The original building (shown above) is currently a hotel-restaurant complex (the Metropole). The nearby church of the Pietà was completed in 1761, two decades after the death of Vivaldi. The facade of the church was only completed in the early 20th century. An early childhood education center is still housed in the rear of the building complex behind the church. Most of this complex was donated to the Ospedale in the 1720s, enabling it to expand its activities. Some of Vivaldi's premiere pupils, such as Anna Maria del Violino, were given individual rooms in these newly acquired buildings. It is possible that in the salon of one of them the famous concert for "i conti del Nord", celebrated in a painting by Francesco Guardi, took place on January 22, 1782. Guardi's painting is mistitled "The Dinner and Ball in the Teatro San Benedetto".
== Musicians who studied in the Ospedale ==
Chiara della Pietà
Anna Maria della Pietà
Michielina della Pietà
Santa della Pietà
Agata della Pietà
Fortunata Cantora
Vincenta Da Ponte
Anna Bon
Maddalena Laura Sirmen (at the Mendicanti)
Regina Strinasacchi
Candida della Pietà
== List of music teachers ==
=== Maestri di coro ===
Antonio Gualtieri (1633-1649)
Johann Rosenmüller (1658-1677)
Giacomo Spada (1677-1701)
Francesco Gasparini (1701-1713)
Carlo Luigi Pietragrua (1719-1726)
Giovanni Porta (1726-1737)
Gennaro D'Alessandro (1739-1740)
Nicola Porpora (1742-1743)
Andrea Bernasconi (1744-1753)
Gaetano Latilla (1753-1766)
Giuseppe Sarti (1766-1768)
Bonaventura Furlanetto (1768-1817)
Giovanni Agostino Perotti (1817-1828)
=== Maestri di canto, di maniera and di solfeggio ===
Pietro Scarpari (1713-1742)
Pietro Cesti (1722-1726)
Paolo Bonamici (1726-1730)
Girolamo Bassani (1730-1741)
Domenico Valentini (1747-1760)
Domenico Negri (1760-1767)
Lorenzo Duodo (1767-1768)
Gabriel Piozzi (1768)
Ferdinando Pasini (1768-1769)
Matteo Buini (1769-1771)
Ferdinando Pasini (1771-1774)
Pietro De Mezzo (1774)
Ferdinando Pasini (1775-1809)
Ruggero Ermagora Fabio (1809-1829)
=== Recorder, flute and oboe masters ===
Onofrio Penati (1704)
Ignazio Rion (1704)
Ludwig Erdmann (1706-1713)
Ignazio Sieber (1713-1716; 1728-1757)
Onofrio Penati (1716-1727), also as maestro dei concerti
Ignazio Sieber (1728-1757)
Pietro Fruttel (1757-1781)
=== Horn masters ===
Francesco Lanari (1747-1751)
Lorenzo Rossoni (1751-1760)
Giacomo Molteni (1762-1765)
Antonio Lodi (1765-1782)
=== Timpani masters ===
Lorenzo Crux (1751)
=== Salterio masters ===
Fulgenzio Perotti (1760-1764)
=== Violin masters ===
Antonio Vivaldi (1703-1717; 1735-1738), also as maestro di viola all'inglese and dei concerti
Lorenzo Carminati (1744-1747)
Lorenzo Morini (1750-1751), also as maestro dei concerti
Francesco Negri (1765-1770)
Antonio Nazari (1770-1775)
Alessandro Da Ponte (1775-1782)
=== Viola masters ===
Bernardo Aliprandi (1722-1731)
=== Cello masters ===
Antonio Vandini (1720-1722)
Antonio Martinelli (1750-1782)
== References in fiction ==
Vivaldi's Virgins, first published in 2007 and translated into 12 languages, is a novel by Barbara Quick set in the Ospedale della Pietà during the lifetime of Anna Maria della Pietà, one of Vivaldi's favorite students there. The novel was released as an audio title in December 2019.
The Ospedale della Pieta is the main setting of Rosalind Laker's (pen name of Barbara Ovstedal) The Venetian Mask (1992)
Corona, L. (4 November 2008). The Four Seasons: A Novel of Vivaldi's Venice. Hachette Books. ISBN 9781401395377. (2008) is a romanticized history of the women who were abandoned and studied in the Ospedale della Pietà.
Vivaldi's Ring of Mystery is a play and audiobook by Classical Kids. The protagonist, known simply as Katarina attends the Ospedale della Pietà and finds herself looking for clues about a violin belonging to the Duke of Cremona. The work won the Juno Award for Children's Album of the Year at the Juno Awards of 1992.
Maddalena and the Dark, published in 2023, is a novel by Julia Fine that follows two girls living and studying at the Ospedale della Pietà in the early 1700s.
The Instrumentalist, published in 2024, is a novel by Harriet Constable that is inspired by the true story of Anna Maria Della Pietà. According to the author's bio, it was selected as one of the top ten debuts of 2024 by the Guardian newspaper. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghostface_Killah | Ghostface Killah | Dennis David Coles (born May 9, 1970), better known by his stage name Ghostface Killah, is an American rapper and a member of the hip-hop group Wu-Tang Clan. After the group achieved breakthrough success in the aftermath of Enter the Wu-Tang (36 Chambers), the members went on to pursue solo careers to varying levels of success. Ghostface Killah debuted his solo career with Ironman, which was well received by music critics, in 1996. He has enjoyed continued success in the years that have followed, releasing critically acclaimed albums such as Supreme Clientele (2000) and Fishscale (2006). His stage name was taken from one of the characters in the 1979 kung fu film The Mystery of Chess Boxing. He is the founder of his own record label, Starks Enterprises.
Ghostface Killah is critically acclaimed for his loud, fast-paced flow, and his emotional stream-of-consciousness narratives containing cryptic slang and non-sequiturs. In 2006, MTV included him as an "honourable mention" on their list of the "Greatest MCs of All Time", while the editors of About.com placed him on their list of the "Top 50 MCs of Our Time (1987–2007)", calling him "one of the most imaginative storytellers of our time." Q magazine called him "rap's finest storyteller". Pitchfork has stated that "Ghostface has unparalleled storytelling instincts; he might be the best, most colorful storyteller rap has ever seen." NPR has called him "a compulsive storyteller", and asserts that "his fiction is painterly."
== Early life ==
Ghostface grew up in the Stapleton Houses housing project in Stapleton, Staten Island, New York City, helping with daily care of two younger brothers who had muscular dystrophy. The 2019 series Wu-Tang: An American Saga depicts a feud between him and fellow Clan member Raekwon; however the feud was purely fictional and never took place in reality. Raekwon and Ghostface attended junior high school together.
== Career ==
=== Early work ===
A roommate of Wu-Tang founder RZA, Ghostface helped bring together the other seven members. In 1995, Ghostface guest-starred extensively on fellow Clan member Raekwon's debut album, Only Built 4 Cuban Linx..., appearing on almost every song and receiving nearly equal billing. "It felt good to have my boy next to me, Ghostface, who basically comes from the same lifestyle as I come from. And we were able to sit down and concoct an idea that we both were able to respect and basically get everybody in the crew involved...", said Raekwon about Ghostface's involvement in the project. Raekwon intended Only Built 4 Cuban Linx... to play like a film, with himself as the "star", Ghostface Killah as the "guest star" and producer RZA as the "director". He also contributed songs to the Sunset Park and Don't Be a Menace to South Central While Drinking Your Juice in the Hood soundtracks; both songs were included on his first solo LP, Ironman, in 1996. The album, which debuted at No. 2 on the Billboard 200, had a more pronounced soul influence (particularly 1970s soul) than previous Wu-Tang releases, and Ghostface's future albums would continue to feature this stylistic trait. He readily and regularly took on the role of executive producer for many collective efforts as well along with RZA and Oli Power Grant.
In the year 2000, Ghostface released his second studio album, Supreme Clientele. The album was well received by critics, and peaked at No. 7 on the Billboard 200. It included "Apollo Kids", a popular single which featured Raekwon and had a sample of "Cool Breeze" by Solomon Burke. "Cherchez La Ghost", another single off the album, became a minor club hit. Supreme Clientele marked a turning point in terms of RZA's influence on Ghostface's sound, as only six songs on it are produced by RZA, whereas on Ironman, its predecessor, every song but one is produced by RZA. Although he contributed fewer beats to the project than to Ironman, RZA personally oversaw the mixing and production of the album as a whole, thereby contributing to Supreme Clientele's unified sound.
Ghostface wasted little time in recording his next album, the heavily R&B-influenced Bulletproof Wallets, released a year after Supreme Clientele. Its main single, "Never Be the Same Again", featured Raekwon and Carl Thomas. It produced another minor club hit, "Flowers", which featured guest vocals from fellow Wu-Tang members Method Man and Raekwon, and a popular single, "Ghost Showers" which featured Madame Majestic, whose other key claim to fame is that she sings on the popular Wu-Tang track "Gravel Pit".
=== Def Jam ===
In 2003, Ghostface signed with Def Jam Records. After temporarily dropping "Killah" from his stage name, Ghostface released The Pretty Toney Album in April 2004. The album, while containing two RZA productions, featured none of the Clan; instead, it featured collaborations with Missy Elliott, D-Block, and Jacki-O. The singles "Tush" and "Run", which were collaborations with Missy and Jadakiss respectively, achieved moderate success in the clubs and on the charts, and the album was featured on numerous "best of the year" lists; for instance, it was Pitchfork's No. 9 album of the year. Ghostface also appeared on the track "On My Knees" by UK R&B group the 411; the song became a hit in the UK and Australia. Ghostface then released an album entitled 718 (after the Staten Island area code) with a group of his protégés, the Theodore Unit. Ghostface also appeared on "He Comes" by De La Soul, on The Grind Date. In November 2005, Ghostface and Theodore Unit's breakout star Trife Da God released a joint project, Put It on the Line.
In 2006, Ghostface teamed up with underground artist MF Doom for a still-unreleased album entitled Swift & Changeable. MF Doom also produced several songs for Ghostface's 2006 album Fishscale, on which he chose to revert to the stage name "Ghostface Killah", rather than just "Ghostface". The album debuted strongly, appearing at the No. 4 position on the U.S. Billboard 200 and at No. 2 on the R&B charts, the rapper's most auspicious chart showing since the heyday of the Wu-Tang Clan and the release of his solo debut. The album also received near-unanimous positive reviews. Ghostface embarked on a limited-date tour of U.S. venues in support of the album, performing several of his concerts together with most of the other members of the Wu-Tang Clan.
In 2007, Ghostface provided the theme song for the Irish animated series Skunk Fu! that ran on Kids' WB. On December 4, 2007, Ghostface released his seventh solo studio album, The Big Doe Rehab.
In a May 2008 interview, Ghostface Killah stated that he would make an R&B-inspired album in the vein of certain tracks he had done before with artists such as Ne-Yo and Jodeci. That album would become his eighth studio album, Ghostdini: Wizard of Poetry in Emerald City, which won good reviews from music critics. It featured singles such as "Baby" and "Do Over". In March 2009, Ghostface responded to the Rihanna/Chris Brown controversy by recording a song, "Message from Ghostface", which was dedicated to women in abusive relationships.
In a May 2009 interview with Rolling Stone, Raekwon indicated that Ghostface Killah was preparing to release a new album. In response to a question asking if the Wu-Tang Clan were going to release a follow-up to 8 Diagrams, Raekwon stated, "Everybody's doing different things right now — you got Meth [Method Man] coming out with an album, you got Ghostface coming out with an album, some guys working on their projects, some guys getting into the film world, everybody is multi-tasking right now." Ghostface appeared on a total of 8 songs on Raekwon's highly anticipated release of Only Built 4 Cuban Linx... Pt. II.
Shortly after the release of Only Built 4 Cuban Linx... Pt. II, Def Jam contracted Raekwon to work with their label artists Method Man and Ghostface Killah on an album which later received the title Wu-Massacre. Production began in November 2009. Wu-Massacre was released March 30, 2010 to generally positive reviews from music critics; this time, however, reviews were more mixed, with some critics objecting to the 30-minute-long album's rushed feel. With heavy promotion, it sold 37,900 units in its first week; it has sold 64,000 units as of May 12, 2010. It features production from Scram Jones, Mathematics, and The RZA, who produced the album's lead single, "Our Dreams".
In 2010, Ghostface confirmed that he would be releasing two new studio albums, Apollo Kids and one which would serve as a sequel to his 2000 album Supreme Clientele. In 2011, Ghostface Killah featured on UK artist Josh Osho's debut single "Redemption Days".
=== Post Def Jam ===
Ghostface released a collaborative album with D-Block member Sheek Louch called Wu Block. The album was released on November 27, 2012, on E1 Music and debuted at number 73 on the US Billboard 200 chart, with first-week sales of 8,600 copies in the United States. It fell to No. 152 in its second week selling 4,200 more copies. In January 2017, Ghostface and Sheek Louch announced on their respective social media accounts that a second collaborative album was in the works.
In an interview with Complex Magazine on November 17, 2012, Ghostface confirmed that he had left Def Jam, making Apollo Kids his last album on the label. In the same interview, he also stated that Blue & Cream, the sequel to his critically acclaimed album Supreme Clientele, was 80-85 percent done. On April 16, 2013, Ghostface released his tenth album Twelve Reasons to Die which was produced by Adrian Younge and executive produced by RZA. The album was released in various formats such as CD, vinyl and cassette under RZA's Soul Temple Records. The deluxe digital and CD versions also came with a comic book.
He would later announce that the sequel to Supreme Clientele would be released between July and September 2013 and that his collaborative album with MF Doom would be released around Halloween 2013 though neither projects materialized. In January 2014, he appeared on the VH1 series Couples Therapy with his girlfriend Kelsey Nykole. Later that year Ghostface announced he would be releasing his eleventh album titled 36 Seasons in December 2014. He collaborated with Canadian jazz band BADBADNOTGOOD on an album titled Sour Soul, which was released in 2015 which earned a nomination for the 2015 Polaris Music Prize.
A sequel to Twelve Reasons to Die, simply titled Twelve Reasons to Die II, was released on July 10, 2015.
Ghostface had a string of UK and European tour dates scheduled in 2016.
Ghostface provided vocals on the song "Purple Hearts" from Kendrick Lamar's album Mr. Morale & The Big Steppers in 2022.
In January 2023, Ghostface partnered with Kano Computing to release exclusive music, videos, meetings, and concerts on the Stem Player.
In May 2024, Ghostface released his 12th studio album, Set the Tone (Guns & Roses).
== Lawsuits and criminal charges ==
In 1995, Coles was issued an arrest warrant for robbery. In December 1997, Coles was arrested for weapons possession after being pulled over for a traffic violation whereby police claimed that Coles got out of the car and became verbally abusive. He was wearing a bulletproof vest which gave them probable cause to search him and his car where they found a .357 Magnum handgun and he was charged with third-degree criminal possession of a weapon. In February 1999, Coles was issued a 6-month sentence for attempted robbery, and later pleaded guilty to an additional charge of weapons possession and was issued five years of probation with four months of prison time.
In July 2011, Coles was sued by Jack Urbont for copyright violation stemming from the "improper use" of the 1960s "Iron Man" theme song, which Urbont claimed as his own. Urbont also took issue with Coles' appropriation of the Iron Man brand name. Coles was granted summary judgment on the lawsuit in April 2015, which stated that Marvel Entertainment, owners of the Iron Man character and brand, owned the "Iron Man" theme song, not Urbont.
In August 2011, Coles filed a lawsuit against Universal Music for unpaid royalties.
== Personal life ==
Like fellow Wu-Tang Clan member Raekwon, Coles is a convert to Islam, having converted in 2004. Ghostface is the father of rappers Sun God and Supreme, and singer Infinite Coles.
== Aliases ==
Ghostface Killah, like most members of the Wu-Tang clan, rapped under several personae, each with their own name, mythology and influences. Some recurring aliases:
Ghostface Killah (spelled Ghost Face Killer until 1995, occasionally spelled Ghostface Killer, Ghost Face Killah, or abbreviated GFK)
Ghostface (shortened stage name during The Pretty Toney Album era)
Ghost Deini
Ironman, Tony Starks, or just Starks
Ghostface has frequently assumed the names of both Ironman and Tony Starks [sic], a reference to the Marvel Comics character Iron Man and his true identity, billionaire industrialist Tony Stark. He released a 1996 album titled Ironman. His song, "Slept On Tony With Dirt", appears in the 2008 film Iron Man, and he also appears in a deleted scene on the DVD.
Starky Love
Pretty Toney, P Tone
== Discography ==
== Filmography ==
=== Movie appearances ===
The Show (1995) as himself
Belly (1998) cameo appearance
Black and White (1999) as himself
Hunter Dawson (2002) as himself
Big Wigs (2002) as himself
Fade to Black (2004) as himself
Walk Hard: The Dewey Cox Story (2007) as himself
Iron Man (2008) as himself; also appearing in a music video aired on Tony Stark's private jet. (Cut in post-production, his cameo can be found in the DVD's deleted scenes section.)
Big Pun: The Legacy (2008) as himself
Up and Above (2008) as himself
When in Rome (2010) as Guggenheim DJ
Purple Tape Documentary (2016) as himself
You're Watching Video Music Box (2021) as himself
=== TV series appearances ===
The World According To Pretty Toney (2005 - 2007) as himself
30 Rock (2006) as himself (episodes "Jack-Tor" and "The Source Awards")
Human Giant (2007) as himself (episodes "Mind Explosion" and "Mosh Pit!")
The Boondocks (2007) as himself (episode "Stinkmeaner Strikes Back")
Rushing Jason (2008) as Big Poppa
Mob Wives (VH1 Series) (2011) as himself
Couples Therapy (2014) as himself
Luke Cage (2018) as himself (episode "All Souled Out")
=== Video game appearances ===
Wu-Tang: Shaolin Style (1999) as himself
Def Jam Vendetta (2003) as himself
Def Jam: Fight for NY (2004) as himself
Def Jam Fight for NY: The Takeover (2006) as himself
WWE Smackdown VS. Raw 2007 (2006) Coles had his song "The Champ" on the soundtrack
Def Jam: Icon (2007) as himself
Grand Theft Auto: Chinatown Wars (2009), created the theme music |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_costliest_American_Civil_War_land_battles | List of costliest American Civil War land battles | This is a list of the costliest land battles of the American Civil War, measured by casualties (killed, wounded, captured, and missing) on both sides.
== Highest casualty battles == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/José_Saramago# | José Saramago# | José de Sousa Saramago (European Portuguese: [ʒuˈzɛ ðɨ ˈso(w)zɐ sɐɾɐˈmaɣu]; 16 November 1922 – 18 June 2010) was a Portuguese writer. He was the recipient of the 1998 Nobel Prize in Literature for his "parables sustained by imagination, compassion and irony [with which he] continually enables us once again to apprehend an elusory reality." His works, some of which can be seen as allegories, commonly present subversive perspectives on historic events, emphasizing the theopoetic human factor. In 2003 Harold Bloom described Saramago as "the most gifted novelist alive in the world today" and in 2010 said he considers Saramago to be "a permanent part of the Western canon", while James Wood praises "the distinctive tone to his fiction because he narrates his novels as if he were someone both wise and ignorant."
More than two million copies of Saramago's books have been sold in Portugal alone and his work has been translated into 25 languages. A proponent of libertarian communism, Saramago criticized institutions such as the Catholic Church, the European Union and the International Monetary Fund. An atheist, he defended love as an instrument to improve the human condition. In 1992, the Government of Portugal under Prime Minister Aníbal Cavaco Silva ordered the removal of one of his works, The Gospel According to Jesus Christ, from the Aristeion Prize's shortlist, claiming the work was religiously offensive. Feeling disheartened by what he perceived as political censorship of his work, Saramago went into exile on the Spanish island of Lanzarote, where he lived alongside his Spanish wife Pilar del Río until his death in 2010.
Saramago was a founding member of the National Front for the Defense of Culture in Lisbon in 1992.
== Biography ==
=== Early and middle life ===
Saramago was born in 1922 into a family of very poor landless peasants in Azinhaga, Portugal, a small village in Ribatejo Province, some one hundred kilometres northeast of Lisbon. His parents were José de Sousa and Maria da Piedade. "Saramago", the Portuguese word for Raphanus raphanistrum (wild radish), was the insulting nickname given to his father, and was accidentally incorporated into his name by the village clerk upon registration of his birth.
In 1924, Saramago's family moved to Lisbon, where his father started working as a policeman. A few months after the family moved to the capital, his brother Francisco, older by two years, died. He spent vacations with his grandparents in Azinhaga. When his grandfather suffered a stroke and was to be taken to Lisbon for treatment, Saramago recalled, "He went into the yard of his house, where there were a few trees, fig-trees, olive trees. And he went one by one, embracing the trees and crying, saying goodbye to them because he knew he would not return. To see this, to live this, if that doesn't mark you for the rest of your life," Saramago said, "you have no feeling." Although Saramago was a good pupil, his parents were unable to afford to keep him in grammar school, and instead moved him to a technical school at age 12.
After graduating as a lathe operator, he worked as a car mechanic for two years. At this time Saramago had acquired a taste for reading and started to frequent a public library in Lisbon in his free time. He married Ilda Reis, a typist and later artist, in 1944 (they divorced in 1970). Their only daughter, Violante, was born in 1947. By this time he was working in the Social Welfare Service as a civil servant. Later he worked at the publishing company Estúdios Cor as an editor and translator, and then as a journalist. By that time, in 1968, he met and became lover of writer Isabel da Nóbrega, the longtime partner of author and critic João Gaspar Simões. Nóbrega became Saramago's devoted literary mentor, to whom he would later dedicate Memorial do Convento and O Ano da Morte de Ricardo Reis.
After the democratic revolution in 1974, on 9 April 1975, during the rule of Vasco Gonçalves, Saramago became the assistant director of the newspaper Diário de Notícias, and the editorial line became clearly pro-communist. A group of 30 journalists – half the editorial staff – handed the board a petition calling for the editorial line to be revised and for it to be published. A plenary was called and, following an angry intervention by Saramago, 24 journalists were expelled, accused of being right-wingers. After the Coup of 25 November 1975 that put an end to the communist PREC, Saramago, in turn, was fired from the newspaper.
Saramago published his first novel, Land of Sin, in 1947. It remained his only published literary work until a poetry book, Possible Poems, was published in 1966. It was followed by another book of poems, Probably Joy, in 1970, three collections of newspaper articles in 1971, 1973 and 1974 respectively, and the long poem The Year of 1993 in 1975. A collection of political writing was published in 1976 under the title Notes. After his dismissal from Diário de Notícias in 1975, Saramago embraced his writing more seriously and in following years he published a series of important works including Manual de Pintura e Caligrafia (1977), Objecto Quase (1978), Levantado do Chão (1980) and Viagem a Portugal (1981).
=== Later life and international acclaim ===
Saramago did not achieve widespread recognition and acclaim until he was sixty, with the publication of his fourth novel, Memorial do Convento (1982). A baroque tale set during the Inquisition in 18th-century Lisbon, it tells of the love between a maimed soldier and a young clairvoyant, and of a renegade priest's heretical dream of flight. The novel's translation in 1988 as Baltasar and Blimunda (by Giovanni Pontiero) brought Saramago to the attention of an international readership. This novel won the Portuguese PEN Club Award.
Following acclaimed novels such as The Year of the Death of Ricardo Reis and The History of the Siege of Lisbon, Saramago was hailed by literary critics for his complex yet elegant style, his broad range of references and his wit.
For the former novel, Saramago received the British Independent Foreign Fiction Prize. The multilayered The History of the Siege of Lisbon deals with the uncertainty of historical events and includes the story of a middle-aged isolated proofreader who falls in love with his boss. Saramago acknowledged that there is a lot of himself in the protagonist of the novel, and dedicated the novel to his wife.
In 1986 Saramago met a Spanish intellectual and journalist, Pilar del Río, 27 years his junior, and he promptly ended his relationship with Isabel Nóbrega, his partner since 1968. They married in 1988 and remained together until his death in June 2010. Del Río is the official translator of Saramago's books into Spanish.
Saramago joined the Portuguese Communist Party in 1969 and remained a member until the end of his life. He was a self-confessed pessimist. His views aroused considerable controversy in Portugal, especially after the publication of The Gospel According to Jesus Christ. Members of the country's Catholic community were outraged by Saramago's representation of Jesus and particularly God as fallible, even cruel human beings. Portugal's social-democratic government, led by then-prime minister Aníbal Cavaco Silva, did not allow Saramago's work to compete for the Aristeion Prize, arguing that it offended the Catholic community. As a result, Saramago and his wife moved to Lanzarote, an island in the Canaries.
In 1998 Saramago was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature with the prize notation: "who with parables sustained by imagination, compassion and irony continually enables us once again to apprehend an elusory reality."
Saramago was expected to speak as the guest of honour at the European Writers' Parliament in 2010, which was convened in Istanbul following a proposal he had co-authored. However, Saramago died before the event took place.
=== Death and funeral ===
Saramago suffered from leukemia. He died on 18 June 2010, aged 87, having spent the last few years of his life in Lanzarote, Spain. His family said that he had breakfast and chatted with his wife and translator Pilar del Río on Friday morning, after which he started feeling unwell and died. The Guardian described him as "the finest Portuguese writer of his generation", while Fernanda Eberstadt of The New York Times said he was "known almost as much for his unfaltering Communism as for his fiction".
Saramago's English language translator, Margaret Jull Costa, paid tribute to his "wonderful imagination," calling him "the greatest contemporary Portuguese writer". Saramago continued his writing until his death. His most recent publication, Claraboia, was published posthumously in 2011. Saramago had suffered from pneumonia a year before his death. Assuming a full recovery, he was set to appear at the Edinburgh International Book Festival in August 2010.
Portugal declared two days of mourning. There were tributes from senior international politicians: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (Brazil), Bernard Kouchner (France) and José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero (Spain), while Cuba's Raúl and Fidel Castro sent flowers.
Saramago's funeral was held in Lisbon on 20 June 2010, in the presence of more than 20,000 people, many of whom had travelled hundreds of kilometres, but also notably in the absence of right-wing President of Portugal Aníbal Cavaco Silva, who was holidaying in the Azores as the ceremony took place. Cavaco Silva, the Prime Minister who removed Saramago's work from the shortlist of the Aristeion Prize, said he did not attend Saramago's funeral because he "had never had the privilege to know him". In an official press release, Cavaco Silva claimed having paid homage to the literary work of Saramago. Mourners, who questioned Cavaco Silva's absence in the presence of reporters, held copies of the red carnation, symbolic of Portugal's democratic revolution. Saramago's cremation took place in Lisbon, and his ashes were buried on the anniversary of his death, 18 June 2011, underneath a hundred-year-old olive tree on the square in front of the José Saramago Foundation (Casa dos Bicos).
== Lost novel ==
The José Saramago Foundation announced in October 2011 the publication of a "lost novel" published as Skylight (Claraboia in Portuguese). It was written in the 1950s and remained in the archive of a publisher to whom the manuscript had been sent. Saramago remained silent about the work up to his death. The book has been translated into several languages.
== Style and themes ==
Saramago's experimental style often features long sentences, at times more than a page long. He used full stops sparingly, choosing instead a loose flow of clauses joined by commas. Many of his paragraphs extend for pages without pausing for dialogue (which Saramago chooses not to delimit by quotation marks); when the speaker changes, Saramago capitalizes the first letter of the new speaker's clause. His works often refer to his other works. In his novel Blindness, Saramago completely abandons the use of proper nouns, instead referring to characters simply by some unique characteristic, an example of his style reflecting the recurring themes of identity and meaning found throughout his work.
Saramago's novels often deal with fantastic scenarios. In his 1986 novel The Stone Raft, the Iberian Peninsula breaks off from the rest of Europe and sails around the Atlantic Ocean. In his 1995 novel Blindness, an entire unnamed country is stricken with a mysterious plague of "white blindness". In his 1984 novel The Year of the Death of Ricardo Reis (which won the PEN Award and the Independent Foreign Fiction Award), Fernando Pessoa's heteronym survives for a year after the poet himself dies. Additionally, his novel Death with Interruptions (also translated as Death at Intervals) takes place in a country in which, suddenly, nobody dies, and concerns, in part, the spiritual and political implications of the event, although the book ultimately moves from a synoptic to a more personal perspective.
Saramago addresses serious matters with empathy for the human condition and for the isolation of contemporary urban life. His characters struggle with their need to connect with one another, form relations and bond as a community, and also with their need for individuality, and to find meaning and dignity outside of political and economic structures.
When asked to describe his daily writing routine in 2009, Saramago responded, "I write two pages. And then I read and read and read."
== Personal life ==
Saramago was an atheist. The Catholic Church criticised him on numerous occasions due to the content of some of his novels, mainly The Gospel According to Jesus Christ and Cain, in which he uses satire and biblical quotations to present the figure of God in a comical way.
The Portuguese government lambasted his 1991 novel O Evangelho Segundo Jesus Cristo (The Gospel according to Jesus Christ) and struck the writer's name from nominees for the European Literature Prize, saying the atheist work offended Portuguese Catholic convictions.
The book portrays a Christ who, subject to human desires, lives with Mary Magdalene and tries to back out of the crucifixion. Following the Swedish Academy's decision to present Saramago with the Nobel Prize in Literature, the Vatican questioned the decision on political grounds, though gave no comment on the aesthetic or literary components of Saramago's work. Saramago responded: "The Vatican is easily scandalized, especially by people from outside. They should just focus on their prayers and leave people in peace. I respect those who believe, but I have no respect for the institution."
Saramago was a member of the Communist Party of Portugal, and in his late years defined himself as a proponent of libertarian communism.
He ran in the 1989 Lisbon local election as part of the "Coalition For Lisbon," and was elected alderman presiding officer of the Municipal Assembly of Lisbon. Saramago was also a candidate of the Democratic Unity Coalition in all elections of the European Parliament from 1989 to 2009, though he ran for positions of which it was thought he had no possibility of winning. He was a critic of European Union (EU) and International Monetary Fund (IMF) policies.
Many of his novels are acknowledged as political satire of a subtle kind. In The Notebook, a collection of blog entries from September 2008 to August 2009, Saramago's political convictions are made the most clear. According to The Independent, "Saramago aims to cut through the web of 'organized lies' surrounding humanity, and to convince readers by delivering his opinions in a relentless series of unadorned, knock-down prose blows." His political engagement has led to comparisons with George Orwell.
When speaking to The Observer in 2006, Saramago said he "believe[s] that we all have some influence, not because of the fact that one is an artist, but because we are citizens. As citizens, we all have an obligation to intervene and become involved, it's the citizen who changes things. I can't imagine myself outside any kind of social or political involvement."
During the Second Intifada, while visiting Ramallah in March 2002, Saramago said that "what is happening in Palestine is a crime we can put on the same plane as what happened at Auschwitz ... A sense of impunity characterises the Israeli people and its army. They have turned into rentiers of the Holocaust." In an essay he wrote expanding on his views, Saramago wrote of Jews: "educated and trained in the idea that any suffering that has been inflicted . . . on everyone else . . . will always be inferior to that which they themselves suffered in the Holocaust, the Jews endlessly scratch their own wound to keep it bleeding, to make it incurable, and they show it to the world as if it were a banner." Critics of these statements charged that they were antisemitic. Six months later, Saramago clarified. "To have said that Israel's action is to be condemned, that war crimes are being perpetrated – really the Israelis are used to that. It doesn't bother them. But there are certain words they can't stand. And to say 'Auschwitz' there ... note well, I didn't say that Ramallah was the same as Auschwitz, that would be stupid. What I said was that the spirit of Auschwitz was present in Ramallah. We were eight writers. They all made condemning statements, Wole Soyinka, Breyten Breytenbach, Vincenzo Consolo and others. But the Israelis weren't bothered about those. It was the fact that I put my finger in the Auschwitz wound that made them jump."
During the 2006 Lebanon War, Saramago joined Tariq Ali, John Berger, Noam Chomsky, and others in condemning what they characterized as "a long-term military, economic and geographic practice whose political aim is nothing less than the liquidation of the Palestinian nation".
He was also a supporter of Iberian Federalism. In a 2008 press conference for the filming of Blindness he asked, in reference to the Great Recession, "Where was all that money poured on markets? Very tight and well kept; then suddenly it appears to save what? lives? no, banks." He added, "Marx was never so right as now", and predicted "the worst is still to come."
== Awards and accolades ==
1995: Camões Prize
1998: Nobel Prize in Literature
2004: America Award
2009: São Paulo Prize for Literature — Shortlisted in the Best Book of the Year category for A Viagem do Elefante
=== Nobel Prize in Literature ===
The Swedish Academy selected Saramago as the 1998 recipient of the Nobel Prize for Literature. The announcement came when he was about to fly out of Germany after the Frankfurt Book Fair, and caught both him and his editor by surprise. The Nobel committee praised his "parables sustained by imagination, compassion and irony", and his "modern skepticism" about official truths. The choice of Saramago was generally well received internationally, but was heavily criticized by the bourgeois press in his home country and also by the Vatican City who questioned the decision on political grounds and called it "yet another ideologically slanted award."
At the award ceremony in Stockholm on 10 December 1998, Kjell Espmark of the Swedish Academy described Saramago's writing as: literature characterised at one and the same time by sagacious reflection and by insight into the limitations of sagacity, by the fantastic and by precise realism, by cautious empathy and by critical acuity, by warmth and by irony. This is Saramago’s unique amalgam.
In 2024, Saramago's widow Pilar del Rio and the José Saramago Foundation donated a number of Saramago's belongings to the Nobel Prize Museum in Stockholm, including a pair of his glasses, a stone found in Lanzarote he kept at his home, and a manuscript written in his youth.
=== Decorations ===
Grand Collar of the Military Order of Saint James of the Sword, Portugal (3 December 1998)
Commander of the Military Order of Saint James of the Sword, Portugal (24 August 1985)
Grand Collar of the Order of Camões, Portugal (16 November 2021)
== The José Saramago Foundation ==
The José Saramago Foundation was founded by José Saramago in June 2007, with the aim to defend and spread the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the promotion of culture in Portugal just like in all the countries, and protection of the environment. The José Saramago Foundation is located in the historic Casa dos Bicos in the city of Lisbon.
== List of works == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscorpion#Classification | Pseudoscorpion#Classification | Pseudoscorpions, also known as false scorpions or book scorpions, are small, scorpion-like arachnids belonging to the order Pseudoscorpiones, also known as Pseudoscorpionida or Chelonethida.
Pseudoscorpions are generally beneficial to humans because they prey on clothes moth larvae, carpet beetle larvae, booklice, ants, mites, and small flies. They are common in many environments, but they are rarely noticed due to their small size. When people see pseudoscorpions, especially indoors, they often mistake them for ticks or small spiders. Pseudoscorpions often carry out phoresis, a form of commensalism in which one organism uses another for the purpose of transport.
== Characteristics ==
Pseudoscorpions, of the class Arachnida, are small arachnids with a flat, pear-shaped body, and pincer-like pedipalps that resemble those of scorpions. They usually range from 2 to 8 mm (0.08 to 0.31 in) in length. The largest known species is Garypus titanius of Ascension Island at up to 12 mm (0.5 in). Range is generally smaller at an average of 3 mm (0.1 in).
A pseudoscorpion has eight legs with five to seven segments each; the number of fused segments is used to distinguish families and genera. They have two very long pedipalps with palpal chelae (pincers), which strongly resemble the pincers found on a scorpion. The pedipalps generally consist of an immobile "hand" and mobile "finger", the latter controlled by an adductor muscle. Members of the clade Iocheirata, which contains the majority of pseudoscorpions, are venomous, with a venom gland and duct usually located in the mobile finger; the venom is used to immobilize the pseudoscorpion's prey. During digestion, pseudoscorpions exude a mildly corrosive fluid over the prey, then ingest the liquefied remains. In all known cases, this is medically insignificant to humans.
The abdomen, referred to as the opisthosoma, is made up of 12 segments, each protected by sclerotized plates (called tergites above and sternites below). The abdomen is short and rounded at the rear, rather than extending into a segmented tail and stinger like true scorpions. The color of the body can be yellowish tan to dark brown, with the paired claws often a contrasting color. They may have two, four, or no eyes.
Pseudoscorpions spin silk from a gland in their jaws to make disk-shaped cocoons for mating, molting, or waiting out cold weather, but they do not have book lungs like true scorpions and the Tetrapulmonata. Instead, they breathe exclusively through tracheae, which open laterally through two pairs of spiracles on the posterior margins of the sternites of abdominal segments 3 and 4.
== Behavior ==
The male produces a spermatophore, which is attached to the substrate and is picked up by the female. Members of the Cheliferoidea (Atemnidae, Cheliferidae, Chernetidae, and Withiidae) have an elaborate mating dance, which ends with the male navigating the female over his spermatophore. In Cheliferidae, the male also uses his forelegs to open the female genital operculum, and after she has mounted the packet of sperm, assisting the spermatophore's entry by pushing it into her genital opening. Females in species that possess a spermatheca (sperm-storing organ) can store the sperm for a long period of time before fertilizing the eggs, but species without the organ fertilize their eggs shortly after mating. The female carries the fertilized eggs in a brood pouch attached to her abdomen.
Between two and 50 young are hatched in a single brood, with more than one brood per year possible. The young go through three molts called the protonymph, deutonymph, and tritonymph. The developing embryo and the protonymph, which remain attached to the mother, are nourished by a ‘milk’ produced by her ovary. Many species molt in a small, silken igloo that protects them from enemies during this vulnerable period.
After reaching adulthood, they no longer molt, and can live for 2–3 years. They are active in the warm months of the year, overwintering in silken cocoons when the weather grows cold. Smaller species live in debris and humus. Some species are arboreal, while others are phagophiles, eating parasites in an example of cleaning symbiosis. Some species are phoretic, while others may sometimes be found feeding on mites under the wing covers of certain beetles.
== Distribution ==
More than 3,300 species of pseudoscorpions are recorded in more than 430 genera, with more being discovered on a regular basis. They range worldwide, even in temperate to cold regions such as Northern Ontario and above the timberline in Wyoming's Rocky Mountains in the United States and the Jenolan Caves of Australia, but have their most dense and diverse populations in the tropics and subtropics, where they spread even to island territories such as the Canary Islands, where around 25 endemic species have been found. Two endemic species are found also on the Maltese Islands. Species have been found under tree bark, in leaf and pine litter, in soil, in tree hollows, under stones, in caves such as the Movile Cave, at the seashore in the intertidal zone, and within fractured rocks.
Chelifer cancroides is the species most commonly found in homes, where it is often observed in rooms with dusty books. There, the tiny animals (2.5–4.5 mm or 0.10–0.18 in) can find their food such as booklice and house dust mites. They enter homes by riding insects (phoresy) larger than themselves or are brought in with firewood.
== Evolution ==
The oldest known fossil pseudoscorpion, Dracochela deprehendor, is known from cuticle fragments of nymphs found in the Panther Mountain Formation near Gilboa in New York, dating to the mid-Devonian, around 383 million years ago. It has all of the traits of a modern pseudoscorpion, indicating that the order evolved very early in the history of land animals. Its morphology suggests that it is more primitive than any living pseudoscorpion. As with most other arachnid orders, the pseudoscorpions have changed very little since they first appeared, retaining almost all the features of their original forms. After the Devonian fossils, almost no other fossils of pseudoscorpions are known for over 250 million years until Cretaceous fossils in amber, all belonging to modern families, suggesting that the major diversification of pseudoscorpions had already taken place by this time. The only fossil from this time gap is Archaeofeaella from the Triassic of Ukraine, around 227 million years ago, which is suggested to be an early relative of the family Feaellidae.
== Historical references ==
Pseudoscorpions were first described by Aristotle, who probably found them among scrolls in a library where they would have been feeding on booklice. Robert Hooke referred to a "Land-Crab" in his 1665 work Micrographia. Another reference in the 1780s, when George Adams wrote of "a lobster-insect, spied by some labouring men who were drinking their porter, and borne away by an ingenious gentleman, who brought it to my lodging."
== Classification ==
These taxon numbers have been calculated as of the end of 2023:
Atemnidae Kishida, 1929 (21 genera, 194 species)
Bochicidae Chamberlin, 1930 (12 genera, 44 species)
Cheiridiidae Hansen, 1894 (9 genera, 81 species)
Cheliferidae Risso, 1827 (64 genera, 312 species)
Chernetidae Menge, 1855 (120 genera, 728 species)
Chthoniidae Daday, 1888 (54 genera, 909 species)
Feaellidae Ellingsen, 1906 (8 genus, 37 species)
Garypidae Simon, 1879 (11 genera, 110 species)
Garypinidae Daday, 1888 (21 genera, 94 species)
Geogarypidae Chamberlin, 1930 (2 genera, 81 species)
Gymnobisiidae Beier, 1947 (4 genera, 17 species)
Hyidae Chamberlin, 1930 (2 genera, 41 species)
Ideoroncidae Chamberlin, 1930 (15 genera, 86 species)
Larcidae Harvey, 1992 (1 genus, 15 species)
Menthidae Chamberlin, 1930 (5 genera, 12 species)
Neobisiidae Chamberlin, 1930 (34 genera, 748 species)
Olpiidae Banks, 1895 (24 genera, 211 species)
Parahyidae Harvey, 1992 (1 genus, 1 species)
Pseudochiridiidae Chamberlin, 1923 (2 genera, 13 species)
Pseudogarypidae Chamberlin, 1923 (2 genera, 12 species)
Pseudotyrannochthoniidae Beier, 1932 (6 genera, 80 species)
Sternophoridae Chamberlin, 1923 (3 genera, 21 species)
Syarinidae Chamberlin, 1930 (18 genera, 125 species)
Withiidae Chamberlin, 1931 (37 genera, 170 species)
†Dracochelidae Schawaller, Shear & Bonamo, 1991 (1 genus, 1 species)
This amounts to 24 living families, 471 genera, and 4,142 described species of pseudoscorpions.
=== Cladogram ===
After Benavides et al., 2019, with historic taxonomic groups from Harvey (1992). |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foster_(short_story) | Foster (short story) | "Foster" is a short story or novella by Irish author Claire Keegan, published in 2010.
== Plot ==
In 1981 Ireland, County Wexford, an unnamed girl is sent to live with foster parents on a farm, while her mother gives birth. She has no notion of when she will return home. In the strangers' house, she finds affection she has not known before, and slowly she begins to blossom in their care. She learns that her foster parents, the Kinsellas, had a deceased son. At the end of the summer, she returns home to her family.
== Reception ==
"Foster" has received a very positive reception, winning the 2009 Davy Byrne's Irish Writing Award (it was submitted for the award prior to publication). The Daily Telegraph compared it to the work of Seamus Heaney and William Trevor, while The Observer called it "Among the finest stories written recently in English." Recognition of the literary merit of Foster was reflected in its inclusion as a text prescribed for comparative study by the Department of Education and Training (An Roinn Oideachais agus Scoileanna) for the syllabus of the English Leaving Certificate examination in Ireland.
== Adaptation ==
An audio version of "Foster" was broadcast on BBC Radio 4's "Afternoon Reading" on 9 March 2015, read by Irish actress Evanna Lynch.
In 2022, a film version was released in the Irish language: An Cailín Ciúin, starring Catherine Clinch and Carrie Crowley. In 2023, the film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best International Feature Film. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dippin%27_Dots | Dippin' Dots | Dippin' Dots is an ice cream snack invented by Curt Jones in 1988. The confection is created by flash freezing ice cream mix in liquid nitrogen. The snack is made by Dippin' Dots, Inc., headquartered in Paducah, Kentucky. Dippin' Dots are sold in 14 countries, including Honduras and Luxembourg.
Because the product requires storage at temperatures below −40 °C (−40 °F), it is not sold in most grocery stores, as most cannot meet such extreme cooling requirements.
Dippin' Dots are sold in individual servings at franchised outlets. Many are in stadiums, arenas, shopping malls, and in vending machines, though there are also locations at public aquariums, zoos, museums, and theme parks.
== History ==
Dippin' Dots was founded in Paducah, Kentucky, in 1988. Jones began the company in his parents' garage. It was originally invented as cow feed when Jones, who specialized in cryogenics, was trying to make efficient fodder for farm animals.
The company is now headquartered in Paducah, Kentucky.
In 1992, Dippin' Dots received U.S. patent 5,126,156 for its ice cream making process, and in 1996 unsuccessfully sued its main competitor, Mini Melts, for patent infringement, losing the suit in February 2007.
Japan became the first international licensee of Dippin' Dots in 1995.
In 2007, the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office ruled against Dippin' Dots because the process of creating the ice cream was "obvious" rather than proprietary.
On November 4, 2011, the company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, after failing to reach an agreement with their lender, Regions Bank. According to The New York Times, the bank had been trying to foreclose on Dippin' Dots for over a year.
On May 18, 2012, U.S. Bankruptcy Court approved the purchase of the company by Scott Fischer and his father Mark Fischer. The Fischers had co-founded Chaparral Energy in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. They retained company founder Curt Jones as CEO, and planned to expand from 1,600 sales locations to 2,000 locations, keeping the production and headquarters in Paducah, where it employed 165 people.
In mid-2014, the company purchased gourmet popcorn franchisor Doc Popcorn, which had about 100 stores. On February 10, 2015, the company announced they would co-brand stores with both products. The 1,000-square-foot stores would sell Dippin' Dots and Doc Popcorn, with a common selling counter, register and employees.
In May 2022, J & J Snack Foods Corp. announced that it was going to acquire Dippin’ Dots for $222 million, and the acquisition was closed on June 21, 2022.
== Charity work ==
Dippin' Dots has sponsored the "Celebrity Grand Slam Paddle Jam" celebrity table tennis tournament in Hollywood, whose proceeds benefit St. Jude Children's Research Hospital in Memphis, Tennessee.
The company is a contributor to the charity Give Kids the World Village in Kissimmee, Florida.
== DD Cryogenics ==
Dippin' Dots are stored and transported at –40 degree Fahrenheit (–40 °C), which is colder than most frozen foods require. The company's development of ultra low temperature freezers, proper storage and transportation got the company involved from about 1988 with selling their equipment for other uses, such as preserving microbiological cultures for fermentation.
To expand this side business after the 2011 bankruptcy and sale, a subsidiary company, Dippin' Dot (DD) Cryogenics LLC, was established in May 2019. DD Cryogenics did contract freezing and pelletizing of microbiological products out of their Paducah plant. In August 2020 a new dedicated 6,000 square foot, US$3.2 million manufacturing plant came online in Paducah.
Their services now include contract design and manufacturing, cryogenic processors, and ultra low temperature freezers.
=== Vaccine storage ===
DD's creation of ultra low temperature freezing for their own food products, and commercial freezers going as low as −122 °F (−86 °C), sparked interest when vaccines were developed for COVID-19 that required storage at -94 °F (-70 °C). Pharmacists and distributors of those vaccines reached out for those freezers. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_longest-reigning_monarchs | List of longest-reigning monarchs | This is a list of the longest-reigning monarchs in history, detailing the monarchs and lifelong leaders who have reigned the longest, ranked by length of reign.
== Monarchs of sovereign states with verifiable reigns by exact date ==
The following are the 25 longest-reigning monarchs of states who were internationally recognised as sovereign for most or all of their reign. Roman emperors Constantine VIII and Basil II, reigning for 66 years in total (962–1028) and for 65 years in total (960–1025) respectively, are not included, because for part of those periods they reigned only nominally as junior co-emperors alongside senior emperors.
Regencies (and coregencies as a "senior" monarch) are not counted against monarchs, hence Louis XIV is listed first among the monarchs of sovereign states despite his mother Anne of Austria being his regent for eight years. A distinction is not made between absolute and constitutional monarchs, hence Elizabeth II is listed second despite being a figurehead her entire reign.
The currently living longest-reigning monarch, Hassanal Bolkiah of Brunei, is not included on the list because Brunei was not a sovereign state until 1 January 1984.
== Monarchs of dependent or constituent states with verifiable reigns by exact date ==
The table below contains 100 monarchs of states that were not independent sovereigns for at least a portion of their reigns.
== Monarchs whose exact dates of rule are unknown ==
These monarchs are grouped according to length of reign by year in whole numbers. Within each year-grouping, they appear alphabetically. In a given year, there may have been a wide array of actual reign lengths based on days. Thus, this table does not present a precise ranking by total length of reign. The list is limited to those that might reasonably be expected to lie within the range of those in the tables above, at minimum 57 years. Emphasised states were sovereign. Japanese legendary emperors, according to the ancient Japanese calendar, reigned for very long terms of 60–70 years each. The longest ruler of the legendary emperors, Emperor Kōan, was claimed to have reigned for about 101 years. These figures are not included in the table because they are regarded as inaccurate by modern scholars. For those, see Longevity myths. Rulers with both independent and dependent rules are combined. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_G20_Toronto_summit | 2010 G20 Toronto summit | The 2010 G20 Toronto summit was the fourth meeting of the G20 heads of state/government, to discuss the global financial system and the world economy, which took place at the Metro Toronto Convention Centre in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The summit's priorities included evaluating the progress of financial reform, developing sustainable stimulus measures, debating global bank tax, and promoting open markets. Alongside the twenty-one representatives of the G20 major economies, leaders of six invited nations, and eight additional intergovernmental organizations also took part in the summit.
Prior to the summit, Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced that the theme would be "recovery and new beginnings," referring to an anticipated economic stimulus from the impact of the ongoing world recession. Harper initially proposed to hold the summit in Huntsville, Ontario, where the 36th G8 summit was scheduled immediately prior. Organizers later deemed the town insufficient to provide hospitality for the large number of G20 delegates and journalists, favouring Toronto as the host location.
Organizers formed an Integrated Security Unit, consisting of police officers from several regional departments, to provide security during the summit in Downtown Toronto. The event was part of the largest and most expensive security operation in Canadian history. Many hundreds of members of the public were wrongfully detained, some held in inhumane conditions. The total combined cost between the 36th G8 summit in Huntsville and the G20 summit in Toronto including security, infrastructure, and hospitality, was determined to be approximately C$858 million.
== Agenda ==
Many leaders of the G20 disagreed about which issues should be discussed at the summit. The prime focus of the summit discussions was the recovery from the ongoing global recession and the European debt crisis. Summit leaders were divided over which strategies would be best for tackling these problems. The European Union emphasized the need to cut their deficits by focusing on austerity measures. In contrast, the United States emphasized the importance of maintaining economic stimulus spending in order to encourage growth. In summit discussions, the countries of the European Union explained projected reductions in spending and balanced budgets. Alternatively, China, India, and the United States argued in favor of increased stimulus funding to mitigate the effects of recession. Among the specifics proposed by the European Union were a global bank tax and a Robin Hood tax, but the United States and Canada opposed these plans. Other topics of concern were international development and continuing international aid to Africa and other developing nations. Some invitees expressed criticism of Israel's Gaza strip blockade and of the nuclear programs of North Korea and the United States raised issues of corruption and security in Afghanistan.
== Preparations ==
=== Security ===
Security officials began preparing for summit security in Toronto in February 2010. General policing and patrolling was provided by the Toronto Police Service, the Ontario Provincial Police, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, and the Canadian Forces, while the Peel Regional Police aided in policing at Toronto Pearson International Airport in Mississauga during the arrivals of delegates. The five departments formed an Integrated Security Unit (ISU), similar to the one created for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. Additional officers were deployed from York Regional Police, Halton Regional Police Service, Barrie Police Service,Greater Sudbury Police Service, Waterloo Regional Police Service, Niagara Regional Police Service, Hamilton Police Service, Ottawa Police Service, and Service de police de la Ville de Montréal. Calgary Police Service supplied 150 volunteer police officers a week before the summit.
According to an early estimate by The Globe and Mail, 25,000 uniformed police officers, 1,000 security guards from Commissionaires Great Lakes, and several Canadian military forces were to be deployed during the summit. The North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) conducted Amalgam Virgo exercises on May 6 and 7 across the Greater Toronto Area using CF-18 Hornet jets, CH-124 Sea Kings, and CH-146 Griffon helicopters at low altitudes. The total cost for security at both the G8 and the G20 summits was determined to be $1.8 billion, paid entirely by the federal Crown-in-Council, excluding the costs of any possible damage to local business.
The ISU created a security perimeter, beginning with the outer boundary, specifically bordered by King Street to the north, Lake Shore Boulevard to the south, Yonge Street to the east, and Spadina Avenue to the west, where vehicles would be restricted during the summit dates. Residents who lived within the security zone were issued registration cards prior to the summit and other pedestrians who wished to enter the security zone were only able to do so at one of 38 checkpoints, where they were required to present two pieces of photo identification and provide justification for entry. The area surrounding the Metro Toronto Convention Centre itself was fenced and off-limits to civilians and protesters. The 3-metre (10 ft) high fence, contracted to SNC-Lavalin by Public Works and Government Services Canada and installed by two Gormley, Ontario-based companies, was built at a cost of $5.5-million and installation began on June 7. The Toronto Police Service installed 77 additional closed-circuit television security cameras in the area and purchased four Long Range Acoustic Devices which were to be in use exclusively during the summit. The ISU decided on also using water cannons for riot control.
The security perimeter even extended into the waters of Lake Ontario and included a Maritime Security Operation with numerous Police vessels and the Canadian Coast Guard Ship Griffon patrolling to discourage international demonstrators from unlawful entry into Canada.
=== Infrastructure ===
A former film studio located on Eastern Avenue was designated as a temporary detention centre for individuals arrested during the summit. Toronto Police Service announced that Trinity Bellwoods Park would be the designated protest area, but following opposition from local residents, police relocated the designated protest zone to the northern part of Queen's Park. Canada Post declared that it would remove post boxes in the security zone. Toronto Parking Authority removed some parking meters as well. Small trees along sidewalks around the convention centre were removed to prevent them from being used as weapons by protesters. Other removed municipal properties include 745 newspaper boxes, 200 public trash cans, 70 mailboxes, 29 bus shelters, and 5 public information boards.
Canada's largest banks, which are headquartered in Downtown Toronto, made plans to have employees work at alternate sites outside their downtown facilities, such as at home or in other branches. The Liquor Control Board of Ontario (LCBO) announced the closure of seven liquor stores in the downtown core during the summit as a precaution to looting. The PATH, CN Tower, University of Toronto, Art Gallery of Ontario, and the Ontario Legislative Building were also closed to public during the summit dates.
A three-game Major League Baseball series between the Toronto Blue Jays and the Philadelphia Phillies, scheduled June 25 to 27 at the Rogers Centre, was relocated to Citizens Bank Park in Philadelphia, after much discussion by league officials and amidst discontentment from fans, who highly anticipated the return of former Blue Jays pitcher Roy Halladay to Toronto after being traded to the Phillies; because the American League Blue Jays was still officially the "home" team, the series marked the first time in Major League history that the designated hitter was used in a National League ballpark during the regular season. Mirvish Productions cancelled performances of two musicals at its theatres, Rock of Ages and Mamma Mia!, during the week of the summit. Similarly, the Factory Theatre cancelled shows during the summit week.
Highway 427 and the Gardiner Expressway, the route from Toronto Pearson International Airport in Mississauga to the Convention Centre in downtown, periodically closed down for motorcades, and police jammed wireless reception along the two highways. Exits to Yonge Street and Bay Street from the Gardiner Expressway were closed during the summit dates. Toronto Transit Commission announced that subway stations near the convention centre would remain open and operational, despite some detoured bus routes and the closure of Queens Quay Station. Via Rail announced that it would not operate at Union Station during the summit dates, instead providing shuttle bus service from the Yorkdale and Scarborough Centre bus terminals to the Brampton and Oshawa stations respectively. Nav Canada announced that it would place restrictions on the airspace in Toronto, making it limited to commercial flights only while all others would be restricted within a 30-nautical-mile (56 km) radius. Porter Airlines received permission to continue flights to and from Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport. The Toronto District School Board and Toronto Catholic District School Board cancelled school bus services to six Downtown schools on June 25, affecting 45,000 students, 10,000 of whom were physically disabled.
Summit organizers established a media centre for international media personnel, journalists, and press reporters at the Direct Energy Centre at the Exhibition Place. The Federal and Ontario governments constructed a 20,000-square-foot (1,858 m2) pavilion, called Experience Canada or Canadian Corridor in the media centre to promote Canadian tourism internationally. The pavilion included three life-sized government-funded displays: Cityscape, which showcased successful Canadian businesses and innovation; The Bridge, which included information kiosks for media personnel as well as large high-definition screens that televised the 2010 FIFA World Cup games; and Northern Ontario Oasis, an artificial lakefront based on Muskoka region's cottage country. The Northern Ontario Oasis included donated canoes, a shoreline with deck chairs for journalists to cool off, and a mobile phone recharging station. The background was a large screen that portrayed various images of the Muskoka region. The cost of the international media centre, the Experience Canada pavilion, and artificial lake, which were $23 million, $1.9 million, and $57,000 respectively, was the target of controversies.
== Attendance ==
Participants of the Toronto summit were announced by Stephen Harper on May 8, 2010. Harper extended invitations to the leaders of Ethiopia and Malawi to further represent the continent of Africa along with South Africa, a G20 member. He also invited leaders of the Netherlands, Spain, Vietnam, and Nigeria.
Toronto Pearson International Airport was the port of entry for delegates attending both the G8 and G20 summits. French president Nicolas Sarkozy and Chinese president Hu Jintao were the first of the G20 leaders to arrive. The arrival of Hu coincided with his state visit to Canada, hosted by Governor General of Canada Michaëlle Jean in Ottawa. Presidents Jacob Zuma of South Africa and Goodluck Jonathan of Nigeria arrived on June 24. British prime minister David Cameron arrived on June 25, following a short visit in Halifax to celebrate the centennial of the Canadian Forces Maritime Command. Remaining leaders with the G8 also arrived on the same day.
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the International Labour Organization, as well as Ethiopia, Malawi, Nigeria, and Vietnam made their first G20 summit appearances in Toronto. Recently designated heads of government, namely Cameron and Japanese prime minister Naoto Kan, made the G8 and G20 summits their first international conferences. Australia's deputy prime minister, Wayne Swan, attended the summit on behalf of Julia Gillard, whose appointment as prime minister occurred on June 24. Brazilian president Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva cancelled his trip to remain in his country due to the then-recent flooding in Northeastern Brazil; in his place, Guido Mantega, Brazil's finance minister, headed the nation's delegation. After the G8 summit in Huntsville, Ontario ended, Cameron, whose aircraft was grounded due to weather conditions, shared transportation to Toronto in Marine One with US President, Barack Obama.
== Protests ==
Major protests occurred in downtown Toronto during the week of the summit, which abruptly escalated during the days of the summit. Early opposition to the G20 included an incident in Ottawa where a bank was firebombed by anarchists, who claimed they would be present during the G20 summit in Toronto. The perceived security threat caused the Integrated Security Unit to increase security measures.
Protests began one week ahead of the summit, organized by groups including Oxfam Canada and the Ontario Coalition Against Poverty. Issues such as poverty, gay rights, capitalism and globalization, indigenous rights, and controversial issues with the summit itself were the object of protests. Despite a few arrests, protests over the week were mainly determined to be peaceful.
As the first day of the summit approached, protesters grew in numbers. Several streets were closed to demonstrations on the debut of the summit. Peaceful protests were followed by black bloc tactics as individuals dressed in black dispersed from the crowd and began damaging the windows of particular businesses across downtown Toronto, mostly fast food chains, retail stores and banks, as well as local businesses. Police cruisers were set on fire and vehicles of media corporations were damaged. Nearby hospitals, shopping centres, and hotels were put in lockdown mode while public transit services were diverted from downtown to other locations.
As security was further tightened and forces increased in presence the following day, protests against police brutality occurred in front of the Eastern Avenue temporary detention centre, where nearly 500 arrested individuals were kept from the previous day's riots. A group of protesters was also "kettled" for around four-and-a-half hours, including a severe rainstorm after black bloc protesters were believed to be in the crowd. Over 1100 people were confirmed to be arrested over the week. The ISU performed sweeping arrests within a specific boundary from the summit venue. Individuals arrested during the protests condemned the treatment they received from police.
Ultimately, a constable would be convicted of assaulting a protestor and a superintendent of unlawful arrest and discreditable conduct for ordering the "kettling" incidents; both received notional punishments and kept their police jobs. In October, 2020, more than a decade after the summit, the Toronto police conceded that "there were times when matters were not addressed in the way they should have been and many hundreds of members of the public were detained or arrested when they should not have been and were held in detention in conditions that were unacceptable." They agreed to pay $16.5 million to about a thousand people they unlawfully detained or arrested in various incidents.
== Outcome ==
Prior to the Toronto summit, it was speculated that it would not see the same outcome as previous summits. This was partially due to most countries' entering recovery mode from the global economic recession after the past G20 summits; thus, the likelihood of new issues being raised was minimal.
During the working dinner for G20 leaders on the evening of June 26, South African president [Jacob Zuma] promoted more partnership between the international community and Africa for the development in the continent. "As Africa we bring to the G20 Summit the key message that we must, together as the developing and developed worlds, promote stronger and more effective and equal international partnerships for growth and development," he remarked.
At the summit, the US president Barack Obama warned that global recovery was still "fragile." In hopes of boosting American exports, he proposed a free trade agreement between the United States and South Korea. A key agreement the leaders of developed nations made was to cut annual budget deficits in half by 2013. The leaders also agreed on reducing debt-to-GDP ratio in each economy by 2016. The debate on imposing a tax on financial institutions was settled as the group agreed that financial institutions would be required to make fair contributions to recover costs from the financial sector reform, but the manner of collecting the contributions would be left to each government. Participants also decided that the institutions would be required to keep a higher amount of financial capital in case of future financial shocks. Climate change and food security were also discussed; the leaders reiterated their commitment to a "greener growth".
The G20 Toronto Summit Declaration, which was released shortly after the summit concluded, stated that "serious challenges remain." According to the document, the challenges include high unemployment rates in various economies and the impact of the 2008 financial crisis. The International Monetary Fund, in its post-summit document, indicated that a speedy cut in deficits may substantially slow growth. In a publication entitled Top Ten Commandments for Fiscal Adjustment in Advanced Economies, the organization insisted that balanced public spending could stabilize bond markets, reduce interest rates from less government spending, and encourage private investment. It also recommended that emerging economies such as China, which has largely benefited from trade surpluses, rely less on developed nations and increase their own spending in order to promote domestic demand.
== Criticism ==
=== Financial costs ===
The financial costs of hosting the G8 and G20 summits was the topic of several political debates and the target of criticism by local groups. The reasons for the large price for both summits were questioned by some politicians and local groups. Members of Parliament Olivia Chow and Mark Holland labelled the initially claimed budget of $1.1-billion for hosting the summits as "obscene" and "insane" while others argued that the money could have been used for long-pending municipal projects in Canada, such as Transit City. The security cost for the two summits was believed to be more expensive than the combined security costs of the 2010 Winter Olympics and Paralympics in Vancouver and Whistler, British Columbia, which were $878 million. However, according to final calculations from the House of Commons of Canada as of October 2010, the exact cost for holding both summits was $857,901,850.31, making it less expensive than the security costs for the 2010 Winter Olympics.
It was initially claimed that the summits stand as the most expensive ever held, with security costs for the London and Pittsburgh reported as having been only $30 million and $18 million, respectively. However, the Canadian Parliamentary Budget Officer, Kevin Page, stated in his official report on the costs of the Huntsville and Toronto gatherings that other countries had not been as open about the full price for the similar meetings held there and that the $18 million figure for the Pittsburgh summit was merely for overtime pay for local police and the cost of law enforcement brought from other regions. Ward Elcock, former Canadian Security Intelligence Service director and the chief of the Integrated Security Units for the Winter Olympics and the G8/G20 summits, claimed that the security costs were in fact "comparable" with those of previous summits. Finance minister Jim Flaherty defended the security cost, claiming "it's necessary to spend substantially to have security. It's Canada's turn, and it's necessary that we either don't take our turn or pay the appropriate price to have the security that is necessary so that everyone is safe here in Toronto."
The creation of the $23-million international media centre, which included the $1.9 million Experience Canada pavilion and $57,000 artificial lake, at the Exhibition Place was widely opposed and criticized by politicians as "a waste of taxpayers' money." Criticism mainly targeted Stephen Harper and Canada's Conservative government. Some protesting groups gave names to the artificial lake, such as "Harper's Folly". In a debate in the House of Commons, member Mark Holland said, "Instead of hosting world leaders, maybe the government should consider party planning for Lady Gaga." According to some critics, the spending misled the objective of the summits into showing off Canada's attributes instead of promoting the summits' agendas. New Democratic Party leader Jack Layton condemned the Harper government, saying, "we've got a government here that has to create an artificial lake when Canada has more lakes than just about any other country in the world. It is the taxpayers who are going to end up at the bottom of the fake lake." Transport minister John Baird defended the artificial lake, saying that the summits gave a "chance to showcase the very best that [Canada] has to offer." Foreign affairs minister Lawrence Cannon said it was "normal practice" for a country to showcase its attributes while hosting world events. Harper also defended by saying, "This is a classic attempt for us to be able to market the country." Upon its opening, the artificial lake received mostly negative reviews from Canadian reporters.
=== Economic impact ===
The summit's economic impact was a major concern of a few local politicians and citizens. The City of Toronto government, as well as some public representatives, previously argued that the G20 summit should be held at an isolated venue, such as the Exhibition Place, rather than the Metro Toronto Convention Centre, which is located in the city's central business district. As a result, during the aftermath of the protests during the summit, when several business and properties in Downtown Toronto were damaged, mayor David Miller urged the federal government to compensate for all the damages. It was initially outlined by the government that only damages to businesses within the security zone would be compensated. However, all damages occurred outside of the security zone. Some businesses in the downtown core suffered financially as a result. According to Member of Parliament John McCallum, "Stephen Harper made a huge mistake in holding this summit in downtown Toronto." According to the Toronto Star, at least 40 stores in the Downtown Yonge Business Improvement Area suffered damages and one repair firm performed up to $750,000 in repairs.
=== International response ===
On June 17, the United States Department of State issued a travel alert for Toronto, warning tourists of the expected traffic disruptions and potentially violent protests during the G20 summit. The alert, which was expected to expire on the last day of the summit, stated that "Even demonstrations that are meant to be peaceful can become violent and unpredictable." Toronto Mayor David Miller described the warning as an "over-reaction."
During the summit, a few overseas reporters commented on Canada and the summits. A reporter of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) made positive remarks about Canada's economy, saying "The Canadians, it seems, have answers for even the toughest puzzles and they are keen to share their strategies with the rest of the world. Why in this economy, we all want to be Canadian." A writer in The New York Times made positive comments about the summits' preparations and natural beauty of the Muskoka region. The Times of India and The Hindu commented on impacts on city life in Toronto due to the G20 summit and the "unprecedented" security measures taken in Canada. A Reuters reporter, on the other hand, condemned the international media centre's artificial lake.
Looking forward, French president Nicolas Sarkozy announced that the costs for hosting the proposed 2011 G20 Cannes summit and 37th G8 summit in France would be one-tenth of Canada's. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil_national_football_team#FIFA_World_Cup | Brazil national football team#FIFA World Cup | The Brazil national football team (Portuguese: Seleção Brasileira de Futebol; Brazilian Portuguese pronunciation: [se.leˈsɐ̃w bɾaziˈlejɾɐ dʒi futʃiˈbɔw]), nicknamed Seleção Canarinho ("Canary Squad", after their bright yellow jersey), represents Brazil in men's international football and is administered by the Confederação Brasileira de Futebol (English: Brazilian Football Confederation), the governing body of football in Brazil. It has been a member of FIFA since 1923 and a founding member of CONMEBOL since 1916. It was also a member of PFC, the unified confederation of the Americas from 1946 to 1961.
Brazil is the most successful national team in the FIFA World Cup, winning the tournament five times: 1958, 1962, 1970, 1994 and 2002. The Seleção also has average overall performance in the World Cup competition, both in proportional and absolute terms, with a record of 76 victories in 114 matches played, 129 goal difference, 247 points, and 19 losses. It is the only national team to have played in all World Cup editions without any absence nor need for playoffs, and the only team to have won the World Cup in four different continents: once in Europe (the 1958 edition in Sweden), once in South America (the 1962 edition in Chile), twice in North America (the 1970 edition in Mexico and the 1994 tournament in the United States), and once in Asia (the 2002 edition co-hosted by South Korea and Japan). Brazil was also the most successful team in the now-defunct FIFA Confederations Cup, winning it four times, in 1997, 2005, 2009, and 2013. With the capture of the gold medal at the 2016 Summer Olympics and the 2020 Summer Olympics. Brazil is one of only two countries, the other being France, to have won all men's FIFA 11-player competitions at all age levels.
Brazil has the highest average Elo football rating over time, and the fourth all-time peak football Elo rating, established in 2022. In FIFA's ranking system Brazil holds the record for most Team of the Year first ranking wins with 14. Many commentators, experts, and former players have considered the Brazil team of 1970, led by Pelé, to be the greatest team of all time. Other Brazilian teams are also highly esteemed and regularly appear listed among the best teams of all time, such as the Brazil teams of 1958–62 and the squads of the 1994–02 period, with honorary mentions for the gifted 1982 side. In 1996, the Brazil national team achieved 35 consecutive matches undefeated, a feat which they held as a world record for 25 years.
Brazil has developed many rivalries through the years, with the most notable ones being with Argentina—known as the Superclássico das Américas in Portuguese, Italy—known as the Clássico Mundial in Portuguese or the World Derby in English, Uruguay—known as the Clássico do Rio Negro, due to the traumatic Maracanazo, and the Netherlands due to several important meetings between the two teams at several World Cups.
== History ==
=== Early history (1914–1929) ===
It is generally believed that the inaugural game of the Brazil national football team was a 1914 match between a Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo select team and the English club Exeter City, held in Fluminense's stadium. Brazil won 2–0 with goals by Oswaldo Gomes and Osman, though it is claimed that the match was a 3–3 draw.
In contrast to its future success, the national team's early appearances were not brilliant. Other early matches played during that time include several friendly games against Argentina (being defeated 3–0), Chile (first in 1916) and Uruguay (first on 12 July 1916), all nations to which football had been introduced decades earlier.
Brazil participated in the first edition of the South American Championship (which would later become the Copa América) in Argentina in 1916, finishing third place, and the 1917 edition in Uruguay, also finishing third. However, led by the goalscoring abilities of Arthur Friedenreich, they were champions on home soil in the 1919 edition. Brazil finished third at the 1920 tournament held in Chile and runners-up at the 1921 edition in Argentina. Brazil won the second title at home in 1922, the 100th anniversary of Brazilian independence.
Brazil finished fourth place at the 1923 edition held in Uruguay, did not participate in the 1924 edition also held in Uruguay, and finished second at the 1925 tournament held in Argentina. Brazil did not take part in the 1926 (hosted by Chile), 1927 (held in Peru) and 1929 (hosted by Argentina) editions.
=== First World Cup appearance and title drought (1930–1949) ===
In 1930, Brazil played in the first FIFA World Cup, held in Uruguay. The squad lost 2–1 to Yugoslavia and defeated Bolivia 4–0, being eliminated from the competition in the group stage. Four years later, Brazil lost in the first round to Spain in the all-knockout 1934 World Cup, held in Italy.
After not taking part in the 1935 South American Championship held in Peru and finishing runners up at the 1937 South American Championship held in Argentina, Brazil reached the semi-finals in the 1938 edition held in France, knocking out Poland 6–5, Czechoslovakia in the quarterfinals after a replay, before being defeated 2–1 by defending and eventual champions Italy. Brazil won third place after defeating Sweden 4–2. Brazil were the only South American team to participate in this competition after other teams boycotted due to the fact that a European nation was hosting. After that, Brazil did not take part at the 1939 South American Championship held in Peru.
Three South American Championship editions took place during World War II: 1941 (held in Chile, where Brazil didn't take part), 1942 (hosted by Uruguay, and Brazil finished third), and 1945 (again held in Chile, where Brazil were runners-up).
After the war ended, Brazil participated in the 1946 South American Championship held in Argentina, finishing runners-up, and didn't take part in the 1947 edition hosted by Ecuador. At the 1949 South American Championship held in Brazil, the team won their third title, ending a 27-year streak without a South American title.
=== The 1950 World Cup at home and the Maracanazo ===
After World War II left Europe in ruins, Brazil hosted the 1950 FIFA World Cup unopposed.
At the tournament's group stage, Brazil defeated Mexico 4–0 at the Maracanã in Rio de Janeiro (then the Brazilian capital), tied with Switzerland 2–2 at the Pacaembu in São Paulo, and returned to the Maracanã to defeat Yugoslavia 2–0.
Unlike the other tournaments before and after, this edition had a final group stage to decide the champions. At this stage, Brazil defeated Sweden 7-1 and Spain 6–1, both at the Maracanã.
The team went into the last game of the final round, against Uruguay at the Maracanã needing only a draw to win the World Cup. Brazil opened the score, but Uruguay made a comeback and won the match 2–1 with a goal by Alcides Ghiggia deciding the match, and Uruguay won the World Cup in a game known as the Maracanazo. The match led to a period of national mourning and Brazil stopping wearing white as the main uniform.
=== 1951–1957 ===
After the disappointment at the World Cup held at home, Brazil competed and finished runners up at the 1953 South American Championship held in Peru.
For the 1954 World Cup in Switzerland, Brazil was then almost completely renovated, with the team's uniform changed to yellow shirts with green details, blue shorts and white socks. The uniform was designed by Aldyr Schlee and is still used today. Brazil wanted to forget the Maracanazo, and still had a group of star players. Brazil defeated Mexico 5-0 and tied with Yugoslavia 1–1 at the group stage. France was also in the group, but Brazil didn't play them as the tournament only held two matched at the group stage. In the quarterfinals, Brazil were beaten 4–2 by tournament favourites Hungary in one of the ugliest matches in football history, known as the "Battle of Berne".
Brazil didn't take part at the 1955 South American Championship held in Chile, but finished fourth at the 1956 edition held in Uruguay and the 1957 tournament hosted by Peru.
=== Pelé and the First Golden Era (1958–1970) ===
For the 1958 World Cup held in Sweden, Brazil were drawn in a group with England, the Soviet Union and Austria. They beat Austria 3–0 in their first match, then drew 0–0 with England. Before the match, coach Vicente Feola made three substitutions that were crucial for Brazil to defeat the Soviets: Zito, Garrincha and Pelé. From the kick-off, they kept up the pressure relentlessly, and after three minutes, which were later described as "the greatest three minutes in the history of football", Vavá gave Brazil the lead, and they won the match 2–0. Pelé scored the only goal of their quarter-final match against Wales, and they beat France 5–2 in the semi-final. Brazil then also beat Sweden 5–2 in the final, winning their first World Cup and becoming the first nation to win a World Cup title outside of its own continent. Pelé described it tearfully as a nation coming of age.
Brazil then competed in two South American championships held in 1959. The first was hosted by Argentina and Brazil finished runners-up. The second was held in Ecuador and Brazil finished third place.
In the 1962 World Cup held in Chile, Brazil was drawn with Mexico, Czechoslovakia and Spain. Brazil defeated Mexico 2–0 at the first match. The second was a goalless draw with Czechoslovakia, but Pelé got injured at this match and was unable to play for the rest of the tournament. So the protagonist became Garrincha as the star player, a mantle and responsibility laid upon him. Brazil then defeated Spain 2–1 at the final group stage match. Brazil knocked out England 3–1 in the quarterfinals, defeated hosts Chile 4–2 in the semifinals, and defended the World Cup title with a 3-1 win in the final against Czechoslovakia.
The team then finished runners-up at the 1963 South American Championship held in Bolivia.
In the 1966 World Cup held in England, Brazil had their worst performance in a World Cup. Brazil defeated Bulgaria 2–0, but lost to Hungary 3–1. The tournament was remembered for its excessively physical play, and Pelé was one of the players most affected. Against Portugal, several violent tackles by the Portuguese defenders caused forward player Pelé to leave the match and the tournament. Brazil lost this match 3-1 and was eliminated in the first round of the World Cup for the first time since 1934. They have not failed to reach the knockout stages of the competition since. Brazil became the second defending champion to be eliminated in the first round after Italy in 1950. France in 2002 (without scoring a single goal and drawing a match), Italy in 2010, Spain in 2014 and Germany 2018 also repeated the unglorious feat. After the tournament, Pelé declared that he did not wish to play in the World Cup again. Nonetheless, he returned in 1970.
After the early exit at the World Cup in 1966, Brazil did not take part in the 1967 South American Championship held in Uruguay. This was the last time Brazil did not take part at the tournament, and that would be the last edition before the tournament was renamed as the Copa América.
At the 1970 World Cup held in Mexico, the first World Cup held in North America and the first held outside Europe or South America, Brazil fielded what has been widely considered the best World Cup football squad ever, led by Pelé in his last World Cup finals, captain Carlos Alberto Torres, Jairzinho, Tostão, Gérson and Rivellino. Even though Garrincha had retired, this team was still a force to be reckoned with. They won all six of their games, starting with a 4–1 against Czechoslovakia, then a 1–0 against England, despite a spectacular save by Gordon Banks, and then a 3–2 against Romania during group play. Brazil then won 4–2 against Peru in the quarterfinals, then defeated Uruguay 3–1 in the semifinals and Italy 4–1 in the final. Jairzinho was the second top scorer with seven goals, and is the only player to score in every match in a World Cup; Pelé finished with four goals. Brazil lifted the Jules Rimet trophy for the third time (the first nation to do so), which meant that they were allowed to keep it. A replacement was then commissioned, though it would be 24 years before Brazil won it again. The Jules Rimet trophy was stolen from the CBF in 1983, and never recovered. CBF then was awarded a replica.
=== The first dry spell (1971–1993) ===
After the international retirement of Pelé and other stars from the 1970 squad, Brazil played at the 1974 World Cup hosted by West Germany. Goalless draws with Yugoslavia and Scotland were followed by a 3–0 win over Zaire at the first group stage, finishing second in the group. At the second group stage, Brazil defeated East Germany 1-0 and Argentina 2–1, but was not able to overcome the Netherlands, being defeated 2–0, and then Brazil finished in fourth place after losing the third place game 1–0 to Poland.
Brazil finished third place at the 1975 Copa América, the first with no fixed hosts.
Then, at the 1978 World Cup held in Argentina, Brazil tied Sweden 1-1, tied Spain 0-0 and defeated Austria 1–0 at the first group stage. Brazil finished second, the last time Brazil failed to win their group on the first stage. In the second group stage, Brazil defeated Peru 3–0, tied with tournament hosts Argentina 0-0, and defeated Poland 3–1. However, Argentina defeated Peru 6–0 in a match held later the same day, and thus Argentina qualified for the final in a match accused of ultimately-unproven match fixing at the expense of Brazil. Brazil subsequently beat Italy 2–1 in the third place play-off, and were the only team to remain unbeaten in the tournament.
Brazil then ended at third place at the 1979 Copa América, also without a single host country.
At the 1982 World Cup, held in Spain, Brazil were the tournament favorites, and easily moved through the first group stage, with a 2–1 win against the Soviet Union, a 4–1 victory against Scotland and a 4–0 thrashing of New Zealand. In the second group stage, Brazil defeated Argentina 3–1, but a 3–2 defeat in Barcelona to Italy, in a classic World Cup match, eliminated them from the tournament in the match that they refer to as "Sarriá's Tragedy", referencing the stadium's name. The 1982 team, with a midfield of Sócrates, Zico, Falcão and Toninho Cerezo, is remembered as perhaps the greatest team never to win a World Cup.
At the 1983 Copa América, the third and final tournament without a fixed host, Brazil lost the title to Uruguay and finished runners-up.
Several players, including Sócrates and Zico, from 1982 returned to play at the 1986 World Cup in Mexico. Brazil, still a very good team and more disciplined defensively than four years earlier, won the three group stage matches (1–0 against Spain, 1–0 against Algeria, and 3–0 against Northern Ireland), without conceding a goal. Then Brazil defeated Poland 4–0 in the round of 16, and in the quarterfinals Brazil faced the Michel Platini-led France in a classic of Total Football. The game played to a 1–1 draw in regulation time where Zico missed a penalty kick, and after a goalless extra time, it all came down to a penalty shoot-out, where Brazil was defeated 4–3.
Brazil finished fifth place at the 1987 Copa América held in Argentina, and in 1989, Brazil hosted and won the 1989 Copa América, thus ending Brazil's 19-year streak without an official title.
At the 1990 World Cup in Italy, Brazil was coached by Sebastião Lazaroni, who had been the coach in the 1989 Copa América. With a defensive scheme, whose main symbol was midfielder Dunga, forward Careca and three centre-backs, the team lacked creativity but made it to the second round after defeating Sweden 2–1, Costa Rica 1–0, and Scotland 1–0. Brazil was eliminated by Diego Maradona-led Argentina in the round of 16 in Turin, losing to their South American archrivals 1–0 thanks to a goal by Claudio Caniggia.
Brazil would struggle in the next cycle, as they finished runners-up at the 1991 Copa América held in Chile, losing the title to Argentina. In the 1993 Copa América held in Ecuador, Brazil was knocked out by Argentina on the quarterfinals on penalties. In the qualifiers for the 1994 World Cup, Brazil lost a qualifying match for the first time when Bolivia defeated the team 2–0 in La Paz. Brazil qualified for the tournament after defeating Uruguay at Maracanã with two Romário goals.
=== The Second Golden Era (1994–2005) ===
Brazil went 24 years without winning a World Cup or even participating in a final. Their struggles ended at the 1994 tournament held in the United States, where a solid side headed by Romário and Bebeto in attack, captain Dunga in midfield, goalkeeper Cláudio Taffarel and defender Jorginho, won the World Cup for a then-record fourth time. Brazil started by defeating Russia 2–0, then winning 3–0 against Cameroon and tying with Sweden 1-1. Their campaign proceeded a 1–0 victory over the United States in the round of 16 at Stanford Stadium on the 4th of July, a 3–2 win over the Netherlands in the quarter-finals in Dallas, and a 1–0 victory over Sweden in a rematch of the group stage match at the semi-finals at Pasadena's Rose Bowl. This set up Brazil–Italy in the final in Pasadena. A game played in searing heat ended as a goalless draw, with Italy's defence led by Franco Baresi keeping out Romário, penalty kicks loomed, and Brazil became champions with Roberto Baggio missing Italy's last penalty. Despite the triumph, the 1994 World Cup winning team is not held in the same high esteem in Brazil as their other World Cup winning teams. FourFourTwo magazine labelled the 1994 team "unloved" in Brazil due to their pragmatic, defensive style over the more typical Brazilian style of attacking flair, in spite of the players' individual status as idols (mainly Romário, who was known as a clinical striker and whose contributions to the team are widely regarded as responsible both for allowing the team to qualify following a rocky start and for winning the tournament).
In the meantime, Brazil lost the 1995 Copa América to hosts Uruguay on penalties, followed by victory in the 1997 tournament against Bolivia, the host of the latter tournament, after a 3–1 win, the first time Brazil won the Copa América held outside of Brazil. That same year, Brazil won the Confederations Cup in Saudi Arabia with a 6-0 win against Australia.
Entering the 1998 World Cup as defending champions, Brazil finished runner-up. Having topped their group after beating Scotland 2–1, defeating Morocco 3-0 and losing 2–1 to Norway, Brazil thrashed Chile 4–1 in the round of 16, defeated Denmark 3–2 in the quarterfinals, and then Brazil beat the Netherlands on penalties in the semi-final following a 1–1 draw. Player of the tournament Ronaldo scored four goals and made three assists en route to the final. The build up to the final itself was overshadowed by Ronaldo suffering a convulsive fit only hours before kick off. The starting line up without Ronaldo was released to a shocked world media, but after pleading that he felt fine and requested to play, Ronaldo was reinstated by the coach, before giving a below par performance as France, led by Zidane, won 3-0.
Brazil won the 1999 Copa América held in Paraguay with a 3–0 win over Uruguay in the final, but lost the 1999 Confederations Cup final to hosts Mexico, before being eliminated from the 2001 Copa América held in Colombia in the quarterfinals with a 2–0 loss to Honduras. The team would also struggle in the 2002 World Cup qualifiers, only securing a spot on the final matchday with a 3–0 victory over Venezuela.
However, the 2002 World Cup, co-hosted by South Korea and Japan, would be different, as Brazil topped their group with nine points and three wins. Brazil played the group stage in South Korea, and their first match was against Turkey, in Ulsan. In that match, Rivaldo fell to the ground clutching his face after Turkey's Hakan Ünsal had kicked the ball at his legs. Rivaldo escaped suspension but was fined £5,180 for play-acting, and became the first player ever to be punished in FIFA's crackdown on diving. Brazil came from behind to defeat the Turks 2–1. This was followed by a 4–0 win over China and a 5–2 victory against Costa Rica. For the knockout round matches, Brazil traveled to Japan, continuing their campaign by defeating Belgium 2–0 in Kobe. They then proceeded to defeat England 2–1 in the quarter-finals in Shizuoka, with the winning goal coming from a free-kick by Ronaldinho from 40 yards out, but Ronaldinho was also sent off that match. The semi-final was against Turkey in Saitama, a rematch of the group stage, with Brazil winning 1–0 to advance to their third consecutive final. The final was against Germany in Yokohama, where Ronaldo scored both goals in Brazil's 2–0 triumph. Ronaldo also won the Golden Shoe as the tournament's leading scorer with eight goals. Among the highlights of the campaign were the "Three R's" (Ronaldo, Rivaldo and Ronaldinho). 2002 was Brazil's fifth world championship, their last to date, with the success seeing them receive the Laureus World Sports Award for Team of the Year.
=== The second dry spell (2006–present) ===
After their World Cup victory in Asia, Brazil won the 2004 Copa América in Peru, defeating Argentina on penalties after a 2–2 draw in the final, with a late goal by Adriano forcing the shootout. That was their third win in four competitions since 1997. They also won the FIFA Confederations Cup for the second time in 2005, with a 4–1 thumping of Argentina. Manager Carlos Alberto Parreira built his side through a 4–2–2–2 formation. Nicknamed the "Magic Quartet", the attack was built around four players: Ronaldo, Adriano, Kaká and Ronaldinho.
In the 2006 World Cup held in Germany, Brazil won their three group games against Croatia (1–0), Australia (2–0) and Japan (4–1). Ronaldo scored twice and equalled the record for the most goals scored across all World Cups. In the round of 16, Brazil beat Ghana 3–0. Ronaldo's goal was his 15th in World Cup history, breaking the record, which would later be broken by Miroslav Klose in 2014. Brazil, however, were eliminated in the quarter-finals against France, losing 1–0 to a Thierry Henry goal.
Dunga was appointed as Brazil's new team manager in 2006. Brazil then won the 2007 Copa América held in Venezuela, with a 3-0 win against Argentina in the final. Two years later, Brazil won the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup, defeating the United States 3–2 in the final, to seal their third Confederations Cup title.
At the 2010 World Cup in South Africa, Brazil won their first two matches against North Korea (2–1) and the Ivory Coast (3–1), respectively. Their last match, against Portugal, ended in a 0–0 draw. They faced Chile in the round of 16, winning 3–0, although in the quarter-final they fell to the Netherlands 2–1.
In July 2010, Mano Menezes was named as Brazil's new coach. At the 2011 Copa América held in Argentina, Brazil lost against Paraguay on penalties and was eliminated in the quarter-finals. Brazil failed to score any penalty in the shootout. In November 2012, coach Mano Menezes was sacked and replaced by Luiz Felipe Scolari.
On 6 June 2013, Brazil was ranked 22nd in the FIFA World Rankings, their lowest ever. At the 2013 Confederations Cup, Brazil defended their title, beating Spain in the final, winning 3–0 and sealing their fourth Confederations Cup title.
==== 2014 FIFA World Cup ====
In the opening match of the 2014 World Cup on home soil against Croatia, two goals from Neymar and one from Oscar sealed a 3–1 comeback win after a Marcelo own goal. The team then drew 0–0 with Mexico, before confirming qualification to the knockout stage by defeating Cameroon 4–1. Brazil faced Chile in the round of 16, needing penalties to prevail to the next round following a 1–1 draw.
The team again faced South American opposition in the quarter-final, defeating Colombia 2–1. However, late in the match, Neymar was stretchered off after a horrible challenge by Zuniga, which led to the Brazilian suffering a fractured vertebra, ruling him out for the remainder of the tournament.
The Seleção went on to lose 7–1 to the Germans, their biggest ever defeat at the World Cup and first home loss in a competitive match since 1975. The match has been nicknamed the Mineirazo, making reference to the nation's previous World Cup defeat on home soil, the Maracanazo against Uruguay in 1950, and the Mineirão stadium where the match took place. In that match, Miroslav Klose scored, making him the top goalscorer at the FIFA World Cup with 16 goals. Curiously, Ronaldo Fenômeno was at the stadium as a commentator for Rede Globo.
Brazil subsequently lost 3–0 to the Netherlands in the third-place play-off match. Following the tournament, Scolari announced his resignation.
==== After the 2014 FIFA World Cup (2014–2022) ====
On 22 July 2014, Dunga was announced as the new manager of Brazil, returning to the position for his second stint leading the national team.
At the 2015 Copa América held in Chile, Brazil finished first in Group C to advance to the knockout stages. However, they were eliminated in the next round, again losing on penalties to Paraguay.
At the 2016 Copa América Centenario held in the United States, Brazil began the tournament with a goalless draw with Ecuador before beating Haiti 7–1 in the next match. Needing only a draw to progress to the knockout stage of the tournament, Brazil suffered a controversial 1–0 loss to Peru, with Raúl Ruidíaz scoring in the 75th minute. This defeat saw Brazil eliminated from the tournament in the group stage for the first time since 1987., and also resulted in Dunga being fired from the national team.
On 14 June 2016, Tite replaced Dunga as manager of Brazil. At the 2018 FIFA World Cup, Brazil finished top of their group, tying with Switzerland 1-1, defeating Costa Rica 2-0 and Serbia 2–0. After defeating Mexico 2–0 in the round of 16, Brazil were eliminated in the quarter-finals by Belgium, losing 2–1. Despite elimination from the tournament, Tite remained as head coach.
The 2019 Copa América was held on home soil, with the team beginning the campaign with a 3–0 win against Bolivia, where the Brazilians notoriously wore a white uniform. Then Brazil had a goalless draw with Venezuela, and thumped Peru 5–0. In the quarterfinals, Brazil defeated Paraguay on penalties after another goalless draw. After beating rivals Argentina 2–0 in the semi-finals, Brazil beat Peru 3–1 in the final to win their ninth Copa América title, and their first since 2007. The team only conceded once during the tournament, during the final from a penalty kick. The next Copa América was originally scheduled to be played the following year, but due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the competition was postponed to 2021. As a result, Colombia and Argentina resigned as co-hosts, and Brazil was selected to host the tournament. The hosts reached the final once again, this time being defeated by Argentina 1–0 in the Maracanã Stadium; this was the first time Brazil failed to win the Copa América on home soil.
At the 2022 World Cup, Brazil finished first in their group, with the team defeating Serbia 2–0, Switzerland 1-0 and losing to Cameroon 1–0. The team then faced South Korea in the round of 16, winning by 4–1, and progressed to the quarter-finals where they lost on penalties to Croatia after a 1–1 draw. Following their exit from the World Cup, Tite resigned as head coach.
==== Recent years (2023–present) ====
After Tite left, Ramon Menezes served as manager from March to July 2023, before being replaced by Fernando Diniz until the end of the year. Diniz's tenure ended after Brazil lost to Argentina 1–0 at the Maracanã, with this defeat being their first home loss in FIFA World Cup qualifiers.
The CBF then appointed Dorival Júnior as manager. At the 2024 Copa América held in the United States, Brazil tied 0–0 with Costa Rica, thrashed Paraguay 4-1 and tied 1–1 with Colombia. Brazil was eliminated on penalties by Uruguay in the quarter-finals following a 0–0 draw. Dorival was fired after losing 4–1 to Argentina at the Monumental de Nuñez, and in his place the federation appointed Italian manager Carlo Ancelotti as a replacement.
Brazil qualified for the 2026 FIFA World Cup after a 1–0 victory against Paraguay on 10 June 2025.
== Team image ==
=== Uniforms ===
Brazil's first team colors were white with blue collars, but following the defeat at Maracanã in the 1950 World Cup, the colors were criticized for lacking patriotism. With permission from the Brazilian Sports Confederation, the newspaper Correio da Manhã held a competition to design a new kit incorporating the four colors of the Brazilian flag. The winning design was a yellow jersey with green trim and blue shorts with white trim drawn by Aldyr Garcia Schlee, a nineteen-year-old from Pelotas. The new colors were first used in March 1954 in a match against Chile, and have been used ever since. Topper were the manufacturers of Brazil's kit up to and including the match against Wales on 11 September 1991; Umbro took over before the next match, versus Yugoslavia in October 1991. Nike began making the kits for Brazil in late 1996, in time for the 1997 Copa América and the 1998 FIFA World Cup.
The use of blue and white as the second kit colors owes its origins to the defunct latter-day Portuguese monarchy and dates from the 1930s, but it became the permanent second choice accidentally in the 1958 FIFA World Cup final. Brazil's opponents were Sweden, who also wore yellow, and a draw gave the home team, Sweden, the right to play in yellow. Brazil, who traveled with no second kit, hurriedly purchased a set of blue shirts and sewed the badges taken from their yellow shirts on them.
==== Kit sponsorship ====
=== Nicknames ===
The Brazil national team is known by different names in various parts of the world. Nicknames for the squad in Brazil include:
Canarinho, meaning 'Little Canary', a reference to a species of bird commonly found in Brazil that has a vivid yellow color, this phrase was popularized by the late cartoonist Fernando "Mangabeira" Pieruccetti during the 1950 World Cup despite the team not wearing the color yet back then
Amarelinha (Little Yellow One)
Seleção (The National Squad)
Verde-amarela (The Green and Yellow)
Pentacampeão (Five-time Champions)
Esquadrão de Ouro (The Golden Squad)
Some Latin American commentators often refer to the Brazil team as El Scratch or Scratch du Oro (The Scratch), among others. In the 2022 World Cup, FIFA's YouTube channel referred to the team as Samba Boys.
=== Training camp ===
Brazil's training camp is the Granja Comary in Teresópolis, located 90 km (56 mi) from Rio de Janeiro. Granja Comary was opened in 1987, and underwent significant renovations in 2013 and 2014.
== Results and fixtures ==
The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.
Win
Draw
Loss
Fixture
=== 2025 ===
=== 2026 ===
== Coaching staff ==
== Players ==
=== Current squad ===
The following players were named in the squad for friendly matches against France and Croatia on 26 and 31 March 2026, respectively.
Caps and goals are correct as of 18 November 2025, after the match against Tunisia.
=== Recent call-ups ===
The following players have also been called up to the Brazil squad in the last twelve months.
== Individual records ==
As of 18 November 2025.
Players in bold are still active with Brazil.
=== Most appearances ===
=== Top goalscorers ===
=== Other records ===
Youngest goalscorer
Pelé (16 years and nine months) vs. Argentina, 7 July 1957
Oldest goalscorer
Romário (39 years and two months) vs. Guatemala, 27 April 2005
Most goals scored in a single match
Evaristo (5 goals) vs. Colombia, 24 March 1957
First goal scored
Oswaldo Gomes vs. Exeter City FC, 21 July 1914 (unofficial game)
Rubens Salles vs. Argentina, 27 September 1914 (official game)
Most clean sheets
Cláudio Taffarel (52 matches)
Most matches as a captain
Cafu (66 matches)
Most yellow cards received
Neymar (31 yellow cards)
Most red cards received
Dunga and Éder Aleixo (3 red cards each)
=== Manager records ===
Mário Zagallo became the first person to win the FIFA World Cup both as a player (1958 and 1962) and as a manager (1970). In 1970, at the age of 38, he became the second-youngest coach to win the tournament. While still in Brazil as an assistant coach, the team won the 1994 FIFA World Cup.
== Competitive record ==
Champions Runners-up Third place Fourth place Tournament played fully or partially on home soil
*Draws include knockout matches decided via penalty shoot-out.
=== FIFA World Cup ===
Brazil has qualified for every FIFA World Cup they entered, never requiring a qualifying play-off. With five titles, they have won the tournament on more occasions than any other national team.
=== Copa América ===
=== FIFA Confederations Cup ===
=== Olympic Games ===
== Head-to-head record ==
Below is a result summary of all matches Brazil have played against FIFA recognized teams.
Updated on 18 November 2025, after the match against Tunisia.
Positive Record
Neutral Record
Negative Record
=== Matches against non-FIFA and clubs ===
== Honours ==
=== Global ===
FIFA World Cup
Champions (5): 1958, 1962, 1970, 1994, 2002
Runners-up (2): 1950, 1998
Third place (2): 1938, 1978
FIFA Confederations Cup
Champions (4): 1997, 2005, 2009, 2013
Runners-up (1): 1999
Olympic Games
Silver medal (2): 1984,1 19881
=== Continental ===
South American Championship / Copa América
Champions (9): 1919, 1922, 1949, 1989, 1997, 1999, 2004, 2007, 2019
Runners-up (12): 1921, 1925, 1937, 1945, 1946, 1953, 1957, 1959-I, 1983, 1991, 1995, 2021
Third place (7): 1916, 1917, 1920, 1942, 1959-II, 1975, 1979
Panamerican Championship
Champions (2): 1952, 1956
Runners-up (1): 1960
CONCACAF Gold Cup
Runners-up (2): 1996, 2003
Third place (1): 1998
=== Friendly ===
Roca Cup (8): 1914, 1922, 1945, 1957, 1960, 1963, 1971s, 1976
Copa Rodrigues Alves (2): 1922, 1923
Copa Confraternidad (1): 1923
Copa Río Branco (7): 1931, 1932, 1947, 1950, 1967s, 1968, 1976
Taça Interventor Federal (1): 1934
Taça Dois de Julho (1): 1934
Taça Oswaldo Cruz (8): 1950, 1955, 1956, 1958, 1961, 1962, 1968, 1976
Copa Bernardo O'Higgins (4): 1955, 1959, 1961, 1966s
Taça do Atlântico (3): 1956, 1970, 1976
Taça Jorge Chavéz / Santos Dumont (1): 1968
Copa Emílio Garrastazú Médici (1): 1970
Taça Independência (1): 1972
U.S.A. Bicentennial Cup Tournament (1): 1976
Taça Centenário Jornal O Fluminense (1): 1978
Saudi Crown Prince Trophy (1): 1978
Rous Cup (1): 1987
Australia Bicentenary Gold Cup (1): 1988
Copa Teixeira (1): 1990s
Amistad Cup (1): 1992
Copa 50imo Aniversario de Clarín (1): 1995
Umbro Cup (1): 1995
Nelson Mandela Challenge (1): 1996
Lunar New Year Cup (1): 2005
Superclásico de las Américas (4): 2011, 2012, 2014, 2018
Kirin Challenge Cup (1): 2022
=== Awards ===
FIFA Team of the Year (13): 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2022
FIFA Fair Play Award (1): 2023
Laureus World Team of the Year (1): 2003
World Soccer Team of the Year (2): 1982, 2002
Gazzetta Sports World Team of the Year (2): 1994, 2002
Prince of Asturias Award for Sports (1): 2002
FIFA World Cup Fair Play Trophy (4): 1982, 1986, 1994, 2006
FIFA World Cup Most Entertaining Team (1): 1994
FIFA Confederations Cup Fair Play Trophy (2): 1999, 2009
Copa America Fair Play Award (2): 2019, 2021
=== Chronology of titles ===
=== Summary ===
Notes
The Brazil Olympic football team participated, but this tournament is not recognized by FIFA as senior team records.
Official continental competition organized by PFC. It was a unified confederation of the Americas, which was formed by the NAFC, CCCF and CONMEBOL.
s Shared titles. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiraiya_(Naruto) | Jiraiya (Naruto) | Jiraiya (Japanese: 自来也) is a fictional character in the Naruto manga and anime series created by Masashi Kishimoto. Introduced in the series' first part, he was a student of Third Hokage Hiruzen Sarutobi and one of the three "Legendary Three Ninjas"(Legendary Sanin)—along with Orochimaru and Lady Tsunade, his former teammates. Jiraiya appears as a perverted old man who occasionally returns to the village Konohagakure, reporting the activities of Orochimaru and the organization Akatsuki. Referred to as the "Toad Sage" and "Pervy Sage", he mentors Fourth Hokage Minato Namikaze and later becomes the godfather and mentor of Minato's son, Naruto Uzumaki.
Jiraiya appears in two Naruto films, and as a playable character in most of the franchise's video games. Various pieces of merchandise based on him have been released. He has received positive critical reception. Reviewers have praised Jiraiya's introduction in the story and his relation with Naruto as his mentor. Out of all student-teacher relationships in Naruto, Jiraiya and Naruto's is the one Kishimoto liked the most. He served as a strong father-figure to Naruto.
== Creation and conception ==
Manga author Masashi Kishimoto first conceived Jiraiya's name based on Kabuki. He conceptualized him as a wizard with frog-like traits. He gave him an incisive and energetic speech pattern specific to old Kabuki plays. Kishimoto stated that Jiraiya "makes everything more colorful" since he is one of the few characters who enjoy talking. Regarding the bonds in the story, Kishimoto highlighted the importance of the character's death during his fight against Pain; this remark was made since, in his last moments, Jiraiya manages to discover the origin of Pain's multiple bodies and uses his last forces to send a message to Naruto Uzumaki in which he explains how Pain can be defeated. Kishimoto felt he had done a good job of establishing Jiraiya's last moments. He commented that out of all the master-pupil relationships he had created in the Naruto series, the bond between Naruto and Jiraiya is his favorite, stating that drawing their interactions was "worthwhile". Jiraiya was one of the characters that resonated the most with the author alongside Naruto, Sasuke Uchiha, and Haku.
At the 2015 New York Comic-Con, when asked which character besides Naruto is his favorite, Kishimoto chose Jiraiya. Due to the fans' preference, Kishimoto drew a sketch of Jiraiya in front of the audience at the event. He stated he felt nostalgic since this was the first time he had drawn Jiraiya or any other character in the series for a while. However, Kishimoto did not remember how to draw Jiraiya initially, and thus he used a person among the spectators who was cosplaying Jiraiya as a reference. After being asked which character's point of view he would choose to tell the story from instead of Naruto's if given the possibility, Kishimoto listed Jiraiya as one of his choices. He elaborated on this by stating Jiraiya was not very knowledgeable at a young age, feeling that this aspect would have created an interesting contrast with Jiraiya's "not so much arrogant, but overconfident, blusterous, and very, very skilled" adult self and that the story presenting Jiraiya's development would have been "fun to draw". Kishimoto further mentioned that jutsu was still in the process of developing during Jiraiya's childhood, and he felt this would have been an engaging subject to depict in the series. Jiraiya is played by Hōchū Ōtsuka in the series' original animated adaptation, while David Lodge voices him in the English dub.
David Lodge stated that Jiraiya is one of viewers' "favorite characters". When questioned if he is frequently asked to voice Jiraiya in new features since the character is a part of such a popular franchise, he answered affirmatively. Lodge stated that besides being known as the "Toad Sage" due to controlling frogs, Jiraiya is also known as the "Pervy Sage", considering this a "big deal" in Japan due to such content being classified as sensitive. He stated that in the United States, a lot of the things regarding the "Pervy Sage" part had to be restricted. Lodge said that Jiraiya was the best character he had ever played due to having "so many dimensions"; he elaborated by mentioning that while Jiraiya can be "crazy", he can also be a "very serious, philosophical, wise sage". He characterized this aspect of Jiraiya's personality as "fun". He said he had "such a good time" playing Jiraiya, stating he managed to "delve into a character that is more than one-dimensional" in the process of voicing him. Lodge also stated he has "a huge fanbase" for Jiraiya's character. He commented that Jiraiya is his favorite character, characterizing him as "such a grand scope character".
== Appearances ==
=== In Naruto ===
Jiraiya is a ninja from the village of Konohagakure trained by Hiruzen Sarutobi, the Third Hokage. He becomes known as the "Toad Sage" and also "Pervy Sage" due to his training under the Great Toad Sage in the field of Senjutsu (仙術; lit. "sage techniques"), enabling him to summon toads as allies during battles. The Great Toad Sage also informs Jiraiya of a prophecy that he will mentor a child who will either save the world or destroy it. As he grows older, Jiraiya and his two teammates, Orochimaru and Tsunade, are collectively referred to as the "Legendary Sannin" owing to their exemplary ninja abilities allowing them to survive a fight against Hanzo—Amegakure's dictator—during the Second Great Ninja War. Soon after, Jiraiya encounters a trio of Amegakure orphans consisting of Nagato, Yahiko, and Konan, training the three in ninjutsu to protect themselves before returning to the Land of Fire. At that time, Jiraiya considered Nagato to be the child from the Great Toad Sage's prophecy.
For most of his adult life, though loyal to Konohagakure, Jiraiya often leaves his hometown to explore the world. Sometime later, Jiraiya becomes a mentor to Minato Namikaze, the future Fourth Hokage, who dies due to sealing the Nine-Tailed Fox inside his newborn son, Naruto Uzumaki. Jiraiya makes only sporadic appearances, returning to Konohagakure after long absences to report on information he has learned throughout his travels. During his first appearance in the series' Part I, Jiraiya takes the time to train Naruto, teaching him his own signature abilities and trying to help him learn how to control Kurama. When his teacher, Hiruzen, who has resumed his duty as the Third Hokage since Minato's death, dies during an invasion by Orochimaru, Jiraiya is offered the position of Hokage. Despite this, Jiraiya thinks his inability to prevent Orochimaru from becoming a criminal makes him unworthy of the responsibility and instead offers to search for Tsunade so that she can take the position instead—a task he eventually succeeds at. After Naruto's flawed attempt to retrieve Sasuke Uchiha, Jiraiya decides to take the boy for two and a half years of training to make him strong enough to bring Sasuke back and to protect himself from the Akatsuki organization.
In Part II, Jiraiya returns to inform Kakashi Hatake and Yamato about the threat Naruto can become under the Nine-Tails's influence by telling them of his near-death experiences when the youth used only a fraction of Kurama's power. To keep Naruto from participating in Team 7's new Sasuke-related mission, Jiraiya offers to train him again and takes Naruto to Yugakure, the Village Hidden in Boiling Water. After entrusting Naruto with the key to Kurama's seal, Jiraiya begins investigating the Akatsuki's leader, Pain. His investigation leads him to battle Pain, whom he recognizes to be Nagato using the corpses of Yahiko and five other ninja he met in his journey. At the battle's conclusion, while reflecting on his life, Jiraiya realizes that Naruto is the boy foretold in the prophecy. Due to this, remembering it was his first novel that inspired Minato to name his son after the book's protagonist, Jiraiya musters the strength to send a message about Nagato's Paths of Pain, along with a disabled Animal Path, to Naruto and the rest of Konohagakure to give them an edge. While Pain kills Jiraiya, he concludes that Naruto will be a hero.
=== In other media ===
Jiraiya makes an appearance in two Naruto films, Naruto Shippuden the Movie: Bonds (2008) and Naruto Shippuden the Movie: The Will of Fire (2009). He is a playable character in most Naruto video games, including the Clash of Ninja series, the Ultimate Ninja series, and the Path of the Ninja series. In the first Ultimate Ninja game (2003), he only appears as a support to Naruto during his special techniques. In the Path of the Ninja RPG series, he is a character who can be spoken to for information and support. In Ultimate Ninja 2 (2004), he is an available character and has been given variations of the Rasengan, fire techniques, and toads summoning techniques. In Path of the Ninja 2 (2006), he is not only a character in the storyline, but a "secret" acquirable character that can be added to the team as a fully active member.
== Reception ==
Jiraiya has appeared in several of the main Shōnen Jump popularity polls. In the second and third, he ranked in the top ten. In the fourth poll, he ranked 11th. In the last poll conducted in 2011, Jiraiya was placed 16th. Merchandise based on Jiraiya has also been released, including action figures, key chains, and headbands similar to his. Naruto's Japanese voice actress, Junko Takeuchi, was reminded of Jiraiya's close relationship with Naruto when reading the script of The Last: Naruto the Movie.
Several manga, anime, and video game reviewers have praised the character of Jiraiya. Davey Jones of ActiveAnime regarded Jiraiya's training with Naruto as good comic relief and stated that the two characters are similar. AnimeonDVD's Justin Rich praised Jiraiya's introduction in the series, describing him as a funny character. Jason Van Horn of IGN commented on Jiraiya's relationship with Naruto, writing that "they share so much in common". Matt Shingleton of DVDTimes viewed Jiraiya as "the greatest character Masashi Kishimoto [had] ever created in this series" and further said that "besides the fact he fills the comical pervert archetype [he is] one of the strongest characters in the series and just about everything about him is rough and unpredictable". Jason Thompson praised the character's Sage Mode, commenting that it would make a good cosplay. He also expressed shock at the character's death while fighting Pain, considering him a sympathetic person. Luke Carroll of Anime News Network enjoyed David Lodge's role as Jiraiya's English voice actor. Hiroshi Matsuyama found that Jiraiya's death had a major impact in his work as a game designer in the Naruto games due to his previous works from .hack never actually had a death in the narrative with the exception being Harold who is already dead during the .hack series.
In 2010, Shueisha published the first novel Jiraiya wrote, which was inspired by his student Nagato and prompted Minato and Kushina Uzumaki to name their son after its protagonist. The novel is titled Naruto: Tales of a Gutsy Ninja (Naruto―ナルト―ド根性忍伝, Naruto: Dokonjō Ninden) and follows the fictional character Naruto Musasabi. Naruto tries to track down his former comrade, Renge Momoashi, and unravel a mysterious conspiracy involving the destruction of a nearby village. In 2015, Shueisha released Jiraiya's second novel, Naruto: The Tale of the Utterly Purehearted Shinobi (Naruto -ナルト- ド純情忍伝, Naruto: Dojunjō Ninden), which presents a battle between two fighters who appear to be related. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2015_World_Championships_in_Athletics_%E2%80%93_Women%27s_javelin_throw | 2015 World Championships in Athletics – Women's javelin throw | The women's javelin throw at the 2015 World Championships in Athletics was held at the Beijing National Stadium on 28 and 30 August.
There were eight automatic qualifiers out of the first round. With the best mark qualifiers, the German team was able to get four into the finals including defending champion Christina Obergföll, the home team was able to get two when Lü Huihui got in with the tenth qualifier. World leader Sunette Viljoen also could not make the automatic but got into the finals while the world record holder Barbora Špotáková did get an automatic.
The partisan locals were overjoyed when Lü took over the lead with a 63.80 and three throws later Li Lingwei improved upon that with a 64.10, putting the home team in first and second place. That lead held through the second round as closest anybody could come was Viljoen at 63.09 to take third place. Obergföl started the third round with a new leader 64.61, but Lü came back with an answer of 64.72 which held the lead until the next thrower Katharina Molitor threw it 2 cm further. Špotáková barely made 60 and didn't get to make the last three throws. In the fourth round, Viljoen threw 65.79 to move into the lead and as the fifth round was ending, Lü uncorked a 66.13 to set a new Asian Record and take the lead to a furious ovation. That was the status going into the last throw of the competition. Molitor had seen her leading position drop to third place over the last 2 rounds but found the answer, a 67.69 to let the air out of the crowd.
== Records ==
Prior to the competition, the records were as follows:
== Qualification standards ==
== Schedule ==
All times are local times (UTC+8)
== Results ==
=== Qualification ===
Qualification: 63.50 m (Q) or at least 12 best performers (q).
=== Final ===
The final was started at 18:45 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathan_Lane | Nathan Lane | Nathan Lane (born Joseph Lane; February 3, 1956) is an American actor who has been on stage and screen in both comedic and dramatic roles. Lane has received numerous accolades including three Tony Awards, seven Drama Desk Awards, a Laurence Olivier Award, three Emmy Awards, and a Screen Actors Guild Award. Lane received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2006 and was inducted into the American Theater Hall of Fame in 2008. In 2010, The New York Times hailed Lane as being "the greatest stage entertainer of the decade".
Lane made his professional theatre debut in 1978 in an off-Broadway production of A Midsummer Night's Dream. During that time he also briefly appeared as one half of the comedy team of Stack and Lane, until he was cast in the 1982 Broadway revival of Noël Coward's Present Laughter directed by and starring George C. Scott. That led to an extensive career onstage, where he had a long friendship and fruitful collaboration with the playwright Terrence McNally which started in 1989 with the Manhattan Theater Club production of The Lisbon Traviata.
A six-time Tony Award nominee, he has won three times, for Best Actor in a Musical for Pseudolus in Stephen Sondheim's A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1996) and Max Bialystock in Mel Brooks' The Producers (2001), and Best Featured Actor in a Play for Roy Cohn in Tony Kushner's Angels in America (2018). He was also Tony-nominated for Guys and Dolls (1992), The Nance (2013), and The Front Page (2016). Among his 25 Broadway credits are The Man Who Came To Dinner (2000), The Odd Couple (2005), Butley (2006), Waiting for Godot (2009), The Addams Family (2010), It's Only a Play (2014), Gary: A Sequel to Titus Andronicus (2019), Pictures from Home (2023), and Death of a Salesman (2026).
Lane has acted in films such as The Lion King (1994), The Birdcage (1996), Mouse Hunt (1997), The Producers (2005), and Beau Is Afraid (2023). He received the Primetime Emmy Award for his role in the Hulu mystery comedy series Only Murders in the Building in 2022. He was Emmy-nominated for his guest roles in Frasier, Mad About You, Modern Family and The Good Wife. He portrayed F. Lee Bailey in the FX miniseries The People v. O. J. Simpson: American Crime Story (2016) and Dominick Dunne in the Netflix anthology series Monsters: The Lyle and Erik Menendez Story (2024). He has also starred in Penny Dreadful: City of Angels (2020), The Gilded Age (2022–present), and Mid-Century Modern (2025).
== Early life and education ==
Lane was born Joseph Lane in Jersey City, New Jersey on February 3, 1956. His father Daniel Joseph Lane was a truck driver and an aspiring tenor who died in 1967 from alcoholism when Nathan was eleven. His mother Nora Veronica (née Finnerty) was a housewife and secretary who suffered from bipolar disorder and died in 2000. Nathan has two older brothers, Daniel Jr. and Robert. Their parents were Catholics and all of their grandparents were Irish immigrants. He was named Joseph after his uncle, a Jesuit priest. Nathan attended Catholic schools in Jersey City, including Jesuit-run St. Peter's Preparatory School, where he was voted Best Actor in 1974, and in 2011 received the Prep Hall of Fame Professional Achievement Award.
== Career ==
=== 1975–1990s: Rise to prominence ===
Accepted to Saint Joseph's University in Philadelphia on a drama scholarship, Joseph Lane was accompanied on what was supposed to be his first day there by his older brother Dan. Discovering that the scholarship would not cover enough of his expenses, he decided to leave, and work for a year to earn some money. His brother said, "I remember him saying to me, 'College is for people who don't know what they want to do.'"
Because there already was a Joseph Lane registered with Actors' Equity, he changed his name to Nathan after the character Nathan Detroit from the musical Guys and Dolls. He moved to New York City in 1975 where after a long struggle, his career began to take off, first with some brief success in the world of stand-up comedy with partner Patrick Stack and later with Off-Broadway productions at Second Stage Theatre, the Roundabout Theatre, and the Manhattan Theatre Club. In 1978, he appeared in a production of A Midsummer Night's Dream alongside John Goodman at the Equity Library Theatre. He made his Broadway debut in a 1982 revival of Noël Coward's Present Laughter as Roland Maule (Drama Desk nomination) with George C. Scott, Kate Burton, Dana Ivey, Bette Henritze, Elizabeth Hubbard, Jim Piddock, and Christine Lahti.
His second Broadway appearance was in the 1983 musical Merlin, starring Chita Rivera and magician Doug Henning. This was followed by Wind in the Willows as Mr. Toad, Some Americans Abroad at Lincoln Center, and the national tour of Neil Simon's Broadway Bound.
Off-Broadway productions in which he appeared, included Love (the musical version of Murray Schisgal's Luv), Measure for Measure directed by Joseph Papp in Central Park, for which he received the St. Clair Bayfield Award, The Common Pursuit, The Film Society, In a Pig's Valise, She Stoops to Conquer, The Merry Wives of Windsor and A Midsummer Night's Dream. He appeared at the Williamstown Theatre Festival in The School for Scandal and John Guare's Moon Over Miami. His association with Stephen Sondheim began in 1989 with a workshop reading of Assassins, where he played Samuel Byck, the would-be murderer of Richard Nixon. Lane also appeared in the television shows Miami Vice and The Days and Nights of Molly Dodd as Bing Shalimar.
In 1991, Lane appeared with George C. Scott again in a revival of Paul Osborne's On Borrowed Time at the Circle in the Square Theatre on Broadway. In 1992, he starred in the hit revival of Guys and Dolls, playing Nathan Detroit, the character who lent him his name, opposite Peter Gallagher and Faith Prince. For this performance, he received his first Tony nomination, as well as Drama Desk and Outer Critics Circle Awards. In 1992, he won an Obie Award for Sustained Excellence of Performance. His professional association with his close friend the playwright Terrence McNally, whom he met in 1987, includes roles in The Lisbon Traviata (Drama Desk and Lucille Lortel Awards, and Outer Critics Circle nomination), Bad Habits, Lips Together, Teeth Apart, Love! Valour! Compassion! (Obie, Drama Desk, and Outer Critics Circle Awards), Dedication or the Stuff of Dreams, which opened in 2005 (Drama Desk nomination), The Last Mile on PBS' Great Performances, and the film version of Frankie and Johnny.
The early 1990s began a stretch of successful Broadway shows for Lane. In 1993, he portrayed Sid Caesar-like Max Prince in Neil Simon's Laughter on the 23rd Floor, inspired by Simon's early career writing sketches for Your Show of Shows. In 1996, he starred in the hit revival of Stephen Sondheim's A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum. For his performance he won the Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical as well as the Drama Desk and Outer Critics Circle Awards. In 1998, he appeared Off-Broadway in Jon Robin Baitz's revised 1984 comedy, Mizlansky/Zilinsky or 'Schmucks'.
=== 1994–2009: Breakthrough and acclaim ===
In 1994, Lane voiced Timon, the meerkat, in Disney's blockbuster animated film The Lion King and reprised the role in its sequel The Lion King II: Simba's Pride and midquel The Lion King 1½. In 1995, Lane was the voice of the meerkat in the early episodes of Timon & Pumbaa. In 1995, he played the Cowardly Lion in The Wizard of Oz in Concert at Lincoln Center to benefit the Children's Defense Fund.
The performance was originally broadcast on Turner Network Television (TNT).
In 1996 Lane appeared in the film The Birdcage, for which he received his first Golden Globe nomination. The film, an American remake of the classic French farce La Cage aux Folles, was directed by Mike Nichols with a screenplay by Elaine May, and starred Robin Williams, Lane, and Gene Hackman, and went on to be a big success. The Stephen Sondheim song "Little Dream" in The Birdcage was supposedly written especially for him. In 1999, he appeared with Victor Garber in the workshop of the Sondheim musical Wise Guys (later retitled Road Show). His collaboration with Sondheim would continue when Lane revised the original book for and starred in the Broadway debut of the composer's The Frogs at Lincoln Center in 2004.
Lane appeared in the 1997 dark comedy Mouse Hunt, one of the first films to come out of the newly formed DreamWorks Studios, in which he co-starred with British comedian Lee Evans and Christopher Walken. In 1999, he appeared in the Encores! concert revival of Do Re Mi at City Center. That same year he also voiced the role of Snowbell in the family film Stuart Little, opposite his Life With Mikey co-star Michael J. Fox.
He is known for his voice work in two Disney animated series, Teacher's Pet and Timon & Pumbaa, as well as George and Martha on HBO. He received Daytime Emmy Awards for his voice performances in Teacher's Pet and Timon & Pumbaa, as well as a nomination for George and Martha. He hosted Saturday Night Live in 1997, and the Tony Awards (once as host for the 50th anniversary telecast, and three times as co-host, with Glenn Close and Gregory Hines; Rosie O'Donnell; and Matthew Broderick respectively). From 1998 to 1999 he starred in the NBC sitcom Encore! Encore! alongside Joan Plowright and Glenne Headly. The New York Times gave a very positive review to the show's debut, writing it possessed the "most accomplished, high-powered cast on television." Although the series got positive reviews it was canceled. He still won the People's Choice Award that year for Favorite New Actor in a Comedy. Lane received Emmy Award nominations for his guest appearances on Frasier and Mad About You in 1995 and 1998, respectively.
Lane starred in the Roundabout revival of The Man Who Came to Dinner as Sheridan Whiteside, with Jean Smart and Harriet Sansom Harris in 2000. Charles Isherwood of Variety liked his performance, "Nathan Lane, an actor who makes virtually every role he plays seem like a role he was born to play, is the splendidly seething, delightfully acerbic center of Jerry Zaks' splashy production of the 1939 comedy". The production was taped and shown on PBS. That same year he starred in Kenneth Branagh's film adaptation of William Shakespeare's Love's Labour's Lost (2000). He acted in the comedy Isn't She Great (2000) opposite Bette Midler, the crime drama Trixie (2000), and voiced a character in the animated science fiction film Titan A.E. (2000).
In 2001, he starred as Max Bialystock in the blockbuster musical version of Mel Brooks's The Producers. He acted alongside Matthew Broderick. Chris Jones of Variety wrote "Lane's greatest contribution, though, is this performer's innate sense of pace. He's constantly propelling the show forward and giving all this nonsense a necessary sense of urgency." Ben Brantley of The New York Times praised Lane's performance describing it as his "most delicious performance". He complimented Lane's and Broderick's chemistry adding "Mr. Lane and Mr. Broderick, have the most dynamic stage chemistry since Natasha Richardson met Liam Neeson in Anna Christie. The role earned him his second Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical as well as Drama Desk and Outer Critics Circle Awards.
The next year he reprised his role as Snowbell in Stuart Little 2 (2002). He then appeared as Vincent Crummles in a film adaptation of Nicholas Nickleby (2002) and the cast received the Ensemble Acting award from the National Board of Review. In 2003 he starred Off-Broadway in Trumbo: Red, White, and Blacklisted. In 2004, Lane revised the libretto and portrayed Dionysus in the revival of Stephen Sondheim's musical The Frogs which opened at the Vivian Beaumont Theater at Lincoln Center on Broadway. That same year he replaced Richard Dreyfuss in The Producers in the West End. Dreyfuss was let go just a week before the show's first preview at London's Theatre Royal Drury Lane. Lane went on to win the Olivier Award as Best Actor in a Musical. His performance in the film version, opposite Broadway co-star Matthew Broderick as Leo Bloom, earned him his second nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy.
In 2005, Lane rejoined Broderick for a successful limited run of The Odd Couple. In 2006, he took on a primarily dramatic role in a revival of Simon Gray's Butley, having played the role to great success at The Huntington Theater Company in Boston in 2003. He and Broderick received adjacent stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in a joint ceremony on January 9, 2006, and were immortalized in wax as Max and Leo at Madame Tussauds Museum in New York City on January 16, 2009. In 2008, he played the President of the United States in the David Mamet political satire, November, directed by Joe Mantello. This was followed by the critically acclaimed 2009 revival of Waiting for Godot (Outer Critics Circle nomination) in which he played Estragon opposite Bill Irwin's Vladimir. He was a 2008 American Theatre Hall of Fame inductee. In the 2000s Lane also made guest appearances on Sex and the City, Curb Your Enthusiasm, Absolutely Fabulous, and 30 Rock.
=== 2010–2019: Established actor ===
In 2009, Lane starred in the musical version of The Addams Family as Gomez in Chicago, a role he reprised on Broadway the following year, receiving Drama Desk and Outer Critics Circle nominations. That year he also received a Drama League Award for Distinguished Achievement in Musical Theater. Committed to starring in a revival of the Eugene O'Neill play The Iceman Cometh at Chicago's Goodman Theatre in 2012, Lane assumed the role of Hickey, with Brian Dennehy playing the role of Larry Slade in a production directed by the Goodman's Artistic Director, Robert Falls. Receiving rave reviews, it won six Jeff Awards, including Best Ensemble, director, and Production, and is the most successful play to date in the theater's history.
From 2010 to 2019, Lane portrayed Pepper Saltzman in the ABC sitcom Modern Family for which he received three Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series nominations. From 2012 to 2014 he played Clarke Hayden in the legal series The Good Wife receiving a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series. In the spring of 2013, Lane returned to Broadway in The Nance, a Lincoln Center production of a new play by Douglas Carter Beane that was directed by Jack O'Brien. David Rooney of The Hollywood Reporter praised his performance writing, "Lane is masterful, finding new depths in a well-worn sad clown persona" adding, "[The production] at the very least it provides a tremendous vehicle for Lane". He went on to receive Tony and Drama Desk Award nominations and won the Outer Critics Circle Award and the 2013 Drama League Award for Distinguished Performance. The play aired on PBS Live from Lincoln Center in 2014.
In autumn 2014, he appeared in an all-star ensemble of Terrence McNally's revised and updated It's Only a Play, with F. Murray Abraham, Matthew Broderick, Stockard Channing, Rupert Grint, Megan Mullally, and Micah Stock. The show became one of the biggest hits of the season. In February 2015 he reprised the role of Hickey in the Robert Falls production of The Iceman Cometh to great acclaim at the Brooklyn Academy of Music. New York Post film critic Elizabeth Vincentelli wrote of his performance, "Lane, one of his generation's most brilliant comic actors...[hits] the sweet spot between pretend perkiness and self-loathing". He later returned to the Broadway run of It's Only a Play. In 2015, he received the Eugene O'Neill Theater Center Monte Cristo Award for his body of work. In March 2016, he opened the play White Rabbit, Red Rabbit Off-Broadway.
Lane played F. Lee Bailey in The People v. O. J. Simpson: American Crime Story, the first season of American Crime Story, which premiered on the FX channel in February 2016. Daniel Feinberg of The Hollywood Reporter described his performance as "understatedly Machiavellian". Emily St. Jones of Vox declared Lane as "hugely enjoyable" in the series.
It received 22 Emmy nominations and went on to win the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Limited Series. In fall of 2016, he returned to Broadway to rave reviews in an all-star revival of Hecht and MacArthur's The Front Page, directed by Jack O'Brien and produced by Scott Rudin. He played the ruthless editor Walter Burns opposite John Slattery as Hildy Johnson and John Goodman as Sheriff Hartman, for which he received a nomination for the Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play. He also received nominations for Drama Desk and Outer Critics Circle Awards. During this time he also guest starred on series such as Difficult People (2016) and The Blacklist (2018).
Next he played Roy Cohn with Andrew Garfield as Prior Walter in the revival of Angels in America, directed by Marianne Elliott at the Lyttlelton Theatre of the National Theatre of Great Britain. Lane reprised his acclaimed portrayal on Broadway at the Neil Simon Theatre, and won the Tony, Drama Desk, and Outer Critics Circle Awards for Best Featured Actor in a Play. In March 2019, Lane starred in Taylor Mac's absurdist black comedy Gary: A Sequel to Titus Andronicus at the Booth Theatre directed by George C. Wolfe. The play received seven Tony Award nominations, including Best Play.
=== 2020–present ===
Lane played the role of Lewis Michener on Showtime's Penny Dreadful: City of Angels which premiered April 26, 2020, and ran for one season. He has a recurring role in the Hulu series Only Murders in the Building, starring Steve Martin, Martin Short, and Selena Gomez, for which he received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series. That was Lane's first Primetime Emmy Award after a record-breaking seven nominations in the guest actor categories, making him the most nominated Comedy Guest Actor in Emmy history, a record he still holds after receiving his eighth nomination in 2023 in the same category. He also plays the recurring role of Ward McAllister in the HBO period series, The Gilded Age, written by Julian Fellowes, which received a 2024 Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for Outstanding Ensemble in a Drama Series and a 2024 Emmy nomination for Best Drama. In 2023, Lane returned to the Broadway stage, marking his 25th Broadway show, in Pictures from Home, a play adapted from the photo memoir by Larry Sultan. Lane portrayed the father and former razor blade salesman to his son a photographer, played by Danny Burstein, who's remembering his visits with his family. Lane's wife in the play was portrayed by Zoë Wanamaker. The production was directed by Bartlett Sher and was helmed at the Studio 54 theatre. The play received mixed reviews but praise for Lane's performance with Marilyn Stasio of Variety writing, "Lane and Burstein are consummate pros, and there are considerable sparks of familial communication between the father and son they play with such warmth and understanding."
Also in 2023, Lane co-starred in Ari Aster's new A24 film, Beau Is Afraid alongside Joaquin Phoenix, Amy Ryan, and Patti LuPone. Max Ceo of Esquire praised Aster for the casting of Lane writing, "There's a palpable sense that the director had seasoned character actors such as Nathan Lane in his mind while writing. He milks every dad-ish 'My dude' the script hands him".
He co-starred in another A24 film, Dicks: The Musical, directed by Larry Charles and written by Aaron Jackson and Josh Sharp, with the film based on their Upright Citizens Brigade musical stage show Fucking Identical Twins. Jackson and Sharp play the twins with Lane and Megan Mullally as the parents. It also features Bowen Yang and Megan Thee Stallion. The film premiered at the 2023 Toronto International Film Festival to positive reviews and won the Midnight Madness People's Choice Award. Kristy Puchko of Mashable wrote, "[Lane] who stole scenes earlier this year as a plucky papa in another A24 movie Beau is Afraid—gives his all, committing to bit after bit" adding "In a career of superb comedy, he's in top form here". He was part of the voice cast for Spellbound, a new animated film from Skydance for Netflix, with Rachel Zegler, Nicole Kidman, Javier Bardem, Jenifer Lewis and John Lithgow, as well as the Ryan Murphy miniseries, Monsters: The Lyle and Erik Menendez Story, as Dominick Dunne. He then starred in the new Hulu multi-cam comedy, Mid-Century Modern, created by Max Mutchnick and David Kohan of Will & Grace and also produced by Ryan Murphy, alongside Matt Bomer, Nathan Lee Graham, and Linda Lavin in her final role.
In 2026, he returned to the Broadway stage portraying Willy Loman in the revival of the Arthur Miller play Death of a Salesman opposite Laurie Metcalf, Christopher Abbott, and Ben Ahlers.
== Personal life ==
=== Identity and marriage ===
Lane says that when he told his mother at age 21 that he was gay, she said, "I'd rather you were dead." He replied, "I knew you'd understand." He joked that "once I got her head out of the oven, everything went fine." He came out publicly in 1999 after the killing of Matthew Shepard and has been a long-time board member of and fundraiser for Broadway Cares/Equity Fights AIDS. He has been honored with the Human Rights Campaign Equality Award, the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation Vito Russo Award, The Trevor Project Hero Award, and the Matthew Shepard Foundation Making A Difference Award for his work in the LGBT community in 2015. On November 17, 2015, he married his partner of 18 years, theater producer and writer Devlin Elliott. They live in Manhattan and East Hampton, New York.
=== Political orientation ===
Lane has made several critical statements about Republican Party figures. He was an active supporter of Hillary Clinton and Barack Obama and has hosted fundraisers for the Democratic Party.
== Acting credits ==
Lane has had an extensive career in film, television, and in theater. He has appeared in such films as The Lion King (1994), The Birdcage (1996), Mouse Hunt (1997), Nicholas Nickleby (2002), and the film adaptation of the Broadway musical The Producers (2005). He is also known for numerous guest roles including Frasier, Mad About You, 30 Rock, Absolutely Fabulous, Curb Your Enthusiasm, The Blacklist and recurring roles on Modern Family and The Good Wife. He has received critical praise for his roles as F. Lee Bailey in the limited series The People v. O.J. Simpson (2016) and in the 2020 Showtime series Penny Dreadful: City of Angels as Det. Lewis Michener. His roles in theatre range from musical comedies, Guys and Dolls (1992), A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1996), The Producers (2001) and The Addams Family (2010) to dramatic roles in the work of Terrence McNally, Jon Robin Baitz, and Simon Gray as well as revivals and new plays such as The Odd Couple (2005), November (2008), Waiting for Godot (2009), The Nance (2013), It's Only a Play (2015), The Iceman Cometh (2015), The Front Page (2016), Angels in America (2018), Gary: A Sequel to Titus Andronicus (2019), Pictures From Home (2023), and Death of a Salesman (2026).
== Awards and honors ==
Lane has received six Tony Award nominations for his work on Broadway, winning three times for A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (1996), The Producers (2001), and Angels in America (2018). Also for his work in theatre he has received seven Drama Desk Awards, six Outer Critics Circle Awards, two Obies, the Lucille Lortel Award, the Drama League Award for Outstanding Achievement in Musical Theater, the Drama League Award for Distinguished Performance for The Nance, the Theatre World John Willis Award for Lifetime Achievement in the Theater, the Eugene O'Neill Monte Cristo Award, the New Dramatists Career Achievement Award, the Sir Peter Ustinov Comedy Award, and the Laurence Olivier Award. In 2024 Lane received the Stephen Sondheim Award from the Signature Theatre Company and the Harold S. Prince Award for Lifetime Achievement from the Drama Desk Awards.
Lane has received two Golden Globe Award nominations for The Birdcage and The Producers, the National Board of Review Award for Ensemble Acting for Nicholas Nickleby, and two Screen Actors Guild Award nominations for Best Supporting Actor and for Best Performance by a Cast for The Birdcage, winning the latter. For his work on television Lane has received eight Primetime Emmy Award nominations for guest starring roles on Frasier, Mad About You, Modern Family, and The Good Wife and won for Only Murders in the Building. He received two Daytime Emmy Awards for his voice work in Timon & Pumbaa and Teacher's Pet, as well as a nomination for George and Martha for HBO. He has received the People's Choice Award for Favorite New Actor in a Comedy and an American Comedy Award for The Birdcage as well as a nomination for Jeffrey. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shreve,_Lamb_%26_Harmon | Shreve, Lamb & Harmon | Shreve, Lamb, and Harmon, founded as Shreve & Lamb, was an architectural firm best known for designing the Empire State Building, the tallest building in the world at the time of its completion in 1931. The firm was prominent in the proliferation of Art Deco architecture in New York City.
== History ==
The firm was founded in 1920 as Shreve & Lamb, a partnership of Richmond Harold ("R.H.") Shreve, a Canadian from Nova Scotia, and William F. Lamb, from Brooklyn, New York. Shreve was the administrator, while Lamb was the architect. The two met while working at Carrère & Hastings, and Shreve & Lamb was initially a Carrère & Hastings firm. In 1924 the pair decided to leave Carrère & Hastings and became an autonomous architectural company.
In 1929, Arthur Loomis Harmon, from Chicago, Illinois, joined Shreve & Lamb, and the firm became Shreve, Lamb & Harmon. Prior to joining the firm, Harmon's works included battle monuments at Tours, Cantigny and Somme-Py in France, a YMCA in Jerusalem, and the Shelton Hotel in New York, U.S.
For the construction of the Empire State Building, the firm's most notable work and a symbol of the American expression of the Art Deco style, Lamb was responsible for the design, while Shreve's planning skills facilitated the completion of the construction in a year. Shreve's planning skills were recognized in New York, and he was involved in projects beyond the firm, such as the Slum Clearance Committee of New York.
Shreve, Lamb & Harmon's primary focus was commercial office buildings, and their work in this area was described as "spare and functional" in 2010 by the Landmarks Preservation Commission. However, the firm completed numerous residential projects, such as No. 130 East 57th Street, and this facet of the company's work was mainly conducted in neo-Tudor, as well as other popular historical styles of the 1920s.
Shreve, Lamb and Harmon had also employed the future architect behind the original World Trade Center complex, Minoru Yamasaki, after he had completed a masters degree in architecture in 1936. Lasting until 1945, this professional relationship was cut short when Yamasaki took a job at Smith, Hinchman & Grylls.
It is not entirely clear when the company went out of business, with 1989 being a likely date.
The archives of Shreve, Lamb & Harmon are kept at the Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library of Columbia University.
== Notable buildings ==
All buildings are located in New York City unless otherwise indicated:
Reynolds Building, Winston-Salem, 1929
521 Fifth Avenue (also known as the Lefcourt National Building), 1929
40 Wall Street (as consulting architect; with H. Craig Severance and Yasuo Matsui), 1930
740 Park Avenue (with Rosario Candela), 1930
3 East 57th Street, 1930
500 Fifth Avenue, 1931
Empire State Building, 1930–1931
14 Wall Street (formerly the Bankers Trust Company Building) addition, 1931–1932
99 John Street (also known as '99 John Deco Lofts'), 1932
Joel W. Solomon Federal Building and United States Courthouse (with R. H. Hunt), Chattanooga, Tennessee, 1932
99 John Deco Lofts (formerly The Great American Insurance Company Building), 1933
Jerusalem International YMCA (architect Arthur Loomis Harmon), Jerusalem, Israel, 1933
Acacia Building, Washington, D.C., 1936
Hill Building (formerly the SunTrust Tower, CCB Building or Central Carolina Bank, and Durham Bank and Trust Building), Durham, North Carolina, 1935–1937
100 Ardsley Avenue West (Hudson House), Irvington, NY 1936
Lever Brothers Co. Headquarters (now MIT Sloan School, Building E52), Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1938
Hunter College, 1940
Parkchester buildings, 1939–1942
Best & Company Building (demolished), 1947
1740 Broadway (formerly the MONY Building or Mutual of New York Building), 1950
New York Supreme Court, Kings County, 1957
Carman Hall, 1960
United Engineering Center (demolished in 1998), 1961
280 Park Avenue (formerly the Bankers Trust Building, with Emery Roth & Sons), 1961
222 Broadway (formerly the Western Electric Building), 1961
Calyon Building (formerly the Crédit Lyonnais Building and J. C. Penney Building), 1964
Uniroyal Giant Tire, Allen Park, Michigan, 1964
245 Park Avenue (formerly the Bear Stearns Building, American Brands Building, and American Tobacco Company Building), 1967
1250 Broadway (formerly the Cooper-Bregstein Building), 1967–1968
Stonehenge, North Bergen, New Jersey, 1968
475 Park Avenue South, 1969
Gouverneur Hospital, 1970
Textron Tower (formerly the 40 Westminster Building and Old Stone Tower), Providence, Rhode Island, 1972
55 Church Street, New Haven, Connecticut, 1974
Deutsche Bank Building (formerly the Bankers Trust Plaza, now demolished), 1974
3 Park Avenue, 1975 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roald_Dahl | Roald Dahl | Roald Dahl (13 September 1916 – 23 November 1990) was a British author of popular children's literature and short stories, a poet, screenwriter and a wartime fighter ace. His books have sold more than 300 million copies worldwide. He has been called "one of the greatest storytellers for children of the 20th century".
Dahl was born in Wales to affluent Norwegian immigrant parents, and lived for most of his life in England. He served in the Royal Air Force (RAF) during the Second World War. He became a fighter pilot and subsequently an intelligence officer, rising to the rank of acting wing commander. He rose to prominence as a writer in the 1940s with works for children and for adults, and he became one of the world's best-selling authors. His awards for contribution to literature include the 1983 World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement and the British Book Awards' Children's Author of the Year in 1990. In 2008, The Times placed Dahl 16th on its list of "The 50 Greatest British Writers Since 1945". In 2021, Forbes ranked him the top-earning dead celebrity.
Dahl's short stories are known for their unexpected endings, and his children's books for their unsentimental, macabre, often darkly comic mood, featuring villainous adult enemies of the child characters. His children's books champion the kindhearted and feature an underlying warm sentiment. His works for children include James and the Giant Peach, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, Matilda, The Witches, Fantastic Mr Fox, The BFG, The Twits, George's Marvellous Medicine and Danny, the Champion of the World. His works for older audiences include the short story collections Tales of the Unexpected and The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar and Six More.
== Early life and education ==
=== Childhood ===
Roald Dahl was born in 1916 at Villa Marie, Fairwater Road, in Llandaff, Cardiff, Wales, to Norwegian parents Harald Dahl and Sofie Magdalene Dahl (née Hesselberg). Dahl's father, a wealthy shipbroker and self-made man, had emigrated to Britain from Sarpsborg, Norway, and settled in Cardiff in the 1880s with his first wife, Frenchwoman Marie Beaurin-Gresser. They had two children together (Ellen Marguerite and Louis) before her death in 1907. Roald's mother, originally from Christiania (modern-day Oslo), belonged to a well-established Norwegian family of lawyers, wealthy merchants, estate owners and priests in the Norwegian state church, and emigrated to Britain when she married his father in 1911. Dahl was named after Norwegian polar explorer Roald Amundsen. His first language was Norwegian, which he spoke at home with his parents and his sisters Astri, Alfhild, and Else. The children were raised in Norway's Lutheran state church, the Church of Norway, and were baptised at the Norwegian Church, Cardiff. His maternal grandmother Ellen Wallace was a granddaughter of the member of parliament Georg Wallace and a descendant of an early 18th-century Scottish immigrant to Norway.
Dahl's sister Astri died from appendicitis, aged seven, in 1920 when Dahl was three years old, and his father died of pneumonia at the age of 57 several weeks later. Later in the same year, his youngest sister, Asta, was born. Upon his death, Harald Dahl left a fortune assessed for probate at £158,917,10s. 0d. (equivalent to £5,877,297 in 2023). Dahl's mother decided to remain in Wales instead of returning to Norway to live with relatives, as her husband had wanted their children to be educated in English schools, which he considered the world's best. When he was six years old, Dahl met his idol Beatrix Potter, author of The Tale of Peter Rabbit featuring the mischievous Peter Rabbit, the first licensed fictional character. The meeting, which took place at Potter's home, Hill Top in the Lake District, north west England, was dramatised in the 2020 television film, Roald & Beatrix: The Tail of the Curious Mouse.
Dahl first attended The Cathedral School, Llandaff. At the age of eight, he and four of his friends were caned by the headmaster after putting a dead mouse in a jar of gobstoppers at the local sweet shop, 11 High Street, which was owned by a "mean and loathsome" old woman named Mrs Pratchett. The five boys named their prank the "Great Mouse Plot of 1924". Mrs Pratchett inspired Dahl's creation of the cruel headmistress Miss Trunchbull in Matilda, and a prank, this time in a water jug belonging to Trunchbull, would also appear in the book. Gobstoppers were a favourite sweet among British schoolboys between the two World Wars, and Dahl referred to them in his fictional Everlasting Gobstopper which was featured in Charlie and the Chocolate Factory.
Dahl transferred to St Peter's boarding school in Weston-super-Mare. His parents had wanted him to be educated at an English public school, and this proved to be the nearest because of the regular ferry link across the Bristol Channel. Dahl's time at St Peter's was unpleasant; he was very homesick and wrote to his mother every week but never revealed his unhappiness to her. After her death in 1967, he learned that she had saved every one of his letters; they were broadcast in abridged form as BBC Radio 4's Book of the Week in 2016 to mark the centenary of his birth. Dahl wrote about his time at St Peter's in his autobiography Boy: Tales of Childhood. Excelling at conkers—a traditional autumnal children's game in Britain and Ireland played using the seeds of horse chestnut trees—Dahl recollected, "at the ages of eight, nine and ten, conkers brought sunshine to our lives during the dreary autumn term".
=== Repton School ===
From 1929, when he was 13, Dahl attended Repton School in Derbyshire. Dahl disliked the hazing and described an environment of ritual cruelty and status domination, with younger boys having to act as personal servants for older boys, frequently subject to terrible beatings. His biographer Donald Sturrock described these violent experiences in Dahl's early life. Dahl expresses some of these darker experiences in his writings, which is also marked by his hatred of cruelty and corporal punishment.
According to Dahl's autobiography, Boy: Tales of Childhood, a friend named Michael was viciously caned by headmaster Geoffrey Fisher. Writing in that same book, Dahl reflected: "All through my school life I was appalled by the fact that masters and senior boys were allowed literally to wound other boys, and sometimes quite severely... I couldn't get over it. I never have got over it." Fisher was later appointed Archbishop of Canterbury, and he crowned Queen Elizabeth II in 1953. However, according to Dahl's biographer Jeremy Treglown, the caning took place in May 1933, a year after Fisher had left Repton; the headmaster was in fact J. T. Christie, Fisher's successor as headmaster. Dahl said the incident caused him to "have doubts about religion and even about God". He viewed the brutality of the caning as being the result of the headmaster's enmity towards children, an attitude Dahl would later attribute to the Grand High Witch in his dark fantasy The Witches, with the novel's main antagonist exclaiming that "children are rrreee-volting!".
Dahl was never seen as a particularly talented writer in his school years, with one of his English teachers writing in his school report, "I have never met anybody who so persistently writes words meaning the exact opposite of what is intended." He was exceptionally tall, reaching 6 feet 6 inches (1.98 m) in adult life. Dahl played sports including cricket, football and golf, and was made captain of the squash team. As well as having a passion for literature, he developed an interest in photography and often carried a camera with him.
During his years at Repton, the Cadbury chocolate company occasionally sent boxes of new chocolates to the school to be tested by the pupils. Dahl dreamed of inventing a new chocolate bar that would win the praise of Mr Cadbury himself; this inspired him in writing his third children's book, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, and to refer to chocolate in other children's books.
Throughout his childhood and adolescent years, Dahl spent most of his summer holidays with his mother's family in Norway. He wrote about many happy memories from those visits in Boy: Tales of Childhood, such as when he replaced the tobacco in his half-sister's fiancé's pipe with goat droppings. He noted only one unhappy memory of his holidays in Norway: at around the age of eight, he had to have his adenoids removed by a doctor, a procedure which at the time did not include any form of anaesthesia. His childhood and first job selling kerosene in Midsomer Norton and surrounding villages in Somerset are subjects in Boy: Tales of Childhood.
=== After school ===
After finishing his schooling, in August 1934 Dahl crossed the Atlantic on the RMS Nova Scotia and hiked through Newfoundland with the British Public Schools Exploring Society.
In July 1934, Dahl joined the Shell Petroleum Company. Following four years of training in the United Kingdom, he was assigned first to Mombasa, Kenya, then to Dar es Salaam in the British colony of Tanganyika (now part of Tanzania). Dahl explains in his autobiography Going Solo that only three young Englishmen ran the Shell company in the territory, of which he was the youngest and junior. Along with the only two other Shell employees in the entire territory, he lived in luxury in the Shell House outside Dar es Salaam, with a cook and personal servants. While out on assignments supplying oil to customers across Tanganyika, he encountered black mamba snakes and lions, among other wildlife.
== Fighter pilot ==
In August 1939, as the Second World War loomed, the British made plans to round up the hundreds of Germans living in Dar-es-Salaam. Dahl was commissioned as a lieutenant into the King's African Rifles, commanding a platoon of Askari men, indigenous troops who were serving in the colonial army.
In November 1939, Dahl joined the Royal Air Force (RAF) as an aircraftman with service number 774022. After a 600-mile (970 km) car journey from Dar es Salaam to Nairobi, he was accepted for flight training with sixteen other men, of whom only three survived the war. With seven hours and 40 minutes experience in a De Havilland Tiger Moth, he flew solo; Dahl enjoyed watching the wildlife of Kenya during his flights. He continued to advanced flying training in Iraq, at RAF Habbaniya, 50 miles (80 km) west of Baghdad. Following six months' training on Hawker Harts, Dahl was commissioned as a pilot officer on 24 August 1940, and was judged ready to join a squadron and face the enemy.
He was assigned to No. 80 Squadron RAF, flying obsolete Gloster Gladiators, the last biplane fighter aircraft used by the RAF. Dahl was surprised to find that he would not receive any specialised training in aerial combat or in flying Gladiators. On 19 September 1940, Dahl and another pilot were ordered to fly their Gladiators by stages from Abu Sueir (near Ismailia, in Egypt) to 80 Squadron's forward airstrip 30 miles (48 km) south of Mersa Matruh. On the final leg, they could not find the airstrip and, running low on fuel and with night approaching, Dahl was forced to attempt a landing in the desert. The undercarriage hit a boulder and the aircraft crashed. Dahl's skull was fractured and his nose was smashed; he was temporarily blinded. He managed to drag himself away from the wreckage and lost consciousness. His colleague, Douglas McDonald, had landed safely and was able to comfort Dahl until they were rescued. He wrote about the crash in his first published work. Dahl came to believe that the head injury he sustained in the crash resulted in his creative genius.
Dahl was rescued and taken to a first-aid post in Mersa Matruh, where he regained consciousness, but not his sight. He remained blind for six weeks due to massive swelling of the brain. He was transported by train to the Royal Navy hospital in Alexandria. There he fell in and out of love with a nurse, Mary Welland. An RAF inquiry into the crash revealed that the location to which he had been told to fly was completely wrong, and he had mistakenly been sent instead into the no man's land between the Allied and Italian forces.
In February 1941, Dahl was discharged from the hospital and deemed fully fit for flying duties. By this time, 80 Squadron had been transferred to the Greek campaign and based at Eleusina, near Athens. The squadron was now equipped with Hawker Hurricanes. Dahl flew a replacement Hurricane across the Mediterranean Sea in April 1941, after seven hours' experience flying Hurricanes. By this stage in the Greek campaign, the RAF had only 18 combat aircraft in Greece: 14 Hurricanes and four Bristol Blenheim light bombers. Dahl flew in his first aerial combat on 15 April 1941, while flying alone over the city of Chalcis. He attacked six Junkers Ju 88s that were bombing ships and shot one down. The next day, he shot down another Ju 88.
On 20 April 1941, Dahl took part in an event he called the Battle of Athens, alongside the highest-scoring British Commonwealth ace of World War II, Pat Pattle, and Dahl's friend David Coke. Of 12 Hurricanes involved, five were shot down and four of their pilots killed, including Pattle. Greek observers on the ground counted 22 German aircraft downed, but because of the confusion of the aerial engagement, none of the pilots knew which aircraft they had shot down. Dahl described it as "an endless blur of enemy fighters whizzing towards me from every side".
In May, as the Germans were pressing on Athens, Dahl was evacuated to Egypt. His squadron was reassembled in Haifa to take part in Operation Exporter. From there, Dahl flew sorties every day for a period of four weeks, shooting down a Vichy French Air Force Potez 63 on 8 June and another Ju 88 on 15 June. In a memoir, Dahl recounts in detail an attack by him and his fellow Hurricane pilots on the Vichy-held Rayak airfield. He says that as he and his fellow Hurricane pilots swept in:
... low over the field at midday we saw to our astonishment a bunch of girls in brightly coloured cotton dresses standing out by the planes with glasses in their hands having drinks with the French pilots, and I remember seeing bottles of wine standing on the wing of one of the planes as we went swooshing over. It was a Sunday morning and the Frenchmen were evidently entertaining their girlfriends and showing off their aircraft to them, which was a very French thing to do in the middle of a war at a front-line aerodrome. Every one of us held our fire on that first pass over the flying field and it was wonderfully comical to see the girls all dropping their wine glasses and galloping in their high heels for the door of the nearest building. We went round again, but this time we were no longer a surprise and they were ready for us with their ground defences, and I am afraid that our chivalry resulted in damage to several of our Hurricanes, including my own. But we destroyed five of their planes on the ground.
Despite this somewhat light-hearted account, Dahl also noted that, ultimately, Vichy forces killed four of the nine Hurricane pilots in his squadron. Describing the Vichy forces as "disgusting", he stated that "... thousands of lives were lost, and I for one have never forgiven the Vichy French for the unnecessary slaughter they caused."
When he began to get severe headaches that caused him to black out, he was invalided home to Britain where he stayed with his mother in Buckinghamshire. Although at this time Dahl was only a pilot officer on probation, in September 1941 he was simultaneously confirmed as a pilot officer and promoted to war substantive flying officer.
== Diplomat, writer and intelligence officer ==
After being invalided home, Dahl was posted to an RAF training camp in Uxbridge. He attempted to recover his health enough to become an instructor. In late March 1942, while in London, he met the Under-Secretary of State for Air, Major Harold Balfour, at his club. Impressed by Dahl's war record and conversational abilities, Balfour appointed the young man as assistant air attaché at the British Embassy in Washington, D.C. Initially resistant, Dahl was finally persuaded by Balfour to accept, and took passage on the MS Batory from Glasgow a few days later. He arrived in Halifax, Canada, on 14 April, after which he took a sleeper train to Montreal.
Coming from war-starved Britain (in what was a wartime period of rationing in the United Kingdom), Dahl was amazed by the wealth of food and amenities to be had in North America. Arriving in Washington a week later, Dahl found he liked the atmosphere of the US capital. He shared a house with another attaché at 1610 34th Street, NW, in Georgetown. But after ten days in his new posting, Dahl strongly disliked it, feeling he had taken on "a most ungodly unimportant job". He later explained, "I'd just come from the war. People were getting killed. I had been flying around, seeing horrible things. Now, almost instantly, I found myself in the middle of a pre-war cocktail party in America."
Dahl was unimpressed by his office in the British Air Mission, attached to the embassy. He was also unimpressed by the ambassador, Lord Halifax, with whom he sometimes played tennis and whom he described as "a courtly English gentleman". Dahl socialised with Charles E. Marsh, a Texas publisher and oilman, at his house at 2136 R Street, NW, and the Marsh country estate in Virginia. As part of his duties as assistant air attaché, Dahl was to help neutralise the isolationist views still held by many Americans by giving pro-British speeches and discussing his war service; the United States had entered the war only the previous December, following the attack on Pearl Harbor.
At this time Dahl met the noted British novelist C. S. Forester, who was also working to aid the British war effort. Forester worked for the British Ministry of Information and was writing propaganda for the Allied cause, mainly for American consumption. The Saturday Evening Post had asked Forester to write a story based on Dahl's flying experiences; Forester asked Dahl to write down some RAF anecdotes so that he could shape them into a story. After Forester read what Dahl had given him, he decided to publish the story exactly as Dahl had written it. In reality a number of changes were made to the original manuscript before publication. He originally titled the article as "A Piece of Cake" but the magazine changed it to "Shot Down Over Libya" to make it sound more dramatic, although Dahl had not been shot down; it was published on 1 August 1942 issue of the Post. Dahl was promoted to flight lieutenant (war-substantive) in August 1942. Later he worked with such other well-known British officers as Ian Fleming (who later published the popular James Bond series) and David Ogilvy, promoting Britain's interests and message in the US and combating the "America First" movement.
This work introduced Dahl to espionage and the activities of the Canadian spymaster William Stephenson, known by the codename "Intrepid." During the war, Dahl supplied intelligence from Washington to Prime Minister Winston Churchill. As Dahl later said: "My job was to try to help Winston to get on with FDR, and tell Winston what was in the old boy's mind." Dahl also supplied intelligence to Stephenson and his organisation, known as British Security Coordination, which was part of MI6. Dahl was once sent back to Britain by British Embassy officials, supposedly for misconduct—"I got booted out by the big boys", he said. Stephenson promptly sent him back to Washington—with a promotion to wing commander rank. Toward the end of the war, Dahl wrote some of the history of the secret organisation. He and Stephenson remained friends for decades after the war.
Upon the war's conclusion, Dahl held the rank of a temporary wing commander (substantive flight lieutenant). Owing to the severity of his injuries from the 1940 accident, he was pronounced unfit for further service and was invalided out of the RAF in August 1946. He left the service with the substantive rank of squadron leader. His record of five aerial victories, qualifying him as a flying ace, has been confirmed by post-war research and cross-referenced in Axis records. It is possible that he shot down more aircraft, for example on 20 April 1941 when the Germans lost several aircraft.
== Post-war life ==
Dahl married American actress Patricia Neal on 2 July 1953 at Trinity Church in New York City. Their marriage lasted for 30 years and they had five children:
Olivia Twenty (1955–1962);
Chantal Sophia "Tessa" (born 1957), who became an author, and mother of author, cookbook writer and former model Sophie Dahl (after whom Sophie in The BFG is named);
Theo Matthew (born 1960);
Ophelia Magdalena (born 1964);
Lucy Neal (born 1965).
On 5 December 1960, four-month-old Theo was severely injured when his baby carriage was struck by a taxicab in New York City. For a time, he suffered from hydrocephalus. As a result, Dahl became involved in the development of what became known as the "Wade-Dahl-Till" (or WDT) valve, a device to improve the shunt used to alleviate the condition. The valve was a collaboration between Dahl, hydraulic engineer Stanley Wade, and London's Great Ormond Street Hospital neurosurgeon Kenneth Till, and was used successfully on almost 3,000 children around the world.
In November 1962, Dahl's daughter Olivia died of measles encephalitis, age seven. Her death left Dahl "limp with despair", and feeling guilty about not having been able to do anything for her. Dahl subsequently became a proponent of immunisation—writing "Measles: A Dangerous Illness" in 1988 in response to measles cases in the UK—and dedicated his 1982 book The BFG to his daughter. After Olivia's death and a meeting with a Church official, Dahl came to view Christianity as a sham. In mourning he had sought spiritual guidance from Geoffrey Fisher, the former Archbishop of Canterbury, and was dismayed being told that, although Olivia was in Paradise, her beloved dog Rowley would never join her there. Dahl recalled years later:
I wanted to ask him how he could be so absolutely sure that other creatures did not get the same special treatment as us. I sat there wondering if this great and famous churchman really knew what he was talking about and whether he knew anything at all about God or heaven, and if he didn't, then who in the world did?
In 1965, Dahl's wife Patricia Neal suffered three burst cerebral aneurysms while pregnant with their fifth child, Lucy. Dahl took control of her rehabilitation over the next months; Neal had to re-learn to talk and walk, but she managed to return to her acting career. This period of their lives was dramatised in the film The Patricia Neal Story (1981), in which the couple were played by Glenda Jackson and Dirk Bogarde.
In 1972, Roald Dahl met Felicity d'Abreu Crosland (niece of Lt.-Col. Francis D'Abreu, who was married to Margaret Bowes Lyon, the first cousin of the Queen Mother), while Felicity was working as a set designer on an advert for Maxim coffee with the author's then wife, Patricia Neal. Soon after the pair were introduced, they began an 11-year affair. In 1983 Neal and Dahl divorced and Dahl married Felicity, at Brixton Town Hall, south London. Felicity (known as Liccy) gave up her job and moved into Gipsy House, Great Missenden in Buckinghamshire, which had been Dahl's home since 1954.
In August 1983, Dahl reviewed Australian author Tony Clifton's God Cried, a picture book about the siege of West Beirut by the Israeli army during the 1982 Lebanon War. The article, in which Dahl stated the Jews had never "switched so rapidly from much-pitied victims to barbarous murderers", appeared in the Literary Review and was the subject of media comment and criticism at the time. Dahl wrote that Clifton's book would make readers "violently anti-Israeli", saying, "I am not anti-Semitic. I am anti-Israel." In 1990, Dahl spoke again on the Lebanon invasion, stating "they killed 22,000 civilians when they bombed Beirut. It was very much hushed up in the newspapers because they are primarily Jewish-owned. I'm certainly anti-Israeli and I've become antisemitic in as much as that you get a Jewish person in another country like England strongly supporting Zionism. I think they should see both sides. It's the same old thing: we all know about Jews and the rest of it. There aren't any non-Jewish publishers anywhere, they control the media—jolly clever thing to do". His comments invoked responses from Jewish colleagues and friends, with the philosopher Sir Isaiah Berlin, stating, "I thought he might say anything. Could have been pro-Arab or pro-Jew. There was no consistent line. He was a man who followed whims, which meant he would blow up in one direction, so to speak", while Amelia Foster, Jewish director of the Roald Dahl Museum in Great Missenden, said, "He had a childish reaction to what was going on in Israel. Dahl wanted to provoke, as he always provoked at dinner." As a consequence of his comments, in 2014, the Royal Mint decided not to produce a coin to commemorate the centenary of Dahl's birth. In 2020, Dahl's family published a statement on the official Roald Dahl website apologising for his antisemitism.
In the 1986 New Years Honours List, Dahl was offered an appointment to Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE), but turned it down. He reportedly wanted a knighthood so that his wife would be Lady Dahl. Dahl's last significant involvement in medical charities during his lifetime was with dyslexia. In 1990, the year which saw the UN launch International Literacy Year, Dahl assisted with the British Dyslexia Association's Awareness Campaign. That year saw Dahl write one of his last children's books, The Vicar of Nibbleswicke, which features a vicar who has a fictitious form of dyslexia that causes him to pronounce words backwards. Called "a comic tale in the best Dahl tradition of craziness" by Waterstones, Dahl donated the rights of the book to the Dyslexia Institute in London.
In 2012, Dahl was featured in the list of The New Elizabethans to mark the diamond Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II. A panel of seven academics, journalists and historians named Dahl among the group of people in Britain "whose actions during the reign of Elizabeth II have had a significant impact on lives in these islands and given the age its character". In September 2016, Dahl's daughter Lucy received the BBC's Blue Peter Gold badge in his honour, the first time it had ever been awarded posthumously.
== Writing ==
Dahl's first published work, inspired by a meeting with C. S. Forester, was "A Piece of Cake", on 1 August 1942. The story, about his wartime adventures, was bought by The Saturday Evening Post for US$1,000 (equivalent to $20,000 in 2025) and published under the title "Shot Down Over Libya".
His first children's book was The Gremlins, published in 1943, about mischievous little creatures that were part of Royal Air Force folklore. The RAF pilots blamed the gremlins for all the problems with the aircraft. The protagonist Gus—an RAF pilot, like Dahl—joins forces with the gremlins against a common enemy, Hitler and the Nazis. While at the British Embassy in Washington, Dahl sent a copy to the First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt who read it to her grandchildren, and the book was commissioned by Walt Disney for a film that was never made. Dahl went on to write some of the best-loved children's stories of the 20th century, such as Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, Matilda, James and the Giant Peach, The Witches, Fantastic Mr Fox, The BFG, The Twits and George's Marvellous Medicine.
Dahl also had a successful parallel career as the writer of macabre adult short stories, which often blended humour and innocence with surprising plot twists. The Mystery Writers of America presented Dahl with three Edgar Awards for his work, and many were originally written for American magazines such as Collier's ("The Collector's Item" was Collier's Star Story of the week for 4 September 1948), Ladies' Home Journal, Harper's, Playboy and The New Yorker. Works such as Kiss Kiss subsequently collected Dahl's stories into anthologies, and gained significant popularity. Dahl wrote more than 60 short stories; they have appeared in numerous collections, some only being published in book form after his death. His three Edgar Awards were given for: in 1954, the collection Someone Like You; in 1959, the story "The Landlady"; and in 1980, the episode of Tales of the Unexpected based on "Skin".
One of his more famous adult stories, "The Smoker", also known as "Man from the South", was filmed twice as both 1960 and 1985 episodes of Alfred Hitchcock Presents, filmed as a 1979 episode of Tales of the Unexpected, and also adapted into Quentin Tarantino's segment of the film Four Rooms (1995). This oft-anthologised classic concerns a man in Jamaica who wagers with visitors in an attempt to claim the fingers from their hands. The original 1960 version in the Hitchcock series stars Steve McQueen and Peter Lorre. Five additional Dahl stories were used in the Hitchcock series. Dahl was credited with teleplay for two episodes, and four of his episodes were directed by Alfred Hitchcock himself, an example of which was "Lamb to the Slaughter" (1958).
Dahl acquired a traditional Romanichal vardo in the 1960s, and the family used it as a playhouse for his children at home in Great Missenden, Buckinghamshire. He later used the vardo as a writing room, where he wrote Danny, the Champion of the World in 1975. Dahl incorporated a similar caravan into the main plot of the book, in which the young English boy, Danny, and his father, William (played by Jeremy Irons in the film adaptation), live in a vardo. Many other scenes and characters from Great Missenden are reflected in his work. For example, the village library was the inspiration for Mrs Phelps' library in Matilda, where the title character devours classic literature by the age of four.
His short story collection Tales of the Unexpected was adapted to a successful TV series of the same name, beginning with "Man from the South". When the stock of Dahl's own original stories was exhausted, the series continued by adapting stories written in Dahl's style by other authors, including John Collier and Stanley Ellin. Another collection of short stories, The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar and Six More, was published in 1977, and the eponymous short story was adapted into a short film in 2023 by director Wes Anderson with Benedict Cumberbatch as the titular character Henry Sugar and Ralph Fiennes as Dahl.
Some of Dahl's short stories are supposed to be extracts from the diary of his (fictional) Uncle Oswald, a rich gentleman whose sexual exploits form the subject of these stories. In his novel My Uncle Oswald, the uncle engages a temptress to seduce 20th century geniuses and royalty with a love potion secretly added to chocolate truffles made by Dahl's favourite chocolate shop, Prestat of Piccadilly, London. Memories with Food at Gipsy House, written with his wife Felicity and published posthumously in 1991, was a mixture of recipes, family reminiscences and Dahl's musings on favourite subjects such as chocolate, onions and claret.
The last book published in his lifetime, Esio Trot, released in January 1990, marked a change in style for the author. Unlike other Dahl works (which often feature tyrannical adults and heroic/magical children), it is the story of an old, lonely man trying to make a connection with a woman he has loved from afar. In 1994, the English language audiobook recording of the book was provided by Monty Python member Michael Palin. Screenwriter Richard Curtis adapted it into a 2015 BBC television comedy film, Roald Dahl's Esio Trot, featuring Dustin Hoffman and Judi Dench as the couple.
Written in 1990 and published posthumously in 1991, Roald Dahl's Guide to Railway Safety was one of the last things he ever wrote. In a response to rising levels of train-related fatalities involving children, the British Railways Board had asked Dahl to write the text of the booklet, and Quentin Blake to illustrate it, to help young people enjoy using the railways safely. The booklet is structured as a conversation with children, and it was distributed to primary school pupils in Britain. According to children's literature critic Deborah Cogan Thacker, Dahl's tendency in his children's books is to "put child characters in powerful positions" and so, the idea of "talking down" to children was always an anathema to him, therefore Dahl, in the introduction of the booklet, states; "I must now regretfully become one of those unpopular giants who tells you WHAT TO DO and WHAT NOT TO DO. This is something I have never done in any of my books."
=== Children's fiction ===
Dahl's children's works are usually told from the point of view of a child. They typically involve adult villains who hate and mistreat children, and feature at least one "good" adult to counteract the villain(s). These stock characters are possibly a reference to the abuse that Dahl stated that he experienced in the boarding schools he attended. In a biography of Dahl, Matthew Dennison wrote that "his writing frequently included protests against unfairness". Dahl's books see the triumph of the child; children's book critic Amanda Craig said, "He was unequivocal that it is the good, young and kind who triumph over the old, greedy and the wicked." Anna Leskiewicz in The Telegraph wrote, "It's often suggested that Dahl's lasting appeal is a result of his exceptional talent for wriggling his way into children's fantasies and fears, and laying them out on the page with anarchic delight. Adult villains are drawn in terrifying detail, before they are exposed as liars and hypocrites, and brought tumbling down with retributive justice, either by a sudden magic or the superior acuity of the children they mistreat."
While his whimsical fantasy stories feature an underlying warm sentiment, they are often juxtaposed with grotesque, darkly comic and sometimes harshly violent scenarios. The Witches, George's Marvellous Medicine and Matilda are examples of this formula. The BFG follows, with the good giant (the BFG or "Big Friendly Giant") representing the "good adult" archetype and the other giants being the "bad adults". This formula is also somewhat evident in Dahl's film script for Chitty Chitty Bang Bang. Class-conscious themes also surface in works such as Fantastic Mr Fox and Danny, the Champion of the World where the unpleasant wealthy neighbours are outwitted.
Dahl also features characters who are very fat, usually children. Augustus Gloop, Bruce Bogtrotter and Bruno Jenkins are a few of these characters, although an enormous woman named Aunt Sponge features in James and the Giant Peach and the nasty farmer Boggis in Fantastic Mr Fox is an enormously fat character. All of these characters (with the possible exception of Bruce Bogtrotter) are either villains or simply unpleasant gluttons. They are usually punished for this: Augustus Gloop drinks from Willy Wonka's chocolate river, disregarding the adults who tell him not to, and falls in, getting sucked up a pipe and nearly being turned into fudge. In Matilda, Bruce Bogtrotter steals cake from the evil headmistress, Miss Trunchbull, and is forced to eat a gigantic chocolate cake in front of the school; when he unexpectedly succeeds at this, Trunchbull smashes the empty plate over his head. In The Witches, Bruno Jenkins is lured by the witches (whose leader is the Grand High Witch) into their convention with the promise of chocolate, before they turn him into a mouse. Aunt Sponge is flattened by a giant peach. When Dahl was a boy his mother used to tell him and his sisters tales about trolls and other mythical Norwegian creatures, and some of his children's books contain references or elements inspired by these stories, such as the giants in The BFG, the fox family in Fantastic Mr Fox and the trolls in The Minpins.
In 1972, Eleanor Cameron, also a children's book author, published an article in The Horn Book criticising Charlie and the Chocolate Factory and its depiction of the African-derived Oompa-Loompas, who "have never been given the opportunity of any life outside of the chocolate factory". In 1973, Dahl posted a reply, calling Cameron's accusations "insensitive" and "monstrous". The debate between the two authors sparked much discussion and a number of letters to the editor. In 1991, Michael Dirda also discussed other criticisms of Dahl's writing, including his alleged sexism, of which Dirda wrote, "The Witches verges on a general misogyny." In 1998, Michele Landsberg analysed the alleged issues in Dahl's work and concluded that, "Throughout his work, evil, domineering, smelly, fat, ugly women are his favourite villains." In 2008, Una Mullally argued that there are feminist messages in Dahl's work, even if they may be obscured, "The Witches offers up plenty of feminist complexities. The witches themselves are terrifying and vile things, and always women... The book is often viewed as sexist, but that assessment ignores one of the heroines of the story, the child narrator's grandmother."
Receiving the 1983 World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement, Dahl encouraged his children and his readers to let their imagination run free. His daughter Lucy stated "his spirit was so large and so big he taught us to believe in magic." She said her father later told her that if they had simply said goodnight after a bedtime story, he assumed it wasn't a good idea. But if they begged him to continue, he knew he was on to something, and the story would sometimes turn into a book.
Those who don't believe in magic will never find it.
Dahl was also famous for his inventive, playful use of language, which was a key element to his writing. He invented over 500 new words by scribbling down his words before swapping letters around and adopting spoonerisms and malapropisms. The lexicographer Susan Rennie stated that Dahl built his new words on familiar sounds, adding:
He didn't always explain what his words meant, but children can work them out because they often sound like a word they know, and he loved using onomatopoeia. For example, you know that something lickswishy and delumptious is good to eat, whereas something uckyslush or rotsome is definitely not! He also used sounds that children love to say, like squishous and squizzle, or fizzlecrump and fizzwiggler.
As marketing director of Penguin Books in the 1980s, Barry Cunningham travelled the UK with Dahl on a promotional book tour, during which he asked Dahl what was the secret of his success; Dahl responded by saying that "the thing you've got to remember, is that humour is delayed fear, laughter is delayed fear." Cunningham later recollected, "if you look at the way he uses humour and the way that children use humour, perhaps sometimes it's the only weapon they have against terrifying circumstances or people. That's very indicative of his stories and the style of those stories."
A UK television special titled Roald Dahl's Revolting Rule Book, which was hosted by Richard E. Grant and aired on ITV on 22 September 2007, commemorated Dahl's 90th birthday and also celebrated his impact as a children's author in popular culture. It also featured eight main rules he applied on all his children's books:
Just add chocolate
Adults can be scary
Bad things happen
Revenge is sweet
Keep a wicked sense of humour
Pick perfect pictures
Films are fun...but books are better!
Food is fun!
In 2016, marking the centenary of Dahl's birth, Rennie compiled The Oxford Roald Dahl Dictionary which includes many of his invented words and their meaning. Rennie commented that some of Dahl's words have already escaped his world, for example, Scrumdiddlyumptious: "Food that is utterly delicious". In his poetry, Dahl gives a humorous re-interpretation of well-known nursery rhymes and fairy tales, parodying the narratives and providing surprise endings in place of the traditional happily-ever-after. Dahl's collection of poems, Revolting Rhymes, is recorded in audiobook form, and narrated by actor Alan Cumming.
In 2023, Puffin Books, which holds the rights to all Dahl's children's books, published editions which included hundreds of revisions to the text at the advice of sensitivity readers. Changes included the use of gender-neutral words and phrases such as "parents" or "siblings" rather than "boys and girls", "mothers and fathers", the word "fat" being replaced with terms such as "enormous" or "large", and words like "crazy" and "mad" were regularly removed. The move was supported by a number of authors, including Society of Authors chair Joanne Harris and Diego Jourdan Pereira at Writer's Digest, but it drew many more critical responses. Several public figures, including then-Prime Minister Rishi Sunak and author Salman Rushdie, spoke out against the changes. It was reported that when Dahl was alive, he had spoken out very strongly against any changes ever being made to any of his books. On 23 February 2023, Puffin announced it would release an unedited selection of Dahl's children's books as 'The Roald Dahl Classic Collection', stating, "We've listened to the debate over the past week which has reaffirmed the extraordinary power of Roald Dahl's books" and "recognise the importance of keeping Dahl's classic texts in print".
=== Screenplays ===
For a brief period in the 1960s, Dahl wrote screenplays. Two, the James Bond film You Only Live Twice and Chitty Chitty Bang Bang, were adaptations of novels by Ian Fleming. Dahl also began adapting his own novel Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, which was completed and rewritten by David Seltzer after Dahl failed to meet deadlines, and produced as the film Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory (1971). Dahl later disowned the film, saying he was "disappointed" because "he thought it placed too much emphasis on Willy Wonka and not enough on Charlie". He was also "infuriated" by the deviations in the plot devised by David Seltzer in his draft of the screenplay. This resulted in his refusal for any more versions of the book to be made in his lifetime.
He wrote the script for a film that began filming but was abandoned, Death, Where is Thy Sting-a-ling-ling?.
=== Influences ===
A major part of Dahl's literary influences stemmed from his childhood. In his younger days, he was an avid reader, especially awed by fantastic tales of heroism and triumph. He met his idol, Beatrix Potter, when he was six years old. His other favourite authors included Rudyard Kipling, Charles Dickens, William Makepeace Thackeray and former Royal Navy officer Frederick Marryat, and their works made a lasting mark on his life and writing. He named Marryat's Mr Midshipman Easy as his favourite novel. Joe Sommerlad in The Independent writes, "Dahl's novels are often dark affairs, filled with cruelty, bereavement and Dickensian adults prone to gluttony and sadism. The author clearly felt compelled to warn his young readers about the evils of the world, taking the lesson from earlier fairy tales that they could stand hard truths and would be the stronger for hearing them."
Dahl was also influenced by Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. The "Drink Me" episode in Alice inspired a scene in Dahl's George's Marvellous Medicine where a tyrannical grandmother drinks a potion and is blown up to the size of a farmhouse. Finding too many distractions in his house, Dahl remembered the poet Dylan Thomas had found a peaceful shed to write in close to home. Dahl travelled to visit Thomas's hut in Carmarthenshire, Wales in the 1950s and, after taking a look inside, decided to make a replica of it to write in. Appearing on BBC Radio 4's Desert Island Discs in October 1979, Dahl named Thomas "the greatest poet of our time", and as one of his eight chosen records selected Thomas's reading of his poem "Fern Hill".
Dahl liked ghost stories, and claimed that Trolls by Jonas Lie was one of the finest ghost stories ever written. While he was still a youngster, his mother, Sofie Dahl, related traditional Norwegian myths and legends from her native homeland to Dahl and his sisters. Dahl always maintained that his mother and her stories had a strong influence on his writing. In one interview, he mentioned: "She was a great teller of tales. Her memory was prodigious and nothing that ever happened to her in her life was forgotten." When Dahl started writing and publishing his famous books for children, he included a grandmother character in The Witches, and later said that she was based directly on his own mother as a tribute.
=== Television ===
In 1961, Dahl hosted and wrote for a science fiction and horror television anthology series called Way Out, which preceded the Twilight Zone series on the CBS network for 14 episodes from March to July. One of the last dramatic network shows shot in New York City, the entire series is available for viewing at The Paley Center for Media in New York City and Los Angeles. He also wrote for the satirical BBC comedy programme That Was the Week That Was, which was hosted by David Frost.
The British television series, Tales of the Unexpected, originally aired on ITV between 1979 and 1988. The series was released to tie in with Dahl's short story anthology of the same name, which had introduced readers to many motifs that were common in his writing. The series was an anthology of different tales, initially based on Dahl's short stories. The stories were sometimes sinister, sometimes wryly comedic and usually had a twist ending. Dahl introduced on camera all the episodes of the first two series, which bore the full title Roald Dahl's Tales of the Unexpected.
== Death and legacy ==
Roald Dahl died on 23 November 1990, at the age of 74 of a rare cancer of the blood, myelodysplastic syndrome, in Oxford, and was buried in the cemetery at the Church of St Peter and St Paul, Great Missenden, Buckinghamshire, England. His obituary in The Times was titled "Death silences Pied Piper of the macabre". According to his granddaughter, the family gave him a "sort of Viking funeral". He was buried with his snooker cues, some burgundy, chocolates, HB pencils and a power saw. Today, children continue to leave toys and flowers by his grave.
In 1996, the Roald Dahl Children's Gallery was opened at the Buckinghamshire County Museum in Aylesbury, which is 10 miles (16 km) from Great Missenden. The main-belt asteroid 6223 Dahl, discovered by Czech astronomer Antonín Mrkos, was named in his memory in 1996.
In 2002, one of Cardiff Bay's modern landmarks, the Oval Basin plaza, was renamed Roald Dahl Plass. Plass is Norwegian for "place" or "square", alluding to the writer's Norwegian roots. There have also been calls from the public for a permanent statue of him to be erected in Cardiff. In 2016, the city celebrated the centenary of Dahl's birth in Llandaff. Welsh Arts organisations, including National Theatre Wales, Wales Millennium Centre and Literature Wales, came together for a series of events, titled Roald Dahl 100, including a Cardiff-wide City of the Unexpected, which marked his legacy.
Dahl's charitable commitments in the fields of neurology, haematology and literacy during his life have been continued by his widow since his death, through Roald Dahl's Marvellous Children's Charity, formerly known as the Roald Dahl Foundation. The charity provides care and support to seriously ill children and young people throughout Britain. In June 2005, the Roald Dahl Museum and Story Centre in the author's home village Great Missenden was officially opened by Cherie Blair, wife of then British Prime Minister Tony Blair, to celebrate the work of Roald Dahl and advance his work in literacy education. Over 50,000 visitors from abroad, mainly from Australia, Japan, the United States and Germany, travel to the village museum every year.
In 2008, the UK charity BookTrust and Children's Laureate Michael Rosen inaugurated The Roald Dahl Funny Prize, an annual award to authors of humorous children's fiction. On 14 September 2009 (the day after what would have been Dahl's 93rd birthday) the first blue plaque in his honour was unveiled in Llandaff. Rather than commemorating his place of birth, however, the plaque was erected on the wall of the former sweet shop (and site of "The Great Mouse Plot of 1924") that features in the first part of his autobiography Boy. It was unveiled by his widow Felicity and son Theo. In 2018, Weston-super-Mare, the town described by Dahl as a "seedy seaside resort", unveiled a blue plaque dedicated to him, on the site of the since-demolished boarding school Dahl attended, St Peter's. The anniversary of Dahl's birthday on 13 September is celebrated as "Roald Dahl Day" in Africa, the United Kingdom and Latin America.
In honour of Dahl, the Royal Gibraltar Post Office issued a set of four stamps in 2010 featuring Quentin Blake's original illustrations for four of the children's books written by Dahl during his long career; The BFG, The Twits, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, and Matilda. A set of six commemorative Royal Mail stamps was issued in 2012, featuring Blake's illustrations for Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, The Witches, The Twits, Matilda, Fantastic Mr Fox, and James and the Giant Peach.
Dahl's influence has extended beyond literary figures. For instance, the film director Tim Burton recalled from childhood "the second layer [after Dr. Seuss] of connecting to a writer who gets the idea of the modern fable—and the mixture of light and darkness, and not speaking down to kids, and the kind of politically incorrect humour that kids get. I've always liked that, and it's shaped everything I've felt that I've done." Steven Spielberg read The BFG to his children when they were young, stating the book celebrates the fact that it's OK to be different as well as to have an active imagination: "It's very important that we preserve the tradition of allowing young children to run free with their imaginations and magic and imagination are the same thing." Actress Scarlett Johansson named Fantastic Mr Fox one of the five books that made a difference to her.
Dahl has an incredibly distinctive style: his subversive, unpredictable plots, musical prose and caustic wit are impossible to imitate. And yet his stories have proved astonishingly malleable. Often adapted by equally idiosyncratic writers and directors, when translated onto stage and screen, his works seamlessly take on the impression of their new maker. Like in many of his stories, Dahl offers a narrative where troublemaking is rewarded, and games and tricks are more successful than following rules. Perhaps this, more than anything, is the reason why Dahl's stories excite the imagination of so many adults and children, and why so many storytellers across stage and screen can't resist remaking his tales in their own individual style. Right across his body of work, playfulness and inventiveness are always prized over boring qualities like obedience and deference. In Dahl's world, creative disruption is presented in such an appealing, delicious light, that you can't help but join in the fun.
Regarded as "one of the greatest storytellers for children of the 20th century", Dahl was named by The Times one of the 50 greatest British writers since 1945. He ranks amongst the world's best-selling fiction authors with sales estimated at over 300 million, and his books have been published in 63 languages. In 2000, Dahl topped the list of Britain's favourite authors. In 2003, four books by Dahl, led by Charlie and the Chocolate Factory at number 35, ranked among the Top 100 in The Big Read, a survey of the British public by the BBC to determine the "nation's best-loved novel" of all time. In surveys of British teachers, parents and students, Dahl is frequently ranked the best children's writer. He won the first three Australian BILBY Younger Readers Award; for Matilda, The BFG, and Charlie and the Chocolate Factory.
In a 2006 list for the Royal Society of Literature, Harry Potter creator J. K. Rowling named Charlie and the Chocolate Factory one of her top ten books every child should read. Critics have commented on the similarities between the Dursley family from Harry Potter and the nightmarish guardians seen in many of Dahl's books, such as Aunt Sponge and Aunt Spiker from James and the Giant Peach, Grandma from George's Marvellous Medicine, and the Wormwoods from Matilda. Barry Cunningham, who as publisher of Bloomsbury signed Rowling, cited his experiences travelling with Dahl in promotional book tours of the UK as helping him see the potential of Rowling's work, stating, "I think it was because I didn't come from a traditional background. I'd come from marketing and promotion. I'd seen how children relate to books". In 2012, Matilda was ranked number 30 among all-time best children's novels in a survey published by School Library Journal, a monthly with primarily US audience. The Top 100 included four books by Dahl, more than any other writer. The American magazine Time named three Dahl books in its list of the 100 Best Young-Adult Books of All Time, more than any other author. Dahl is one of the most borrowed authors in British libraries.
In 2012, Dahl was among the British cultural icons selected by artist Peter Blake to appear in a new version of his most famous artwork—the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band album cover—to celebrate the British cultural figures of his life he most admires. In 2016 Dahl's enduring popularity was proved by his ranking in Amazon's the top five best-selling children's authors on the online store over the last year, looking at sales in print and on the Kindle store. In a 2017 UK poll of the greatest authors, songwriters, artists and photographers, Dahl was named the greatest storyteller of all time, ranking ahead of Dickens, Shakespeare, Rowling and Spielberg. In 2017, the airline Norwegian announced Dahl's image would appear on the tail fin one of their Boeing 737-800 aircraft. He is one of the company's six "British tail fin heroes", joining Queen singer Freddie Mercury, England World Cup winning captain Bobby Moore, novelist Jane Austen, pioneering pilot Amy Johnson and aviation entrepreneur Freddie Laker.
In September 2021, Netflix acquired the Roald Dahl Story Company in a deal worth more than £500 million ($686 million). A film adaptation of Matilda the Musical was released by Netflix and Sony Pictures Releasing in December 2022, and the cast includes Emma Thompson as Miss Trunchbull. The next Dahl adaptation for Netflix, The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar, was released in September 2023, with its director Wes Anderson also adapting three additional Dahl short stories for Netflix in 2024.
== Filmography ==
=== Writing roles ===
=== Presenting roles ===
=== Non-presenting appearances ===
== Publications == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackie_Robinson | Jackie Robinson | Jack Roosevelt Robinson (January 31, 1919 – October 24, 1972) was an American professional baseball player who was the first African American to play in Major League Baseball (MLB) in the modern era. Robinson broke the color line when he started at first base for the Brooklyn Dodgers on April 15, 1947. The Dodgers signing Robinson heralded the end of racial segregation in professional baseball, which had relegated black players to the Negro leagues since the 1880s.
Born in Cairo, Georgia, Robinson was raised in Pasadena, California. A four-sport student athlete at Pasadena Junior College and the University of California, Los Angeles, he was better known for football than he was for baseball, becoming a star with the UCLA Bruins football team. Following his college career, Robinson was drafted for service during World War II, but was court-martialed for refusing to sit at the back of a segregated Army bus, eventually being honorably discharged. Afterwards, he signed with the Kansas City Monarchs of the Negro leagues, where he caught the eye of Branch Rickey, general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, who thought he would be the perfect candidate for breaking the MLB color line.
During his 10-year MLB career, Robinson won the inaugural Rookie of the Year Award in 1947, was an All-Star for six consecutive seasons from 1949 through 1954, and won the National League (NL) Most Valuable Player Award in 1949—the first Black player so honored. Robinson played in six World Series and contributed to the Dodgers' 1955 World Series championship. He was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962 in his first year of eligibility.
Robinson's character, his use of nonviolence, and his talent challenged the traditional basis of segregation that had then marked many other aspects of American life. He influenced the culture of and contributed significantly to the civil rights movement. Robinson also was the first Black television analyst in the MLB and the first Black vice president of a major American corporation, Chock full o'Nuts. In the 1960s, he helped establish the Freedom National Bank, a Black American-owned financial institution based in Harlem, New York. After his death in 1972, Robinson was posthumously awarded the Congressional Gold Medal and Presidential Medal of Freedom in recognition of his achievements on and off the field. In 1997, MLB retired his uniform number, 42, across all Major League teams; he was the first professional athlete in any sport to be so honored. MLB also adopted a new annual tradition, "Jackie Robinson Day", for the first time on April 15, 2004, on which every player on every team wears the number 42.
== Early life ==
=== Family and personal life ===
Jack Roosevelt Robinson was born on January 31, 1919, into a family of sharecroppers in Cairo, Georgia. He was the youngest of five children born to Mallie (née McGriff) and Jerry Robinson, after siblings Edgar, Frank, Matthew (nicknamed "Mack"), and Willa Mae. His middle name honored former President Theodore Roosevelt, who died 25 days before Robinson was born. After Robinson's father left the family in 1920, they moved to Pasadena, California.
The extended Robinson family established itself on a residential plot containing two small houses at 121 Pepper Street in Pasadena. Robinson's mother worked various odd jobs to support the family. Growing up in relative poverty in an otherwise affluent community, Robinson and his minority friends were excluded from many recreational opportunities. As a result, Robinson joined a neighborhood gang, but his friend Carl Anderson persuaded him to abandon it.
=== John Muir High School ===
In 1935, Robinson graduated from Washington Junior High School and enrolled at John Muir Technical High School. Recognizing his athletic talents, Robinson's older brothers, Frank and Mack (himself an accomplished track and field athlete and silver medalist behind Jesse Owens in the 200 meters at the Berlin 1936 Summer Olympics) inspired Jackie to pursue his interest in sports.
At Muir Tech, Robinson played numerous sports at the varsity level and lettered in four of them: football, basketball, track and field, and baseball. He played shortstop and catcher on the baseball team, quarterback on the football team, and guard on the basketball team. With the track and field squad, he won awards in the broad jump. He was also a member of the tennis team.
In 1936, Robinson won the junior boys singles championship in the annual Pacific Coast Negro Tennis Tournament and earned a place on the Pomona annual baseball tournament all-star team, which included future Hall of Famers Ted Williams and Bob Lemon. In late January 1937, the Pasadena Star-News newspaper reported that Robinson "for two years has been the outstanding athlete at Muir, starring in football, basketball, track, baseball, and tennis."
== College career ==
After Muir, Robinson attended Pasadena Junior College (PJC), where he continued his athletic career by participating in basketball, football, baseball, and track. On the football team, he played quarterback and safety. He was a shortstop and leadoff hitter for the baseball team, and he broke an American junior college broad-jump record held by his brother Mack with a jump of 25 ft. 6+1⁄2 in. on May 7, 1938. As at Muir High School, most of Jackie's teammates were white. While playing football at PJC, Robinson suffered a fractured ankle, complications from which would eventually delay his deployment status while in the military. In 1938, he was elected to the All-Southland Junior College Team for baseball and selected as the region's Most Valuable Player.
That year, Robinson was one of 10 students named to the school's Order of the Mast and Dagger (Omicron Mu Delta), awarded to students performing "outstanding service to the school and whose scholastic and citizenship record is worthy of recognition." Also while at PJC, he was elected to the Lancers, a student-run police organization responsible for patrolling various school activities.
An incident at PJC illustrated Robinson's impatience with authority figures he perceived as racist, a character trait that would resurface repeatedly in his life. On January 25, 1938, he was arrested after vocally disputing the detention of a black friend by police. Robinson received a two-year suspended sentence, but the incident—along with other rumored run-ins between Robinson and police—gave Robinson a reputation for combativeness in the face of racial antagonism. While at PJC, he was motivated by a preacher (the Rev. Karl Downs) to attend church on a regular basis, and Downs became a confidant for Robinson, a Christian. Toward the end of his PJC tenure, Frank Robinson (to whom Robinson felt closest among his three brothers) was killed in a motorcycle accident. The event motivated Jackie to pursue his athletic career at the nearby University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), where he could remain closer to Frank's family.
After graduating from PJC in spring 1939, Robinson enrolled at UCLA, where he became the school's first athlete to win varsity letters in four sports: baseball, basketball, football, and track.
Robinson was one of four black players on the Bruins' 1939 football team; the others were Woody Strode, Kenny Washington, and Ray Bartlett. Washington, Strode, and Robinson made up three of the team's four backfield players. At a time when only a few black students played mainstream college football, this made UCLA college football's most integrated team. They went undefeated with four ties at 6–0–4. Robinson finished the season with 12.2 yards per attempt on 42 carries, which is the school football record for highest rushing yards per carry in a season as of 2022. Robinson also led the NCAA in punt return average in the 1939 and 1940 seasons.
In track and field, Robinson won the 1940 NCAA championship in the long jump at 24 ft 10+1⁄4 in (7.58 m). Baseball was Robinson's "worst sport" at UCLA; he hit .097 in his only season, although in his first game he went 4-for-4 and twice stole home.
While a senior at UCLA, Robinson met his future wife, Rachel Isum (b.1922), a UCLA freshman who was familiar with Robinson's athletic career at PJC. He played football as a senior, but the 1940 Bruins won only one game. In the spring, Robinson left college just shy of graduation, despite the reservations of his mother and Isum. He took a job as an assistant athletic director with the government's National Youth Administration (NYA) in Atascadero, California.
After the government ceased NYA operations, Robinson traveled to Honolulu in the fall of 1941 to play football for the semi-professional, racially integrated Honolulu Bears. After a short season, Robinson returned to California in December 1941 to pursue a career as running back for the Los Angeles Bulldogs of the Pacific Coast Football League. By that time, however, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor had taken place, which drew the United States into World War II and ended Robinson's nascent football career.
== Military career ==
In 1942, Robinson was drafted and assigned to a segregated Army cavalry unit at Fort Riley, Kansas. Having the requisite qualifications, Robinson and several other black soldiers applied for admission to an Officer Candidate School (OCS) then located at Fort Riley.
Although the Army's initial July 1941 guidelines for OCS had been drafted as race-neutral, few black applicants were admitted into OCS until after subsequent directives by Army leadership. The applications of Robinson and his colleagues were delayed for several months. After protests by heavyweight boxing champion Joe Louis (then stationed at Fort Riley) and with the help of Truman Gibson (then an assistant civilian aide to the Secretary of War), the men were accepted into OCS. The experience led to a personal friendship between Robinson and Louis. Upon finishing OCS, Robinson was commissioned as a second lieutenant in January 1943. Shortly afterward, Robinson and Isum were formally engaged.
After receiving his commission, Robinson was reassigned to Fort Hood, Texas, where he joined the 761st "Black Panthers" Tank Battalion. While at Fort Hood, Robinson often used his weekend leave to visit the Rev. Karl Downs, President of Sam Huston College (now Huston–Tillotson University) in nearby Austin, Texas; in California, Downs had been Robinson's pastor at Scott United Methodist Church while Robinson attended PJC.
An event on July 6, 1944, derailed Robinson's military career. While awaiting results of hospital tests on the ankle he had injured in junior college, Robinson boarded an Army bus with a fellow officer's wife; although the Army had commissioned its own unsegregated bus line, the bus driver ordered Robinson to move to the back of the bus. Robinson refused. The driver backed down, but after reaching the end of the line, summoned the military police, who took Robinson into custody. When Robinson later confronted the investigating duty officer about racist questioning by the officer and his assistant, the officer recommended Robinson be court-martialed.
After Robinson's commander in the 761st, Paul L. Bates, refused to authorize the legal action, Robinson was summarily transferred to the 758th Battalion—where the commander quickly consented to charge Robinson with multiple offenses, including, among other charges, public drunkenness, even though Robinson did not drink.
By the time of the court-martial in August 1944, the charges against Robinson had been reduced to two counts of insubordination during questioning. Robinson was acquitted by an all-white panel of nine officers.
Although his former unit, the 761st Tank Battalion, became the first black tank unit to see combat in World War II, Robinson's court-martial proceedings prohibited him from being deployed overseas, and he was never in combat.
After his acquittal, he was transferred to Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky, where he served as a coach for army athletics until receiving an honorable discharge in November 1944. While there, Robinson met a former player for the Kansas City Monarchs of the Negro American League, who encouraged Robinson to write the Monarchs and ask for a tryout. Robinson took the former player's advice and wrote to Monarchs co-owner Thomas Baird.
== Post-military ==
After his discharge, Robinson briefly returned to his old football club, the Los Angeles Bulldogs. Robinson then accepted an offer from his old friend and pastor Rev. Karl Downs to be the athletic director at Samuel Huston College in Austin, then of the Southwestern Athletic Conference. The job included coaching the school's basketball team for the 1944–45 season. As it was a fledgling program, few students tried out for the basketball team, and Robinson even resorted to inserting himself into the lineup for exhibition games. Although his teams were outmatched by opponents, Robinson was respected as a disciplinarian coach, and drew the admiration of, among others, Langston University basketball player Marques Haynes, a future member of the Harlem Globetrotters.
== Professional career ==
=== Negro leagues and major league prospects ===
In early 1945, while Robinson was at Sam Huston College, the Kansas City Monarchs sent him a written offer to play professional baseball in the Negro leagues. Robinson accepted a contract for $400 per month (equivalent to about $7,200 per month today). Although he played well for the Monarchs, Robinson was frustrated with the experience. He had grown used to a structured playing environment in college, and the Negro leagues' disorganization and embrace of gambling interests appalled him. The hectic travel schedule also placed a burden on his relationship with Isum, with whom he could now communicate only by letter. In all, Robinson played 47 games at shortstop for the Monarchs, hitting .387 with five home runs, and registering 13 stolen bases. He also appeared in the 1945 East–West All-Star Game, going hitless in five at-bats.
During the season, Robinson pursued potential major league interests. No black man had played in the major leagues since Moses Fleetwood Walker in 1884, but the Boston Red Sox nevertheless held a tryout at Fenway Park for Robinson and other black players on April 16. The tryout, however, was a farce chiefly designed to assuage the desegregationist sensibilities of powerful Boston City Councilman Isadore H. Y. Muchnick. Even with the stands limited to management, Robinson was subjected to racial epithets. He left the tryout humiliated, and more than 14 years later, in July 1959, the Red Sox became the final major league team to integrate its roster.
Other teams, however, had more serious interest in signing a black ballplayer. In the mid-1940s, Branch Rickey, club president and general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, began to scout the Negro leagues for a possible addition to the Dodgers' roster. Rickey selected Robinson from a list of promising black players and interviewed him for possible assignment to Brooklyn's International League farm club, the Montreal Royals. Rickey was especially interested in making sure his eventual signee could withstand the inevitable racial abuse that would be directed at him. In a famous three-hour exchange on August 28, 1945, Rickey asked Robinson if he could face the racial animus without taking the bait and reacting angrily—a concern given Robinson's prior arguments with law enforcement officials at PJC and in the military. Robinson was aghast: "Are you looking for a Negro who is afraid to fight back?" Rickey replied that he needed a Negro player "with guts enough not to fight back." After obtaining a commitment from Robinson to "turn the other cheek" to racial antagonism, Rickey agreed to sign him to a contract for $600 per month (equivalent to about $10,700 per month today). Rickey did not offer compensation to the Monarchs, instead believing all Negro league players were free agents due to the contracts not containing a reserve clause. Among those with whom Rickey discussed prospects was Wendell Smith, writer for the black weekly Pittsburgh Courier, who, according to Cleveland Indians owner and team president Bill Veeck, "influenced Rickey to take Jack Robinson, for which he's never completely gotten credit."
Although he required Robinson to keep the arrangement a secret for the time being, Rickey committed to formally signing Robinson before November 1, 1945. On October 23, it was publicly announced that Robinson would be assigned to the Royals for the 1946 season. On the same day, with representatives of the Royals and Dodgers present, Robinson formally signed his contract with the Royals. In what was later referred to as "The Noble Experiment", Robinson was the first black baseball player in the International League since the 1880s. He was not necessarily the best player in the Negro leagues, and black talents Satchel Paige and Josh Gibson were upset when Robinson was selected first. Larry Doby, who broke the color line in the American League the same year as Robinson, said, "One of the things that was disappointing and disheartening to a lot of the black players at the time was that Jack was not the best player. The best was Josh Gibson. I think that's one of the reasons why Josh died so early—he was heartbroken."
Rickey's offer allowed Robinson to leave behind the Monarchs and their grueling bus rides, and he went home to Pasadena. That September, he signed with Chet Brewer's Kansas City Royals, a post-season barnstorming team in the California Winter League. Later that off-season, he briefly toured South America with another barnstorming team, while his fiancée Isum pursued nursing opportunities in New York City. On February 10, 1946, Robinson and Isum were married by their old friend, the Rev. Karl Downs.
=== Minor leagues ===
In 1946, Robinson arrived at Daytona Beach, Florida, for spring training with the Montreal Royals of the Class AAA International League. Clay Hopper, the manager of the Royals, asked Rickey to assign Robinson to any other Dodger affiliate, but Rickey refused.
Robinson's presence was controversial in racially segregated Florida. He was not allowed to stay with his white teammates at the team hotel, and instead lodged at the home of Joe and Dufferin Harris, a politically active African-American couple who introduced the Robinsons to civil rights activist Mary McLeod Bethune. Since the Dodgers organization did not own a spring training facility, scheduling was subject to the whim of area localities, several of which turned down any event involving Robinson or Johnny Wright, another black player whom Rickey had signed to the Dodgers' organization in January. In Sanford, Florida, the police chief threatened to cancel games if Robinson and Wright did not cease training activities there; as a result, Robinson was sent back to Daytona Beach. In Jacksonville, the stadium was padlocked shut without warning on game day, by order of the city's Parks and Public Property director. In DeLand, a scheduled day game was postponed, ostensibly because of issues with the stadium's electrical lighting.
After much lobbying of local officials by Rickey himself, the Royals were allowed to host a game involving Robinson in Daytona Beach. Robinson made his Royals debut at Daytona Beach's City Island Ballpark on March 17, 1946, in an exhibition game against the team's parent club, the Dodgers. Robinson thus became the first black player to openly play for a minor league team against a major league team since the de facto baseball color line had been implemented in the 1880s.
Later in spring training, after some less-than-stellar performances, Robinson was shifted from shortstop to second base, allowing him to make shorter throws to first base. Robinson's performance soon rebounded. On April 18, 1946, Roosevelt Stadium hosted the Jersey City Giants' season opener against the Montreal Royals, marking the professional debut of the Royals' Jackie Robinson and the first time the color barrier had been broken in a game between two minor league clubs. Pitching against Robinson was Warren Sandel who had played against him when they both lived in California. During Robinson's first at bat, the Jersey City catcher, Dick Bouknight, demanded that Sandel throw at Robinson, but Sandel refused. Although Sandel induced Robinson to ground out at his first at bat, Robinson ended up with four hits in his five at bats; his first hit was a three-run home run in the game's third inning. He also scored four runs, drove in three, and stole two bases in the Royals' 14–1 victory. Robinson proceeded to lead the International League that season with a .349 batting average and .985 fielding percentage, and he was named the league's Most Valuable Player. Although he often faced hostility while on road trips (the Royals were forced to cancel a Southern exhibition tour, for example), in Canada, the Montreal fan base enthusiastically supported Robinson. Whether fans supported or opposed it, Robinson's presence on the field was a boon to attendance; more than one million people went to games involving Robinson in 1946, an astounding figure by International League standards. In the fall of 1946, following the baseball season, Robinson returned home to California and briefly played professional basketball for the short-lived Los Angeles Red Devils.
=== Brooklyn Dodgers (1947–1956) ===
==== Breaking the color barrier (1947) ====
In 1947, the Dodgers called Robinson up to the major leagues six days before the start of the season. With Eddie Stanky entrenched at second base for the Dodgers, Robinson played his initial major league season as a first baseman. Robinson made his debut as a Dodger wearing uniform number 42 on April 11, 1947, in a preseason exhibition game against the New York Yankees at Ebbets Field with 24,237 in attendance. On April 15, Robinson made his major league debut at the relatively advanced age of 28 at Ebbets Field before a crowd of 26,623 spectators, more than 14,000 of whom were black. Although he failed to get a base hit, he reached second on a throwing error and scored the winning run in the Dodgers' 5–3 victory. Robinson became the first player since 1884 to openly break the major league baseball color line. Black fans began flocking to see the Dodgers when they came to town, abandoning their Negro league teams.
Racial tension existed in the Dodger clubhouse. Some Dodger players insinuated they would sit out rather than play alongside Robinson. The brewing mutiny ended when Dodgers management took a stand for Robinson. Manager Leo Durocher informed the team, "I do not care if the guy is yellow or black, or if he has stripes like a fuckin' zebra. I'm the manager of this team, and I say he plays. What's more, I say he can make us all rich. And if any of you cannot use the money, I will see that you are all traded."
Robinson was also derided by opposing teams. According to a press report, the St. Louis Cardinals threatened to strike if Robinson played and spread the walkout across the entire National League. Existence of the plot was said to have been leaked by the Cardinals' team physician, Robert Hyland, to a friend, the New York Herald Tribune's Rud Rennie. The reporter, concerned about protecting Hyland's anonymity and job, in turn leaked it to his Tribune colleague and editor, Stanley Woodward, whose own subsequent reporting with other sources protected Hyland. The Woodward article made national headlines. After it was published, National League President Ford Frick and Baseball Commissioner Happy Chandler let it be known that any striking players would be suspended. "You will find that the friends that you think you have in the press box will not support you, that you will be outcasts," Frick was quoted as saying. "I do not care if half the league strikes. Those who do it will encounter quick retribution. All will be suspended and I don't care if it wrecks the National League for five years. This is the United States of America and one citizen has as much right to play as another." Woodward's article received the E. P. Dutton Award in 1947 for Best Sports Reporting. The Cardinals players denied that they were planning to strike, and Woodward later told author Roger Kahn that Frick was his true source; writer Warren Corbett said that Frick's speech "never happened". Regardless, the report led to Robinson receiving increased support from the sports media. Even The Sporting News, a publication that had backed the color line, came out against the idea of a strike.
Robinson nonetheless became the target of rough physical play by opponents (particularly the Cardinals). At one time, he received a seven-inch gash in his leg from Enos Slaughter. On April 22, 1947, during a game between the Dodgers and the Philadelphia Phillies, Phillies players and manager Ben Chapman called Robinson a "nigger" from their dugout and yelled that he should "go back to the cotton fields". Rickey later recalled that Chapman "did more than anybody to unite the Dodgers. When he poured out that string of unconscionable abuse, he solidified and united thirty men."
However, Robinson received significant encouragement from several major league players. Robinson named Lee "Jeep" Handley, who played for the Phillies at the time, as the first opposing player to wish him well. Dodgers teammate Pee Wee Reese once came to Robinson's defense with the famous line, "You can hate a man for many reasons. Color is not one of them." In 1947 or 1948, Reese is said to have put his arm around Robinson in response to fans who shouted racial slurs at Robinson before a game in Boston or Cincinnati. A statue by sculptor William Behrends, unveiled at KeySpan Park on November 1, 2005, depicts Reese with his arm around Robinson. Jewish baseball star Hank Greenberg, who had to deal with ethnic epithets during his career, also encouraged Robinson. Following an incident where Greenberg collided with Robinson at first base, he "whispered a few words into Robinson's ear", which Robinson later characterized as "words of encouragement". Greenberg had advised him to overcome his critics by defeating them in games. Robinson also talked frequently with Larry Doby, who endured his own hardships since becoming the first black player in the American League with the Cleveland Indians, as the two spoke to each other via telephone throughout the season.
Robinson finished the season having played in 151 games for the Dodgers, with a batting average of .297, an on-base percentage of .383, and a .427 slugging percentage. He had 175 hits (scoring 125 runs) including 31 doubles, 5 triples, and 12 home runs, driving in 48 runs for the year. Robinson led the league in sacrifice hits, with 28, and in stolen bases, with 29. His cumulative performance earned him the inaugural Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award (separate National and American League Rookie of the Year honors were not awarded until 1949).
That year, the Brooklyn Dodgers won the National League pennant and went on to face the Yankees in the 1947 World Series. Robinson became the first black player to play in the World Series. He appeared in all seven games, with the Dodgers ultimately losing in Game 7.
==== MVP, Congressional testimony, and film biography (1948–1950) ====
Following Stanky's trade to the Boston Braves in March 1948, Robinson took over second base, where he logged a .980 fielding percentage that year (second in the National League at the position, fractionally behind Stanky). Robinson had a batting average of .296 and 22 stolen bases for the season. In a 12–7 win against the St. Louis Cardinals on August 29, 1948, he hit for the cycle—a home run, a triple, a double, and a single in the same game. The Dodgers briefly moved into first place in the National League in late August 1948, but they ultimately finished third as the Braves went on to win the pennant and lose to the Cleveland Indians in the World Series.
Racial pressure on Robinson eased in 1948 when a number of other black players entered the major leagues. Larry Doby (who broke the color barrier in the American League on July 5, 1947, just 11 weeks after Robinson) and Satchel Paige played for the Cleveland Indians, and the Dodgers had three other black players besides Robinson. In February 1948, he signed a $12,500 contract (equal to $167,503 today) with the Dodgers; while a significant amount, this was less than Robinson made in the off-season from a vaudeville tour, where he answered pre-set baseball questions and a speaking tour of the South. Between the tours, he underwent surgery on his right ankle. Because of his off-season activities, Robinson reported to training camp 30 pounds (14 kg) overweight. He lost the weight during training camp, but dieting left him weak at the plate. In 1948, Wendell Smith's book, Jackie Robinson: My Own Story, was released.
In the spring of 1949, Robinson turned to Hall of Famer George Sisler, working as an advisor to the Dodgers, for batting help. At Sisler's suggestion, Robinson spent hours at a batting tee, learning to hit the ball to right field. Sisler taught Robinson to anticipate a fastball, on the theory that it is easier to subsequently adjust to a slower curveball. Robinson also noted that "Sisler showed me how to stop lunging, how to check my swing until the last fraction of a second". The tutelage helped Robinson raise his batting average from .296 in 1948 to .342 in 1949. In addition to his improved batting average, Robinson stole 37 bases that season, was second place in the league for both doubles and triples, and registered 124 runs batted in with 122 runs scored. For the performance Robinson earned the Most Valuable Player Award for the National League. Baseball fans also voted Robinson as the starting second baseman for the 1949 All-Star Game — the first All-Star Game to include black players.
That year, a song about Robinson by Buddy Johnson, "Did You See Jackie Robinson Hit That Ball?", reached number 13 on the charts; Count Basie recorded a famous version. Ultimately, the Dodgers won the National League pennant, but lost in five games to the New York Yankees in the 1949 World Series.
Summer 1949 brought an unwanted distraction for Robinson. In July, he was called to testify before the United States House of Representatives' Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) concerning statements made that April by black athlete and actor Paul Robeson. Robinson was reluctant to testify, but he eventually agreed to do so, fearing it might negatively affect his career if he declined.
In 1950, Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman with 133. His salary that year was the highest any Dodger had been paid to that point: $35,000 ($468,361 in 2025 dollars). He finished the year with 99 runs scored, a .328 batting average, and 12 stolen bases. The year saw the release of a film biography of Robinson's life, The Jackie Robinson Story, in which Robinson played himself, and actress Ruby Dee played Rachel "Rae" (Isum) Robinson. The project had been previously delayed when the film's producers refused to accede to demands of two Hollywood studios that the movie include scenes of Robinson being tutored in baseball by a white man. The New York Times wrote that Robinson, "doing that rare thing of playing himself in the picture's leading role, displays a calm assurance and composure that might be envied by many a Hollywood star."
Robinson's Hollywood exploits, however, did not sit well with Dodgers co-owner Walter O'Malley, who referred to Robinson as "Rickey's prima donna". In late 1950, Rickey's contract as the Dodgers' team President expired. Weary of constant disagreements with O'Malley, and with no hope of being re-appointed as President of the Dodgers, Rickey cashed out his one-quarter financial interest in the team, leaving O'Malley in full control of the franchise. Rickey shortly thereafter became general manager of the Pittsburgh Pirates. Robinson was disappointed at the turn of events and wrote a sympathetic letter to Rickey, whom he considered a father figure, stating, "Regardless of what happens to me in the future, it all can be placed on what you have done and, believe me, I appreciate it."
==== Pennant races and outside interests (1951–1953) ====
Before the 1951 season, O'Malley reportedly offered Robinson the job of manager of the Montreal Royals, effective at the end of Robinson's playing career. O'Malley was quoted in the Montreal Standard as saying, "Jackie told me that he would be both delighted and honored to tackle this managerial post"—although reports differed as to whether a position was ever formally offered.
During the 1951 season, Robinson led the National League in double plays made by a second baseman for the second year in a row, with 137. He also kept the Dodgers in contention for the 1951 pennant. During the last game of the regular season, in the 13th inning, he had a hit to tie the game and then hit a home run in the 14th inning, which proved to be the winning margin. This forced a best-of-three playoff series against the crosstown rival New York Giants.
Despite Robinson's regular-season heroics, on October 3, 1951, the Dodgers lost the pennant on Bobby Thomson's famous home run, known as the Shot Heard 'Round the World. Overcoming his dejection, Robinson dutifully observed Thomson's feet to ensure he touched all the bases. Dodgers sportscaster Vin Scully later noted that the incident showed "how much of a competitor Robinson was." He finished the season with 106 runs scored, a batting average of .335, and 25 stolen bases.
Robinson had what was an average year for him in 1952. He finished the year with 104 runs, a .308 batting average, and 24 stolen bases. He did, however, record a career-high on-base percentage of .436. The Dodgers improved on their performance from the year before, winning the National League pennant before losing the 1952 World Series to the New York Yankees in seven games. That year, on the television show Youth Wants to Know, Robinson challenged the Yankees' general manager, George Weiss, on the racial record of his team, which had yet to sign a black player. Sportswriter Dick Young, whom Robinson had described as a "bigot", said, "If there was one flaw in Jackie, it was the common one. He believed that everything unpleasant that happened to him happened because of his blackness." The 1952 season was the last year Robinson was an everyday starter at second base. Afterward, Robinson played variously at first, second, and third bases, shortstop, and in the outfield, with Jim Gilliam, another black player, taking over everyday second base duties. Robinson's interests began to shift toward the prospect of managing a major league team. He had hoped to gain experience by managing in the Puerto Rican Winter League, but according to the New York Post, Commissioner Happy Chandler denied the request.
In 1953, Robinson had 109 runs, a .329 batting average, and 17 steals, leading the Dodgers to another National League pennant (and another World Series loss to the Yankees, this time in six games). Robinson's continued success spawned a string of death threats. He was not dissuaded, however, from addressing racial issues publicly. That year, he served as editor for Our Sports magazine, a periodical focusing on Negro sports issues; contributions to the magazine included an article on golf course segregation by Robinson's old friend Joe Louis. Robinson also openly criticized segregated hotels and restaurants that served the Dodger organization; a number of these establishments integrated as a result, including the five-star Chase Park Hotel in St. Louis.
==== World Series championship and retirement (1954–1956) ====
In 1954, Robinson had 62 runs scored, a .311 batting average, and 7 steals. His best day at the plate was on June 17, when he hit two home runs and two doubles. The following autumn, Robinson won his only championship when the Dodgers defeated the New York Yankees in the 1955 World Series. Although the team enjoyed ultimate success, 1955 was the worst year of Robinson's individual career. He hit .256 and stole only 12 bases. The Dodgers tried Robinson in the outfield and as a third baseman, both because of his diminishing abilities and because Gilliam was established at second base. Robinson, then 36 years old, missed 49 games and did not play in Game 7 of the World Series. He missed the game because manager Walter Alston decided to play Gilliam at second and Don Hoak at third base. That season, the Dodgers' Don Newcombe became the first black major league pitcher to win twenty games in a year.
In 1956, Robinson had 61 runs scored, a .275 batting average, and 12 steals. By then, he had begun to exhibit the effects of diabetes and to lose interest in the prospect of playing or managing professional baseball. Robinson ended his major league career when he struck out to end Game 7 of the 1956 World Series. After the season, the Dodgers traded Robinson to the arch-rival New York Giants for Dick Littlefield and $35,000 cash (equal to $414,474 today). The trade, however, was never completed; unbeknownst to the Dodgers, Robinson had already agreed with the president of Chock full o'Nuts to quit baseball and become an executive with the company. Since Robinson had sold exclusive rights to any retirement story to Look magazine two years previously, his retirement decision was revealed through the magazine, instead of through the Dodgers organization.
== Legacy ==
Robinson's major league debut brought an end to approximately sixty years of segregation in professional baseball, known as the baseball color line. After World War II, several other forces were also leading the country toward increased equality for blacks, including their accelerated migration to the North, where their political clout grew, and President Harry Truman's desegregation of the military in 1948. Robinson's breaking of the baseball color line and his professional success symbolized these broader changes and demonstrated that the fight for equality was more than simply a political matter. Civil rights movement leader Martin Luther King Jr. said that he was "a legend and a symbol in his own time", and that he "challenged the dark skies of intolerance and frustration." According to historian Doris Kearns Goodwin, Robinson's "efforts were a monumental step in the civil-rights revolution in America ... [His] accomplishments allowed black and white Americans to be more respectful and open to one another and more appreciative of everyone's abilities."
Beginning his major league career at the relatively advanced age of 28, he played only ten seasons from 1947 to 1956, all of them for the Brooklyn Dodgers. During his career, the Dodgers played in six World Series, and Robinson himself played in six All-Star Games. In 1999, he was one of 30 players named to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team.
Robinson's career is generally considered to mark the beginning of the post–"long ball" era in baseball, in which a reliance on raw power-hitting gave way to balanced offensive strategies that used footspeed to create runs through aggressive baserunning. Robinson exhibited the combination of hitting ability and speed which exemplified the new era. He scored more than 100 runs in six of his ten seasons (averaging more than 110 runs from 1947 to 1953), had a .311 career batting average, a .409 career on-base percentage, a .474 slugging percentage, and substantially more walks than strikeouts (740 to 291). Robinson was one of only two players during the span of 1947–56 to accumulate at least 125 steals while registering a slugging percentage over .425 (Minnie Miñoso was the other). He accumulated 197 stolen bases in total, including 19 steals of home. None of the latter were double steals (in which a player stealing home is assisted by a player stealing another base at the same time). Robinson has been referred to by author David Falkner as "the father of modern base-stealing".
Historical statistical analysis indicates Robinson was an outstanding fielder throughout his ten years in the major leagues and at virtually every position he played. After playing his rookie season at first base, Robinson spent most of his career as a second baseman. He led the league in fielding among second basemen in 1950 and 1951. Toward the end of his career, he played about 2,000 innings at third base and about 1,175 innings in the outfield, excelling at both.
Assessing himself, Robinson said, "I'm not concerned with your liking or disliking me ... all I ask is that you respect me as a human being." Regarding Robinson's qualities on the field, Leo Durocher said, "You want a guy that comes to play. But he didn't just come to play. He came to beat you. He came to stuff the damn bat right up your ass."
=== Portrayals on stage, film and television ===
Robinson portrayed himself in the 1950 motion picture The Jackie Robinson Story.
Other portrayals include:
John Lafayette, in the 1978 ABC television special "A Home Run for Love" (broadcast as an ABC Afterschool Special).
David Alan Grier, in the 1981 Broadway production of the musical The First.
Michael-David Gordon, in the 1989 Off-Broadway production of the musical Play to Win.
Sterling Macer Jr. in the 1989 Edward Schmidt play Mr. Rickey Calls a Meeting, a fictionalized version of the meeting in which Branch Rickey offered Robinson a major-league contract.
Andre Braugher, in the 1990 TNT television movie The Court-Martial of Jackie Robinson.
Blair Underwood, in the 1996 HBO television movie Soul of the Game.
Antonio Todd in "Colors", a 2005 episode of the CBS television series Cold Case.
Chadwick Boseman, in the 2013 motion picture 42.
Robert Hamilton in "Sundown", a 2020 episode of the HBO television series Lovecraft Country.
Robinson was also the subject of a 2016 PBS documentary, Jackie Robinson, which was directed by Ken Burns and features Jamie Foxx doing voice-over as Robinson.
== Post-baseball life ==
Robinson once told future Hall of Fame inductee Hank Aaron that "the game of baseball is great, but the greatest thing is what you do after your career is over." Robinson retired from baseball at age 37 on January 5, 1957. Later that year, after he complained of numerous physical ailments, he was diagnosed with diabetes, a disease that also afflicted his brothers. Although Robinson adopted an insulin injection regimen, the state of medicine at the time could not prevent the continued deterioration of Robinson's physical condition from the disease.
In October 1959, Robinson entered the Greenville Municipal Airport's whites-only waiting room. Airport police asked Robinson to leave, but he refused. At a National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) speech in Greenville, South Carolina, Robinson urged "complete freedom" and encouraged black citizens to vote and to protest their second-class citizenship. The following January, approximately 1,000 people marched on New Year's Day to the airport, which was desegregated shortly thereafter.
In his first year of eligibility for the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962, Robinson encouraged voters to consider only his on-field qualifications, rather than his cultural impact on the game. He was elected on the first ballot, becoming the first Black American player inducted into the Cooperstown museum.
In 1965, Robinson served as an analyst for ABC's Major League Baseball Game of the Week telecasts, the first Black American to do so. In 1966, Robinson was hired as general manager for the short-lived Brooklyn Dodgers of the Continental Football League. In 1972, he served as a part-time commentator on Montreal Expos telecasts.
From 1957 to 1964, Robinson was the vice president for personnel at Chock full o'Nuts; he was the first Black American to serve as vice president of a major American corporation. Robinson always considered his business career as advancing the cause of black people in commerce and industry. He also chaired the NAACP's million-dollar Freedom Fund Drive in 1957, and served on the organization's board until 1967. In 1964, he helped found, with Harlem businessman Dunbar McLaurin, Freedom National Bank—a Black-owned and operated commercial bank based in Harlem. He also served as the bank's first chairman of the board. In 1970, Robinson established the Jackie Robinson Construction Company to build housing for low-income families.
Robinson was active in politics throughout his post-baseball life. He identified himself as a political independent, although he held conservative opinions on several issues, including the Vietnam War (he once wrote to Martin Luther King Jr. to defend the Johnson Administration's military policy). After supporting Richard Nixon in his 1960 presidential race against John F. Kennedy, Robinson later praised Kennedy effusively for his stance on civil rights. Robinson was angered by the 1964 presidential election candidacy of conservative Republican Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona, who had opposed the Civil Rights Act of 1964. He became one of six national directors for Nelson Rockefeller's unsuccessful campaign to be nominated as the Republican candidate for the election. After the party nominated Goldwater instead, Robinson left the party's convention commenting that he now had "a better understanding of how it must have felt to be a Jew in Hitler's Germany". He later became special assistant for community affairs when Rockefeller was re-elected governor of New York in 1966 and in 1971 was appointed to the New York State Athletic Commission by Rockefeller. In 1968, he broke with the Republican party and supported Hubert Humphrey against Nixon in that year's presidential election.
Robinson protested against the major leagues' ongoing lack of minority managers and central office personnel, and he turned down an invitation to appear in an old-timers' game at Yankee Stadium in 1969. He made his final public appearance on October 15, 1972, nine days before his death, throwing the ceremonial first pitch before Game 2 of the World Series at Riverfront Stadium in Cincinnati. He gratefully accepted a plaque honoring the twenty-fifth anniversary of his MLB debut, but also commented, "I'm going to be tremendously more pleased and more proud when I look at that third base coaching line one day and see a Black face managing in baseball." This wish was only fulfilled after Robinson's death: following the 1974 season, the Cleveland Indians gave their managerial post to Frank Robinson (no relation to Jackie), a Hall of Fame-bound player who would go on to manage three other teams. Despite the success of these two Robinsons and other Black players, the number of Black American players in Major League Baseball has declined since the 1970s.
== Family life and death ==
After Robinson's retirement from baseball, his wife Rachel Robinson pursued a career in academic nursing. She became an assistant professor at the Yale School of Nursing and director of nursing at the Connecticut Mental Health Center. She also served on the board of the Freedom National Bank until it closed in 1990. She and Jackie had three children: Jackie Robinson Jr. (1946–1971), Sharon Robinson (b. 1950), and David Robinson (b. 1952).
Robinson's eldest son, Jackie Robinson Jr., had emotional trouble during his childhood and entered special education at an early age. He enlisted in the Army in search of a disciplined environment, served in the Vietnam War, and was wounded in action on November 19, 1965. After his discharge, he struggled with drug problems. Robinson Jr. eventually completed the treatment program at Daytop Village in Seymour, Connecticut, and became a counselor at the institution. On June 17, 1971, he was killed in an automobile accident at age 24. The experience with his son's drug addiction turned Robinson Sr. into an avid anti-drug crusader toward the end of his life.
Robinson did not outlive his son by very long. In 1968, he suffered a heart attack. Complications from heart disease and diabetes weakened Robinson and made him almost blind by middle age. On October 24, 1972, Robinson died of a heart attack at his home at 95 Cascade Road in North Stamford, Connecticut; he was 53 years old. Robinson's funeral service on October 27, 1972, at Upper Manhattan's Riverside Church in Morningside Heights, attracted 2,500 mourners. Many of his former teammates, other famous baseball players, and basketball star Bill Russell served as pallbearers, and the Rev. Jesse Jackson gave the eulogy. Tens of thousands of people lined the subsequent procession route to Robinson's interment site at Cypress Hills Cemetery in Brooklyn, where he was buried next to his son Jackie and mother-in-law Zellee Isum. Twenty-five years after Robinson's death, the Interboro Parkway was renamed the Jackie Robinson Parkway in his memory. This parkway bisects the cemetery in close proximity to Robinson's gravesite.
After Robinson's death, his widow founded the Jackie Robinson Foundation, and at 103 years old, she remains an officer as of 2025. On April 15, 2008, she announced that in 2010 the foundation would open a museum devoted to Jackie in Lower Manhattan. Robinson's daughter, Sharon, became a midwife, educator, director of educational programming for MLB, and the author of two books about her father. His youngest son, David, who has ten children, is a coffee grower and social activist in Tanzania.
== Awards and recognition ==
On June 4, 1972, the Dodgers retired Robinson's uniform number, 42, alongside those of former teammates Roy Campanella (39) and Sandy Koufax (32). In 2017, a statue of Robinson, created by sculptor Branly Cadet, was unveiled at Dodger Stadium. It was the first statue the Dodgers ever unveiled.
In 1999, Robinson was named by Time on its list of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century. That same year, he was one of 30 players elected to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team. That same year, he was ranked No. 44 on The Sporting News list of "Baseball's 100 Greatest Players" in 1999. In 2020, The Athletic ranked Robinson at number 42 on its "Baseball 100" list, complied by sportswriter Joe Posnanski.
Baseball writer Bill James, in The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract, ranked Robinson as the 32nd greatest player of all time strictly on the basis of his performance on the field, noting that he was one of the top players in the league throughout his career. Robinson was among the 25 charter members of UCLA's Athletics Hall of Fame in 1984. In 1993, he was inducted into the National High School Hall of Fame. In 2002, Molefi Kete Asante included Robinson on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.
The City of Pasadena has recognized Robinson with a baseball diamond and stadium named Jackie Robinson Field in Brookside Park next to the Rose Bowl, and with the Jackie Robinson Center (a community outreach center providing health services). In 1997, a $325,000 bronze sculpture (equal to $651,819 today) called the Pasadena Robinson Memorial by artists Ralph Helmick, Stu Schecter, and John Outterbridge depicting oversized nine-foot busts of Robinson and his brother Mack was erected at Garfield Avenue, across from the main entrance of Pasadena City Hall; a granite footprint lists multiple donors to the commission project, which was organized by the Robinson Memorial Foundation and supported by members of the Robinson family.
Major League Baseball has honored Robinson many times since his death. In 1987, both the National and American League Rookie of the Year Awards were renamed the "Jackie Robinson Award" in honor of the first recipient (Robinson's Major League Rookie of the Year Award in 1947 encompassed both leagues).
On April 15, 1997, Robinson's jersey number, 42, was retired throughout Major League Baseball, the first time any jersey number had been retired throughout one of the four major American sports leagues. Under the terms of the retirement, a grandfather clause allowed the handful of players who wore number 42 to continue doing so in tribute to Robinson, until such time as they subsequently changed teams or jersey numbers. This affected players such as the Mets' Butch Huskey and Boston's Mo Vaughn. The Yankees' Mariano Rivera, who retired at the end of the 2013 season, was the last player in Major League Baseball to wear jersey number 42 on a regular basis. Since 1997, only Wayne Gretzky's number 99, retired by the NHL in 2000, and Bill Russell's number 6, retired by the NBA in 2022, have been retired league-wide in any of the four major sports.
As an exception to the retired-number policy, MLB began honoring Robinson by allowing players to wear number 42 on April 15, Jackie Robinson Day, which is an annual observance that started in 2004. For the 60th anniversary of Robinson's major league debut, MLB invited players to wear the number 42 on Jackie Robinson Day in 2007. The gesture was originally the idea of outfielder Ken Griffey Jr., who sought Rachel Robinson's permission to wear the number. After Griffey received her permission, Commissioner Bud Selig not only allowed Griffey to wear the number, but also extended an invitation to all major league teams to do the same. Ultimately, more than 200 players wore number 42, including the entire rosters of the Los Angeles Dodgers, New York Mets, Houston Astros, Philadelphia Phillies, St. Louis Cardinals, Milwaukee Brewers, and Pittsburgh Pirates. The tribute was continued in 2008, when, during games on April 15, all members of the Mets, Cardinals, Washington Nationals, and Tampa Bay Rays wore Robinson's number 42. On June 25, 2008, MLB installed a new plaque for Robinson at the Baseball Hall of Fame commemorating his off-the-field impact on the game as well as his playing statistics. In 2009, all of MLB's uniformed personnel (including players) wore number 42 on April 15; this tradition has continued every year since on that date.
At the November 2006 groundbreaking for Citi Field, the new ballpark for the New York Mets, it was announced that the main entrance, modeled on the one in Brooklyn's old Ebbets Field, would be called the Jackie Robinson Rotunda. The rotunda was dedicated at the opening of Citi Field on April 16, 2009. It honors Robinson with large quotations spanning the inner curve of the facade and features a large freestanding statue of his number, 42, which has become an attraction in itself. Mets owner Fred Wilpon announced that the Mets—in conjunction with Citigroup and the Jackie Robinson Foundation—would create the Jackie Robinson Museum and Learning Center, located at the headquarters of the Jackie Robinson Foundation at One Hudson Square, along Canal Street in lower Manhattan. Along with the museum, scholarships will be awarded to "young people who live by and embody Jackie's ideals." The museum opened in 2022. The New York Yankees honor Robinson with a plaque in Monument Park.
Since 2004, the Aflac National High School Baseball Player of the Year has been presented the "Jackie Robinson Award".
Robinson has also been recognized outside of baseball. In December 1956, the NAACP recognized him with the Spingarn Medal, which it awards annually for the highest achievement by an African-American. President Ronald Reagan posthumously awarded Robinson the Presidential Medal of Freedom on March 26, 1984, and on March 2, 2005, President George W. Bush gave Robinson's widow the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest civilian award bestowed by Congress; Robinson was only the second baseball player to receive the award, after Roberto Clemente. On August 20, 2007, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and his wife, Maria Shriver, announced that Robinson was inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts in Sacramento.
A number of buildings have been named in Robinson's honor. The UCLA Bruins baseball team plays in Jackie Robinson Stadium, which, because of the efforts of Jackie's brother Mack, features a memorial statue of Robinson by sculptor Richard H. Ellis. The stadium also unveiled a new mural of Robinson by Mike Sullivan on April 14, 2013. City Island Ballpark in Daytona Beach, Florida was renamed Jackie Robinson Ballpark in 1990 and a statue of Robinson with two children stands in front of the ballpark. His wife Rachel was present for the dedication on September 15. 1990. A number of facilities at Pasadena City College (successor to PJC) are named in Robinson's honor, including Robinson Field, a football/soccer/track facility named jointly for Robinson and his brother Mack. The New York Public School system has named a middle school after Robinson, and Dorsey High School plays at a Los Angeles football stadium named after him. His home in Brooklyn, the Jackie Robinson House, was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1976, and Brooklyn residents sought to turn his home into a city landmark. In 1978, Colonial Park in Harlem was renamed after Robinson. Robinson also has an asteroid named after him, 4319 Jackierobinson. In 1997, New York City renamed the Interboro Parkway in his honor. The following year, a statue of Robinson was dedicated at Journal Square Transportation Center in Jersey City, New Jersey.
In 1997, the United States Mint issued a Jackie Robinson commemorative silver dollar, and five-dollar gold coin. Robinson has also been honored by the United States Postal Service on three separate postage stamps, in 1982, 1999, and 2000.
In 2011, the U.S. placed a plaque at Robinson's Montreal home to honor the ending of segregation in baseball. The house, at 8232 avenue de Gaspé near Jarry Park, was Robinson's residence when he played for the Montreal Royals during 1946. In a letter read during the ceremony, Rachel Robinson, Jackie's widow, wrote: "I remember Montreal and that house very well and have always had warm feeling for that great city. Before Jack and I moved to Montreal, we had just been through some very rough treatment in the racially biased South during spring training in Florida. In the end, Montreal was the perfect place for him to get his start. We never had a threatening or unpleasant experience there. The people were so welcoming and saw Jack as a player and as a man."
On November 22, 2014, UCLA announced that it would officially retire the number 42 across all university sports, effective immediately. While Robinson wore several different numbers during his UCLA career, the school chose 42 because it had become indelibly identified with him. The only sport this did not affect was men's basketball, which had previously retired the number for Walt Hazzard (although Kevin Love was actually the last player in that sport to wear 42, with Hazzard's blessing). In a move paralleling that of MLB when it retired the number, UCLA allowed three athletes (in women's soccer, softball, and football) who were already wearing 42 to continue to do so for the remainder of their UCLA careers. The school also announced it would prominently display the number at all of its athletic venues.
A jersey that Robinson brought home with him after his rookie season ended in 1947 was sold at auction for $2.05 million on November 19, 2017. The price was the highest ever paid for a post-World War II jersey.
In 2021, a bronze statue of Robinson, created by John Parsons, was installed in Wichita, Kansas by League 42, a youth baseball league, in McAdams Park. In January 2024, the statue was stolen, cut off from its ankles by a group of vandals. It was found dismantled and burnt a few days later. A recast statue was unveiled on August 5, 2024. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Cook_(architect) | Peter Cook (architect) | Sir Peter Cook (born 22 October 1936) is an English architect, lecturer and writer on architectural subjects. He was a founder of Archigram, and was knighted in 2007 by Elizabeth II for his services to architecture and teaching. He is also a Royal Academician and a Commandeur de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres of the French Republic. His achievements with Archigram were recognised by the Royal Institute of British Architects in 2004, when the group was awarded the Royal Gold Medal.
== Early life and education ==
Cook was born in Southend-on-Sea, Essex. His mother aspired to a career as an artist, while his father served in the UK as an army officer. Cook studied architecture at Bournemouth College of Art from 1953–58. He then entered the Architectural Association School of Architecture in London, graduating in 1960.
== Career ==
Cook was a director of London's Institute of Contemporary Arts (1970–1972), chair of architecture at The Bartlett School of Architecture at University College London (1990–2006), and has been director of Art Net in London and curator of the British Pavilion at the Venice Architecture Biennale. He continues to curate, organise and exhibit around the world: in Seoul, LA, Cyprus, the Centre Georges Pompidou, Design Museum, Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, as well as in castles, sheds and garages.
He is a Senior Fellow of the Royal College of Art, London. Cook's professorships include those of the Royal Academy, University College London and the Hochschule für Bildende Künste (Städelschule) in Frankfurt-Main, Germany.
Cook has built in Osaka, Nagoya, Berlin and Madrid. However, it was the construction of his arts building in 2003, the Kunsthaus Graz (also known as 'The Friendly Alien') in Graz, Austria, with Colin Fournier, that brought his work to a wider public.
Cook was awarded a knighthood in Elizabeth II's 2007 Birthday Honours List, for services to architecture.
In 2013 he completed the Vienna University of Economics and Business's new law faculty and Australia's newest school of architecture, the Abedian School of Architecture at Bond University on the Gold Coast.
His first building in the UK, a new drawing studio at the Arts University Bournemouth was opened by Zaha Hadid in March 2016. He also built the Innovation Studio at the Arts University Bournemouth, which was opened by Odile Decq in 2021.
In 2025 Cook built a Play Pavilion at the Serpentine London in collaboration with LEGO. It opened on World Play Day on the 11th June.
== Awards and honours ==
1960 – Henry Florence Student A.A. (Building Centre research Scholar)
1961 – Piccadilly Circus competition (Mention)
1962 – Gas Council House Design (First Prize)
1965 – Selected as one of "Young British Designers" Sunday Times exhibition
1996 – Jean Tschumi Medal, International Union of Architects
1969 – Grant awarded by Graham Foundation, Chicago, for Instant City
2002 – Annie Spink Award, jointly awarded to David Greene (for contribution to architectural education) by the RIBA
2002 – Royal Gold Medal (with Archigram) by RIBA
2003 – Commandeur de l'Ordre des Arts et des Lettres of the France Republic
2004 – Finalist for Stirling Prize for Kunsthaus Graz (with Colin Fournier)
2007 – Knighted in Queen's Honours' list (for services in architecture)
2008 – Senior Fellow of the Royal College of Art, London
2010 – Mario Pani Award for Architecture, Mexico City
2010 – Honorary Doctorate of Technology, Lund University, Sweden
== Success in architectural competitions ==
1970 – Monte Carlo Entertainments Centre (with Archigram)
1990 – Solar Housing, Landstuhl, Germany (with Christine Hawley)
1992 – Museum of Antiquities, Austria (with Christine Hawley)
2000 – Kunsthaus Graz (with Colin Fournier)
2006 – New Theatre Verbania, Italy (with Gavin Robotham)
2009 – Faculty of Law (D3) and Central Administration (AD), Vienna Business and Economics University (with Gavin Robotham)
2010 – 2nd prize in the Taiwan Tower international competition (with Gavin Robotham)
2011 – Soheil Abedian School of Architecture, Bond University on the Gold Coast, Australia (with Gavin Robotham and Brit Andresen)
2013 – Finalist in the National Stadium of Israel (with POPULOUS)
2013 – Finalist in the Gold Coast Cultural Precinct
== Current appointments ==
Professor Emeritus at University College London
Professor of Architecture at the Royal Academy of Arts
Life Professor at the Hochschule fur Bildende Kunste (Städelschule) Frankfurt-Main
Senior Fellow of the Royal College of Art, London
Honorary Fellow of the Arts University Bournemouth
Member of the Hessische Architektenkammer
Member of the RIBA, Architects Registration Board (ARB)
Fellow of University College London
== Exhibitions ==
Archigram exhibition – 1994 onwards: Vienna, Paris, New York, London, Pasadena, Chicago, Milan, Hamburg, Seoul, Mito, Taipei, Winnipeg, Zurich, Cracow, Zaragoza, Brussels, Rotterdam.
Curator of Venice Biennale of Architecture British Pavilion 2004, Cyprus Pavilion 2006
Personal exhibitions – various dates: Los Angeles, Tokyo, Oslo, Berlin, Osaka, Frankfurt,
== Publications ==
1967 – Architecture: Action and Plan. London: Studio Vista.
1970 – Experimental Architecture. London/New York: Studio Vista/Universal Books.
1972 – Archigram. London: Studio Vista/Reinhold, Birkhauser
1975 – Melting Architecture. London: Peter Cook, (published to accompany Art Net exhibition).
1976 – Art Net The Rally: Forty London Architects. London: Art Net/Peter Cook, (published to accompany Art Net exhibition).
1976 – Arcadia: The Search for the Perfect Suburb. London: Art Net/Peter Cook.
1980 – Six Houses (with Christine Hawley). London: AA Publications, (published to accompany exhibition at the Architectural Association).
1983 – Los Angeles Now (with Barbara Goldstein). London: AA Publications, (published to accompany exhibition at the Architectural Association).
1985 – Peter Cook – 21 Years, 21 Ideas. Christine Hawley; foreword by Reyner Banham. Architectural Association exhibition catalogue. London: AA Publications.
1985 – Lebbeus Woods (editor; with Olive Brown); Architectural Association exhibition catalogue. London: AA Publications, 1985.
1987 – Cities (with Christine Hawley); exhibition catalogue. London: Fisher Fine Arts.
1989 – Peter Cook 1961–89. A+U.
1991 – New Spirit in Architecture (with Rosie Llewellyn-Jones). New York: Rizzoli.
1993 – Six Conversations. London: Academy Editions, Architectural Monographs Special Issue, No. 28.
1996 – Primer. London: Academy Editions.
1999 – Archigram. London/New York: Princeton Architectural Press (with Japanese, German, and Chinese translations)
1999 – Zvi Hecker, House of the Book (contributor, with John Hedjuk and Helene Binet). London: Black Dog.
1999 – The Power of Contemporary Architecture (with Neil Spiller). London: Academy Editions.
2000 – Bartlett Book of Ideas. London: Bartlett School of Architecture.
2001 – The Paradox of Contemporary Architecture (contributor). Chichester: Wiley-Academy.
2003 – The City, Seen As A Garden Of Ideas. New York: Monacelli.
2008 – Drawing: The Motive Force of Architecture. Chichester: Wiley. 2nd edition published 2014.
2016 – Architecture Workbook: Design through Motive. Chichester: Wiley.
2021 – Lives in Architecture: Peter Cook. London: RIBA Publishing. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Burton_(comics) | Richard Burton (comics) | Richard Burton is a British comic publisher and editor who had a lengthy career at IPC Magazines. While an assistant editor at 2000 AD, he became known to readers as Tharg the Mighty's bumbling assistant Burt, who appeared in a number of strips with him. (Burton was later top editor at 2000 AD.) Earlier in his career, Burton published the popular fanzine Comic Media News, and was a co-founder of the Eagle Awards.
== Career ==
=== Comic Media News ===
In 1972, Burton and fellow enthusiast Nick Landau took over a fanzine called Comic Catalog, renaming it Comic Media and establishing the Comic Media brand. Burton and Landau produced a few issues of Comic Media, assisted by Dennis Lee and Tom Downes. In 1973, receiving permission to reprint U.S. comics industry news items from the long-running American comic fanzine The Comic Reader, Burton launched the four-page Comic Media and The Comic Reader Newsletter #1, which eventually came to be known as Comic Media News (CMN).
Meanwhile, Landau produced the 1972 UK Comicon and then branched out to one-day London Comic Marts and direct market distribution. Landau's Comic Media Distribution Service imported American comics from the "big two" publishers DC and Marvel; it later became known as Titan Distributors.
Burton produced Comic Media News from 1973 to 1980, eventually publishing 40 issues. Continuing the fanzine's relationship with The Comic Reader, the first seven issues were titled Comic Media & The Comic Reader UK Edition Newsletter before shortening to Comic Media News. Martin Lock was features editor for CMN from 1973 to 1977, while he was publishing his own comics fanzine, Bemusing Magazine (BEM). CMN had a circulation of close to 2,000 in late 1977, and began to feature art contributions from such established creators as Brian Bolland. With issue #34, the magazine expanded its title to Comic Media News International, reflecting its readership in more than 20 different countries.
In 1977, along with fellow British comics enthusiast Mike Conroy, Burton started the Eagle Awards (voted on by British comics enthusiasts). (Comic Media News won the Eagle Award for Favourite Specialist Comics Publication/Trade Publication in both 1977 and 1978.)
=== 2000 AD ===
After turning down a job offer with DC Comics, Burton was hired as an assistant editor at Marvel UK in March 1978, working for editor Dez Skinn (whom Burton knew from the early days of UK conventions and fanzine publishing). With Skinn, he created the popular character Night Raven, who first appeared in Marvel UK's Hulk Comic #1 (March 7, 1979).
After less than a year at Marvel UK, in March 1979 Burton left for a new job at the weekly comic magazine Tornado, published by IPC Magazines. Tornado only lasted through August 1979, at which point Burton moved to 2000 AD (also published by IPC). At this point, Burton retired Comic Media News, though he continued to co-produce the Eagle Awards for another couple of years with Mike Conroy.
Burton stayed with 2000 AD throughout the 1980s and into the mid-1990s. In 1986 he became editor of Battle. In 1987, IPC's comics line was sold to Robert Maxwell and renamed Fleetway Publications; Burton was at that point promoted to editor of 2000 AD, succeeding Steve MacManus. Egmont UK bought Fleetway from Maxwell in 1991, merging it with their own comics publishing operation, London Editions, to form Fleetway Editions. At that point, Burton took the opportunity to launch the very successful videogame tie-in Sonic the Comic with Fleetway, which lasted nine years (three with him as editor). Notable 2000 AD strips and storylines published under Burton's editorship as Tharg the Mighty include:
"Democracy," a Judge Dredd storyline inherited from MacManus and published through 1991
Zenith (Grant Morrison and Steve Yeowell), launched in 1987
Friday (Dave Gibbons and Will Simpson), launched in 1989
The Dead Man (John Wagner and John Ridgway), published in 1989–1990
"Necropolis" (John Wagner and Carlos Ezquerra), 26-part Judge Dredd storyline published in 1990
Time Flies (Garth Ennis and Philip Bond), launched in 1990
Finn (Pat Mills), acquired in 1991
"Judgement Day" (Garth Ennis), published in 1992
Firekind (John Smith and Paul Marshall), published in 1993
Burton held the editor position at 2000 AD from 1987 to 1994. He then worked on the computer magazine Fun Online.
Burton has since made a career in computers and digital cameras. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Quoddy_Head_Light | West Quoddy Head Light | West Quoddy Head, in Quoddy Head State Park, Lubec, Maine, is the easternmost point of the contiguous United States. In 1808 a lighthouse was constructed at the site to guide ships through the Quoddy Narrows. The current tower, with distinctive red-and-white stripes, was constructed in 1858 and is an active aid to navigation. The 3rd order Fresnel lens is the only 3rd order and one of only eight Fresnel lenses still in use on the Maine Coast.
The light station was added to the National Register of Historic Places as West Quoddy Head Light Station on July 4, 1980.
== Description ==
West Quoddy Head is an easterly-pointing peninsula in southeastern Lubec, overlooking Quoddy Narrows, a strait between Lubec and Campobello Island, Canada, that provides access to Passamaquoddy Bay and harbors located on the St. Croix River and other rivers which empty into the bay. Most of the peninsula is part of Quoddy Head State Park, and the light station is located near the southern end of its eastern face.
A stone sign describes the lighthouse as the "easternmost point in the U.S.A." It is the easternmost building in the United States (a nearby sign proclaims the "easternmost giftshop in the U.S."), but the easternmost point is at rocks extending eastward from the shore. The present light station includes a tower, former keeper's quarters, service building, and oil house. The tower is circular, and is 49 feet (15 m) in height, with the beacon at 83 feet (25 m) above sea level. The light, magnified by a third-order Fresnel lens, has a range of 18 miles (29 km). The tower is built of brick, and painted in alternating horizontal red and white stripes. A small gabled entry vestibule, also brick, projects from the tower. The keeper's house is a wood-frame structure, 11⁄2 stories in height.
== History ==
A lighthouse at West Quoddy Head, Maine, was authorized by Congress in 1806. The light station was finished on April 21, 1808, at a cost of $5,000 (equivalent to $101,000 in 2025). In 1820, Congress authorized the station's first fog signal, a 500-pound (230 kg) bell, costing $1,000 (equivalent to $23,000 in 2025). The current tower was built in 1858. The present station was built in 1858. The former keeper's house now serves as a museum and visitor center. In 1990, the U.S. Postal Service issued a 25-cent stamp featuring the West Quoddy Head Light.
== Keepers ==
The first keeper was Thomas Dexter.
1939: Howard Grey was the last civilian keeper of the station prior to its transfer to the U.S. Coast Guard.
1962: As of August 15, 1962, BM1 Bruce Keene was OIC, or Officer-in-Charge (dates of the time he began and ended his tour are not known— he served at least through September 1964.) According to documents in the West Quoddy file, his father, LT Thomas Keene, had previously served as the head keeper of the light station.
1963: As of October 27, Keene was still OIC and (Engineman?) Richard Copeland was his assistant.
1978: Through May 31 the OIC was BM1 Cliffton Scholfield. He had a crew of two assistants: MK3 Kenneth Fisher (February–July 1977), MT2 Carl Hatch and FN David Blanding.
1978: On June 1, BM2 George Eaton took over as the OIC of the station. He had two assistants.
1979: MK3 Carl Hatch was a member of the crew.
1981: As of September 14, the OIC was BM1 John Richardson.
1988: The last OIC (keeper) was Malcolm Rouse, USCG.
== Popular culture ==
In 2026, soccer team Portland Hearts of Pine unveiled a new kit inspired by the lighthouse, named the Lighthouse Kit. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Ridge | Tom Ridge | Thomas Joseph Ridge (born August 26, 1945) is an American politician and author who served in the George W. Bush administration as the assistant to the president for homeland security from 2001 to 2003 and as the United States secretary of homeland security from 2003 to 2005. He was the first person to hold either office. A member of the Republican Party, he previously served in the United States House of Representatives from 1983 to 1995 and as the 43rd governor of Pennsylvania from 1995 to 2001.
Ridge was born in Munhall, Pennsylvania, and raised in veterans' public housing in Erie, Pennsylvania. After graduating from Harvard University with honors, he served in the U.S. Army during the Vietnam War where he was awarded the Bronze Star. He then returned to Pennsylvania and completed his Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree at the Dickinson School of Law, graduating in 1972, and entered private practice.
As assistant district attorney in Erie, Ridge ran for Congress in his district, where he served six terms. He then ran for governor in 1994, despite being little-known outside of northwest Pennsylvania. He won the election, and was reelected in 1998 with the most votes for a Republican governor in Pennsylvania (where Democrats outnumbered Republicans by almost 500,000) in more than half a century. As Governor of Pennsylvania, he is credited for statewide advances in economic development, education, health care and the environment. As of 2026, he is the last Republican to win reelection as Pennsylvania's governor.
Following the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, U.S. president George W. Bush named Ridge the first director of the newly created Office of Homeland Security. In January 2003, the Office of Homeland Security became an official Cabinet-level department, the Department of Homeland Security, and Ridge became the first Secretary of Homeland Security. He served in these roles for Bush's first term as president, then retired and returned to the private sector.
Since reentering the private sector, Ridge has served on the boards of the Home Depot, the Hershey Company and Exelon Corporation and as a senior advisor to Deloitte & Touche and TechRadium. He is also the founder and chairman of Ridge Global, a Washington, D.C.–based security consulting firm. He spent time campaigning with Senator John McCain during his 2008 presidential bid and was believed by some to have been on the short list of potential running mates.
== Early life and education ==
Ridge was born in Munhall, Pennsylvania, in Pittsburgh's Steel Valley, the eldest of three children. His parents were Laura (née Sudimack) and Thomas Regis Ridge, who was a traveling salesman and Navy veteran. Ridge's maternal grandparents were Rusyn immigrants from the former Czechoslovakia (now Slovakia), and his paternal great-grandparents emigrated from Great Britain. He was raised in veterans' public housing in Erie, Pennsylvania. He was educated at St. Andrews Elementary School and Cathedral Preparatory School and did well both academically and in sports. He attended Harvard College, where he paid his way through with construction work, played intramural baseball and football, and graduated with honors in 1967. In 1968, after his first year at the Dickinson School of Law, he was drafted into the United States Army.
== Military service in Vietnam ==
Ridge waived an opportunity for officer training school because it would have required a longer service commitment. In November 1969, Ridge arrived as a sergeant in South Vietnam where he would serve for six months as a staff sergeant with Bravo Company, 1st Battalion, 20th Infantry, 11th Infantry Brigade, 23rd Infantry Division (Americal Division) during the Vietnam War.
In May 1970, a ruptured appendix cut short his tour of duty in Vietnam and he was sent home; his service also aggravated a childhood ear infection which caused him afterwards to have a hearing aid in his left ear.
For his service in Vietnam, Ridge received the Bronze Star with "V" Device, National Defense Service Medal, Vietnam Service Medal, Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross Unit Citation with Palm, Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal, and the Combat Infantryman Badge.
=== Military awards ===
== Legal career ==
After returning to Pennsylvania, he completed his Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree at the Dickinson School of Law, graduating in 1972, and entered private practice.
Ridge became assistant district attorney in Erie County, Pennsylvania, in 1980 and prosecuted 86 cases in two years.
== Elected office ==
=== U.S. House of Representatives ===
In 1982, Ridge won a seat in Congress from northwestern Pennsylvania by the margin of only 729 votes. He was then re-elected five times.
=== Governor ===
In 1994, despite being little-known outside of northwest Pennsylvania, Ridge ran for governor. He won the election as a pro-choice Republican. He was reelected in 1998 with 57 percent of the vote in a four-way race. His share of the vote in that election was the highest for a Republican governor in Pennsylvania (where Democrats outnumber Republicans by almost 500,000) in more than half a century.
During his time as governor, Ridge promoted "law and order" policies, supporting a three-strikes law and a faster death penalty process. A death penalty supporter, Ridge signed more than 224 execution warrants – five times the number signed over a 25-year period by the two previous governors – but only three voluntary executions were carried out. On social issues, he opposed same-sex marriage while supporting abortion access, with limits.
Over Ridge's tenure, the commonwealth's budget grew by two to three percent per fiscal year and combined tax reductions totaled over $2 billion. Ridge created and grew a "Rainy Day" Fund balance to over $1 billion to be utilized during an economic downturn or recession.
Ridge pushed for legislation permitting competition among electric utilities and enhanced federal and state support for the Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP). He separated the commonwealth's environmental regulatory and conservation programs into two new agencies; the Department of Environmental Protection and the Department of Conservation and Natural Resources.
Ridge proposed the creation of public charter schools in Pennsylvania and in establishing alternate schools for disruptive students. He launched new academic standards that established academic expectations for what students were expected to know in different grades. He proposed a school choice demonstration program.
Ridge oversaw a number of e-government projects including renewing drivers' licenses and vehicle registrations to viewing historical documents and library catalogs. The commonwealth's portal won several national awards. One of the nation's first electronic grant systems was put into place at the Pennsylvania Department of Education. He created the Link-to-Learn initiative to increase the effective use of technology in public schools and universities.
Ridge signed two death warrants for African-American radio personality Mumia Abu-Jamal, who was convicted of first degree murder for the killing of police officer Daniel Faulkner.
He served as governor until his resignation in 2001, at which time he became the Director of Homeland Security following the September 11 attacks.
== 2000 presidential election ==
Ridge was a potential running mate for Bob Dole in 1996, and served as a close advisor to Republican presidential nominee George W. Bush, a close friend from their simultaneous tenures as governors, during the 2000 presidential campaign. In return, Bush named Ridge to his short list for possible running mates, along with New York governor George Pataki, Michigan governor John Engler, Oklahoma governor Frank Keating, former Missouri senator John Danforth, and former American Red Cross president Elizabeth Dole.
== Homeland Security ==
Following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, U.S. president George W. Bush created the Office of Homeland Security within the White House, and named Ridge to head it. The charge to the nation's new director of homeland security was to develop and coordinate a comprehensive national strategy to strengthen the United States against terrorist threats or attacks. Ridge formally resigned as Pennsylvania's governor on October 5, 2001.
In January 2003 and after the passage of the Homeland Security Act of 2002, the Office of Homeland Security split into a Cabinet-level department, the Department of Homeland Security, and the White House Homeland Security Advisory Council. Ridge left the White House and became the first secretary of homeland security. The department's mission "is to (A) prevent terrorist attacks within the United States; (B) reduce the vulnerability of the United States to terrorism; and (C) minimize the damage, and assist in the recovery, from terrorist attacks that do occur within the United States" (From H.R. 5005-8 the Homeland Security Act of 2002). The newly created department was the most comprehensive reorganization of the Federal government since the National Security Act of 1947.
The Department of Homeland Security consolidates 22 agencies and 180,000 employees, unifying once-fragmented Federal functions in a single agency dedicated to protecting America from terrorism. Ridge worked with the employees from combined agencies to strengthen borders, provide for intelligence analysis and infrastructure protection, improve the use of science and technology to counter weapons of mass destruction, and to create a comprehensive response and recovery division.
In January 2004, Ridge was named among others in a lawsuit filed by a Syrian-born Canadian Maher Arar who said he was tortured in Syria after being deported by American authorities.
== Retirement from public office and book ==
On November 30, 2004, Ridge submitted his resignation to the president, saying, "After more than 22 consecutive years of public service, it is time to give personal and family matters a higher priority."
In his book The Test of Our Times: America Under Siege...and How We Can Be Safe Again, Ridge says his resignation was due to an effort by senior Bush administration officials to raise the nation's terror alert level in the days before the 2004 presidential vote.
== Work in the private sector ==
Ridge is the founder and chairman of Ridge Global, an advisory firm in Washington, D.C.
Ridge served on a state-appointed incident review panel that investigated the Virginia Tech shooting.
Ridge also sits on the board of directors of the Atlantic Council.
=== Ridge Policy Group ===
In 2010, Ridge's two former chiefs of staff, Mark Campbell and Mark Holman, opened a lobbying firm after Ridge lent the firm his name. The full-service government affairs firm has offices in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, and Washington, D.C.
In July 2010, companies seeking to use hydraulic fracturing to extract natural gas from the Marcellus Shale formation engaged Ridge and Ridge Policy Group at $75,000 a month to help them gain support.
=== Board memberships and other corporate associations ===
Ridge has served on a variety of corporate boards of directors and in other roles. In 2005, he was named to the board of Home Depot, with an expected annual compensation of about $100,000. and in the same year was appointed to the board of the RFID company Savi Technology. He was appointed to the board of directors of the Exelon Corporation electric utility in 2006, with starting director compensation of $35,000 annual retainer plus a $1,500 meeting fee or per diem fee and (at the time) $60,000 in annual deferred stock units. In 2006, Ridge was announced as a senior advisor for Deloitte & Touche USA LLP. He was named to serve on the executive board of the Hershey Company in 2007, and was named senior advisor to Texas-based security technology company TechRadium, Inc. in 2008. In 2009, antimicrobial company PURE Bioscience named Ridge, along with former Wisconsin governor Tommy Thompson, to its advisory board. He currently sits on the bipartisan advisory board of States United Democracy Center.
== Political activity ==
=== 2008 presidential election ===
Ridge served as a senior aide to Republican presidential candidate Senator John McCain of Arizona, and was considered by some as a possible running mate for McCain.
=== Speculated 2010 Senate candidacy ===
According to Fox News, many Republicans hoped Ridge would run for the United States Senate against the newly turned Democrat Arlen Specter, who stated he would seek re-election in 2010 in the Democratic primary. Already seeking the Republican nomination was former representative Pat Toomey, who narrowly lost to Specter in the Republican primary in 2004. Some Republicans thought Ridge would have a better chance against Specter than would Toomey. A Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll conducted between April 30, 2009, and May 3, 2009, placed Ridge within three points of Specter in a hypothetical matchup between the two men.
Some Toomey supporters criticized the idea of a Ridge candidacy because, although Ridge was still registered to vote in Pennsylvania, he was actually living in Chevy Chase, Maryland. On May 7, 2009, Ridge announced that he would not be a candidate for the U.S. Senate in 2010.
=== 2012 presidential election ===
In September 2011, Ridge endorsed the campaign of former Utah governor Jon Huntsman in the 2012 election. Mitt Romney announced an endorsement from Ridge on March 14, 2012.
=== Supreme Court brief ===
In 2013, Ridge was a signatory to an amicus curiae brief submitted to the Supreme Court in support of same-sex marriage during the Hollingsworth v. Perry case.
=== Stance on the People's Mujahedin of Iran ===
Ridge spoke at a conference in support of the removal of the People's Mujahedin of Iran (MEK, also PMOI, MKO) from the United States State Department list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations. The group was listed on the State Department list from 1997 until September 2012. The Los Angeles Times reported a senior Clinton administration official as saying inclusion of the People's Mojahedin was intended as a goodwill gesture to Tehran and its newly elected president, Mohammad Khatami. Ridge, along with other former government officials and politicians Ed Rendell, R. James Woolsey, Porter Goss, Louis Freeh, Michael Mukasey, James L. Jones, Rudy Giuliani, and Howard Dean, have spoken in support of the group. Ridge and others wrote an article for the conservative publication National Review stating their position that the group should not be classified as a terrorist organization, raising the point that "The material-support statute doesn’t need revision to accommodate non-existent defects. What it does need – and does not often enough get for fear of offending some Muslim organizations – is rigorous enforcement against accurately designated organizations, of which MEK is not one."
=== 2015 Blue Ribbon Commission ===
In 2015, Ridge served as co-chair of the Blue Ribbon Study Panel on Biodefense, a commission that recommended changes to U.S. policy regarding biodefense. In order to address biological threats facing the nation, the Blue Ribbon Study Panel on Biodefense created a 33-step initiative for the U.S. Government to implement. Tom Ridge headed the organization with former senator Joe Lieberman, and the Study Panel assembled in Washington, D.C., for four meetings concerning current biodefense programs. The Study Panel concluded that the federal government had little to no defense mechanisms in case of a biological event. The Study Panel's final report, The National Blueprint for Biodefense, proposes a string of solutions and recommendations for the U.S. Government to take, including items such as giving the vice president authority over biodefense responsibilities and merging the entire biodefense budget. These solutions represent the Panel's call to action in order to increase awareness and activity for pandemic related issues.
=== 2016 presidential election ===
In 2016, Ridge endorsed Jeb Bush and subsequently John Kasich after Bush's withdrawal from the 2016 Republican presidential primaries. Ridge stated he would not endorse Donald Trump, following Trump becoming the presumptive nominee, or Hillary Clinton in the general election.
=== Criticisms of President Trump ===
In July 2020, Ridge criticized President Donald Trump for saying in June that vote-by-mail leads to widespread voter fraud, responding that it is not a threat and that voters need a safe way to cast a ballot in the 2020 election, amid the COVID-19 pandemic. Ridge also said that it was "sad" that the president wants to quash the legitimacy of the election. In response to Ridge's comments, the RNC said lawsuits by Democrats to strip ballot safeguards are an attempt to delegitimize the election. Ridge is a co-chair of VoteSafe, a bipartisan group that promotes safe voting by mail and in person.
Also in July 2020, Ridge slammed his former department for sending in federal agents to detain rioters allegedly committing federal crimes in Portland, Oregon, after more than 50 days of protests and riots there. He also said, during an interview with radio host Michael Smerconish, that it would be a "cold day in hell" before he "would consent to an uninvited, unilateral intervention" in one of his cities in Pennsylvania. The White House cited federal law to support this use of federal law enforcement. Trump later slammed Ridge on Twitter, calling him "a failed RINO" and saying he "loved watching pathetic Never Trumpers squirm!".
=== 2020 presidential election ===
In September 2020, Ridge endorsed former vice president Joe Biden for president in a Philadelphia Inquirer op-ed. On November 6, 2020, he confirmed to CNN that it was the first time he ever voted for a Democratic presidential candidate.
Ridge, along with more than 100 Republican former national security officials, signed a letter in November that stated that the delay of the presidential transition imperiled the security of the nation. The 9/11 Commission finding that the shortened transition to the administration of George W. Bush during the disputed 2000 presidential election "hampered the new administration in identifying, recruiting, clearing, and obtaining Senate confirmation of key appointees" was mentioned in the statement.
In August 2022, Ridge described the January 6 United States Capitol attack as "conduct you’d see in a Third World country, not in the United States of America" and described current politics in America as "distressing", "personal, vengeful, [and] mean-spirited."
=== 2022 Senate election ===
In 2022, Ridge endorsed fellow Republican Mehmet Oz in the 2022 United States Senate election in Pennsylvania.
== Memoir ==
Tom Ridge's book The Test of Our Times was published in September 2009. Written with Larry Bloom, it focuses on Ridge's time as the head of the Department of Homeland Security. He explains the challenges and decision-making processes of the newly formed department, and gives his own views as to the future of the security of the United States of America. The book further discusses
the infighting he saw that frustrated his attempts to build a smooth-running department. Among the headlines promoted by publisher Thomas Dunne Books: Ridge was never invited to sit in on National Security Council meetings; was 'blindsided' by the FBI in morning Oval Office meetings because the agency withheld critical information from him; found his urgings to block Michael Brown from being named head of the emergency agency blamed for the Hurricane Katrina disaster ignored; and was pushed to raise the security alert on the eve of President Bush's re-election, something he saw as politically motivated and worth resigning over.
Ridge wrote in his memoir that then-secretary of defense Donald Rumsfeld and then-attorney general John Ashcroft pressured him to raise the terror alert level, running up to the 2004 elections, because of a pre-election message critical of President Bush from Osama Bin Laden.
== Recognition ==
Awarded the Woodrow Wilson Award by the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.
Erie International Airport was co-named Tom Ridge Field in honor of Ridge.
The Tom Ridge Environmental Center at Presque Isle State Park in Erie, Pennsylvania, is named after the former governor. Ridge was instrumental in securing funds for the center.
Ridge's picture hangs in the moot court room at the Penn State Dickinson School of Law in Carlisle, Pennsylvania.
Presque Isle Downs in Erie, Pennsylvania, runs the $100,000 Tom Ridge Stakes every meet.
Mercyhurst University named its Tom Ridge College of Intelligence Studies and Applied Science after the first U.S. Secretary of Homeland Security.
== Personal life ==
Tom's wife, Michele Ridge, is the former executive director of the Erie County Library System. Married since 1979, they have two children: Lesley and Tommy.
Ridge was hospitalized in critical condition in Texas after a cardiac event on November 16, 2017.
On June 16, 2021, Ridge suffered a stroke while at his home in Bethesda, Maryland. He was hospitalized and underwent a successful procedure to remove a blood clot. Discharged in late June, Ridge began rehabilitation therapy in the Washington, D.C., area.
== Gubernatorial electoral history == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Major_League_Baseball_career_hits_leaders | List of Major League Baseball career hits leaders | Listed are all Major League Baseball players who have reached the 2,000 hit milestone during their career in MLB. Pete Rose holds the Major League record for most career hits, with 4,256. Rose and Ty Cobb, second most, are the only players with 4,000 or more career hits. Cap Anson was the first player to achieve 2,000 hits, doing so in the 1889 season. Nap Lajoie was the first player to accumulate 2,000 hits in the American League, doing so in the 1912 season.
For many years, George Davis was considered the first switch hitter to collect 2,000 hits, achieving that total during the 1902 season. However, recent research in the 2010s has revealed that 19th century hitter Roger Connor also batted right-handed at times in his career; he reached 2,000 hits in the 1893 season.
== Players with 2,000 or more hits ==
Stats updated through the end of the 2025 season.
Other active players with 1,800 or more hits through the 2025 season.
Nolan Arenado (1,921) 0
Carlos Santana (1,880) 0
Xander Bogaerts (1,822) 0
Bryce Harper (1,801) 0 |
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_assistant_referee | Video assistant referee | The video assistant referee (VAR) is a match official in association football who assists the referee by reviewing decisions using video footage and providing advice to the referee based on those reviews.
The assistant video assistant referee (AVAR) is a match official appointed to assist the VAR in the video operation room and around the pitch. There are three AVARs (AVAR1, AVAR2, sometimes called the support video assistant referee, and AVAR3) who are assigned to different parts of the game that they are charged with reviewing and are in consistent communication with the VAR about possible situations that might warrant further review. The job of the AVAR1 is to watch the main camera and communicate some of the more obvious offenses within the game. The AVAR2 is located at the offside station and is responsible for assisting the VAR with offsides and reporting possible missed offside calls. The AVAR3 is responsible for monitoring the TV programs and assists in communication between the AVAR2 and the VAR since the AVAR2 is at the offside station.
In addition to the VAR and the AVARs there are three replay operators who help the VAR and AVARs select the cameras with the best angle.
Following extensive trialling in a number of major competitions, VAR was formally written into the Laws of the Game by the International Football Association Board (IFAB) on March 3, 2018. Operating under the philosophy of "minimal interference, maximum benefit", the VAR system seeks to provide a way for "clear and obvious errors" and "serious missed incidents" to be corrected.
== Procedure ==
There are four categories of decisions that can be reviewed.
Goal/no goal – attacking team commits an offence, ball out of play, ball entering goal, offside, handball, offences and encroachment during penalty kicks.
Penalty/no penalty – attacking team commits an offence, ball out of play, location of offence, incorrect awarding, offence not penalised.
Direct red card – denial of obvious goal-scoring opportunity, serious foul play, violent conduct/biting/spitting, using offensive/insulting/abusive language or gestures.
Mistaken identity in awarding a red or yellow card. The original decision given by the referee will not be changed unless the video review clearly shows that the decision was a 'clear and obvious error.' The final decision is always taken by the referee, either based on information from the VAR or after the referee has undertaken an 'on field review' (OFR).
=== Check ===
The VAR and the AVARs automatically check every on-field referee decision falling under the four reviewable categories. The VAR may perform a "silent check," communicating to the referee that no mistake was made, while not causing any delay to the game. At other times, a VAR check may cause the game to be delayed while the VAR ascertains whether or not a possible mistake has occurred. The referee may delay the restart of play for this to occur, and indicates an ongoing check by pointing to their ear.
Where the VAR does identify a possible clear and obvious error, there are three possible scenarios:
Decision overturned on advice of VAR
On-field review (OFR) recommended
Referee chooses to ignore VAR advice
A decision can generally be overturned without an OFR where it relates to a factual matter. For example, offside decisions or whether a foul occurred inside or outside the penalty area can be determined by the VAR to the referee without a review. VAR will recommend an OFR where there is a subjective decision to make, such as whether a foul was committed in the first place or whether a red card is warranted for a certain offence. In all cases, the final decision rests with the referee, and they can choose to ignore the advice of the VAR altogether.
=== On-field review (OFR) ===
An OFR can only be conducted on the recommendation of the VAR. This ensures that the referee always makes an on-field ruling and does not rely on OFRs for every close decision. An OFR can be conducted when the ball is out of play, or where the referee stops play for the express purpose of conducting one.
The referee signals an OFR by making the outline of a rectangle, indicating a video screen. The OFR takes place in a designated referee review area (RRA), adjacent to the field of play and in public view to ensure transparency. Slow motion replays are only used to establish point of contact for physical offences and handball, while full-speed replays are shown to determine the intensity of an offence or whether a handball occurred in the first place. During an OFR, the VAR transmits several video replays from different camera angles to assist the referee in making a decision.
Once an OFR is completed, the referee makes the TV signal again, before indicating the decision made. If the ball was out of play, it restarts with either the original decision or the new decision if the on-field one was changed. If play was stopped to conduct an OFR and the decision was not changed, a dropped ball occurs.
=== Offences ===
A number of offences relating to the VAR process are codified within the Laws of the Game. Both players and team officials can be cautioned for excessively protesting an on-field decision by making the TV signal. Any player or team official entering the RRA are also cautioned. Finally, entering the video operation room will cause a player or team official to be sent off.
=== Location ===
The VAR and the AVARs are often located within the stadium where the match is being played. Certain leagues have begun using a centralized review location. For example, the English Premier League stations all its VAR teams in the video operation room (VOR) at Stockley Park in London and the German Football Association in Cologne-Deutz. During its 2022 season, Major League Soccer in the United States created a Video Review Center in Atlanta where all its VAR teams operate.
=== Camera setup ===
The Var system consists of 42 cameras including slow and ultra slow motion cameras as well as the cameras used in offside technology, and all FIFA host broadcaster camera feeds to ensure the VAR has the best angle possible on every play.
== Glossary ==
A number of technical terms and abbreviations are used in reference to the VAR system. These include:
Check – Process by which the VAR automatically inspects all reviewable decisions. A check can result in confirmation of the on-field decision (a "silent check"), a change in decision for factual matters (e.g. offside/not offside) or the recommendation of an OFR.
Clear and obvious error – Degree required for an on-field decision to be overturned.
OFR – On-field review; review process that occurs following recommendation by the VAR. Used where a clear and obvious mistake may have been made in regards to a subjective decision.
RO – Replay operator; non-referee official who assists video officials by managing the broadcast and finding the best angles to allow for the right decision to be made
RRA – Referee review area; area where an OFR is conducted, located adjacent to the field of play and in sight at all times
VAR – Video Assistant Referee; main video official whose main role is to check all reviewable incidents and recommend an OFR where a possible clear and obvious error has occurred. The VAR is a current or former qualified referee.
AVAR – Assistant VAR; official that assists the VAR by watching the live action on the field while the VAR is undertaking a "check" or a "review".
Offside VAR – AVAR official that anticipates and checks any potential offside situations in game-changing situations.
Support VAR – AVAR official that coordinates communication between VAR officials and focuses on the television programme feed.
Video official – Category of match official, alongside on-field officials. Consists of VAR and any AVARs.
VOR – Video operation room; room where the VAR team is located. The VOR can be located in or near the stadium, or in a centralised location such as a broadcast centre.
== History ==
VAR was conceived by the Refereeing 2.0 project in the early 2010s and under the direction of the Royal Netherlands Football Association (KNVB). The system was tested through mock trials during the 2012–13 season of the Eredivisie, the country's top football league. In 2014, the KNVB petitioned the International Football Association Board (IFAB) to amend its laws of the games to allow the system to be used during more extensive trials. The IFAB approved trials and a pathway to full implementation during its 2016 general meeting. Lukas Brud, IFAB secretary, said "With all the 4G and Wi-Fi in stadia today...we knew we had to protect referees from making mistakes that everyone can see immediately", such as Thierry Henry's handball that eliminated Ireland from qualifying for the 2010 FIFA World Cup where the on-field referees were not in a position to view the infraction.
Proposals to introduce any form of video review were consistently rejected by FIFA president Sepp Blatter. Throughout his presidency, Blatter was vehemently opposed to the introduction of any new technology to challenge the live decisions of referees in football, often even going to far as to intervene (or threaten to) in domestic competition matters where the only pertinent question was whether suspensions for questionable sendings off should be enforced. After Blatter was forced out of his post due to an unrelated corruption scandal in 2015, the VAR proposal received a warm reception under his successor Gianni Infantino.
The first live trial of the VAR system was in July 2016 in a friendly match between PSV and FC Eindhoven.
The next live trial of the VAR system began in August 2016 with a United Soccer League match between two Major League Soccer reserve sides. Match referee Ismail Elfath reviewed two fouls during the match and, after consultation with video assistant referee Allen Chapman, decided to issue a red card and a yellow card in the respective incidents.
Video reviews were introduced the following month during an international friendly between France and Italy.
The first professional "non-friendly" game was an official first round KNVB Cup tie between Ajax and Willem II on 21 September 2016. This match was the first match to include a "pitchside monitor". The pitchside monitor would allow the referee to review footage from the field. Based on VAR but not using the available pitchside monitor, a yellow card was turned into a red card and thus this was the first ever VAR based expulsion in a professional game.
Interestingly, this professional and official Cup game was played before the official FIFA rule changes. Although viewers watching the match on television were made aware of the decision, the public in the stadium and, to a lesser extent, the players were confused as to what had happened. The major lesson from the confusion around this first major decision change was that VAR decisions needed to be clearly communicated to the players, the watching public inside the stadium, and on TV.
The next event that VAR was used, including a "pitchside monitor" was at the 2016 FIFA Club World Cup. Kashima Antlers were awarded a penalty after a video review in the 3–0 win of semi-final against Atlético Nacional.
The A-League in Australia became the first to use a VAR system in a top-flight professional club competition on 7 April 2017, when Melbourne City played Adelaide United though this game was completed without the VAR being called upon. The first intervention by a VAR in a professional national league game was seen on 8 April when Wellington Phoenix hosted Sydney FC. The VAR identified an illegal handball in the penalty area and awarded Sydney FC a penalty. The game finished in a 1–1 draw.
Major League Soccer in the United States introduced VAR in competitive matches during its 2017 season after the 2017 MLS All-Star Game on 2 August 2017. Its first official use came during a match between the Philadelphia Union and FC Dallas, invalidating a goal from the latter over contact made between a Dallas player and Philadelphia's goalkeeper. VAR was used at an international level in the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup in June, where it was praised, but its usefulness was questioned after a referee decision in the final match.
Also in 2017, Portuguese Football Federation (FPF) had its first official match using VAR, during Portuguese Cup Final between SL Benfica and Vitoria SC at Jamor Stadium on the 28 May 2017. Portuguese Football Federation was the first country in the world to use VAR in a Women's competition: one week after men's Cup final, in the same stadium, VAR was officially used in a Women's match between Sporting CP and SC Braga.
After the 2016 introduction in cup football in Europe, the VAR system was introduced in top-flight European football league competitions by Bundesliga and the Serie A at the beginning of the 2017–18 season and by La Liga at the beginning of the 2018–19 season. The system was also used at the 2017 FIFA U-20 World Cup in October. On 8 January 2018, VAR was trialled for the first time in England in the 2017–18 FA Cup game between Brighton & Hove Albion and Crystal Palace, and the following day it was trialled for the first time in France in the Côte d'Azur derby game in the 2017–18 French League Cup. It was said to have worked well.
Italy opened the world's first VAR training centre in Coverciano in January 2018.
The VAR system that is currently used was created by Hawk-Eye Innovations Limited and was tested according to FIFA's Quality Programme by a third party On 3 March 2018, the IFAB wrote VAR into the Laws of the Game on an incorrect basis. Its use remains optional for competitions, and the English Premier League and the UEFA Champions League were not expected to implement VAR for their 2018–19 season. However Premier League executive chairman Richard Scudamore described it as "inevitable" that VAR will be introduced to the Premier League. On 27 September 2018, UEFA announced that from the 2019–20 UEFA Champions League season, VAR will be used in the competition. Although VAR was not implemented in the group stages of the 2018–19 season, UEFA announced on 3 December 2018, that VAR would be used in the knockout stages, which commenced in February 2019.
On 15 November 2018, Premier League teams voted in principle to bring Video Assistant Referees to the Premier League from the 2019–20 season onwards pending approval of IFAB and FIFA; this came after a controversial decision from referee Simon Hooper to disallow a goal scored by Southampton F.C. striker Charlie Austin.
On 1 January 2020, the Emperor's Cup Final was the first Japanese football match to use VAR. This was also a preparation for the introduction of VAR into Olympic football.
In 2023, it was announced that the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup for the first time the decision will be explained live in the stadium by the referee. This was also later used in the 2024 A-League finals series and also used in the MLS. Likewise, the Premier League introduced in-stadium announcements from the beginning of the 2025-26 season.
== Notable uses of VAR ==
=== 2018 FIFA World Cup ===
FIFA officially approved the use of VAR for the 2018 FIFA World Cup during the FIFA Council meeting on 16 March 2018 in Bogotá. This tournament became the first competition to use VAR in full (at all matches and in all venues).
The 2018 World Cup marked the system's World Cup debut. A total of 335 incidents were checked by the VAR over the course of the group stage, averaging seven per match, and fourteen calls made by referees were changed or overruled after being reviewed by the VAR. According to FIFA, the VAR system had a success rate of 99.3 percent, up from the 95 percent of correct calls by referees without VAR. The first VAR decision at the World Cup came on 16 June 2018 in a group stage match between France and Australia, where referee Andres Cunha awarded a penalty to France after consulting with the VAR. In the final, referee Néstor Pitana used the VAR to review a defensive foul for handling in the penalty area, awarding France a penalty, which gave them a 2–1 lead over Croatia. The final eventually ended with France prevailing 4–2.
The use of VAR has been credited with assisting the 2018 edition's status as the cleanest World Cup since 1986, after no red cards were issued in the opening 11 games and only four players were sent off in the entire tournament which was the fewest since 1978. 22 goals were scored from 29 awarded penalty kicks, beating the previous record of 17 penalty kick goals set in the 1998 tournament; the dramatic increase in the number of penalties awarded at the 2018 World Cup has been attributed to VAR catching fouls which would otherwise have remained unpunished. IFAB technical director and former Premier League referee David Elleray stated a belief that the presence of VAR meant that players would know that they would not be able to get away with anything under the new system.
== Criticism ==
The use of video technology at the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup was criticised after several contentious moments involving VAR at the tournament. It was accused of "creating as much confusion as clarity".
Further criticism was leveled at VAR after it suffered issues preventing its use, for example in a Portuguese match where a supporter's flag had been obscuring the VAR camera, or in the 2018 A-League Grand Final between Newcastle Jets and Melbourne Victory where the VAR software suffered a technical malfunction which prevented the assistant referee from viewing the replay, allowing Melbourne Victory to wrongly score the only goal of the game and win the A-League Championship with it.
After the introduction of VAR in the 2018 World Cup, FIFA deemed it a success. Nevertheless, the use (or lack of use) of VAR has been criticised. Independent assessments note that while most decisions were made correctly as a result of VAR, some were wrong despite VAR review and some decisions which were called incorrectly were not even reviewed. There have also been incidents when there has been miscommunication between VAR and the referee, such as Liverpool FC v Tottenham FC in September 2023 which ended up being a crucial mistake after VAR told the referee the wrong decision after they thought the on-field decision was the other way about.The Guardian concludes that VAR has been most effective for factual decisions such as offsides and mistaken identities, while subjective decisions such as penalties or the disciplining of players have fared much worse. Lack of clarity and consistency are two main areas of weakness. In addition, research from the University of Bath found that, on average, "participants thought the ball was kicked 132 miliseconds later than it actually was", proving that the technology at present has issues with accuracy.
Another line of criticism has been targeted at the effectiveness of the system in achieving its goal. In the opinion of Scott Stinson from the National Post, VAR, like any other replay system, fails to correct human error and instead only adds to the controversies because human judgment is still necessary. Human error has significant social causes as well, as a research study done in Italy found that players with darker skin complexion were "more likely to receive punishment for fouls" with all else held constant. Such bias, including unconscious bias, may not be removed entirely by VAR, as it still relies on human judgment to make the final call..Concerns also arise even with VAR's accuracy. In the 2018-19 Champions League quarterfinals, VAR ruled out a last-minute Manchester City goal against Tottenham due to Agüero’s marginal offside. While technically correct, it highlighted issues with delayed flagging and ultra-tight decisions, leaving City’s fans devastated.
Lack of transparency is another contentious point, as teams have no way to know which incidents were reviewed by the VAR team. At a press conference held after the group stage, FIFA referees committee chairman Pierluigi Collina showed footage of the decision-making process accompanied with audio of the conversations between VAR officials and the referees. Asked if this audio could be made publicly available, as it is in rugby and cricket, Collina answered affirmatively but cautioned that it might still be too early. That said, in an attempt to provide more transparency to fans, sports broadcaster Sky Sports launched the controversial television programme "Match Officials Mic'd Up". Produced by the Premier League, the show aims to bring transparency and constructive discourse to the VAR process, with host Michael Owen and PGMOL Chief Howard Webb analysing VAR calls from previous game weeks.
Others have pointed to the game-changing nature of VAR. There is an increase in the number and duration of pause in the game with VAR system. Initial fears that using the system would lengthen the game considerably have not been confirmed, with every VAR review taking up an average of only 80 seconds. The dramatic increase in the number of penalties awarded at the 2018 World Cup has been attributed to VAR catching fouls which would otherwise have remained unpunished. Of the 169 goals scored in the tournament, 22 were from penalty kicks (with 29 being awarded in total), beating the previous record of 17 set in the 1998 FIFA World Cup. Jonathan Liew of The Independent compares the situation to the introduction of the Decision Review System in cricket and notes the changes it had on that sport, and suggests that it might lead to changes of a similar nature in football.
VAR hasn't just affected the teams that are playing the game. English Premier league fans said that VAR has made the game less enjoyable since the introduction of it and will attend fewer games because of this. The increase in pauses during a game has also been a huge factor with the football fans, with a great number of fans saying that they would most likely support VAR if there was a time limit for the amount of time VAR takes when in use.
Use of VAR has actually been shown to increase playing time in both the first and second half, while not significantly altering the amount of other variable, such as penalties, offsides, fouls, and goals except for a considerable decrease in the number of offsides in Men's football matches, which could be contributed to video analysis being more reliable than human judgement in these scenarios.
In February 2019, UEFA issued guidance which stated that players who made a "TV-screen" hand gesture should result in a yellow card. "Excessively using the 'review' (TV screen) signal" is now listed as a caution for which a player may receive a yellow card in the Laws of the Game. Early uses of VAR in the Premier League, at the beginning of the 2019–20 season, were described as confusing to both coaches and fans with the decision making often inconsistent. By 2022 the application of VAR in the Premier League was still subject to criticism. On 3 September 2022, games involving Chelsea, West Ham United, Newcastle United, Crystal Palace, Brentford and Leeds United all contained contentious VAR decisions.
Premier League officials were criticized for taking lucrative jobs in the Middle East. In the match between Tottenham Hotspur and Liverpool on 30 September 2023, the VAR Darren England made a decision that led to the disallowance of a valid goal scored by Luis Diaz. England was alleged of losing focus because he had taken an eight-hour flight back from the United Arab Emirates along with Dan Cook, the assistant VAR. The situation further complicated when it was revealed that England and Cook had been in the UAE to supervise a Pro League game. They reportedly received a payment of £15-20k for this duty.
In VAR matches the assistant referees who decide on offsides are required to avoid raising the flag for an offside decision until the play proceeds to a natural conclusion, unless the offside is extremely obvious. This allows a team who might have been called for an offside offence to instead continue and score a goal to be checked by VAR. When play continues there is the chance of an injury occurring that might not before the introduction of VAR. Team-mates Rui Patricio and Conor Coady collided with each other in a game against Liverpool after a delayed offside call allowed play to continue and Fernando Muslera suffered a double leg break after a collision with opposition striker Milan Škoda following a delayed offside call in December 2021.
The Premier League introduced semi-automated offside technology on 12 April 2025. This technology removes the human error aspect of detecting when the ball has been kicked and placing the lines onto players and to pitch level, making it quicker and more accurate.
== Competitions using VAR ==
Competitions which include VAR confirmed matches are "live" matches, i.e. where the VARs have contact with the referee on the field of play and therefore may have an impact on the decision making.
There is also an idea of implementing VAR in futsal matches.
=== Club competitions ===
==== International ====
FIFA
FIFA Club World Cup
FIFA Intercontinental Cup
FIFA Women's Champions Cup
FIFA Women's Club World Cup
UEFA–CONMEBOL
Under-20 Intercontinental Cup
==== Continental ====
==== Regional ====
AFF
ASEAN Club Championship
UAFA
Arab Club Champions Cup
==== Domestic leagues ====
Kategoria Superiore
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Argentine Primera División
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==== Domestic cups ====
Albanian Cup
Albanian Super Cup
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Football Australia
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Copa de la Liga Profesional
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Copa do Nordeste
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FPF (São Paulo)
Copa Paulista
Copinha
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Bulgarian Cup
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Deutsche Fußball Liga
Franz Beckenbauer Supercup
Greek Football Cup
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PSSI
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Toto Cup
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Coppa Italia
Supercoppa Italiana
Coppa Italia Serie C
JFA
Emperor's Cup
J.League
J.League Cup
Japanese Super Cup
Kazakh Cup
Kazakh Super Cup
Kosovar Cup
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Kuwaiti Crown Prince Cup
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KNVB Cup
Johan Cruyff Shield
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Malaysia FA Cup
Malaysia Cup
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Piala Sumbangsih
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His Majesty's Cup
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FPF
Taça de Portugal
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Supertaça de Portugal Feminina
Liga Portugal
Taça da Liga
Qatari Emir Cup
Qatari FA Cup
Qatari Stars Cup
Romanian Cup
Romanian Super Cup
Russian Cup
Russian Super Cup
King's Cup
Saudi Super Cup
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Scottish Cup
Scottish Women's Cup
SPFL
SPFL League Cup
FSS
Serbian Cup
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KFA
Korean FA Cup
RFEF
Copa del Rey
Supercopa de España
Copa de la Reina
Supercopa de España Femenina
Thai FA Cup
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TFF
Turkish Cup
Turkish Super Cup
Ukrainian Cup
Ukrainian Super Cup
USSF
US Open Cup
NWSL Challenge Cup
Supercopa Uruguaya
VFF
Vietnamese Cup
Vietnamese Super Cup
ABSA Cup
=== National team competitions ===
==== International ====
==== Continental ====
==== Regional ====
AFF
ASEAN Championship
AGCFF
Arabian Gulf Cup
COSAFA
COSAFA Cup
COSAFA Women's Championship
EAFF
EAFF E-1 Football Championship |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_presidential_elections_in_Alaska | United States presidential elections in Alaska | Since Alaska's admission to the Union in January 3, 1959, it has participated in 17 United States presidential elections, always having 3 electoral votes. In the 1960 presidential election, Alaska was narrowly won by the Republican Party's candidate and incumbent vice president Richard Nixon, defeating the Democratic Party's candidate John F. Kennedy by a margin of just 1.88% (1,144 votes). In the 1964 presidential election, the Democratic Party's candidate Lyndon B. Johnson won Alaska in a national Democratic landslide victory. Since the 1964 election, Alaska has been won by the Republican Party in every presidential election. However, no Republican candidate has gotten 55% of the statewide vote since 2008. Donald Trump received 54.5% in 2024.
Ronald Reagan, the Republican candidate in the 1984 presidential election, won Alaska by 36.78%, which remains the largest margin of victory in the state's history. Ross Perot, the independent candidate in the 1992 presidential election, received the highest vote share (28.43%) ever won by a third-party candidate in Alaska. Various news organizations have characterized Alaska as a safe Republican state. No Republican has won the presidency without carrying Alaska since its statehood in 1959 due to Lyndon B. Johnson being the only Democratic candidate to ever carry the state. Alaska is tied with Idaho, Utah, Wyoming, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas and Oklahoma for the longest Republican voting streak for any state in recent political history, from 1968 to present.
== Presidential elections ==
=== Graph ===
The following graph shows the margin of victory of the winner over the runner-up in the 16 presidential elections Alaska participated. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beach_Boys#History | The Beach Boys#History | The Beach Boys are an American rock band formed in Hawthorne, California, in 1961. The group's founding members consisted of brothers Brian, Dennis, and Carl Wilson, their cousin Mike Love, and their friend Al Jardine. One of the most influential acts of the rock era, they are known for their musical ingenuity, vocal harmonies, and lyrics initially reflecting a southern California youth culture of surfing, cars, and romance dubbed the "California sound". The group drew on the music of 1950s rock and roll, black R&B, and pre-rock and roll pop vocal groups to create their sound. Under Brian's leadership, they often incorporated classical or jazz elements and unconventional recording techniques in innovative ways.
The band was originally managed by the Wilsons' father Murry and centered on Brian's songwriting, arranging, and producing. Jardine was replaced by David Marks during 1962–1963. Signing with Capitol Records, their second record "Surfin' Safari" (1962) launched a five-year streak of 16 consecutive U.S. top 40 hit singles. Between their releases Surfer Girl (1963) and The Beach Boys Today! (1965), they transitioned to an increasingly orchestral, album-oriented, and studio-focused direction distanced from surf music, after which Bruce Johnston substituted for Brian on concert tours and later joined as an official member. Released in 1966, the Pet Sounds album and "Good Vibrations" single became widely regarded as among the greatest and most influential works in popular music history. They were one of the few American rock bands to sustain their commercial standing during the British Invasion.
After shelving the Smile album and launching their Brother Records imprint in 1967, the band's commercial and critical momentum faltered in the U.S. Brian gradually ceded control of the group to his bandmates, at which time Carl took over as de facto leader and produced the bulk of their recordings through the mid-1970s, including Sunflower (1970), Surf's Up (1971), and Holland (1973). Moving to Reprise Records in 1970, Blondie Chaplin and Ricky Fataar of the Flames briefly joined their lineup before Brian reassumed sole producer duties on the albums 15 Big Ones (1976) and The Beach Boys Love You (1977). Amid the continued success of their live shows and Capitol hits compilations, the members splintered into separate factions and pursued solo careers. Dennis drowned in 1983 and Brian was largely estranged from the band by the late 1980s. Following Carl's death from lung cancer in 1998, the members granted Love exclusive legal rights to tour under the group's name. The original members, with Marks and Johnston, temporarily reunited for the album That's Why God Made the Radio (2012) and accompanying world tour. Brian died in 2025 of respiratory arrest. Johnston departed in 2026. Jardine remains an official member despite touring separately from Love.
The Beach Boys are one of the most critically acclaimed and commercially successful bands of all time, selling over 100 million records worldwide. They helped legitimize popular music as a recognized art form, and influenced the development of music genres and movements such as psychedelia, power pop, progressive rock, punk, alternative, and lo-fi music. As of 2026, they have had 37 songs reach the top 40 of the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, the most by an American band, with four topping the chart. In 2004, the group was ranked number 12 on Rolling Stone's list of the greatest artists of all time, the highest ranking of any American band. The founding members were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988.
== History ==
=== 1958–1962: Formation and first recordings ===
At the time of his 16th birthday on June 20, 1958, Brian Wilson shared a bedroom with his brothers, Dennis and Carl—aged 13 and 11, respectively—in their family home in Hawthorne. He had watched his father Murry Wilson play piano, and had listened intently to the harmonies of vocal groups such as the Four Freshmen. After dissecting songs such as "Ivory Tower" and "Good News", Brian would teach family members how to sing the background harmonies. For his birthday that year, Brian received a reel-to-reel tape recorder. He learned how to overdub, using his vocals and those of Carl and their mother. Brian played piano, while Carl and David Marks, an eleven-year-old longtime neighbor, played guitars that each had received as Christmas presents.
Soon Brian and Carl were avidly listening to Johnny Otis' KFOX radio show. Inspired by the simple structure and vocals of the rhythm and blues songs he heard, Brian changed his piano-playing style and started writing songs. Family gatherings brought the Wilsons in contact with cousin Mike Love. Brian taught Love's sister Maureen and a friend harmonies. Later, Brian, Carl, Love and two friends performed at Hawthorne High School under the name "Carl and The Passions". Brian also knew Al Jardine, a high school classmate. Brian suggested to Jardine that they team up with his cousin and brother Carl. Soon after Dennis also joined the band on demand of the Wilson's mother Audree. Dennis was the only avid surfer in the group, and he suggested that the group write songs that celebrated the sport and the lifestyle that it had inspired in Southern California. Brian finished the song, titled "Surfin'", and with Mike Love, wrote "Surfin' Safari". Love gave the fledgling band its name: "The Pendletones", a pun on "Pendleton", a brand of woolen shirt popular among local surfers at the time.
Murry Wilson, who was an occasional songwriter, arranged for the Pendletones to meet his publisher Hite Morgan. He said: "Finally, [Hite] agreed to hear it, and Mrs. Morgan said 'Drop everything, we're going to record your song. I think it's good.' And she's the one responsible." On September 15, 1961, the band recorded a demo of "Surfin'" with the Morgans. A more professional recording was made on October 3, at World Pacific Studio in Hollywood. David Marks was not present at the session as he was in school that day. Murry brought the demos to Herb Newman, owner of Candix Records and Era Records, and he signed the group on December 8. When the single was released a few weeks later, the band found that they had been renamed "the Beach Boys". Candix wanted to name the group the Surfers until Russ Regan, a young promoter with Era Records, noted that there already existed a group by that name. He suggested calling them the Beach Boys. "Surfin'" was a regional success for the West Coast, and reached number 75 on the national Billboard Hot 100 chart.
By this time the de facto manager of the Beach Boys, Murry landed the group's first paying gig (for which they earned $300) on New Year's Eve, 1961, at the Ritchie Valens Memorial Dance in Long Beach. In their early public appearances, the band wore the heavy Pendleton woolen jacket-like shirts that local surfers favored before switching to their trademark striped shirts and white pants (a look that was taken directly from the Kingston Trio). All five members sang, with Brian playing bass, Dennis playing drums, Carl playing lead guitar, and Al Jardine playing rhythm guitar, while Mike Love was usually the frontman and occasionally played saxophone.
In early 1962, Morgan requested that some of the members add vocals to a couple of instrumental tracks that he had recorded with other musicians. This led to the creation of the short-lived group Kenny & the Cadets, which Brian led under the pseudonym "Kenny". The other members were Carl, Jardine, and the Wilsons' mother Audree. In February, Jardine left the Beach Boys and was replaced by David Marks on rhythm guitar.
=== 1962–1969: Capitol era ===
==== Early surf- and hot rod-themed period ====
After being turned down by Dot and Liberty, the Beach Boys signed a seven-year contract with Capitol Records under executive and staff producer Nick Venet. On June 4, 1962, the Beach Boys debuted on Capitol with their second single, "Surfin' Safari" backed with "409". "Surfin' Safari" rose to number 14 and found airplay in New York and Phoenix, a surprise for the label. Their debut album, Surfin' Safari, followed in October 1962 and was different from other rock albums of the time in that it consisted almost entirely of original songs, primarily written by Brian with Mike Love and friend Gary Usher. Another unusual feature of the Beach Boys was that, although they were marketed as "surf music", their repertoire bore little resemblance to the music of other surf bands, which was mainly instrumental and incorporated heavy use of spring reverb. For this reason, some of the Beach Boys' early local performances had young audience members throwing vegetables at the band, believing that the group were poseurs.
In January 1963, the Beach Boys recorded their first top-ten single, "Surfin' U.S.A.", which began their long run of highly successful recording efforts. It was during the sessions for this single that Brian made the production decision from that point on to use double tracking on the group's vocals, resulting in a deeper and more resonant sound. The album of the same name followed in March and reached number 2 on the Billboard charts. Its success propelled the group into a nationwide spotlight, and was vital to launching surf music as a national craze, albeit the Beach Boys' vocal approach to the genre, not the original instrumental style pioneered by Dick Dale. Jardine returned in spring 1963 so Brian could make fewer touring appearances.
Released in September, Surfer Girl marked the first time the group used outside musicians on a substantial portion of an LP. Many of them were the musicians Spector used for his Wall of Sound productions. The next month, the group's fourth album Little Deuce Coupe was issued. Additionally, disputes between Marks, his parents, and Murry led Marks to quit that month. In December, the band released a standalone Christmas-themed single "Little Saint Nick", backed with an a cappella rendition of the scriptural song "The Lord's Prayer". The A-side peaked at number 3 on the US Billboard Christmas chart.
The surf music craze, along with the careers of nearly all surf acts, was slowly replaced by the British Invasion. Following a successful Australasian tour in January and February 1964, the Beach Boys returned home to face their new competition, the Beatles. Both groups shared the same record label in the US, and Capitol's support for the Beach Boys immediately began waning. Although it generated a top-five single in "Fun Fun Fun", the group's fifth album, Shut Down Volume 2, became their first since Surfin' Safari not to reach the US top-ten. This caused Murry to fight for the band at the label more than before, often visiting their offices without warning to "twist executive arms", in biographer Peter Ames Carlin's description.
Brian wrote his last surf song for nearly four years, "Don't Back Down", in April 1964. That month, during recording of the single "I Get Around", the band dismissed Murry as their manager. He remained in close contact with the group, offering unsolicited advice on their business decisions. When "I Get Around" was released in May, it would climb to number 1 in the US and Canada, their first single to do so (also reaching the top-ten in Sweden and the UK), proving that the Beach Boys could compete with contemporary British pop groups. "I Get Around" and "Don't Back Down" both appeared on the band's sixth album All Summer Long, released in July 1964 and reaching number 4 in the US. All Summer Long introduced exotic textures to the Beach Boys' sound exemplified by the piccolos and xylophones of its title track. The album was a swan-song to the surf and car music the Beach Boys built their commercial standing upon. Later albums took a different stylistic and lyrical path. Before this, a live album, Beach Boys Concert, was released in October to a four-week chart stay at number 1, containing a set list of previously recorded songs and covers that they had not yet recorded.
==== Brian's withdrawal from touring and The Beach Boys Today! ====
In June 1964, Brian recorded the bulk of The Beach Boys' Christmas Album with a forty-one-piece studio orchestra in collaboration with Four Freshmen arranger Dick Reynolds. The album was a response to Phil Spector's A Christmas Gift for You (1963). Released in December, the Beach Boys' album was divided between five new, original Christmas-themed songs, and seven reinterpretations of traditional Christmas songs, later ranked among the finest holiday albums of the rock era. One single from the album, "The Man with All the Toys", was released, peaking at number 6 on the US Billboard Christmas chart. On October 29, the Beach Boys performed for The T.A.M.I. Show, a concert film intended to bring together a wide range of musicians for a one-off performance. The result was released to movie theaters one month later.
In December, while on a flight from Los Angeles to Houston, Brian suffered a panic attack brought on by the stress of continuous road travel, writing, and producing. In January 1965, he announced his withdrawal from touring to concentrate entirely on songwriting and record production. For the last few days of 1964 and into early 1965, session musician and up-and-coming solo artist Glen Campbell agreed to temporarily serve as Brian's replacement in concert. Carl took over as the band's musical director onstage.
Released in March 1965, The Beach Boys Today! marked the first time the group experimented with the "album-as-art" form. Music writer Scott Schinder referenced its "suite-like structure" as an early example of the rock album format being used to make a cohesive artistic statement. Brian also established his new lyrical approach toward the autobiographical; journalist Nick Kent wrote that the subjects of Brian's songs "were suddenly no longer simple happy souls harmonizing their sun-kissed innocence and dying devotion to each other over a honey-coated backdrop of surf and sand". In the book Yeah Yeah Yeah: The Story of Modern Pop, Bob Stanley remarked that "Brian was aiming for Johnny Mercer but coming up proto-indie."
In April 1965, Campbell's own career success pulled him from touring with the group. Columbia Records staff producer Bruce Johnston was asked to locate a replacement for Campbell; having failed to find one, Johnston himself became a full-time member of the band. The June 4 vocal sessions for "California Girls" marked Johnston's first recording session with the Beach Boys. "California Girls" was included on the band's next album Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!). The first single from Summer Days had been a reworked arrangement of "Help Me, Rhonda", which became the band's second number 1 US single in the spring of 1965.
To appease Capitol's demands for a Beach Boys LP for the 1965 Christmas season, Brian conceived Beach Boys' Party!, a live-in-the-studio album consisting mostly of acoustic covers of 1950s rock and R&B songs, in addition to covers of three Beatles songs, Bob Dylan's "The Times They Are a-Changin'", and idiosyncratic rerecordings of the group's earlier songs. The album was an early precursor of the "unplugged" trend. It also included a cover of the Regents' song "Barbara Ann", which unexpectedly reached number 2 when released as a single several weeks later. In November, the group released another top-twenty single, "The Little Girl I Once Knew".
==== Pet Sounds, Smile, and "Good Vibrations" ====
Wilson collaborated with jingle writer Tony Asher on several of the songs for the album Pet Sounds, a refinement of the themes and ideas introduced in Today!. In some ways, the music was a jarring departure from their earlier style. Released on May 16, 1966, Pet Sounds was widely influential and raised the band's prestige as an innovative rock group. Early reviews for the album in the US ranged from negative to tentatively positive, and its sales numbered approximately 500,000 units, a drop-off from the run of albums that immediately preceded it. Within two months, the label capitulated by releasing the group's first greatest hits compilation album, Best of the Beach Boys, which was quickly certified gold by the RIAA.
In Britain throughout 1966, EMI flooded the UK market with Beach Boys albums not yet released there, including Beach Boys' Party!, The Beach Boys Today! and Summer Days (and Summer Nights!!), while Best of the Beach Boys was number 2 there for several weeks at the end of the year. Thanks to mutual connections, Brian had been introduced to the Beatles' former press officer Derek Taylor, who was subsequently employed as the Beach Boys' publicist. Responding to Brian's request to reinvent the band's image, Taylor devised a promotion campaign with the tagline "Brian Wilson is a genius", a belief Taylor sincerely held. Pet Sounds met a highly favorable critical response in Britain, where it reached number 2 and remained among the top-ten positions for six months. Taylor's prestige was crucial in offering a credible perspective to those on the outside, and his efforts are widely recognized as instrumental in the album's success in Britain.
Throughout the summer of 1966, Brian concentrated on finishing the group's next single, "Good Vibrations". It was one of the most complex pop productions ever undertaken, with sessions for the song stretching over months in four major Hollywood studios, and the most expensive single then ever recorded. Simultaneously, Wilson invited session musician and songwriter Van Dyke Parks to collaborate as lyricist for the Beach Boys' next album project, soon titled Smile. Recording lasted from mid-1966 to mid-1967, and followed the same modular production approach as "Good Vibrations". Concurrently, the Beach Boys' planned to launch their own independent label, Brother Records.
Released on October 10, 1966, "Good Vibrations" was the Beach Boys' third US number 1 single, reaching the top of the Billboard Hot 100 in December, and became their first number 1 in Britain. The record was their first single certified gold by the RIAA. It came to be widely acclaimed as one of the greatest masterpieces of rock music. Over the final quarter of 1966, the Beach Boys were the highest-selling album act in the UK, where for the first time in three years American artists broke the chart dominance of British acts. In December, the Beach Boys were voted the top band in the world in the NME's annual readers' poll, ahead of the Beatles, the Walker Brothers, the Rolling Stones, and the Four Tops.
Throughout the first half of 1967, the release date for Smile was repeatedly postponed as Brian tinkered with the recordings, experimenting with different takes and mixes, and appeared unwilling to supply finished versions of songs. Carl refused to be drafted for military service, leading to indictment and criminal prosecution, which he challenged as a conscientious objector over the next several years. After months of recording and media hype, Smile was shelved for personal, technical, and legal reasons. A February 1967 lawsuit seeking $255,000 (equivalent to $2.46 million in 2025) was launched against Capitol Records over neglected royalty payments. Within the lawsuit was an attempt to terminate the band's contract with Capitol before its November 1969 expiry. Many of Wilson's associates, including Parks, disassociated themselves from the group by April 1967. In the decades following Smile's non-release, it became the most legendary unreleased album in pop music history.
==== Faltered popularity, Brian's reduced involvement, and publishing sale ====
Although Smile had been cancelled, the Beach Boys were still under pressure and a contractual obligation to record and present an album to Capitol. Sessions for the new album lasted from June to July 1967 at Brian's new makeshift home studio. Most of the album featured the Beach Boys playing their own instruments, rather than the session musicians employed in much of their previous work. In July 1967, lead single "Heroes and Villains" was issued, arriving after months of public anticipation, and reached number 12 in US. By then, the group's lawsuit with Capitol was resolved, and it was agreed that Smile would not be the band's next album. In August, the group embarked on a two-date tour of Hawaii. The shows saw Brian make a brief return to live performance, as Bruce Johnston chose to take a temporary break from the band during the summer of 1967, feeling that the atmosphere within the band "had all got too weird".
Smiley Smile was released on September 18, 1967, and peaked at number 41 in the US, making it their worst-selling album to that date. It was the first album for which production was credited to the entire group instead of Brian alone. Critics and fans were generally underwhelmed by the album; according to Scott Schinder, it was released to "general incomprehension". The group was virtually blacklisted by the music press, to the extent that reviews of the group's records were either withheld from publication or published long after the release dates. When released in the UK in November, it performed better, reaching number 9.
The Beach Boys immediately recorded a new album, Wild Honey, an excursion into soul music, and a self-conscious attempt to "regroup" themselves as a rock band in opposition to their more orchestral affairs of the past. Released on December 18, 1967, it had a higher chart placing than Smiley Smile, but still failed to make the top-twenty and remained on the charts for only 15 weeks. As with Smiley Smile, contemporary critics viewed it as inconsequential, and it alienated fans whose expectations had been raised by Smile. That month, Mike Love told a British journalist: "Brian has been rethinking our recording program and in any case we all have a much greater say nowadays in what we turn out in the studio."
Onstage, the members stopped wearing their longtime striped-shirt uniforms in favor of matching white, polyester suits that resembled the fashion of a Las Vegas entertainment act. They reached their lowest popularity in the late 1960s and their cultural standing was especially worsened by their public image, which remained incongruous with the prevailing styles of their contemporaries. Capitol continued to bill them as "America's Top Surfin' Group!" and desired for Brian to revert to this direction for the yearly summer markets. After meeting Maharishi Mahesh Yogi at a UNICEF Variety Gala in Paris, Love and other high-profile celebrities such as the Beatles and Donovan traveled to Rishikesh, India, in February–March 1968. The following Beach Boys album, Friends, had songs influenced by the Transcendental Meditation the Maharishi taught. In support of Friends, Love arranged for the Beach Boys to tour with the Maharishi in the US. Starting on May 3, 1968, the tour lasted five shows and was canceled when the Maharishi withdrew to fulfill film contracts. Because of disappointing audience numbers and the Maharishi's withdrawal, 24 tour dates were canceled at a cost estimated at $250,000. Friends, released on June 24, peaked at number 126 in the US.
In July 1968, the group released the single "Do It Again", which lyrically harkened back to their earlier surf songs. Around this time, Brian admitted himself to a psychiatric hospital; his bandmates wrote and produced material in his absence. His songwriting output declined substantially, but the public narrative of "Brian as leader" continued. In August, Capitol issued an album of Beach Boys backing tracks, Stack-o-Tracks. It was the first Beach Boys LP that failed to chart in the US and UK. Released in January 1969, the album 20/20 mixed new material with outtakes and leftovers from recent albums; Brian produced virtually none of the newer recordings.
In April 1969, the band revisited its 1967 lawsuit against Capitol after it alleged an audit revealed the band was owed over $2 million for unpaid royalties and production duties. In May, Brian told the music press that the group's funds were depleted to the point that it was considering filing for bankruptcy at the end of the year, which Disc & Music Echo called "stunning news" and a "tremendous shock on the American pop scene". Brian hoped that the success of a forthcoming single, "Break Away", would mend the financial issues. The song, written and produced by Brian and Murry, reached number 63 in the US and number 6 in the UK, and Brian's remarks to the press ultimately thwarted long-simmering contract negotiations with Deutsche Grammophon.
The group's Capitol contract expired two weeks later with one more album still due. Live in London, a live album recorded in December 1968, was released in the UK and a few other countries in 1970 to fulfil the contract, although it would not see US release until 1976, under the erroneous re-title Beach Boys '69. After the contract was completed Capitol deleted the Beach Boys' catalog from print, effectively cutting off their royalty flow. The lawsuit was later settled in their favor and they acquired the rights to their post-1965 catalog. In August 1969, Sea of Tunes, the Beach Boys' catalog, was sold to Irving Almo Music for $700,000 (equivalent to $6.15 million in 2025). According to his wife, Marilyn Wilson, Brian was devastated by the sale. Over the years, the catalog generated more than $100 million in publishing royalties, none of which Murry or the band members ever received.
Through his connection with Dennis, the Beach Boys had recorded one song by Charles Manson without Manson's involvement: "Cease to Exist", rewritten as "Never Learn Not to Love", which was released as a B-side single from 20/20. As his cult of followers took over Dennis's home, Dennis gradually distanced himself from Manson. According to author David Leaf, "The entire Wilson family reportedly feared for their lives." In August, the Manson Family committed the Tate–LaBianca murders. According to Jon Parks, the band's tour manager, it was widely suspected in the Hollywood community that Manson was responsible for the murders, and it had been known that Manson had been involved with the Beach Boys, causing the band to be viewed as pariahs for a time. In November, police apprehended Manson, and his connection with the Beach Boys received media attention. He was later convicted for several counts of murder and conspiracy to murder.
=== 1970–1978: Reprise era ===
==== Sunflower, Surf's Up, Carl and the Passions, and Holland ====
The group was signed to Reprise Records in 1970. Scott Schinder described the label as "probably the hippest and most artist-friendly major label of the time". The deal was brokered by Van Dyke Parks, who was then employed as a multimedia executive at Warner Music Group. Reprise's contract stipulated Brian's proactive involvement with the band in all albums. Their first LP for Reprise, Sunflower, was released on August 31, 1970 and featured a strong group presence with significant writing contributions from all six band members. Brian was active during this period, writing or co-writing seven of Sunflower's 12 songs and performing at half of the band's domestic concerts in 1970. The album received critical acclaim in both the US and the UK.
In early 1970, the Beach Boys hired radio presenter Jack Rieley as their manager. One of his initiatives was to encourage the band to record songs with more socially conscious lyrics. He requested the completion of Smile track "Surf's Up" and arranged a guest appearance at a Grateful Dead concert at Bill Graham's Fillmore East in April 1971 to foreground the Beach Boys' transition into the counterculture. During this time, the group ceased wearing matching uniforms on stage, while Dennis starred alongside James Taylor, Laurie Bird, and Warren Oates in the film Two-Lane Blacktop, released in 1971. In July, the American music press rated the Beach Boys "the hottest grossing act" in the country, tied with Grand Funk Railroad. The band filmed a concert for ABC-TV in Central Park, which aired as Good Vibrations from Central Park on August 19.
On August 30, the band released Surf's Up, which was moderately successful, reaching the US top-thirty, a marked improvement over their recent releases. While the record charted, the Beach Boys added to their renewed fame by performing a near-sellout set at Carnegie Hall; their live shows during this era included reworked arrangements of many of their previous songs, with their set lists culling from Pet Sounds and Smile.
Early 1972 saw Johnston dismissed from the band, and the recruitment of two former members of the South African band the Flames, guitarist/singer Blondie Chaplin and drummer/singer Ricky Fataar. The new line-up released Carl and the Passions – "So Tough" in May 1972. The original U.S. release was packaged with a bonus reissue of Pet Sounds. Carl and the Passions was relatively unsuccessful in the U.S., charting at number 50. It was more successful in the UK, where it was issued as a single album without Pet Sounds, peaking at number 25. The next album, Holland, was released in January 1973. Reprise initially rejected the album, feeling it lacked a strong single. Following the intervention of Van Dyke Parks, this resulted in the inclusion of "Sail On, Sailor". Reprise approved, and the resulting album peaked at number 37. Brian's musical children's story, Mount Vernon and Fairway, was included with the album as a bonus EP.
==== Renewed popularity and touring resurgence ====
After Holland, the group maintained a touring regimen, captured on the double live album The Beach Boys in Concert released in November 1973, but recorded very little in the studio through 1975. Following Murry's death in June 1973, Brian retreated into his bedroom and withdrew further into drug abuse, alcoholism, chain smoking, and overeating. In October, the band dismissed Rieley as manager and appointed Mike Love's brother, Stephen, and Chicago manager James William Guercio. Chaplin and Fataar left the band in December 1973 and November 1974, respectively, reducing the band back to the original five members.
The Beach Boys' greatest hits compilation album Endless Summer was released in June 1974 to unexpected success, becoming the band's second number 1 US album in October. The LP had a 155-week chart run, selling over 3 million copies. A second volume of greatest hits, Spirit of America, followed in April 1975, reaching US number 8, being certified Gold, and having a 43-week chart run. The Beach Boys became the number-one act in the US, propelling themselves from opening for Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young in the summer of 1974 to headliners selling out basketball arenas within weeks. Guercio prevailed upon the group to swap out newer songs with older material in their concert setlists, partly to accommodate their growing audience demand for their earlier hits. Later in the year, members of the band appeared as guests on Chicago's hit "Wishing You Were Here". At the end of 1974, Rolling Stone proclaimed the Beach Boys "Band of the Year" based on the strength of their live performances.
To capitalize on their sudden resurgence in popularity, the Beach Boys accepted Guercio's invitation to record their next Reprise album at his Caribou Ranch studio, located around the mountains of Nederland, Colorado. These October 1974 sessions marked the group's return to the studio after a 21-month period of virtual inactivity, but the proceedings were cut short after Brian had insisted on returning to his home in Los Angeles. With the project put on hold, the Beach Boys spent most of the next year on the road playing college football stadiums and basketball arenas. The only Beach Boys recording of 1974 to see release at the time was the Christmas single "Child of Winter", recorded upon the group's return to Los Angeles in November and released the following month.
Over the summer of 1975, the touring group played a co-headlining series of concert dates with Chicago, a pairing that was nicknamed "Beachago". The tour was massively successful and restored the Beach Boys' profitability to what it had been in the mid-1960s. Although another joint tour with Chicago had been planned for the summer of 1976, the Beach Boys' association with Guercio and his Caribou Management company ended in early 1976. Stephen Love subsequently took over as the band's de facto business manager.
==== "Brian Is Back!" and CBS signing ====
Early in 1975, Brian signed a production deal with California Music, a Los Angeles collective that included Bruce Johnston and Gary Usher, but was drawn away by the Beach Boys' pressing demands for a new album. In October, Marilyn persuaded Brian to admit himself to the care of psychologist Eugene Landy, who kept him from indulging in substance abuse with constant supervision. Brian was kept in the program until December 1976. At the end of January 1976, the Beach Boys returned to the studio with Brian producing once again. To promote the group through Brian's recovery and his return to writing and producing, Stephen launched a media campaign that adopted the tagline "Brian Is Back!" and paid the Rogers & Cowan publicity agency $3,500 per month to implement it. The band also commissioned an NBC-TV special, later known as The Beach Boys: It's OK!, that was produced by NBC's Saturday Night creator Lorne Michaels.
Released on July 5, 1976, 15 Big Ones was generally disliked by fans and critics, as well as Carl and Dennis, who disparaged the album to the press. The album peaked at number 8 in the US, becoming their first top-ten album of new material since Pet Sounds, and their highest-charting studio album since Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!). Lead single "Rock and Roll Music" peaked at number 5 – their highest chart ranking since "Good Vibrations".
From late-1976 to early-1977, Brian made sporadic public appearances and produced the band's next album, The Beach Boys Love You. He regarded it as a spiritual successor to Pet Sounds, namely because of the autobiographical lyrics. Released on April 11, 1977, Love You peaked at number 53 in the US and number 28 in the UK. Critically, it was widely praised, though it initially met with polarized reactions from the public. Adult/Child, the intended follow-up to Love You, was completed, but withheld from release. Following this period, his concert appearances with the band gradually diminished and their performances were occasionally erratic.
At the beginning of 1977, the Beach Boys had enjoyed their most lucrative concert tours ever, with the band playing in packed stadiums and earning up to $150,000 per show. Concurrently, the band was the subject of a record company bidding war, as their contract with Warner Bros. had been set to expire soon. Stephen Love arranged for the Beach Boys to sign an $8 million deal with CBS Records on March 1. Numerous stipulations were given in the CBS contract, including that Brian was required to write at least four songs per album, co-write at least 70% of all the tracks, and produce or co-produce alongside his brothers. Another part of the deal required the group to play thirty concerts a year in the U.S., in addition to one tour in Australia and Japan, and two tours in Europe. The first Beach Boys-related release on CBS was Dennis' solo album Pacific Ocean Blue, issued in August 1977.
Within weeks of the CBS contract, the band dismissed Stephen as their manager, replaced by Carl's associate Henry Lazarus, an entertainment business owner that had no prior experience in the music industry. Lazarus arranged a major European tour for the Beach Boys, starting in late July, with stops in Germany, Switzerland, and France. Due to poor planning, the tour was cancelled shortly before it began. The band dismissed Lazarus and were sued by many of the concert promoters, with losses of $200,000 in preliminary expenses and $550,000 in potential revenue.
In July, the Beach Boys played a concert at Wembley Stadium before Mike attacked Brian with a piano bench onstage in front of over 15,000 attendees. In August, Mike and Jardine persuaded Stephen to return as the group's manager, a decision that Carl and Dennis had strongly opposed. By this point, the band had effectively split into two camps; Dennis and Carl on one side, and Mike and Jardine on the other, with Brian remaining neutral. The internal wrangling came to a head in September, with Dennis declaring to a Rolling Stone journalist that he had left the band. The group was broken up until a meeting at Brian's house on September 17. In light of the lucrative CBS contract, the parties negotiated a settlement resulting in Love gaining control of Brian's vote in the group, allowing Love and Jardine to outvote Carl and Dennis on any matter.
The group had still owed one more album for Reprise. Released in September 1978, M.I.U. Album was recorded at Maharishi International University in Iowa at the suggestion of Love. The band originally attempted to record a Christmas album, to be titled Merry Christmas from the Beach Boys, but this idea was rejected by Reprise. Dennis and Carl made limited contributions to M.I.U. Album; the album was produced by Jardine and Ron Altbach, with Brian credited as "executive producer". Dennis retreated from the group to focus on his second solo album, Bambu, which was shelved just as alcoholism and marital problems overcame all three Wilson brothers.
=== 1978–1998: Continued recording, death of Dennis, and Brian's estrangement ===
The group's first two albums for CBS, 1979's L.A. (Light Album) and 1980's Keepin' the Summer Alive, struggled in the US, charting at 100 and 75 respectively, though the band did manage a top-forty single from L.A. (Light Album) with "Good Timin'". The recording of these albums saw Bruce Johnston return to the band, initially solely as a producer and eventually as a full-time band member. In-between the two albums, the group contributed the song "It's a Beautiful Day" to the soundtrack of the film Americathon.
In the 1980s, the Beach Boys transitioned into an oldies act and spent the next several years touring, often playing in front of large audiences, and recording songs for film soundtracks and various artists compilations. On June 21, 1980, they performed a concert at Knebworth, England, later released in 2002 as a live album titled Good Timin': Live at Knebworth England 1980. In 1981, the band scored a surprise US top-twenty hit when their cover of the Del-Vikings' "Come Go with Me", from the three year old M.I.U. Album, was released as a single from Ten Years of Harmony, a double compilation album focusing on the Reprise and CBS years.
Carl temporarily left the touring group in 1981 due to unhappiness with the band's nostalgia format and lackluster live performances. He recorded and released his first solo album Carl Wilson that year. He returned in May 1982, after approximately 14 months of being away, on the condition that the group reconsider their rehearsal and touring policies and refrain from "Las Vegas-type" engagements.
In late 1982, Eugene Landy was hired once more as Brian's therapist and subsequently restored his physical health, slimming down from 311 pounds (141 kg) to 185 pounds (84 kg). By 1983, tensions between Dennis and Love escalated to the point that each filed a restraining order against the other. On December 28, Dennis drowned at the age of 39 in Marina del Rey while diving from a friend's boat trying to recover items that he had previously thrown overboard in a fit of rage.
Produced by Steve Levine, their self-titled 1985 self-tited album proved a modest success, becoming their highest-charting album in the U.S. since 15 Big Ones. It was the band's last album for CBS, as they returned to Capitol in 1986 with a 25th anniversary greatest hits album, Made in U.S.A, which went double platinum. In 1988, the Beach Boys claimed their first US number 1 single in 22 years with "Kokomo", which topped the chart for one week. The track was included on the band's next studio album, 1989's Still Cruisin', which went platinum in the US. During that period, Brian was largely absent during the recording sessions and tour dates due the recording of his debut solo album Brian Wilson and conflicts between the band and Landy.
Love filed a defamation lawsuit against Brian due to how he was presented in Brian's 1992 memoir Wouldn't It Be Nice: My Own Story. Its publisher HarperCollins settled the suit for $1.5 million. He later wrote that the suit allowed his lawyer "to gain access to the transcripts of Brian's interviews with his [book] collaborator, Todd Gold. Those interviews affirmed—according to Brian—that I had been the inspiration of the group and that I had written many of the songs that [would soon be] in dispute." Other defamation lawsuits were filed by Carl, Brother Records, and the Wilsons' mother Audree. With Love and Brian unable to determine exactly what Love was properly owed in royalties and songwriting credits, Love sued Brian in 1992, awarding him $5 million and a share of future royalties from Wilson. Thirty-five of the group's songs were then amended to credit Love.
After dissolving his relationship with Landy, Brian phoned Sire Records staff producer Andy Paley to collaborate on new material tentatively for the Beach Boys. After losing the songwriting credits lawsuit with Love, Brian told MOJO in February 1995: "Mike and I are just cool. There's a lot of shit Andy and I got written for him. I just had to get through that goddamn trial!" In April, it was unclear whether the project would turn into a Wilson solo album, a Beach Boys album, or a combination of the two. The project ultimately disintegrated. Instead, Brian and his bandmates recorded Stars and Stripes Vol. 1, an album of country music stars covering Beach Boys songs, with co-production helmed by River North Records owner Joe Thomas.
=== 1998–present: Love-led tours and occasional reunions ===
==== Carl's death and name litigation ====
In 1997, Carl was diagnosed with lung and brain cancer. Despite his terminal condition, he performed with the band on its summer tour (a double-bill with Chicago) while undergoing chemo. During performances, he sat on a stool and needed oxygen after each song. When Carl became too unwell to perform in late 1997, David Marks returned as lead guitarist. Carl died on February 6, 1998, aged 51, two months after the death of the Wilsons' mother, Audree.
After Carl's death, Jardine quit the touring band. His final appearance with the band for more than a decade occurred on May 9, 1998, which was the final official Beach Boys show performed before the license dispute. During the dispute, Love, Johnston and Marks toured as "The California Beach Band". After Love secured a license from BRI, he, Johnston and Marks continued touring as the Beach Boys from July 4, 1998. At the time, Brian was also offered the license, but declined. Jardine began to perform regularly with his band "Beach Boys: Family & Friends" until he ran into legal issues for using the name without license. Jardine sued Love, claiming he had been excluded from their concerts. Brother Records, Inc. (BRI), through its attorney, Ed McPherson, sued Jardine. Jardine counter-claimed against BRI for wrongful termination. Courts ruled in Love's favor, denying Jardine use of the Beach Boys name. Jardine appealed, and sought $4 million in damages. The California Court of Appeal ruled that "Love acted wrongfully in freezing Jardine out of touring under the Beach Boys name", allowing Jardine to continue with his lawsuit. The case was settled outside of court with the terms undisclosed. Marks quit the band again in 1999, due to a diagnosis of hepatitis C; after which Love and Johnston continued touring without him.
In 2000, ABC-TV premiered a miniseries, The Beach Boys: An American Family, that dramatized the Beach Boys' story. It was criticized by numerous parties, including Wilson, for inaccuracies.
Sounds of Summer: The Very Best of the Beach Boys, a greatest hits compilation, was released in 2003, going multi-platinum. In 2004, Wilson recorded and released his solo album Brian Wilson Presents Smile, a reinterpretation of the unfinished Smile project. That September, Wilson issued a free CD through the Mail On Sunday that included Beach Boys songs he had rerecorded, five of which he co-authored with Love. The 10-track compilation had 2.6 million copies distributed and prompted Love to file a lawsuit in 2005; he claimed the promotion hurt sales of the original recordings and his image was used for the CD. Wilson's wife Melinda alleged that, during the deposition, Love turned to Wilson and remarked: "you better start writing a real big hit because you're going to have to write me a real big check". Love's suit was dismissed in 2007 when a judge determined there were no triable issues and the case was without merit.
In 2006, Brian Wilson, Love, Jardine, Marks, and Johnston participated in a non-performing reunion atop the Capitol Records Building to celebrate that Sounds of Summer had been certified double-platinum. Later that year, Jardine joined Wilson and his band for a tour celebrating the 40th anniversary of Pet Sounds. In 2008, Marks briefly reunited with Love and Johnston's touring band for a tour of Europe.
In 2010, Jardine released A Postcard from California, his solo debut. The album features contributions from Brian, Johnston, Marks, and Love, as well as a posthumous feature from Carl and other guest appearances. Also in 2010, Brian and Jardine sang on "We Are the World 25 for Haiti", a new recording of "We Are the World", to benefit the population of Haiti.
==== 2011–2012 reunion and aftermath ====
Jardine made his first appearance with the Beach Boys touring band in more than 10 years in 2011 at a tribute concert for Ronald Reagan's 100th birthday. He made other appearances with Love and Johnston's touring band in preparation for a reunion. On October 31, The Smile Sessions compilation album and box set was released, featuring comprehensive session highlights and outtakes from the original 1966-1967 Smile recordings. It received virtually unanimous critical acclaim upon release. It was ranked number 381 in Rolling Stone's 2012 list of the greatest albums of all time and won the Grammy Award for Best Historical Album at the 2013 Grammy Awards.
On December 16, 2011, it was announced that Wilson, Love, Jardine, Johnston, and David Marks would reunite for a new album and 50th anniversary tour. On February 12, 2012, the Beach Boys performed at the 2012 Grammy Awards. It marked the group's first live performance to include Wilson since 1996, Jardine since 1998, and Marks since 1999. A new studio album, That's Why God Made the Radio, was released on July 5; it debuted at number 3 on the Billboard 200, expanding the group's span of top-ten albums there across 49 years and one week, passing the Beatles with 47 years of top-ten albums. Critics generally regarded the album as an "uneven" collection, with most of the praise centered on its closing musical suite.
Ultimately, the reunion tour ended in September 2012 as planned, after a final show on September 28, but amid rumors that Love had dismissed Wilson from the Beach Boys. Love and Johnston continued to perform under the Beach Boys name, while Wilson, Jardine, and Marks toured as a trio in 2013, and a subsequent tour with guitarist Jeff Beck also included Blondie Chaplin at select dates. Wilson and Jardine continued to tour together in 2014 and following years, often joined by Chaplin; Marks declined to join them after 2013 and would occasionally perform with Love and Johnston as a guest from 2014 until 2016.
No Pier Pressure, Brian's solo album for April 2015, marked another collaboration between him and Joe Thomas, featuring guest appearances from Jardine, Marks and Chaplin. In February 2014, Love, Jardine, Marks and Johnston appeared together at the 2014 Ella Awards Ceremony, where Love was honored for his work as a singer. In April, when asked if he was interested in making music with Love again, Wilson said he was not, adding in July that he "doesn't talk to the Beach Boys [or] Mike Love". In December, Soundstage aired an episode featuring Wilson performing with Jardine, Chaplin and Ricky Fataar at The Venetian in Las Vegas.
In 2016, Wilson and Jardine embarked on the Pet Sounds 50th Anniversary World Tour, promoted as Wilson's final performances of the album, with Chaplin appearing as a special guest at all dates on select songs. Chaplin would become an official part of the band later that year. That same year, Love and Wilson each published memoirs, Good Vibrations: My Life as a Beach Boy and I Am Brian Wilson, respectively. Asked about negative comments that Wilson made about him in the book, Love challenged the legitimacy of statements attributed to Wilson in the book and in the press. In an interview with Rolling Stone conducted in June 2016, Wilson said he would like to try to repair his relationship with Love and collaborate with him again. In January 2017, Love said: "If it were possible to make it just Brian and I, and have it under control and done better than what happened in 2012, then yeah, I'd be open to something."
In July 2018, Wilson, Jardine, Love, Johnston, and Marks reunited for a one-off Q&A session moderated by director Rob Reiner at the Capitol Records Building in Los Angeles. It was the first time the band had appeared together in public since their 2012 tour. That December, Love described his new holiday album, Reason for the Season, as a "message to Brian" and said that he "would love nothing more than to get together with Brian and do some music". In 2019, Wilson, Jardine and Chaplin embarked on a co-headlining tour with the Zombies, performing selections from Friends and Surf's Up.
In February 2020, Wilson and Jardine's official social media pages encouraged fans to boycott the band's music after it was announced that Love's Beach Boys would perform at the Safari Club International Convention in Reno, Nevada on animal rights grounds. The concert proceeded despite online protests, as Love issued a statement that said his group has always supported "freedom of thought and expression as a fundamental tenet of our rights as Americans". In October, Love and Johnston's Beach Boys performed at a fundraiser for Donald Trump's 2020 presidential campaign; Wilson and Jardine again issued a statement that they had not been informed about this performance and did not support it.
==== Intellectual property sale and Brian's death ====
In February 2021, it was announced that Brian Wilson, Love, Jardine, and the estate of Carl Wilson had sold a majority stake in the band's intellectual property to Irving Azoff and his new company, Iconic Artists Group. In April, Omnivore Recordings released the album California Music Presents Add Some Music, featuring Love, Jardine, Marks, Johnston, and several of their children. That August, Capitol released the Feel Flows box set, comprising sessions from Sunflower and Surf's Up. Capitol succeeded this in December 2022 with the Sail On Sailor – 1972 box set, this time focusing on Carl and the Passions and Holland.
On February 8, 2023, A Grammy Salute to the Beach Boys was recorded at the Dolby Theatre in Hollywood, California and subsequently aired as a two-hour special on CBS on April 9. Wilson, Jardine, Marks, Johnston, and Love attended the concert as non-performers. According to Billboard, the program had 5.18 million viewers. Directed by Frank Marshall and Thom Zimny, a new self-titled band documentary was released by Disney+ in 2024 and included new interviews from members of the band and footage from a private reunion of Wilson, Love, Jardine, Marks, and Johnston at Paradise Cove. They and Chaplin also participated in a non-performing reunion at the documentary's premiere on May 24, 2024.
After Wilson retired from touring in 2022, Jardine reformed Wilson's supporting band as the Pet Sounds Band for a series of concert tours starting in 2025. Brian died of respiratory arrest on June 11, 2025 at the age of 82. An expanded reissue of The Beach Boys Love You, titled We Gotta Groove: The Brother Studio Years, was released on February 13, 2026. On March 4, Bruce Johnston announced that he would no longer perform with the Beach Boys, focusing on solo performances instead.
== Musical style and development ==
In Understanding Rock: Essays in Musical Analysis, musicologist Daniel Harrison writes:
Even from their inception, the Beach Boys were an experimental group. They combined, as Jim Miller has put it, "the instrumental sleekness of the Ventures, the lyric sophistication of Chuck Berry, and the vocal expertise of some weird cross between the Lettermen and Frankie Lymon and the Teenagers" with lyrics whose images, idioms, and concerns were drawn from the rarefied world of the middle-class white male southern California teenager. ... [But] it was the profound vocal virtuosity of the group, coupled with the obsessional drive and compositional ambitions of their leader, Brian Wilson, that promised their survival after the eventual breaking of fad fever. ... Comparison to other vocally oriented rock groups, such as the Association, shows the Beach Boys' technique to be far superior, almost embarrassingly so. They were so confident of their ability, and of Brian's skill as a producer to enhance it, that they were unafraid of doing sophisticated, a cappella glee-club arrangements containing multiple suspensions, passing formations, complex chords, and both chromatic and enharmonic modulations.
The Beach Boys began as a garage band playing 1950s style rock and roll, reassembling styles of music such as surf to include vocal jazz harmony, which created their unique sound. In addition, they introduced their signature approach to common genres such as the pop ballad by applying harmonic or formal twists. Among the distinct elements of the Beach Boys' style were the nasal quality of their singing voices, their use of a falsetto harmony over a driving, locomotive-like melody, and the sudden chiming in of the whole group on a key line. Brian Wilson handled most stages of the group's recording process from the beginning, even though he was not properly credited on earlier recordings.
Early on, Mike Love sang lead vocals in the rock-oriented songs, while Carl contributed guitar lines on the group's ballads. Jim Miller commented: "On straight rockers they sang tight harmonies behind Love's lead ... on ballads, Brian played his falsetto off against lush, jazz-tinged voicings, often using (for rock) unorthodox harmonic structures." Harrison adds that "even the least distinguished of the Beach Boys' early uptempo rock 'n' roll songs show traces of structural complexity at some level; Brian was simply too curious and experimental to leave convention alone". Although Brian was often dubbed a perfectionist, he was an inexperienced musician, and his understanding of music was mostly self-taught. At the lyric stage, he usually worked with Love, whose assertive persona provided youthful swagger that contrasted Brian's explorations in romanticism and sensitivity. Luis Sanchez noted a pattern where Brian would spare surfing imagery when working with collaborators outside of his band's circle, in the examples "Lonely Sea" and "In My Room".
Brian's bandmates resented the notion that he was the sole creative force in the group. In a 1966 article that asked if "the Beach Boys rely too much on sound genius Brian", Carl said that although Brian was the most responsible for their music, every member of the group contributed ideas. Mike Love wrote: "As far as I was concerned, Brian was a genius, deserving of that recognition. But the rest of us were seen as nameless components in Brian's music machine ... It didn't feel to us as if we were just riding on Brian's coattails." Conversely, Dennis defended Brian's stature in the band, stating: "Brian Wilson is the Beach Boys. He is the band. We're his fucking messengers. He is all of it. Period. We're nothing. He's everything."
=== Influences ===
The band's earliest influences came primarily from the work of Chuck Berry and the Four Freshmen. Performed by the Four Freshmen, "Their Hearts Were Full of Spring" (1961) was a particular favorite of the group. By analyzing their arrangements of pop standards, Brian educated himself on jazz harmony. Philip Lambert noted: "If Bob Flanigan helped teach Brian how to sing, then Gershwin, Kern, Porter, and the other members of this pantheon helped him learn how to craft a song." Other general influences on the group included the Hi-Lo's, the Penguins, the Robins, Bill Haley & His Comets, Otis Williams, the Cadets, the Everly Brothers, the Shirelles, the Regents, and the Crystals.
The eclectic mix of white and black vocal group influences – ranging from the rock and roll of Berry, the jazz harmonies of the Four Freshmen, the pop of the Four Preps, the folk of the Kingston Trio, the R&B of groups like the Coasters and the Five Satins, and the doo wop of Dion and the Belmonts – helped contribute to the Beach Boys' uniqueness in American popular music. Carl remembered that Love was "really immersed in doo-wop" and likely "influenced Brian to listen to it", adding that the "black artists were so much better in terms of rock records in those days that the white records almost sounded like put-ons".
Another significant influence on Brian's work was Burt Bacharach. He said in the 1960s: "Burt Bacharach and Hal David are more like me. They're also the best pop team – per se – today. As a producer, Bacharach has a very fresh, new approach." Regarding surf rock pioneer Dick Dale, Brian said that his influence on the group was limited to Carl and his style of guitar playing. Carl credited Chuck Berry, the Ventures, and John Walker with shaping his guitar style, and that the Beach Boys had learned to play all of the Ventures' songs by ear early in their career.
In 1967, Lou Reed wrote in Aspen that the Beach Boys created a "hybrid sound" out of rock and roll and the Four Freshmen, explaining that such songs as "Let Him Run Wild", "Don't Worry Baby", "I Get Around", and "Fun, Fun, Fun" were not unlike "Peppermint Stick" by the Elchords. Similarly, John Sebastian of the Lovin' Spoonful noted: "Brian had control of this vocal palette of which we had no idea. We had never paid attention to the Four Freshmen or doo-wop combos like the Crew Cuts. Look what gold he mined out of that."
=== Vocals ===
Brian identified each member individually for their vocal range, once detailing the ranges for Carl, Dennis, Jardine ("[they] progress upwards through G, A, and B"), Love ("can go from bass to the E above middle C"), and himself ("I can take the second D in the treble clef"). He declared in 1966 that his greatest interest was to expand modern vocal harmony, owing to his fascination with a voice to the Four Freshmen, which he considered a "groovy sectional sound". He added: "The harmonies that we are able to produce give us a uniqueness which is really the only important thing you can put into records – some quality that no one else has got." For a period, Brian avoided singing falsetto for the group, saying: "I thought people thought I was a fairy ... the band told me, 'If that's the way you sing, don't worry about it.'"
In the group's early recordings, from lowest intervals to highest, the group's vocal harmony stack usually began with Love or Dennis, followed by Jardine or Carl, and finally Brian on top, according to Jardine, while Carl said that the blend was Love on bottom, Carl above, followed by Dennis or Jardine, and then Brian on top. Jardine explains: We always sang the same vocal intervals. ... As soon as we heard the chords on the piano we'd figure it out pretty easily. If there was a vocal move [Brian] envisioned, he'd show that particular singer that move. We had somewhat photographic memory as far as the vocal parts were concerned so that [was] never a problem for us. Striving for perfection, Brian ensured that his intricate vocal arrangements exercised the group's calculated blend of intonation, attack, phrasing, and expression. Sometimes, he would sing each vocal harmony part alone through multi-track tape.
On the group's blend, Carl said: "[Love] has a beautifully rich, very full-sounding bass voice. Yet his lead singing is real nasal, real punk. [Jardine]'s voice has a bright timbre to it; it really cuts. My voice has a kind of calm sound. We're big oooh-ers; we love to oooh. It's a big, full sound, that's very pleasing to us; it opens up the heart." Rock critic Erik Davis wrote: "The 'purity' of tone and genetic proximity that smoothed their voices was almost creepy, pseudo-castrato, [and] a 'barbershop' sound." Jimmy Webb said: "They used very little vibrato and sing in very straight tones. The voices all lie down beside each other very easily – there's no bumping between them because the pitch is very precise." Writer Richard Goldstein reported that, according to a fellow journalist who asked Brian about the black roots of his music, Brian's response was: "We're white and we sing white." Goldstein added that when he asked where his approach to vocal harmonies had derived from, Wilson answered: 'Barbershop'."
=== Use of studio musicians ===
Biographer James Murphy said: "By most contemporary accounts, they were not a very good live band when they started. ... The Beach Boys learned to play as a band in front of live audiences", eventually to become "one of the best and enduring live bands". With only a few exceptions, the Beach Boys played every instrument heard on their first four albums and first five singles. Music critic Richie Unterberger believed that "Before session musicians took over most of the parts, the Beach Boys could play respectably gutsy surf rock as a self-contained unit."
As Wilson's arrangements increased in complexity, he began employing a group of professional studio musicians, later known as "the Wrecking Crew", to assist with recording the instrumentation on select tracks. According to some reports, these musicians then completely replaced the Beach Boys on the backing tracks to their records. Much of the relevant documentation, while accounting for the attendance of unionized session players, had failed to record the presence of the Beach Boys themselves. These documents, along with the full unedited studio session tapes, were not available for public scrutiny until the 1990s.
Wilson started occasionally employing members of the Wrecking Crew for certain Beach Boys tracks during the 1963 Surfer Girl sessions – specifically, on two songs, "Hawaii" and "Our Car Club". The 1964 albums Shut Down Volume 2 and All Summer Long featured the Beach Boys themselves playing the vast majority of the instruments while occasionally being augmented by outside musicians. It is commonly misreported that Dennis in particular was replaced by Hal Blaine on drums. Dennis's drumming is documented on a number of the group's singles, including 1964's "I Get Around", "Fun, Fun, Fun", and "Don't Worry Baby". Starting with the 1965 albums Today! and Summer Days, Brian used the Wrecking Crew with greater frequency, "but still", Stebbins writes, "the Beach Boys continued to play the instruments on many of the key tracks and single releases".
Overall, the Beach Boys played the instruments on the majority of their recordings from the decade, with 1966 and 1967 being the only years when Wilson used the Wrecking Crew almost exclusively. Pet Sounds and Smile are their only albums in which the backing tracks were largely played by studio musicians. After 1967, the band's use of studio musicians was considerably reduced. Wrecking Crew biographer Kent Hartman supported in his 2012 book about the musicians: "Though [Brian Wilson] had for several months brought in various session players on a sporadic, potluck basis to supplement things, the other Beach Boys generally played on the earliest songs, too."
The source of the longstanding controversy regarding the Beach Boys' use of studio musicians largely derives from a misinterpreted statement in Leaf's 1978 biography The Beach Boys and the California Myth, later bolstered by erroneous recollections from participants of the recording sessions. Starting in the 1990s, unedited studio session tapes, along with American Federation of Musicians (AFM) sheets and tape logs, were leaked. Music historian Craig Slowinski, who contributes musician credits to the liner notes of the band's reissues and compilations, wrote in 2006: "[O]nce the vaults were opened up and the tapes were studied, the true situation became clear: the Boys themselves played most of the instruments on their records until the Beach Boys Today! album in early 1965." Slowinski goes on to note: "when painting a picture of a Beach Boys recording session, it's important to examine both the AFM contracts and the session tapes, either of which may be incomplete on their own".
During the period when Brian relied heavily on studio musicians, Carl was an exception among the Beach Boys in that he played alongside the studio musicians whenever he was available to attend sessions. In Slowinski's view, "One should not sell short Carl's own contributions; the youngest Wilson had developed as a musician sufficiently to play alongside the horde of high-dollar session pros that big brother was now bringing into the studio. Carl's guitar playing [was] a key ingredient."
=== Spirituality ===
The band members often reflected on the spiritual nature of their music (and music in general), particularly for the recording of Pet Sounds and Smile. Even though the Wilsons did not grow up in a particularly religious household, Carl was described as "the most truly religious person I know" by Brian, and Carl was forthcoming about the group's spiritual beliefs stating: "We believe in God as a kind of universal consciousness. God is love. God is you. God is me. God is everything right here in this room. It's a spiritual concept which inspires a great deal of our music." Carl told Rave magazine in 1967 that the group's influences are of a "religious nature", but not any religion in specific, only "an idea based upon that of Universal Consciousness. ... The spiritual concept of happiness and doing good to others is extremely important to the lyric of our songs, and the religious element of some of the better church music is also contained within some of our new work."
During the recording of Pet Sounds, Brian held prayer meetings, later reflecting that "God was with us the whole time we were doing this record ... I could feel that feeling in my brain." In 1966, he explained that he wanted to move into a white spiritual sound, and predicted that the rest of the music industry would follow suit. In 2011, Brian maintained the spirituality was important to his music, and that he did not follow any particular religion.
Carl said that Smile was chosen as an album title because of its connection to the group's spiritual beliefs. Brian referred to Smile as his "teenage symphony to God", composing a hymn, "Our Prayer", as the album's opening spiritual invocation. Experimentation with psychotropic substances also proved pivotal to the group's development as artists. He spoke of his LSD trips as a "religious experience", and during a session for "Our Prayer", Brian can be heard asking the other Beach Boys: "Do you guys feel any acid yet?". In 1968, the group's interest in transcendental meditation led them to record the original song, "Transcendental Meditation".
== Legacy ==
=== Achievements ===
The Beach Boys are one of the most critically acclaimed, commercially successful, and influential bands of all time. A central figure in the history of rock music, the group's early songs made them major pop stars in the U.S., the UK, Australia and other countries, having seven U.S. top 10 singles between April 1963 and November 1964. They were one of the first American groups to exhibit the definitive traits of a self-contained rock band, playing their own instruments and writing their own songs, one of the first rock groups to exert autonomy over their recording sessions, and one of the few American bands formed prior to the 1964 British Invasion to continue their success.
By the end of their original tenure with Capitol in 1969, they had sold 65 million records worldwide, closing the 1960s as the most commercially successful American group in popular music. Between the 1960s and 2020s, they had 37 songs reach the US Top 40 (the most by an American group) with four topping the Billboard Hot 100; they also hold Nielsen SoundScan's record as the top-selling American band for albums and singles. As of 2016, they had sold over 100 million records worldwide.
In 1988, the original five members (the Wilson brothers, Love, and Jardine) were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Ten years later, they were selected for the Vocal Group Hall of Fame. In 2004, Pet Sounds was preserved in the National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". Their recordings of "In My Room", "Good Vibrations", "California Girls" and the entire Pet Sounds album have been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.
The Beach Boys are one of the most influential acts of the rock era. In 2003, Rolling Stone ranked Pet Sounds at number two on the magazine's list of the greatest albums of all time, a position it retained on the list's later remakes and revisions in 2012, 2020, and 2023. In 2017, a study of AllMusic's catalog indicated the Beach Boys as the sixth most frequently cited artist influence in its database. In 2021, the staff of Ultimate Classic Rock ranked the Beach Boys as the top American band of all time; the publication's editor wrote in the group's entry that "few bands ... have had a greater impact on popular music".
=== California sound ===
Professor of cultural studies James M. Curtis wrote in 1987: We can say that the Beach Boys represent the outlook and values of white Protestant Anglo-Saxon teenagers in the early sixties. Having said that, we immediately realize that they must mean much more than this. Their stability, their staying power, and their ability to attract new fans prove as much. Historian Kevin Starr explains that the group first connected with young Americans specifically for their lyrical interpretation of a mythologized landscape: "Cars and the beach, surfing, the California Girl, all this fused in the alembic of youth: Here was a way of life, an iconography, already half-released into the chords and multiple tracks of a new sound." In critic Robert Christgau's opinion, "the Beach Boys were a touchstone for real rock and rollers, all of whom understood that the music had its most essential roots in an innocently hedonistic materialism".
The group's "California sound" grew to prominence through the success of their 1963 album Surfin' U.S.A., which helped turn the surfing subculture into a mainstream youth-targeted advertising image exploited by the film, television, and food industry. The group's surf music was not entirely their invention, being preceded by artists such as Dick Dale. However, previous surf musicians did not project a world view as the Beach Boys did. The band's earlier surf music helped raise the profile of California, creating its first major regional style with national significance, and establishing a musical identity for Southern California, as opposed to Hollywood. California supplanted New York as the center of popular music thanks to the success of Brian's productions.
A 1966 article discussing trends in rock music writes that the Beach Boys popularized a type of drum beat heard in Jan and Dean's "Surf City", which sounds like "a locomotive getting up speed", in addition to the method of "suddenly stopping in between the chorus and verse". Pete Townshend of the Who coined the term "power pop", which he defined as "what we play—what the Small Faces used to play, and the kind of pop the Beach Boys played in the days of 'Fun, Fun, Fun' which I preferred".
The California sound evolved to reflect a more musically ambitious and mature worldview, becoming less to do with surfing and cars and more about social consciousness and political awareness. Throughout the 1960s, it fueled innovation and transition, inspiring artists to tackle largely unmentioned themes such as sexual freedom, black pride, drugs, oppositional politics, other countercultural motifs, and war. Soft pop, later known as "sunshine pop", derived in part from this movement. Sunshine pop producers imitated the orchestral style of Pet Sounds; however, the Beach Boys were rarely representative of the genre, which was rooted in easy listening and advertising jingles.
By the end of the 1960s, the California sound declined due to a combination of the West Coast's cultural shifts, Wilson's psychological downturn, and the Manson murders, with David Howard calling it the "sunset of the original California Sunshine Sound ... [the] sweetness advocated by the California Myth had led to chilling darkness and unsightly rot". Drawing from the Beach Boys' associations with Manson and former California governor Ronald Reagan, Erik Davis remarked: "The Beach Boys may be the only bridge between those deranged poles. There is a wider range of political and aesthetic sentiments in their records than in any other band in those heady times—like the state [of California], they expand and bloat and contradict themselves."
During the 1970s, advertising jingles and imagery were predominately based on the Beach Boys' early music and image. The group inspired the development of the West Coast style later dubbed "yacht rock". According to Jacobin's Dan O'Sullivan, the band's aesthetic was the first to be "scavenged" by yacht rock acts like Rupert Holmes. O'Sullivan cites the Beach Boys' recording of "Sloop John B" as the origin of yacht rock's preoccupation with the "sailors and beachgoers" aesthetic that was "lifted by everyone, from Christopher Cross to Eric Carmen, from 'Buffalo Springfield' folksters like Jim Messina to 'Philly Sound' rockers like Hall & Oates".
=== Innovations ===
Pet Sounds informed the development of pop, rock, jazz, electronic, experimental, punk, and hip-hop. Similar to subsequent experimental rock LPs by Frank Zappa, the Beatles, and the Who, Pet Sounds featured countertextural aspects that called attention to the very recordedness of the album. Professor John Robert Greene stated that the album broke new ground and took rock music away from its casual lyrics and melodic structures into then uncharted territory. He called it one factor which spawned the majority of trends in post-1965 rock music, the only others being Rubber Soul, the Beatles' Revolver, and the contemporary folk movement. The album was the first in popular music to incorporate the Electro-Theremin, an easier-to-play version of the theremin, as well as the first in rock music to feature a theremin-like instrument. With Pet Sounds, they were the first group to make an entire album that departed from the usual small-ensemble electric rock band format.
According to David Leaf in 1978, Pet Sounds and Good Vibrations "established the group as the leaders of a new type of pop music, Art Rock". Academic Bill Martin states that the band opened a path in rock music "that went from Sgt. Pepper's to Close to the Edge and beyond". He argues that the advancing technology of multitrack recording and mixing boards were more influential to experimental rock than electronic instruments such as the synthesizer, allowing the Beatles and Beach Boys to become the first crop of non-classically trained musicians to create extended and complex compositions. In Strange Sounds: Offbeat Instruments and Sonic Experiments in Pop, Mark Brend writes:
Other artists and producers, notably the Beatles and Phil Spector, had used varied instrumentation and multi-tracking to create complex studio productions before. And others, like Roy Orbison, had written complicated pop songs before. But "Good Vibrations" eclipsed all that came before it, in both its complexity as a production and the liberties it took with conventional notions of how to structure a pop song.
The production of "Good Vibrations" was unprecedented in any prior genre or recording; Carlin wrote that it "sounded like nothing that had ever been played on the radio before". It contained previously untried mixes of instruments, and was the first successful pop song to have cellos in a juddering rhythm. Charlie Gillett called it "one of the first records to flaunt studio production as a quality in its own right, rather than as a means of presenting a performance". Brian used Electro-Theremin for the track. Upon release, the single prompted an unexpected revival in theremins while increasing awareness of analog synthesizers, leading Moog Music to produce their own brand of ribbon-controlled instruments. In a 1968 editorial for Jazz & Pop, Gene Sculatti predicted that the song "may yet prove to be the most significantly revolutionary piece of the current rock renaissance ... In no minor way, 'Good Vibrations' is a primary influential piece for all producing rock artists; everyone has felt its import to some degree".
Discussing Smiley Smile, Daniel Harrison argues that the album could "almost" be considered art music in the Western classical tradition, and that the group's innovations in the language of rock can be compared to those that introduced atonal and other nontraditional techniques into that classical tradition. However, such notions were not widely acknowledged by rock audiences nor by the classically minded at the time. Harrison concludes: "What influences could these innovations then have? The short answer is, not much. Smiley Smile, Wild Honey, Friends, and 20/20 sound like few other rock albums; they are sui generis. ... It must be remembered that the commercial failure of the Beach Boys' experiments was hardly motivation for imitation." Musicologist David Toop placed the Beach Boys' innovations alongside Les Baxter, Aphex Twin, Herbie Hancock, King Tubby, and My Bloody Valentine.
Sunflower marked an end to the experimental songwriting and production phase initiated by Smiley Smile. After Surf's Up, Harrison wrote, their albums "contain a mixture of middle-of-the-road music entirely consonant with pop style during the early 1970s with a few oddities that proved that the desire to push beyond conventional boundaries was not dead", until 1974, "the year in which the Beach Boys ceased to be a rock 'n' roll act and became an oldies act".
=== Punk, alternative, and indie ===
In the 1970s, the Beach Boys served a "totemic influence" on punk rock that later gave way to indie rock. Brad Shoup of Stereogum surmised that, thanks to the Ramones' praise for the group, many punk, pop punk, or "punk-adjacent" artists showed influence from the Beach Boys, noting cover versions of the band's songs recorded by Slickee Boys, Agent Orange, Bad Religion, Shonen Knife, the Queers, Hi-Standard, the Descendents, the Donnas, M.O.D., and the Vandals. The Beach Boys Love You is sometimes considered the group's "punk album", and Pet Sounds is sometimes advanced as the first emo album.
In the 1990s, the Beach Boys experienced a resurgence of popularity with the alternative rock generation. According to Sean O'Hagan, leader of the High Llamas and former member of Stereolab, a younger generation of record-buyers "stopped listening to indie records" in favor of the Beach Boys. Bands who advocated for the Beach Boys included founding members of the Elephant 6 Collective (Neutral Milk Hotel, the Olivia Tremor Control, the Apples in Stereo, and of Montreal). United by a shared love of the group's music, they named Pet Sounds Studio in honor of the band. Rolling Stone writer Barry Walters wrote in 2000 that albums such as Surf's Up and Love You "are becoming sonic blueprints, akin to what early Velvet Underground LPs meant to the previous indie peer group". The High Llamas, Eric Matthews and Saint Etienne are among the "alt heroes" who contributed cover versions of "unreleased, overlooked or underappreciated Wilson/Beach Boys obscurities" on the tribute album Caroline Now! (2000).
The Beach Boys remained among the most significant influences on indie rock into the late 2000s. Smile became a touchstone for many bands who were labelled "chamber pop", a term used for artists influenced by the lush orchestrations of Brian Wilson, Lee Hazlewood, and Burt Bacharach. Pitchfork writer Mark Richardson cited Smiley Smile as the origin point of "the kind of lo-fi bedroom pop that would later propel Sebadoh, Animal Collective, and other characters". The Sunflower track "All I Wanna Do" is also cited as one of the earliest precursors to chillwave, a microgenre that emerged in 2009.
== Landmarks ==
The Wilsons' California house, where the Wilson brothers grew up and the group began, was demolished in 1986 to make way for Interstate 105, the Century Freeway. A Beach Boys Historic Landmark (California Landmark No. 1041 at 3701 West 119th Street), dedicated on May 20, 2005, marks the location.
On December 30, 1980, the Beach Boys were awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, located at 1500 Vine Street.
On September 2, 1977, the Beach Boys performed before an audience of 40,000 at Narragansett Park in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, which remains the largest concert audience in Rhode Island history. On August 9, 2017, a commemoration ceremony produced by Al Gomes and Connie Watrous of Big Noise took place in Rhode Island with the Beach Boys, and the street where the concert stage formerly stood (at 510 Narragansett Park Drive) was officially renamed to "Beach Boys Way".
On September 21, 2017, the Beach Boys were honored by Roger Williams University, along with Al Gomes and Connie Watrous of Big Noise, and plaques were unveiled to commemorate the band's concert on September 22, 1971, at the Baypoint Inn & Conference Center in Portsmouth, Rhode Island. The concert was the first-ever appearance of South African Ricky Fataar as an official member of the band and Filipino Billy Hinsche as a touring member, essentially changing the Beach Boys' live and recording act's line-up into a multi-cultural group. Diversity is a credo of Roger Williams University, which is why they chose to celebrate this moment in the band's history.
== Band members ==
Current
Mike Love – vocals, saxophone, percussion, electro-Theremin (1961–present)
Al Jardine – vocals, rhythm guitar, bass (1961–1962, 1963–present; not touring during 1998–2011, 2012–present)
Former
Brian Wilson – vocals, keyboards, bass (1961–2025; his death; not touring during 1964–1976, 1982–1983, 1990–2011, 2012–2025)
Carl Wilson – vocals, lead and rhythm guitars, bass, keyboards (1961–1998; his death; not touring during 1981–1982, 1997–1998)
Dennis Wilson – vocals, drums, percussion, keyboards (1961–1983; his death; not touring during 1979–1980, 1983)
David Marks – vocals, lead and rhythm guitars (1962–1963, 1997–1999, 2011–2012; guest 1971, 1995, 2008, 2014–2016)
Bruce Johnston – vocals, keyboards, bass (1965–1972, 1978–2026)
Ricky Fataar – vocals, drums, percussion, rhythm guitar, pedal steel guitar, flute (1972–1974; touring member 1971–1972
Blondie Chaplin – vocals, lead and rhythm guitars, slide guitar, bass (1972–1973; guest 1995)
Timeline
== Discography ==
Studio albums
== Filmography ==
1962: One Man's Challenge
1964: T.A.M.I. Show
1965: The Girls on the Beach
1965: The Monkey's Uncle
1971: Good Vibrations from Central Park
1976: The Beach Boys: Good Vibrations Tour
1979: The Midnight Special
1980: Beach Boys 4th of July Celebration: Live from Queen Mary
1980: The Beach Boys: A Celebration Concert
1981: The Beach Boys: 20th Anniversary Special
1985: The Beach Boys: An American Band
1987: The Beach Boys: 25 Years Together
1988: Full House (one episode; Beach Boy Bingo)
1991: The Beach Boys Live in Japan '91
1992: Full House (one episode; Captain Video [Part 1])
1993: The Beach Boys Today
1996: The Beach Boys: Nashville Sounds
1998: Endless Harmony: The Beach Boys Story
1998: The Beach Boys: The Lost Concert 1964
2002: Good Timin': Live at Knebworth England 1980
2004: Sights + Sounds of Summer: The Very Best of The Beach Boys
2006: The Beach Boys: In London 1966
2012: The Beach Boys 50: Doin' It Again
2012: The 50th Reunion Tour
2014: The Beach Boys: Live at the Hollywood Bowl
2016: Classic Albums: Pet Sounds
2023: A Grammy Salute to The Beach Boys
2024: The Beach Boys documentary on Disney+ |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whiplash_(2014_film)# | Whiplash (2014 film)# | Whiplash is a 2014 American independent psychological drama film written and directed by Damien Chazelle, and starring Miles Teller, J. K. Simmons, and Paul Reiser. It focuses on an ambitious music student and aspiring jazz drummer (Teller), who is pushed to his limit by his abusive instructor (Simmons).
The film was produced by Bold Films, Blumhouse Productions, and Right of Way Films. Sony Pictures acquired distribution rights for most of the world, releasing the film under Sony Pictures Classics in North America, Germany, and Australia, and Stage 6 Films in the UK, Scandinavia, Benelux, Eastern Europe (excluding the CIS), Greece, South Africa, Spain, Italy, Portugal and Latin America.
Chazelle completed the script in 2013, drawing upon his experiences in a "very competitive" jazz band in high school. Soon after, Right of Way and Blumhouse helped Chazelle turn fifteen pages of the screenplay into an 18-minute short film. The short film received acclaim after debuting at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival, which attracted investors to produce the complete version of the script. Filming took place in September 2013 throughout Los Angeles over twenty days. The film explores concepts of perfectionism, dedication, and success, and deconstructs the concept of ambition.
Whiplash premiered in competition at the 2014 Sundance Film Festival on January 16, as the festival's opening film, where it won the Audience Award Dramatic and the Grand Jury Prize Dramatic. The film opened in limited release domestically in the United States and Canada on October 10, 2014, gradually expanding to over 500 screens and finally closing on March 26, 2015. The film received acclaim for its screenplay, direction, editing, sound mixing and Simmons’s performance. It grossed $50 million on a $3.3 million budget during its original theatrical run. The film received multiple accolades, winning Academy Awards for Best Film Editing and Best Sound Mixing, and was nominated for Best Picture and Best Adapted Screenplay. Simmons's performance won the Academy, Golden Globe, BAFTA, Critics' Choice, and Screen Actors Guild awards for Best Supporting Actor. It has since been assessed as one of the best films of the 21st century.
== Plot ==
Andrew Neiman, a 19-year-old jazz drummer, attends the prestigious Shaffer Conservatory in New York City. Terence Fletcher, the conductor of Shaffer's most prestigious ensemble, overhears Neiman practicing and prompts him to play rudiments and a double-time swing beat. Unimpressed, Fletcher leaves, but later recruits him to perform in his ensemble as a backup for the core drummer, Carl Tanner. Fletcher is relentlessly strict and abuses his students verbally and physically. When Neiman apparently fails to keep tempo on Hank Levy's "Whiplash" during his first ensemble rehearsal, Fletcher throws a chair at him, repeatedly slaps his face, and berates him. Determined to impress Fletcher, Neiman excessively practices, often until his hands bleed.
After their first set at a jazz competition, Neiman misplaces Tanner's sheet music. Tanner cannot play without the sheets, so Fletcher allows Neiman to perform; Shaffer wins the competition. Fletcher promotes Neiman to core drummer, but abruptly reassigns the position to Ryan Connolly, a drummer from a lower-level ensemble within Shaffer. Neiman's single-mindedness toward music leads to him clashing with his family and breaking up with his girlfriend. One day, Fletcher begins rehearsal by announcing that Sean Casey, a former member of the Studio Band, has died in a car accident. He then pushes the three drummers to play at a faster tempo on "Caravan", keeping them for a grueling five-hour practice. Neiman earns the core position back after he is the only one able to perform on tempo.
Neiman's bus gets a flat tire on his way to the next competition. He rents a car, but arrives late and forgets his drumsticks at the rental office. Neiman races back and retrieves them, but his car is hit by a truck on the way back. An injured Neiman runs to the theater, arriving bloodied and weak as the ensemble enters the stage. He struggles to keep tempo and Fletcher halts the performance to dismiss him. Enraged, Neiman attacks Fletcher onstage and is expelled from Shaffer. At the request of his father, Neiman meets a lawyer representing Casey's parents. Casey actually hanged himself after suffering from depression and anxiety due to Fletcher's abuse; his parents want Fletcher held accountable. Neiman agrees to anonymously testify against Fletcher, whom Shaffer fires.
Months later, Neiman, having abandoned drumming, encounters Fletcher playing piano at a jazz club. They have a conversation over drinks. Fletcher admits he was harsh, but insists his methods were necessary to motivate students. He cites a story where Jo Jones allegedly threw a cymbal at Charlie Parker to argue that the next transformative jazz musician would never let themselves be discouraged. Fletcher invites Neiman to perform with his professional band at a New York JVC Jazz Festival, playing the same pieces from Shaffer; Neiman accepts.
At the festival, Fletcher reveals he knows Neiman testified against him; as revenge, he leads the band into a song that Neiman does not know. A humiliated Neiman walks offstage. After his father embraces him, Neiman returns to the stage, reclaims the drum kit, and cuts off Fletcher by cueing the band into "Caravan". Fletcher, though angered, resumes conducting. Towards the end of "Caravan", Neiman improvises a lengthy solo. Impressed, Fletcher nods in approval before cueing the final chord.
== Cast ==
Miles Teller as Andrew Neiman, an ambitious 19-year-old jazz drummer
Sam Campisi as an 8-year-old Andrew Neiman
J. K. Simmons as Terence Fletcher, Andrew's jazz instructor
Paul Reiser as Jim Neiman, Andrew's father
Melissa Benoist as Nicole, who dates Andrew
Austin Stowell as Ryan Connolly, Andrew's classmate and fellow drummer
Nate Lang as Carl Tanner, Andrew's classmate and fellow drummer
Chris Mulkey as Frank Neiman, Andrew's uncle and Jim's brother
Damon Gupton as Mr. Kramer, Andrew's first instructor
Michael D. Cohen as Stagehand Overbrook
April Grace as Rachel Bornholdt, Andrew's and Jim's lawyer
== Production ==
=== Development ===
While attending Princeton High School, writer-director Damien Chazelle was in a "very competitive" studio band and drew on the dread he felt in those years. He based the conductor, Terence Fletcher, on his former band instructor (who died in 2003) but "pushed it further", adding elements of Buddy Rich and other band leaders known for their harsh treatment. Chazelle wrote the film "initially in frustration" while trying to get his musical La La Land off the ground.
Right of Way Films and Blumhouse Productions helped Chazelle turn fifteen pages of his original screenplay into a short film starring Johnny Simmons as Neiman and J. K. Simmons (no relation) as Fletcher. The eighteen-minute short film received acclaim after debuting at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival, winning the short film Jury Award for fiction, which attracted investors to produce the complete version of the script. The feature-length film was financed for $3.3 million by Bold Films.
In August 2013, Miles Teller signed on to star in the role originated by Johnny Simmons; J. K. Simmons remained attached to his original role. Early on, Chazelle gave J. K. Simmons direction that "I want you to take it past what you think the normal limit would be," telling him: "I don't want to see a human being on-screen any more. I want to see a monster, a gargoyle, an animal." Many of the band members were real musicians or music students, and Chazelle tried to capture their expressions of fear and anxiety when Simmons pressed them. Chazelle said that, between takes, Simmons was "as sweet as can be", which he credits for keeping "the shoot from being nightmarish".
=== Filming ===
Principal photography began in September 2013, with filming taking place throughout Los Angeles, including the Hotel Barclay, Palace Theater, and the Orpheum Theatre. The film was shot in nineteen days, with a schedule of fourteen hours of filming per day. Chazelle was involved in a serious car accident in the third week of filming and was hospitalized with possible concussion, but he returned to set the following day to wrap the shoot on time.
Having taught himself to play drums at age fifteen, Teller performed much of the drumming seen in the film. Supporting actor and jazz drummer Nate Lang, who plays Neiman's rival Carl in the film, trained Teller in the specifics of jazz drumming; this included changing his grip from matched to traditional. For certain scenes, professional drummer Kyle Crane served as Teller's drum double.
== Music ==
The soundtrack album was released on October 7, 2014, via the Varèse Sarabande label. The soundtrack consists of 24 tracks divided in three different parts: original jazz pieces written for the film, original underscore parts written for the film, and classic jazz standards written by Stan Getz, Duke Ellington, and other musicians. The actual drummer was Bernie Dresel.
On March 27, 2020, an expanded deluxe edition was released on double CD and 2-LP gatefold sleeve vinyl with new cover art, featuring a bonus track, "Fletcher's Song", and a "Caravan" remix by Timo Garcia.
== Reception ==
=== Box office ===
In North America, the film opened in a limited release on October 10, 2014, in six theaters, grossing $135,388 ($22,565 per theater) and finishing 34th at the box office. It expanded to 88 locations, then 419 locations. After three months on release, it had earned $7 million, and finally expanded nationwide to 1000 locations to capitalize on receiving five Academy Awards nominations. As of October 3, 2024, Whiplash grossed $14 million in the U.S. and Canada and $36.3 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $50.4 million against a budget of $3.3 million.
=== Critical response ===
On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film scored 94% based on 304 reviews, with an average rating of 8.6/10. The site's critical consensus states, "Intense, inspiring, and well-acted, Whiplash is a brilliant sophomore effort from director Damien Chazelle and a riveting vehicle for stars J. K. Simmons and Miles Teller." On Metacritic the film has a score of 89 out of 100, based on reviews from 49 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". Simmons received wide praise for his performance and won the 2015 Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor.
Peter Debruge, in his review for Variety, said that the film "demolishes the cliches of the musical-prodigy genre, investing the traditionally polite stages and rehearsal studios of a topnotch conservatory with all the psychological intensity of a battlefield or sports arena." Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter praised the performances of Teller and Simmons, writing: "Teller, who greatly impressed in last year's Sundance entry The Spectacular Now, does so again in a performance that is more often simmering than volatile ... Simmons has the great good fortune for a character actor to have here found a co-lead part he can really run with, which is what he excitingly does with a man who is profane, way out of bounds and, like many a good villain, utterly compelling." Whiplash also won the 87th Academy Award for Best Sound Mixing and the 87th Academy Award for Best Film Editing.
Amber Wilkinson of The Daily Telegraph praised the direction and editing, writing: "Chazelle's film has a sharp and gripping rhythm, with shots beautifully edited by Tom Cross... often cutting to the crash of Andrew's drums." James Rocchi of Indiewire gave a positive review and said, "Whiplash is [...] full of bravado and swagger, uncompromising where it needs to be, informed by great performances and patient with both its characters and the things that matter to them." Henry Barnes of The Guardian gave the film a positive review, calling it a rare film "about music that professes its love for the music and its characters equally."
Forrest Wickman of Slate said the film distorted jazz history and promoted a misleading idea of genius, adding, "In all likelihood, Fletcher isn't making a Charlie Parker. He's making the kind of musician that would throw a cymbal at him." In The New Yorker, Richard Brody said, "Whiplash honors neither jazz nor cinema."
=== Top ten lists ===
The film appeared on many critics' end-of-year lists. Metacritic collected lists published by major film critics and publications and in their analysis, recorded that Whiplash appeared on 57 lists and in 1st place on 5 of those lists. Overall the film was ranked in 5th place for the year by Metacritic.
=== Accolades ===
The film received the top audience and grand jury awards in the U.S. dramatic competition at the 2014 Sundance Film Festival; Chazelle's short film of the same name took home the jury award in the U.S. fiction category one year prior. The film also took the grand prize and the audience award for its favorite film at the 40th Deauville American Film Festival.
Whiplash was originally planned to compete for the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay, but on January 6, 2015, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) announced that the film would instead be competing in the Adapted Screenplay category to the surprise of many including Chazelle, due to the short film premiering at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival (one year before the feature film's release), even though the feature film's script was written first and the short was made to attract investors into producing the feature-length film. Although the Writers Guild of America categorized the screenplay as original, AMPAS classed it as an adaptation of the 2013 short version.
At the 87th Academy Awards, J. K. Simmons received the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance, Tom Cross won the Academy Award for Best Film Editing while Craig Mann, Ben Wilkins, and Thomas Curley won the Academy Award for Best Sound Mixing. In December 2015, the score received a Grammy nomination, and the film was nominated for the NME Award for Best Film.
=== Legacy ===
In 2020, it ranked 13 on Empire's list of "The 100 Greatest Movies Of The 21st Century" and number 51 on its 2024 list. In 2021, members of Writers Guild of America West (WGAW) and Writers Guild of America, East (WGAE) ranked its screenplay 32nd in WGA's 101 Greatest Screenplays of the 21st Century (so far). In 2024, it topped the list of the Sundance Film Festival's Top 10 Films of All Time as the result of a survey conducted with 500 filmmakers and critics in honor of the festival's 40th anniversary.
Actors Danielle Brooks, Katie McGrath, and Tramell Tillman have voiced their admiration for the film, with McGrath saying "There isn't one needless second in this film...every frame is perfect."
To celebrate the film's 10th anniversary, a new 4K remaster of the film was released theatrically on September 20, 2024, following a special anniversary screening at the 2024 Toronto International Film Festival on September 9.
In June 2025, Tom Bernard, co-President of Sony Pictures Classics, cited Whiplash as among the best films to come from the studio in the 21st century. It also ranked number 60 on The New York Times' list of "The 100 Best Movies of the 21st Century" and number 19 on the "Readers' Choice" edition of the list. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvania_belgica | Alvania belgica | Alvania belgica is an extinct species of minute sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusc or micromollusk in the family Rissoidae.
== Distribution ==
Fossils of this species were found in Miocene strata in Belgium (age range: 15.97 to 11.608 Ma) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_Sea_order_of_battle | Philippine Sea order of battle | The Battle of the Philippine Sea was fought 19–20 June 1944 in the waters west of the Mariana Islands by elements of the Imperial Japanese Navy's Combined Fleet and of the United States Navy's Pacific Fleet. The battle resulted from the Japanese reaction to the American invasion of the island of Saipan. Instead of attacking the troop transports off Saipan, Admiral Toyoda chose to engage the American carrier forces in what he intended to be the long-awaited “decisive battle” that would crush U.S. naval power.
The outcome was a disaster for the Japanese Navy. The battle exacted a terrible toll from the Japanese naval air arm, costing them most of their few remaining experienced pilots. The Combined Fleet was no longer capable of serious offensive operations after this engagement. Historian Samuel Eliot Morison characterized it this way:
This was the greatest carrier battle of the war. The forces engaged were three to four times those in preceding actions like Midway, and victory was so complete that the Japanese could never again engage on such a scale. ... above all the skill, initiative, and intrepid courage of the young aviators made this day one of the high points in the history of the American spirit.
Since the Japanese assumed the tactical offensive, their forces are listed first.
== Forces deployed ==
Losses in parentheses
== Japanese order of battle ==
Mobile Fleet
Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa in Taihō
=== "A" Force ===
Sortied 13 June from Tawi Tawi anchorage off NE Borneo
Vice Admiral Ozawa
Carrier Division 1 (Vice Adm. Ozawa)
3 fleet carriers
Taihō (sunk by submarine 19 June)
Shōkaku (sunk by submarine 19 June)
Zuikaku
Air Unit
79 Mitsubishi A6M "Zeke" fighters
70 Yokosuka D4Y "Judy" dive bombers
7 Aichi D3A "Val" dive bombers
51 Nakajima B6N "Jill" torpedo bombers
Cruiser Division 5 (Rear Adm. Shintaro Hashimoto)
2 heavy cruisers: Myōkō, Haguro
Screen (Rear Adm. Susumu Kimura in Yahagi)
1 light cruiser: Yahagi
9 destroyers
1 Asashio-class (6 × 5 in. main battery): Asagumo
3 Kagerō-class (6 × 5 in. main battery): Isokaze, Tanikaze (sunk by submarine 9 June), Urakaze
4 Akizuki-class (8 × 3.9 in. main battery): Akizuki, Hatsuzuki, Wakatsuki, Shimotsuki
1 Mutsuki-class (4 × 4.7 in. main battery): Minazuki (sunk by submarine 6 June)
=== "B" Force ===
Sortied 13 June from Tawi Tawi anchorage off NE Borneo
Rear Admiral Takatsugu Jōjima in Jun'yo
Carrier Division 2 (Rear Admiral Jōjima)
2 converted carriers
Jun'yō
Hiyō (sunk by air attack 19 June)
1 light carrier
Ryūhō
Air Unit
81 Mitsubishi A6M "Zeke" fighters
27 Yokosuka D4Y "Judy" dive bombers
9 Aichi D3A "Val" dive bombers
18 Nakajima B6N "Jill" torpedo bombers
1 old battleship: Nagato
1 heavy cruiser: Mogami
Screen
10 destroyers
2 Asashio-class (6 × 5 in. main battery): Michishio, Yamagumo
2 Kagerō-class (6 × 5 in. main battery): Nowaki, Hamakaze
2 Yūgumo-class (6 × 5 in. main battery): Hayashimo, Akishimo
4 Shiratsuyu-class (5 × 5 in. main battery): Shiratsuyu (sunk following collision with Seiyo Maru 14 June), Shigure, Samidare, Harusame (sunk by air attack 8 June)
=== Van Force ===
Sortied 12 June from Batjan anchorage off SW Halmahera Island
Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita in heavy cruiser Atago
Carrier Division 3 (Rear Adm. Sueo Obayashi)
3 light carriers
Chitose
Chiyoda
Zuihō
Air Unit
62 Mitsubishi A6M "Zeke" fighters
17 Nakajima B5N "Kate" torpedo bombers
9 Nakajima B6N "Jill" torpedo bombers
Battleship Division 1 (Vice Adm. Matome Ugaki)
2 super battleships: Yamato, Musashi
Battleship Division 3 (Vice Adm. Yoshio Suzuki)
2 old battleships: Kongō, Haruna
Cruiser Division 4 (Vice Adm. Kurita)
4 heavy cruisers: Atago, Chōkai, Maya, Takao
Cruiser Division 7 (Vice Adm. Kazutaka Shiraishi)
4 heavy cruisers: Kumano, Suzuya, Chikuma, Tone
Screen (Rear Adm. Mikio Hayakawa in Noshiro)
1 light cruiser: Noshiro
1 super destroyer (41 knots, 15 torpedo tubes): Shimakaze
8 destroyers:
7 Yūgumo-class (6 × 5 in. main battery): Kishinami, Okinami, Naganami, Asashimo, Tamanami, Hayanami (sunk by submarine 7 June), Fujinami
=== Supply Forces ===
Sortied with Ozawa's carrier forces 13 June from Tawi Tawi anchorage off NE Borneo
1st Supply Force
4 oilers
Hayasui, Nichiei Maru, Kokuyo Maru, Seiyo Maru (sunk 20 June)
4 destroyers
1 Fubuki class (6 × 5 in. main battery): Hibiki
1 Hatsuharu class (5 × 5 in. main battery): Hatsushimo
1 Kamikaze class (4 × 4.7 in. main battery): Yūnagi
1 Momi class (3 × 4.7 in. main battery): Tsuga
2nd Supply Force
2 oilers
Genyo Maru (sunk 20 June), Azusa Maru
2 destroyers
1 Kagerō-class (6 × 5 in. main battery): Yukikaze
1 Mutsuki-class (4 × 4.7 in. main battery): Uzuki
=== Submarine Forces ===
Vice Admiral Takeo Takagi at Saipan
7 1st-class submarines
I-5 (sunk by depth charges 19 July), I-10 (sunk by depth charges 4 July), I-38, I-41, I-53, I-184 (sunk by aircraft 19 June), I-185 (sunk by depth charges 22 June)
Deployed in two parallel rows SW to NE north of the Admiralties and Bismarcks
17 2nd-class submarines
Ro-36 (sunk by depth charges 13 June), Ro-41, Ro-42 (sunk by depth charges 10 June), Ro-43, Ro-44 (sunk by depth charges 16 June), Ro-47, Ro-68, Ro-104 (sunk by depth charges 23 May), Ro-105 (sunk by depth charges 31 May), Ro-106 (sunk by depth charges 22 May), Ro-108 (sunk by depth charges 26 May), Ro-112, Ro-113, Ro-114 (sunk by depth charges 17 June), Ro-115, Ro-116 (sunk by depth charges 23 May), Ro-117 (sunk by depth charges 17 June)
== American order of battle ==
US Fifth Fleet
Admiral Raymond A. Spruance in heavy cruiser Indianapolis
Task Force 58 – Fast Carrier Forces
Vice Admiral Marc A. Mitscher in fleet carrier Lexington
=== Task Group 58.1 ===
Carrier Division 13
Rear Admiral Joseph J. Clark
2 fleet carriers
Hornet (Capt. William D. Sample)
Air Group 2 (Cmdr. Jackson D. Arnold)
36 F6F Hellcat fighters (Lt. Cmdr. W.A. Dean)
33 SB2C Helldiver dive bombers (Lt. Cmdr. G.B. Campbell)
18 TBF Avenger torpedo bombers (Lt. Cmdr. L.M.D. Ford)
4 F6F-xN Hellcat night fighters (Lt. R.L. Reiserer)
Yorktown (Capt. Ralph E. Jennings)
Air Group 1 (Cmdr. J.M. Peters)
41 F6F Hellcat fighters (Lt. Cmdr. B.M. Strean)
40 SB2C Helldiver, 4 SBD-5 Dauntless dive bombers (Lt. Cmdr. J.W. Runyan, USNR)
17 TBF Avenger torpedo bombers (Lt. Cmdr. W.F. Henry)
4 F6F-xN Hellcat night fighters (Lt. A.C. Benjes)
2 light carriers
Belleau Wood (Capt. John Perry)
Air Group 24 (Cmdr. E.M. Link)
26 F6F Hellcat fighters (Lt. Cmdr. Link)
9 TBF Avenger torpedo bombers (Lt. R.M. Swensson)
Bataan (Capt. Valentine H. Schaeffer)
Air Group 50 (Lt. Cmdr. J.C. Strange, USNR)
24 F6F Hellcat fighters (Lt. Cmdr. Strange)
9 TBF Avenger torpedo bombers (Lt. Cmdr. L.V. Swanson)
Cruiser Division 10 (Rear Admiral Leo H. Thebaud)
3 heavy cruisers
Baltimore (Capt. W.C. Calhoun)
Boston (Capt. E.E. Herrmann)
Canberra (Capt. A.R. Early)
Screen
2 anti-aircraft light cruisers (Rear Admiral Thebaud)
San Juan (Capt. Guy W. Clark)
Oakland (Capt. William K. Phillips)
14 destroyers (Capt. Clark)
9 Fletcher-class (5 × 5 in. main battery): Bell, Boyd, Bradford, Brown, Burns, Charrette, Conner, Cowell, Izard
4 Gridley-class (4 × 5 in. main battery): Craven, Gridley, Maury, McCall
1 Bagley-class (4 × 5 in. main battery): Helm
=== Task Group 58.2 ===
Carrier Division 3
Rear Admiral Alfred E. Montgomery
2 fleet carriers
Bunker Hill (Capt. T.P. Jeter)
Air Group 8 (Cmdr. R.L. Shifley)
37 F6F Hellcat fighters (Lt. Cmdr. W.M. Collins)
33 SB2C Helldiver dive bombers (Lt. Cmdr. J.D. Arbes)
18 TBF Avenger, torpedo bombers (Lt. Cmdr. K.F. Musick)
4 F6F-xN Hellcat night fighters (Lt. Cmdr. E.P. Aurand)
Wasp (Capt. Clifton Sprague)
Air Group 14 (Cmdr. W.C. Wingard)
34 F6F Hellcat fighters (Lt. Cmdr. E.W. Biros, USNR)
32 SB2C Helldiver dive bombers (Lt. Cmdr. J.D. Blitch)
18 TBF Avenger torpedo bombers (Lt. Cmdr. H.S. Roberts, USNR)
4 F6F-xN Hellcat night fighters (Lt. J.H. Boyum)
2 light carriers
Cabot (Capt. S.J. Michael)
Air Group 31 (Lt. Cmdr. R.A. Winston)
24 F6F Hellcat fighters (Lt. Cmdr. Winston)
9 TBF Avenger torpedo bombers (Lt. E.E. Wood, USNR)
Monterey (Capt. Stuart H. Ingersoll)
Air Group 28 (Lt. Cmdr. R.W. Mehle, USNR)
21 F6F Hellcat fighters (Lt. Cmdr. Mehle)
8 TBF Avenger torpedo bombers (Lt. Cmdr. R.P. Gift, USNR)
1 heavy cruiser
Minneapolis (Capt. Harry Slocum)
Cruiser Division 13 (Rear Admiral Laurance T. DuBose)
3 light cruisers
Santa Fe (Capt. Jerauld Wright)
Mobile (Capt. Charles J. Wheeler)
Biloxi (Capt. Daniel M. McGurl)
Screen
12 destroyers
9 Fletcher-class (5 × 5 in. main battery): Hickox, Hunt, Lewis Hancock, Marshall, Miller, Owen, Stephen Potter, The Sullivans, Tingey
3 Farragut-class (4 × 5 in. main battery): Dewey, Hull, MacDonough
=== Task Group 58.3 ===
Carrier Division 2
Rear Admiral John W. Reeves
2 fleet carriers
Enterprise (Capt. Matthias B. Gardner)
Air Group 10 (Cmdr. William R. Kane)
31 F6F Hellcat fighters (Lt. R.W. Schumann)
21 SBD Dauntless dive bombers (Lt. Cmdr. James D. Ramage)
14 TBF Avenger torpedo bombers (Lt. Cmdr. W.I. Martin)
3 F4U Corsair night fighters (Lt. Cmdr. R.E. Harmer)
Lexington (Capt. E.W. Litch)
Air Group 16 (Cmdr. E.M. Snowden)
37 F6F Hellcat fighters (Lt. Cmdr. Ralph Weymouth)
34 SBD Dauntless dive bombers (Lt. Cmdr. Weymouth)
18 TBF Avenger torpedo bombers (Lt. Cmdr. N.A. Sterrie, USNR)
4 F6F-xN Hellcat fighters (Lt. W.H. Abercrombie, USNR)
2 light carriers
San Jacinto (Capt. Harold M. Martin)
Air Group 51 (Lt. Cmdr. C.L. Moore)
24 F6F Hellcat fighters (Lt. Cmdr. Moore)
8 TBF Avenger torpedo bombers (Lt. Cmdr. D.J. Melvin)
Princeton (Capt. W.H. Buracker)
Air Group 27 (Lt. Cmdr. E.W. Wood – KIA)
24 F6F Hellcat fighters (Lt. Cmdr. Wood)
9 TBF Avenger torpedo bombers (Lt. Cmdr. S.M. Haley, USNR)
1 heavy cruiser
Indianapolis (Capt. E.R. Johnson)
Cruiser Division 12 (Rear Admiral Robert W. Hayler)
3 light cruisers
Montpelier (Capt. H.D. Hoffman)
Cleveland (Capt. A.G. Shepard)
Birmingham (Capt. Thomas B. Inglis)
Screen
1 anti-aircraft light cruiser
Reno (Capt. R.C. Alexander)
13 destroyers
All Fletcher-class (5 × 5 in. main battery): Anthony, Braine, Caperton, Clarence K. Bronson, Cogswell, Cotten, Dortch, Gatling, Healy, Ingersoll, Knapp, Terry, Wadsworth
=== Task Group 58.4 ===
Carrier Division 12
Rear Admiral William K. Harrill
1 fleet carrier
Essex (Capt. Ralph A. Ofstie)
Air Group 15 (Cmdr. David McCampbell)
38 F6F Hellcat fighters (Lt. Cmdr. C.W. Brewer -- KIA)
36 SB2C Helldiver dive bombers (Lt. Cmdr. J.H. Mini)
20 TBF Avenger torpedo bombers (Lt. Cmdr. V.G. Lambert)
4 F6F-xN Hellcat night fighters (Lt. R.M. Freeman)
2 light carriers
Langley (Capt. W.M. Dillon)
Air Group 32 (Lt. Cmdr. E.C. Outlaw)
23 F6F Hellcat fighters (Lt. Cmdr. Outlaw)
9 TBF Avenger torpedo bombers (Lt. D.A. Marks)
Cowpens (Capt. H.W. Taylor)
Air Group 25 (Lt. Cmdr. R.H. Price)
23 F6F Hellcat fighters (Lt. Cmdr. Price)
9 TBF Avenger torpedo bombers (Lt. R.B. Cottingham, USNR)
Cruiser Division 14 (Rear admiral Wilder D. Baker)
3 light cruisers
Vincennes (Capt. A.D. Brown)
Houston (Capt. W.W. Behrens)
Miami (Capt. J.G. Crawford)
Screen
1 anti-aircraft light cruiser
San Diego (Capt. L.J. Hudson)
14 destroyers
6 Fletcher-class (5 × 5 in. main battery): Charles Ausburne, Stanly, Dyson, Converse, Spence, Thatcher
1 Mahan-class (5 × 5 in. main battery): Case
3 Gleaves-class (4 × 5 in. main battery): Lansdowne, Lardner, McCalla
4 Benham-class (4 × 5 in. main battery): Lang, Sterett, Wilson, Ellet
=== Task Group 58.7 ===
Commander, Battleships, Pacific Fleet
Vice Admiral Willis Augustus Lee
Battleship Division 6 (Vice Admiral Lee)
2 North Carolina class
North Carolina (Capt. Frank P. Thomas)
Washington (Capt. Thomas R. Cooley)
Battleship Division 7 (Rear Admiral Olaf M. Hustvedt)
2 Iowa class
Iowa (Capt. John L. McCrea)
New Jersey (Capt. Carl F. Holden)
Battleship Division 8 (Rear Admiral Glenn B. Davis)
1 South Dakota class
Indiana (Capt. Thomas J. Keliher Jr.)
Battleship Division 9 (Rear Admiral Edward Hanson)
2 South Dakota class
South Dakota (Capt. Ralph S. Riggs)
Alabama (Capt. Fred D. Kirtland)
Cruiser Division 6 (Rear Admiral C. Turner Joy)
3 heavy cruisers
Wichita (Capt. J.J. Mahoney)
New Orleans (Capt. J.E. Hurff)
San Francisco (Capt. Harvey Overesch)
Screen
14 destroyers
1 Porter-class (8 × 5 in. main battery): Selfridge
9 Fletcher-class (5 × 5 in. main battery): Halford, Guest, Bennett, Fullam, Hudson, Yarnall, Twining, Stockham, Monssen
3 Bagley-class (4 × 5 in. main battery): Bagley, Mugford, Patterson
1 Mahan-class (5 × 5 in. main battery): Conyngham
=== Seventh Fleet Submarines ===
Rear Admiral Ralph W. Christie (HQ at Fremantle)
Southeast of Mindanao
3 Gato-class (10 tubes: 6 forward, 4 aft): Hake, Bashaw, Paddle
IJN anchorage at Tawi Tawi
3 Gato-class (10 tubes: 6 forward, 4 aft): Harder, Haddo, Redfin
Off Luzon
2 Gato-class (10 tubes: 6 forward, 4 aft): Bluefish, Jack, Flier
=== Task Force 17 ===
Patrol Submarines
Vice Admiral Charles A. Lockwood (HQ at Pearl Harbor)
At the Bonins
2 Balao-class (10 tubes: 6 forward, 4 aft): Archerfish, Plaice
1 Gar-class (10 tubes: 6 forward, 4 aft): Gar
1 Sargo-class (8 tubes: 4 forward, 4 aft): Swordfish
1 Porpoise-class (6 tubes: 4 forward, 2 aft): Plunger
Southeast of Formosa and eastward
2 Balao-class (10 tubes: 6 forward, 4 aft): Pintado, Pilotfish
1 Gato-class (10 tubes: 6 forward, 4 aft): Tunny
East and Southeast of the Marianas
2 Gato-class (10 tubes: 6 forward, 4 aft): Albacore, Finback
1 Balao-class (10 tubes: 6 forward, 4 aft): Bang
1 Salmon-class (8 tubes: 4 forward, 4 aft): Stingray
1 Sargo-class (8 tubes: 4 forward, 4 aft): Seawolf
Ulithi and the Philippines
3 Gato-class (10 tubes: 6 forward, 4 aft): Flying Fish, Muskallunge, Cavalla
2 Balao-class (10 tubes: 6 forward, 4 aft): Seahorse, Pipefish
Off Surigao Strait
1 Gato-class (10 tubes: 6 forward, 4 aft): Growler |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Hunt_(inventor) | Walter Hunt (inventor) | Walter Hunt (July 29, 1796 – June 8, 1859) was an American mechanical engineer. Through the course of his work he became known for being a prolific inventor. He first became involved with mechanical innovations in a linseed producing community in New York state that had flax mills. While in New York City to promote his inventions he got involved in inventing the streetcar gong that was used throughout the United States. This then led him to invent other useful items like the safety pin and sewing machine. He invented the precursor to the repeating rifle and fountain pen. About two dozen of his inventions are used today in basically the same form as he had patented them. In spite of his many useful innovative creations he never became wealthy since he sold off most of his patent rights to others at low prices with no future royalties. Others made millions of dollars from his safety pin device.
== Early life and education ==
Walter Hunt was born July 29, 1796, in the town of Martinsburg, in Lewis County in the state of New York. He was the first born child of Sherman Hunt and Rachel Hunt. He had twelve siblings. Hunt received his childhood education in a one-room schoolhouse. Hunt was muscular, tall and slender with a ruddy complexion. He married Polly Loucks in 1814 and they had four children. Hunt went to college and earned a master's degree in masonry in 1817 at the age of 21.
== Mid life ==
Hunt traveled to New York City in 1826 to get money for one of his inventions. While there he witnessed an accident where a horse-drawn carriage ran over a child. The accident event motivated him to come up with a metal bell that was operated with a hammer that could be controlled by one of driver's feet without letting go of the horse reins. Hunt patented his new innovation on July 30, 1827. He promoted his concept to many prospects and eventually was able to sell his foot operated coach alarm mechanism idea to the stagecoach operators Kipp and Brown. Hunt's innovation was soon adopted by most public horse-drawn vehicles throughout the city. Hunt's coach alarm was further developed and used throughout the United States.
=== Inventions ===
Hunt was a prolific inventor. From 1827 to 1830, while earning a living in the real estate field, he invented a fire engine, an improvement for hard coal-burning stoves, the first home knife sharpener, and a restaurant steam table apparatus. He also invented the precursor of the Winchester repeating rifle and the forerunner of the American fountain pen as used in the twentieth century. Additionally, Hunt invented a flax spinner, an improved oil lamp, artificial stone, the first rotary street sweeping machine, mail sorting machinery, velocipedes, and ice plows. He also made improvements to guns, cylindro-conoidal bullets, ice-breaking wooden hull boats, paraffin oil candles, velocipedes, machines for making rivets and nails, and self-closing inkwells. He also invented the Antipodean Performers suction-cup shoes claimed to be used by circus performers to ascend up solid side walls and walk upside down across high ceilings. He did not realize the significance of many of his inventions when he produced them and sold off most of his patent rights to others for low prices making little for himself in the long run. In the twentieth century many of his patented devices were widely used everyday common products.
==== Sewing machine ====
He developed the first modern feasible operating sewing machine sometime between the years 1835 and 1837 at his Amos Street shop that was up a narrow alley in Abingdon Square at the borough of Manhattan in the city of New York. He manufactured and sold a few of these machines at the time. He never initially patented the mechanical device he created that used a lockstitch for sewing. It had a characteristic of an eye-pointed needle and used two threads whereby one thread passed through a twisted loop in the other thread and then both interlocked. The uniqueness of this was that it was the initial time an engineer or technician inventor had not imitated a single stitch done by hand and used two interlocking threads at a seam. He used a technique for sewing which was revolutionary at the time. The eye opening was near the point of the needle and operated on a vibrating arm and a loop was formed under the cloth by this thread through which a shuttle, reeling off another thread, was forced back and forth making an interlocked stitch.
Hunt completed his working model before he showed it to anyone.
Hunt sold one-half the patent rights in 1834 to businessman and blacksmith George A. Arrowsmith who never manufactured it to sell. He instead had Hunt's wooden version duplicated in iron by Adoniram, Hunt's brother. Adoniram was a skilled mechanic and duplicated the original wooden version. It performed better because no splinters of wood impeded the passage of the cloth. Arrowsmith had no interest patenting the sewing machine then and had decided to postpone that step for a later time. He gave as reasons for not procuring a patent that 1) he was busy with other businesses then; 2) the expense of getting the appropriate drawings and paperwork together to register a patent was more than he could afford and; 3) the difficulty of introducing the new sewing machine into public use, saying it would have cost two thousand (equivalent to $64,500 in 2025) or three thousand (equivalent to $96,750 in 2025) dollars to start the sewing machine business. Had he seen the newspaper article titled Sewing by Machinery of December 1835 and January 1836 that was in many nationwide newspapers he may have applied for a patent right away, because it said that a mechanic of Rochester had invented a machine for making clothes which would thereafter take the place of fingers and thimbles.
Hunt did not seek a patent for his sewing machine at the time because he worried it would create unemployment with seamstresses. History records show that his wife and daughter advised him against marketing his sewing apparatus. Hunt's daughter Caroline operated a corset-making shop with twelve seamstress ladies and was watching out for their interest and thousands of other seamstresses. This ultimately led to a court case in 1854 when the lockstitch sewing machine concept was applied for by Elias Howe in a patent application. Hunt submitted his initial application for his 1834 sewing machine on April 2, 1853. Records at the Supreme Court show Hunt's invention was made before Howe's machine and the Patent Office identified Hunt's preexistence but it did not issue a patent to him for this. The reason was because he had not filled out the proper paperwork for a patent before Howe's paperwork application and had abandoned the design experiment of the 1830s. Hunt acquired public acknowledgement for his invention, however Howe's official patent remained lawful because of the technicality of the timing of the paperwork. Isaac Singer arranged to give Hunt $50,000 (equivalent to $1,860,580 in 2025) in installments for his sewing machine design in 1858 in order to clear up the patent confusion about sewing machines, but Hunt died before Singer was able to consummate the agreement.
==== Safety pin ====
Hunt thought little of the safety pin, his best-known invention. He sold his patent of it for $400 (equivalent to $15,480 in 2025) to W R Grace and Company, to pay a draftsman he owed $15 to (equivalent to $580 in 2025). J.R. Chapin pressured Hunt to pay off what was due to him for the drafting work he had done on previous inventions that needed patent drawings for application submissions.
Hunt came up with the safety pin ("C") in 1849 through experimentation with high tension wire. His invention was an improvement on the current way clothing items were attached together before because of a protective clasp ("D") at the end and a coiled wire design ("B") with a spring tension on the pointed end leg ("A") to keep it in the protective clasp even if the pin device was moved around. The basic design is the same in the twentieth century as when Hunt came up with the device in the nineteenth century and is manufactured inexpensively now. W R Grace and Company made millions of dollars profit off the product.
== Other inventions ==
One of Hunt's popular inventions was a paper shirt collar. This time he sold the patented design and negotiated for royalty payments, but the item only became popular after he died. The unusual item was first put on sale in New York City in 1854 and used then mostly for stage purposes. In time it became fashionable and the general public then started using them. High production of the item came about and at one time there were as many as forty factories making paper collars in the United States. The manufactured output in 1868 became 400,000 that were sold to the general public.
Hunt often used the legal services and patent research work of Charles Grafton Page, a certified patent lawyer who had worked at the Patent Office before, when seeking a potential patent for one of his inventions. His inventions covered a wide variety of fields and subjects. About two dozen of Hunt's inventions are still used in the form in which he created them over one hundred years ago.
Some of Hunt's important inventions are shown below with the patent drawings.
== Later life and death ==
Hunt created numerous usable everyday inventions in his lifetime, however he never became independently wealthy from them. He died of pneumonia at his place of business in New York City on June 8, 1859. He is interred in Green-Wood Cemetery at Brooklyn, New York. His grave is marked by a small red granite shaft about a hundred feet from Howe's massive bust monument.
== Legacy ==
Hunt was inducted into the Inventors Hall of Fame in 2006 for the safety pin invention. Many of Hunt's invention ideas are in actual use today and are basically the same device as when he patented them more than a hundred years ago. Some of those others besides the safety pin and sewing machine are a device which regulates the amount of liquid that comes from a bottle with each tilt, a bottle stopper, springy attachment for adjustments to belts and suspenders, and a nail making machine. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tow_Ubukata | Tow Ubukata | Mineo Fujino (Japanese: 藤野峰男, Hepburn: Fujino Mineo; born February 14, 1977, in Gifu Prefecture), known by his pen name Tow Ubukata (冲方 丁, Ubukata Tō), is a Japanese novelist and screenwriter. He primarily writes fantasy and science fiction. His major works include Mardock Scramble, Le Chevalier D'Eon and Heroic Age. He also did series composition for the Fafner in the Azure series, Ghost in the Shell: Arise, Psycho-Pass 2 and Psycho-Pass 3.
== Early life ==
Ubukata was raised in Singapore and Nepal.
== Career ==
In high school, Ubukata received several writer's awards. In 1996, he debuted as a writer of short stories and won the Kadokawa Sneaker Award with his story Black Season. In 2009, he won the Eiji Yoshikawa Award for New Writers with his story Tenchi Meisatsu. In 2012, he won the Fūtarō Yamada Award for his story Mitsukuni-den.
Ubukata writes for the Japanese visual culture magazine Newtype. His serialized segments, called "A Gambler's Life", are comedic, often-satiric expository pieces. They chronicle his day-to-day experiences and interactions with people, such as his wife. In these segments, he dubs himself "The Kamikazi Wordsmith". These segments were also published in the American counterpart, Newtype USA, which is now discontinued.
Ubukata won the 24th Nihon SF Taisho Award in 2003. Ubukata has written the novelization and the script for the manga version of Le Chevalier D'Eon, and has contributed to the screenplay and the overall story plot of the animated version.
== Personal life ==
On August 21, 2015, Ubukata allegedly hit his then-wife in her jaw and mouth area at their home in Aoyama, Minato Ward of Tokyo, breaking her front tooth. She reported the incident to the police the next day, leading to his arrest on August 24, 2015. Ubukata admitted they had an argument but denied hitting her. On August 26, 2015, Mito City mayor Yasushi Takahashi decided to put NHK's offer to film a live-action taiga drama adaptation of Ubukuta's novel, Mitsukuni-den, in the city itself on hold. Ubukata was released on September 1, 2015, without indictment. The Public Prosecutors Office dropped charges against him in October 2015, with one reason being that his wife did not want to press charges. Following the incident, Ubukata announced that he planned on writing a memoir based on his experiences in jail, titled 9 Days Trapped. In 2016, one year after his arrest and release, Ubukata revealed that he and his wife had divorced, with his wife taking custody of their children. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler | Adolf Hitler | Adolf Hitler (20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician who was the dictator of Germany during the Nazi era, which lasted from 1933 until his suicide in 1945. He rose to power as the leader of the Nazi Party, becoming the chancellor of Germany in 1933 and then taking the title of Führer und Reichskanzler in 1934. Germany's invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 under his leadership marked the outbreak of the Second World War. Throughout the ensuing conflict, Hitler was closely involved in the direction of German military operations as well as the perpetration of the Holocaust, the genocide of about six million Jews and millions of other victims.
Hitler was born in Braunau am Inn in Austria-Hungary and moved to Germany in 1913. He was decorated during his service in the German Army in the First World War, receiving the Iron Cross. In 1919, he joined the German Workers' Party (DAP), the precursor of the Nazi Party, and in 1921, was appointed the leader of the Nazi Party. In 1923, he attempted to seize governmental power in a failed coup in Munich and was sentenced to five years in prison, serving just over a year. While there, he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto Mein Kampf (lit. 'My Struggle'). After his early release in 1924, he gained popular support by attacking the Treaty of Versailles as well as promoting pan-Germanism, antisemitism, and anti-communism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda. He frequently denounced communism as being part of an international Jewish conspiracy. By November 1932, the Nazi Party held the most seats in the Reichstag, but not a majority. Former chancellor Franz von Papen and other conservative politicians convinced President Paul von Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as chancellor on 30 January 1933. Shortly thereafter on 23 March, the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act of 1933, which ultimately began the Weimar Republic's transformation into Nazi Germany.
Upon Hindenburg's death on 2 August 1934, Hitler replaced him as head of state and thereafter transformed Germany into a totalitarian dictatorship. Domestically, Hitler implemented numerous racist policies and sought to deport or kill German Jews. His first six years in power resulted in rapid economic recovery from the Great Depression, the abrogation of restrictions imposed on Germany after the First World War, and the annexation of territories inhabited by millions of ethnic Germans, which initially gave him significant popular support. One of Hitler's key goals was Lebensraum (lit. 'living space') for the German people in Eastern Europe, and his aggressive, expansionist foreign policy is considered the primary cause of World War II in Europe. On 1 September 1939, Hitler oversaw the German invasion of Poland, thereby causing Britain and France to declare war on Germany. After ordering an invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, he declared war on the United States in December of the same year. By the end of 1941, German forces and the European Axis powers occupied most of Europe and North Africa. These gains were gradually reversed after 1941 until the Allied forces defeated the German military in 1945. On 29 April 1945, Hitler married his longtime partner, Eva Braun, in the Führerbunker in Berlin. They committed suicide the next day to avoid capture by the Soviet Red Army.
The historian and biographer Ian Kershaw described Hitler as "the embodiment of modern political evil." Under Hitler's leadership and racist ideology, the Nazi regime was responsible for the genocide of an estimated six million Jews and millions of other victims, whom he and his followers deemed Untermenschen (lit. 'subhumans') or socially undesirable. Hitler and the Nazis were also responsible for the deliberate killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians and prisoners of war. In addition, 28.7 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European theatre. The number of civilians killed during World War II was unprecedented in warfare, and the casualties make it the deadliest conflict in history.
== Ancestry ==
Hitler's father, Alois Hitler, was the illegitimate child of Maria Schicklgruber. The baptismal register did not show the name of his father, and Alois initially bore his mother's surname, "Schicklgruber". In 1842, Johann Georg Hiedler married Alois's mother. Alois was brought up in the family of Hiedler's brother, Johann Nepomuk Hiedler. Alois worked as a civil servant from 1855 until his retirement in 1895. In 1876, Alois was made legitimate and his baptismal record annotated by a priest to register Johann Georg Hiedler as Alois's father (recorded as "Georg Hitler"). Alois then assumed the surname "Hitler", also spelled "Hiedler", "Hüttler", or "Huettler". The name is probably based on the German word Hütte (lit. 'hut'), and has the meaning "one who lives in a hut".
The Nazi official Hans Frank suggested that Alois's mother had been employed as a housekeeper by a Jewish family in Graz, and that the family's 19-year-old son Leopold Frankenberger had fathered Alois, a claim that came to be known as the Frankenberger thesis. No Frankenberger was registered in Graz during that period, and no record has been produced of a Leopold Frankenberger's existence, so historians dismiss the claim that Alois's father was Jewish. In 2025, blood from the sofa in Hitler's study was used by Turi King of the University of Bath for DNA analysis. The blood was confirmed to be Hitler's by comparing it to that of a male-line relative, and the DNA analysis also showed that Hitler did not have Jewish ancestry through his father. "If that was the case, we wouldn't have got the DNA match with him," King said. "That DNA match not only confirmed that this is Hitler's DNA but also confirms that that story of human Jewish ancestry through his father is just simply not true."
== Early life ==
=== Childhood and education ===
Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 in Braunau am Inn, a town in Austria-Hungary (present-day Austria), close to the border with Germany. He was the fourth of six children born to Alois Hitler and his third wife, Klara Pölzl. Three of Hitler's siblings—Gustav, Ida, and Otto—died in infancy. Also living in the household were Alois's children from his second marriage: Alois Jr. (born 1882) and Angela (born 1883). In 1892, the family moved to Passau, Germany, following Alois's promotion to the customs administration in Passau. Hitler was three at the time. Alois was promoted and transferred to Linz, Austria, on 1 April 1893, but the rest of the family remained in Passau. There, Hitler acquired the distinctive lower Bavarian dialect, rather than Austrian German, which marked his speech throughout his life. The family returned to Austria and settled in Leonding on 9 May 1894, and in June 1895, Alois retired to Hafeld, near Lambach, where he farmed and kept bees. Hitler attended Volksschule (a state-funded primary school) in nearby Fischlham.
The move to Hafeld coincided with the onset of intense father–son conflicts caused by Hitler's refusal to conform to the strict discipline of his school. Alois tried to browbeat his son into obedience, while Adolf did his best to be the opposite of whatever his father wanted. Alois would also beat his son, although his mother tried to protect him from regular beatings.
Alois Hitler's farming efforts at Hafeld were unsuccessful, and in 1897, the family moved to Lambach. The eight-year-old Hitler took singing lessons, sang in the church choir, and even considered becoming a priest. In 1898, the family returned permanently to Leonding. Hitler was deeply affected by the death of his younger brother Edmund in 1900 from measles. Hitler transformed from a confident, outgoing, and conscientious student to a morose, detached boy who frequently clashed with his father and teachers. Paula Hitler recalled that Adolf was a teenage bully who would often slap her.
Alois had made a successful career in the customs bureau and wanted his son to follow in his footsteps. Hitler later dramatised an episode from this period when his father took him to visit a customs office, depicting it as an event that gave rise to an unforgiving antagonism between father and son, who were both strong-willed. Ignoring his son's desire to attend a classical high school and become an artist, Alois sent Hitler to the Realschule in Linz in September 1900. Hitler rebelled against this decision, and in Mein Kampf states that he intentionally performed poorly in school, hoping that once his father saw "what little progress I was making at the technical school he would let me devote myself to my dream".
Like many Austrian Germans, Hitler began to develop German nationalist ideas from a young age. He expressed loyalty only to Germany, despising the declining Habsburg monarchy and its rule over an ethnically diverse empire. Hitler and his friends used the greeting "Heil", and sang the "Deutschlandlied" instead of the Austrian Imperial anthem. After Alois's sudden death on 3 January 1903, Hitler's performance at school deteriorated, and his mother allowed him to leave. He enrolled at the Realschule in Steyr in September 1904, where his behaviour and performance improved. In 1905, after passing a repeat of the final exam, Hitler left the school without any ambitions for further education or clear plans for a career.
=== Early adulthood in Vienna and Munich ===
In 1907, Hitler left Linz to live and study fine art in Vienna, financed by orphan's benefits and support from his mother. He applied for admission to the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna but was rejected twice. The director suggested Hitler should apply to the School of Architecture, but he lacked the necessary academic credentials because he had not finished secondary school.
On 21 December 1907, his mother died of breast cancer at the age of 47; Hitler was 18 at the time. In 1909, Hitler ran out of money and was forced to live a bohemian life in homeless shelters and the Meldemannstraße dormitory. He earned money as a casual labourer and by painting and selling watercolours of Vienna's sights. During his time in Vienna, he pursued a growing passion for architecture and music, attending ten performances of Lohengrin, his favourite of Richard Wagner's operas.
In Vienna, Hitler was first exposed to racist rhetoric. Populists such as mayor Karl Lueger exploited the city's prevalent antisemitic sentiment, occasionally also espousing German nationalist notions for political benefit. German nationalism was especially widespread in the Mariahilf district, where Hitler then lived. Georg Ritter von Schönerer became a major influence on Hitler, and he developed an admiration for Martin Luther.
Hitler read newspapers and pamphlets that promoted prejudice and warned of an influx of Eastern European Jews, as well as writings by figures such as Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Charles Darwin, Friedrich Nietzsche, Gustave Le Bon, and Arthur Schopenhauer. During his years in Vienna he also developed strong anti-Slavic sentiments.
After entering nationalist politics in Munich in the early 1920s, Hitler's antisemitic rhetoric intensified. According to Thomas Fuchs, he told an associate in 1922 that once he obtained political power his "first and foremost task" would be the annihilation of the Jews.
The origin and development of Hitler's antisemitism remain a matter of debate. His friend August Kubizek claimed that Hitler was a "confirmed antisemite" before he left Linz. However, the historian Brigitte Hamann describes Kubizek's claim as "problematical". While Hitler states in Mein Kampf that he first became an antisemite in Vienna, Reinhold Hanisch, who helped him to sell his paintings, disagrees. Hitler had dealings with Jews while living in Vienna. The historian Richard J. Evans states that "historians now generally agree that his notorious, murderous antisemitism emerged well after Germany's defeat [in World War I], as a product of the paranoid "stab-in-the-back" explanation for the catastrophe".
Hitler received the final part of his father's estate in May 1913 and moved to Munich. When he was conscripted into the Austro-Hungarian Army, he journeyed to Salzburg on 5 February 1914 for medical assessment. After he was deemed unfit for service, he returned to Munich. Hitler later claimed that he did not wish to serve the Habsburg Empire because of the mixture of races in its army and his belief that the collapse of Austria-Hungary was imminent.
=== World War I ===
In August 1914, at the outbreak of World War I, Hitler was living in Munich and voluntarily enlisted in the Bavarian Army. According to a 1924 report by the Bavarian authorities, allowing Hitler to serve was most likely an administrative error, because as an Austrian citizen, he should have been returned to Austria. Posted to the Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment 16 (1st Company of the List Regiment), he served as a dispatch runner on the Western Front in France and Belgium, spending nearly half his time at the regimental headquarters in Fournes-en-Weppes, well behind the front lines. In 1914, he was present at the First Battle of Ypres and in that year was decorated for bravery, receiving the Iron Cross, Second Class. During the war, he was saved by his commanding officer, Fritz Wiedemann, who pulled Hitler out of the rubble of a collapsed building while under heavy fire.
During his service at headquarters, Hitler pursued his artistic interests, drawing cartoons and providing instructions for an army newspaper. During the Battle of the Somme in October 1916, he was wounded in the left thigh when a shell exploded in the dispatch runners' dugout. Hitler spent almost two months recovering in hospital at Beelitz, returning to his regiment on 5 March 1917. He was present at the Battle of Arras of 1917 and the Battle of Passchendaele. He received the black Wound Badge on 18 May 1918. Three months later, in August 1918, on a recommendation by Lieutenant Hugo Gutmann, his Jewish superior, Hitler received the Iron Cross, First Class, a decoration rarely awarded at Hitler's Gefreiter rank. On 15 October 1918, he was temporarily blinded in a mustard gas attack and was hospitalised in Pasewalk. While there, Hitler learned of Germany's defeat, and, by his own account, suffered a second bout of blindness after receiving this news.
Hitler described his role in World War I as "the greatest of all experiences", and was praised by his commanding officers for his bravery. His wartime experience reinforced his German patriotism, and he was shocked by Germany's capitulation in November 1918. His displeasure with the collapse of the war effort began to shape his ideology. Like other German nationalists, he believed the Dolchstoßlegende (stab-in-the-back myth), which claimed that the German army, "undefeated in the field", had been "stabbed in the back" on the home front by civilian leaders, Jews, Marxists, and those who signed the armistice that ended the fighting—later dubbed the "November criminals".
The Treaty of Versailles stipulated that Germany had to relinquish several of its territories and demilitarise the Rhineland. The treaty imposed economic sanctions and levied heavy reparations on the country. Many Germans saw the treaty as an unjust humiliation. They especially objected to Article 231, which they interpreted as declaring Germany responsible for the war. The Versailles Treaty and the economic, social, and political conditions in Germany after the war were later exploited by Hitler for political gain.
== Entry into politics ==
After the war, Hitler returned to Munich. Without formal education or career prospects, he remained in the Army. In July 1919, he was appointed Verbindungsmann (intelligence agent) of an Aufklärungskommando (reconnaissance unit) of the Reichswehr, assigned to influence other soldiers and to infiltrate the German Workers' Party (DAP). At a DAP meeting on 12 September 1919, Party chairman Anton Drexler was impressed by Hitler's oratorical skills. He gave him a copy of his pamphlet My Political Awakening, which contained antisemitic, nationalist, anti-capitalist, and anti-Marxist ideas. On the orders of his army superiors, Hitler applied to join the party, and within a week was accepted as party member 555 (the party began counting membership at 500 to give the impression they were a much larger party).
Hitler made his earliest known written statement about the Jewish question in a 16 September 1919 letter to Adolf Gemlich (now known as the Gemlich letter). In the letter, Hitler argues that the aim of the government "must unshakably be the removal of the Jews altogether". At the DAP, Hitler met Dietrich Eckart, one of the party's founders and a member of the occult Thule Society. Eckart became Hitler's mentor, exchanging ideas with him and introducing him to a wide range of Munich society. To increase its appeal, the DAP changed its name to the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), now known as the "Nazi Party"). Hitler designed the party's banner of a swastika in a white circle on a red background.
Hitler was discharged from the Army on 31 March 1920 and began working full-time for the party. The party headquarters was in Munich, a centre for anti-government German nationalists determined to eliminate Marxism and undermine the Weimar Republic.
Friedrich Reck-Malleczewen commented in his 1947 book Diary of a Man in Despair:
He had come to a house where he had never been before, wearing gaiters, a floppy, wide-brimmed hat, and carrying a riding whip.... Eventually, he managed to launch into a speech. He talked on and on, endlessly. He preached. He went on at us like a division chaplain in the Army. We did not in the least contradict him, or venture to differ in any way, but he began to bellow at us. The servants thought we were being attacked, and rushed in to defend us. When he had gone, we sat silently confused and not at all amused. There was a feeling of dismay, as when on a train you suddenly find you are sharing a compartment with a psychotic.
In February 1921, already highly effective at crowd manipulation, Hitler spoke to a crowd of over 6,000. To publicise the meeting, two truckloads of party supporters drove around Munich waving swastika flags and distributing leaflets. Hitler soon gained notoriety for his rowdy polemic speeches against the Treaty of Versailles, rival politicians, and especially against Marxists and Jews.
In June 1921, while Hitler and Eckart were on a fundraising trip to Berlin, a mutiny broke out within the Nazi Party in Munich. Members of its executive committee wanted to merge with the Nuremberg-based German Socialist Party (DSP). Hitler returned to Munich on 11 July and angrily tendered his resignation. The committee members realised that the resignation of their leading public figure and speaker would mean the end of the party. Hitler announced he would rejoin on the condition that he would replace Drexler as party chairman, and that the party headquarters would remain in Munich. The committee agreed, and he rejoined the party on 26 July as member 3,680. Hitler continued to face some opposition within the Nazi Party. Opponents of Hitler in the leadership had Hermann Esser expelled from the party, and they printed 3,000 copies of a pamphlet attacking Hitler as a traitor to the party. In the following days, Hitler spoke to several large audiences and defended himself and Esser, to thunderous applause. His strategy proved successful, and at a special party congress on 29 July, he was granted absolute power as party chairman, succeeding Drexler, by a vote of 533 to 1.
Hitler's vitriolic beer hall speeches began attracting regular audiences. A demagogue, he became adept at using populist themes, including the use of scapegoats, who were blamed for his listeners' economic hardships. Hitler used personal magnetism and an understanding of crowd psychology to his advantage while engaged in public speaking. Historians have noted the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences, and of his eyes in small groups. Alfons Heck, a former member of the Hitler Youth, recalled:
We erupted into a frenzy of nationalistic pride that bordered on hysteria. For minutes on end, we shouted at the top of our lungs, with tears streaming down our faces: Sieg Heil, Sieg Heil, Sieg Heil! From that moment on, I belonged to Adolf Hitler body and soul.
Early followers included Rudolf Hess, the former air force ace Hermann Göring, and the army captain Ernst Röhm. Röhm became head of the Nazis' paramilitary organisation, the Sturmabteilung (SA, "Stormtroopers"), which protected meetings and attacked political opponents. A critical influence on Hitler's thinking during this period was the Aufbau Vereinigung, a conspiratorial group of White Russian exiles and early Nazis. The group, financed with funds channelled from wealthy industrialists, introduced Hitler to the idea of a Jewish conspiracy, linking international finance with Bolshevism.
The programme of the Nazi Party was laid out in their 25-point programme on 24 February 1920. This did not represent a coherent ideology, but was a conglomeration of received ideas which had currency in the völkisch pan-Germanic movement, such as ultranationalism, opposition to the Treaty of Versailles, distrust of capitalism, as well as some socialist ideas. For Hitler, the most important aspect of it was its strong antisemitic stance. He also perceived the programme as primarily a basis for propaganda and for attracting people to the party.
=== Beer Hall Putsch and Landsberg Prison ===
In 1923, Hitler enlisted the help of World War I General Erich Ludendorff for an attempted coup known as the Beer Hall Putsch. The Nazi Party used Italian Fascism as a model for their appearance and policies. Hitler wanted to emulate Benito Mussolini's March on Rome in 1922 by staging his own coup in Bavaria, to be followed by a challenge to the government in Berlin. Hitler and Ludendorff sought the support of Staatskommissar (State Commissioner) Gustav Ritter von Kahr, Bavaria's de facto ruler. However, Kahr, along with Police Chief Hans Ritter von Seisser and Reichswehr General Otto von Lossow, wanted to install a nationalist dictatorship without Hitler.
On 8 November 1923, Hitler and the SA stormed a public meeting of 3,000 people organised by Kahr in the Bürgerbräukeller, a beer hall in Munich. Interrupting Kahr's speech, he announced that the national revolution had begun and declared the formation of a new government with Ludendorff. Retiring to a back room, Hitler, with his pistol drawn, demanded and subsequently received the support of Kahr, Seisser, and Lossow. Hitler's forces initially succeeded in occupying the local Reichswehr and police headquarters, but Kahr and his cohorts quickly withdrew their support. Neither the Army nor the state police joined forces with Hitler. The next day, Hitler and his followers marched from the beer hall to the Bavarian War Ministry to overthrow the Bavarian government, but police dispersed them. In the failed coup, 16 Nazi Party members and four police officers were killed.
Hitler fled to the home of Ernst Hanfstaengl and by some accounts contemplated suicide. He was depressed but calm when arrested on 11 November 1923 for high treason. His trial before the special People's Court in Munich began in February 1924, and Alfred Rosenberg became temporary leader of the Nazi Party. On 1 April, Hitler was sentenced to five years' Festungshaft ('fortress confinement') at Landsberg Prison. There, he received friendly treatment from the guards and was allowed mail from supporters and regular visits by party comrades. Pardoned by the Bavarian Supreme Court, he was released from jail on 20 December 1924, against the state prosecutor's objections. Including time on remand, Hitler served just over one year in prison.
While at Landsberg, Hitler dictated most of the first volume of Mein Kampf (lit. 'My Struggle'; originally titled Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies, Stupidity, and Cowardice) at first to his chauffeur, Emil Maurice, and then to his deputy, Rudolf Hess. The book, dedicated to Thule Society member Dietrich Eckart, was an autobiography and exposition of his ideology. The book laid out Hitler's plans for territorial expansion as well as transforming German society into a dictatorship based on race. Throughout the book, Jews are equated with "germs" and presented as the "international poisoners" of society. According to Hitler's ideology, the only solution was their extermination. While Hitler did not describe exactly how this was to be accomplished, his "inherent genocidal thrust is undeniable", according to Ian Kershaw.
Published in two volumes in 1925 and 1926, Mein Kampf sold 228,000 copies between 1925 and 1932. One million copies were sold in 1933, Hitler's first year in office. Shortly before Hitler was eligible for parole, the Bavarian government attempted to have him deported to Austria. The Austrian federal chancellor rejected the request on the specious grounds that his service in the German Army made his Austrian citizenship void. In response, Hitler formally renounced his Austrian citizenship on 7 April 1925.
=== Rebuilding the Nazi Party ===
At the time of Hitler's release from prison, politics in Germany had become less combative, and the economy had improved, limiting Hitler's opportunities for political agitation. As a result of the failed Beer Hall Putsch, the Nazi Party and its affiliated organisations were banned in Bavaria. In a meeting with the Prime Minister of Bavaria, Heinrich Held, on 4 January 1925, Hitler agreed to respect the state's authority and promised that he would seek political power only through the democratic process. The meeting paved the way for the ban on the Nazi Party to be lifted on 16 February.
However, after an inflammatory speech he gave on 27 February, Hitler was barred from public speaking by the Bavarian authorities, a ban that remained in place until 1927. To advance his political ambitions in spite of the ban, Hitler appointed Gregor Strasser, Otto Strasser, and Joseph Goebbels to organise and enlarge the Nazi Party in northern Germany. Gregor Strasser steered a more independent political course, emphasising the socialist elements of the party's programme.
The stock market in the United States crashed on 24 October 1929. The impact in Germany was dire: millions became unemployed, and several major banks collapsed. Hitler and the Nazi Party prepared to take advantage of the emergency to gain support for their party. They promised to repudiate the Versailles Treaty, strengthen the economy, and provide jobs.
Hitler discussed the name of the Nazi Party in October 1923:
"Why," I asked Hitler, "do you call yourself a National Socialist, since your party program is the very antithesis of that commonly accredited to socialism?" "Socialism," he retorted, putting down his cup of tea, pugnaciously, "is the science of dealing with the common weal. Communism is not Socialism. Marxism is not Socialism. The Marxians have stolen the term and confused its meaning. I shall take Socialism away from the Socialists. Socialism is an ancient Aryan, Germanic institution [...] We demand the fulfilment of the just claims of the productive classes by the state on the basis of race solidarity. To us state and race are one."
== Rise to power ==
=== Brüning administration ===
The Great Depression provided a political opportunity for Hitler. Germans were ambivalent about the parliamentary republic, which faced challenges from right- and left-wing extremists. The moderate political parties were increasingly unable to stem the tide of extremism, and the German referendum of 1929 helped to elevate Nazi ideology. The elections of September 1930 resulted in the break-up of a grand coalition and its replacement with a minority cabinet. Its leader, chancellor Heinrich Brüning of the Centre Party, governed through emergency decrees from President Paul von Hindenburg. Governance by decree became the new norm, paving the way for authoritarian forms of government. The Nazi Party rose from obscurity to win 18.3 per cent of the vote and 107 parliamentary seats in the 1930 election, becoming the second-largest party in parliament.
Hitler made a prominent appearance at the trial of two Reichswehr officers, Lieutenants Richard Scheringer and Hanns Ludin, in late 1930. Both were charged with membership in the Nazi Party, at that time illegal for Reichswehr personnel. The prosecution argued that the Nazi Party was an extremist party, prompting defence lawyer Hans Frank to call on Hitler to testify. On 25 September 1930, Hitler testified that his party would pursue political power solely through democratic elections, which won him many supporters in the officer corps.
Brüning's austerity measures brought little economic improvement and were extremely unpopular. Hitler exploited this by targeting his political messages specifically at people who had been affected by the inflation of the 1920s and the Depression, such as farmers, war veterans, and the middle class.
Although Hitler had terminated his Austrian citizenship in 1925, he did not acquire German citizenship for almost seven years. This meant that he was stateless, legally unable to run for public office, and still faced the risk of deportation. On 25 February 1932, the interior minister of Brunswick, Dietrich Klagges, who was a member of the Nazi Party, appointed Hitler as administrator for the state's delegation to the Reichsrat in Berlin, making Hitler a citizen of Brunswick, and thus of Germany.
Hitler ran against Hindenburg in the 1932 presidential election. A speech to the Industry Club in Düsseldorf on 27 January 1932 won him support from many of Germany's most powerful industrialists. Hindenburg had support from various nationalist, monarchist, Catholic, and republican parties, and some Social Democrats. Hitler used the campaign slogan "Hitler über Deutschland" ("Hitler over Germany"), a reference to his political ambitions and his campaigning by aircraft. He was one of the first politicians to use aircraft travel for campaigning and used it effectively. Hitler came in second in both rounds of the election, garnering more than 35 per cent of the vote in the final election. Although he lost to Hindenburg, this election established Hitler as a strong force in German politics.
=== Appointment as chancellor ===
The absence of an effective government prompted two influential politicians, Franz von Papen and Alfred Hugenberg, along with several other industrialists and businessmen, to write a letter to Hindenburg. The signers urged Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as leader of a government "independent from parliamentary parties", which could turn into a movement that would "enrapture millions of people".
Hindenburg reluctantly agreed to appoint Hitler as chancellor after two further parliamentary elections—in July and November 1932—had not resulted in the formation of a majority government. Hitler headed a short-lived coalition government formed by the Nazi Party (which had the most seats in the Reichstag) and Hugenberg's party, the German National People's Party (DNVP). On 30 January 1933, the new cabinet was sworn in during a brief ceremony in Hindenburg's office. The Nazi Party gained three posts: Hitler was named chancellor, Wilhelm Frick Minister of the Interior, and Hermann Göring Minister of the Interior for Prussia. Hitler had insisted on the ministerial positions as a way to gain control over the police in much of Germany.
=== Reichstag fire and March elections ===
As chancellor, Hitler worked against attempts by the Nazi Party's opponents to build a majority government. Because of the political stalemate, he asked Hindenburg to again dissolve the Reichstag, and elections were scheduled for early March. On 27 February 1933, the Reichstag building was set on fire. Göring blamed a communist plot, as the Dutch communist Marinus van der Lubbe was found in incriminating circumstances inside the burning building. Until the 1960s, some historians, including William L. Shirer and Alan Bullock, thought the Nazi Party was responsible; now the view of most historians is van der Lubbe started the fire alone.
At Hitler's urging, Hindenburg responded by signing the Reichstag Fire Decree of 28 February, drafted by the Nazis, which suspended basic rights and allowed detention without trial. The decree was permitted under Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution, which gave the president the power to take emergency measures to protect public safety and order. Activities of the German Communist Party (KPD) were suppressed, and 4,000 KPD members were arrested.
In addition to political campaigning, the Nazi Party engaged in paramilitary violence and the spread of anti-communist propaganda, in the days preceding the election. On election day, 6 March 1933, the Nazi's share of the vote increased to 44%, and the party acquired the largest number of seats in parliament. Hitler's party failed to secure an absolute majority, necessitating another coalition with the DNVP.
=== Day of Potsdam and the Enabling Act ===
On 21 March 1933, the new Reichstag was constituted with an opening ceremony at the Garrison Church in Potsdam. This "Day of Potsdam" was held to demonstrate unity between the Nazi movement and the old Prussian elite and military. Hitler appeared in a morning coat and humbly greeted Hindenburg.
To achieve full political control despite not having an absolute majority in parliament, Hitler's government brought the Ermächtigungsgesetz (Enabling Act) to a vote in the newly elected Reichstag. The Act—officially titled the Gesetz zur Behebung der Not von Volk und Reich ("Law to Remedy the Distress of People and Reich")—gave Hitler's cabinet the power to enact laws without the consent of the Reichstag for four years. These laws could (with certain exceptions) deviate from the constitution.
Since it would affect the constitution, the Enabling Act required a two-thirds majority to pass. Leaving nothing to chance, the Nazis used the provisions of the Reichstag Fire Decree to arrest all 81 Communist deputies (in spite of their virulent campaign against the party, the Nazis had allowed the KPD to contest the election) and prevent several Social Democrats from attending.
On 23 March 1933, the Reichstag assembled at the Kroll Opera House under turbulent circumstances. Ranks of SA men served as guards inside the building, while large groups outside, opposing the proposed legislation, shouted slogans and threats towards the arriving members of parliament. After Hitler verbally promised Centre party leader Ludwig Kaas that Hindenburg would retain his power of veto, Kaas announced the Centre Party would support the Enabling Act. The Act was passed by a vote of 444–94, with all parties except the Social Democrats voting in favour. The Enabling Act, along with the Reichstag Fire Decree, transformed Hitler's government into a de facto legal dictatorship.
=== Dictatorship ===
At the risk of appearing to talk nonsense I tell you that the National Socialist movement will go on for 1,000 years! ... Don't forget how people laughed at me 15 years ago when I declared that one day I would govern Germany. They laugh now, just as foolishly, when I declare that I shall remain in power!
Having achieved full control over the legislative and executive branches of government, Hitler and his allies began to suppress the remaining opposition. The Social Democratic Party was made illegal, and its assets were seized. While many trade union delegates were in Berlin for May Day activities, SA stormtroopers occupied union offices around the country. On 2 May 1933, all trade unions were forced to dissolve, and their leaders were arrested. Some were sent to concentration camps. The German Labour Front was formed as an umbrella organisation to represent all workers, administrators, and company owners, thus reflecting the concept of Nazism in the spirit of Hitler's Volksgemeinschaft ("people's community").
By the end of June, the other parties had been intimidated into disbanding. This included the Nazis' nominal coalition partner, the DNVP; with the SA's help, Hitler forced its leader, Hugenberg, to resign on 29 June. On 14 July 1933, the Nazi Party was declared the only legal political party in Germany. The demands of the SA for more political and military power caused anxiety among military, industrial, and political leaders. In response, Hitler purged the entire SA leadership in the Night of the Long Knives, which took place from 30 June to 2 July 1934. Hitler targeted Ernst Röhm and other SA leaders who, along with a number of Hitler's political adversaries (such as Gregor Strasser and former chancellor Kurt von Schleicher), were rounded up, arrested, and shot. While the international community and some Germans were shocked by the killings, many in Germany believed Hitler was restoring order.
Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934. On the previous day, the cabinet had enacted the Law Concerning the Head of State of the German Reich. This law stated that upon Hindenburg's death, the office of president would be abolished, and its powers merged with those of the chancellor. Hitler thus became head of state as well as head of government and was formally named as Führer und Reichskanzler (Leader and Chancellor of the Reich), although Reichskanzler was eventually dropped. With this action, Hitler eliminated the last legal remedy by which he could be removed from office.
As head of state, Hitler became commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Immediately after Hindenburg's death, at the instigation of the leadership of the Reichswehr, the traditional loyalty oath of soldiers was altered to affirm loyalty to Hitler personally, by name, rather than to the office of commander-in-chief (which was later renamed to supreme commander) or to Germany. On 19 August, the merger of the presidency with the chancellorship was approved by 88 per cent of the electorate voting in a plebiscite.
In early 1938, Hitler used blackmail to consolidate his hold over the military by instigating the Blomberg–Fritsch affair. Hitler forced his War Minister, Field Marshal Werner von Blomberg, to resign by using a police dossier that showed that Blomberg's new wife had a record for prostitution. Army commander Colonel-General Werner von Fritsch was removed after the Schutzstaffel (SS) produced allegations that he had engaged in a homosexual relationship. Both men had fallen into disfavour because they objected to Hitler's demand to make the Wehrmacht ready for war as early as 1938. Hitler assumed Blomberg's title of Commander-in-Chief, thus taking personal command of the armed forces. He replaced the Ministry of War with the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW), headed by General Wilhelm Keitel. On the same day, 16 generals were stripped of their commands and 44 more were transferred; all were suspected of not being sufficiently pro-Nazi. By early February 1938, 12 more generals had been removed.
Hitler took care to give his dictatorship the appearance of legality. Many of his decrees were explicitly based on the Reichstag Fire Decree and hence on Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution. The Reichstag renewed the Enabling Act twice, each time for a four-year period. While elections to the Reichstag were still held (in 1933, 1936, and 1938), voters were presented with a single list of Nazis and pro-Nazi "guests" which received well over 90 per cent of the vote. These sham elections were held in far-from-secret conditions; the Nazis threatened severe reprisals against anyone who did not vote or who voted against.
== Nazi Germany ==
=== Economy and culture ===
In August 1934, Hitler appointed Reichsbank President Hjalmar Schacht as Minister of Economics, and in the following year, as Plenipotentiary for War Economy in charge of preparing the economy for war. Reconstruction and rearmament were financed through Mefo bills, printing money, and seizing the assets of people arrested as enemies of the state, including Jews. The number of unemployed fell from six million in 1932 to fewer than one million in 1936. Hitler oversaw one of the largest infrastructure improvement campaigns in German history, leading to the construction of dams, autobahns, railroads, and other civil works. Wages were slightly lower in the mid- to late 1930s compared with wages during the Weimar Republic, while the cost of living increased by 25 per cent. The average workweek increased during the shift to a war economy; by 1939, the average German was working between 47 and 50 hours a week.
Hitler's government sponsored architecture on an immense scale. Albert Speer, instrumental in implementing Hitler's classicist reinterpretation of German culture, was placed in charge of the proposed architectural renovations of Berlin. Despite a threatened multi-nation boycott, Germany hosted the 1936 Olympic Games. Hitler officiated at the opening ceremonies and attended events at both the Winter Games in Garmisch-Partenkirchen and the Summer Games in Berlin.
=== Rearmament and new alliances ===
In a meeting with German military leaders on 3 February 1933, Hitler spoke of "conquest for Lebensraum in the East and its ruthless Germanisation" as his ultimate foreign policy objectives. In March, Prince Bernhard Wilhelm von Bülow, secretary at the Foreign Office (Auswärtiges Amt), issued a statement of major foreign policy aims: Anschluss with Austria, the restoration of Germany's national borders of 1914, rejection of military restrictions under the Treaty of Versailles, the return of the former German colonies in Africa, and a German zone of influence in Eastern Europe. Hitler found Bülow's goals to be too modest. In speeches during this period, he stressed what he termed the peaceful goals of his policies and a willingness to work within international agreements. At the first meeting of his cabinet in 1933, Hitler prioritised military spending over unemployment relief.
Germany withdrew from the League of Nations and the World Disarmament Conference in October 1933. In January 1935, over 90 per cent of the people of the Saarland, then under League of Nations administration, voted to unite with Germany. That March, Hitler announced an expansion of the Wehrmacht to 600,000 members—six times the number permitted by the Versailles Treaty—including development of an air force (Luftwaffe) and an increase in the size of the navy (Kriegsmarine). Britain, France, Italy, and the League of Nations condemned these violations of the Treaty but did nothing to stop it. The Anglo-German Naval Agreement (AGNA) of 18 June allowed German tonnage to increase to 35 per cent of that of the Royal Navy. Hitler called the signing of the AGNA "the happiest day of his life", believing that the agreement marked the beginning of the Anglo-German alliance he had predicted in Mein Kampf. France and Italy were not consulted before the signing, directly undermining the League of Nations and setting the Treaty of Versailles on the path towards irrelevance.
Germany reoccupied the demilitarised zone in the Rhineland in March 1936, in violation of the Versailles Treaty. Hitler also sent troops to Spain to support Francisco Franco and his Nationalist faction during the Spanish Civil War after receiving an appeal for help in July 1936. At the same time, Hitler continued his efforts to create an Anglo-German alliance. In August 1936, in response to a growing economic crisis caused by his rearmament efforts, Hitler ordered Göring to implement a Four Year Plan to prepare Germany for war within the next four years. The plan envisaged an all-out struggle between "Judaeo-Bolshevism" and German Nazism, which in Hitler's view required a committed effort of rearmament regardless of the economic costs.
In October 1936, Count Galeazzo Ciano, foreign minister of Mussolini's government, visited Germany, where he signed a Nine-Point Protocol as an expression of rapprochement and had a personal meeting with Hitler. On 1 November, Mussolini declared an "axis" between Germany and Italy. On 25 November, Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan. Britain, China, Italy, and Poland were also invited to join the Anti-Comintern Pact, but only Italy signed in 1937. Hitler abandoned his plan of an Anglo-German alliance, blaming "inadequate" British leadership. At a meeting in the Reich Chancellery with his foreign ministers and military chiefs that November, Hitler restated his intention of acquiring Lebensraum for the German people. He ordered preparations for war in the East to begin as early as 1938 and no later than 1943. In the event of his death, the conference minutes, recorded as the Hossbach Memorandum, were to be regarded as his "political testament". He felt that a severe decline in living standards in Germany as a result of the economic crisis could only be stopped by military aggression aimed at seizing Austria and Czechoslovakia. Hitler urged quick action before Britain and France gained a permanent lead in the arms race. In early 1938, in the wake of the Blomberg–Fritsch affair, Hitler asserted control of the military-foreign policy apparatus, dismissing Neurath as foreign minister and appointing himself as War Minister. From early 1938 onwards, Hitler was carrying out a foreign policy ultimately aimed at war.
== World War II ==
=== Early diplomatic successes ===
==== Alliance with Japan ====
In February 1938, on the advice of his newly appointed foreign minister, the strongly pro-Japanese Joachim von Ribbentrop, Hitler ended the Sino-German alliance with the Republic of China to instead enter into an alliance with the more modern and powerful Empire of Japan. Hitler announced German recognition of Manchukuo, the Japanese puppet state in Manchuria, and renounced German claims to their former colonies in the Pacific held by Japan. Hitler ordered an end to arms shipments to China and recalled all German officers working with the Chinese Army. In retaliation, Chinese General Chiang Kai-shek cancelled all Sino-German economic agreements, depriving the Germans of many Chinese raw materials.
==== Austria and Czechoslovakia ====
On 12 March 1938, Hitler announced the unification of Austria with Germany in the Anschluss. Hitler then turned his attention to the ethnic German population of the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia. On 28–29 March 1938, Hitler held a series of secret meetings in Berlin with Konrad Henlein of the Sudeten German Party, the largest of the ethnic German parties of the Sudetenland. The men agreed that Henlein would demand increased autonomy for Sudeten Germans from the Czechoslovak government, thus providing a pretext for German military action against Czechoslovakia. In April 1938, Henlein told the foreign minister of Hungary that "whatever the Czech government might offer, he would always raise still higher demands ... he wanted to sabotage an understanding by any means because this was the only method to blow up Czechoslovakia quickly". In private, Hitler considered the Sudeten issue unimportant; his real intention was a war of conquest against Czechoslovakia.
In April, Hitler ordered the OKW to prepare for Fall Grün (Case Green), the code name for an invasion of Czechoslovakia. As a result of intense French and British diplomatic pressure, on 5 September, Czechoslovak President Edvard Beneš unveiled the "Fourth Plan" for constitutional reorganisation of his country, which agreed to most of Henlein's demands for Sudeten autonomy. Henlein's party responded to Beneš' offer by instigating a series of violent clashes with the Czechoslovak police that led to the declaration of martial law in certain Sudeten districts.
Germany was dependent on imported oil; a confrontation with Britain over the Czechoslovak dispute could curtail Germany's oil supplies. This forced Hitler to call off Fall Grün, originally planned for 1 October 1938. On 29 September, Hitler, Neville Chamberlain, Édouard Daladier, and Mussolini attended a one-day conference in Munich that led to the Munich Agreement, which handed over the Sudetenland districts to Germany.
Chamberlain was satisfied with the Munich conference, calling the outcome "peace for our time", while Hitler was angered about the missed opportunity for war in 1938; he expressed his disappointment in a speech on 9 October in Saarbrücken. In Hitler's view, the British-brokered peace, although favourable to the ostensible German demands, was a diplomatic defeat which spurred his intent of limiting British power to pave the way for the eastern expansion of Germany. As a result of the summit, Hitler was selected Time magazine's Man of the Year for 1938. In late 1938 and early 1939, the continuing economic crisis caused by rearmament forced Hitler to make major defence cuts. In his "Export or die" speech of 30 January 1939, he called for an economic offensive to increase German foreign exchange holdings to pay for raw materials such as high-grade iron needed for military weapons.
On 14 March 1939, under threat from Hungary, Slovakia declared independence and received protection from Germany. The next day, in violation of the Munich Agreement and possibly as a result of the deepening economic crisis requiring additional assets, Hitler ordered the Wehrmacht to invade the Czech rump state, and from Prague Castle he proclaimed the territory a German protectorate.
=== Start of World War II ===
In private discussions in 1939, Hitler declared Britain the main enemy to be defeated and that Poland's obliteration was a necessary prelude for that goal. The eastern flank would be secured and land would be added to Germany's Lebensraum. Offended by the British "guarantee" on 31 March 1939 of Polish independence, he said, "I shall brew them a devil's drink". In a speech in Wilhelmshaven for the launch of the battleship Tirpitz on 1 April, he threatened to denounce the Anglo-German Naval Agreement if the British continued to guarantee Polish independence, which he perceived as an "encirclement" policy. Poland was to either become a German satellite state or it would be neutralised to secure the Reich's eastern flank and prevent a possible British blockade.
Hitler initially favoured the idea of a satellite state, but upon its rejection by the Polish government, he decided to invade and made this the main foreign policy goal of 1939. On 3 April, Hitler ordered the military to prepare for Fall Weiss ("Case White"), the plan for invading Poland on 25 August. In a Reichstag speech on 28 April, he renounced both the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact. Historians such as William Carr, Gerhard Weinberg, and Ian Kershaw have argued that one reason for Hitler's rush to war was his fear of an early death. He had repeatedly claimed that he must lead Germany into war before he got too old, as his successors might lack his strength of will. Hitler was concerned that a military attack against Poland could result in a premature war with Britain. Hitler's foreign minister and former Ambassador to London, Joachim von Ribbentrop, assured him that neither Britain nor France would honour its commitments to Poland. Accordingly, on 22 August 1939 Hitler ordered a military mobilisation against Poland.
This plan required tacit Soviet support, and the non-aggression pact (the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact) between Germany and the Soviet Union, led by Joseph Stalin, included a secret agreement to partition Poland between the two countries. Contrary to Ribbentrop's prediction that Britain would sever Anglo-Polish ties, Britain and Poland signed the Anglo-Polish alliance on 25 August 1939. This, along with news from Italy that Mussolini would not honour the Pact of Steel, prompted Hitler to postpone the attack on Poland from 25 August to 1 September. Hitler unsuccessfully tried to manoeuvre the British into neutrality by offering them a non-aggression guarantee on 25 August; he then instructed Ribbentrop to present a last-minute peace plan with an impossibly short time limit in an effort to blame the imminent war on British and Polish inaction.
On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded western Poland under the pretext of having been denied claims to the Free City of Danzig and the right to extraterritorial roads across the Polish Corridor, which Germany had ceded under the Versailles Treaty. In response, Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September, surprising Hitler and prompting him to angrily ask Ribbentrop, "Now what?" Britain and France did not act on their declarations immediately, and on 17 September, Soviet forces invaded eastern Poland.
The fall of Poland was followed by what contemporary journalists dubbed the "Phoney War" or Sitzkrieg ("sitting war"). Hitler instructed the two newly appointed Gauleiters of north-western Poland, Albert Forster of Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia and Arthur Greiser of Reichsgau Wartheland, to Germanise their areas, with "no questions asked" about how this was accomplished. In Forster's area, ethnic Poles merely had to sign forms stating that they had German blood. In contrast, Greiser agreed with Himmler and carried out an ethnic cleansing campaign towards Poles. Greiser soon complained that Forster was allowing thousands of Poles to be accepted as "racial" Germans and thus endangered German "racial purity". Hitler refrained from getting involved. This inaction has been cited as an example of the theory of "working towards the Führer", in which Hitler issued vague instructions and expected his subordinates to develop policies independently.
Another dispute pitched one side represented by Heinrich Himmler and Greiser, who championed ethnic cleansing in Poland, against another represented by Göring and Hans Frank (governor-general of occupied Poland), who called for turning Poland into the "granary" of the Reich. On 12 February 1940, the dispute was initially settled in favour of the Göring–Frank view, which ended the economically disruptive mass expulsions. On 15 May 1940, Himmler issued a memo entitled "Some Thoughts on the Treatment of Alien Population in the East", calling for the expulsion of the entire Jewish population of Europe into Africa and the reduction of the Polish population to a "leaderless class of labourers". Hitler called Himmler's memo "good and correct", and, ignoring Göring and Frank, implemented the Himmler–Greiser policy in Poland.
On 9 April, German forces invaded Denmark and Norway. On the same day Hitler proclaimed the birth of the Greater Germanic Reich, his vision of a united empire of Germanic nations of Europe in which the Dutch, Flemish, and Scandinavians were joined into a "racially pure" polity under German leadership. In May 1940, Germany attacked France, and conquered Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Belgium. These victories prompted Mussolini to have Italy join forces with Hitler on 10 June. France and Germany signed an armistice on 22 June. Kershaw notes that Hitler's popularity within Germany—and German support for the war—reached its peak when he returned to Berlin on 6 July from his tour of Paris. Following the unexpected swift victory, Hitler promoted 12 generals to the rank of field marshal during the 1940 Field Marshal Ceremony.
Britain, whose troops were forced to evacuate France by sea from Dunkirk, continued to fight alongside other British dominions in the Battle of the Atlantic. Hitler made peace overtures to the new British prime minister, Winston Churchill, and upon their rejection, he ordered a series of aerial attacks on Royal Air Force airbases and radar stations in southeast England. On 7 September, the systematic nightly bombing of London began. The German Luftwaffe failed to defeat the Royal Air Force in what became known as the Battle of Britain. By the end of September, Hitler realised that air superiority for the invasion of Britain (in Operation Sea Lion) could not be achieved, and ordered the operation postponed. The nightly air raids on British cities intensified and continued for months, including London, Plymouth, and Coventry.
On 27 September 1940, the Tripartite Pact was signed in Berlin by Saburō Kurusu of Imperial Japan, Hitler, and Italian foreign minister Ciano, and later expanded to include Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria, thus yielding the Axis powers. Hitler's attempt to integrate the Soviet Union into the anti-British bloc failed after inconclusive talks between Hitler and Molotov in Berlin in November, and he ordered preparations for the invasion of the Soviet Union.
In early 1941, German forces were deployed to North Africa, the Balkans, and the Middle East. In February, German forces arrived in Libya to bolster the Italian presence. In April, Hitler launched the invasion of Yugoslavia, quickly followed by the invasion of Greece. In May, German forces were sent to support Iraqi forces fighting against the British and to invade Crete. On 28 November, Hitler met in Berlin with Amin al-Husseini, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem. Hitler framed opposition to a Jewish homeland as part of Germany's broader "struggle against the Jews."
=== Path to defeat ===
On 22 June 1941, contravening the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of 1939, over three million Axis troops attacked the Soviet Union. This offensive (codenamed Operation Barbarossa) was intended to destroy the Soviet Union and seize its natural resources for subsequent aggression against the Western powers. The action was also part of the overall plan to obtain more living space for German people; and Hitler thought a successful invasion would force Britain to negotiate a surrender. The invasion conquered a huge area, including the Baltic republics, Belarus, and West Ukraine. By early August, Axis troops had advanced 500 km (310 miles) and won the Battle of Smolensk. Hitler ordered Army Group Centre to temporarily halt its advance to Moscow and divert its Panzer groups to aid in the encirclement of Leningrad and Kiev. His generals disagreed with this change, having advanced within 400 km (250 miles) of Moscow, and his decision caused a crisis among the military leadership. The pause provided the Red Army with an opportunity to mobilise fresh reserves; the historian Russel Stolfi considers it to be one of the major factors that caused the failure of the Moscow offensive, which was resumed in October 1941 and ended disastrously in December. During this crisis, Hitler appointed himself as head of the Oberkommando des Heeres.
On 7 December 1941, Japan attacked the American fleet based at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Four days later, Hitler declared war against the United States. On 18 December 1941, Himmler asked Hitler, "What to do with the Jews of Russia?", to which Hitler replied, "als Partisanen auszurotten" ("exterminate them as partisans"). The Israeli historian Yehuda Bauer has commented that the remark is probably as close as historians will ever get to a definitive order from Hitler for the genocide carried out during the Holocaust.
In late 1942, German forces were defeated in the Second Battle of El Alamein, thwarting Hitler's plans to seize the Suez Canal and the Middle East. Overconfident in his own military expertise following the earlier victories in 1940, Hitler became distrustful of his Army High Command and began to interfere in military and tactical planning, with damaging consequences. In December 1942 and January 1943, Hitler's repeated refusal to allow their withdrawal at the Battle of Stalingrad led to the almost total destruction of the 6th Army. Over 200,000 Axis soldiers were killed, and 235,000 were taken prisoner. Thereafter came a decisive strategic defeat at the Battle of Kursk. Hitler's military judgement became increasingly erratic, and Germany's military and economic position deteriorated, as did Hitler's health.
Following the Allied invasion of Sicily in 1943, Mussolini was removed from power by King Victor Emmanuel III after a vote of no confidence of the Grand Council of Fascism. Marshal Pietro Badoglio, placed in charge of the government, soon surrendered to the Allies. Throughout 1943 and 1944, the Soviet Union steadily forced Hitler's armies into retreat along the Eastern Front. On 6 June 1944, the Western Allied armies landed in northern France in one of the largest amphibious operations in history, Operation Overlord. Many German officers concluded that defeat was inevitable and that continuing under Hitler's leadership would result in the complete destruction of the country.
Between 1939 and 1945, there were numerous plans to assassinate Hitler, some of which proceeded to significant degrees. The most well-known and significant, the 20 July plot of 1944, came from within Germany and was at least partly driven by the increasing prospect of a German defeat in the war. Part of Operation Valkyrie, the plot involved Claus von Stauffenberg planting a bomb in one of Hitler's headquarters, the Wolf's Lair at Rastenburg. Hitler narrowly survived because the staff officer Heinz Brandt moved the briefcase containing the bomb behind a leg of the heavy conference table, which deflected much of the blast. Later, Hitler ordered reprisals, resulting in the execution of more than 4,900 people. Hitler was put on the United Nations War Crimes Commission's first list of war criminals in December 1944, after determining that Hitler could be held criminally responsible for the acts of the Nazis in occupied countries. By March 1945, at least seven indictments had been filed against him.
=== Defeat and death ===
By late 1944, both the Red Army and the Western Allies were advancing into Germany. Recognising the strength and determination of the Red Army, Hitler decided to use his remaining mobile reserves against the American and British armies, which he perceived as far weaker. On 16 December, he launched the Ardennes Offensive to incite disunity among the Western Allies and perhaps convince them to join his fight against the Soviets. After some temporary successes, the offensive failed. With much of Germany in ruins in January 1945, Hitler spoke on the radio: "However grave as the crisis may be at this moment, it will, despite everything, be mastered by our unalterable will." On 19 March, Hitler commented that the needs of the German population could now be disregarded, because they "had proven to be the weaker, and the future belongs solely to the stronger eastern nation. In any case only those who are inferior will remain after this struggle, for the good have already been killed". The same day, Hitler ordered the destruction of all German industrial infrastructure before it could fall into Allied hands. Minister for Armaments Albert Speer was entrusted with executing this scorched earth policy, but he secretly disobeyed the order. Hitler's hope to negotiate peace with the United States and Britain was encouraged by the death of US President Franklin D. Roosevelt on 12 April 1945, but contrary to his expectations, this caused no rift among the Allies.
On 20 April, his 56th birthday, Hitler made his last trip from the Führerbunker to the surface. In the ruined garden of the Reich Chancellery, he awarded Iron Crosses to boy soldiers of the Hitler Youth, who were now fighting the Red Army at the front near Berlin. By 21 April, Georgy Zhukov's 1st Belorussian Front had broken through the defences of General Gotthard Heinrici's Army Group Vistula during the Battle of the Seelow Heights and advanced to the outskirts of Berlin. In denial about the dire situation, Hitler placed his hopes on the undermanned and under-equipped Armeeabteilung Steiner (Army Detachment Steiner), commanded by Felix Steiner. Hitler ordered Steiner to attack the northern flank of the salient, while the German Ninth Army was ordered to attack northward in a pincer attack.
During a military conference on 22 April, Hitler enquired about Steiner's offensive. He was informed that the attack had not been launched and that the Soviets had entered Berlin. Hitler ordered everyone but Wilhelm Keitel, Alfred Jodl, Hans Krebs, and Wilhelm Burgdorf to leave the room, then launched into a tirade against the perceived treachery and incompetence of his generals, culminating in his declaration—for the first time—that "everything is lost". He announced that he would stay in Berlin until the end and then shoot himself.
By 23 April, the Red Army had surrounded Berlin, and Goebbels made a proclamation urging its citizens to defend the city. That same day, Göring sent a telegram from Berchtesgaden, arguing that as Hitler was isolated in Berlin, Göring should assume leadership of Germany. Göring set a deadline, after which he would consider Hitler incapacitated. Hitler responded by having Göring arrested, and in his last will and testament of 29 April, he removed Göring from all government positions. On 28 April, Hitler discovered that Himmler, who had left Berlin on 20 April, was attempting to negotiate a surrender to the Western Allies. He considered this treason and ordered Himmler's arrest. He also ordered the execution of Hermann Fegelein, Himmler's SS representative at Hitler's headquarters in Berlin, for desertion.
After midnight on the night of 28–29 April, Hitler married Eva Braun in a small civil ceremony in the Führerbunker. Later that afternoon, Hitler was informed that Mussolini had been executed by the Italian resistance movement on the previous day; this is believed to have increased his determination to avoid capture. On 30 April, Soviet troops were within five hundred metres of the Reich Chancellery when Hitler shot himself in the head and Braun bit into a cyanide capsule. In accordance with Hitler's wishes, their corpses were carried outside to the garden behind the Reich Chancellery, where they were placed in a bomb crater, doused with petrol, and set on fire as the Red Army shelling continued. Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz and Goebbels assumed Hitler's roles as head of state and chancellor respectively. On the evening of 1 May, Goebbels and his wife, Magda, committed suicide in the Reich Chancellery garden, after having poisoned their six children with cyanide.
Berlin surrendered on 2 May. The remains of the Goebbels family, General Hans Krebs (who had committed suicide that day), and Hitler's dog Blondi were repeatedly buried and exhumed by the Soviets. Hitler's and Braun's remains were alleged to have been moved as well, but this is most likely Soviet disinformation. There is no evidence that any identifiable remains of Hitler or Braun—with the exception of dental bridges—were ever found by them. While news of Hitler's death spread quickly, a death certificate was not issued until 1956, after a lengthy investigation to collect testimony from 42 witnesses. Hitler's death was entered as an assumption of death based on this testimony.
== The Holocaust ==
If the international Jewish financiers in and outside Europe should succeed in plunging the nations once more into a world war, then the result will not be the Bolshevisation of the earth, and thus the victory of Jewry, but the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe!
The Holocaust and Germany's war in the East were based on Hitler's long-standing view that the Jews were the enemy of the German people, and that Lebensraum was needed for Germany's expansion. He focused on Eastern Europe for this expansion, aiming to defeat Poland and the Soviet Union and then removing or killing the Jews and Slavs. The Generalplan Ost (General Plan East) called for deporting the population of occupied Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to West Siberia, for use as slave labour or to be murdered; the conquered territories were to be colonised by German or "Germanised" settlers. The goal was to implement this plan after the conquest of the Soviet Union, but when this failed, Hitler moved the plans forward. By January 1942, he had decided that the Jews, Slavs, and other deportees considered undesirable should be killed.
The genocide was organised and executed by Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich. The records of the Wannsee Conference, held on 20 January 1942 and led by Heydrich, with 15 senior Nazi officials participating, provide the clearest evidence of systematic planning for the Holocaust. On 22 February, Hitler was recorded saying, "we shall regain our health only by eliminating the Jews". Similarly, at a meeting in July 1941 with leading functionaries of the Eastern territories, Hitler said that the easiest way to quickly pacify the areas would be best achieved by "shooting everyone who even looks odd". Although no direct order from Hitler authorising the mass killings has surfaced, his public speeches, orders to his generals, and the diaries of Nazi officials demonstrate that he conceived and authorised the extermination of European Jewry. During the war, Hitler repeatedly stated his prophecy of 1939 was being fulfilled, namely, that a world war would bring about the annihilation of the Jewish race. Hitler approved the Einsatzgruppen—killing squads that followed the German army through Poland, the Baltic, and the Soviet Union—and was well informed about their activities. By summer 1942, Auschwitz concentration camp was expanded to accommodate large numbers of deportees for murder or enslavement. Scores of other concentration camps and satellite camps were set up throughout Europe, with several camps devoted exclusively to extermination.
Between 1939 and 1945, the Schutzstaffel (SS), assisted by collaborationist governments and recruits from occupied countries, were responsible for the deaths of at least 11 million non-combatants, including the murders of about six million Jews (representing two-thirds of the Jewish population of Europe), and between 200,000 and 1,500,000 Romani people. The victims were killed in concentration and extermination camps and in ghettos, and through mass shootings. Many victims of the Holocaust were murdered in gas chambers or shot, while others died of starvation or disease or while working as slave labourers. In addition to eliminating Jews, the Nazis planned to reduce the population of the conquered territories by 30 million people through starvation in an action called the Hunger Plan. Food supplies would be diverted to the German army and German civilians. Cities would be razed, and the land allowed to return to forest or resettled by German colonists. Together, the Hunger Plan and Generalplan Ost would have led to the starvation of 80 million people in the Soviet Union. These partially fulfilled plans resulted in additional deaths, bringing the total number of civilians and prisoners of war who died in the democide to an estimated 19.3 million people.
Hitler's policies resulted in the killing of nearly two million non-Jewish Polish civilians, over three million Soviet prisoners of war, communists and other political opponents, homosexuals, the physically and mentally disabled, Jehovah's Witnesses, Adventists, and trade unionists. Hitler never spoke publicly about the killings and seems to have never visited the concentration camps. The Nazis embraced the concept of racial hygiene. On 15 September 1935, Hitler presented two laws—known as the Nuremberg Laws—to the Reichstag. The laws banned sexual relations and marriages between Aryans and Jews and were later extended to include "Gypsies, Negroes or their bastard offspring". The laws stripped all non-Aryans of their German citizenship and forbade the employment of non-Jewish women under the age of 45 in Jewish households. Hitler's early eugenic policies targeted children with physical and developmental disabilities in a programme dubbed Action Brandt, and he later authorised a euthanasia programme for adults with serious mental and physical disabilities, now referred to as Aktion T4.
== Leadership style ==
Hitler ruled the Nazi Party autocratically by asserting the Führerprinzip (leader principle). The principle relied on absolute obedience of all subordinates to their superiors; thus, he viewed the government structure as a pyramid, with himself—the infallible leader—at the apex. Rank in the party was not determined by elections—positions were filled through appointment by those of higher rank, who demanded unquestioning obedience to the will of the leader. Hitler's leadership style was to give contradictory orders to his subordinates and to place them into positions where their duties and responsibilities overlapped with those of others, to have "the stronger one [do] the job". In this way, Hitler fostered distrust, competition, and infighting among his subordinates to consolidate and maximise his own power. His cabinet never met after 1938, and he discouraged his ministers from meeting independently. Hitler typically did not give written orders; instead, he communicated verbally, or had them conveyed through his close associate Martin Bormann. He entrusted Bormann with his paperwork, appointments, and personal finances; Bormann used his position to control the flow of information and access to Hitler.
Hitler dominated his country's war effort during World War II to a greater extent than any other national leader. He strengthened his control of the armed forces in 1938, and subsequently made all major decisions regarding Germany's military strategy. His decision to mount a risky series of offensives against Norway, France, and the Low Countries in 1940 against the advice of the military proved successful, though the diplomatic and military strategies he employed in attempts to force the United Kingdom out of the war ended in failure. Hitler deepened his involvement in the war effort by appointing himself commander-in-chief of the Army in December 1941; from this point forward, he personally directed the war against the Soviet Union, while his military commanders facing the Western Allies retained a degree of autonomy. Hitler's leadership became increasingly disconnected from reality as the war turned against Germany, with the military's defensive strategies often hindered by his slow decision-making and frequent directives to hold untenable positions. Nevertheless, he continued to believe that only his leadership could deliver victory. In the final months of the war, Hitler refused to consider peace negotiations, regarding the destruction of Germany as preferable to surrender. The military did not challenge Hitler's dominance of the war effort, and senior officers generally supported and enacted his decisions.
== Personal life ==
=== Family ===
Hitler created a public image as a celibate man without a domestic life, dedicated entirely to his political mission and the nation. He met his lover, Eva Braun, in 1929, and married her on 29 April 1945, one day before they both committed suicide. In September 1931, his half-niece, Geli Raubal, committed suicide with Hitler's gun in his Munich apartment. It was rumoured among contemporaries that Geli was in a romantic relationship with him, and her death was a source of deep, lasting pain. Paula Hitler, the younger sister of Hitler and the last living member of his immediate family, died in June 1960.
=== Views on religion ===
Hitler was born to a practising Catholic mother and an anti-clerical father; after leaving home, Hitler never again attended Mass or received the sacraments. Albert Speer states that Hitler railed against the church to his political associates, and though he never officially left the church, he had no attachment to it. He adds that Hitler felt that in the absence of organised religion, people would turn to mysticism, which he considered regressive. According to Speer, Hitler believed that Japanese religious beliefs or Islam would have been a more suitable religion for Germans than Christianity, with its "meekness and flabbiness". The historian John S. Conway states that Hitler was fundamentally opposed to the Christian churches. According to Bullock, Hitler did not believe in God, was anticlerical, and held Christian ethics in contempt because they contravened his preferred view of "survival of the fittest". He favoured aspects of Protestantism that suited his own views, and adopted some elements of the Catholic Church's hierarchical organisation, liturgy, and phraseology. In a 1932 speech, Hitler stated that he was not a Catholic, and declared himself a German Christian. In a conversation with Albert Speer, Hitler said, "Through me the Evangelical Church could become the established church, as in England."
Hitler viewed the church as an important politically conservative influence on society, and he adopted a strategic relationship with it that "suited his immediate political purposes". In public, Hitler often praised Christian heritage and German Christian culture, though professing a belief in an "Aryan Jesus" who fought against the Jews. Privately, he described Christianity as "absurdity" and nonsense founded on lies.
According to a US Office of Strategic Services (OSS) report, "The Nazi Master Plan", Hitler planned to destroy the influence of Christian churches within the Reich. His eventual goal was the total elimination of Christianity. This goal informed Hitler's movement early on, but he saw it as inexpedient to publicly express this extreme position. According to Bullock, Hitler wanted to wait until after the war before executing this plan. Speer wrote that Hitler had a negative view of Himmler's and Alfred Rosenberg's mystical notions and Himmler's attempt to mythologise the SS. Hitler was more pragmatic, and his ambitions centred on more practical concerns.
=== Health ===
Researchers have variously suggested that Hitler suffered from irritable bowel syndrome, skin lesions, irregular heartbeat, coronary sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, syphilis, giant-cell arteritis, tinnitus, and monorchism.
In a report prepared for the OSS in 1943, Walter Charles Langer of Harvard University described Hitler as a "neurotic psychopath" and speculated that he exhibited masochistic tendencies and deep feelings of self-loathing, which he projected onto others, particularly Jews.
In his 1977 book The Psychopathic God: Adolf Hitler, the historian Robert G. L. Waite proposes that Hitler suffered from borderline personality disorder. The historians Henrik Eberle and Hans-Joachim Neumann consider that while he suffered from a number of illnesses including Parkinson's disease, Hitler did not experience pathological delusions and was always fully aware of, and therefore responsible for, his decisions.
Sometime in the 1930s, Hitler adopted a mainly vegetarian diet, avoiding all meat and fish from 1942 onwards. At social events, he sometimes gave graphic accounts of the slaughter of animals in an effort to make his guests shun meat. Bormann had a greenhouse constructed near the Berghof (near Berchtesgaden) to ensure a steady supply of fresh fruit and vegetables for Hitler. Hitler stopped drinking alcohol around the time he became vegetarian and thereafter only very occasionally drank beer or wine on social occasions. He was a non-smoker for most of his adult life, but smoked heavily in his youth (25 to 40 cigarettes a day); he eventually quit, calling the habit "a waste of money". He encouraged his close associates to quit by offering a gold watch to anyone able to break the habit. Hitler began using amphetamine occasionally after 1937 and became addicted to it in late 1942. Speer linked this use of amphetamine to Hitler's increasingly erratic behaviour and inflexible decision-making (for example, rarely allowing military retreats).
Prescribed 90 medications during the war years by his personal physician, Theodor Morell, Hitler took many pills each day for chronic stomach problems and other ailments. He regularly consumed amphetamine, barbiturates, opiates, and cocaine, as well as potassium bromide and atropa belladonna (the latter in the form of Doktor Koster's Antigaspills). He suffered ruptured eardrums as a result of the 20 July plot bomb blast in 1944, and 200 wood splinters had to be removed from his legs. Newsreel footage of Hitler shows tremors in his left hand and a shuffling walk, which began before the war and worsened towards the end of his life. Ernst-Günther Schenck and several other doctors who met Hitler in the last weeks of his life also formed a diagnosis of Parkinson's disease.
== Legacy ==
According to the historian Joachim Fest, Hitler's suicide was likened by numerous contemporaries to a "spell" being broken. Similarly, Speer commented in Inside the Third Reich on his emotions the day after Hitler's suicide: "Only now was the spell broken, the magic extinguished." Public support for Hitler had collapsed by the time of his death, which few Germans mourned; Kershaw argues that most civilians and military personnel were too busy adjusting to the collapse of the country or fleeing from the fighting to take any interest. According to the historian John Toland, Nazism "burst like a bubble" without its leader.
Kershaw describes Hitler as "the embodiment of modern political evil". "Never in history has such ruination—physical and moral—been associated with the name of one man", he adds. Hitler's political programme brought about a world war, leaving behind a devastated and impoverished Eastern and Central Europe. Germany suffered wholesale destruction, characterised as Stunde Null (Zero Hour). Hitler's policies inflicted human suffering on an unprecedented scale; according to R. J. Rummel, the Nazi regime was responsible for the democidal killing of an estimated 19.3 million civilians and prisoners of war. In addition, 28.7 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European theatre of World War II. The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in the history of warfare. Historians, philosophers, and politicians often use the word "evil" to describe the Nazi regime. Many European countries have criminalised both the promotion of Nazism and Holocaust denial.
The historian Friedrich Meinecke described Hitler as "one of the great examples of the singular and incalculable power of personality in historical life". The English historian Hugh Trevor-Roper saw him as "among the 'terrible simplifiers' of history, the most systematic, the most historical, the most philosophical, and yet the coarsest, cruelest, least magnanimous conqueror the world has ever known". For the historian John M. Roberts, Hitler's defeat marked the end of a phase of European history dominated by Germany. In its place emerged the Cold War, a global confrontation between the Western Bloc, dominated by the United States and other NATO nations, and the Eastern Bloc, dominated by the Soviet Union. The historian Sebastian Haffner asserted that without Hitler and the displacement of the Jews, the modern nation-state of Israel would not exist. He contends that without Hitler, the de-colonisation of former European spheres of influence would have been postponed. Further, Haffner claimed that other than Alexander the Great, Hitler had a more significant impact than any other comparable historical figure, in that he too caused a wide range of worldwide changes in a relatively short time span.
=== In propaganda ===
Hitler exploited documentary films and newsreels to inspire a cult of personality. He was involved and appeared in a series of propaganda films throughout his political career, many made by Leni Riefenstahl, regarded as a pioneer of modern filmmaking. Hitler's propaganda film appearances include:
Der Sieg des Glaubens (Victory of Faith, 1933)
Triumph des Willens (Triumph of the Will, 1935)
Tag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht (Day of Freedom: Our Armed Forces, 1935)
Olympia (1938) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplifier_(Dance_Exponents_album)#Track_listing | Amplifier (Dance Exponents album)#Track listing | Amplifier is the third studio album by the New Zealand band Dance Exponents (later known as The Exponents), released in November 1986. The album peaked at #18 and spent four weeks on the New Zealand Album Chart. The CD version was released in 1992 with an alternative cover and two additional tracks but has since been deleted. In May 2013, Universal Music re-released the album digitally for the first time in New Zealand in a remastered extended edition. The extended edition has the original LP cover and running order and adds three additional tracks, two from the CD release and one additional B-side. It also restores "Worldwide Wireless" to its full length after it was edited for the CD release.
== Track listing ==
"Time X Space" (Sheehan/Dance Exponents)
"Only I Could Die (And Love You Still)" (Luck/Sheehan)
"Sex And Agriculture" (Jones/Luck)
"Halcyon Rain" (Cowan/Luck)
"Brodelia The Cat" (Luck)
"Birth Of The Reds" (Luck/Sheehan)
"As I Love You" (Jones/Luck/Sheehan)
"Worldwide Wireless" (Fitzgerald/Gent/Jones/Luck/Sheehan)
"Caroline Skies" (Luck/Dance Exponents)
Additional tracks on 2013 digital extended edition:
"Victoria" (Luck)
"Brand New Doll" (Luck)
"One Sad River" (Luck)
== Band members ==
Jordan Luck (vocals)
Brian Jones (guitar/vocals)
David Gent (bass guitar)
Chris Sheehan (guitars)
Eddie Olson (drums/vocals)
== Credits ==
Co-produced by John Jansen and Doug Rogers
Recorded and mixed by Doug Rogers, Rhys Moody and John Jansen
Assistant engineer - Nelson Ayres
Recorded at Harlequin Studios, Auckland, New Zealand
Mixed at The House Of Music, New York
== Charts == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glastonbury_Festival | Glastonbury Festival | The Glastonbury Festival of Contemporary Performing Arts (commonly referred to as simply Glastonbury Festival, known colloquially as Glasto) is a five-day festival of contemporary performing arts held near Pilton, Somerset, England, in most summers.
In addition to contemporary music, the festival hosts dance, comedy, theatre, circus, cabaret and other arts. Leading pop and rock artists have headlined, alongside thousands of others appearing on smaller stages and performance areas. Films and albums have been recorded at the festival, and it receives extensive television and newspaper coverage.
Glastonbury takes place on 1,500 acres (610 ha) of farmland and is attended by around 200,000 people, requiring extensive security, transport, water, and electricity-supply infrastructure. While the number of attendees is sometimes swollen by gatecrashers, a record of 300,000 people was set at the 1994 festival, headlined by the Levellers, who performed on the Pyramid Stage. Most festival staff are unpaid volunteers, helping the festival to raise millions of pounds for charity organisations.
Regarded as a major event in contemporary British culture, the festival is inspired by the ethos of the hippie, the counterculture of the 1960s, and the free festival movement. Vestiges of these traditions are retained in the Green Fields area, which includes sections known as the Green Futures, the Stone Circle and Healing Field. Michael Eavis hosted the first festival, then called the Pilton Festival, after seeing an open-air Led Zeppelin concert in 1970 at the Bath Festival of Blues and Progressive Music.
== History ==
=== 1970 ===
The first festival at Worthy Farm was the Pop, Blues & Folk Festival, hosted by Michael Eavis on Saturday 19 September 1970, and attended by 1,500 people. There had been a commercial UK festival tradition which included the National Jazz and Blues Festival and the Isle of Wight Festival. Eavis decided to host the first festival after seeing an open-air concert headlined by Led Zeppelin at the 1970 Bath Festival of Blues and Progressive Music at the nearby Bath and West Showground in 1970.
The original headline acts were The Kinks and Wayne Fontana and the Mindbenders but these acts were replaced at short notice by Tyrannosaurus Rex, later known as T. Rex. Tickets were £1 (equivalent to £19.77 in 2025). Other billed acts of note were Steamhammer, Quintessence, Stackridge, Al Stewart, Pink Fairies and Keith Christmas.
=== 1971 ===
The "Glastonbury Fair" of 1971 was instigated by Andrew Kerr after being found and introduced to Michael Eavis by David Trippas, and organised with the help of Arabella Churchill, Jean Bradbery, Kikan Eriksdotter, John Massara, Jeff Dexter, Thomas Crimble, Bill Harkin, Gilberto Gil, Mark Irons, John Coleman, and Jytte Klamer. The 1971 festival featured the first incarnation of the "Pyramid Stage". Conceived by Bill Harkin the stage was a one-tenth replica of the Great Pyramid of Giza built from scaffolding and metal sheeting and positioned over a "blind spring", a term used to describe a hypothetical underground body of water in the pseudoscientific practice of dowsing.
Performers included Family, David Bowie, Mighty Baby, Traffic, Fairport Convention, Gong, Hawkwind, Pink Fairies, Skin Alley, The Worthy Farm Windfuckers and Melanie. It was paid for by its supporters and advocates of its ideal, and embraced a medieval tradition of music, dance, poetry, theatre, lights, and spontaneous entertainment. The 1971 festival was filmed by Nicolas Roeg and David Puttnam with Eavis and Kerr's Glastonbury Fair changed to Glastonbury Fayre, and a triple album of the same name was released (no connection with the film).
=== 1979 ===
There was a small unplanned event in 1978, when the convoy of vehicles from the Stonehenge festival was directed by police to Worthy Farm; the festival was then revived the following year (1979) by Churchill, Crimble, Kerr and Eavis, in an event for the Year of the Child, which lost money.
=== 1980s ===
The 1980s saw the festival become an annual fixture, barring periodic fallow years. In 1981, Michael Eavis took back sole control of the festival, and it was organised in conjunction with the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND). That year a new Pyramid Stage was constructed from telegraph poles and metal sheeting (repurposed from materials of the Ministry of Defence), a permanent structure which doubled as a hay barn and cowshed during the winter.
In the 1980s, the children's area of the festival (which had been organised by Arabella Churchill and others) became the starting point for a new children's charity called Children's World. 1981 was the first year that the festival made profits, and Eavis donated £20,000 of them to CND (equivalent to £73,789 in 2023). In the following years, donations were made to a number of organisations, and since the end of the Cold War the main beneficiaries have been Oxfam, Greenpeace and WaterAid, who all contribute towards the festival by providing features and volunteers, who work at the festival in exchange for free entry.
It also saw the first TV coverage, with ITV broadcasting recorded highlights in the weeks after the festival.
Since 1983, large festivals have required licences from local authorities. This led to certain restrictions being placed on the festival, including a crowd limit and specified times during which the stages could operate. The crowd limit was initially set at 30,000 but has grown every year to over 100,000. 1984 saw the stage invaded by fans during The Smiths' set. Weather Report played the main stage, and Elvis Costello headlined the last night for almost three hours. In 1985, the festival grew too large for Worthy Farm, but neighbouring Cockmill Farm was purchased. That year saw a wet festival with considerable rain; Worthy Farm is a dairy farm and what washed down into the low areas was a mixture of mud and liquefied cow dung. This did not prevent festival goers from enjoying the knee-deep slurry in front of the Pyramid Stage.
1989 was the first year that impromptu, unofficial sound systems sprang up around the festival site – a portent of things to come. These sound systems would play loud, electronic acid house music around the clock, with the largest, the Hypnosis sound system, rivalling the volume of some of the official stages and running non-stop throughout the festival.
=== 1990s ===
Following the 1990 festival, violence flared between security guards and new age travellers in what became known as "The Battle of Yeoman's Bridge". Eavis was also facing increasing battles from locals over the festival, with no festival taking place in 1991. Both pressures are captured in the 1992 Channel 4 documentary Showdown at Glastonbury.
An expanded festival returned in 1992, and this proved a great success. 1992 was the first year that the new age travellers were not initially allowed onto the site free, and a sturdier fence was designed. This success was carried through to 1993 which, like 1992, was hot and dry.
In 1994, the Pyramid Stage burned down just over a week before the festival; a temporary main stage was erected in time for the festival. The 1994 festival also introduced a 150 kW wind turbine which provided some of the festival power. Headliners Levellers set another record when they played to a crowd of as many as 300,000 people on their Friday performance, Glastonbury's biggest ever crowd as of 2010.
Channel 4 televised the festival that same year; the coverage concentrated on the main two music stages and providing a glimpse of the festival for those who knew little of it. Channel 4's 4 Goes to Glastonbury brought widely expanded televised coverage of the festival for the first time in 1994 and also the following year.
The TV broadcast in 1994 was a crucial factor in ensuring that Orbital's performance at the festival achieved legendary status. As a result, living rooms across the country were able to experience what a rave might look like, and suddenly dance music, which had been ignored by the establishment and mainstream press for years, did not seem so dangerous and which would be a turning point for the music at Glastonbury. Speaking to The Guardian in 2013 about the Orbital gig, Michael Eavis noted that it marked dance music's appearance on the mainstream agenda. "What was previously underground made it on to one of the big stages, and there was no going back from there. As the police and the council made me very well aware, the buzz had been around the raves and the market sound systems and in the travellers' fields for years. But it needed a showcase to make it legal." The gig opened the way for others such as the Chemical Brothers, Massive Attack and Underworld, who all played high-profile stages in the following years – developments that led to the launch of the festival's Dance Village in 1997.
1995 saw the attendance rise drastically due to the security fence being breached on the Friday of the festival. Estimates suggest there may have been enough fence-jumpers to double the size of the festival. This aside, 1995 proved to be a highly successful year with memorable performances from Oasis, Elastica, Pulp, PJ Harvey, Jeff Buckley, Jamiroquai and The Cure. This was also the first year of the festival having a dance tent to cater for the rising popularity of dance music, following the success of Orbital's headline appearance the previous year. The dance acts of 1995 were led by Massive Attack on the Friday and Carl Cox on the Saturday. The festival took a year off in 1996 to allow the land to recover and give the organisers a break. 1996 also saw the release of Glastonbury the Movie which was filmed at the 1993 and 1994 festivals.
The festival returned in 1997. This time there was major sponsorship from The Guardian and the BBC, who had taken over televising the event from Channel 4. This was also the year of the mud, with the site suffering severe rainfalls which turned the entire site into a muddy bog. However, those who stayed for the festival were treated to many memorable performances, including Radiohead's headlining Pyramid Stage set on the Saturday which is said to be one of the greatest ever Glastonbury performances. The live recording of "Paranoid Android" from this performance, as well as others such as "The Day Before Yesterday's Man" by The Supernaturals, were released on a BBC CD entitled Mud For It.
In 1998, the festival was once again struck with severe floods and storms, and again some festival goers departed early – but those who stayed were treated to performances from acts such as Pulp, Robbie Williams and Blur. Tony Bennett, however, overcame the messy environment in an immaculate, blue lounge suit and tie. 1998 was also the first year that attendance officially broke the 100,000 mark.
Another hot dry year was recorded in 1999, much to the relief of organisers and festival goers. The festival was again overcrowded due to fence-jumpers, but this would not prove to be a major problem until the following year, when an additional 100,000 people gatecrashed the site, increasing the attendance to an estimated 250,000 people total. The 1999 festival is also remembered for the Manic Street Preachers requesting and being given their own backstage toilets; however, it was revealed by the band that this was a joke – the "reserved" sign on the toilet was not at the authorisation of the management.
Speaking to the BBC in 2024, Michael Eavis' daughter Emily explained that her parents always planned to close the festival when they reached retirement age, with many of the festivals in the 1990s being "the last one". The death of Michael Eavis' wife Jean in 1999 persuaded him to continue organising the festival.
=== 2000s ===
A new Pyramid Stage was introduced in 2000. Other new areas included The Glade and The Left Field. The festival was headlined by Chemical Brothers, Travis and David Bowie, who played thirty years after his first appearance. The Pyramid Stage also hosted an unusual event on the Saturday morning, with the wedding of two festivalgoers, who had written to the organisers asking for permission to get married there, taking place and conducted by actor Keith Allen in front of a small group of friends and any other festivalgoers who still happened to be awake. This year also saw an estimated 250,000 people attend the festival (only 100,000 tickets were sold) due to gatecrashers. This led to public safety concerns and the local District Council refused any further licences until the problem was solved.
The organisers used the scheduled fallow year 2001 to devise anti-gatecrashing measures and secure the future of the festival, after the Roskilde Festival 2000 accident. It was at this point that the Mean Fiddler Organisation was invited to help.
In 2002 the festival returned, with the controversial Mean Fiddler now handling the logistics and security – especially installing a substantial surrounding fence (dubbed the "superfence") that reduced numbers to the levels of a decade earlier. 2002 also saw Coldplay headline the Pyramid Stage for the first time while the show was closed by a set from Rod Stewart on the Sunday night.
There were some criticisms of the 2002 festival that it lacked atmosphere, because of the reduced number of people, which reflected the smaller numbers jumping the fence. The number of tickets was increased to 150,000 for 2003 which sold out within one day of going on sale, in marked contrast to the two months it took to sell 140,000 in 2002. It was also the first year that tickets sold out before the full line-up was announced. This was also the year Radiohead returned to headline the Pyramid Stage. Revenue raised for good causes from ticket and commercial licence sales topped £1 million, half of which went to Oxfam, Greenpeace and Water Aid.
In 2004, tickets sold out within 24 hours amid much controversy over the ticket ordering process, which left potential festival goers trying for hours to connect to the overloaded telephone and internet sites. The website got two million attempted connections within the first five minutes of the tickets going on sale and an average of 2,500 people on the phone lines every minute. The festival was not hit by extreme weather, but high winds on the Wednesday delayed entry, and steady rain throughout Saturday turned some areas of the site to mud. The festival ended with Muse headlining the Pyramid Stage on Sunday, after Oasis had headlined on Friday. Franz Ferdinand and Sir Paul McCartney also performed. In the British press publications appeared about the use of psychedelic drugs by festival visitors. The magazine NME pronounced that 2004 would be "the third summer of love" due to the resurgence of the "shroom" that was praised as a natural alternative to ecstasy, which was said to be declining in popularity (LSD fuelled the first summer of love in 1967; ecstasy and LSD the second in 1988).
After the 2004 festival, Michael Eavis commented that 2006 would be a year off – in keeping with the previous history of taking one "fallow year" in every five to give the villagers and surrounding areas a rest from the yearly disruption. This was confirmed after the licence for 2005 was granted.
In 2005 the 112,500 ticket quota sold out rapidly – in this case in 3 hours 20 minutes. For 2005, the enclosed area of the festival was over 900 acres (3.6 km2), had over 385 live performances, and was attended by around 150,000 people. The Sunday headliner was originally scheduled to be Kylie Minogue, but she had to pull out in May after being diagnosed with breast cancer. Basement Jaxx were announced as a replacement on 6 June. Both Coldplay and Basement Jaxx performed a cover of Kylie's "Can't Get You Out Of My Head" during their concert. 2005 saw a big increase in the number of dance music attractions, with the multiple tents of the Dance Village replacing the solitary dance tent of previous years. This new area contained the East and West dance tents, the Dance Lounge, Roots Stage and Pussy Parlour, as well as a relocated G Stage, formerly situated in the Glade. The introduction of the silent disco by festival organiser Emily Eavis allowed revellers to party into the early hours without disturbing the locals – a requirement of the festival's licensing. Following the death of DJ John Peel in the autumn of 2004, the New Tent was renamed the John Peel Tent, in homage to his encouragement and love of new bands at Glastonbury. The opening day of the 2005 festival was delayed by heavy rain and thunderstorms: Several stages, including the Acoustic Tent (and one of the bars), were struck by lightning, and the valley was hit with flash floods that left some areas of the site under more than four feet of water. The severity of the weather flooded several campsites, the worst affected being the base of Pennard Hill, and seriously disrupted site services. However, Mendip District Council's review of the festival called it one of the "safest ever" and gives the festival a glowing report in how it dealt with the floods.
There was no festival in 2006. Glastonbury 2007 (20–24 June) was headlined by Arctic Monkeys, The Killers, and The Who on Friday, Saturday and Sunday, respectively. Dame Shirley Bassey was also featured. In 2007, over 700 acts played on more than 80 stages and the capacity expanded by 20,000 to 177,000. This was the first year that "The Park" area opened. Designed by Emily Eavis, its main stage featured extra sets by several artists playing on the main stages including Spinal Tap, Pete Doherty and Gruff Rhys, whilst the BBC launched their new "Introducing" stage in the area. The festival had the largest attendance since the construction of the security fence, and the largest legitimate attendance to date: ticket allocation was raised by 27,500 to 137,500, which were charged at £145 and sold out in 1 hour 45 minutes. As an extra precaution against touts (scalpers), purchasers had to pre-register, including submission of a passport photo which was security printed into the ticket. Continued periods of rain throughout much of the festival caused muddy conditions, though without the flooding of 2005, in part due to the new £750,000 flood defences. However, this constant rain made the general conditions within the site worse than 2 years before and more like the mud plains of 1998. It was difficult to find anywhere to sit down that had not turned to mud and key choke points, such as the thoroughfare at the front right of the Pyramid Stage, turned into a quagmire. Muddy conditions on the temporary roads on the periphery of the site led to delays for people leaving the site.
On 25 June, when the vast majority of festival goers were attempting to leave the festival, cars in the western car parks took more than nine hours to exit the site. There was no stewarding provision in these areas, no information was disseminated regarding the delays, no organised marshalling of traffic was undertaken by the festival organisers, and no provision of drinking water was made to people stranded in their vehicles. Verbal and physical violence was witnessed between festival goers. When cars were finally allowed to leave the site the surrounding roads were found to be clear. Reported crime was down from 2005 but the number of arrests were "well up", after a proactive operation of the police and security on site. There were 236 reported crimes, down from 267 in 2005; of these, 158 were drug related (183 in 2005). 1,200 people required medical aid with 32 hospitalised, most of which were accidents caused by the mud. There was one fatality: a West Midlands man found unconscious early on the Saturday morning died in Yeovil District Hospital of a suspected drugs overdose.
On 20 December 2007, Arabella Churchill, an instrumental figure in the conception of the 1971 festival and since the 1980s area coordinator of the Theatre Field, died at St Edmund's Cottages, Bove Town, Glastonbury at the age of 58. She had suffered a short illness due to pancreatic cancer, for which she had refused chemotherapy and radiotherapy. She was a convert to Buddhism, and arrangements following her death respected her belief. Michael Eavis, paying tribute to her after her death, said "Her vitality and great sense of morality and social responsibility have given her a place in our festival history second to none".
The Glastonbury Festival 2008 was held on 27, 28 and 29 June, headlined by Kings of Leon, Jay-Z and The Verve on Friday, Saturday and Sunday, respectively, with other notable acts including Neil Diamond, Shakin' Stevens, Levellers, and Stackridge, who opened the first festival in 1970. Continuing the procedure introduced in 2007, ticket buyers had to pre-register and submit a passport photo between 1 February and 14 March to buy tickets which went on sale at 9 am on Sunday 6 April. Following 40,000 tickets not being sold, the pre-registration process was reopened on 8 April. Several reasons have been cited for this, including the poor weather of the previous four years and the controversial choice of featuring the hip hop artist, Jay-Z, as a headlining act. A day before the festival began, Michael Eavis announced that there were still around 3,000 tickets remaining, making it possible that it would be the first festival in 15 years not to sell out in advance. It had also been announced that any remaining tickets would be sold from major branches of HMV.
2008 saw the introduction of a new field adjacent to the Sacred space and Park Stage. Not named by the organisers, the festival goers themselves called it "Flagtopia" in reference to the flags located there. After the huge number of tents left behind in 2007 and when one of Michael Eavis's cows died after ingesting a metal tent-peg left in the soil, the Festival devised its Love the Farm, Leave No Trace campaign which gently pushed revellers to respect the environment and clear up after themselves. The Festival had always pushed a green agenda and new initiatives in 2008 included biodegradable tent pegs handed out free to all campers and biotractors running on waste vegetable oil. These new efforts were rewarded with The Greener Festival Award for 2008 alongside a number of other festivals also committed to environmentally friendly music festivals. The 2008 festival was reported to have cost £22 million to produce.
The Glastonbury Festival 2009 took place between 24 and 28 June 2009. In marked contrast with previous years, the 137,500 tickets went on sale on 5 October 2008, earlier than ever before, with pre-registered customers able either to pay in full, or place a £50 reserve deposit to be paid by 1 February. Tickets for the festival sold out. The full line up was released on 25 May 2009 and included headliners Blur, Bruce Springsteen and Neil Young on the Pyramid Stage. The Other stage was headlined by The Prodigy, Bloc Party and Franz Ferdinand. Other notable performers included Jarvis Cocker, Fairport Convention (who played at the first Glastonbury Festival), Tom Jones, Steel Pulse, Doves, Lady Gaga, Jason Mraz, Nick Cave, Pete Doherty, Hugh Cornwell, Status Quo, The Gaslight Anthem (in which Springsteen appeared on stage during their song "The '59 Sound"), Madness, Dizzee Rascal, Crosby, Stills & Nash, Lily Allen, Kasabian and Florence and the Machine.
=== 2010s ===
The Glastonbury Festival 2010 took place between 23 and 28 June. On the last night, Michael Eavis appeared on the main stage with headline artist Stevie Wonder to sing the chorus of the latter's "Happy Birthday", marking the festival's 40th year. Tickets went on sale on 4 October 2009, using the same £50 deposit scheme introduced the previous year; unlike the previous two years, and more in common with earlier festivals, the tickets for the 2010 edition sold out in less than 24 hours. U2 were due to headline the Pyramid Stage on Friday night at Glastonbury 2010, but due to frontman Bono sustaining a back injury they were forced to pull out. According to the media, Bono was "gutted", even having written a song especially for the festival. Damon Albarn's Gorillaz replaced U2, and joined Muse and Stevie Wonder for the Saturday and Sunday headline slots respectively. It was Albarn's second headlining act in two years. Pet Shop Boys returned after 10 years to headline the Other Stage on the Saturday Night. The entire stage set from their Pandemonium Tour was brought in for the performance which was extremely well received. Radiohead's Thom Yorke and Jonny Greenwood made a surprise appearance with a nine-song set. The weather at the festival was among some of the best ever, the festival-goers enjoying 3 days of abundant sunshine and very warm to hot temperatures, which reached close to 30 degrees on the Sunday; it was the first rain-free festival since 2002 and the hottest since the festival began.
During 2010 Michael Eavis received a donation from British Waterways of timber from the old gates at Caen Hill Locks in Wiltshire. This was used to construct a new bridge which was dedicated to the memory of Arabella Churchill. The following year more of the redundant lock gates were used to build the Campo Pequeno amphitheatre.
The Glastonbury Festival 2011 took place from Wednesday 22 until Sunday 26 June 2011. The tickets were sold out within 4 hours of going on sale on Sunday 3 October 2010. Headline acts for 2011 were U2 on the Friday night, Coldplay on the Saturday and Beyoncé on Sunday. This made Beyoncé the first woman to headline at the festival since 1999.
The festival was not held in 2012, giving the site and organisers a "fallow year" which originally would have been in 2011, in keeping with the tradition of taking a break every fifth year. Michael Eavis cited the shortage and likely cost of portable toilets and policing, due to the needs of the 2012 Summer Olympics, as being amongst the reasons. The decision to move the fallow year to 2012 also proved to be a fortunate one, as Somerset experienced spells of persistent heavy rain in the period up to and including the week that the festival would normally have been held. Indeed, Emily Eavis suggested that the festival itself might have been called off, such was the severity of the weather. Registration for tickets to the 2013 festival began in June 2011 and ticket booking opened at 9 am on Sunday 7 October 2012, with 135,000 selling out in a record time of one hour and forty minutes. To mark the 2012 Glastonbury weekend, Eavis was invited to guest edit the local paper, the Western Daily Press, on Saturday 23 June.
During the 2014 festival, a 26-year-old Berkshire man suffered from a suspected reaction to Ketamine and later died in Bristol Royal Infirmary. Despite this, police reported that crime was down 30% from last year but reminded festival goers to look after their possessions. In 2014 Mendip District Council issued a licence for 10 years up until 2024.
A few weeks before the 2015 festival Foo Fighters frontman Dave Grohl fell off a stage during a show in Gothenburg and broke his leg, forcing their late withdrawal from the line-up. Florence and the Machine were moved from second-top on the bill to Friday's headliner, while Florence's vacant gap was filled by the Reading and Leeds Festival headliners The Libertines, and their performance was well received. Kanye West and The Who were the headliners for the Saturday and Sunday, respectively. Other notable acts who performed included James Bay, Lulu, Pharrell Williams, Clean Bandit, Hozier, Ella Eyre, Lionel Richie, Mark Ronson, Jessie Ware, Gregory Porter, George Ezra, Paloma Faith, Mary J. Blige and Paul Weller, as well as an appearance by the 14th Dalai Lama. On 28 August 2015 it was announced that hundreds of pairs of discarded Wellington boots from the 2015 festival were donated to the migrant camp at Calais.
On 3 April 2017, it was announced the BBC had renewed its exclusive national rights to broadcast the event until 2022. On 24 June 2017 reggae group Toots and the Maytals were slotted for 17:30, with BBC Four scheduled to show highlights from their set. When they did not show it was suspected they missed their time slot, and BBC broadcaster Mark Radcliffe apologised on their behalf stating, "If you were expecting Toots and the Maytals – and, frankly, we all were – it seems like they were on Jamaican time or something because they didn't make it to the site on time." The group credited with coining the term "reggae" in song was subsequently rescheduled by the Glastonbury Festival organisers giving Toots and the Maytals the midnight slot, with all other acts being shifted by one hour.
Jeremy Corbyn, then leader of the Labour Party, was invited to speak on the Pyramid Stage at the 2017 festival.
In February 2018, festival organiser Emily Eavis confirmed in a BBC interview that a plastic bottle ban could be enforced at the 2019 event for environmental reasons. Water kiosks, where festival-goers could get any type of bottle refilled, had been introduced in 2014. In February 2019, organisers confirmed the bottle ban would begin at that year's festival, encompassing all bars, traders and backstage areas.
The festival had a "fallow year" in 2018 to allow the ground to recover. It returned in 2019. Glastonbury 2019 featured new stages, art installations and areas, including a giant crane purchased from Avonmouth Docks. The Pyramid Stage was headlined by Stormzy, The Killers and The Cure, with Miley Cyrus, Liam Gallagher, Kylie Minogue, Lizzo, Lewis Capaldi, Janet Jackson and Billie Eilish also performing.
=== 2020s ===
The 2020 and 2021 festivals were cancelled because of the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2020, for what would have been the festival's 50th anniversary, the BBC broadcast a variety of acclaimed sets during the weekend of the cancelled festival, with performances by acts including Taylor Swift, Florence and the Machine, Adele, R.E.M., Beyoncé, the Rolling Stones, Jay-Z and Billie Eilish.
In 2021, Glastonbury produced a film recorded on the Glastonbury site, Live at Worthy Farm, with performances by acts including Coldplay, Haim, and Damon Albarn. Live at Worthy Farm also saw the debut of The Smile, a new band featuring Thom Yorke and Jonny Greenwood from Radiohead with Sons of Kemet drummer Tom Skinner. The film was streamed on the Glastonbury website on 22 May and broadcast on BBC Two on 27 June 2021.
The event returned in June 2022. Billie Eilish headlined the Friday night, making her the youngest Glastonbury headline act to date. Paul McCartney and Kendrick Lamar were headline acts for Saturday night (with Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds) and Sunday night respectively. Other acts included Diana Ross, Charli XCX, Foals, HAIM, Idles, Little Simz, Lorde, Olivia Rodrigo, Megan Thee Stallion, Pet Shop Boys, Phoebe Bridgers, Sam Fender, Sugababes, Wolf Alice and Years & Years.
Tickets for Glastonbury 2023 sold out in one hour. Elton John, Guns N' Roses and Arctic Monkeys were announced as the headliners at the Pyramid Stage for Glastonbury 2023, amongst criticism of the "all-male headliners" at the festival.
It was announced in March 2023 that the John Peel stage would be renamed to Woodsies.
Arctic Monkeys returned to headline Glastonbury (Friday night) for the third time, having previously done so in 2007 and 2013. Other notable artists playing the Friday included Royal Blood, Fred Again, Young Fathers, Fever Ray, Carl Cox and Faithless. The mystery band listed as 'The Churn Ups' was revealed to be surprise guests the Foo Fighters. Guns N' Roses headlined the Saturday. Other artists playing Saturday included Lana Del Rey, Loyle Carner, Fatboy Slim and Christine and the Queens. The afternoon 'TBA' slot at the Woodsies was revealed as Rick Astley and Blossoms, playing The Smiths. The Sunday 'legends' spot was filled by Yusuf/Cat Stevens. Elton John headlined the Pyramid Stage on Sunday, a show which he billed as his last ever UK performance.
The 2024 festival saw artists Dua Lipa and SZA headline the festival, as well Coldplay, who topped the bill for the fifth time. In doing so, Coldplay broke the record for most headline appearances, overtaking The Cure who have headlined four times.
On 17 November 2024, tickets for the 2025 Festival sold out in 35 minutes. Tickets cost £373.50, plus a £5 booking fee, an increase of £18.50 on 2024. In January 2025 it was reported that the festival had doubled its profit to the year March 2024, bringing in £5.9million pre-tax, donating £5.2 million to charitable organisations in the same period. On 3 January 2025, Neil Young was confirmed as the first headliner for the Glastonbury Festival 2025.
The June 2025 festival saw controversy with the appearance Irish band Kneecap and English rap duo Bob Vylan. Kneecap were under police inquiry for an incident at a previous concert, leading to calls for their set to be cancelled. While the set did go on, the BBC did not broadcast it live. Kneecap also advocated for fans to "start a riot" outside the courthouse during a bandmember's trial. Bob Vylan led chants of Free Palestine and Death to the IDF. Both incidents led to police investigations, which were eventually dropped without charges.
During Glastonbury 2025, the Eavis family announced that the festival would not be organised in 2026 to allow the natural environment to recover with the festival due to return in 2027 and this will be the first fallow year since the COVID-19 related cancellations of 2020 and 2021.
== Organisation ==
Since 1981, the festival has been organised by local farmer and site owner Michael Eavis (through his company Glastonbury Festivals Ltd). Eavis ran the festival with his wife Jean until her death in 1999, before co-organising the event with his daughter Emily Eavis. As of 2024, Michael is still involved in the running of the festival; however, the majority of the organisation is run by Emily Eavis and her husband. In 2002, Festival Republic (a company consisting of both Live Nation and MCD) took on the job of managing the logistics and security of the festival through a 40% stake in the festival management company. This relationship ended in 2012 and Glastonbury festival is now independent. Glastonbury Festivals Ltd donates most of its profits to charities, including donations to local charity and community groups and paying for the purchase and restoration of the Tithe Barn in Pilton.
Several stages and areas are managed independently, such as The Left Field which is managed by a cooperative owned by Battersea and Wandsworth TUC, Worthy FM and a field run by Greenpeace.
With the exception of technical and security staff, the festival is mainly run by volunteers. Some 2,000 stewards are organised by the aid charity Oxfam. In return for their work at the festival, Oxfam receive a donation, which in 2005 was £200,000. Medical facilities are provided by Festival Medical Services who have done so since 1979. The bars are organised by the Workers Beer Company, sponsored by Carlsberg (previously Budweiser), who recruit teams of volunteer staff from small charities and campaign groups. In return for their help, typically around 18 hours over the festival, volunteers are paid in free entry, transport and food, while their charities receive the wages the volunteers earn over the event.
Catering, and some retail services, are provided by various small companies, typically mobile catering vans, with over 400 food stalls on site in 2010. The camping retail chain Millets, and independent shops, set up makeshift outlets at the festival. Additionally charities and organisations run promotional or educational stalls, such as the Hare Krishna tent which provide free vegetarian food. Network Recycling manage refuse on the site, and in 2004 recycled 300 tonnes and composted 110 tonnes of waste from the site.
The Pyramid Stage is 25 metres tall, has 292 audio speakers and 8.5 km of cables for video and audio. On stage there are 354 microphones and 3743 light bulbs. The sound systems on site have a total power of 650,000 watts, with the main stage having 250 speakers. Aggreko provide over 27 megawatts of electricity to the site with bio-diesel generators. There are over 4,000 toilets, 2,000 long-drop and 1,300 compost, with water supplies including two reservoirs holding 2,000,000 L (440,000 imp gal) of water.
=== Fallow years ===
The festival was held intermittently from 1970 until 1981 and has been held most years since, except for "fallow years" intended at five-year intervals to give the land, local population, and organisers a break.
The years 1988, 1991, 1996, 2001 and 2006 were scheduled breaks intended every five years until the 2012 Olympics extended the five-year sequence from the planned 2011 rest year. After the 2001 fallow year, the Mean Fiddler Organisation was invited to help organise the festival and provide reassurance to the licensing authorities. For 2006 a documentary film directed by Julien Temple was released to make up for the lack of a festival. The film consists of specially shot footage by Temple at the festival, as well as footage sent in by fans and archive footage. Glastonbury was released in the UK on 14 April 2006.
The year 2018 was a "fallow year", and 2020 and 2021 were consecutive "fallow years" due to the COVID-19 pandemic. 2026 will be the first planned fallow year in eight years.
== Transport ==
Significant logistical operations take place to bring people into the festival by public transport each year. Additional festival trains are provided to Castle Cary railway station, mostly from London Paddington. The station operates as a mini hub with waiting shuttle buses transferring passengers from Castle Cary to the festival site as required. This is an intensive operation on the Wednesday and Thursday each year with local bus and coach operators providing these buses over the two days. Additional extra buses normally provided by Go South Coast run from Bristol to the festival. On the Monday, passengers are transferred back in just one day with additional buses provided to meet the increased requirement. National Express provide extra coaches direct to the festival site from major UK towns and much of this work is subcontracted to smaller coach operators to provide the capacity required.
== Location ==
The festival takes place in South West England at Worthy Farm between the small villages of Pilton and Pylle in Somerset, six miles east of Glastonbury, overlooked by the Glastonbury Tor in the "Vale of Avalon". The area has a number of legends and spiritual traditions, and is a "New Age" site of interest: ley lines are considered to converge on the Tor. The nearest town to the festival site is Shepton Mallet, 3 miles (5 km) north east, but there continues to be interaction between the people espousing alternative lifestyles living in Glastonbury and the festival. The farm is situated between the A361 and A37 roads.
Worthy Farm is situated at grid reference ST 590 397 in a valley at the head of the Whitelake River, between two low limestone ridges, part of the southern edge of the Mendip Hills. On the site is a confluence of the two small streams that make the Whitelake River. In the past the site has experienced problems with flooding, though after the floods that occurred during the 1997 and 1998 festival, drainage was improved. This did not prevent flooding during the 2005 festival, but allowed the flood water to dissipate within hours. The Highbridge branch of the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway ran through the farm on an embankment, but was dismantled in 1966 and now forms a main thoroughfare across the site. Another prominent feature is the high-voltage electricity line which crosses the site east–west. There are several public rights of way bordering the festival site.
In recent years the site has been organised around a restricted backstage compound, with the Pyramid Stage on the north, and Other stage on the south of the compound. Attractions on the east of the site include the acoustic tent, comedy tent and circus. To the south are the green fields, which include displays of traditional and environmentally friendly crafts, while the south eastern corner hosts a variety of late night, dance-oriented stages. In King's Meadow, the hill at the far south of the site, is a modern small megalith circle which, like Stonehenge, is coordinated with the summer solstice, and since 1990 represents a stone circle.
== Lineups ==
Acts in bold indicate the performer played in the Sunday Legends slot.
Notes
== Accommodation ==
Most people who stay at Glastonbury Festival camp in a tent. There are different camping areas, each with its own atmosphere. Limekilns and Hitchin Hill Ground are quieter camping areas, whereas Pennard Hill Ground is a lively campsite. Cockmill Meadow is a family campsite and Wicket Ground was introduced in 2011 as a second family-only campsite. An accessible campsite is also available in Spring Ground. Campsite accommodation is provided in the cost of a standard entry ticket but festival-goers must bring their own tents. Tipis have been at the festival for many years. A limited number of fixed tipis are available for hire at the tipi field near the stone circle. Up to six adults can stay in each tipi and each one comes with a groundsheet and raincatcher. Internal bedding and camping equipment is not provided. Tipi Park also offers solar showers and a log-fired yurt sauna.
Campervans, caravans and trailer tents are not allowed into the main festival site. However, the purchase of a campervan ticket in addition to the main ticket allows access to fields just outside the boundary fence; and the cost includes access for the campervan or towing vehicle and the caravan; the car, or other vehicle used to tow the caravan, may be parked alongside it but sleeping is only authorised in the campervan/caravan and connected awning, not in the accompanying vehicle. One additional tent may accompany the caravan/campervan if space within the plot allows. Some people choose to bring or hire a motorhome, though drivers of larger vehicles or motorhomes may have to purchase a second campervan ticket if they cannot fit within the defined plot. The 2009 festival saw changes to the campervan fields; commercial vehicles were no longer classed as "campervans", all campervans had to have a fitted sleeping area and either washing or cooking facilities and caravans and trailer tents were allowed back at the festival. Prior to this only campervans were allowed on site, caravans and trailers being banned in the early 1990s after a number were stuck in the mud and abandoned.
Festival-goers can stay at local B&B accommodation. There are several independent Glastonbury accommodation providers close to the main site, which include smaller campsites for tents, gypsy caravans, geo-domes, private cottages and more – some festival goers choose to be ferried between the festival and their accommodation by quad-bike or even private helicopter.
== Criticism ==
Journalist Brendan O'Neill wrote in The Spectator in 2010 that the festival had become an "authoritarian pigpen" with watchtowers, CCTV, and an intrusive police presence. He also noted the festival has become "middle-aged and middle-class", and that attendees are "lectured" about various topics, such as safe sex and social causes. All of which drives away younger attendees. He was interviewed by The Australian in 2025 after the Kneecap controversy and noted how the festival had changed from its roots in the 1970s as a rebellious, countercultural hippie festival. He said the average age of attendees was about 50, tickets are expensive, and it had become very conformist and "anti-punk". He mocked the festival attendees in Spiked for being smug, rich, and out of touch. He said they promote open borders despite being surrounded by high fences, and are against racism whilst denouncing the "world's only Jewish nation". He criticised the festival again in The Spectator and The Australian a few days later for becoming a hotbed of antisemitism, and that it felt like "a woke Nuremberg rally", saying the attendees were privileged "weed-smoking neo-hippies".
After festivals, including Glastonbury, came under criticism for being too dominated by male acts, organiser Emily Eavis pledged to achieve a 50-50 gender parity, more inclusive of female-led groups. The festival was accused in 2024 of becoming overcrowded (especially at smaller stages), having long queues, and safety issues, all stemming from crowd mismanagement.
=== Environmental impact ===
A journalist for The Guardian wrote in 2015 her dismay at the environmental degradation and destruction caused by attendees. She noticed substantial amounts of litter, unkept toilets, and public urination, which ruins the river. An estimated 1,650 tonnes of waste is generated: made up of tents, sleeping bags, gazebos, airbeds, chairs, and rolled mats, as well as cans and plastic bottles, cardboard, and scrap metal, which is all cleaned up by a crew of 800. A study published in Environmental Research in 2022 reported that drugs such as MDMA and cocaine were found in the Whitelake River, which runs through the festival, leading to environmental damage, particularly impacting the European eel. The researches recommended better wastewater treatment and prevention of public urination.
== Cultural references ==
It has been noted that Saint Dunstan, the Patron Saint of Music, was the Abbot of Glastonbury in 943. Various artists have written songs entitled Glastonbury or about the festival including Nizlopi, The Waterboys and Scouting for Girls. Cosmic Rough Riders included "Glastonbury Revisited" on their album Enjoy The Melodic Sunshine (Poptones) in 2000. Amy Macdonald, in her song "Let's Start a Band" referenced Glastonbury: "Give me a festival and I'll be your Glastonbury star." Robbie Williams, in his song "The 90s", refers to his surprise appearance on stage with Oasis in 1995, which ultimately led to him leaving Take That. Joe Strummer wrote the song "Coma Girl" about his experiences at Glastonbury, – in a BBC interview Bruce Springsteen cited the song as inspiring him to play the 2009 festival.
U2 wrote a song titled "Glastonbury" that was supposed to premier with their appearance at the festival, but an injury to Bono forced them to cancel. They instead premiered it in a concert in Turin on their 360° Tour. Marcus Brigstocke's comic creation Giles Wemmbley Hogg had a special mock-documentary made about him going to Glastonbury as part of the Giles Wemmbley-Hogg Goes Off radio series. Deborah Crombie's novel A Finer End takes place in Glastonbury with references to a fictional account of an original 1914 Glastonbury Fayre as well as the contemporary festival. Glastonbury is also a setting in John Osborne's 2014 Radio 4 show The New Blur Album. Roxy Music did a song and album called "Avalon", which is the ancient name for Glastonbury (Isle of Avalon).
The 2013 advertisement of the Indonesian cigarette brand owned by the Wismilak Group, Diplomat Mild (see also Cigarette advertising in Indonesia), made reference to the festival: "One day, I would perform at Glastonbury".
Not all references are positive. Punk rock pioneers The Damned refer to "Glastonbury hippies" as one of the things requiring smashing in their 1979 single "Smash It Up".
== Awards and nominations ==
=== DJ Magazine ===
=== NME Awards === |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands | Netherlands | The Netherlands, informally Holland, is a country in Northwestern Europe, with overseas territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of the four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Netherlands consists of twelve provinces; it borders Germany to the east and Belgium to the south, with a North Sea coastline to the north and west. It shares maritime borders with the United Kingdom, Germany, and Belgium. The official language is Dutch, with West Frisian as a secondary official language in the province of Friesland. Dutch, English, and Papiamento are official in the Caribbean territories. People from the Netherlands are referred to as Dutch.
Netherlands literally means "lower countries", in reference to its low elevation and flat topography, 26% of which is below sea level. Most of the areas below sea level, known as polders, are the result of land reclamation that began in the 14th century. In the Republican period, which began in 1588, the Netherlands entered a unique era of political, economic, and cultural greatness, ranked among the most powerful and influential in Europe and the world; this period is known as the Dutch Golden Age. During this time, its trading companies, the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company, established colonies and trading posts all over the world. While neutral in the First World War, the Netherlands was invaded and occupied by Nazi Germany in 1940 during the Second World War, which lasted until the end of the war in 1945.
With a population of over 18 million people, all living within a total area of 41,850 km2 (16,160 sq mi)—of which the land area is 33,500 km2 (12,900 sq mi)—the Netherlands is the 26th most densely populated country, with a density of 541 people per square kilometre (1,400 people/sq mi). Nevertheless, it is the world's second largest exporter of food and agricultural products by value, owing to its fertile soil, mild climate, intensive agriculture, and inventiveness. The four largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague and Utrecht. Amsterdam is the country's most populous city and the nominal capital, though the primary national political institutions are in The Hague.
The Netherlands has been a parliamentary constitutional monarchy with a unitary structure since 1848. The country has a tradition of pillarisation (separation of citizens into groups by religion and political beliefs) and a long record of social tolerance, having legalised prostitution and euthanasia, along with maintaining a liberal drug policy. The Netherlands allowed women's suffrage in 1919 and was the first country to legalise same-sex marriage in 2001. Its mixed-market advanced economy has the eleventh-highest per capita income globally. The Hague holds the seat of the States General, cabinet, and Supreme Court. The Port of Rotterdam is the busiest in Europe. Schiphol is the busiest airport in the Netherlands, and the fourth busiest in Europe. Being a developed country, the Netherlands is a founding member of the European Union, eurozone, G10, NATO, OECD, and WTO, as well as a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. It hosts intergovernmental organisations and international courts, many of which are in The Hague.
== Etymology ==
=== Netherlands and the Low Countries ===
The countries that comprise the region called the Low Countries (Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg) all have comparatively the same toponymy. Place names with Neder, Nieder, Nedre, Nether, Lage(r) or Low(er) (in Germanic languages) and Bas or Inferior (in Romance languages) are in use in low-lying places all over Europe. The Romans made a distinction between the Roman provinces of downstream Germania Inferior (nowadays part of Belgium and the Netherlands) and upstream Germania Superior. Thus, in the case of the Low Countries and the Netherlands, the geographical location of this lower region is more or less downstream and near the sea, compared to that of the upper region of Germania Superior. The designation 'Low' returned in the 10th-century Duchy of Lower Lorraine, which covered much of the Low Countries.
The Dukes of Burgundy used the term les pays de par deçà ("the lands over here") for the Low Countries. Under Habsburg rule, this became pays d'embas ("lands down here"). This was translated as Neder-landen in contemporary Dutch official documents. From a regional point of view, Niderlant was also the area between the Meuse and the lower Rhine in the late Middle Ages. From the mid-sixteenth century, the "Low Countries" and the "Netherlands" lost their original deictic meaning.
In most Romance languages, the term "Low Countries" is officially used as the name for the Netherlands.
=== Holland ===
The term Holland has frequently been used informally to refer to the whole of the modern country of the Netherlands in various languages, including Dutch and English. In some languages, Holland is used as the formal name for the Netherlands. However, Holland is a region within the Netherlands that consists of the two provinces of North and South Holland. Formerly these were a single province, and earlier the County of Holland, which also included parts of present-day Utrecht. The emphasis on Holland during the formation of the Dutch Republic, the Eighty Years' War, and the Anglo-Dutch Wars in the 17th and 18th centuries made Holland a pars pro toto for the entire country.
Many Dutch people object to the country being referred to as Holland instead of the Netherlands, on much the same grounds as many Welsh or Scottish people object to the United Kingdom being referred to as England. In particular, those from regions other than Holland find it undesirable or misrepresentative to use the term Holland for the whole country, as the Holland region only comprises two of the twelve provinces, and 38% of Dutch citizens. As of 2019, the Dutch government officially has preferred the Netherlands instead of Holland when talking about the country.
Often Holland or Hollanders is used by the Flemish to refer to the Dutch in the Netherlands, and by the southern Dutch (the Dutch living "below the great rivers", a natural cultural, social, and religious boundary formed by the rivers Rhine and Meuse) to refer to the northern Dutch (the Dutch living north of these rivers). The use of the term in this context by the southern Dutch is in a derogatory fashion. In the southern province of Limburg, the term is used for the Dutch from the other 11 provinces.
=== Dutch ===
Dutch is used in English as the adjective for the Netherlands, as well as the demonym. The origins of the word go back to Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz (Latinised into Theodiscus), meaning "popular" or "of the people", the origin of Old Dutch *thiudisc and Old English þeodisc, meaning "(of) the common (Germanic) people". At first, the English language used Dutch to refer to any or all speakers of West Germanic languages. The term gradually came to be used more narrowly to refer to the West Germanic people the English had the most contact with.
== History ==
=== Prehistory (before 800 BC) ===
The oldest human (Neanderthal) traces in the Netherlands, believed to be about 250,000 years old, were found near Maastricht. At the end of the Ice Age, the nomadic late Upper Palaeolithic Hamburg culture (13,000–10,000 BC) hunted reindeer in the area, using spears. The later Ahrensburg culture (11,200–9,500 BC) used bow and arrow. From Mesolithic Maglemosian-like tribes (c. 8000 BC), the world's oldest canoe was found in Drenthe.
Indigenous late Mesolithic hunter-gatherers from the Swifterbant culture (c. 5600 BC), related to the southern Scandinavian Ertebølle culture, were strongly linked to rivers and open water. Between 4800 and 4500 BC, the Swifterbant people started to adopt from the neighbouring Linear Pottery culture the practice of animal husbandry, and between 4300 and 4000 BC agriculture. The Funnelbeaker culture (4300–2800 BC) erected the dolmens, large stone grave monuments found in Drenthe. There was a quick transition from the Funnelbeaker farming culture to the pan-European Corded Ware pastoralist culture (c. 2950 BC). In the southwest, the Seine-Oise-Marne culture—related to the Vlaardingen culture (c. 2600 BC)—survived well into the Neolithic period, until it too was succeeded by the Corded Ware culture.
The subsequent Bell Beaker culture (2700–2100 BC) introduced metalwork in copper, gold and later bronze and opened new international trade routes, reflected in copper artefacts. Finds of rare bronze objects suggest that Drenthe was a trading centre in the Bronze Age (2000–800 BC). The Bell Beaker culture developed locally into the Barbed-Wire Beaker culture (2100–1800 BC) and later the Elp culture (1800–800 BC), a Middle Bronze Age culture marked by earthenware pottery. The southern region became dominated by the related Hilversum culture (1800–800 BC).
=== Celts, Germanic tribes and Romans (800 BC–410 AD) ===
From 800 BC onwards, the Iron Age Celtic Hallstatt culture became influential, replacing the Hilversum culture. Iron ore brought a measure of prosperity and was available throughout the country. Smiths travelled from settlement to settlement with bronze and iron, fabricating tools on demand. The King's grave of Oss (700 BC) was found in a burial mound, the largest of its kind in Western Europe.
The deteriorating climate in Scandinavia from 850 BC and 650 BC might have triggered the migration of Germanic tribes from the North. By the time this migration was complete, around 250 BC, a few general cultural and linguistic groups had emerged. The North Sea Germanic Ingaevones inhabited the northern part of the Low Countries. They would later develop into the Frisii and the early Saxons. The Weser–Rhine Germanic (or Istvaeones) extended along the middle Rhine and Weser and inhabited the Low Countries south of the great rivers. These tribes would eventually develop into the Salian Franks. The Celtic La Tène culture (c. 450 BC to the Roman conquest) expanded over a wide range, including the southern area of the Low Countries. Some scholars have speculated that even a third ethnic identity and language, neither Germanic nor Celtic, survived in the Netherlands until the Roman period, the Nordwestblock culture.
The first author to describe the coast of Holland and Flanders was the geographer Pytheas, who noted in c. 325 BC that in these regions, "more people died in the struggle against water than in the struggle against men." During the Gallic Wars, the area south and west of the Rhine was conquered by Roman forces under Julius Caesar from 57 BC to 53 BC. Caesar describes two main Celtic tribes living in what is now the southern Netherlands: the Menapii and the Eburones. Under Augustus, the Roman Empire conquered the entirety of the modern day Netherlands, incorporating it into the province of Germania Antiqua in 7 BC, and was repelled back across the Rhine after the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in AD 9; the Rhine became fixed as Rome's permanent northern frontier about AD 12. Notable towns would arise along the Limes Germanicus: Nijmegen and Voorburg. In the first part of Gallia Belgica, the area south of the Limes became part of the Roman province of Germania Inferior. The area to the north of the Rhine, inhabited by the Frisii, remained outside Roman rule, while the Germanic border tribes of the Batavi and Cananefates served in the Roman cavalry. The Batavi rose against the Romans in the Batavian rebellion of AD 69 and were defeated. The Batavi later merged with other tribes into the confederation of the Salian Franks, whose identity emerged in the first half of the third century. Salian Franks appear in Roman texts as both allies and enemies. They were forced by the confederation of the Saxons from the east to move over the Rhine into Roman territory in the fourth century. From their new base in West Flanders and the Southwest Netherlands, they were raiding the English Channel. Roman forces pacified the region but did not expel the Franks, who continued to be feared at least until the time of Julian the Apostate (358) when Salian Franks were allowed to settle as foederati in Texandria.
=== Early Middle Ages (411–1000) ===
After the Roman government in the area collapsed in roughly the year 406, the Franks expanded their territories into numerous kingdoms. By the 490s, Clovis I had conquered and united all these territories in the southern Netherlands in one Frankish kingdom, and from there continued his conquests into Gaul. During this expansion, Franks migrating to the south (modern territory of France and Walloon part of Belgium) eventually adopted the Vulgar Latin of the local population. A widening cultural divide grew with the Franks remaining in their original homeland in the north (i.e. the southern Netherlands and Flanders), who kept on speaking Old Frankish, which by the ninth century had evolved into Old Low Franconian or Old Dutch. A Dutch-French language boundary hence came into existence.
To the north of the Franks, climatic conditions improved, and during the Migration Period Saxons, the closely related Angles, Jutes, and Frisii settled the coast. Many moved on to England and came to be known as Anglo-Saxons, but those who stayed would be referred to as Frisians and their language as Frisian. Frisian was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast. By the seventh century, a Frisian Kingdom (650–734) under King Aldegisel and King Redbad emerged with Traiectum (Utrecht) as its centre of power, while Dorestad was a flourishing trading place. Between 600 and around 719 the cities were often fought over between the Frisians and the Franks. In 734, at the Battle of the Boarn, the Frisians were defeated after a series of wars. With the approval of the Franks, the Anglo-Saxon missionary Willibrord converted the Frisian people to Christianity and established the Archdiocese of Utrecht. However, his successor Boniface was murdered by the Frisians in 754.
The Frankish Carolingian empire controlled much of Western Europe. In 843, it was divided into three parts—East, Middle, and West Francia. Most of present-day Netherlands became part of Middle Francia, which was a weak kingdom and subject to numerous partitions and annexation attempts by its stronger neighbours. It comprised territories from Frisia in the north to the Kingdom of Italy in the south. Around 850, Lothair I of Middle Francia acknowledged the Viking Rorik of Dorestad as ruler of most of Frisia. When the kingdom of Middle Francia was partitioned in 855, the lands north of the Alps passed to Lothair II and subsequently were named Lotharingia. After he died in 869, Lotharingia was partitioned, into Upper and Lower Lotharingia, the latter comprising the Low Countries that became part of East Francia in 870. Around 879, another Viking expedition led by Godfrid, Duke of Frisia, raided the Frisian lands. Resistance to the Vikings, if any, came from local nobles, who gained in stature as a result, and that laid the basis for the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia into semi-independent states. One of these local nobles was Gerolf of Holland, who assumed lordship in Frisia, and Viking rule came to an end.
=== High Middle Ages (1000–1384) ===
The Holy Roman Empire ruled much of the Low Countries in the 10th and 11th century but was not able to maintain political unity. Powerful local nobles turned their cities, counties and duchies into private kingdoms that felt little sense of obligation to the emperor. Holland, Hainaut, Flanders, Gelre, Brabant, and Utrecht were in a state of almost continual war or paradoxically formed personal unions. As Frankish settlement progressed from Flanders and Brabant, the area quickly became Old Low Franconian (or Old Dutch).
Around 1000 AD, agrarian conditions started to improve, which led to increase in population, reclamation of wasteland by farmers, and steady growth of trade and industry. Towns grew around monasteries and castles, and a mercantile middle class began to develop in these urban areas, especially in Flanders, and later Brabant. Wealthy cities started to buy certain privileges for themselves from the sovereign.
Around 1100 AD, farmers from Flanders and Utrecht began draining and cultivating uninhabited swampy land in the western Netherlands, making the emergence of the County of Holland as the centre of power possible. The title of Count of Holland was fought over in the Hook and Cod Wars between 1350 and 1490. The Cod faction consisted of the more progressive cities, while the Hook faction consisted of the conservative noblemen. These noblemen invited Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy to conquer Holland.
=== Burgundian, Habsburg and Spanish Habsburg Netherlands (1384–1581) ===
Most of the Imperial and French fiefs in what is now the Netherlands and Belgium were united in a personal union by Philip the Good in 1433. The House of Valois-Burgundy and their Habsburg heirs would rule the Low Countries from 1384 to 1581. The new rulers defended Dutch trading interests. The fleets of the County of Holland defeated the fleets of the Hanseatic League several times. Amsterdam grew and in the 15th century became the primary trading port in Europe for grain from the Baltic region. Amsterdam distributed grain to the major cities of Belgium, Northern France and England. This trade was vital because Holland could no longer produce enough grain to feed itself. Land drainage had caused the peat of the former wetlands to reduce to a level that was too low for drainage to be maintained.
Under Habsburg Charles V, all fiefs in the current Netherlands region were united into the Seventeen Provinces, which included most of present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of France and Germany. In 1568, under Phillip II, the Eighty Years' War between the Provinces and their Spanish ruler began. The level of ferocity exhibited by both sides can be gleaned from a Dutch chronicler's report:
On more than one occasion men were seen hanging their own brothers, who had been taken prisoners in the enemy's ranks... A Spaniard had ceased to be human in their eyes. On one occasion, a surgeon at Veer cut the heart from a Spanish prisoner, nailed it on a vessel's prow, and invited the townsmen to come and fasten their teeth in it, which many did with savage satisfaction.
The Duke of Alba attempted to suppress the Protestant movement in the Netherlands. Netherlanders were "burned, strangled, beheaded, or buried alive" by his "Blood Council" and Spanish soldiers. Bodies were displayed along roads to terrorise the population into submission. Alba boasted of having executed 18,600; this figure does not include those who perished by war and famine.
The first great siege was Alba's effort to capture Haarlem and thereby cut Holland in half. It dragged on from December 1572 to the next summer, when Haarlemers finally surrendered on 13 July upon the promise that the city would be spared from being sacked. It was a stipulation Don Fadrique was unable to honour, when his soldiers mutinied, angered over pay owed and the miserable conditions of the campaign. On 4 November 1576, Spanish tercios seized Antwerp and subjected it to the worst pillage in the Netherlands' history. The citizens resisted but were overcome; seven thousand were killed and a thousand buildings were torched.
After the sack of Antwerp, delegates from Catholic Brabant, Protestant Holland and Zeeland agreed to join Utrecht and William the Silent in driving out Spanish troops and forming a new government for the Netherlands. Don Juan of Austria, the new Spanish governor, was forced to concede initially, but within months returned to active hostilities. The Dutch looked for help from the Protestant Elizabeth I of England, but she initially stood by her commitments to the Spanish in the Treaty of Bristol of 1574. When the next large-scale battle occurred at Gembloux in 1578, the Spanish forces won easily. In light of the defeat at Gembloux, the southern states of the Seventeen Provinces distanced themselves from the rebels in the north with the 1579 Union of Arras. Opposing them, the northern half of the Seventeen Provinces forged the Union of Utrecht in which they committed to support each other against the Spanish. The Union of Utrecht is seen as the foundation of the modern Netherlands.
Spanish troops sacked Maastricht in 1579, killing over 10,000 civilians. In 1581, the northern provinces adopted the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence in which the provinces officially deposed Philip II. Against the rebels Philip could draw on the resources of the Spanish Empire. Elizabeth I sympathised with the Dutch struggle and sent an army of 7,600 soldiers to aid them. English forces faced the Spanish in the Netherlands under the Duke of Parma in a series of largely indecisive actions that tied down significant numbers of Spanish troops and bought time for the Dutch to reorganise their defences. The war continued until 1648, when Spain under King Philip IV recognised the independence of the seven north-western provinces in the Peace of Münster. Parts of the southern provinces became de facto colonies of the new republican-mercantile empire.
=== Dutch Republic (1581–1795) ===
After the declaration of independence, the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Groningen, Friesland, Utrecht, Overijssel, and Gelderland entered into a confederation. All these duchies, lordships and counties enjoyed a significant degree of autonomy and were governed by their own administrative bodies known as the States-Provincial. The confederal government, known as the States General, was headquartered in The Hague and comprised representatives from each of the seven provinces. The sparsely populated region of Drenthe was part of the republic, albeit not considered a province in its own right. Moreover, during the Eighty Years' War, the Republic came to occupy a number of Generality Lands in Flanders, Brabant and Limburg. These areas were primarily inhabited by Roman Catholics and lacked a distinct governmental structure of their own. They were used as a buffer zone between the Republic and the Spanish-controlled Southern Netherlands.
In the Dutch Golden Age, spanning much of the 17th century, the Dutch Empire grew to become one of the major seafaring and economic powers. Science, military and art (especially painting) were among the most acclaimed in the world. By 1650, the Dutch owned 16,000 merchant ships. The Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company established colonies and trading posts all over the world. The Dutch settlement in North America began with the founding of New Amsterdam in 1614. In South Africa, the Dutch settled the Cape Colony in 1652. Dutch colonies in South America were established along the many rivers in the fertile Guyana plains, among them Colony of Surinam (now Suriname). In Asia, the Dutch established a presence in India, the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), Formosa (now Taiwan), and the only western trading post in Japan, Dejima. During the period of Proto-industrialisation, the empire received 50% of textiles and 80% of silks import from the India's Mughal Empire.
Many economic historians regard the Netherlands as the first thoroughly capitalist country. In early modern Europe, it had the wealthiest trading city in Amsterdam, and the first full-time stock exchange. The inventiveness of the traders led to insurance and retirement funds as well as phenomena such as the boom-bust cycle, the world's first asset-inflation bubble, the tulip mania of 1636–1637, and the world's first bear raider, Isaac le Maire. In 1672 – known in Dutch history as the Rampjaar (Disaster Year) – the Dutch Republic was attacked by France, England and two German bishoprics simultaneously, in what would become known as the Franco-Dutch War. At sea, it could successfully prevent the English and French navies from blockading the western shores. On land the Republic was almost overrun by the advancing French and German armies from the east, but the Dutch managed to turn the tide by inundating parts of Holland.
From 1672 to 1712, the Republic, led by William III of Orange and Anthonie Heinsius would regularly clash with France in what some historians have come to call the Forty Years' War. In the Nine Years' War and the War of the Spanish Succession, the Republic was at the centre of anti-French coalitions. The Dutch ultimately successfully defended the Spanish Netherlands, established a barrier there, and their troops proved central to the alliance which halted French territorial expansion in Europe until a new cycle began in 1792 with the French Revolutionary Wars. However, the wars left them effectively bankrupt, and inflicted permanent damage on the Dutch merchant navy; while they remained the dominant economic power in the Far East, Britain took over as the pre-eminent global commercial and maritime power. Between 1590 and 1713, the Dutch army had been one of Europe's largest and most capable armies. However, after the conclusion of the War of the Spanish Succession, other major powers, such as Prussia, Austria, Britain, and Russia, significantly expanded their military forces. The Republic struggled to match these developments, and gradually assumed the status of a mid-tier power. However, historians have sometimes overstated the extent of this decline, especially when considering the period up to the 1750s.
=== Batavian Republic and Kingdom (1795–1890) ===
In the 18th century the Dutch Republic had seen a state of a general decline, with economic competition from England and long-standing rivalries between the two main factions in Dutch society, the republican Staatsgezinden and the supporters of the stadtholder the Prinsgezinden as main political factions. With the armed support of revolutionary France, Dutch republicans proclaimed the Batavian Republic, modelled after the French Republic and rendering the Netherlands a unitary state on 19 January 1795. The stadtholder William V of Orange had fled to England. From 1806 to 1810, the Kingdom of Holland was set up by Napoleon Bonaparte as a puppet kingdom governed by his brother Louis Bonaparte. However, King Louis Bonaparte tried to serve Dutch interests instead of his brother's, and he was forced to abdicate on 1 July 1810. The Emperor sent in an army and the Netherlands became part of the French Empire until November 1813, when Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Leipzig.
William Frederick, son of the last stadtholder, returned to the Netherlands in 1813 and proclaimed himself Sovereign Prince. Two years later, the Congress of Vienna added the southern Netherlands to the north to create a strong country on the northern border of France. William Frederick raised this United Netherlands to the status of a kingdom and proclaimed himself as King William I in 1815. William became hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg in exchange for his German possessions. However, the Southern Netherlands had been culturally separate from the north since 1581, and rebelled. The south gained independence in 1830 as Belgium (recognised by the Northern Netherlands in 1839 as the Kingdom of the Netherlands was created by decree), while the personal union between Luxembourg and the Netherlands was severed in 1890, when William III died with no surviving male heirs. Salic Law prevented his daughter Queen Wilhelmina from becoming the next Grand Duchess.
The Belgian Revolution and the Java War in the Dutch East Indies brought the Netherlands to the brink of bankruptcy. However, the Cultivation System was introduced in 1830; in the Dutch East Indies, 20% of village land had to be devoted to government crops for export. The policy brought the Dutch enormous wealth and made the colony self-sufficient. The Netherlands abolished slavery in its colonies in 1863. Enslaved people in Suriname would be fully free only in 1873.
=== World wars and beyond (1890–present) ===
The Netherlands remained neutral during World War I, in part because the import of goods through the Netherlands proved essential to German survival until the blockade by the British Royal Navy in 1916. That changed in World War II, when Germany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940. The Rotterdam Blitz forced most of the Dutch army to surrender. During the occupation, over 100,000 Dutch Jews were transported to Nazi extermination camps; only a few survived. Dutch workers were conscripted for forced labour in Germany, civilians who resisted were killed in reprisal for attacks on German soldiers, and the countryside was plundered for food. Although there were thousands of Dutch who risked their lives by hiding Jews from the Germans, over 20,000 Dutch fascists joined the Waffen SS. Political collaborators were members of the fascist NSB, the only legal political party in the occupied Netherlands. On 8 December 1941, the Dutch government-in-exile in London declared war on Japan, but could not prevent the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies. In 1944–45, the First Canadian Army liberated much of the Netherlands. Soon after VE Day, the Dutch fought a colonial war against the new Republic of Indonesia.
==== Decolonisation ====
In 1954, the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands reformed the political structure as a result of international pressure to carry out decolonisation. The Dutch colonies of Surinam and Curaçao and Dependencies became constituent countries within the Kingdom, on the basis of an equal partnership with the European territories. Indonesia had declared its independence in August 1945. Suriname followed in 1975. The Netherlands was one of the founding members of Benelux and NATO. In the 1950s, the Netherlands became one of the six founding countries of the European Communities, after the 1952 establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community, and subsequent 1958 creations of the European Economic Community and European Atomic Energy Community. In 1993, the former two were incorporated into the European Union.
Government-encouraged emigration efforts to reduce population density prompted some 500,000 Dutch to leave the country after the war. The 1960s and 1970s were a time of great social and cultural change, such as rapid de-pillarisation. Students and other youth rejected traditional mores and pushed for change in matters such as women's rights, sexuality, disarmament and environmental issues. In 2002 the euro was introduced as fiat money, and in 2010 the Netherlands Antilles was dissolved. Referendums were held on each island. As a result, Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba (the BES islands) were incorporated as special municipalities upon the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles. The special municipalities are collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands.
== Geography ==
The European Netherlands has a total area of 41,543 km2 (16,040 sq mi), including water bodies, and a land area of 33,481 km2 (12,927 sq mi). The Caribbean Netherlands has a total area of 328 km2 (127 sq mi) It lies between latitudes 50° and 54° N, and longitudes 3° and 8° E.
The Netherlands is geographically very low relative to sea level and is considered a flat country, with about 26% of its area and 21% of its population below sea level. The European part of the country is for the most part flat, with the exception of foothills in the far southeast, up to a height of no more than 322 m (1,056 ft) at the Vaalserberg, and some low hill ranges in the central parts. Most of the areas below sea level are caused by peat extraction or achieved through land reclamation. Since the late 16th century, large polder areas are preserved through elaborate drainage systems that include dikes, canals and pumping stations.
Much of the country was originally formed by the estuaries of three large European rivers: the Rhine (Rijn), the Meuse (Maas) and the Scheldt (Schelde), as well as their tributaries. The south-western part of the Netherlands is a river delta of these rivers, the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta.
The European Netherlands is divided into north and south parts by the Rhine, the Waal, its main tributary branch, and the Meuse. These rivers functioned as a natural barrier between fiefdoms and hence historically created a cultural divide, as is evident in some phonetic traits that are recognisable on either side of what the Dutch call their "Great Rivers" (de Grote Rivieren). Another significant branch of the Rhine, the IJssel river, discharges into Lake IJssel, the former Zuiderzee ('southern sea'). Just like the previous, this river forms a linguistic divide: people to the northeast of this river speak Dutch Low Saxon dialects (except for the province of Friesland, which has its own language).
=== Geology ===
The Netherlands is mostly composed of deltaic, coastal and aeolian derived sediments during the Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods.
Nearly the entire west Netherlands is composed of the Rhine-Meuse river estuary. In the east of the Netherlands, remains are found of the last ice age, which ended approximately ten thousand years ago. As the continental ice sheet moved in from the north, it pushed moraine forward. The ice sheet halted as it covered the eastern half of the Netherlands. After the ice age ended, the moraine remained in the form of a long hill-line. The cities of Arnhem and Nijmegen are built on these hills.
=== Floods ===
Over the centuries, the Dutch coastline has changed considerably as a result of natural disasters and human intervention.
On 14 December 1287, St. Lucia's flood affected the Netherlands and neighbouring Germany, killing more than 50,000 people in one of the most destructive floods in recorded history. The St. Elizabeth flood of 1421 and the mismanagement in its aftermath destroyed a newly reclaimed polder, replacing it with the 72 km2 (28 mi2) Biesbosch tidal floodplains. The huge North Sea flood of February 1953 caused the collapse of several dikes in the southwest Netherlands; more than 1,800 people drowned. The Dutch government subsequently instituted a large-scale programme, the "Delta Works", to protect the country against future flooding, which was completed over a period of more than 40 years.
The consequences of disasters were, to an extent, increased through human activity. Relatively high-lying swampland was drained to be used as farmland. The drainage caused the fertile peat to contract and ground levels to drop; groundwater levels were lowered to compensate, causing the underlying peat to contract further. Additionally, until the 19th century, peat was mined, dried, and used for fuel, further exacerbating the problem. Even in flooded areas, peat extraction continued through turf dredging.
To guard against floods, a series of defences against the water were contrived. In the first millennium AD, villages and farmhouses were built on hills called terps. Later, these terps were connected by dikes. In the 12th century, local government agencies called "waterschappen" ("water boards") or "hoogheemraadschappen" ("high home councils") started to appear, whose job it was to maintain the water level and to protect a region from floods; these agencies continue to exist. As the ground level dropped, the dikes by necessity grew and merged into an integrated system. By the 13th century windmills had come into use to pump water. The windmills were later used to drain lakes, creating the famous polders.
In 1932 the Afsluitdijk ("Closure Dike") was completed, blocking the former Zuiderzee (Southern Sea) from the North Sea and thus creating the IJsselmeer (IJssel Lake). It became part of the larger Zuiderzee Works in which four polders totalling 2,500 square kilometres (965 mi2) were reclaimed from the sea.
The Netherlands is one of the countries that may suffer most from climate change. Not only is the rising sea a problem, but erratic weather patterns may cause the rivers to overflow.
=== Delta Works ===
After the 1953 disaster, the Delta Works was constructed, which is a comprehensive set of civil works throughout the Dutch coast. The project started in 1958 and was largely completed in 1997 with the completion of the Maeslantkering. Since then, new projects have been periodically started to renovate and renew the Delta Works. The main goal of the Delta project was to reduce the risk of flooding in South Holland and Zeeland. This was achieved by raising 3,000 km (1,900 mi) of outer sea-dikes and 10,000 km (6,200 mi) of the inner, canal, and river dikes, and by closing off the sea estuaries of Zeeland. New risk assessments occasionally show problems requiring additional Delta project dike reinforcements. The Delta project is considered by the American Society of Civil Engineers as one of the seven wonders of the modern world.
It is anticipated that global warming will result in a rise in sea level. The Netherlands is actively preparing for a sea-level rise. A politically neutral Delta Commission has formulated an action plan to cope with a sea-level rise of 1.10 m (4 ft) and a simultaneous land height decline of 10 cm (4 in). The plan encompasses the reinforcement of existing coastal defences like dikes and dunes with 1.30 m (4.3 ft) of additional flood protection. Climate change will not only threaten the Netherlands from the coast, but could also alter rainfall patterns and river run-off. To protect the country from river flooding, another programme is already being executed. The Room for the River plan grants more flow space to rivers, protects the major populated areas and allows for periodic flooding of indefensible lands. The few residents who lived in these so-called "overflow areas" have been moved to higher ground, some of that ground having been raised above anticipated flood levels.
=== Climate change ===
The Netherlands is already affected by climate change. The average temperature in the Netherlands rose by more than 2°C from 1901 to 2020. Climate change has resulted in increased frequency of droughts and heatwaves. Because significant portions of the Netherlands have been reclaimed from the sea or otherwise are near sea level, the Netherlands is very vulnerable to sea level rise.
The Netherlands has the fourth largest greenhouse gas emissions per capita of the European Union, in part due to the large number of cows. The Dutch response to climate change is driven by a number of unique factors, including larger green recovery plans by the European Union in the face of the COVID-19 and a climate change litigation case, State of the Netherlands v. Urgenda Foundation, which created mandatory climate change mitigation through emissions reductions 25% below 1990 levels. In 2021 CO2 emissions were down 14% compared to 1990 levels. The goal of the Dutch government is to reduce emissions in 2030 by 49%.
=== Nature ===
The Netherlands has 21 national parks and hundreds of other nature reserves. Most of these are owned by Staatsbosbeheer, the national department for forestry and nature conservation and Natuurmonumenten, a private organisation that buys, protects and manages nature reserves. The Wadden Sea in the north, with its tidal flats and wetlands, is rich in biological diversity, and is a UNESCO World Heritage Nature Site. The Eastern Scheldt, formerly the northeast estuary of the river Scheldt was designated a national park in 2002, making it the largest national park in the Netherlands at an area of 370 km2 (140 sq mi).
Phytogeographically, the European Netherlands is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the European territory of the Netherlands belongs to the ecoregion of Atlantic mixed forests. In 1871, the last old original natural woods were cut down. These woods were planted on anthropogenic heaths and sand-drifts (overgrazed heaths) (Veluwe). The Netherlands had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 0.6/10, ranking it 169th globally out of 172 countries.
Nitrogen pollution is a problem. The number of flying insects in the Netherlands has dropped by 75% since the 1990s.
=== Caribbean islands ===
In the Lesser Antilles islands of the Caribbean, the territories of Curaçao, Aruba and Sint Maarten have a constituent country status within the wider Kingdom of the Netherlands. Another three territories which make up the Caribbean Netherlands are designated as special municipalities. The Caribbean Netherlands have maritime borders with Anguilla, Curaçao, France (Saint Barthélemy), Saint Kitts and Nevis, the U.S. Virgin Islands and Venezuela. The islands of the Caribbean Netherlands enjoy a tropical climate with warm weather all year round.
Within this island group:
Bonaire is part of the ABC islands within the Leeward Antilles island chain off the Venezuelan coast. The Leeward Antilles have a mixed volcanic and coral origin.
Saba and Sint Eustatius are part of the SSS islands within the Leeward Islands. They lie east of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. The locals (French, Spanish, Dutch and the locally spoken English) consider them part of the Windward Islands, although in the international English language, the Windward Islands refer to other islands further south. These two islands are of volcanic origin and hilly, leaving little ground suitable for agriculture. The highest point is Mount Scenery, 870 m (2,850 ft), on Saba. This is the highest point in the country and in the entire Kingdom of the Netherlands.
== Government and politics ==
The Netherlands has been a constitutional monarchy since 1815 and a parliamentary democracy since 1848. The Netherlands is described as a consociational state. Dutch politics and governance are characterised by an effort to achieve broad consensus on important issues. According to International IDEA’s Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, the Netherlands performs in the high range on overall democratic measures, with particular strengths in political representation, including elected government and inclusive suffrage. Furthermore, the Netherlands was ranked as the 17th best electoral democracy in the world by V-Dem Democracy indices in 2023 and 9th most democratic country in the world by the Democracy Index (The Economist) in 2022.
The monarch is the head of state, at present King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands. Constitutionally, the position is equipped with limited powers due to ministerial responsibility.
The executive power is formed by the government that includes the monarch and the Council of Ministers, the deliberative organ of the Dutch cabinet. The cabinet usually consists of 13 to 16 ministers and a varying number of state secretaries. One to three ministers are ministers without portfolio. The council of ministers is presided over by the Prime Minister of the Netherlands, who often is the leader of the largest party of the coalition. The Prime Minister is a primus inter pares, with no explicit powers beyond those of the other ministers. Rob Jetten has been the prime minister since February 2026.
The cabinet is responsible to the bicameral parliament, the States General, which also has legislative powers. The 150 members of the House of Representatives, the lower house, are elected in direct elections on the basis of party-list proportional representation. These are held every four years, or sooner in case the cabinet falls. The provincial assemblies, the States Provincial, are directly elected every four years as well. The members of the provincial assemblies elect the 75 members of the Senate, the upper house, which has the power to reject laws, but not amend them.
=== Political culture ===
Both trade unions and employers organisations are consulted in policymaking in the financial, economic and social areas. They meet regularly with the government in the Social-Economic Council.
The Netherlands has a tradition of social tolerance. In the late 19th century this Dutch tradition of religious tolerance transformed into a system of pillarisation, in which religious groups coexisted separately and only interacted at the level of government. Protection for LGBTQ and abortion rights are enshrined within the Netherlands' foreign aid policy.
No single party has held a majority in parliament since the 19th century, and as a result, coalition cabinets had to be formed. Since male suffrage became universal in 1917, the Dutch political system has been dominated by three families of political parties: Christian Democrats (currently the CDA), Social Democrats (currently the PvdA), and Liberals (currently the VVD). In November 2025, the centrist-liberal Democrats 66 of Rob Jetten was the winner of a general election, securing 26 out of 150 seats in the House of Representatives. A cabinet formation was ongoing as of November 2025 to form a new government.
=== Administrative divisions ===
The Netherlands is divided into twelve provinces, each under a King's Commissioner. All provinces are divided into municipalities (gemeenten), of which there are 342 (2023).
The country is subdivided into 21 water districts, governed by a water board (waterschap or hoogheemraadschap), each having authority in matters concerning water management. The creation of water boards pre-dates that of the nation itself, the first appearing in 1196. The Dutch water boards are among the oldest democratic entities in the world still in existence. Direct elections of the water boards take place every four years.
Within the Dutch town of Baarle-Nassau, are 22 Belgian exclaves and within those are eight Dutch enclaves.
The administrative structure on the three BES islands, collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands, is outside the twelve provinces. These islands have the status of openbare lichamen (public bodies). In the Netherlands these administrative units are often referred to as special municipalities.
=== Foreign relations ===
The history of Dutch foreign policy has been characterised by its neutrality. According to the 2024 Global Peace Index, Netherlands is the 18th most peaceful country in the world. Since World War II, the Netherlands has become a member of a large number of international organisations, most prominently the UN, NATO and the EU.
The foreign policy of the Netherlands is based on four basic commitments: to Atlantic co-operation, to European integration, to international development and to international law. One of the more controversial international issues surrounding the Netherlands is its liberal policy towards soft drugs.
The historical ties inherited from its colonial past in Indonesia and Suriname still influence the foreign relations of the Netherlands. Many with heritage from these countries now live permanently in the Netherlands.
=== Military ===
The Netherlands has one of the oldest standing armies in Europe; it was first established in the late 1500s. After the defeat of Napoleon, the Dutch army was transformed into a conscription army. The Netherlands abandoned its neutrality in 1948 when it signed the Treaty of Brussels, and became a founding member of NATO in 1949. The Dutch military was therefore part of the NATO strength in Cold War Europe. In 1983 the (ceremonial) function of commander of chief of the monarch was transferred to the government, which means the monarch (nominal head of state) has no formal military function. In 1996 conscription was suspended, and the Dutch army was once again transformed into a professional army. Since the 1990s the Dutch army has been involved in the Bosnian War and the Kosovo War, it held a province in Iraq after the defeat of Saddam Hussein, and it was engaged in Afghanistan. The Netherlands has ratified many international conventions concerning war law. The Netherlands decided not to sign the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.
The military is composed of four branches, all of which carry the prefix Koninklijke (Royal):
Koninklijke Marine (KM), the Royal Netherlands Navy, including the Naval Air Service and Marine Corps;
Koninklijke Landmacht (KL), the Royal Netherlands Army;
Koninklijke Luchtmacht (KLu), the Royal Netherlands Air Force;
Koninklijke Marechaussee (KMar), the Royal Marechaussee (Military Police), tasks include military police and border control.
The submarine service opened to women on 1 January 2017. The Korps Commandotroepen, the Special Operations Force of the Netherlands Army, is open to women, but because of the extremely high physical demands for initial training, it is almost impossible for a woman to become a commando. The Dutch Ministry of Defence employs more than 70,000 personnel, including over 20,000 civilians and over 50,000 military personnel.
== Economy ==
Since the 16th century, shipping, fishing, agriculture, trade, and banking have been leading sectors of the Dutch economy. The Netherlands has a high level of economic freedom. The Netherlands is one of the top countries in the Global Enabling Trade Report (2nd in 2016), and was ranked the fifth most competitive economy in the world by the Swiss International Institute for Management Development in 2017. The country was ranked the 8th most innovative nation in the world in the 2025 Global Innovation Index down from 2nd in 2018.
As of 2020, the key trading partners of the Netherlands were Germany, Belgium, the United Kingdom, the United States, France, Italy, China and Russia. The Netherlands is one of the world's 10 leading exporting countries. Foodstuffs form the largest industrial sector. Other major industries include chemicals, metallurgy, machinery, electrical goods, trade, services and tourism. Examples of international Dutch companies operating in the Netherlands include Randstad NV, Heineken, KLM, financial services (ING, ABN AMRO, Rabobank), chemicals (DSM, AKZO), petroleum refining (Shell plc), electronic machinery (Philips, ASML), and satellite navigation (TomTom).
The Netherlands has the 17th-largest economy in the world, and ranks 11th in GDP (nominal) per capita. The Netherlands has low income inequality, but wealth inequality is relatively high. Despite ranking 11th in GDP per capita, UNICEF ranked the Netherlands 1st in child well-being in rich countries, both in 2007 and in 2013.
Amsterdam is the financial and business capital of the Netherlands. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange (AEX), part of Euronext, is the world's oldest stock exchange and is one of Europe's largest bourses. As a founding member of the euro, the Netherlands replaced (for accounting purposes) its former currency, the "gulden" (guilder), on 1 January 1999. Actual euro coins and banknotes followed on 1 January 2002. One euro was equivalent to 2.20371 Dutch guilders. In the Caribbean Netherlands, the United States dollar is used instead. The Netherlands is a "conduit country" that helps to funnel profits from high-tax countries to tax havens. It has been ranked as the 4th largest tax haven in the world.
The Dutch location gives it prime access to markets in the United Kingdom and Germany, the Port of Rotterdam being the largest port in Europe. Other important parts of the economy are international trade, banking and transport. The Netherlands successfully addressed the issue of public finances and stagnating job growth long before its European partners. Amsterdam is the 5th-busiest tourist destination in Europe, with more than 4.2 million international visitors. Since the enlargement of the EU, large numbers of migrant workers have arrived in the Netherlands from Central and Eastern Europe.
The Netherlands continues to be one of the leading European nations for attracting foreign direct investment and is one of the five largest investors in the United States. The economy experienced a slowdown in 2005, but in 2006 recovered to the fastest pace in six years on the back of increased exports and strong investment. The pace of job growth reached 10-year highs in 2007. The Netherlands is the fourth-most competitive economy in the world, according to the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report.
=== Energy ===
Beginning in the 1950s, the Netherlands discovered huge natural gas resources. The sale of natural gas generated enormous revenues for the Netherlands for decades, adding, over sixty years, hundreds of billions of euros to the government's budget, about 1.5% of GNP. However, the unforeseen consequences of the country's huge energy wealth affected the competitiveness of other sectors of the economy, leading to the theory of Dutch disease. The field is operated by government-owned Gasunie and output is jointly exploited by the government, Royal Dutch Shell, and ExxonMobil. Gas production caused earthquakes which damaged housing. After a large public backlash, the government decided to phase out gas production from the field.
The Netherlands has made notable progress in its transition to a carbon-neutral economy. Thanks to increasing energy efficiency, energy demand shows signs of decoupling from economic growth. The share of energy from renewable sources doubled from 2008 to 2019, with especially strong growth in offshore wind and rooftop solar. However, the Netherlands remains heavily reliant on fossil fuels and has a concentration of energy- and emission-intensive industries that will not be easy to decarbonise. Its 2019 Climate Agreement defines policies and measures to support the achievement of Dutch climate targets and was developed through a collaborative process involving parties from across Dutch society. As of 2018, the Netherlands had one of the highest rates of carbon dioxide emissions per person in the European Union.
=== Agriculture and natural resources ===
The Netherlands' biocapacity totals only 0.8 global hectares per person in 2016, 0.2 of which are dedicated to agriculture. The Dutch biocapacity per person is just about half of the 1.6 global hectares of biocapacity per person available worldwide. In contrast, in 2016, the Dutch used on average 4.8 global hectares of biocapacity – their ecological footprint of consumption. As a result, the Netherlands was running a biocapacity deficit of 4.0 global hectares per person in 2016. The Dutch waste more food than any other EU citizen, at over three times the EU average.
The Dutch agricultural sector is highly mechanised, and has a strong focus on international exports. It employs about 4% of the Dutch labour force but produces large surpluses in the food-processing industry and accounts for 21% of the Dutch total export value. The Dutch rank first in the European Union and second worldwide in value of agricultural exports, behind only the United States, with agricultural exports earning €80.7 billion in 2014, up from €75.4 billion in 2012. In 2019 agricultural exports were worth €94.5 billion. In an effort to reduce agricultural pollution, the Dutch government is imposing strict limits on the productivity of the farming sector, triggering Dutch farmers' protests.
One-third of the world's exports of chilis, tomatoes, and cucumbers go through the country. The Netherlands exports one-fifteenth of the world's apples. A significant portion of Dutch agricultural exports consists of fresh-cut plants, flowers, and flower bulbs, the Netherlands exporting two thirds of the world's total.
== Demographics ==
The Netherlands had an estimated population of 18,080,943 as of June 2025. It is the 6th most densely populated country in Europe and the 33rd most densely populated country in the world with a density of 424 per square kilometre (1,100/sq mi). Between 1900 and 1950, the country's population almost doubled from 5.1 to 10 million. From 1950 to 2000, the population further increased, to 15.9 million.
The fertility rate in the Netherlands is 1.78 children per woman (2018 estimate), which is high compared with many other European countries, but below the rate of 2.1 children per woman required for natural population replacement. The Netherlands has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 42.7 years. Life expectancy is high in the Netherlands: 84.3 years for newborn girls and 79.7 for boys (2020 estimate). The Dutch are the tallest people in the world, by nationality, with an average height of 1.81 metres (5 ft 11.3 in) for men and 1.67 metres (5 ft 5.7 in) for women in 2009. The average height of young men in the Netherlands increased from 5 feet, 4 inches to approximately 6 feet between the 1850s until the early 2000s.
The country has a migration rate of 1.9 migrants per 1,000 inhabitants per year. The majority of the population of the Netherlands is ethnically Dutch. In 2022, the population was 74.8% ethnically Dutch, 8.3% other European, 2.4% Turkish, 2.4% Moroccan, 2.0% Indonesian, 2.0% Surinamese, and 8.1% others. Some 150,000 to 200,000 people living in the Netherlands are expatriates, mostly concentrated in and around Amsterdam and The Hague, now constituting almost 10% of the population of these cities. Significant minorities in the country include Frisians 700,000, Jews 41,000-45,000 and the Roma and the Sinti 40,000.
According to Eurostat, in 2010 there were 1.8 million foreign-born residents in the Netherlands, corresponding to 11.1% of the total population. Of these, 1.4 million (8.5%) were born outside the EU and 0.43 million (2.6%) were born in another EU Member State. In 2022, there were 4.4 million residents in the Netherlands with at least one foreign-born parent. Over half the young people in Amsterdam and Rotterdam have a non-western background, as of 2006. Dutch people, or descendants of Dutch people, are found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in South Africa and the United States.
The Randstad is the country's largest conurbation in the west of the country and contains the four largest cities: Amsterdam in the province North Holland, Rotterdam and The Hague in the province South Holland, and Utrecht in the province Utrecht. The Randstad has a population of about 8.2 million inhabitants and is the 5th largest metropolitan area in Europe. According to Dutch Central Statistics Bureau, in 2015, 28 per cent of the Dutch population had a spendable income above 45,000 euros (which does not include spending on health care or education).
=== Language ===
The official language of the Netherlands is Dutch, which is spoken by the vast majority of inhabitants. The dialects most spoken in the Netherlands are the Brabantian-Hollandic dialects.
Besides Dutch, West Frisian is recognised as a second official language in the northern province of Friesland (Fryslân in West Frisian). West Frisian has a formal status for government correspondence in that province. Four other languages are protected under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. The first of these recognised regional languages is Low Saxon (Nedersaksisch in Dutch). Low Saxon consists of several dialects of the Low German language spoken in the north and east of the Netherlands, like Tweants in the region of Twente, and Drents in the province of Drenthe.
Limburgish is recognised as a regional language. It consists of Dutch varieties of Meuse-Rhenish and is spoken in the south-eastern province of Limburg. Yiddish and the Romani language were recognised in 1996 as non-territorial languages.
English has a formal status in the special municipalities of Saba and Sint Eustatius. It is widely spoken on these islands. Papiamento has a formal status in the special municipality of Bonaire.
The Netherlands has a long tradition of learning foreign languages, formalised in Dutch education laws. Some 90% of the total population are able to converse in English, 70% in German, and 29% in French. English is a mandatory course in all secondary schools. In most lower level secondary school educations (vmbo), one additional modern foreign language is mandatory during the first two years. In higher level secondary schools (havo and vwo), the acquisition of two additional modern foreign language skills is mandatory. Besides English, the standard modern languages are French and German, although schools can replace one of these with Chinese, Spanish, Russian, Italian, Turkish or Arabic. Additionally, schools in Friesland teach and have exams in West Frisian.
=== Religion ===
Forms of Christianity have dominated religious life in what is now the Netherlands for more than 1,200 years, and by the middle of the sixteenth century the country was strongly Protestant (Calvinist). The population was predominantly Christian until the late 20th century. Although significant religious diversity remains, there has been a decline of religious adherence.
In 2020, Statistics Netherlands found that 55% of the total population declared itself non-religious. Groups that represent the non-religious in the Netherlands include Humanistisch Verbond. Catholics comprised 19.8% of the total population, Protestants 14.4%. Muslims comprised 5.2% of the total population and followers of other Christian denominations and other religions (like Judaism, Buddhism and Hinduism) comprised the remaining 5.1%. A 2015 survey from another source found that Protestants outnumbered Catholics.
The southern provinces of North Brabant and Limburg have historically been strongly Catholic, and some residents consider the Catholic Church as a base for their cultural identity. This can be seen in for example the regional celebration of Carnival. Protestantism in the Netherlands consists of a number of churches within various traditions. The largest of these is the Protestant Church in the Netherlands (PKN), a united church which is Calvinist and Lutheran in orientation. It was formed in 2004 as a merger of the Dutch Reformed Church, the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands and a smaller Lutheran Church. Several orthodox Calvinist and liberal churches did not merge into the PKN. Although Christianity has become a minority in the Netherlands, there is a Bible Belt from Zeeland to the northern parts of the province Overijssel, in which orthodox Protestant beliefs remain strong. Statistically, areas of the Bible Belt also have the highest fertility rates and the youngest populations in the Netherlands. Several Christian religious holidays are national holidays (Christmas, Easter, Pentecost, and the Ascension of Jesus).
Islam is the second largest religion in the state. The Muslim population increased from the 1960 as a result of large numbers of migrant workers. This included migrant workers from Turkey and Morocco, as well as migrants from former Dutch colonies, such as Suriname and Indonesia. During the 1990s, Muslim refugees arrived from countries like Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iran, Iraq, Somalia, and Afghanistan. Since 2000 there has been raised awareness of religion, mainly due to Islamic extremism.
Another religion practised is Hinduism, with about 215,000 adherents (slightly over 1% of the population). Most of these are Indo-Surinamese. There are sizeable populations of Hindu immigrants from India and Sri Lanka, and Western adherents of Hinduism-orientated new religious movements such as Hare Krishnas. The Netherlands has an estimated 250,000 Buddhists or people strongly attracted to this religion, mainly ethnic Dutch people. There are about 30,000 Jews in the Netherlands, though the Institute for Jewish Policy Research estimates range from 30,000 to 63,000, depending on how the number is calculated.
The Constitution of the Netherlands guarantees freedom of education, which means that all schools that adhere to general quality criteria receive the same government funding. This includes schools based on religious principles by religious groups (especially Catholic and Protestant). Three political parties in the Dutch parliament, (CDA, and two small parties, ChristianUnion and SGP) are based upon the Christian belief. Several Christian religious holidays are national holidays (Christmas, Easter, Pentecost and the Ascension of Jesus).
A survey in December 2014 concluded that for the first time there were more atheists (25%) than theists (17%) in the Netherlands, while the remainder of the population was agnostic (31%) or ietsistic (27%). In 2015, a vast majority of the inhabitants of the Netherlands (82%) said they had never or almost never visited a church, and 59% stated that they had never been to a church. Of all the people questioned, 24% saw themselves as atheist, an increase of 11% compared to the previous study done in 2006. The expected rise of spirituality has come to a halt according to research in 2015. In 2006, 40% of respondents considered themselves spiritual; in 2015 this has dropped to 31%. The number who believed in the existence of a higher power fell from 36% to 28% over the same period.
=== Education ===
Education in the Netherlands is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 16. If a child does not have a "starting qualification" (HAVO, VWO or MBO 2+ degree) they are still forced to attend classes until they achieve such a qualification or reach the age of 18.
Children in the Netherlands attend elementary school from (on average) ages 4 to 12. It has eight grades and the first is facultative. Based on an aptitude test, the eighth grade teacher's recommendation and the opinion of the pupil's parents or caretakers, a choice is made for one of the three main streams of secondary education.
The VMBO has four grades and is subdivided over several levels. Successfully completing the VMBO results in a low-level vocational degree that grants access to the MBO. The MBO (middle-level applied education) is a form of education that primarily focuses on teaching a practical trade or a vocational degree. With the MBO certification, a student can apply for the HBO. The HAVO has 5 grades and allows for admission to the HBO. The HBO (higher professional education) are universities of professional education (applied sciences) that award professional bachelor's degrees; similar to polytechnic degrees. An HBO degree gives access to the university system. The VWO (comprising atheneum and gymnasium) has 6 grades and prepares for studying at a research university. Universities offer a three-year bachelor's degree, followed by a one or two-year master's degree, which in turn can be followed by a doctoral degree programme.
Doctoral candidates in the Netherlands are generally non-tenured employees of a university. All Dutch schools and universities are publicly funded and managed with the exception of religious schools. Dutch universities have a tuition fee of about 2,000 euros a year for students from the Netherlands and the EU, and 15,000 euros for non-EU students.
=== Healthcare ===
In 2016, the Netherlands maintained its position at the top of the annual Euro Health Consumer Index (EHCI), which compares healthcare systems in Europe, scoring 916 of a maximum 1,000 points. The Netherlands has been among the top three countries in each report published since 2005. On 48 indicators such as patient rights and information, accessibility, prevention and outcomes, the Netherlands secured its top position among 37 European countries for six years in a row.
The Netherlands was ranked first in a study in 2009 comparing the health care systems of the United States, Australia, Canada, Germany and New Zealand.
According to the Health Consumer Powerhouse (HCP), patients have a great degree of freedom from where to buy their health insurance, to where they get their healthcare. Healthcare decisions are made in dialogue between patients and healthcare professionals. Healthcare in the Netherlands is split 3 ways: in somatic and mental health care and in 'cure' (short term) and 'care' (long term). Home doctors (huisartsen, comparable to general practitioners) form the largest part of the first level. Being referred by a member of the first level is mandatory for access to the second and third level. The health care system is, in comparison to other Western countries, effective but not the most cost-effective.
Healthcare is financed by a dual system that came into effect in January 2006. Long-term treatments, especially those that involve semi-permanent hospitalisation, and disability costs such as wheelchairs, are covered by a state-controlled mandatory insurance. In 2009 this insurance covered 27% of all health care expenses. Other sources of health care payment are taxes (14%), out of pocket payments (9%), additional optional health insurance packages (4%) and a range of other sources (4%).
Health insurance in the Netherlands is mandatory. Healthcare in the Netherlands is covered by two statutory forms of insurance:
Zorgverzekeringswet (ZVW), often called "basic insurance", covers common medical care.
Algemene Wet Bijzondere Ziektekosten (AWBZ) covers long-term nursing and care.
While Dutch residents are automatically insured by the government for AWBZ, everyone has to buy their own basic healthcare insurance, except those under 18 who are automatically covered under their parents. Insurance companies are obliged to provide a package with a defined set of insured treatments. This insurance covers 41% of all health care expenses. Insurers have to offer a universal package for everyone over 18, regardless of age or state of health – it is illegal to refuse an application or impose special conditions. The funding burden for all short-term health care coverage is carried 50% by employers, 45% by the insured person and 5% by the government. Those on low incomes receive compensation to help them pay their insurance. Premiums paid by the insured are about €135 per month.
== Transport ==
Mobility on Dutch roads has grown continuously since the 1950s and now exceeds 200 billion km travelled per year, three quarters of which are done by car. Around half of all trips in the Netherlands are made by car, 25% by bicycle, 20% walking, and 5% by public transport.
=== Road transport ===
The Netherlands has one of the densest road networks in the world. The Netherlands has a relatively high uptake of electric vehicles, as the government implemented ambitious policy on both charging infrastructure and tax benefits. As of 2019, the Netherlands hosts approximately 30% of all recharging stations in the European Union. Moreover, newly sold cars in the Netherlands have on average the lowest CO2 emissions in the EU.
=== Public transport ===
About 13% of all distance is travelled by public transport, the majority of which is by train. The Dutch rail network of 3,013 km (1,872 mi) route is also rather dense. The network is mostly focused on passenger rail services and connects all major cities, with over 400 stations. Trains are frequent, with two trains per hour on lesser lines, two to four trains per hour on average, and up to eight trains an hour on the busiest lines. The Dutch national train network includes the HSL-Zuid, a high-speed line between the Amsterdam metropolitan area and the Belgian border for trains running from Paris and London, to the Netherlands.
=== Cycling ===
Cycling is a ubiquitous mode of transport. Almost as many kilometres are covered by bicycle as by train. The Dutch are estimated to have at least 18 million bicycles, which makes more than one per capita, and twice as many as the circa 9 million motor vehicles on the road. In 2013, the European Cyclists' Federation ranked the Netherlands and Denmark as the most bike-friendly countries in Europe. Cycling infrastructure is extensive. Busy roads have received some 35,000 km of dedicated cycle tracks, physically segregated from motorised traffic. Busy junctions are often equipped with bicycle-specific traffic lights. There are large bicycle parking facilities, particularly in city centres and train stations.
=== Water transport ===
The Port of Rotterdam is the largest port in Europe and the largest port outside East Asia, the rivers Meuse and Rhine providing excellent access to the hinterland upstream. As of 2022, Rotterdam was the world's tenth largest container port. The port's main activities are petrochemical industries and general cargo handling and transshipment. The harbour functions as an important transit point for bulk materials and between the European continent and overseas. The Volkeraksluizen between Rotterdam and Antwerp are the biggest sluices for inland navigation in terms of tonnage. In 2007, the Betuweroute, a new fast freight railway from Rotterdam to Germany, was completed. Amsterdam is Europe's 4th largest port. The inland shipping fleet of the Netherlands is the largest in Europe. Passenger boats in the Netherlands includes a ferry network in Amsterdam, and waterbusses and taxis in Rotterdam.
=== Air transport ===
Schiphol Airport, just southwest of Amsterdam, is the main international airport in the Netherlands, and the fourth busiest airport in Europe by number of passengers. Schiphol is the main hub for KLM, the nation's flag carrier and the world's oldest airline. In 2016, the Royal Schiphol Group airports handled 70 million passengers. All air traffic is international and Schiphol Airport is connected to over 300 destinations worldwide, more than any other European airport. The airport is a major freight hub as well, processing 1.44 million tonnes of cargo in 2020. Smaller international airports are in or near Eindhoven, Rotterdam, Maastricht and Groningen. Air transport is of vital significance for the Caribbean part of the Netherlands, all islands having their own airports. This includes the shortest runway in the world on Saba.
== Culture ==
=== Art, architecture and philosophy ===
The Netherlands has had many well-known painters. In the Middle Ages Hieronymus Bosch and Pieter Bruegel the Elder were leading Dutch pioneers. During the Dutch Golden Age, the Dutch Republic was prosperous and witnessed a flourishing artistic movement. The "Dutch Masters", spanning this 17th century era, included Rembrandt, Johannes Vermeer, Jan Steen, and Jacob van Ruisdael. Famous Dutch painters of the 19th and 20th century included Vincent van Gogh and Piet Mondrian.
Literature flourished during the Dutch Golden Age, Joost van den Vondel and P. C. Hooft being the most famous writers. In the 19th century, Multatuli wrote Max Havelaar, a book about the poor treatment of the natives in the Dutch East Indies. Diary of a Young Girl by Anne Frank is the most translated book from Dutch. Other important 20th century authors include Harry Mulisch, Jan Wolkers, Hella Haasse, Willem Frederik Hermans, Cees Nooteboom and Gerard Reve.
Various architectural styles can be distinguished in the Netherlands. The Romanesque architecture was built between 950 and 1250. Gothic architecture was used from about 1230. Gothic buildings had large windows, pointed arches and were richly decorated. Brabantine Gothic originated with the rise of the Duchy of Brabant and spread throughout the Burgundian provinces. Dutch Baroque architecture (1525–1630) and classicism (1630–1700) is especially evident in the west. Other architectural styles are Art Nouveau, Expressionism, De Stijl, Traditionalism and Brutalism.
Erasmus and Spinoza were famous Dutch philosophers. The Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens (1629–95) discovered Saturn's moon Titan, argued that light travelled as waves, invented the pendulum clock, and was the first physicist to use mathematical formulae. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms with a microscope.
Windmills, tulips, clogs, cheese, and cannabis have grown to symbolise the Netherlands, especially among tourists.
=== Dutch value system ===
The Dutch are proud of their cultural heritage, rich history in art, and involvement in international affairs. A predominant attitude in the Netherlands is to think of the nation as being "both tolerant and cosmopolitan."
A Dutch saying indicating their sense of national pride in their reclamation of land from the sea and marshes is "God created the world, but the Dutch created the Netherlands."
Dutch manners are open and direct with a no-nonsense attitude—informality combined with adherence to basic behaviour. "Dealing with the Dutch" by Jacob Vossestein states: "Dutch egalitarianism is the idea that people are equal, especially from a moral point of view, and accordingly, causes the somewhat ambiguous stance the Dutch have towards hierarchy and status."
The Netherlands is one of the most secular countries in Europe. Religion in the Netherlands is generally considered a personal matter which is not supposed to be propagated in public, although it often remains a discussion subject.
=== Music ===
The Netherlands has multiple music traditions. Traditional Dutch music is a genre known as "Levenslied", meaning Song of life. These songs typically have a simple melody and rhythm, and a straightforward structure of verses and choruses. Themes can be light, but are often sentimental and include love, death and loneliness. Traditional musical instruments such as the accordion and the barrel organ are a staple of levenslied music, though in recent years many artists use synthesisers and guitars.
Contemporary Dutch rock and pop music (Nederpop) originated in the 1960s, heavily influenced by popular music from the United States and Britain. Bands such as Shocking Blue, Golden Earring, Tee Set, George Baker Selection and Focus enjoyed international success. From the 1980s, more and more pop musicians started working in the Dutch language, partly inspired by the huge success of the band Doe Maar.
Current symphonic metal bands Epica, Delain, ReVamp, The Gathering, Asrai, Autumn, Ayreon and Within Temptation as well as jazz and pop singer Caro Emerald are having international success. Metal bands like Hail of Bullets, God Dethroned, Izegrim, Asphyx, Textures, Heidevolk, and Slechtvalk are popular guests at the biggest metal festivals in Europe. Contemporary local stars include pop singer Anouk, country pop singer Ilse DeLange, Limburgish dialect singing folk band Rowwen Hèze, rock band BLØF and duo Nick & Simon.
Early 1990s Dutch and Belgian house music came together in Eurodance project 2 Unlimited. Selling 18 million records, the two singers in the band are the most successful Dutch music artists to this day. Tracks like "Get Ready for This" are still popular themes of U.S. sports events. In the mid-1990s Dutch language rap and hip hop (Nederhop) came to fruition and has become popular in the Netherlands and Belgium.
Since the 1990s, Dutch electronic dance music (EDM) gained widespread popularity in the world in many forms. Some of the world's best known dance music DJs hail from the Netherlands, including Armin van Buuren, Tiësto, Hardwell, Martin Garrix, Dash Berlin, Julian Jordan, Nicky Romero, W&W, Don Diablo, Ummet Ozcan, Headhunterz, Sander van Doorn, and Afrojack; the first four of which have been ranked as best in the world by DJ Mag Top 100 DJs. The Amsterdam Dance Event (ADE) is the world's leading electronic music conference and the biggest club festival for the many electronic subgenres on the planet. The Netherlands has participated in the Eurovision Song Contest since its first edition in 1956, and has won five times.
In classical music, Jan Sweelinck is a famous Dutch 16th to 17th-century composer; Louis Andriessen is among the best-known contemporary Dutch classical composers. Ton Koopman and Gustav Leonhardt are internationally recognised Dutch conductors, organists, and harpsichordists.
=== Film and television ===
Some Dutch films – mainly by director Paul Verhoeven – have received international distribution and recognition, such as Turkish Delight ("Turks Fruit", 1973), Soldier of Orange ("Soldaat van Oranje", 1977), Spetters (1980), and The Fourth Man ("De Vierde Man", 1983). Verhoeven then went on to direct big Hollywood movies like RoboCop (1987), Total Recall (1990), and Basic Instinct (1992), and returned with Dutch film Black Book ("Zwartboek", 2006).
Other well-known Dutch film directors are Jan de Bont, Anton Corbijn, Dick Maas, Fons Rademakers, and documentary makers Bert Haanstra and Joris Ivens. Film director Theo van Gogh achieved international notoriety in 2004 when he was murdered by Mohammed Bouyeri in the streets of Amsterdam after directing the short film Submission.
Directors of photography from the Netherlands include Hoyte van Hoytema and Theo van de Sande. Internationally successful Dutch actors include Famke Janssen, Carice van Houten, Rutger Hauer, and Jeroen Krabbé.
The Netherlands has a well developed television market, with commercial and public broadcasters. Imported TV programmes, as well as interviews with responses in a foreign language, are virtually always shown with the original sound and subtitled. Only foreign shows for children are dubbed.
TV exports from the Netherlands mostly take the form of specific formats and franchises, most notably was the internationally active TV production conglomerate Endemol, founded by Dutch media tycoons John de Mol and Joop van den Ende. Endemol and its subsidiaries created and ran reality, talent, and game show franchises worldwide, including Big Brother and Deal or No Deal. Endemol merged with Shine Group in 2015, and again with Banijay in 2020.
=== Sports ===
Approximately 4.5 million of the 16.8 million people in the Netherlands are registered in one of the 35,000 sports clubs in the country. About two-thirds of the population between 15 and 75 participate in sports weekly. Football is the most popular team sport, followed by field hockey and volleyball. Tennis, gymnastics and golf are the three most widely engaged in individual sports. Organisation of sports began at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century. Federations for sports were established, rules were unified and sports clubs came into existence. A Dutch National Olympic Committee was established in 1912.
The national football team was runner-up in the World Cup of 1974, 1978, and 2010, and won the European Championship of 1988. Of SI's 50 greatest footballers of all time, Johan Cruyff (#5), Marco van Basten (#19), Ruud Gullit (#25), and Johan Neeskens (#36) are Dutch. The women's national team was runner-up in 2019 World Cup and won the European Championship of 2017. The Netherlands women's field hockey team won 9 out of 15 World Cups. The Netherlands baseball team have won the European championship 24 times out of 33 events. The volleyball national women's team won the European Championship in 1995 and the World Grand Prix in 2007.
The Netherlands has won 266 medals at the Summer Olympic Games and 110 at the Winter Olympic Games. Joop Zoetemelk won the 1979 Vuelta a Espana, the 1980 Tour de France, and the 1985 UCI World Championship. Jan Janssen won the 1968 Tour de France, Tom Dumoulin the 2017 Giro d'Italia. Max Verstappen, the youngest Formula 1 driver to make his debut and to win a race, was the first Dutchman to win a Grand Prix and a Formula One World Drivers Championship. Dutch K-1 kickboxers have won the K-1 World Grand Prix 15 times out of 19 tournaments.
=== Cuisine ===
Dutch cuisine is simple and straightforward, and contains many dairy products. Breakfast and lunch are typically bread with toppings; cereal is an option. Traditionally, dinner consists of potatoes, meat, and vegetables. The Dutch diet was high in carbohydrates and fat, reflecting the dietary needs of the labourers whose culture moulded the country. During the twentieth century, this diet changed and became more cosmopolitan, most global cuisines being represented in the major cities. In early 2014, Oxfam ranked the Netherlands as the country with the most nutritious, plentiful and healthy food. Modern culinary writers distinguish between three regional forms of Dutch cuisine: northeast, west and south:
The regions in the northeast are the least populated areas of the Netherlands. The late 18th century introduction of large scale agriculture means the cuisine is known for its meats. The relative lack of farms allowed for an abundance of game and husbandry, though dishes near the coastal regions include a large amount of fish. The various dried sausages, belonging to the metworst-family of Dutch sausages are found throughout this region. Smoked sausages are common, of which (Gelderse) rookworst is the most renowned. Larger sausages are eaten alongside stamppot, hutspot, or zuurkool (sauerkraut); whereas smaller ones are eaten as a street food. The provinces are home to hard textured rye bread, pastries and cookies. As a coastal region, Friesland is home to low-lying grasslands, and thus has a cheese production in common with the Western cuisine. Cookies are produced in great number and contain a lot of butter and sugar. The traditional alcoholic beverages are beer (strong pale lager) and Jenever, a high proof juniper-flavoured spirit, that came to be known in England as gin. An exception within the traditional Dutch alcoholic landscape, Advocaat, a rich and creamy liqueur made from eggs, sugar and brandy, is native to this region.
In the west, the abundance of water and flat grasslands, mean the area is known for its dairy products, which include prominent cheeses such as Gouda, Leyden (spiced cheese with cumin), and Edam (traditionally in small spheres) as well as Leerdammer and Beemster, while the adjacent Zaanstreek in North Holland has since the 16th century been known for its mayonnaise and typical whole-grain mustards. A by-product of the butter-making process, karnemelk (buttermilk), is considered typical for this region. Seafood such as soused herring, mussels, eels, oysters and shrimps are widely available and typical for the region.
The southern Dutch cuisine consists of the cuisines of the Dutch provinces of North Brabant and Limburg and the Flemish Region in Belgium. It is renowned for its rich pastries, soups, stews and vegetable dishes. It is the only Dutch culinary region that developed an haute cuisine. Pastries are abundant, often with rich fillings of cream, custard or fruits. Cakes, such as the Vlaai from Limburg and the Moorkop and Bossche bol from Brabant, are typical pastries. Savoury pastries abound, the worstenbroodje (a roll with a sausage of ground beef, literally translates into sausage bread) being the most popular. The alcoholic beverage of the region is beer, there are many local brands, ranging from Trappist to Kriek.
=== Cheeses ===
The Netherlands is well known for its cheese production, with internationally recognised varieties, such as Gouda, Edam, and Leyden. Traditional cheese markets are still held in towns like Alkmaar, Gouda, and Edam. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nouhaila_Benzina | Nouhaila Benzina | Nouhaila Benzina (Arabic: نهيلة بنزينة; born 11 May 1998) is a Moroccan professional footballer who plays as a defender for AS FAR and the Morocco women's national team.
In July 2023, she made history as the first female player to ever wear an Islamic headscarf (a hijab) at the senior-level FIFA Women's World Cup. She has been considered a role model for Muslim female footballers.
== Club career ==
Benzina has played for AS FAR in Morocco.
== International career ==
Benzina has capped for Morocco at under-20 and senior levels.
Benzina was included in the Moroccan national team squad for the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup, which marked the debut World Cup appearance for both Benzina and the Moroccan national team. Morocco's first Women's World Cup match was on 24 July against Germany, where Benzina made headlines around the world for being the first player on the team roster to wear a hijab at a World Cup match, though she did not play in the match. On 30 July she became the first player to play in a World Cup match wearing a hijab in her country's 1–0 win against South Korea. French press, namely L'Équipe, made Islamophobic comments directed at her after the match.
== Honours ==
AS FAR
Moroccan Women's Championship (8): 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023,2024
Moroccan Women Throne Cup (7): 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023
UNAF Women's Champions League (2): 2021, 2024
CAF Women's Champions League (1): 2022; third place: 2021
Morocco
Africa Cup of Nations runner-up: 2022
UNAF Women's Tournament: 2020 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemanja_Markovi%C4%87 | Nemanja Marković | |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionel_Messi | Lionel Messi | Lionel Andrés Messi (born 24 June 1987) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as a forward for and captains both Major League Soccer club Inter Miami and the Argentina national team. Widely regarded as one of the greatest players in history, Messi has set numerous records for individual accolades won throughout his professional footballing career, including eight Ballon d'Ors, six European Golden Shoes, and eight times being named the world's best player by FIFA. In 2025, he was named the All Time Men's World Best Player by the IFFHS. He is the most decorated player in the history of professional football, having won 46 team trophies. Messi's records include most goals in a calendar year (91), most goals for a single club (672 for Barcelona), most goals in La Liga (474), most assists in international football (61), most goal contributions in the FIFA World Cup (21), and most goal contributions in the Copa América (32). A prolific goalscorer and creative playmaker, Messi has scored over 900 senior career goals and provided over 400 assists for club and country—the most of any player—resulting in over 1,300 goal contributions, the highest total in the sport's history.
Messi made his competitive debut for Barcelona at age 17 in October 2004. He gradually established himself as an integral player for the club, and during his first uninterrupted season at age 22 in 2008–09 he helped Barcelona achieve the first treble in Spanish football. This resulted in Messi winning the first of four consecutive Ballon d'Ors, and by the 2011–12 season he set the European record for most goals in a season and established himself as Barcelona's all-time top scorer. During the 2014–15 campaign, where he became the all-time top scorer in La Liga, he led Barcelona to a historic second treble, leading to a fifth Ballon d'Or in 2015. He assumed Barcelona's captaincy in 2018 and won a record sixth Ballon d'Or in 2019. At Barcelona, Messi won a club-record 34 trophies, including ten La Liga titles and four UEFA Champions Leagues, among others. Financial difficulties at Barcelona led to Messi signing with French club Paris Saint-Germain in August 2021, where he won the Ligue 1 title during both of his seasons there. He joined MLS club Inter Miami in July 2023, leading the club to win their first MLS Cup in 2025, whilst also winning back-to-back league MVP awards in 2024 and 2025.
An Argentine international, Messi is the national team's all-time leading goalscorer and most-capped player. Several years after his senior debut in 2005, he won the gold medal at the 2008 Summer Olympics. Assuming captaincy in 2011, he led Argentina to three consecutive finals in the 2014 World Cup, the 2015 Copa América and the Copa América Centenario, all of which they lost. After initially announcing his international retirement in 2016, he returned to help his country narrowly qualify for the 2018 World Cup. Messi was central to ending Argentina's 28-year trophy drought by winning the 2021 Copa América, which helped him secure his seventh Ballon d'Or that year. In the following year, he led Argentina to winning the 2022 World Cup, the country's first in 36 years. He followed this achievement with a record-extending eighth Ballon d'Or in 2023. Messi was victorious at the 2024 Copa América, his third major international title.
Messi has endorsed sportswear company Adidas since 2006. According to France Football, he was the world's highest-paid footballer for five years out of six between 2009 and 2014, and was ranked the world's highest-paid athlete by Forbes in 2019 and 2022. Messi was among Time's 100 most influential people in the world in 2011, 2012, and 2023. In 2020 and 2023, he was named the Laureus World Sportsman of the Year, the first team-sport athlete to win it. In 2020, Messi was named to the Ballon d'Or Dream Team and became the second footballer and second team-sport athlete to surpass $1 billion in career earnings. Following his arrival and impact on football in the US, Messi was named Time's Athlete of the Year in 2023, and was bestowed with the Presidential Medal of Freedom by US president Joe Biden in 2025.
== Early life ==
Messi was born on 24 June 1987 in Rosario, Santa Fe Province. He was the third of four children of Jorge Messi, head of department at the Acindar pressed steel manufacturer in Villa Constitución, and his wife Celia Cuccittini, who worked in a magnet manufacturing workshop. His parents had met as youngsters in Rosario's south-eastern district of Las Heras, where Messi himself later grew up, and had married on Jorge Messi's completion of military service in the Argentine Armed Forces in 1978. On his father's side, Messi is of Italian and Spanish descent, the great-grandson of immigrants from the north-central Adriatic Marche region of Italy (with his surname coming from Porto Recanati), and on his mother's side he has primarily Italian ancestry. Growing up in a tight-knit, football-loving family, "Leo" developed a passion for the sport from an early age, playing constantly with his older brothers, Rodrigo and Matías, and his cousins, Maximiliano and Emanuel Biancucchi, both of whom became professional footballers.
At the age of four, Messi joined the local football club Abanderado Grandoli FC, where he was coached by his father. His maternal grandmother, Celia, accompanied him to training and matches. He was greatly affected by her death, shortly before his eleventh birthday. Since then, as a devout Catholic, he has celebrated his goals by looking up and pointing to the sky in tribute to his grandmother.
== Youth career ==
=== Newell's Old Boys ===
Messi started playing for the Rosario-based football club Newell's Old Boys when he was seven years old; he would become a lifelong supporter of the club. During the six years he played for Newell's, he scored almost 500 goals, and was a member of "The Machine of '87", a nearly unbeatable youth team named for the year of their birth. Messi regularly entertained crowds by performing ball tricks during half-time, when the Newell's first team played home games. His goalscoring idol growing up was Brazilian striker Ronaldo, who Messi called "the best forward I've ever seen".
Messi's future as a professional player was threatened when, at the age of 10, he was diagnosed with a growth hormone deficiency. He began growth hormone therapy at age 11; however, his father's health insurance covered only two years of the therapy, which cost at least 1,000 pesos per month. Newell's agreed to contribute, but later reneged on their promise. Messi was scouted by the Buenos Aires club River Plate, whose playmaker Pablo Aimar he idolised. It was speculated for a time that Messi failed to sign with River Plate due to his ill health; however, in a 2019 interview, he revealed that River Plate had wanted to sign him after he scored four goals at a trial, and even offered to pay for his medical treatment, but Newell's refused to release his player card, preventing the transfer.
=== Barcelona ===
As the Messi family had relatives in Catalonia, they sought to arrange a trial with Barcelona in September 2000, when Messi was 13. First-team director Carles Rexach immediately wanted to sign him, but the board of directors hesitated; at the time it was highly unusual for European clubs to sign foreign players of such a young age. On 14 December, an ultimatum was issued for Barcelona to prove their commitment, and Rexach, with no other paper at hand, wrote a contract on a paper napkin. In February 2001, Messi's family relocated to Barcelona, where they moved into an apartment near the club's stadium, Camp Nou.
During his first year in Spain, Messi rarely played with the Infantiles due to a transfer conflict with Newell's; as a foreigner, he could only be fielded in friendlies and the Catalan league. Without football, he struggled to integrate into the team. He was reserved by nature, and was so quiet that some of his teammates initially believed he was mute. At home, he suffered from homesickness after his mother moved back to Rosario with his brothers and younger sister, María Sol, while he stayed in Barcelona with his father.
After a year at Barcelona's youth academy, La Masia, Messi was finally enrolled in the Royal Spanish Football Federation (RFEF) in February 2002. Now he could play in all competitions, and quickly befriended his teammates, including Cesc Fàbregas and Gerard Piqué. After completing his growth hormone therapy at 14, Messi became an integral part of the "Baby Dream Team", Barcelona's greatest-ever youth side. During his first full season (2002–03), he was the top scorer with 36 goals in 30 games for the Cadetes A, who won an unprecedented treble of the league, the Spanish cup, and the Copa Catalunya. In the Copa Catalunya final, their 4–1 victory over Espanyol became referred to in club lore as the partido de la máscara, the final of the mask. A week after suffering a broken cheekbone during a league match, Messi was allowed to start the game on the condition that he wear a protective plastic mask. When the mask became a hindrance, Messi took it off and scored two goals in 10 minutes. At the close of the season, he received an offer to join Arsenal, his first from a foreign club. Although Fàbregas and Piqué soon left for England with their own offers, Messi chose to remain in Barcelona.
Messi continued to progress through his club's ranks at a rapid pace, debuting for four youth teams during the 2003–04 season. After being named player of the tournament in four separate international pre-season competitions with the Juvenil B, he played only one official match with the team before being promoted to the Juvenil A. In the Juvenil A he scored 18 goals in 11 league games. During the international break, Messi was one of several youth players called up to strengthen the depleted first team. Ludovic Giuly, one of Barcelona's wingers, described Messi's performance during a training session: "He destroyed us all ... He would dribble past four players and score a goal. Even the team's starting centre-backs were nervous ... He was an alien."
At 16 years old, Messi made his first-team debut when he came on in the 75th minute during a friendly against FC Porto on 16 November 2003. His performance impressed the technical staff, and he subsequently began training daily with the club's reserve side, Barcelona B, as well as weekly with the first team. After Messi's first training session with the senior squad, Barcelona's new star player Ronaldinho told his teammates that he believed the 16-year-old would become an even better player than himself. Ronaldinho called Messi "little brother", and his friendship greatly eased Messi's transition onto the first team.
To gain further match experience, Messi joined his club's third team, Barcelona C, in addition to the Juvenil A. He helped save the third team from the relegation zone of the Tercera División, scoring five goals in ten games, including a hat-trick in eight minutes during a Copa del Rey Juvenil match. His progress was reflected in his first professional contract, signed on 4 February 2004, which lasted until 2012 and contained an initial buyout clause of €30 million. A month later, he made his debut for Barcelona B in the Segunda División B, and his buyout clause automatically increased to €80 million. He played five games with the B team that season but did not score. He was physically weaker than his opponents, who were often much older and taller, and he worked on increasing his muscle mass and overall strength. Towards the end of the season, he returned to both youth teams, helping the Juvenil B win the league. He finished the campaign having scored goals for four of his five teams, with a total of 36 goals in all official competitions.
== Club career ==
=== Barcelona ===
==== 2004–2008: Rise to the first team ====
Messi began the 2004–05 season as a guaranteed starter for the Barcelona B team, but after some lobbying by the senior players, he was promoted to the first team by manager Frank Rijkaard. He made his La Liga debut for Barcelona on 16 October 2004, at 17 years old. He scored his first senior goal on 1 May 2005, becoming the youngest-ever scorer for the club at the time. He was at that time the youngest player to represent Barcelona in an official competition, and the club won the league title during that season.
On his 18th birthday, Messi signed his first contract as a senior team player, which kept him with Barcelona through 2010, and had a release clause of €150 million. Three months later, as his performance continued to make waves, his contract was updated to double his salary and keep him with the club until 2014. By the end of the 2005–06 season, Barcelona had won La Liga again as well as the UEFA Champions League.
During the 2006–07 season, Messi scored his first hat-trick during a game against Real Madrid, becoming the first player to score a hat-trick in a Clásico in 12 years. Two goals scored by Messi against Getafe and Espanyol during the season drew notice for their similarities to two famous goals scored by fellow Argentine Diego Maradona in the 1986 World Cup match against England, leading to comparisons between Messi and Maradona that would endure throughout Messi's career. Barcelona finished the 2006–07 season with only one trophy – the 2006 Supercopa de España – and the 2007–08 season without a single trophy, leading to Rijkaard's departure.
==== 2008–2012: Success under Pep Guardiola ====
At the beginning of the 2008–09 season – his first under Barcelona's new manager, former captain Pep Guardiola – Messi was given the number 10 shirt. Over time, he effectively became the tactical focal point of Guardiola's strategy, increasing his goalscoring rate as a result. During that season, Messi scored 38 goals, and alongside Samuel Eto'o and Thierry Henry, contributed to a total of 100 goals in all competitions, a record at the time for the club. Messi played in his first final as Barcelona won the Copa del Rey. Barcelona also won the La Liga title and the Champions League, thus achieving the first treble in the history of Spanish football.
During the first half of the 2009–10 season, Barcelona won the Supercopa de España, the UEFA Super Cup and the FIFA Club World Cup, becoming the first club to achieve the sextuple. Messi finished as the Champions League top scorer, the youngest in the tournament's history. For his efforts in 2009, Messi won the Ballon d'Or, the FIFA World Player of the Year award and his first European Golden Shoe. He scored a total of 47 goals in all competitions, equalling Ronaldo's club record from the 1996–97 campaign. He signed a new 7-year contract with Barcelona through 2016.
During the 2010–11 season, Barcelona won the Supercopa de España, the Champions League, and a third consecutive La Liga title. Messi's club performances in 2010 earned him his second consecutive Ballon d'Or. He was the top scorer in the Champions League for the third consecutive year, and the league's top scorer and assist provider. He became Barcelona's all-time single-season top scorer with 53 goals.
During the 2011–12 season Barcelona won both the Spanish and European Super Cup trophies, and the FIFA Club World Cup. Messi won the Golden Ball for the second time and the Ballon d'Or for the third time, as well as the inaugural UEFA Best Player in Europe Award. During the year 2012, Messi became the second player to be top scorer in four Champions League campaigns. He became the top goalscorer in Barcelona's history at 24 years old, overtaking César Rodríguez's 57-year record of 232 goals. He finished the season as the league top scorer in Spain for the second time with 50 goals, a La Liga record. His 73 goals in all competitions made him the single-season top scorer in the history of European club football excluding regional and local competitions. Barcelona won the Copa del Rey that season, their 14th trophy under Guardiola, who resigned after a four-year cycle of success.
==== 2012–2014: Record-breaking year and Messidependencia ====
For the start of the 2012–13 season, Barcelona had virtually secured their La Liga title by the start of 2013. A double scored against Real Betis saw Messi becoming Barcelona's all-time top scorer in La Liga, and surpassed Gerd Müller's record of most goals scored in a calendar year; Messi scored a record 91 goals in all competitions for Barcelona and Argentina throughout 2012. Messi again won the FIFA Ballon d'Or, becoming the first player in history to win the Ballon d'Or four times. He signed a new contract committing himself to the club through 2018, and wore the captain's armband for the first time in a league match against Rayo Vallecano. The team won La Liga again that year, Messi's sixth, equalling Real Madrid's 100-point record of the previous season. With 60 goals in all competitions, including 46 goals in La Liga, he finished the campaign as league top scorer in Spain and Europe for the second consecutive year, becoming the first player in history to win the European Golden Shoe three times.
Messi's overall input into the team's attack had increased significantly. Whereas he contributed to 24% of the team's goals in their treble-winning campaign in 2008–09, this number rose to more than 40% by the end of the 2012–13 season. These statistics, as well as lopsided losses in the Champions League where Messi was unfit, gave credence to the notion of Messidependencia, Barcelona's perceived tactical and psychological dependence on their star player.
To offset the load on Messi, Barcelona signed Brazilian forward Neymar from Santos before the 2013–14 season. The team won the Supercopa de España at the beginning of the season. Messi finished the campaign with his worst output in five seasons, though he still managed to score 41 goals in all competitions. For the first time in five years, Barcelona ended the season without a major trophy.
==== 2014–2017: Arrival of Luis Enrique and birth of MSN ====
Barcelona hired coach Luis Enrique before the 2014–15 season, and continued to aid Messi in the attack by signing Uruguayan forward Luis Suárez, who had won the European Golden Shoe the year before at Liverpool. Luis Enrique's system featured quick transitions from defence to attack, led by the front three of Messi, Suárez and Neymar. The attacking trio, which colloquially became known as 'MSN', broke goalscoring records. A hat-trick scored against Sevilla earlier in the season also made him the all-time top scorer in La Liga, as he surpassed the 59-year record of 251 league goals held by Telmo Zarra. After securing the La Liga title, the Copa del Rey, and the Champions League that year, Messi helped Barcelona become the first club to win the continental treble twice. He recorded 58 goals, but combined with Neymar and Suárez, the attacking trio scored a total of 122 goals in all competitions that season, a record in Spanish football.
Messi opened the 2015–16 season by helping Barcelona's win over Sevilla in the UEFA Super Cup. Messi capped off the year by winning the 2015 FIFA Club World Cup final over River Plate in Yokohama, collecting his fifth club trophy of the calendar year. On 11 January 2016, Messi won the FIFA Ballon d'Or for a record fifth time in his career. He ended the season by winning La Liga as well as the Copa del Rey again. In total, Messi scored 41 goals, and Barcelona's attacking trio of him, Neymar and Suárez managed a Spanish record of 131 combined goals throughout the season, breaking the record they had set the previous season.
The 2016–17 season ended with Barcelona winning the Supercopa de España and the Copa del Rey. Messi finished the season with 54 goals, while his 37 goals in La Liga saw him claim both the Pichichi and European Golden Boot Awards for the fourth time in his career.
==== 2017–2021: Final years at Barcelona ====
Messi signed a new deal with Barcelona on 25 November 2017, keeping him with the club through 2021. The 2017–18 season saw Barcelona winning La Liga and the Copa del Rey once again. Messi again finished the season as the top scorer in La Liga, with 34 goals, and won his fifth European Golden Shoe award. With the departure of captain Andrés Iniesta in May 2018, Messi was named the team's new captain for the 2018–19 season. He lifted his first trophy as Barcelona's captain, the Supercopa de España, following a 2–1 victory over Sevilla. He also helped Barcelona clinch the La Liga title. With 36 goals in 34 appearances that season, Messi won his sixth La Liga Golden Boot trophy. He also captured his sixth European Golden Shoe award, setting a record for winning the award three seasons in a row.
Messi won his sixth Ballon d'Or, but the subsequent 2019–20 season saw Barcelona go trophyless for the first time since 2007–08. Following a disappointing season, Messi expressed to the club his desire to leave, but ultimately decided to fulfill the final year of his contract. In 2021, he led Barcelona to victory in the Copa del Rey. His last two seasons with Barcelona saw him lead La Liga in goal scoring, giving him a record-breaking total of eight Pichichi trophies.
Although Messi became a free agent after his contract expired, he was hoping to stay with Barcelona, even though the club was facing immense financial challenges due in part to the COVID-19 pandemic. Following initial progress in contract negotiations, Messi was expecting to sign a new contract with a 50% salary cut, but Barcelona surprised him by announcing that it could not resign him, citing financial constraints and structural obstacles posed by La Liga regulations. On 8 August, 2021, Messi held a tearful press conference at Camp Nou confirming that he would leave the club.
=== Paris Saint-Germain ===
On 10 August 2021, two days after his farewell remarks to Barcelona, Messi joined the Ligue 1 club Paris Saint-Germain (PSG) on a two-year contract with an option for an extra year. He chose 30 as his squad number, which is the number he wore when he made his senior debut for Barcelona. He scored his first goal for the club in a Champions League group stage win over former manager Pep Guardiola's Manchester City. After finishing the year with 40 goals at the club and international levels and leading Argentina to victory in the 2021 Copa América, Messi won a record seventh Ballon d'Or. He finished his debut season with PSG with 11 goals and 14 assists, and helped the club win their 10th Ligue 1 title.
Near the start of the 2022–23 season, Messi won his second trophy with PSG in the Trophée des Champions. A goal against Nice saw him surpass Cristiano Ronaldo as the all-time highest goalscorer in European club football with 702 goals; during the match, he also achieved 1,000 career direct goal contributions at club level. By the end of the season, he had 21 goals across all competitors and the highest number of assists in the league with 16, which helped PSG clinch their 11th Ligue 1 title and his second in a row. After two years with Paris Saint-Germain, Messi departed the club.
=== Inter Miami ===
Major League Soccer (MLS) club Inter Miami CF announced the signing of Messi on a two-and-a-half-year contract on 15 July 2023. According to Goal, Messi's arrival in the United States helped to raise the profile of MLS within the US and abroad. Inter Miami co-president Xavier Asensi said that for MLS "there is a before and after Messi. He has changed everything." After Messi joined Inter Miami, the club's games began selling out. The frenzy over his arrival was dubbed "Messimania", and Inter Miami's No. 10 Messi jersey became the best-selling jersey in the league, and nearly the best-selling in the world.Messi was made the team captain of his new club, and began the 2023 season by scoring nine goals in his first six games. He led Inter Miami to their first-ever trophy as they defeated Nashville SC in the Leagues Cup final. Miami missed the MLS playoffs, however, finishing second to last in the Eastern Conference. On 30 October 2023, following his World Cup win with Argentina and Ligue 1 trophy with Paris Saint-Germain, Messi was awarded a record eighth Ballon d'Or. He was named Time Athlete of the Year, the first footballer ever to win the award.
During the 2024 season, Messi broke the record for the most assists in a single MLS game with five assists. On 2 October, he scored two goals in a 3–2 win over the Columbus Crew, clinching the Supporters' Shield award for Miami. In the final game of the season, Messi scored his first hat-trick for the club in a 6–2 victory. Miami finished the regular season with 74 points, an MLS league record, while Messi finished with 20 goals and 16 assists in 19 matches, becoming the all-time top goalscorer for the young team. Miami made its first postseason appearance in the 2024 MLS Cup playoffs but was eliminated in the first round. Messi was named the MLS Most Valuable Player for the season.
During the 2025 season, Messi became the fastest player in MLS history to reach 40 league goals. He ended the season winning the MLS Golden Boot as the league's top scorer, with 29 goals and 19 assists in 28 games. On 23 October, Messi signed a three-year contract extension with the club through 2028, by which time he would be 41 years old. During the Eastern Conference final against New York City FC in the 2025 MLS Cup playoffs, an assist from Messi put his career assists across all competitions at 405, surpassing Ferenc Puskás for the most career assists of all time. Messi led Miami to MLS Cup 2025, where they won 3–1 over the Vancouver Whitecaps to win the team's first league championship. Providing two assists during the match, Messi was named MLS Cup MVP. At the end of the season, Messi was again named MLS MVP, becoming the first player in league history to win the award in back-to-back years.
In March 2026 it was reported that Messi was earning between $70 and $80 million per year from Inter Miami from his compensation and equity rights.
== International career ==
As a citizen of both Argentina and Spain, Messi was eligible to play for both national teams. He began his international career in 2004 with Argentina's U20 team, and was subsequently included in the squad for the 2005 South American U-20 Championship, in which they finished third. Messi then led the team to victory in the 2005 FIFA World Youth Championship. He finished the tournament with six goals and two assists, and won the Golden Ball.
Messi made his debut with the senior national team in 2005, at age 18, and scored his first international goal in a 2006 friendly against Croatia. At the 2006 FIFA World Cup, he became the youngest player to represent and score for Argentina in the World Cup. Messi was named the best young player of the 2007 Copa América, during which he scored two goals and provided one assist. At the 2008 Summer Olympics, Messi led Argentina's U23 team to claim the Olympic gold medal over Nigeria; he was singled out by FIFA as the stand-out player from the tournament's best team.
With the international retirement of Juan Román Riquelme in 2009, Messi was given Argentina's number 10 shirt. Argentina built their team around Messi ahead of the 2011 Copa América, although Messi scored no goals during the tournament. At 24 years old, Messi became captain of the national team, but over the next several years was unable to lead Argentina to a trophy. During the 2014 FIFA World Cup, Argentina lost to Germany in the final, though Messi was awarded the Golden Ball. The following year, Argentina lost to Chile in the 2015 Copa América final; Messi was reportedly selected to receive the Golden Ball, but he rejected the honour. During a semi-final match against the United States during the 2016 Copa América Centenario, Messi became Argentina's all-time leading goalscorer in international matches. Argentina won the semi-final but lost again to Chile in the final.
Losing three finals in three consecutive years caused Messi to retire from international football, but a nationwide campaign in Argentina helped convince him to return to the national team to lead them to the 2018 FIFA World Cup. Argentina were in jeopardy of missing the tournament on the last game of the qualifiers against Ecuador, but a hat-trick from Messi secured their entry. They went on to lose to France in the round of 16 during the World Cup, with Messi having one goal and two assists in the tournament. The next year, Messi had only a single goal and one assist in the 2019 Copa América. Argentina finished the tournament in third place after defeating Chile, a victory which marked the start of a 36-game winning streak for the team that lasted for more than three years.
Messi led his team to the end of a 28-year trophy drought in the 2021 Copa América, during which he surpassed Javier Mascherano for most international appearances for Argentina. Messi's team defeated Brazil in the final, and he was named the player of the tournament, having either scored or assisted nine of Argentina's 12 goals. He led Argentina to another victory at the 2022 Finalissima, where he was named player of the match. At the 2022 FIFA World Cup, Messi led Argentina to its first World Cup victory in 36 years, scoring twice in the final to defeat France. Having scored seven goals and assisted three during the tournament, Messi again won the World Cup's Golden Ball, becoming the first player to win it twice.
A hat-trick in a 2023 friendly against Curaçao saw Messi reach 100 international goals, the third player and the first South American in history to achieve the milestone. Later that year, he became the all-time top goalscorer in CONMEBOL World Cup qualifiers. In 2024, Argentina won the Copa América for a second consecutive time, with Messi setting a new record for most appearances at Copa América, with 39. After providing two assists in a friendly against Puerto Rico later that year, Messi became the top assist-provider in men's international football history.
On 18 March 2026, Messi scored his 900th career goal during Inter Miami's 1-1 draw with Nashville SC in the CONCACAF Champions Cup. He became the second player to reach the mark in top-level men's football after Cristiano Ronaldo.
== Player profile ==
=== Style of play ===
Due to his short stature, Messi has a lower centre of gravity than taller players, which gives him greater agility and allows him to change direction more quickly and evade opposing tackles; the Spanish media has dubbed him La Pulga Atómica ("The Atomic Flea"). Despite being physically unimposing, Messi possesses significant upper-body strength, which, when combined with his low centre of gravity and resulting balance, aids him in withstanding physical challenges from opponents; he has consequently been noted for his lack of diving in a sport rife with playacting. Messi's short, strong legs allow him short bursts of acceleration, while his quick feet enable him to retain control of the ball when dribbling at speed. His former Barcelona manager Pep Guardiola once stated, "Messi is the only player that runs faster with the ball than he does without it." Messi is predominantly a left-footed player, although he has improved his ability with his weaker right foot since his mid-20s. He usually begins dribbling runs with the outside of his left foot, while using the inside of that foot to score and provide passes and assists.
A prolific goalscorer, Messi is known for his positioning, quick reactions, and ability to make attacking runs to beat the defensive line. He also functions in a playmaking role, courtesy of his vision and range of passing. He has often been described as a magician, conjuring goals and opportunities where none seemingly exist. He is known for the accuracy of his free kicks and penalty kicks, and as of March 2026 he ranks second in career goals scored from direct free kicks with 71. He also has a penchant for scoring from chips.
Messi's pace and technical ability enable him to undertake individual dribbling runs towards the goal, in particular during counterattacks, usually starting from the halfway line or the right side of the pitch. He is widely considered to be one of the greatest dribblers of all time. Former Argentina manager Diego Maradona said of him, "The ball stays glued to his foot ... I've never seen anyone with Messi's ball control." Beyond Messi's individual qualities, he is also a well-rounded, hard-working team player, known for his creative combinations, in particular with former Barcelona midfielders Xavi and Andrés Iniesta.
As his career advanced and his athleticism and tendency to dribble diminished slightly with age, Messi began to dictate play in deeper areas of the pitch and developed into one of the best passers and playmakers in football history. His work-rate off the ball and defensive responsibilities also decreased as his career progressed; by covering less ground on the pitch, and instead conserving his energy for short bursts of speed, he was able to improve his efficiency, movement, and positional play, and was also able to avoid muscular injuries. While he was injury-prone in his early career, he was able to decrease his injury count by running less off the ball, and by adopting a stricter diet, training regime, and sleep schedule.
=== Tactical positioning ===
Tactically, Messi plays in a free attacking role; a versatile player, he is capable of attacking on either wing or through the centre of the pitch. His favoured position in childhood was the playmaker behind two strikers, known as the enganche in Argentine football, but he began his career in Spain as a left-winger or left-sided forward. Upon his first-team debut, he was moved onto the right wing by manager Frank Rijkaard; from this position, he could more easily cut through the defence into the middle of the pitch and curl shots on goal with his left foot, rather than predominantly cross balls for teammates. Under Guardiola and subsequent managers, he most often played in a false nine role; positioned as a centre-forward or lone striker, he roamed the centre, often moving deep into midfield and drawing defenders with him, in order to create and exploit spaces for passes, other teammates' attacking runs off the ball, his own dribbling runs, or combinations with Xavi and Iniesta.
Under the stewardship of Barcelona manager Luis Enrique, Messi returned to playing in the right-sided position that characterised much of his early career. He played in the manager's 4–3–3 formation, and was increasingly deployed in a deeper, free playmaking role in later seasons. Under Ernesto Valverde, Messi played in a variety of roles. While he was still occasionally deployed in a deeper role—from which he could make runs into the box, on the right wing or as a false nine— he was also used in a more offensive, central role in a 4–2–3–1. He was also used as a second striker in a 4–4–2 formation, where he was once again given the licence to drop deep, link up with midfielders, orchestrate his team's attacking plays, and create chances for his attacking partner Luis Suárez. With the Argentina national team, Messi has similarly played anywhere along the frontline. Under various managers, he has been employed on the right wing, as a false nine, as an out-and-out striker, in a supporting role alongside another forward, or in a deeper, free creative role as a classic number 10 playmaker or attacking midfielder behind the strikers.
== Reception ==
Messi is widely regarded as one of the two best players of his generation, alongside Portuguese forward Cristiano Ronaldo. He is also considered one of the greatest footballers in the history of the sport. In 2025, he was named the All Time Men's World Best Player by the IFFHS.
A prodigious talent as a teenager, Messi established himself among the world's best players before age 20. Shortly after teammate Ronaldinho won the 2005 Ballon d'Or, he commented, "I'm not even the best at Barça" in reference to his 18-year-old protégé. Four years later, after Messi won his first Ballon d'Or by a record margin, the public debate regarding his qualities as a player moved beyond his status in contemporary football to the possibility that he was one of the greatest players in history. An early proponent was his then-Barcelona manager Pep Guardiola, who, as early as August 2009, described Messi as the best player he had ever seen and would ever see. In the following years, this opinion gained greater acceptance among pundits, managers, former and current players. By the end of Barcelona's second treble-winning season, the perception of Messi as one of the greatest footballers of all time had become the apparent view among many fans and pundits in continental Europe.
Messi received dismissals by critics throughout his career because he had not won an international tournament at the senior level with Argentina. However, his subsequent victories in the 2021 Copa América and the 2022 FIFA World Cup resulted in him finally winning every top tier trophy at both the club and country levels, an achievement that many pundits felt cemented Messi's legacy.
=== Comparisons with Cristiano Ronaldo ===
Among his contemporary peers, Messi is most often compared and contrasted with Cristiano Ronaldo, who many consider his career rival. Both achieved numerous individual accolades, won dozens of trophies for both club and country, and are the two leading goal scorers in history. Although Messi has at times denied any rivalry, they are widely believed to push one another in their aim to be the best player in the world. Pundits have compared the ongoing rivalry to past sports rivalries like the Muhammad Ali–Joe Frazier rivalry in boxing, the Prost–Senna rivalry in motorsport, and the tennis rivalries between Federer–Nadal and Borg–McEnroe.
Fans and pundits alike regularly argue the individual merits of both players. Messi is lauded for his combination of dribbling, playmaking, passing and goalscoring, while Ronaldo has received praise for his exceptional speed and athleticism, goalscoring skills, and performance under pressure. Beyond their playing styles, the debate also revolves around their differing physiques – Ronaldo is 1.87 m (6 ft 1+1⁄2 in) with a muscular build, while Messi is much shorter at 1.70 m (5 ft 7 in) – and their contrasting public personalities, with Ronaldo's self-confidence and theatrics differing from Messi's humility. Regarding individual achievements, Messi has won eight Ballons d'Or to Ronaldo's five, eight FIFA World's Best Player awards to Ronaldo's five, and six European Golden Shoes to Ronaldo's four. Off the pitch, Ronaldo is his direct competitor in terms of salary, sponsorships, and social media fanbase.
Messi's head-to-head record against teams that feature Ronaldo consists of 15 wins, 9 draws, and 10 losses in competitive club matches. The first competitive matchup between the two occurred in 2008, when Ronaldo's Manchester United played Messi's Barcelona in the 2007–08 UEFA Champions League semi-finals; Manchester United advanced and eventually won the final. The two players and their club teams met again in the next year's Champions League final, with Messi and Barcelona achieving a 2–0 victory. After this, Ronaldo transferred to Real Madrid, the main rivals of Barcelona, which resulted in Messi facing Ronaldo many times in El Clásico, which ranks among the world's most viewed annual sports events. A number of football critics, commentators, and players have said that Messi's triumph with Argentina in the 2022 World Cup has settled the contest between the two players.
=== Comparisons with Diego Maradona ===
Throughout his career, Messi has been compared with Diego Maradona, who was also considered the best player of his generation and one of the greatest in the history of the sport. The comparisons stem broadly from both players' short statures, their similar playing styles as left-footed playmakers, and their shared nationality as Argentines. Initially, Messi was merely one of many young Argentine players to receive the "New Maradona" moniker, but as his career progressed, he proved his similarity beyond all previous contenders, establishing himself as the best player Argentina had produced since Maradona. When Messi was 18 years old, Maradona called him the best player in the world and hailed him as his successor. From 2008 through the 2010 FIFA World Cup, Messi played for Argentina's national team while Maradona managed the team, and it was during this period that Messi was given the number 10 shirt that Maradona famously wore. Maradona gave Messi his blessing, telling him: "the No 10 is yours. There's nobody better than you to wear it."
During the early and middle parts of Messi's career, he was generally held in lesser esteem than Maradona in Argentine society. Part of this had to do with Messi's lack of tournament success and perceived uneven output with the national team; Maradona had famously led Argentina to victory in the 1986 FIFA World Cup, which set an expectation for Messi to do the same. Argentines also identified more with the fiery, extroverted and controversial Maradona who came from the slums, as opposed to the reserved, introverted and unassuming Messi who had a comparably unremarkable upbringing in Rosario. Maradona, along with several pundits and footballing figures, questioned whether Messi's temperament made him a capable leader for the national team. Furthermore, Messi's lack of outward passion for the Argentina shirt, his early tendency not to sing the national anthem, and his relative lack of emotional displays have led to a perception that he feels more Catalan than Argentine. However, despite having lived in Barcelona since age 13, Messi rejected the option of representing Spain internationally, saying: "Argentina is my country, my family, my way of expressing myself. I would change all my records to make the people in my country happy."
Football journalist Tim Vickery said the perception of Messi among Argentines changed in 2019, when Messi made a conscious effort to become "more one of the group, more Argentine". Other pundits noted that Messi had grown more assertive as a leader during the 2019 Copa América by becoming more vocal with his teammates both on and off the pitch, finally singing the national anthem with the team before matches, and speaking with journalists at length after matches. Following Argentina's 2022 World Cup win, Vickery felt that Messi would now be held in the same esteem by his compatriots as Maradona. Journalist and former footballer Jorge Valdano said he saw a "Maradonian" edge to Messi's performances during the tournament, while his compatriot Osvaldo Ardiles said that Messi's provocative actions towards the Netherlands team during the quarter-final resembled Maradona's behavior, which further endeared Messi to his fellow Argentines. Messi himself later remarked that the World Cup victory "won over all the people of Argentina. Today 95% or 100% of Argentines love me and that's a beautiful feeling."
== Cultural impact ==
=== Popularity ===
Messi was among the Time 100, an annual list of the world's most influential people, in 2011, 2012 and 2023. According to a 2014 survey in 15 international markets, Messi was familiar to 87% of respondents around the world, of whom 78% perceived him favourably, making him the second-most recognised player globally, behind Cristiano Ronaldo, and the most likeable of all contemporary players. World Press Photo selected "The Final Game", a photo of Messi facing the World Cup trophy after Argentina's final defeat to Germany, as the best sports image of 2014.
Messi's fanbase on Facebook is among the largest of public figures: by July 2023, he had more than 114 million followers, the second highest for an athlete after Cristiano Ronaldo. Messi has over 500 million Instagram followers, the second highest for an individual and athlete after Ronaldo. Messi's World Cup celebration post from 18 December 2022 is the most liked post on Instagram with more than 75 million likes.
In April 2023, Messi was featured in the Thrissur Pooram festival in Kerala, India. In December 2023, a set of shirts Messi had worn during the 2022 World Cup was sold at auction for $7.8 million.
During an exhibition match on 4 February 2024 between Inter Miami and Hong Kong League players at Hong Kong Stadium, Messi remained on the bench the entire game. His absence from the pitch caused massive backlash in Hong Kong and China, as thousands of fans had hoped to see him play. One Messi commercial was taken off the air in those regions, while other commercials continued to air despite pressure from Chinese social-media users. The Chinese Football Association temporarily halted its partnership with the Argentine Football Association over the incident.
=== Wealth and sponsorships ===
Messi was the world's highest-paid footballer for five years out of six between 2009 and 2014; he was the first player to exceed the €40 million benchmark, with earnings of €41 million in 2013, and the €50–€60 million points, with income of €65 million in 2014. Messi was second on a Forbes list of the world's highest-paid athletes, after Cristiano Ronaldo, with income of $81 million from salary and endorsements in 2015–16. In 2018, he was the first player to exceed the €100 million benchmark for a calendar year, with earnings of €126 million ($154 million) in combined income from salaries, bonuses and endorsements. Forbes ranked him the world's highest-paid athlete in 2019. From 2008, he was Barcelona's highest-paid player, receiving a salary that increased incrementally from €7.8 million to €13 million over the next five years. Signing a new contract in 2017, he earned $667,000 per week in wages, and Barcelona paid him $60 million as a signing on bonus. In 2020, Messi became the second footballer, as well as the second athlete in a team sport, after Ronaldo, to surpass $1 billion in earnings during their careers. When signing with Inter Miami, Messi's pay set a Major League Soccer record, with reported overall earnings from salary, signing bonus, and an equity stake in the club surpassing $50 million.
In addition to salary and bonuses, much of Messi's income comes from endorsements; SportsPro has consequently cited him as one of the world's most marketable athletes every year since their research began in 2010. His main sponsor since 2006 is Adidas. As Barcelona's leading youth prospect, he was signed with Nike since age 14, but transferred to Adidas after they successfully challenged their rival's claim to his image rights in court. Messi established himself as their leading brand endorser; from 2008, he had a long-running signature collection of Adidas F50 boots, and in 2015, became the first footballer to receive his own sub-brand of Adidas boots, the Adidas Messi. Since 2017, he has worn the latest version of the Adidas Nemeziz. In 2015, a Barcelona jersey with Messi's name and number was the best-selling replica jersey worldwide. At the 2022 World Cup, Adidas sold out Messi's No. 10 Argentina jersey worldwide.
As a commercial entity, Messi's brand has been based exclusively on his talents and achievements as a player, in contrast to arguably more glamorous players like Ronaldo and David Beckham. At the start of his career, he thus mainly held sponsorship contracts with companies that employ sports-oriented marketing, such as Adidas, Pepsi, and Konami. From 2010, concurrently with increased achievements as a player, his marketing appeal widened, leading to long-term endorsement deals with luxury brands Dolce & Gabbana and Audemars Piguet. Messi is a global brand ambassador for Gillette, Turkish Airlines, Ooredoo, and Tata Motors, among other companies. In order to celebrate his achievement of becoming Barcelona's all-time goalscorer, Budweiser sent personalised bottles of beer to every goalkeeper whom Messi has scored against. Messi was the face of Konami's video game series Pro Evolution Soccer, appearing on the covers of PES 2009, PES 2010, PES 2011 and PES 2020. He subsequently signed with rival company EA Sports to become the face of their series FIFA and appeared on consecutive covers from FIFA 13 to FIFA 16.
In 2013, a Turkish Airlines advertisement starring Messi, in which he engages in a selfie competition with Kobe Bryant, was the most-watched ad on YouTube in 2013, receiving 137 million views, and was voted the best advertisement of the 2005–15 decade to commemorate YouTube's founding. In June 2021, Messi signed a five-year deal to become an ambassador for the Hard Rock Cafe brand. He stated, "sports and music are an integral part of my life. It is an honor to be the first athlete to partner with a brand who has a history of teaming with music legends."
In May 2022, Messi was unveiled as Saudi Arabia's tourism ambassador. Due to Saudi Arabia's poor human rights record, Messi was widely criticised for the role which was viewed as an attempt of Saudi sportswashing.
=== Public art ===
Street art and public murals depicting Messi have been painted around the world. One prominent work of art is the Sistine Chapel of Football, a parody of Michelangelo's The Creation of Adam that features Messi, Diego Maradona and several other Argentine footballers. The work is exhibited at the Sportivo Pereyra club in Barracas, Buenos Aires.
Madame Tussauds unveiled a wax sculpture of Messi at Wembley Stadium in 2012. Several days after Messi announced his retirement from Argentina's national team in June 2016, a bronze statue of him was erected in Buenos Aires in an attempt to convince him to return. Following Argentina's 2022 World Cup victory, a life-sized statue of Messi holding the World Cup trophy was unveiled outside the CONMEBOL headquarters in Luque, Paraguay in March 2023. The statue of Messi stands alongside statues of Pelé and Maradona. On 13 December 2025, during Messi's tour of India, a 70-foot (21-metre) statue of Messi holding the World Cup trophy was unveiled at the Sree Bhumi Sporting Club in Lake Town, Kolkata.
=== Media ===
Messi, a documentary directed by Álex de la Iglesia, premiered at the 71st Venice International Film Festival in August 2014. Messi's World Cup: The Rise of a Legend, a biographical docuseries focusing on Messi's career, his highs and lows with the Argentina national football team, and their eventual success at the 2022 FIFA World Cup, aired on Apple TV+ on 21 February 2024.
=== Business ventures ===
On 4 June 2024, Messi announced the release of Más+, an American brand of sports drinks and energy drinks. Messi created the drinks because he could not find a flavourful and healthy hydration option that suited his needs. On 19 September, Messi launched the production company 525 Rosario, which will produce films, sporting events coverage and branded commercials for athletes worldwide. It is a joint venture with Smuggler Entertainment, which co-produced Messi's World Cup: The Rise of a Legend earlier in 2024. In 2025, Messi was invited by his Inter Miami teammate Luis Suárez to play a role in Deportivo LSM, the Uruguayan professional football club that Suárez founded.
== Philanthropy ==
Throughout his career, Messi has been involved in charitable efforts aimed at children, a commitment that stems in part from the medical difficulties he faced in his own childhood. Since 2004, he has contributed his time and finances to the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), an organisation that has also collaborated with FC Barcelona. Messi has served as a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador since 2010; he completed his first field mission for the organisation that year as he travelled to Haiti to bring awareness to the plight of the country's children following the 2010 Haiti earthquake. He has since participated in UNICEF campaigns related to HIV prevention, education, and the social inclusion of disabled children. In November 2013, Messi and his one-year-old son Thiago were part of a publicity campaign to raise awareness of mortality rates among disadvantaged children.
In 2007, Messi launched the Leo Messi Foundation, which supports access to health care, education, and sport for children. It was established following Messi's visit to a hospital in Boston for terminally ill children, an experience that resonated with him to the point that he decided to reinvest part of his earnings into society. Through his foundation, Messi has awarded research grants, financed medical training, and invested in the development of medical centres and projects in Argentina, Spain, and elsewhere in the world. In addition to receiving funds from Messi's own fundraising activities, the foundation receives financial support from various companies which have endorsement agreements with Messi, with Adidas as the main sponsor. A gold replica of Messi's left foot, weighing 25 kg (55 lb) and valued at $5.3 million, went on sale in Japan in 2013 to raise funds for victims of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.
Messi has invested in youth football in Argentina. He supports Sarmiento, a football club based in the Rosario neighbourhood where he was born, and in 2013 he committed to the refurbishment of the club's facilities and the installation of all-weather pitches. Messi also financially supports the management of several youth players at Newell's Old Boys (his boyhood club) and rival club Rosario Central, as well as at River Plate and Boca Juniors in Buenos Aires. In 2012, Messi funded the construction of a new gymnasium and a dormitory inside Newell's stadium for their youth academy. His youth coach at Newell's, Ernesto Vecchio, is employed by the Leo Messi Foundation as a talent scout for young players. On 7 June 2016, Messi won a libel case against La Razón newspaper and was awarded €65,000 in damages, which he donated to the charity Médecins Sans Frontières. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Messi and his FC Barcelona teammates announced they would take a 70% salary cut to offset the club's financial losses, and said they would make further contributions to ensure club employees received full salaries while unable to work. Messi also donated €1 million to fight the spread of COVID-19.
In November 2016, while the Argentine Football Association was being run by a FIFA committee due to an economic crisis, three of the national team's security staff told Messi that they had not received their salaries for six months. He paid the salaries of the three employees. In February 2021, Messi made a donation to the Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya: the Adidas shoes he wore when he scored his 644th goal for Barcelona and broke Pelé's record for most goals scored for a single club. The museum later auctioned off the shoes for £125,000 to support a charity focused on children with cancer.
Ahead of the 2021 Copa América, Messi donated three signed sweatshirts to the Chinese pharmaceutical firm Sinovac Biotech – whose directors spoke of their admiration for Messi – in order to secure 50,000 doses of Sinovac's COVID-19 vaccine, CoronaVac, in the hope of vaccinating all South American football players. The plan, which was brokered by Uruguay's president Luis Lacalle Pou, caused some controversy for its focus on football players, given widespread vaccine scarcity on the continent. In January 2025, Messi was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian award of the United States, for his contributions to healthcare and education programs for children around the world.
== Personal life ==
=== Family and relationships ===
Since 2008, Messi has been in a relationship with Antonela Roccuzzo, who he eventually married on 30 June 2017 in their hometown of Rosario. Roccuzzo is the cousin of Messi's childhood best friend, Lucas Scaglia, and Messi has known her since he was five years old. After keeping their relationship private for a year, Messi first confirmed their romance in an interview in January 2009, before going public a month later during a carnival in Sitges after the Barcelona–Espanyol derby.
Messi and Roccuzzo have three sons. To celebrate Roccuzzo's first pregnancy, Messi placed the ball under his shirt after scoring in Argentina's 4–0 win against Ecuador on 2 June 2012, before confirming the pregnancy in an interview two weeks later. The child, a son named Thiago, was born in Barcelona on 2 November 2012. In April 2015, Messi confirmed that they were expecting another child. In October 2017, his wife announced they were expecting their third child. Messi and his family are Catholic.
Messi enjoys a close relationship with his immediate family members, particularly his mother, Celia, whose face he has tattooed on his left shoulder. His professional affairs are largely run as a family business: his father, Jorge, has been his agent since he was 14, and his oldest brother, Rodrigo, handles his daily schedule and publicity. His mother and other brother, Matías, manage his charitable organisation, the Leo Messi Foundation, and take care of personal and professional matters in Rosario.
Since leaving for Spain at age 13, Messi has maintained close ties to Rosario, even preserving his distinct Rosarino accent. He has retained ownership of his family's old house, although it has long stood empty, and he maintains a penthouse apartment in an exclusive residential building for his mother, as well as a family compound just outside the city. Messi keeps in frequent contact with a small group of confidants in Rosario, most of whom were fellow members of "The Machine of '87" at Newell's Old Boys. He was on bad terms with the club after his transfer to Barcelona, but by 2012 their public feud had ended, with Newell's embracing their ties with Messi, even issuing a club membership card to his newborn son. Messi has long planned to return to Rosario to end his playing career at Newell's. Messi has citizenship in Argentina, Italy, and Spain.
=== Tax fraud ===
Messi came under investigation in 2013 for suspected tax evasion. Offshore companies in tax havens such as Uruguay, Switzerland and Belize were used to evade €4.1 million in taxes related to his sponsorship earnings between 2007 and 2009. Messi, who pleaded ignorance to the scheme, voluntarily paid arrears of €5.1 million in August 2013. On 6 July 2016, Messi and his father were both found guilty of tax fraud and were given suspended 21-month prison sentences and ordered to pay €1.7 million and €1.4 million in fines, respectively. In court, Messi told the judge, "I just played football. I signed the contracts because I trusted my dad and the lawyers and we had decided that they would take charge of those things." An unrelated shell company in Panama set up in 2012 was subsequently identified as belonging to the Messis in the Panama Papers data leak.
== Career statistics ==
=== Club ===
As of match played 22 March 2026
=== International ===
As of match played 14 November 2025
== Honours ==
Barcelona
La Liga: 2004–05, 2005–06, 2008–09, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2012–13, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2017–18, 2018–19
Copa del Rey: 2008–09, 2011–12, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2020–21
Supercopa de España: 2006, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2016, 2018
UEFA Champions League: 2005–06, 2008–09, 2010–11, 2014–15
UEFA Super Cup: 2009, 2011, 2015
FIFA Club World Cup: 2009, 2011, 2015
Paris Saint-Germain
Ligue 1: 2021–22, 2022–23
Trophée des Champions: 2022
Inter Miami
MLS Cup: 2025
Supporters' Shield: 2024
Leagues Cup: 2023
Argentina U20
FIFA World Youth Championship: 2005
Argentina U23
Olympic Games: 2008
Argentina
FIFA World Cup: 2022
Copa América: 2021, 2024
Finalissima: 2022
Individual
Ballon d'Or: 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2015, 2019, 2021, 2023
FIFA World Player of the Year/FIFA Ballon d'Or/The Best FIFA Men's Player: 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2015, 2019, 2022, 2023
FIFA World Cup Golden Ball: 2014, 2022
FIFA World Cup Silver Boot: 2022
FIFA Club World Cup Golden Ball: 2009, 2011
FIFA U-20 World Cup Golden Ball: 2005
FIFA U-20 World Cup Golden Boot: 2005
UEFA Club Footballer of the Year: 2008–09
UEFA Men's Player of the Year Award: 2010–11, 2014–15
UEFA Champions League top scorer: 2008–09, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2011–12, 2014–15, 2018–19
European Golden Shoe: 2009–10, 2011–12, 2012–13, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19
Copa América Golden Ball: 2015, 2021
Copa América Golden Boot: 2021
La Liga Best Player: 2008–09, 2009–10, 2010–11, 2011–12, 2012–13, 2014–15, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19
MLS Most Valuable Player: 2024, 2025
Pichichi Trophy: 2009−10, 2011–12, 2012−13, 2016–17, 2017−18, 2018–19, 2019–20, 2020–21
MLS Golden Boot: 2025
Laureus World Sportsman of the Year: 2020, 2023
IFFHS World's Best Player: 2022
TIME Athlete of the Year: 2023
Ballon d'Or Dream Team: 2020
FIFPRO World 11: 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023
Argentine Sportsperson of the Year: 2011, 2021, 2022, 2023
Argentine Footballer of the Year: 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023
Orders
Creu de Sant Jordi, Catalonia (30 April 2019)
Presidential Medal of Freedom, United States (4 January 2025) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Allsop_&_Stewart_Williams | Tim Allsop & Stewart Williams | Tim Allsop and Stewart Williams are a British writing and directing duo.
They met in 2005 working for Elisabeth Murdoch’s production company Shine Limited. Their first joint work was a Comedy Lab for Channel 4 starring Alex Zane which they wrote, produced, and directed. Since then they have written for a variety of comedy and entertainment shows for the BBC, ITV and Channel 4, as well directing music videos and commercials – most recently for the Guitar Hero brand. In 2007 they began working on a pilot for Plus One in the Comedy Showcase strand for Channel 4 which they made with production company Kudos.
They have also written episodes for The Amazing World of Gumball and recently and written episodes for Space Chickens in Space, as well as developed the bible for Disney EMEA for the show as well.
Tim Allsop is currently a producer on Who Is America and Stewart Williams recently wrote an episode of Famalam. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goths | Goths | The Goths were a Germanic people who played a major role in the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the emergence of medieval Europe. They were first mentioned by Greco-Roman authors in the 3rd century AD, living north of the Danube in what is now Ukraine, Moldova, and Romania. From here they conducted raids into Roman territory, and large numbers of them joined the Roman military. These early Goths lived in the regions where archaeologists find the Chernyakhov culture, which flourished throughout this region during the 3rd and 4th centuries.
In the late 4th century, the lands of the Goths in present-day Ukraine were overwhelmed by a significant westward movement of Alans and Huns from the east. Large numbers of Goths subsequently began to concentrate near the Roman border at the Lower Danube, seeking refuge within the Roman Empire. Their entry into the Empire resulted in violence, and Goth-led forces inflicted a devastating defeat upon the Romans at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. Roman forces regained a level of control but many Goths and other eastern peoples were quickly settled in and near the empire. One of these groups, initially led by their king Alaric I, sacked the city of Rome in 410, and were the precursors of the Visigoths. The successors of the Visigoths eventually established a Visigothic Kingdom in Spain at Toledo. Meanwhile, Goths under Hunnic rule gained their independence in the 5th century, most importantly the Ostrogoths. Under their king Theodoric the Great, these Goths established the Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy at Ravenna.
The Ostrogothic Kingdom was destroyed by Byzantium (Eastern Roman Empire) in the 6th century, while the Visigothic Kingdom was largely conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate in the early 8th century, with a remnant in Asturias which would go on to initiate the Reconquista under Pelagius. Remnants of Gothic communities in Crimea, known as the Crimean Goths, established a culture that survived for more than a thousand years, although Goths would eventually cease to exist as a distinct people.
Gothic architecture, Gothic literature and the modern-day Goth subculture ultimately derive their names from the ancient Goths, though the Goths themselves did not directly create or influence these art forms.
== Name ==
In the Gothic language, the Goths were called the *Gut-þiuda ('Gothic people') or *Gutans ('Goths'). The Proto-Germanic form of the Gothic name is reconstructed as *Gutōz, but it is proposed that this co-existed with an n-stem variant *Gutaniz, attested in Gutones, gutani, or gutniskr. The form *Gutōz is etymologically identical to that of the Gutes from Gotland, Sweden, and closely related to that of the Geats, from mainland Sweden, whose name is reconstructed as *Gautōz. Though these names probably all mean the same thing, that meaning is uncertain. They are all thought to be related to the Proto-Germanic verb *geuta-, which means "to pour".
The similarity of these Scandinavian names has long been noted by scholars in connection with the 6th-century book Getica (c. 551), by the historian Jordanes who wrote that the Goths originated on Scandza many centuries earlier, and moved to the Vistula delta. However, the accuracy of Jordanes' account for such early Gothic history has been questioned by scholars. A people called the Gutones – possibly early Goths – are documented living near the lower Vistula River in current Poland in the 1st century, where they are associated with the archaeological Wielbark culture.
== Classification ==
The Goths are classified as a Germanic people in modern scholarship. Along with the Burgundians, Vandals and others they belong to the East Germanic group. Roman authors of late antiquity did not classify the Goths as Germani. In modern scholarship the Goths are sometimes referred to as being Germani.
== History ==
=== Prehistory ===
A crucial source on Gothic history is the Getica of the 6th-century historian Jordanes, who may have been of Gothic descent. Jordanes claims to have based the Getica on an earlier lost work by Cassiodorus, but also cites material from fifteen other classical sources, including an otherwise unknown writer, Ablabius. Many scholars accept that Jordanes' account on Gothic origins is at least partially derived from Gothic tribal tradition and accurate on certain details, and as a result the Goths are often identified as originating from south-central Sweden.
According to Jordanes, the Goths originated on an island called Scandza (Scandinavia), from where they emigrated by sea to an area called Gothiscandza under their king Berig. Historians are not in agreement on the authenticity and accuracy of this account. Most scholars agree that Gothic migration from Scandinavia is reflected in the archaeological record, but the evidence is not entirely clear. Rather than a single mass migration of an entire people, scholars open to hypothetical Scandinavian origins envision a process of gradual migration in the 1st centuries BC and AD, which was probably preceded by long-term contacts and perhaps limited to a few elite clans from Scandinavia.
Similarities between the name of the Goths, some Swedish place names and the names of the Gutes and Geats have been cited as evidence that the Goths originated in Gotland or Götaland. The Goths, Geats and Gutes may all have descended from an early community of seafarers active on both sides of the Baltic. Similarities and dissimilarities between the Gothic language and Scandinavian languages (particularly Gutnish) have been cited as evidence both for and against a Scandinavian origin.
Scholars generally locate Gothiscandza in the area of the Wielbark culture. This culture emerged in the lower Vistula and along the Pomeranian coast in the 1st century AD, replacing the preceding Oksywie culture. It is primarily distinguished from the Oksywie by the practice of inhumation, the absence of weapons in graves, and the presence of stone circles. This area had been intimately connected with Scandinavia since the time of the Nordic Bronze Age and the Lusatian culture. Its inhabitants in the Wielbark period are usually thought to have been Germanic peoples, such as the Goths and Rugii. Jordanes writes that the Goths, soon after settling Gothiscandza, seized the lands of the Ulmerugi (Rugii).
=== Early history ===
The Goths are generally believed to have been first attested by Greco-Roman sources in the 1st century under the name Gutones. The equation between Gutones and later Goths is disputed by several historians.
Around 15 AD, Strabo mentions the Butones, Lugii, and Semnones as part of a large group of peoples who came under the domination of the Marcomannic king Maroboduus. The "Butones" are generally equated with the Gutones. The Lugii have sometimes been considered the same people as the Vandals, with whom they were certainly closely affiliated. The Vandals are associated with the Przeworsk culture, which was located to the south of the Wielbark culture. Wolfram suggests that the Gutones were clients of the Lugii and Vandals in the 1st century AD.
In 77 AD, Pliny the Elder mentions the Gutones as one of the peoples of Germania. He writes that the Gutones, Burgundiones, Varini, and Carini belong to the Vandili. Pliny classifies the Vandili as one of the five principal "German races", along with the coastal Ingvaeones, Istvaeones, Irminones, and Peucini. In an earlier chapter Pliny writes that the 4th century BC traveler Pytheas encountered a people called the Guiones. Some scholars have equated these Guiones with the Gutones, but the authenticity of the Pytheas account is uncertain.
In his work Germania from around 98 AD, Tacitus writes that the Gotones (or Gothones) and the neighbouring Rugii and Lemovii were Germani who carried round shields and short swords, and lived near the ocean, beyond the Vandals. He described them as "ruled by kings, a little more strictly than the other German tribes". In another notable work, the Annals, Tacitus writes that the Gotones had assisted Catualda, a young Marcomannic exile, in overthrowing the rule of Maroboduus. Prior to this, it is probable that both the Gutones and Vandals had been subjects of the Marcomanni.
Sometime after settling Gothiscandza, Jordanes writes that the Goths defeated the neighbouring Vandals. Wolfram believes the Gutones freed themselves from Vandalic domination at the beginning of the 2nd century AD.
In his Geography from around 150 AD, Ptolemy mentions the Gythones (or Gutones) as living east of the Vistula in Sarmatia, between the Veneti and the Fenni. In an earlier chapter he mentions a people called the Gutae (or Gautae) as living in southern Scandia. These Gutae are probably the same as the later Gauti mentioned by Procopius. Wolfram suggests that there were close relations between the Gythones and Gutae, and that they might have been of common origin.
=== Movement towards the Black Sea ===
Beginning in the middle of the 2nd century, the Wielbark culture shifted southeast towards the Black Sea. During this time the Wielbark culture is believed to have ejected and partially absorbed peoples of the Przeworsk culture. This was part of a wider southward movement of eastern Germanic tribes, which was probably caused by massive population growth. As a result, other tribes were pushed towards the Roman Empire, contributing to the beginning of the Marcomannic Wars. By 200 AD, Wielbark Goths were probably being recruited into the Roman army.
According to Jordanes, the Goths entered Oium, part of Scythia, under the king Filimer, where they defeated the Spali. This migration account partly corresponds with the archaeological evidence. The name Spali may mean "the giants" in Slavic, and the Spali were thus probably not Slavs. In the early 3rd century AD, western Scythia was inhabited by the agricultural Zarubintsy culture and the nomadic Sarmatians. Prior to the Sarmatians, the area had been settled by the Bastarnae, who are believed to have carried out a migration similar to the Goths in the 3rd century BC. Peter Heather considers the Filimer story to be at least partially derived from Gothic oral tradition. The fact that the expanding Goths appear to have preserved their Gothic language during their migration suggests that their movement involved a fairly large number of people.
By the mid-3rd century AD, the Wielbark culture had contributed to the formation of the Chernyakhov culture in Scythia. This strikingly uniform culture came to stretch from the Danube in the west to the Don in the east. It is believed to have been dominated by the Goths and other Germanic groups such as the Heruli. It nevertheless also included Iranian, Dacian, Roman and probably Slavic elements as well.
=== 3rd century raids on the Roman Empire ===
The first incursion into the Roman Empire attributable to Goths involved the sack of Histria (near the then mouth of the Danube) in 238. The first documentary references to the Goths in the 3rd century call them Scythians, as their base, known as Scythia, had historically been occupied by an unrelated people of that name. In the late 3rd century the name Goths (Latin: Gothi) is first mentioned. Ancient authors do not identify the Goths with the earlier Gutones. Philologists and linguists have no doubt that the names are linked.
On the Pontic steppe the Goths quickly adopted several nomadic customs from the Sarmatians. They excelled at horsemanship, archery and falconry, and also became accomplished agriculturalists and seafarers. J. B. Bury describes the Gothic period as "the only non-nomadic episode in the history of the steppe". Liebeschuetz sees the Goths of this period as "nomadic or semi-nomadic".
William H. McNeill compares the migration of the Goths to that of the early Mongols, who migrated southward from the forests and came to dominate the eastern Eurasian steppe around the same time as the Goths predominated in the west. From the 240s at the earliest, Goths were heavily recruited into the Roman Army to fight in the Roman–Persian Wars, notably participating in the Battle of Misiche in 244. An inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht in Parthian, Persian and Greek commemorates the Persian victory over the Romans and the troops drawn from gwt W g'rmny xštr, the Gothic and German kingdoms, which is probably a Parthian gloss for the Danubian (Gothic) limes and the Germanic limes.
Meanwhile, Gothic raids on the Roman Empire continued, In 250–51, the Gothic king Cniva captured the city of Philippopolis and inflicted a devastating defeat upon the Romans at the Battle of Abrittus, killing the Roman Emperor Decius. This was one of the most disastrous defeats in the history of the Roman army.
The first Gothic seaborne raids took place in the 250s. The first two incursions into Asia Minor occurred between 253 and 256; Zosimus attributes them to Boranoi. This may not be an ethnic term but may just mean "people from the north". It is unknown if Goths were involved in these first raids. Gregory Thaumaturgus attributes a third attack to Goths and Boradoi, and claims that some, "forgetting that they were men of Pontus and Christians", joined the invaders. An unsuccessful attack on Pityus was followed in the second year by another, which sacked Pityus and Trabzon and ravaged large areas in the Pontus. In the third year, a much larger force devastated large areas of Bithynia and the Propontis, including the cities of Chalcedon, Nicomedia, Nicaea, Apamea Myrlea, Cius and Bursa. By the end of the raids, the Goths had seized control over Crimea and the Bosporus and captured several cities on the Euxine coast, including Olbia and Tyras, which enabled them to engage in widespread naval activities.
After a 10-year hiatus, the Goths and the Heruli, with a raiding fleet of 500 ships, sacked Heraclea Pontica, Cyzicus and Byzantium. They were defeated by the Roman navy but managed to escape into the Aegean Sea, where they ravaged the islands of Lemnos and Scyros, broke through Thermopylae and sacked several cities of southern Greece (province of Achaea) including Athens, Corinth, Argos, Olympia and Sparta. Then an Athenian militia, led by the historian Dexippus, pushed the invaders to the north where they were intercepted by the Roman army under Gallienus. He won an important victory near the Nessos (Nestos) river, on the boundary between Macedonia and Thrace, the Dalmatian cavalry of the Roman army earning a reputation as good fighters. Reported barbarian casualties were 3,000 men. Subsequently, the Heruli leader Naulobatus came to terms with the Romans.
After Gallienus was assassinated outside Milan in the summer of 268 in a plot led by high officers in his army, Claudius was proclaimed emperor and headed to Rome to establish his rule. Claudius' immediate concerns were with the Alamanni, who had invaded Raetia and Italy. After he defeated them in the Battle of Lake Benacus, he was finally able to take care of the invasions in the Balkan provinces.
In the meantime, a second and larger sea-borne invasion had started. An enormous coalition consisting of Goths (Greuthungi and Thervingi), Gepids and Peucini, led again by the Heruli, assembled at the mouth of river Tyras (Dniester). The Augustan History and Zosimus claim a total number of 2,000–6,000 ships and 325,000 men. This is probably a gross exaggeration but remains indicative of the scale of the invasion. After failing to storm some towns on the coasts of the western Black Sea and the Danube (Tomi, Marcianopolis), the invaders attacked Byzantium and Chrysopolis. Part of their fleet was wrecked, either because of the Goth's inexperience in sailing through the violent currents of the Propontis or because they were defeated by the Roman navy. Then they entered the Aegean Sea and a detachment ravaged the Aegean islands as far as Crete, Rhodes and Cyprus. According to the Augustan History, the Goths achieved no success on this expedition because they were struck by the Cyprianic Plague. The fleet probably also sacked Troy and Ephesus, damaging the Temple of Artemis, though the temple was repaired and then later torn down by Christians a century later, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. While their main force had constructed siege works and was close to taking the cities of Thessalonica and Cassandreia, it retreated to the Balkan interior at the news that the emperor was advancing.
Learning of the approach of Claudius, the Goths first attempted to directly invade Italy. They were engaged near Naissus by a Roman army led by Claudius advancing from the north. The battle most likely took place in 269, and was fiercely contested. Large numbers on both sides were killed but, at the critical point, the Romans tricked the Goths into an ambush by pretending to retreat. Some 50,000 Goths were allegedly killed or taken captive and their base at Thessalonika destroyed. Apparently Aurelian, who was in charge of all Roman cavalry during Claudius' reign, led the decisive attack in the battle. Some survivors were resettled within the empire, while others were incorporated into the Roman army. The battle ensured the survival of the Roman Empire for another two centuries.
In 270, after the death of Claudius, Goths under the leadership of Cannabaudes again launched an invasion of the Roman Empire, but were defeated by Aurelian, who, however, did surrender Dacia beyond the Danube.
Around 275 the Goths launched a last major assault on Asia Minor, where piracy by Black Sea Goths was causing great trouble in Colchis, Pontus, Cappadocia, Galatia and even Cilicia. They were defeated sometime in 276 by Emperor Marcus Claudius Tacitus.
By the late 3rd century, there were at least two groups of Goths, separated by the Dniester River: the Thervingi and the Greuthungi. The Gepids, who lived northwest of the Goths, are also attested as this time. Jordanes writes that the Gepids shared common origins with the Goths.
In the late 3rd century, as recorded by Jordanes, the Gepids, under their king Fastida, utterly defeated the Burgundians, and then attacked the Goths and their king Ostrogotha. Out of this conflict, Ostrogotha and the Goths emerged victorious. In the last decades of the 3rd century, large numbers of Carpi are recorded as fleeing from Dacia to the Roman Empire, having probably been driven from the area by Goths.
=== Co-existence with the Roman Empire (300–375) ===
In 332, Constantine helped the Sarmatians to settle on the north banks of the Danube to defend against the Goths' attacks and thereby enforce the Roman border. Around 100,000 Goths were reportedly killed in battle, and Aoric, son of the Thervingian king Ariaric, was captured. Eusebius, a historian who wrote in Greek in the early 4th century, wrote that in 334, Constantine evacuated approximately 300,000 Sarmatians from the north bank of the Danube after a revolt of the Sarmatians' slaves. From 335 to 336, Constantine, continuing his Danube campaign, defeated many Gothic tribes.
Having been driven from the Danube by the Romans, the Thervingi invaded the territory of the Sarmatians of the Tisza. In this conflict, the Thervingi were led by Vidigoia, "the bravest of the Goths" and were victorious, although Vidigoia was killed. Jordanes states that Aoric was succeeded by Geberic, "a man renowned for his valor and noble birth", who waged war on the Hasdingi Vandals and their king Visimar, forcing them to settle in Pannonia under Roman protection.
Both the Greuthungi and Thervingi became heavily Romanized during the 4th century. This came about through trade with the Romans, as well as through Gothic membership of a military covenant, which was based in Byzantium and involved pledges of military assistance. Reportedly, 40,000 Goths were brought by Constantine to defend Constantinople in his later reign, and the Palace Guard was thereafter mostly composed of Germanic warriors, as Roman soldiers by this time had largely lost military value. The Goths increasingly became soldiers in the Roman armies in the 4th century leading to a significant Germanization of the Roman Army. Without the recruitment of Germanic warriors in the Roman Army, the Roman Empire would not have survived for as long as it did. Goths who gained prominent positions in the Roman military include Gainas, Tribigild, Fravitta and Aspar. Mardonius, a Gothic eunuch, was the childhood tutor and later adviser of Roman emperor Julian, on whom he had an immense influence.
The Gothic penchant for wearing skins became fashionable in Constantinople, a fashion which was loudly denounced by conservatives. The 4th-century Greek bishop Synesius compared the Goths to wolves among sheep, mocked them for wearing skins and questioned their loyalty towards Rome: A man in skins leading warriors who wear the chlamys, exchanging his sheepskins for the toga to debate with Roman magistrates and perhaps even sit next to a Roman consul, while law-abiding men sit behind. Then these same men, once they have gone a little way from the senate house, put on their sheepskins again, and when they have rejoined their fellows they mock the toga, saying that they cannot comfortably draw their swords in it.
In the 4th century, Geberic was succeeded by the Greuthungian king Ermanaric, who embarked on a large-scale expansion. Jordanes states that Ermanaric conquered a large number of warlike tribes, including the Heruli (who were led by Alaric), the Aesti and the Vistula Veneti, who, although militarily weak, were very numerous, and put up a strong resistance. Jordanes compares the conquests of Ermanaric to those of Alexander the Great, and states that he "ruled all the nations of Scythia and Germany by his own prowess alone." Interpreting Jordanes, Herwig Wolfram estimates that Ermanaric dominated a vast area of the Pontic Steppe stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea as far eastwards as the Ural Mountains, encompassing not only the Greuthungi, but also Baltic Finnic peoples, Slavs (such as the Antes), Rosomoni (Roxolani), Alans, Huns, Sarmatians and probably Aestii (Balts). According to Wolfram, it is certainly possible that the sphere of influence of the Chernyakhov culture could have extended well beyond its archaeological extent. Chernyakhov archaeological finds have been found far to the north in the forest steppe, suggesting Gothic domination of this area. Peter Heather on the other hand, contends that the extent of Ermanaric's power is exaggerated. Ermanaric's possible dominance of the Volga-Don trade routes has led historian Gottfried Schramm to consider his realm a forerunner of the Viking-founded state of Kievan Rus'. In the western part of Gothic territories, dominated by the Thervingi, there were also populations of Taifali, Sarmatians and other Iranian peoples, Dacians, Daco-Romans and other Romanized populations.
According to Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks (The Saga of Hervör and Heidrek), a 13th-century legendary saga, Árheimar was the capital of Reidgotaland, the land of the Goths. The saga states that it was located on the Dnieper river. Jordanes refers to the region as Oium.
In the 360s, Athanaric, son of Aoric and leader of the Thervingi, supported the usurper Procopius against the Eastern Roman Emperor Valens. In retaliation, Valens invaded the territories of Athanaric and defeated him, but was unable to achieve a decisive victory. Athanaric and Valens thereupon negotiated a peace treaty, favorable to the Thervingi, on a boat in the Danube river, as Athanaric refused to set his feet within the Roman Empire. Soon afterwards, Fritigern, a rival of Athanaric, converted to Arianism, gaining the favor of Valens. Athanaric and Fritigern thereafter fought a civil war in which Athanaric appears to have been victorious. Athanaric thereafter carried out a crackdown on Christianity in his realm.
=== Arrival of the Huns (about 375) ===
Around 375 the Huns overran the Alans, an Iranian people living to the east of the Goths, and then, along with Alans, invaded the territory of the Goths. A source for this period is the Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus, who wrote that Hunnic domination of the Gothic kingdoms in Scythia began in the 370s. It is possible that the Hunnic attack came as a response to the Gothic expansion eastwards.
Upon the suicide of Ermanaric (died 376), the Greuthungi gradually fell under Hunnic domination. Christopher I. Beckwith suggests that the Hunnic thrust into Europe and the Roman Empire was an attempt to subdue the independent Goths in the west. The Huns fell upon the Thervingi, and Athanaric sought refuge in the mountains (referred to as Caucaland in the sagas). Ambrose makes a passing reference to Athanaric's royal titles before 376 in his De Spiritu Sancto (On the Holy Spirit).
Battles between the Goths and the Huns are described in the "Hlöðskviða" (The Battle of the Goths and Huns), a medieval Icelandic saga. The sagas recall that Gizur, king of the Geats, came to the aid of the Goths in an epic conflict with the Huns, although this saga might derive from a later Gothic-Hunnic conflict.
Although the Huns successfully subdued many of the Goths who subsequently joined their ranks, Fritigern approached the Eastern Roman emperor Valens in 376 with a portion of his people and asked to be allowed to settle on the south bank of the Danube. Valens permitted this, and even assisted the Goths in their crossing of the river (probably at the fortress of Durostorum). The Gothic evacuation across the Danube was probably not spontaneous, but rather a carefully planned operation initiated after long debate among leading members of the community. Upon arrival, the Goths were to be disarmed according to their agreement with the Romans, although many of them still managed to keep their arms. The Moesogoths settled in Thrace and Moesia.
=== The Gothic War of 376–382 ===
Mistreated by corrupt local Roman officials, the Gothic refugees were soon experiencing a famine; some are recorded as having been forced to sell their children to Roman slave traders in return for rotten dog meat. Enraged by this treachery, Fritigern unleashed a widescale rebellion in Thrace, in which he was joined not only by Gothic refugees and slaves, but also by disgruntled Roman workers and peasants, and Gothic deserters from the Roman Army. The ensuing conflict, known as the Gothic War, lasted for several years. Meanwhile, a group of Greuthungi, led by the chieftains Alatheus and Saphrax, who were co-regents with Vithericus, son and heir of the Greuthungi king Vithimiris, crossed the Danube without Roman permission. The Gothic War culminated in the Battle of Adrianople in 378, in which the Romans were badly defeated and Valens was killed.
Following the decisive Gothic victory at Adrianople, Julius, the magister militum of the Eastern Roman Empire, organized a wholesale massacre of Goths in Asia Minor, Syria and other parts of the Roman East. Fearing rebellion, Julian lured the Goths into the confines of urban streets from which they could not escape and massacred soldiers and civilians alike. As word spread, the Goths rioted throughout the region, and large numbers were killed. Survivors may have settled in Phrygia.
With the rise of Theodosius I in 379, the Romans launched a renewed offensive to subdue Fritigern and his followers. Around the same time, Athanaric arrived in Constantinople, having fled Caucaland through the scheming of Fritigern. Athanaric received a warm reception by Theodosius, praised the Roman Emperor in return, and was honoured with a magnificent funeral by the emperor following his death shortly after his arrival. In 382, Theodosius decided to enter peace negotiations with the Thervingi, which were concluded on 3 October 382. The Thervingi were subsequently made foederati of the Romans in Thrace and obliged to provide troops to the Roman army.
=== Later division and spread of the Goths ===
In the aftermath of the Hunnic onslaught, two major groups of the Goths would eventually emerge, the Visigoths and Ostrogoths. Visigoths means the "Goths of the west", while Ostrogoths means "Goths of the east". The Visigoths, led by the Balti dynasty, claimed descent from the Thervingi and lived as foederati inside Roman territory, while the Ostrogoths, led by the Amali dynasty, claimed descent from the Greuthungi and were subjects of the Huns. A people closely related to the Goths, the Gepids, were also living under Hunnic domination. A smaller group of Goths were the Crimean Goths, who remained in Crimea and maintained their Gothic identity well into the 18th century.
In his biography of the West Saxon monarch Alfred the Great, the Welsh historian Asser states that Alfred's mother Osburh was of partial Goth ancestry through her father Oslac.
==== Visigoths ====
The Visigoths were a new Gothic political unit brought together during the career of their first leader, Alaric I. Following a major settlement of Goths in the Balkans made by Theodosius in 382, Goths received prominent positions in the Roman army. Relations with Roman civilians were sometimes uneasy. In 391, Gothic soldiers, with the blessing of Theodosius I, massacred thousands of Roman spectators at the Hippodrome in Thessalonica as vengeance for the lynching of the Gothic general Butheric.
The Goths suffered heavy losses while serving Theodosius in the civil war of 394 against Eugenius and Arbogast. In 395, following the death of Theodosius I, Alaric and his Balkan Goths invaded Greece, where they sacked Piraeus (the port of Athens) and destroyed Corinth, Megara, Argos, and Sparta. Athens itself was spared by paying a large bribe, and the Eastern emperor Flavius Arcadius subsequently appointed Alaric magister militum ("master of the soldiers") in Illyricum in 397.
In 401 and 402, Alaric made two attempts at invading Italy, but was defeated by Stilicho. In 405–406, another Gothic leader, Radagaisus, also attempted to invade Italy, and was also defeated by Stilicho. In 408, the Western Roman emperor Flavius Honorius ordered the execution of Stilicho and his family, then incited the Roman population to massacre tens of thousands of wives and children of Goths serving in the Roman military. Subsequently, around 30,000 Gothic soldiers defected to Alaric. Alaric in turn invaded Italy, seeking to pressure Honorious into granting him permission to settle his people in North Africa. In Italy, Alaric liberated tens of thousands of Gothic slaves, and in 410 he sacked the city of Rome. Although the city's riches were plundered, the civilian inhabitants of the city were treated humanely, and only a few buildings were burned. Alaric died soon afterwards, and was buried along with his treasure in an unknown grave under the Busento river.
Alaric was succeeded by his brother-in–law Athaulf, husband of Honorius' sister Galla Placidia, who had been seized during Alaric's sack of Rome. Athaulf settled the Visigoths in southern Gaul. After failing to gain recognition from the Romans, Athaulf retreated into Hispania in early 415, and was assassinated in Barcelona shortly afterwards. He was succeeded by Sigeric and then Wallia, who succeeded in having the Visigoths accepted by Honorius as foederati in southern Gaul, with their capital at Toulouse. Wallia subsequently inflicted severe defeats upon the Silingi Vandals and the Alans in Hispania.
Wallia was succeeded by Theodoric I who completed the settlement of the Goths in Aquitania.
Periodically they marched on Arles, the seat of the praetorian prefect but were always pushed back. In 439 the Visigoths signed a treaty with the Romans which they kept.
Under Theodoric II the Visigoths allied with the Romans and fought Attila to a stalemate in the Battle of the Catalaunian Fields, although Theodoric was killed in the battle. Under Euric, the Visigoths established an independent Visigothic Kingdom and succeeded in driving the Suebi out of Hispania proper and back into Galicia. Although they controlled Spain, they still formed a tiny minority among a much larger Hispano-Roman population, approximately 200,000 out of 6,000,000.
In 507, the Visigoths were pushed out of most of Gaul by the Frankish king Clovis I at the Battle of Vouillé. They were able to retain Narbonensis and Provence after the timely arrival of an Ostrogoth detachment sent by Theodoric the Great. The defeat at Vouillé resulted in their penetrating further into Hispania and establishing a new capital at Toledo.
Under Liuvigild in the latter part of the 6th century, the Visigoths succeeded in subduing the Suebi in Galicia and the Byzantines in the south-west, and thus achieved dominance over most of the Iberian peninsula. Liuvigild also abolished the law that prevented intermarriage between Hispano-Romans and Goths, and he remained an Arian Christian. The conversion of Reccared I to Roman Catholicism in the late 6th century prompted the assimilation of Goths with the Hispano-Romans.
At the end of the 7th century, the Visigothic Kingdom began to suffer from internal troubles. Their kingdom fell and was progressively conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate from 711 after the defeat of their last king Roderic at the Battle of Guadalete. Some Visigothic nobles found refuge in the mountain areas of the Asturias, Pyrenees and Cantabria. According to Joseph F. O'Callaghan, the remnants of the Hispano-Gothic aristocracy still played an important role in the society of Hispania. At the end of Visigothic rule, the assimilation of Hispano-Romans and Visigoths was occurring at a fast pace. Their nobility had begun to think of themselves as constituting one people, the gens Gothorum or the Hispani. An unknown number of them fled and took refuge in Asturias or Septimania. In Asturias they supported Pelagius's uprising, and joining with the indigenous leaders, formed a new aristocracy. The population of the mountain region consisted of native Astures, Galicians, Cantabri, Basques and other groups unassimilated into Hispano-Gothic society. The Christians began to regain control under the leadership of the nobleman Pelagius of Asturias, who founded the Kingdom of Asturias in 718 and defeated the Muslims at the Battle of Covadonga in c. 722, in what is taken by historians to be the beginning of the Reconquista. It was from the Asturian kingdom that modern Spain and Portugal evolved.
The Visigoths were never completely Romanized; rather, they were 'Hispanicized' as they spread widely over a large territory and population. They progressively adopted a new culture, retaining little of their original culture except for practical military customs, some artistic modalities, family traditions such as heroic songs and folklore, as well as select conventions to include Germanic names still in use in present-day Spain. It is these artifacts of the original Visigothic culture that give ample evidence of its contributing foundation for the present regional culture. Portraying themselves heirs of the Visigoths, the subsequent Christian Spanish monarchs declared their responsibility for the Reconquista of Muslim Spain, which was completed with the Fall of Granada in 1492.
==== Ostrogoths ====
After the Hunnic invasion, many Goths became subjects of the Huns. A section of these Goths under the leadership of the Amali dynasty came to be known as the Ostrogoths. Others sought refuge in the Roman Empire, where many of them were recruited into the Roman army. In the spring of 399, Tribigild, a Gothic leader in charge of troops in Nakoleia, rose up in rebellion and defeated the first imperial army sent against him, possibly seeking to emulate Alaric's successes in the west. Gainas, a Goth who along with Stilicho and Eutropius had deposed Rufinus in 395, was sent to suppress Tribigild's rebellion, but instead plotted to use the situation to seize power in the Eastern Roman Empire. This attempt was however thwarted by the pro-Roman Goth Fravitta, and in the aftermath, thousands of Gothic civilians were massacred in Constantinople, many being burned alive in the local Arian church where they had taken shelter. As late as the 6th century Goths were settled as foederati in parts of Asia Minor. Their descendants, who formed the elite Optimatoi regiment, still lived there in the early 8th century. While they were largely assimilated, their Gothic origin was still well–known: the chronicler Theophanes the Confessor calls them Gothograeci.
The Ostrogoths fought together with the Huns at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains in 451. Following the death of Attila and the defeat of the Huns at the Battle of Nedao in 454, the Ostrogoths broke away from Hunnic rule under their king Valamir. Mentions of this event were probably preserved in Slavic epic songs. Under his successor, Theodemir, they utterly defeated the Huns at the Bassianae in 468, and then defeated a coalition of Roman–supported Germanic tribes at the Battle of Bolia in 469, which gained them supremacy in Pannonia.
Theodemir was succeeded by his son Theodoric in 471, who was forced to compete with Theodoric Strabo, leader of the Thracian Goths, for the leadership of his people. Fearing the threat posed by Theodoric to Constantinople, the Eastern Roman emperor Zeno ordered Theodoric to invade Italy in 488. By 493, Theodoric had conquered all of Italy from the Scirian Odoacer, whom he killed with his own hands; he subsequently formed the Ostrogothic Kingdom. Theodoric settled his entire people in Italy, estimated at 100,000–200,000, mostly in the northern part of the country, and ruled the country very efficiently. The Goths in Italy constituted a small minority of the population in the country. Intermarriage between Goths and Romans were forbidden, and Romans were also forbidden from carrying arms. Nevertheless, the Roman majority was treated fairly.
The Goths were briefly reunited under one crown in the early 6th century under Theodoric, who became regent of the Visigothic kingdom following the death of Alaric II at the Battle of Vouillé in 507. Shortly after Theodoric's death, the country was invaded by the Eastern Roman Empire in the Gothic War, which severely devastated and depopulated the Italian peninsula. The Ostrogoths made a brief resurgence under their king Totila, who was, however, killed at the Battle of Taginae in 552. After the last stand of the Ostrogothic king Teia at the Battle of Mons Lactarius in 553, Ostrogothic resistance ended, and the remaining Goths in Italy were assimilated by the Lombards, another Germanic tribe, who invaded Italy and founded the Kingdom of the Lombards in 567.
==== Crimean Goths ====
Gothic tribes who remained in the lands around the Black Sea, especially in Crimea, were known as the Crimean Goths. During the late 5th and early 6th century, the Crimean Goths had to fend off hordes of Huns who were migrating back eastward after losing control of their European empire. In the 5th century, Theodoric the Great tried to recruit Crimean Goths for his campaigns in Italy, but few showed interest in joining him. They affiliated with the Eastern Orthodox Church through the Metropolitanate of Gothia, and were then closely associated with the Byzantine Empire.
During the Middle Ages, the Crimean Goths were in perpetual conflict with the Khazars. John of Gothia, the metropolitan bishop of Doros, capital of the Crimean Goths, briefly expelled the Khazars from Crimea in the late 8th century, and was subsequently canonized as an Eastern Orthodox saint.
In the 10th century, the lands of the Crimean Goths were once again raided by the Khazars. As a response, the leaders of the Crimean Goths made an alliance with Sviatoslav I of Kiev, who subsequently waged war upon and utterly destroyed the Khazar Khaganate. In the late Middle Ages the Crimean Goths were part of the Principality of Theodoro, which was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in the late 15th century. As late as the 18th century a small number of people in Crimea may still have spoken Crimean Gothic.
== Language ==
The Goths were Germanic-speaking. The Gothic language is the Germanic language with the earliest attestation (the 4th century), and the only East Germanic language documented in more than proper names, short phrases that survived in historical accounts, and loan-words in other languages, making it a language of great interest in comparative linguistics. Gothic is known primarily from the Codex Argenteus, now preserved in Uppsala, Sweden, which contains a partial translation of the Bible credited to Ulfilas.
The language was in decline by the mid-500s, due to the military victory of the Franks, the elimination of the Goths in Italy, and geographic isolation. In Spain, the language lost its last and probably already declining function as a church language when the Visigoths converted to Catholicism in 589; it survived as a domestic language in the Iberian peninsula (modern Spain and Portugal) as late as the 8th century.
Frankish author Walafrid Strabo wrote that Gothic was still spoken in the lower Danube area, in what is now Bulgaria, in the early 9th century, and a related dialect known as Crimean Gothic was spoken in the Crimea until the 16th century, according to references in the writings of travelers. Most modern scholars believe that Crimean Gothic did not derive from the dialect that was the basis for Ulfilas' translation of the Bible.
== Culture ==
=== Art ===
==== Early ====
Before the invasion of the Huns, the Gothic Chernyakhov culture produced jewelry, vessels, and decorative objects in a style much influenced by Greek and Roman craftsmen. They developed a polychrome style of gold work, using wrought cells or setting to encrust gemstones into their gold objects.
==== Ostrogoths ====
The eagle-shaped fibula, part of the Domagnano Treasure, was used to join clothes c. AD 500; the piece on display in the Germanisches Nationalmuseum in Nuremberg is well-known.
==== Visigoths ====
In Spain an important collection of Visigothic metalwork was found in the treasure of Guarrazar, Guadamur, Province of Toledo, Castile-La Mancha, an archeological find composed of twenty-six votive crowns and gold crosses from the royal workshop in Toledo, with Byzantine influence. The treasure represents the high point of Visigothic goldsmithery, according to Guerra, Galligaro & Perea (2007). The two most important votive crowns are those of Recceswinth and of Suintila, displayed in the National Archaeological Museum of Madrid; both are made of gold, encrusted with sapphires, pearls, and other precious stones. Suintila's crown was stolen in 1921 and never recovered. There are several other small crowns and many votive crosses in the treasure.
These findings, along with others from some neighbouring sites and with the archaeological excavation of the Spanish Ministry of Public Works and the Royal Spanish Academy of History (April 1859), formed a group consisting of:
National Archaeological Museum of Spain: six crowns, five crosses, a pendant and remnants of foil and channels (almost all of gold).
Royal Palace of Madrid: a crown and a gold cross and a stone engraved with the Annunciation. A crown, and other fragments of a tiller with a crystal ball were stolen from the Royal Palace of Madrid in 1921 and its whereabouts are still unknown.
National Museum of the Middle Ages, Paris: three crowns, two crosses, links and gold pendants.
The aquiliform (eagle-shaped) fibulae that have been discovered in necropolises such as Duraton, Madrona or Castiltierra (cities of Segovia), are an unmistakable indication of the Visigothic presence in Spain. These fibulae were used individually or in pairs, as clasps or pins in gold, bronze and glass to join clothes, showing the work of the goldsmiths of Visigothic Hispania.
The Visigothic belt buckles, a symbol of rank and status characteristic of Visigothic women's clothing, are also notable as works of goldsmithery. Some pieces contain exceptional Byzantine-style lapis lazuli inlays and are generally rectangular in shape, with copper alloy, garnets and glass.
=== Society ===
Archaeological evidence in Visigothic cemeteries shows that social stratification was analogous to that of the village of Sabbas the Goth. The majority of villagers were common peasants. Paupers were buried with funeral rites, unlike slaves. In a village of 50 to 100 people, there were four or five elite couples. In Eastern Europe, houses include sunken-floored dwellings, surface dwellings, and stall-houses. The largest known settlement is the Criuleni District. Chernyakhov cemeteries feature both cremation and inhumation burials; among the latter the head aligned to the north. Some graves were left empty. Grave goods often include pottery, bone combs, and iron tools, but hardly ever weapons.
Peter Heather suggests that the freemen constituted the core of Gothic society. These were ranked below the nobility, but above the freedmen and slaves. It is estimated that around a quarter to a fifth of weapon-bearing Gothic males of the Ostrogothic Kingdom were freemen.
=== Religion ===
Initially practising Gothic paganism, the Goths were gradually converted to Arianism in the course of the 4th century. According to Basil of Caesarea, a prisoner named Eutychus taken captive in a raid on Cappadocia in 260 preached the gospel to the Goths and was martyred. It was only in the 4th century, as a result of missionary activity by the Gothic bishop Ulfilas, whose grandparents were Cappadocians taken captive in the raids of the 250s, that the Goths were gradually converted. Ulfilas devised a Gothic alphabet and translated the Gothic Bible.
During the 370s, Goths converting to Christianity were subject to persecution by the Thervingian king Athanaric, who was a pagan.
The Visigothic Kingdom in Hispania converted to Catholicism in the late 6th century.
The Ostrogoths (and their remnants, the Crimean Goths) were closely connected to the Patriarchate of Constantinople from the 5th century, and became fully incorporated under the Metropolitanate of Gothia from the 9th century.
=== Law ===
=== Warfare ===
Gothic arms and armour usually consisted of wooden shield, spear and often swords. 'Rank and file' troops did not wear much protection, while warriors of higher social class were better equipped, as was common for most tribal peoples of the time.
Armour was either a chainmail shirt or lamellar cuirass. Lamellar was popular among horsemen. Shields were either round or oval with a central boss grip. They were decorated with tribe or clan symbols, such as animal drawings. Helmets were often of spangenhelm type, often with cheek and neck plates. Spears were used both for thrusting and throwing, although specialized javelins were also in use. Swords were one handed, double edged and straight, with a very small crossguard and large pommel. It was called the Spatha by the Romans, and it is believed to have first been used by the Celts. Short wooden bows were also used, as well as occasional throwing axes.
Missile weapons were mainly short throwing-axes such as Fransica and short wooden bows. Specialized javelins such as angon were more rare but still used.
=== Economy ===
Archaeology shows that the Visigoths, unlike the Ostrogoths, were predominantly farmers. They sowed wheat, barley, rye, and flax. They also raised pigs, poultry, and goats. Horses and donkeys were raised as working animals and fed with hay. Sheep were raised for their wool, which they fashioned into clothing. Archaeology indicates they were skilled potters and blacksmiths. When peace treaties were negotiated with the Romans, the Goths demanded free trade. Imports from Rome included wine and cooking-oil.
Roman writers note that the Goths neither assessed taxes on their own people nor on their subjects. The early 5th-century Christian writer Salvian compared the Goths' and related people's favourable treatment of the poor to the miserable state of peasants in Roman Gaul:
For in the Gothic country the barbarians are so far from tolerating this sort of oppression that not even Romans who live among them have to bear it. Hence all the Romans in that region have but one desire, that they may never have to return to the Roman jurisdiction. It is the unanimous prayer of the Roman people in that district that they may be permitted to continue to lead their present life among the barbarians.
=== Architecture ===
==== Ostrogoths ====
The Mausoleum of Theodoric (Italian: Mausoleo di Teodorico) is an ancient monument just outside Ravenna, Italy. It was built in 520 AD by Theodoric the Great, an Ostrogoth, as his future tomb.
The current structure of the mausoleum is divided into two decagonal orders, one above the other; both are made of Istria stone. Its roof is a single 230-tonne Istrian stone, 10 meters in diameter. Possibly as a reference to the Goths' tradition of an origin in Scandinavia, the architect decorated the frieze with a pattern found in 5th- and 6th-century Scandinavian metal adornments. A niche leads down to a room that was probably a chapel for funeral liturgies; a stair leads to the upper floor. Located in the centre of the floor is a circular porphyry stone grave, in which Theodoric was buried. His remains were removed during Byzantine rule, when the mausoleum was turned into a Christian oratory. In the late 19th century, silting from a nearby rivulet that had partly submerged the mausoleum was drained and excavated.
The Palace of Theodoric, also in Ravenna, has a symmetrical composition with arches and monolithic marble columns, reused from previous Roman buildings. With capitals of different shapes and sizes. The Ostrogoths restored Roman buildings, some of which have come down to us thanks to them.
==== Visigoths ====
During their governance of Hispania, the Visigoths built several churches of basilical or cruciform floor plan that survive, including the churches of San Pedro de la Nave in El Campillo, Santa María de Melque in San Martín de Montalbán, Santa Lucía del Trampal in Alcuéscar, Santa Comba in Bande, and Santa María de Lara in Quintanilla de las Viñas; the Visigothic crypt (the Crypt of San Antolín) in the Palencia Cathedral is a Visigothic chapel from the mid 7th century, built during the reign of Wamba to preserve the remains of the martyr Saint Antoninus of Pamiers, a Visigothic-Gallic nobleman brought from Narbonne to Visigothic Hispania in 672 or 673 by Wamba himself. These are the only remains of the Visigothic cathedral of Palencia.
Reccopolis (Spanish: Recópolis), located near the tiny modern village of Zorita de los Canes in the province of Guadalajara, Castile-La Mancha, Spain, is an archaeological site of one of at least four cities founded in Hispania by the Visigoths. It is the only city in Western Europe to have been founded between the fifth and eighth centuries. According to Lauro Olmo Enciso who is a professor of archaeology at the University of Alcalá, the city was ordered to build by the Visigothic king Leovigild to honor his son Reccared I and to serve as Reccared's seat as co-king in the Visigothic province of Celtiberia, to the west of Carpetania, where the main capital, Toledo, lay.
== Physical appearance ==
In ancient sources, the Goths are always described as tall and athletic, with light skin, blonde hair and blue eyes. The 4th-century Greek historian Eunapius described their characteristic powerful musculature in a pejorative way: "Their bodies provoked contempt in all who saw them, for they were far too big and far too heavy for their feet to carry them, and they were pinched in at the waist – just like those insects Aristotle writes of." Procopius notes that the Vandals and Gepids looked similar to the Goths, and on this basis, he suggested that they were all of common origin. Of the Goths, he wrote that "they all have white bodies and fair hair, and are tall and handsome to look upon."
== Genetics ==
Stolarek et al. (2023) and Antonio et al. (2022) both sequenced genomes from the Wielbark culture Goths. Stolarek et al. includes samples from multiple sites all over the territory of the Wielbark culture, in large numbers. The results are in alignment with archaeological and historical evidence, strongly suggesting that the Wielbark culture formed through migration from Southern Scandinavia. A large majority of the Wielbark culture samples are autosomally Scandinavian-like, and carry predominantly Scandinavian Y-DNA haplogroups. The most common Y-DNA haplogroup among the Wielbark individuals was Y-DNA haplogroup I1-M253, characteristic of the Nordic Bronze Age in Southern Scandinavia, in which it was found at a very high frequency and from where it first expanded. Among the Wielbark Goths, substantial subclade diversity is seen among the I1 carriers, suggesting that the male founders of the culture descended from clans from a rather widespread area in Scandinavia.
Assessing the population movement during late Antiquity, a 2023 study on the Roman frontier on the Danube concludes that "Goths were ethnically diverse confederations". A number of samples obtained from Roman sites close to the limes (such as Viminacium) dated to the 3rd century or later were shown to carry admixture from Central/North European and Pontic-Kazakh Steppe ancestries in addition to 42%–55% local Balkan Iron Age-related ancestry. 7 out of 9 males among these samples belonged to haplogroups associated with these trans-frontier ancestry sources (I1 and R1b-U106: North European; Z93: Iron Age Steppe). Many of these samples suggest that admixture between Central/North European and Pontic-Kazakh Steppe ancestries likely occurred beyond the frontier prior to the movement into the Roman Empire, "perhaps indicative of, e.g., the formation of diverse confederations under Gothic leadership".
== Legacy ==
The Goths' relationship with Sweden became an important part of Swedish nationalism, and until the 19th century, before the Gothic origin had been thoroughly researched by archaeologists, Swedish scholars considered Swedes to be the direct descendants of the Goths. Today, scholars identify this as a cultural movement called Gothicismus, which included an enthusiasm for things Old Norse.
In medieval and modern Spain, the Visigoths were believed to be the progenitors of the Spanish nobility (compare Gobineau for a similar French idea). By the early 7th century, the ethnic distinction between Visigoths and Hispano-Romans had all but disappeared, but recognition of a Gothic origin, e.g. on gravestones, still survived among the nobility. The 7th century Visigothic aristocracy saw itself as bearers of a particular Gothic consciousness and as guardians of old traditions such as Germanic namegiving; probably these traditions were on the whole restricted to the family sphere (Hispano-Roman nobles were doing service for the Visigothic Royal Court in Toulouse already in the 5th century and the two branches of Spanish aristocracy had fully adopted similar customs two centuries later).
Beginning in 1278, when King Magnus Ladulås ascended to the throne, a reference to Gothic origins was included in the title of the king of Sweden: "We N.N. by the Grace of God King of the Swedes, the Goths and the Vends". In 1973, with the accession of King Carl XVI Gustaf, the title was changed to simply "King of Sweden".
The Spanish and Swedish claims of Gothic origins led to a clash at the Council of Basel in 1434. Before the assembled cardinals and delegations could engage in theological discussion, they had to decide how to sit during the proceedings. The delegations from the more prominent nations argued that they should sit closest to the Pope, and there were also disputes over who were to have the finest chairs and who were to have their chairs on mats. In some cases, they compromised so that some would have half a chair leg on the rim of a mat. In this conflict, Nicolaus Ragvaldi, bishop of the Diocese of Växjö, claimed that the Swedes were the descendants of the great Goths, and that the people of Västergötland (Westrogothia in Latin) were the Visigoths and the people of Östergötland (Ostrogothia in Latin) were the Ostrogoths. The Spanish delegation retorted that it was only the "lazy" and "unenterprising" Goths who had remained in Sweden, whereas the "heroic" Goths had left Sweden, invaded the Roman empire and settled in Spain.
In Spain, a man acting with arrogance would be said to be "haciéndose los godos" ("making himself to act like the Goths"). In Chile, Argentina, and the Canary Islands, godo was an ethnic slur used against European Spaniards, who in the early colonial period often felt superior to the people born locally (criollos). In Colombia, it remains as slang for a person with conservative views.
A large amount of literature has been produced on the Goths, with Henry Bradley's The Goths (1888) being the standard English-language text for many decades. More recently, Peter Heather has established himself as the leading authority on the Goths in the English-speaking world. The leading authority on the Goths in the German-speaking world is Herwig Wolfram.
== List of early literature on the Goths ==
=== In the sagas ===
Gutasaga
Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks (The Saga of Hervör and Heidrek)
Hlöðskviða (The Battle of the Goths and Huns)
=== In Greek and Roman literature === |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Clinton | Bill Clinton | William Jefferson Clinton (né Blythe III; born August 19, 1946) is an American politician and lawyer who served as the 42nd president of the United States from 1993 to 2001. A member of the Democratic Party, he previously served as the attorney general of Arkansas from 1977 to 1979 and as the governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981, and again from 1983 to 1992. His centrist "Third Way" political philosophy became known as Clintonism, which dominated his presidency and the succeeding decades of Democratic Party history.
Born and raised in Arkansas, Clinton graduated from Georgetown University in 1968, and later from Yale Law School, where he met his future wife, Hillary Rodham. After graduating from law school, Clinton returned to Arkansas and won election as state attorney general, followed by two non-consecutive tenures as Arkansas governor. As governor, he overhauled the state's education system and served as chairman of the National Governors Association. Running as a "New Democrat", Clinton was elected president in the 1992 election, defeating the incumbent Republican president George H. W. Bush, and the independent businessman Ross Perot. He became the first president to be born in the Baby Boomer generation and the youngest to serve two full terms.
Clinton presided over the second longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history. He signed into law the North American Free Trade Agreement and the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act but failed to pass his plan for national health care reform. Starting in the mid-1990s, he began an ideological evolution as he became much more conservative in his domestic policy, advocating for and signing the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act, the State Children's Health Insurance Program and financial deregulation measures. He appointed Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Stephen Breyer to the U.S. Supreme Court. In foreign policy, Clinton ordered U.S. military intervention in the Bosnian and Kosovo wars, eventually signing the Dayton Peace agreement. He also called for the expansion of NATO in Eastern Europe and many former Warsaw Pact members joined NATO during his presidency. Clinton's foreign policy in the Middle East saw him sign the Iraq Liberation Act which gave aid to groups against Saddam Hussein. He also participated in the Oslo I Accord and Camp David Summit to advance the Israeli–Palestinian peace process, and assisted the Northern Ireland peace process.
Clinton won re-election in the 1996 election, defeating Republican nominee Bob Dole and returning Reform Party nominee Ross Perot. In his second term, Clinton made use of permanent normal trade. Many of his second term accomplishments were overshadowed by his highly publicised affair with White House intern Monica Lewinsky, when it was revealed in early 1998 that the two had been engaging in an eighteen-month-long sexual relationship. This scandal escalated throughout the year, culminating in December when Clinton was impeached by the House of Representatives, becoming the first U.S. president to be impeached since Andrew Johnson. The two impeachment articles that the House passed were centered around perjury and Clinton using the powers of the presidency to commit obstruction of justice. In January 1999, Clinton's impeachment trial began in the Senate, where he was acquitted two months later on both charges. During the last three years of Clinton's presidency, the Congressional Budget Office reported a budget surplus—the first and only such surplus since 1969.
Clinton left office in 2001 with the joint-highest approval rating of any U.S. president. His presidency ranks among the middle to upper tier in historical rankings of U.S. presidents. His personal conduct and misconduct allegations have made him the subject of substantial scrutiny. Since leaving office, Clinton has been involved in public speaking and humanitarian work. He created the Clinton Foundation to address international causes such as the prevention of HIV/AIDS and global warming. In 2009, he was named the United Nations special envoy to Haiti. After the 2010 Haiti earthquake, Clinton founded the Clinton Bush Haiti Fund with George W. Bush. He has remained active in Democratic Party politics, campaigning for his wife's 2008 and 2016 presidential campaigns. Following Jimmy Carter's death in December 2024, he is the earliest-serving living former U.S. president and the last surviving president to have served in the 20th century.
== Early life and career ==
Clinton was born as William Jefferson Blythe III on August 19, 1946, at the Julia Chester Hospital in Hope, Arkansas. He is the son of William Jefferson Blythe Jr., a traveling salesman who died in an automobile accident three months before his birth, and Virginia Dell Cassidy (later Virginia Kelley).
Clinton's parents married on September 4, 1943, but this union later proved bigamous, as Blythe was still married to his fourth wife. Virginia traveled to New Orleans to study nursing soon after Bill was born, leaving him in Hope with her parents Eldridge and Edith Cassidy, who owned and ran a small grocery store. At a time when the southern United States was racially segregated, Clinton's grandparents sold goods on credit to people of all races. In 1950, Bill's mother returned from nursing school and married Roger Clinton Sr., who co-owned an automobile dealership in Hot Springs, Arkansas, with his brother and Earl T. Ricks. The family moved to Hot Springs in 1950. Although he immediately assumed use of his stepfather's surname, it was not until Clinton turned 15 that he formally adopted the surname Clinton as a gesture toward him. Clinton has described his stepfather as a gambler and an alcoholic who regularly abused his family. The physical abuse only ceased after a then-14-year-old Bill challenged his stepfather to "stand and face" him, though the verbal abuse continued. Bill would eventually forgive Roger Sr. for his abusive actions near the latter's death.
In Hot Springs, Clinton attended St. John's Catholic Elementary School, Ramble Elementary School, and Hot Springs High School, which was segregated, where he was an active student leader, avid reader, and musician. Clinton was in the chorus and played the tenor saxophone, winning first chair in the state band's saxophone section. While in high school, Clinton performed for two years in a jazz trio, The 3 Kings, with Randy Goodrum, who became a successful professional pianist.
In 1961, Clinton became a member of the Hot Springs Chapter of the Order of DeMolay, a youth group affiliated with Freemasonry, but he never became a Freemason. He briefly considered dedicating his life to music, but felt that his musical skills would never match the skills of the best musicians, so pursued politics instead. Clinton began an interest in law at Hot Springs High when he took up the challenge to argue the defense of the ancient Roman senator Catiline in a mock trial in his Latin class. After a vigorous defense that made use of his "budding rhetorical and political skills", he told the Latin teacher Elizabeth Buck it "made him realize that someday he would study law".
Clinton has identified two influential moments in his life, both occurring in 1963, that contributed to his decision to become a public figure. One was his visit as a Boys Nation senator to the White House to meet President John F. Kennedy. The other was watching Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech on TV, which impressed him so much that he later memorized it.
== College and law school years ==
=== Georgetown University ===
With the aid of scholarships, Clinton attended the School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., receiving a Bachelor of Science in foreign service in 1968. Georgetown was the only university where Clinton applied.
In 1964 and 1965, Clinton won elections for class president. From 1964 to 1967, he was an intern and then a clerk in the office of Arkansas senator J. William Fulbright. While in college, he became a brother of service fraternity Alpha Phi Omega and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa. He is a member of Kappa Kappa Psi honorary band fraternity.
=== Oxford ===
Upon graduating from Georgetown in 1968, Clinton won a Rhodes Scholarship to University College, Oxford, where he initially read for a B.Phil. in philosophy, politics, and economics but transferred to a B.Litt. in politics and, ultimately, a B.Phil. in politics. Clinton did not expect to return for the second year because of the draft and so he switched programs; this type of activity was common among other Rhodes Scholars from his cohort. He was offered the opportunity to study at Yale Law School, so he left early to return to the United States and did not receive a degree from Oxford.
Clinton befriended fellow American Rhodes Scholar Frank Aller during his time at Oxford. In 1969, Aller received a draft letter that mandated deployment to the Vietnam War. Aller's 1971 suicide had an influential impact on Clinton. British writer and feminist Sara Maitland said of Clinton, "I remember Bill and Frank Aller taking me to a pub in Walton Street in the summer term of 1969 and talking to me about the Vietnam War. I knew nothing about it, and when Frank began to describe the napalming of civilians I began to cry. Bill said that feeling bad wasn't good enough. That was the first time I encountered the idea that liberal sensitivities weren't enough and you had to do something about such things." Clinton was a member of the Oxford University Basketball Club and also played for Oxford University's rugby union team.
While Clinton was president in 1994, he received an honorary Doctor of Civil Law degree and a fellowship from the University of Oxford, specifically for being "a doughty and tireless champion of the cause of world peace", having "a powerful collaborator in his wife", and for winning "general applause for his achievement of resolving the gridlock that prevented an agreed budget".
=== Vietnam War opposition and draft controversy ===
During the Vietnam War, Clinton received educational draft deferments while he was in England in 1968 and 1969. While at Oxford, he participated in Vietnam War protests and organized a Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam event in October 1969. He was planning to attend law school in the U.S. and knew he might lose his deferment. Clinton tried unsuccessfully to obtain positions in the National Guard and the Air Force officer candidate school, and he then made arrangements to join the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) program at the University of Arkansas.
He subsequently decided not to join the ROTC, saying in a letter to the officer in charge of the program that he opposed the war, but did not think it was honorable to use ROTC, National Guard, or Reserve service to avoid serving in Vietnam. He further stated that because he opposed the war, he would not volunteer to serve in uniform, but would subject himself to the draft, and would serve if selected only as a way "to maintain my political viability within the system". Clinton registered for the draft and received a high number (311), meaning that those whose birthdays had been drawn as numbers 1 to 310 would be drafted before him, making it unlikely he would be called up. (In fact, the highest number drafted was 195.) Colonel Eugene Holmes, the Army officer involved with Clinton's ROTC application, issued a notarized statement during the 1992 presidential campaign stating that he suspected Clinton attempted to manipulate the situation to avoid the draft.
During the 1992 campaign, it was revealed that Clinton's uncle had attempted to secure him a position in the Navy Reserve, which would have prevented him from being deployed to Vietnam. This effort was unsuccessful and Clinton said in 1992 that he had been unaware of it until then. Although legal, Clinton's actions with respect to the draft and deciding whether to serve in the military were criticized during his first presidential campaign by conservatives and some Vietnam veterans, some of whom charged that he had used Fulbright's influence to avoid military service. Clinton's 1992 campaign manager, James Carville, successfully argued that Clinton's letter in which he declined to join the ROTC should be made public, insisting that voters, many of whom had also opposed the Vietnam War, would understand and appreciate his position.
=== Law school ===
After Oxford, Clinton attended Yale Law School and earned a Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree in 1973. In 1971, he met his future wife, Hillary Rodham, in the Yale Law Library; she was a class year ahead of him. They began dating and were soon inseparable. After only about a month, Clinton postponed his summer plans to be a coordinator for the George McGovern campaign for the 1972 United States presidential election to move in with her in California. The couple continued living together in New Haven when they returned to law school.
Clinton eventually moved to Texas with Rodham in 1972 to take a job leading McGovern's effort there. He spent considerable time in Dallas, at the campaign's local headquarters on Lemmon Avenue, where he had an office. Clinton worked with future two-term mayor of Dallas Ron Kirk, future governor of Texas Ann Richards, and then unknown television director and filmmaker Steven Spielberg.
== Failed congressional campaign and tenure as Attorney General of Arkansas ==
After graduating from Yale Law School, Clinton returned to Arkansas and became a law professor at the University of Arkansas. In 1974, he ran for the House of Representatives. Running in the conservative 3rd district against incumbent Republican John Paul Hammerschmidt, Clinton's campaign was bolstered by the anti-Republican and anti-incumbent mood resulting from the Watergate scandal. Hammerschmidt, who had received 77% of the vote in 1972, defeated Clinton by only a 52% to 48% margin. In 1976, Clinton ran for Arkansas attorney general. Defeating the secretary of state and the deputy attorney general in the Democratic primary, Clinton was elected with no opposition in the general election, as no Republican had run for the office.
== Governor of Arkansas (1979–1981, 1983–1992) ==
In 1978, Clinton entered the Arkansas gubernatorial primary. At just 31 years old, he was one of the youngest gubernatorial candidates in the state's history. Clinton was elected Governor of Arkansas in 1978, having defeated the Republican candidate Lynn Lowe, a farmer from Texarkana. Clinton was only 32 years old when he took office, the youngest governor in the country at the time and the second youngest governor in the history of Arkansas. Due to his youthful appearance, Clinton was often called the "Boy Governor". He worked on educational reform and directed the maintenance of Arkansas's roads, with wife Hillary leading a successful committee on urban health care reform. However, his term included an unpopular motor vehicle tax and citizens' anger over the escape of Cuban refugees (from the Mariel boatlift) detained in Fort Chaffee in 1980. Monroe Schwarzlose, of Kingsland in Cleveland County, polled 31 percent of the vote against Clinton in the Democratic gubernatorial primary of 1980. Some suggested Schwarzlose's unexpected voter turnout foreshadowed Clinton's defeat by Republican challenger Frank D. White in the general election that year. As Clinton once joked, he was the youngest ex-governor in the nation's history.
After leaving office in January 1981, Clinton joined friend Bruce Lindsey's Little Rock law firm of Wright, Lindsey and Jennings. In 1982, he was elected governor a second time and kept the office for ten years. Effective with the 1986 election, Arkansas had changed its gubernatorial term of office from two to four years. During his term, he helped transform Arkansas's economy and improved the state's educational system. For senior citizens, he removed the sales tax from medications and increased the home property-tax exemption. He became a leading figure among the New Democrats, a group of Democrats who advocated welfare reform, smaller government, and other policies not supported by liberals. Formally organized as the Democratic Leadership Council (DLC), the New Democrats argued that in light of President Ronald Reagan's landslide victory in 1984, the Democratic Party needed to adopt a more centrist political stance in order to succeed at the national level. Clinton delivered the Democratic response to Reagan's 1985 State of the Union Address and served as chair of the National Governors Association from 1986 to 1987, bringing him to an audience beyond Arkansas.
In the early 1980s, Clinton made reform of the Arkansas education system a top priority of his gubernatorial administration. The Arkansas Education Standards Committee was chaired by Clinton's wife Hillary, who was also an attorney as well as the chair of the Legal Services Corporation. The committee transformed Arkansas's education system. Proposed reforms included more spending for schools (supported by a sales-tax increase), better opportunities for gifted children, vocational education, higher teachers' salaries, more course variety, and compulsory teacher competency exams. The reforms passed in September 1983 after Clinton called a special legislative session—the longest in Arkansas history. Many have considered this the greatest achievement of the Clinton governorship. He defeated four Republican candidates for governor: Lowe (1978), White (1982 and 1986), Jonesboro businessmen Woody Freeman (1984), and Sheffield Nelson of Little Rock (1990).
Also in the 1980s, the Clintons' personal and business affairs included transactions that became the basis of the Whitewater controversy investigation, which later dogged his presidential administration. After extensive investigation over several years, no indictments were made against the Clintons related to the years in Arkansas.
According to some sources, Clinton was a death penalty opponent in his early years, but he eventually switched positions. However he might have felt previously, by 1992, Clinton was insisting that Democrats "should no longer feel guilty about protecting the innocent". During Clinton's final term as governor, Arkansas performed its first executions since 1964 (the death penalty had been reinstated in 1976). As governor, he oversaw the first four executions carried out by the state of Arkansas since the death penalty was reinstated there in 1976: one by electric chair and three by lethal injection. To draw attention to his stance on capital punishment, Clinton flew home to Arkansas mid-campaign in 1992, in order to affirm in person that the controversial execution of Ricky Ray Rector would go forward as scheduled.
=== Scandals and allegations ===
During his time as governor in the 1980s, Arkansas was the center of a drug smuggling operation through Mena Airport. CIA agent Barry Seal allegedly imported three to five billion dollars' worth of cocaine through the airport, and the operation was linked to the Iran–Contra affair. Clinton was accused of knowing about this operation, although nothing could be proven against him. Journalist Sam Smith tied him to various questionable business dealings. Clinton was also accused by Gennifer Flowers to have used cocaine as governor and his half-brother Roger was sentenced to prison in 1985 for possession and smuggling of cocaine, but was later pardoned by his brother after serving his sentence. During his time in Arkansas, there were also other scandals such as the Whitewater controversy involving the Clintons' real estate dealings, and Bill Clinton was accused of serious sexual misconduct in Arkansas, including allegations of using the Arkansas State Police to gain access to women (Troopergate affair). The killing of Don Henry and Kevin Ives in 1987 started various conspiracy theories that accused Clinton and the Arkansas state authorities of covering up the crime.
=== 1988 Democratic presidential primaries ===
In 1987, the media speculated that Clinton would enter the presidential race. Clinton decided to remain as Arkansas governor (following consideration for the potential candidacy of Hillary for governor, initially favored—but ultimately vetoed—by the First Lady). For the nomination, Clinton endorsed Massachusetts governor Michael Dukakis. He gave the nationally televised opening night address at the 1988 Democratic National Convention, but his speech, which was 33 minutes long and twice the length it was expected to be, was criticized for being too long. Clinton presented himself both as a moderate and as a member of the New Democrat wing of the Democratic Party, and he headed the moderate Democratic Leadership Council in 1990 and 1991.
== Presidential campaigns ==
=== 1992 presidential candidacy ===
In the first primary contest, the Iowa Caucus, Clinton finished a distant third to Iowa senator Tom Harkin. During the campaign for the New Hampshire primary, reports surfaced that Clinton had engaged in an extramarital affair with Gennifer Flowers. Clinton fell far behind former Massachusetts senator Paul Tsongas in the New Hampshire polls. Following Super Bowl XXVI, Clinton and his wife Hillary went on 60 Minutes to rebuff the charges. Their television appearance was a calculated risk, but Clinton regained several delegates. He finished second to Tsongas in the New Hampshire primary, but after trailing badly in the polls and coming within single digits of winning, the media viewed it as a victory. News outlets labeled him "The Comeback Kid" for earning a firm second-place finish.
Winning the big prizes of Florida and Texas and many of the Southern primaries on Super Tuesday gave Clinton a sizable delegate lead. However, former California governor Jerry Brown was scoring victories and Clinton had yet to win a significant contest outside his native South. With no major Southern state remaining, Clinton targeted New York, which had many delegates. He scored a resounding victory in New York City, shedding his image as a regional candidate. Having been transformed into the consensus candidate, he secured the Democratic Party nomination, finishing with a victory in Jerry Brown's home state of California.
During the campaign, questions of conflict of interest regarding state business and the politically powerful Rose Law Firm, at which Hillary Rodham Clinton was a partner, arose. Clinton argued the questions were moot because all transactions with the state had been deducted before determining Hillary's firm pay. Further concern arose when Bill Clinton announced that, with Hillary, voters would be getting two presidents "for the price of one".
Clinton was still the governor of Arkansas while campaigning for U.S. president, and he returned to his home state to see that Ricky Ray Rector would be executed. After killing a police officer and a civilian, Rector shot himself in the head, leading to what his lawyers said was a state where he could still talk but did not understand the idea of death. According to both Arkansas state law and federal law, a seriously mentally impaired inmate cannot be executed. The courts disagreed with the allegation of grave mental impairment and allowed the execution. Clinton's return to Arkansas for the execution was framed in an article for The New York Times as a possible political move to counter "soft on crime" accusations.
Bush's approval ratings were around 80 percent during the Gulf War, and he was described as being unbeatable. When Bush compromised with Democrats to try to lower federal deficits, he reneged on his promise not to raise taxes, which hurt his approval rating. Clinton repeatedly condemned Bush for making a promise he failed to keep. By election time, the economy was souring and Bush saw his approval rating plummet to just slightly over 40 percent. Finally, conservatives were previously united by anti-communism, but with the end of the Cold War, the party lacked a uniting issue. When Pat Buchanan and Pat Robertson addressed Christian themes at the Republican National Convention—with Bush criticizing Democrats for omitting God from their platform—many moderates were alienated. Clinton then pointed to his moderate, "New Democrat" record as Governor of Arkansas, though some on the more liberal side of the party remained suspicious. Many Democrats who had supported Ronald Reagan and Bush in previous elections switched their support to Clinton. Clinton and his running mate, Al Gore, toured the country during the final weeks of the campaign, shoring up support and pledging a "new beginning".
On March 26, 1992, during a Democratic fund raiser of the presidential campaign, Robert Rafsky confronted then Gov. Bill Clinton of Arkansas and asked what he was going to do about AIDS, to which Clinton replied, "I feel your pain". The televised exchange led to AIDS becoming an issue in the 1992 presidential election. On April 4, then candidate Clinton met with members of ACT UP and other leading AIDS advocates to discuss his AIDS agenda and agreed to make a major AIDS policy speech, to have people with HIV speak to the Democratic Convention, and to sign onto the AIDS United Action five point plan.
Clinton won the 1992 presidential election (370 electoral votes) against Republican incumbent George H. W. Bush (168 electoral votes) and billionaire populist Ross Perot (zero electoral votes), who ran as an independent on a platform that focused on domestic issues. Bush's steep decline in public approval was a significant part of Clinton's success. Clinton's victory in the election ended twelve years of Republican rule of the White House and twenty of the previous twenty-four years. The election gave Democrats full control of the United States Congress, the first time one party controlled both the executive and legislative branches since Democrats held the 96th United States Congress during the presidency of Jimmy Carter.
According to Seymour Martin Lipset, the 1992 election had several unique characteristics. Voters felt that economic conditions were worse than they actually were, which harmed Bush. A rare event was the presence of a strong third-party candidate. Liberals launched a backlash against 12 years of a conservative White House. The chief factor was Clinton's uniting his party, and winning over a number of heterogeneous groups.
=== 1996 presidential candidacy ===
Leading up to the 1996 presidential election, Clinton's chances of being re-elected initially seemed slim, partially due to his growing untrust among the general public due to the Whitewater controversy and the lopsided defeat of national Democrats in the 1994 elections. His approval rating got as low as 40 percent in early 1995, which led to several high-profile Democrats suggesting he drop out of the race. However, in mid-1995, as a result of a rebounding economy and the growing unpopularity of congressional Republicans, public opinion of Clinton up-ticked and early 1996 polls found he had a lead of up to 20 points over his likely Republican opponent Bob Dole.
Unlike Bush in the 1992 election, Clinton's incumbency greatly benefited him in the general election, as most Americans felt the country was going in the right direction. Along with Dole, Clinton once again faced Ross Perot, who was nominated by the Reform Party, but he garnered significantly less support than he did in the 1992 election. In the month leading up the election, pundits were predicting a big win for Clinton, as his approval rating saw a high of 60 percent and pollsters finding he was favored with voters in over 30 states.
On election day, Clinton won 379 electoral votes, securing reelection and defeating Dole, who received 159 electoral votes. Clinton garnered 49.2 percent of the popular vote to Dole's 40.7 percent and Perot's 8.4 percent. With his victory, he became the first Democrat to win two consecutive presidential elections since Franklin D. Roosevelt.
== Presidency (1993–2001) ==
Clinton's "third way" of moderate liberalism built up the nation's fiscal health and put the nation on a firm footing abroad amid globalization and the development of anti-American terrorist organizations.
During his presidency, Clinton advocated for a wide variety of legislation and programs, most of which were enacted into law or implemented by the executive branch. His policies, particularly the North American Free Trade Agreement and welfare reform, have been attributed to a centrist Third Way philosophy of governance. His policy of fiscal conservatism helped to reduce deficits on budgetary matters. Clinton presided over the longest period of peacetime economic expansion in American history. "The Republican response in Clinton's first term was the scorched earth policies of Newt Gingrich, achieved through the threat of government shut-downs." - Stanley N. Katz, Ph. D.
The Congressional Budget Office reported budget surpluses of $69 billion in 1998, $126 billion in 1999, and $236 billion in 2000, during the last three years of Clinton's presidency. Over the years of the recorded surplus, the gross national debt rose each year. At the end of the fiscal year (September 30) for each of the years a surplus was recorded, the U.S. Treasury reported a gross debt of $5.413 trillion in 1997, $5.526 trillion in 1998, $5.656 trillion in 1999, and $5.674 trillion in 2000. Over the same period, the Office of Management and Budget reported an end of year (December 31) gross debt of $5.369 trillion in 1997, $5.478 trillion in 1998, $5.606 in 1999, and $5.629 trillion in 2000. At the end of his presidency, the Clintons moved to 15 Old House Lane in Chappaqua, New York, in order to quell political worries about his wife's residency for election as a U.S. senator from New York.
=== First term (1993–1997) ===
After his presidential transition, Clinton was inaugurated as the 42nd president of the United States on January 20, 1993. Clinton was physically exhausted at the time, and had an inexperienced staff. His high levels of public support dropped in the first few weeks, as he made a series of mistakes. His first choice for attorney general had not paid her taxes on babysitters and was forced to withdraw. The second appointee also withdrew for the same reason. Clinton had repeatedly promised to encourage gays in the military service, despite what he knew to be the strong opposition of the military leadership. He tried anyway, and was publicly opposed by the top generals, and forced by Congress to a compromise position of "Don't ask, don't tell" whereby homosexuals could serve if and only if they kept it secret. He devised a $16-billion stimulus package primarily to aid inner-city programs desired by liberals, but it was defeated by a Republican filibuster in the Senate. His popularity at the 100 day mark of his term was the lowest of any president at that point.
Public opinion did support one liberal program, and Clinton signed the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993, which required large employers to allow employees to take unpaid leave for pregnancy or a serious medical condition. This action had bipartisan support, and was popular with the public.
Two days after taking office, on January 22, 1993—the 20th anniversary of the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Roe v. Wade—Clinton reversed restrictions on domestic and international family planning programs that had been imposed by Reagan and Bush. Clinton said abortion should be kept "safe, legal, and rare"—a slogan that had been suggested by political scientist Samuel L. Popkin and first used by Clinton in December 1991, while campaigning. During the eight years of the Clinton administration, the abortion rate declined by 18 percent.
On February 15, 1993, Clinton made his first address to the nation, announcing his plan to raise taxes to close a budget deficit. Two days later, in a nationally televised address to a joint session of Congress, Clinton unveiled his economic plan. The plan focused on reducing the deficit rather than on cutting taxes for the middle class, which had been high on his campaign agenda. Clinton's advisers pressured him to raise taxes, based on the theory that a smaller federal budget deficit would reduce bond interest rates.
President Clinton's attorney general Janet Reno authorized the FBI's use of armored vehicles to deploy tear gas into the buildings of the Branch Davidian community near Waco, Texas, in hopes of ending a 51 day siege. During the operation on April 19, 1993, the buildings caught fire and 75 of the residents died, including 24 children. The raid had originally been planned by the Bush administration; Clinton had played no role.
In August, Clinton signed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993, which passed Congress without a Republican vote. It cut taxes for 15 million low-income families, made tax cuts available to 90 percent of small businesses, and raised taxes on the wealthiest 1.2 percent of taxpayers. Additionally, it mandated that the budget be balanced over many years through the implementation of spending restraints.
On September 22, 1993, Clinton made a major speech to Congress regarding a health care reform plan; the program aimed at achieving universal coverage through a national health care plan. This was one of the most prominent items on Clinton's legislative agenda and resulted from a task force headed by Hillary Clinton. The plan was well received in political circles, but it was eventually doomed by well-organized lobby opposition from conservatives, the American Medical Association, and the health insurance industry. However, Clinton biographer John F. Harris said the program failed because of a lack of coordination within the White House. Despite the Democratic majority in Congress, the effort to create a national health care system ultimately died when compromise legislation by George J. Mitchell failed to gain a majority of support in August 1994. The failure of the bill was the first major legislative defeat of the Clinton administration.
On November 30, 1993, Clinton signed into law the Brady Bill, which mandated federal background checks on people who purchase firearms in the United States. The law also imposed a five-day waiting period on purchases, until the NICS system was implemented in 1998. He also expanded the Earned Income Tax Credit, a subsidy for low-income workers.
In December of the same year, allegations by Arkansas state troopers Larry Patterson and Roger Perry were first reported by David Brock in The American Spectator. In the affair later known as "Troopergate", the officers alleged that they had arranged sexual liaisons for Clinton when he was Governor of Arkansas. The story mentioned a woman named Paula, a reference to Paula Jones. Brock later apologized to Clinton, saying the article was politically motivated "bad journalism", and that "the troopers were greedy and had slimy motives".
That month, Clinton implemented a Department of Defense directive known as "Don't Ask, Don't Tell", which allowed gay men and women to serve in the armed services provided they kept their sexual orientation a secret. The Act forbade the military from inquiring about an individual's sexual orientation. The policy was developed as a compromise after Clinton's proposal to allow gays to serve openly in the military met staunch opposition from prominent congressional Republicans and Democrats, including senators John McCain (R-AZ) and Sam Nunn (D-GA). According to David Mixner, Clinton's support for the compromise led to a heated dispute with Vice President Al Gore, who felt that "the President should lift the ban ... even though [his executive order] was sure to be overridden by the Congress". Some gay-rights advocates criticized Clinton for not going far enough and accused him of making his campaign promise to get votes and contributions. Their position was that Clinton should have integrated the military by executive order, noting that President Harry S. Truman used executive order to racially desegregate the armed forces. Clinton's defenders argued that an executive order might have prompted the Senate to write the exclusion of gays into law, potentially making it harder to integrate the military in the future. Later in his presidency, in 1999, Clinton criticized the way the policy was implemented, saying he did not think any serious person could say it was not "out of whack". The policy remained controversial, and was finally repealed in 2011, removing open sexual orientation as a reason for dismissal from the armed forces.
On January 1, 1994, Clinton signed the North American Free Trade Agreement into law. Throughout his first year in office, Clinton consistently supported ratification of the treaty by the U.S. Senate. Clinton and most of his allies in the Democratic Leadership Committee strongly supported free trade measures; there remained, however, strong disagreement within the party. Opposition came chiefly from anti-trade Republicans, protectionist Democrats and supporters of Ross Perot. The bill passed the house with 234 votes in favor and 200 votes opposed (132 Republicans and 102 Democrats in favor; 156 Democrats, 43 Republicans, and one independent opposed). The treaty was then ratified by the Senate and signed into law by the president.
On July 29, 1994, the Clinton administration launched the first official White House website, whitehouse.gov. The site was followed with three more versions, with the final version being launched on July 21, 2000. The White House website was part of a wider movement of the Clinton administration toward web-based communication. According to Robert Longley, "Clinton and Gore were responsible for pressing almost all federal agencies, the U.S. court system and the U.S. military onto the Internet, thus opening up America's government to more of America's citizens than ever before. On July 17, 1996, Clinton issued Executive Order 13011—Federal Information Technology, ordering the heads of all federal agencies to utilize information technology fully to make the information of the agency easily accessible to the public."
The Omnibus Crime Bill, which Clinton signed into law in September 1994, made many changes to U.S. crime and law enforcement legislation including the expansion of the death penalty to include crimes not resulting in death, such as running a large-scale drug enterprise. During Clinton's re-election campaign he said, "My 1994 crime bill expanded the death penalty for drug kingpins, murderers of federal law enforcement officers, and nearly 60 additional categories of violent felons." It also included a subsection of assault weapons ban for a ten-year period.
After two years of Democratic Party control, the Democrats lost control of Congress to the Republicans in the mid-term elections in 1994, for the first time in forty years.
A speech delivered by President Bill Clinton at the December 6, 1995 White House Conference on HIV/AIDS projected that a cure for AIDS and a vaccine to prevent further infection would be developed. The President focused on his administration's accomplishments and efforts related to the epidemic, including an accelerated drug-approval process. He also condemned homophobia and discrimination against people with HIV. Clinton announced three new initiatives: creating a special working group to coordinate AIDS research throughout the federal government; convening public health experts to develop an action plan that integrates HIV prevention with substance abuse prevention; and launching a new effort by the Department of Justice to ensure that health care facilities provide equal access to people with HIV and AIDS. 1996 would mark the first year since the beginning of the HIV/AIDS epidemic that the number of new HIV/AIDS diagnoses would decline, with the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) even later reporting a significant 47% decline in the number of AIDS-related deaths in 1997 compared to the previous year. Credit for this decline would be given to the growing effectiveness of new drug therapy which was promoted by the Clinton Administration's Department of Health and Human Services, such as highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART).
On September 21, 1996, Clinton signed into law the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which defined marriage for federal purposes as the legal union of one man and one woman; the legislation allowed individual states to refuse to recognize gay marriages that were performed in other states. Paul Yandura, speaking for the White House gay and lesbian liaison office, said Clinton's signing DOMA "was a political decision that they made at the time of a re-election". In defense of his actions, Clinton has said that DOMA was intended to "head off an attempt to send a constitutional amendment banning gay marriage to the states", a possibility he described as highly likely in the context of a "very reactionary Congress". Administration spokesman Richard Socarides said, "the alternatives we knew were going to be far worse, and it was time to move on and get the president re-elected." Clinton himself said DOMA was something "which the Republicans put on the ballot to try to get the base vote for Bush up, I think it's obvious that something had to be done to try to keep the Republican Congress from presenting that"; others were more critical. The veteran gay rights and gay marriage activist Evan Wolfson has called these claims "historic revisionism". Despite this, it has been noted that other than a brief written response to a Reader's Digest that questioned whether he agreed with it, Clinton had made no documented reference to the issue of gay marriage until May 1996. In a July 2, 2011, editorial The New York Times opined, "The Defense of Marriage Act was enacted in 1996 as an election-year wedge issue, signed by President Bill Clinton in one of his worst policy moments." Ultimately, in United States v. Windsor, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down DOMA in June 2013.
Despite DOMA, Clinton was the first president to select openly gay persons for administrative positions, and he is generally credited as being the first president to publicly champion gay rights. During his presidency, Clinton issued two substantially controversial executive orders on behalf of gay rights, the first lifting the ban on security clearances for LGBT federal employees and the second outlawing discrimination based on sexual orientation in the federal civilian workforce. Under Clinton's leadership, federal funding for HIV/AIDS research, prevention and treatment more than doubled. Clinton also pushed for passing hate crimes laws for gays and for the private sector Employment Non-Discrimination Act, which, buoyed by his lobbying, failed to pass the Senate by a single vote in 1996. Advocacy for these issues, paired with the politically unpopular nature of the gay rights movement at the time, led to enthusiastic support for Clinton's election and reelection by the Human Rights Campaign. Clinton came out for gay marriage in July 2009 and urged the Supreme Court to overturn DOMA in 2013. He was later honored by GLAAD for his prior pro-gay stances and his reversal on DOMA.
The 1996 United States campaign finance controversy was an alleged effort by China to influence the domestic policies of the United States, before and during the Clinton administration, and involved the fundraising practices of the administration itself. Despite the evidence, the Chinese government denied all accusations.
As part of a 1996 initiative to curb illegal immigration, Clinton signed the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA) on September 30, 1996. Appointed by Clinton, the U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform recommended reducing legal immigration from about 800,000 people a year to about 550,000.
In November 1996, Clinton narrowly escaped possible assassination in the Philippines, which was a bridge bomb planted by al-Qaeda and was masterminded by Osama bin Laden. During Clinton's presidency, the attempt remained top secret, and it remains classified as of March 2024, when Reuters reported having spoken with eight retired secret service agents about the incident.
=== Second term (1997–2001) ===
In the January 1997 State of the Union address, Clinton proposed a new initiative to provide health coverage to up to five million children. Senators Ted Kennedy—a Democrat—and Orrin Hatch—a Republican—teamed up with Hillary Rodham Clinton and her staff in 1997 and succeeded in passing legislation forming the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP), the largest successful health care reform in the Clinton Administration. That year, Hillary Clinton shepherded through Congress the Adoption and Safe Families Act and two years later she succeeded in helping pass the Foster Care Independence Act. Bill Clinton negotiated the passage of the Balanced Budget Act of 1997 by the Republican Congress.
In October 1997, Clinton announced he was getting hearing aids, due to hearing loss attributed to his age, and his time spent as a musician in his youth. In 1999, he signed into law the Financial Services Modernization Act also known as the Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act, which repealed the part of the Glass–Steagall Act that had prohibited a bank from offering a full range of investment, commercial banking, and insurance services since its enactment in 1933.
==== Investigations ====
In November 1993, David Hale—the source of criminal allegations against Bill Clinton in the Whitewater controversy—alleged that while Governor of Arkansas, Clinton pressured Hale to provide an illegal $300,000 loan to Susan McDougal, the Clintons' partner in the Whitewater land deal. A U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission investigation resulted in convictions against the McDougals for their role in the Whitewater project, but the Clintons themselves were never charged, and Clinton maintains his and his wife's innocence in the affair. Investigations by Robert B. Fiske and Ken Starr found insufficient to evidence to prosecute the Clintons.
The White House FBI files controversy of June 1996 arose concerning improper access by the White House to FBI security-clearance documents. Craig Livingstone, head of the White House Office of Personnel Security, improperly requested, and received from the FBI, background report files without asking permission of the subject individuals; many of these were employees of former Republican administrations. In March 2000, Independent Counsel Robert Ray determined there was no credible evidence of any crime. Ray's report further stated, "there was no substantial and credible evidence that any senior White House official was involved" in seeking the files.
On May 19, 1993, Clinton fired seven employees of the White House Travel Office. This caused the White House travel office controversy even though the travel office staff served at the pleasure of the president and could be dismissed without cause. The White House responded to the controversy by claiming that the firings were done in response to financial improprieties that had been revealed by a brief FBI investigation. Critics contended that the firings had been done to allow friends of the Clintons to take over the travel business and the involvement of the FBI was unwarranted. The House Government Reform and Oversight Committee issued a report which accused the Clinton administration of having obstructed their efforts to investigate the affair. Special counsel Robert Fiske said that Hillary Clinton was involved in the firing and gave "factually false" testimony to the GAO, congress, and the independent counsel. However Fiske said there was not enough evidence to prosecute.
==== Impeachment and acquittal ====
After a House inquiry, Clinton was impeached on December 19, 1998, by the House of Representatives. The House voted 228–206 to impeach him for perjury to a grand jury and voted 221–212 to impeach him for obstruction of justice. Clinton was only the second U.S. president (the first being Andrew Johnson) to be impeached. Impeachment proceedings were based on allegations that Clinton had illegally lied about and covered up his relationship with 22-year-old White House (and later Department of Defense) employee Monica Lewinsky. After the Starr Report was submitted to the House providing what it termed "substantial and credible information that President Clinton Committed Acts that May Constitute Grounds for an Impeachment", the House began impeachment hearings against Clinton before the mid-term elections. To hold impeachment proceedings, Republican leadership called a lame-duck session in December 1998.
While the House Judiciary Committee hearings ended in a straight party-line vote, there was lively debate on the House floor. The two charges passed in the House (largely with Republican support, but with a handful of Democratic votes as well) were for perjury and obstruction of justice. The perjury charge arose from Clinton's testimony before a grand jury that had been convened to investigate perjury he may have committed in his sworn deposition during Jones v. Clinton, Paula Jones's sexual harassment lawsuit. The obstruction charge was based on his actions to conceal his relationship with Lewinsky before and after that deposition.
The Senate later acquitted Clinton of both charges. The Senate refused to meet to hold an impeachment trial before the end of the old term, so the trial was held over until the next Congress. Clinton was represented by Washington law firm Williams & Connolly. The Senate finished a twenty-one-day trial on February 12, 1999, with the vote of 55 not guilty/45 guilty on the perjury charge and 50 not guilty/50 guilty on the obstruction of justice charge. Both votes fell short of the constitutional two-thirds majority requirement to convict and remove an officeholder. The final vote was generally along party lines, with no Democrats voting guilty, and only a handful of Republicans voting not guilty.
On January 19, 2001, Clinton's law license was suspended for five years after he acknowledged to an Arkansas circuit court he had engaged in conduct prejudicial to the administration of justice in the Jones case. On October 1, the U.S. Supreme Court suspended Clinton from practicing law in the high court, citing fallout from the Lewinsky scandal, but rather than appealing the decision he resigned from the bar entirely.
==== Pardons and commutations ====
Clinton issued 141 pardons and 36 commutations on his last day in office on January 20, 2001. Controversy surrounded Marc Rich and allegations that Hillary Clinton's brother, Hugh Rodham, accepted payments in return for influencing the president's decision-making regarding the pardons. Federal prosecutor Mary Jo White was appointed to investigate the pardon of Rich. She was later replaced by then-Republican James Comey. The investigation found no wrongdoing on Clinton's part. Clinton also pardoned four defendants in the Whitewater Scandal, Chris Wade, Susan McDougal, Stephen Smith, and Robert W. Palmer, all of whom had ties to Clinton when he was Governor of Arkansas. Former Clinton HUD Secretary Henry Cisneros, who pleaded guilty to lying to the FBI, was also among Clinton's pardons.
==== Campaign finance controversies ====
In February 1997 it was discovered upon documents being released by the Clinton Administration that 938 people had stayed at the White House and that 821 of them had made donations to the Democratic Party and got the opportunity to stay in the Lincoln bedroom as a result of the donations. Some donors included Steven Spielberg, Tom Hanks, Jane Fonda, and Judy Collins. Top donors also got golf games and morning jogs with Clinton as a result of the contributions. Janet Reno was called on to investigate the matter by Trent Lott, but she refused.
In 1996, it was found that several Chinese foreigners made contributions to Clinton's reelection campaign and the Democratic National Committee with the backing of the People's Republic of China. Some of them also attempted to donate to Clinton's defense fund. This violated United States law forbidding non-American citizens from making campaign contributions. Clinton and Al Gore also allegedly met with the foreign donors. A Republican investigation led by Fred Thompson found that Clinton was targeted by the Chinese government. However, Democratic senators Joe Lieberman and John Glenn said that the evidence showed that China only targeted congressional elections and not presidential elections.
=== Military and foreign affairs ===
==== Somalia ====
American troops had first entered Somalia during the George H. W. Bush administration in response to a humanitarian crisis and civil war. Though initially involved to assist humanitarian efforts, the Clinton administration shifted the objectives set out in the mission and began pursuing a policy of attempting to neutralize Somali warlords. In 1993, during the Battle of Mogadishu, two U.S. helicopters were shot down by rocket-propelled grenade attacks to their tail rotors, trapping soldiers behind enemy lines. This resulted in an urban battle that killed 18 American soldiers, wounded 73 others, and resulted in one being taken prisoner. Television news programs depicted the supporters of warlord Mohammed Aidid desecrating the corpses of troops. The backlash resulting from the incident prompted a drop in support for American intervention in the country and coincided with a more cautious use of troops throughout the rest of the Clinton administration. Following a subsequent national security policy review, U.S. forces were withdrawn from Somalia and later conflicts were approached with fewer soldiers on the ground.
==== Rwanda ====
In April 1994, genocide broke out in Rwanda. Intelligence reports indicate that Clinton was aware a "final solution to eliminate all Tutsis" was underway, long before the administration publicly used the word "genocide". Fearing a reprisal of the events in Somalia the previous year, Clinton chose not to intervene. Clinton has called his failure to intervene one of his main foreign policy failings, saying "I don't think we could have ended the violence, but I think we could have cut it down. And I regret it."
==== Bosnia and Herzegovina ====
In 1993 and 1994, Clinton pressured Western European leaders to adopt a strong military policy against Bosnian Serbs during the Bosnian War. This strategy faced staunch opposition from the United Nations, NATO allies, and congressional Republicans, leading Clinton to adopt a more diplomatic approach. In 1995, U.S. and NATO aircraft bombed Bosnian Serb targets to halt attacks on UN safe zones and pressure them into a peace accord that would end the Bosnian war. Clinton deployed U.S. peacekeepers to Bosnia in late 1995, to uphold the subsequent Dayton Agreement.
==== Northern Irish peace talks ====
In 1992, before his presidency, Clinton proposed sending a peace envoy to Northern Ireland, but this was dropped to avoid tensions with the British government. In November 1995, in a ceasefire during the Troubles, Clinton became the first president to visit Northern Ireland, examining both of the two divided communities of Belfast. Despite unionist criticism, Clinton used his visit as a way to negotiate an end to the violent conflict, playing a key role in the peace talks that produced the Good Friday Agreement in 1998.
==== Iran ====
Clinton sought to continue the Bush administration's policy of limiting Iranian influence in the Middle East, which he laid out in the dual containment strategy. In 1994, Clinton declared that Iran was a "state sponsor of terrorism" and a "rogue state", marking the first time that an American president used that term. Subsequent executive orders heavily sanctioned Iran's oil industry and banned almost all trade between U.S. companies and the Iranian government. In February 1996, the Clinton administration agreed to pay Iran US$131.8 million (equivalent to $270.56 million in 2025) in settlement to discontinue a case brought by Iran in 1989 against the U.S. in the International Court of Justice after the shooting down of Iran Air Flight 655 by the U.S. Navy guided missile cruiser.
==== Iraq ====
In Clinton's 1998 State of the Union Address, he warned Congress that Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein was building an arsenal of chemical, biological and nuclear weapons. Although, there was no evidence for that claim.
Clinton signed the Iraq Liberation Act of 1998 on October 31, 1998, which instituted a policy of "regime change" against Iraq, though it explicitly stated it did not provide for direct intervention on the part of American military forces. The administration then launched a four-day bombing campaign named Operation Desert Fox, lasting from December 16 to 19, 1998. At the end of this operation Clinton announced that "So long as Saddam remains in power, he will remain a threat to his people, his region, and the world. With our allies, we must pursue a strategy to contain him and to constrain his weapons of mass destruction program, while working toward the day Iraq has a government willing to live at peace with its people and with its neighbors." American and British aircraft in the Iraq no-fly zones attacked hostile Iraqi air defenses 166 times in 1999 and 78 times in 2000.
==== Osama bin Laden ====
Capturing Osama bin Laden was an objective of the U.S. government during the Clinton presidency (and continued to be until bin Laden's death in 2011). Despite claims by Mansoor Ijaz and Sudanese officials that the Sudanese government had offered to arrest and extradite bin Laden, and that U.S. authorities rejected each offer, the 9/11 Commission Report stated that "we have not found any reliable evidence to support the Sudanese claim".
In response to a 1996 State Department warning about bin Laden and the 1998 bombings of U.S. embassies in East Africa by al-Qaeda (which killed 224 people, including 12 Americans), Clinton ordered several military missions to capture or kill bin Laden, all of which were unsuccessful. In August 1998, Clinton ordered cruise missile strikes on terrorist targets in Afghanistan and Sudan, targeting the Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory in Sudan, which was suspected of assisting bin Laden in making chemical weapons, and bin Laden's terrorist training camps in Afghanistan. The factory was destroyed by the attack, resulting in the death of one employee and the wounding of 11 other people. After the destruction of the factory, there was a medicine shortage in Sudan due to the plant providing 50 percent of Sudan's medicine, and the destruction of the plant led to a shortage of chloroquine, a drug which is used to treat malaria. U.S. officials later acknowledged that there was no evidence the plant was acknowledging manufacturing or storing nerve gas. The attack provoked criticism of Clinton from journalists and academics including Christopher Hitchens, Seymour Hersh, Max Taylor, and others.
==== Kosovo ====
In the midst of a brutal crackdown on ethnic Albanian separatists in the province of Kosovo by the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Clinton authorized the use of U.S. Armed Forces in a NATO bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in 1999, named Operation Allied Force. The stated reasoning behind the intervention was to stop the ethnic cleansing (and what the Clinton administration labeled genocide) of Albanians by Yugoslav anti-guerilla military units. General Wesley Clark was Supreme Allied Commander of NATO and oversaw the mission. With United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244, the bombing campaign ended on June 10, 1999. The resolution placed Kosovo under UN administration and authorized a peacekeeping force to be deployed to the region. NATO announced its soldiers all survived combat, though two died in an Apache helicopter crash. Journalists in the popular press criticized genocide statements by the Clinton administration as false and greatly exaggerated. Prior to the bombing campaign on March 24, 1999, estimates showed that the number of civilians killed in the over year long conflict in Kosovo had been approximately 1,800, with critics asserting that little or no evidence existed of genocide. In a post-war inquiry, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe noted "the patterns of the expulsions and the vast increase in lootings, killings, rape, kidnappings and pillage once the NATO air war began on March 24." In 2001, the UN-supervised Supreme Court of Kosovo ruled that genocide (the intent to destroy a people) did not take place, but recognized "a systematic campaign of terror, including murders, rapes, arsons and severe maltreatments" with the intention being the forceful departure of the Albanian population. The term "ethnic cleansing" was used as an alternative to "genocide" to denote not just ethnically motivated murder but also displacement, though critics charge there is little difference. Slobodan Milošević, the president of Yugoslavia at the time of the atrocities, was eventually brought to trial before the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in the Hague on charges including crimes against humanity and war crimes for his role in the war. He died in 2006, before the completion of the trial.
==== China ====
Clinton aimed to increase trade with China, minimizing import tariffs and offering the country most favoured nation status in 1993, his administration minimized tariff levels in Chinese imports. Clinton initially conditioned extension of this status on human rights reforms, but ultimately decided to extend the status despite a lack of reform in the specified areas, including free emigration, treatment of prisoners in terms of international human rights, and observation of human rights specified by UN resolutions, among others.
Relations were damaged briefly by the American bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade in May 1999. Clinton apologized for the bombing, stating it was accidental.
On October 10, 2000, Clinton signed into law the United States–China Relations Act of 2000, which granted permanent normal trade relations (PNTR) trade status to China. The president asserted that free trade would gradually open China to democratic reform.
In encouraging Congress to approve the agreement and China's accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO), Clinton stated that more trade with China would advance America's economic interests, saying that "economically, this agreement is the equivalent of a one-way street. It requires China to open its markets—with a fifth of the world's population, potentially the biggest markets in the world—to both our products and services in unprecedented new ways."
==== Israeli-Palestinian conflict ====
Clinton attempted to end the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Secret negotiations mediated by Clinton between Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) Chairman Yasser Arafat led to a historic declaration of peace in September 1993, called the Oslo Accords, which were signed at the White House on September 13. The agreement led to the Israel–Jordan peace treaty in 1994 and the Wye River Memorandum in October 1998, however, this did not end the conflict. He brought Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian Authority chairman Yasser Arafat together at Camp David for the 2000 Camp David Summit, which lasted 14 days in July. Following another attempt in December 2000 at Bolling Air Force Base, in which the president offered the Clinton Parameters, the situation broke down completely after the end of the Taba Summit and with the start of the Second Intifada.
=== Judicial appointments ===
Clinton appointed two justices to the Supreme Court: Ruth Bader Ginsburg in 1993 and Stephen Breyer in 1994. Both justices went on to serve until the 2020s, leaving a lasting judicial legacy for President Clinton.
Clinton was the first president in history to appoint more women and minority judges than white male judges to the federal courts. In his eight years in office, 11.6% of Clinton's court of appeals nominees and 17.4% of his district court nominees were black; 32.8% of his court of appeals nominees and 28.5% of his district court nominees were women.
== Public opinion ==
Throughout Clinton's first term, his job approval rating fluctuated in the 40s and 50s. In his second term, his rating consistently ranged from the high-50s to the high-60s. After his impeachment proceedings in 1998 and 1999, Clinton's rating reached its highest point. According to a CBS News/New York Times poll, Clinton left office with an approval rating of 68 percent, which matched those of Ronald Reagan and Franklin D. Roosevelt as the highest ratings for departing presidents in the modern era. Clinton's average Gallup poll approval rating for his last quarter in office was 61 percent, the highest final quarter rating any president has received for fifty years. Forty-seven percent of the respondents identified themselves as being Clinton supporters.
As he was leaving office, a CNN/USA Today/Gallup poll revealed that 45 percent of Americans said they would miss him; 55 percent thought he "would have something worthwhile to contribute and should remain active in public life"; 68 percent thought he would be remembered more for his "involvement in personal scandal" than for "his accomplishments"; and 58 percent answered "No" to the question "Do you generally think Bill Clinton is honest and trustworthy?" The same percentage said he would be remembered as either "outstanding" or "above average" as a president, while 22 percent said he would be remembered as "below average" or "poor". ABC News characterized public consensus on Clinton as, "You can't trust him, he's got weak morals and ethics—and he's done a heck of a good job." During his first term, roughly 7 in 10 Americans believed that the media unfairly covered Clinton's character flaws, according to polling.
A year after he left office, a Gallup poll found that 51 percent of respondents said they approved of the overall job Clinton did as president. In May 2006, a CNN poll comparing Clinton's job performance with that of his successor, George W. Bush, found that a strong majority of respondents said Clinton outperformed Bush in six different areas questioned. A June 2006 poll by Gallup found that 61 percent of Americans said they approved of the job Clinton did as president, a 10-point increase from the 2002 poll. Gallup polls in 2007 and 2011 showed that Clinton was regarded by 13 percent of Americans as the greatest president in U.S. history.
In 2010, 69 percent of respondents in a Gallup survey said they approved of the job Clinton did as president, including 47 percent of Republicans and 68 percent of independents. His sudden spike in popularity during this time was attributed to Americans comparing him to then-incumbent Democratic president Barack Obama, who had low approval ratings. In 2014, 18 percent of respondents in a Quinnipiac University Polling Institute poll of American voters regarded Clinton as the best president since World War II, making him the third most popular among postwar presidents, behind John F. Kennedy and Ronald Reagan. The same poll showed that just 3 percent of American voters regarded Clinton as the worst president since World War II.
A 2015 poll by The Washington Post asked 162 scholars of the American Political Science Association to rank all the U.S. presidents in order of greatness. According to their findings, Clinton ranked eighth overall, with a rating of 70 percent.
== Public image ==
Clinton was the first baby boomer president. Authors Martin Walker and Bob Woodward stated that Clinton's innovative use of sound bite-ready dialogue, personal charisma, and public perception-oriented campaigning were a major factor in his high public approval ratings. When Clinton played the saxophone on The Arsenio Hall Show, he was described by some religious conservatives as "the MTV president". Opponents sometimes referred to him as "Slick Willie", a nickname which was first applied to him in 1980 by Pine Bluff Commercial journalist Paul Greenberg; Greenberg believed that Clinton was abandoning the progressive policies of previous Arkansas governors such as Winthrop Rockefeller, Dale Bumpers and David Pryor. The claim "Slick Willie" would last throughout his presidency. His folksy manner led him to be nicknamed Bubba starting from the 1992 presidential election. Since 2000, he has frequently been referred to as "The Big Dog" or "Big Dog". His prominent role in campaigning for Obama during the 2012 presidential election and his widely publicized speech at the 2012 Democratic National Convention, where he officially nominated Obama and criticized Republican nominee Mitt Romney and Republican policies in detail, earned him the nickname "Explainer-in-Chief".
Clinton drew strong support from the African American community and insisted that the improvement of race relations would be a major theme of his presidency. In 1998, Nobel laureate Toni Morrison called Clinton "the first black president", saying, "Clinton displays almost every trope of blackness: single-parent household, born poor, working-class, saxophone-playing, McDonald's-and-junk-food-loving boy from Arkansas". Morrison noted that Clinton's sex life was scrutinized more than his career accomplishments, and she compared this to the stereotyping and double standards that, she said, black people typically endure. Many viewed this comparison as unfair and disparaging both to Clinton and to the African-American community.
=== Sexual assault and misconduct allegations ===
Several women have publicly accused Clinton of sexual misconduct, including rape, harassment, and sexual assault. Additionally, some commentators have characterized Clinton's sexual relationship with former White House intern Monica Lewinsky as predatory or non-consensual, despite the fact that Lewinsky called the relationship consensual at the time. These allegations have been revisited and lent more credence in 2018, in light of the #MeToo movement, with many commentators and Democratic leaders now saying Clinton should have been compelled to resign after the Lewinsky affair.
In 1994, Paula Jones initiated a sexual harassment lawsuit against Clinton, claiming he had made unwanted advances towards her in 1991; Clinton denied the allegations. In April 1998, the case was initially dismissed by Judge Susan Webber Wright on the grounds that it lacked legal merit. Jones appealed Webber Wright's ruling, and her suit gained traction following Clinton's admission to having an affair with Monica Lewinsky in August 1998. In 1998, lawyers for Paula Jones released court documents that alleged a pattern of sexual harassment by Clinton when he was Governor of Arkansas. Robert S. Bennett, Clinton's main lawyer for the case, called the filing "a pack of lies" and "an organized campaign to smear the President of the United States" funded by Clinton's political enemies. In October 1998, Clinton's attorneys tentatively offered $700,000 to settle the case, which was then the $800,000 which Jones' lawyers sought. Clinton later agreed to an out-of-court settlement and paid Jones $850,000. Bennett said the president made the settlement only so he could end the lawsuit for good and move on with his life. During the deposition for the Jones lawsuit, which was held at the White House, Clinton denied having sexual relations with Monica Lewinsky—a denial that became the basis for an impeachment charge of perjury.
In 1998, Kathleen Willey alleged that Clinton had groped her in a hallway in 1993. An independent counsel determined Willey gave "false information" to the FBI, inconsistent with sworn testimony related to the Jones allegation. On March 19, 1998, Julie Hiatt Steele, a friend of Willey, released an affidavit, accusing the former White House aide of asking her to lie to corroborate Ms. Willey's account of being sexually groped by Clinton in the Oval Office. An attempt by Kenneth Starr to prosecute Steele for making false statements and obstructing justice ended in a mistrial and Starr declined to seek a retrial after Steele sought an investigation against the former independent counsel for prosecutorial misconduct.
Also in 1998, Juanita Broaddrick alleged that Clinton had raped her in the spring of 1978, although she said she did not remember the exact date. To support her charge, Broaddrick notes that she told multiple witnesses in 1978 she had been raped by Clinton, something these witnesses also state in interviews to the press. Broaddrick had earlier filed an affidavit denying any "unwelcome sexual advances" and later repeated the denial in a sworn deposition. In a 1998 NBC interview wherein she detailed the alleged rape, Broaddrick said she had denied (under oath) being raped only to avoid testifying about the ordeal publicly.
The Lewinsky scandal has had an enduring impact on Clinton's legacy, beyond his impeachment in 1998. In the wake of the #MeToo movement (which shed light on the widespread prevalence of sexual assault and harassment, especially in the workplace), various commentators and Democratic political leaders, as well as Lewinsky herself, have revisited their view that the Lewinsky affair was consensual, and instead characterized it as an abuse of power or harassment, in light of the power differential between a president and a 22-year-old intern. In 2018, Clinton was asked in several interviews about whether he should have resigned, and he said he had made the right decision in not resigning. During the 2018 congressional elections, The New York Times alleged that having no Democratic candidate for office asking Clinton to campaign with them was a change that attributed to the revised understanding of the Lewinsky scandal. However, former DNC interim chair Donna Brazile previously urged Clinton in November 2017 to campaign during the 2018 midterm elections, in spite of New York U.S. senator Kirsten Gillibrand's recent criticism of the Lewinsky scandal.
=== Relationship with Jeffrey Epstein ===
Clinton also had a relationship with Jeffrey Epstein from 1993 to 2003 and made flights on Epstein's plane numerous times from 2002 to 2003 for charity trips, and sending him a message in his 2003 birthday greeting album. However, the details surrounding their relationship have been disputed, with Epstein's former romantic partner Ghislaine Maxwell, who is acknowledged to have visited the White House with Epstein when Clinton was president, being described as the person who was the "glue" of Epstein and Clinton's relationship. A Freedom of Information Act request which was made in 2017 showed that Secret Service records found no evidence to back claims Clinton ever visited Epstein's private Caribbean island in Little Saint James.
=== Alleged affairs ===
Clinton admitted to having extramarital affairs with singer Gennifer Flowers and Monica Lewinsky. Actress Elizabeth Gracen, Miss Arkansas winner Sally Perdue, and Dolly Kyle Browning all claimed that they had affairs with Clinton during his time as Governor of Arkansas. Browning later sued Clinton, Bruce Lindsey, Robert S. Bennett, and Jane Mayer, alleging they engaged in a conspiracy to attempt to block her from publishing a book loosely based on her relationship with Clinton and tried to defame him. However, Browning's lawsuit was dismissed.
== Post-presidency (2001–present) ==
=== Activities until 2008 campaign ===
In 2002, Clinton warned that pre-emptive military action against Iraq would have unwelcome consequences, and later claimed to have opposed the Iraq War from the start (though some dispute this). In 2005, Clinton criticized the Bush administration for its handling of emissions control, while speaking at the United Nations Climate Change conference in Montreal.
The William J. Clinton Presidential Center and Park in Little Rock, Arkansas, was dedicated in 2004. Clinton released a best-selling autobiography, My Life, in 2004. Clinton's official White House portrait, commissioned by the White House Historical Association, was unveiled in June 2004. It was painted by Simmie Knox. In 2007, he released Giving: How Each of Us Can Change the World, which also became a New York Times Best Seller and garnered positive reviews.
In the aftermath of the 2004 Asian tsunami, U.N. secretary-general Kofi Annan appointed Clinton to head a relief effort. After Hurricane Katrina, Clinton joined with fellow former president George H. W. Bush to establish the Bush-Clinton Tsunami Fund in January 2005, and the Bush-Clinton Katrina Fund in October of that year. As part of the tsunami effort, these two ex-presidents appeared in a Super Bowl XXXIX pre-game show, and traveled to the affected areas. They also spoke together at the funeral of Boris Yeltsin in April 2007.
Based on his philanthropic worldview, Clinton created the William J. Clinton Foundation to address issues of global importance. This foundation includes the Clinton Foundation HIV and AIDS Initiative (CHAI), which strives to combat that disease, and has worked with the Australian government toward that end. The Clinton Global Initiative (CGI), begun by the Clinton Foundation in 2005, attempts to address world problems such as global public health, poverty alleviation and religious and ethnic conflict. In 2005, Clinton announced through his foundation an agreement with manufacturers to stop selling sugary drinks in schools. Clinton's foundation joined with the Large Cities Climate Leadership Group in 2006 to improve cooperation among those cities, and he met with foreign leaders to promote this initiative. The foundation has received donations from many governments all over the world, including Asia and the Middle East. In 2008, Foundation director Inder Singh announced deals to reduce the price of anti-malaria drugs by 30 percent in developing nations. Clinton also spoke in favor of California Proposition 87 on alternative energy, which was voted down.
=== 2008 presidential election ===
During the 2008 Democratic presidential primary campaign, Clinton vigorously advocated on behalf of his wife, Hillary. Through speaking engagements and fundraisers, he was able to raise $10 million toward her campaign. Some worried that as an ex-president, he was too active on the trail, too negative to Clinton rival Barack Obama, and alienating his supporters at home and abroad. Many were especially critical of him following his remarks in the South Carolina primary, which Obama won. Later in the 2008 primaries, there was some infighting between Bill and Hillary's staffs, especially in Pennsylvania. Considering Bill's remarks, many thought he could not rally Hillary supporters behind Obama after Obama won the primary. Such remarks led to apprehension that the party would be split to the detriment of Obama's election. Fears were allayed August 27, 2008, when Clinton enthusiastically endorsed Obama at the 2008 Democratic National Convention, saying all his experience as president assures him that Obama is "ready to lead". After Hillary Clinton's presidential campaign was over, Bill Clinton continued to raise funds to help pay off her campaign debt.
=== After the 2008 election ===
In 2009, Clinton travelled to North Korea on behalf of two American journalists imprisoned there. Euna Lee and Laura Ling had been imprisoned for illegally entering the country from China. Jimmy Carter had made a similar visit in 1994. After Clinton met with North Korean leader Kim Jong-il, Kim issued a pardon.
Since then, Clinton has been assigned many other diplomatic missions. He was named United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti in 2009 following a series of hurricanes which caused $1 billion in damages. Clinton organized a conference with the Inter-American Development Bank, where a new industrial park was discussed in an effort to "build back better". In response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake, U.S. president Barack Obama announced that Clinton and George W. Bush would coordinate efforts to raise funds for Haiti's recovery. Funds began pouring into Haiti, which led to funding becoming available for Caracol Industrial Park in a part of the country unaffected by the earthquake. While Hillary Clinton was in South Korea, she and Cheryl Mills worked to convince SAE-A, a large apparel subcontractor, to invest in Haiti despite the company's deep concerns about plans to raise the minimum wage. In the summer of 2010, the South Korean company signed a contract at the U.S. State Department, ensuring that the new industrial park would have a key tenant. In 2010, Clinton announced support of, and delivered the keynote address for, the inauguration of NTR, Ireland's first environmental foundation. At the 2012 Democratic National Convention, Clinton gave a widely praised speech nominating Barack Obama.
=== 2016 presidential election and after ===
During the 2016 presidential election, Clinton again encouraged voters to support Hillary, and made appearances speaking on the campaign trail. In a series of tweets, then-president-elect Donald Trump criticized his ability to get people out to vote. Clinton served as a member of the electoral college for the state of New York. He voted for the Democratic ticket consisting of his wife Hillary and her running-mate Tim Kaine.
On September 7, 2017, Clinton partnered with former presidents Jimmy Carter, George H. W. Bush, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama to work with One America Appeal to help the victims of Hurricane Harvey and Hurricane Irma in the Gulf Coast and Texas communities.
In 2020, Clinton again served as a member of the United States Electoral College from New York, casting his vote for the successful Democratic ticket of Joe Biden and Kamala Harris.
Clinton was one of the first public figures to endorse Biden's re-election campaign in 2024, with him appearing in interviews and fundraisers with various politicians and national figures. He was also one of the most notable politicians to defend Biden after his critically maligned first presidential debate on June 27, with him stating that "bad debate nights happen" and continued to press support for him despite increasing demand from the public and Democratic party requesting for him to drop out. After Biden withdrew his candidacy and vice president Harris replaced him on the ticket, both Bill and Hillary Clinton endorsed her and praised Biden for his work in public service. Clinton later gave a critically acclaimed speech at the 2024 DNC, where he emphasized the Democratic Party's record on job creation and Harris' career achievements as a prosecutor, senator, and vice president.
He later stumped for Harris at various battleground states, where he met with supporters in small towns and at campaign stops. At a stop in Michigan, Clinton caused a backlash by criticizing Arab and Muslim Americans hesitant to support Harris due to her pro-Israeli position, stating Israel had been "forced" to kill civilians during its war in Gaza. His comments led the Institute for Middle East Understanding to state, "Bill Clinton's racist and ahistorical remarks were meant to justify the ethnic cleansing of Palestinians from their land. The Harris campaign is doing itself no favors attaching itself to that kind of hateful rhetoric". He expanded on his comments in an interview with CNN shortly after, stating that he was trying to appeal to both sides of the issue and highlighted his work with Arafat and Rabin in the Oslo Occords, although his response still received sharp condemnation from Muslim, Arab, and Palestinian-Americans.
After Harris lost the general election to Trump, Clinton's remarks were brought up by critics and pundits, who stated that they were the reason why Harris lost support among Arab-American voters and why she fared poorly in the Muslim-populated cities of Dearborn and Hamtramck when compared to previous Democratic candidates. Critics also questioned his relevance to the modern Democratic Party, with pundits stating that his centrist policies and promotion of candidates who align with his views no longer work with a party that has tried to rebrand itself after losing support amongst progressive and populist supporters. After the election, he and Hillary released a statement congratulating president-elect Trump and vice president-elect JD Vance, while stating that Harris and her running-mate Tim Walz ran a "positive, forward-looking campaign to be proud of".
Clinton's second volume of memoirs, Citizen: My Life After the White House, was published in November 2024.
On November 20, 2025, Clinton would return to Little Rock, Arkansas to attend an event celebrating the 75 anniversary of the Arkansas Governor's Mansion, with Arkansas Governor Sarah Huckabee Sanders and other former governors, including U.S. ambassador Mike Huckabee and Asa Hutchinson, in attendance. The next day, Bill and Hillary visited Rev. Jesse Jackson at the Northwestern Memorial Hospital in Chicago.
=== Wealth ===
The Clintons incurred several million dollars in legal bills during his presidency, which were paid off four years after he left office. Bill and Hillary Clinton have each earned millions of dollars from book publishing. In 2016, Forbes reported Bill and Hillary Clinton made about $240 million in the 15 years from January 2001, to December 2015, (mostly from paid speeches, business consulting and book-writing). Also in 2016, CNN reported the Clintons combined to receive more than $153 million in paid speeches from 2001 until spring 2015. In May 2015, The Hill reported that Bill and Hillary Clinton have made more than $25 million in speaking fees since the start of 2014, and that Hillary Clinton also made $5 million or more from her book, Hard Choices, during the same time period. In July 2014, The Wall Street Journal reported that at the end of 2012, the Clintons were worth between $5 million and $25.5 million, and that in 2012 (the last year they were required to disclose the information) the Clintons made between $16 and $17 million, mostly from speaking fees earned by the former president. Clinton earned more than $104 million from paid speeches between 2001 and 2012. In June 2014, ABC News and The Washington Post reported that Bill Clinton has made more than $100 million giving paid speeches since leaving public office, and in 2008, The New York Times reported that the Clintons' income tax returns show they made $109 million in the eight years from January 1, 2000, to December 31, 2007, including almost $92 million from his speaking and book-writing.
Clinton has given dozens of paid speeches each year since leaving office in 2001, mostly to corporations and philanthropic groups in North America and Europe; he often earned $100,000 to $300,000 per speech. Russian investment bank with ties to the Kremlin paid Clinton $500,000 for a speech in Moscow. Hillary Clinton said she and Bill came out of the White House financially "broke" and in debt, especially due to large legal fees incurred during their years in the White House. "We had no money when we got there, and we struggled to, you know, piece together the resources for mortgages, for houses, for Chelsea's education". She added, "Bill has worked really hard ... we had to pay off all our debts ... he had to make double the money because of, obviously, taxes; and then pay off the debts, and get us houses, and take care of family members".
== Personal life ==
At the age of 10, he was baptized at Park Place Baptist Church in Hot Springs, Arkansas. When he became president in 1993, he became a member of Foundry United Methodist Church in Washington, D.C. with his wife, a Methodist.
On October 11, 1975, in Fayetteville, Arkansas, he married Hillary Rodham, whom he met while studying at Yale University. They had Chelsea Clinton, their only child, on February 27, 1980. He is the maternal grandfather to Chelsea's three children.
=== Health ===
In September 2004, Clinton underwent quadruple bypass surgery. In March 2005, he again underwent surgery, this time for a partially collapsed lung. On February 11, 2010, he was rushed to New York-Presbyterian/Columbia Hospital in Manhattan after complaining of chest pains, and he had two coronary stents implanted in his heart. After this procedure, Clinton adopted a plant-based whole foods (vegan) diet, which had been recommended by doctors Dean Ornish and Caldwell Esselstyn. He has since incorporated fish and lean animal flesh at the suggestion of Mark Hyman, a proponent of the pseudoscientific ethos of functional medicine. As a result, he is no longer strictly on a plant-based diet.
In October 2021, Clinton was treated for sepsis at the University of California, Irvine Medical Center. In December 2022, Clinton tested positive for COVID-19. In December 2024, Clinton was hospitalized after developing a fever at the MedStar Georgetown University Hospital in Washington D.C. In August 2025, he was seen with a portable defibrillator.
== Accolades ==
Several colleges and universities have awarded Clinton honorary degrees. He is an honorary fellow of University College, Oxford, which he attended as a Rhodes Scholar, although he did not complete his studies there. Schools have been named for Clinton, and statues have been built of him. He was presented with the Medal for Distinguished Public Service in 2001. The Clinton Presidential Center was opened in Little Rock, Arkansas, in 2001.
The Republic of Kosovo, in gratitude for his help during the Kosovo War, renamed a major street in the capital city of Pristina as Bill Clinton Boulevard and added a Clinton statue. In 2011, Haitian president Michel Martelly awarded Clinton with the National Order of Honour and Merit to the rank of Grand Cross "for his various initiatives in Haiti and especially his high contribution to the reconstruction of the country after the earthquake of January 12, 2010".
Clinton was selected as Time's "Man of the Year" in 1992, and again in 1998, along with Ken Starr. From a poll conducted of the American people in December 1999, Clinton was among eighteen included in Gallup's List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th Century. In 2001, Clinton received the NAACP President's Award. He has also been honored with a J. William Fulbright Prize for International Understanding, a TED Prize, and was named as an Honorary GLAAD Media Award recipient for his work as an advocate for the LGBT community.
Clinton, along with Mikhail Gorbachev and Sophia Loren, received the 2003 Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children for Wolf Tracks and Peter and the Wolf. The audiobook edition of his autobiography, My Life, read by Clinton himself, won the 2005 Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album, as well as the Audie Award as the Audiobook of the Year. Clinton has two more Grammy nominations for his audiobooks: Giving: How Each of Us Can Change the World in 2007 and Back to Work in 2012.
President Obama awarded Clinton the Presidential Medal of Freedom on November 20, 2013. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthrax_(American_band) | Anthrax (American band) | Anthrax is an American heavy metal band from New York City, formed in 1981 by rhythm guitarist Scott Ian and bassist Dan Lilker. The group is considered one of the leaders of the thrash metal scene from the 1980s and is part of the "Big Four" of the genre, along with Metallica, Megadeth and Slayer. They were also one of the first thrash metal bands (along with Overkill and Nuclear Assault) to emerge from the East Coast. The band's current lineup consists of Scott Ian, drummer Charlie Benante, bassist Frank Bello, vocalist Joey Belladonna and lead guitarist Jonathan Donais. Anthrax's lineup has changed numerous times over their career, leaving Ian as the only constant member of the band. Ian and Benante (who replaced one-time drummer Greg D'Angelo in 1983) are the only two members to appear on all of Anthrax's albums, while Bello has been a member of Anthrax since 1984, replacing Lilker.
After cycling through a number of members, Anthrax released their debut album, Fistful of Metal (1984), with singer Neil Turbin. Turbin was replaced by Joey Belladonna later that year, stabilizing the band's lineup. Anthrax's third album Among the Living (1987), which brought the band mainstream success for the first time, is recognized as one of the greatest thrash metal albums. The band's next two albums, State of Euphoria (1988) and Persistence of Time (1990), further cemented their reputation as one of the most successful thrash metal bands, with the latter giving Anthrax their first Grammy Award nomination. In 1992, Anthrax signed to Elektra Records for $10 million and Belladonna was replaced by John Bush of Armored Saint. Bush's first album with Anthrax, Sound of White Noise (1993), reached number seven on the Billboard 200 chart (their greatest chart success) and spawned the radio hit "Only". Anthrax's subsequent albums with Bush would experience less critical and commercial success; the band would part ways with Elektra following the release of Stomp 442 (1995) due to a lack of promotional support, and Volume 8: The Threat is Real (1998) suffered from the bankruptcy of their record label.
Bush left Anthrax in 2005, after which the band reunited with Belladonna and lead guitarist Dan Spitz. After Belladonna and Spitz's departure in 2007, Anthrax recruited singer Dan Nelson and commenced work on a new album, although Nelson would part ways with the band in 2009. Following a short-lived reunion with Bush, Belladonna rejoined the band for a third time in 2010. Anthrax's first studio album in eight years, and first with Belladonna in 21 years, Worship Music (2011) was released to critical and commercial success, reaching number twelve on the Billboard 200. Their most recent album to date, For All Kings, was released in 2016. The band is expected to release their twelfth studio album in 2026.
Anthrax has released 11 studio albums, several other albums, and 26 singles, including collaborating on a single with American hip hop group Public Enemy. Four of the band's studio albums (Among the Living, State of Euphoria, Persistence of Time and Sound of White Noise) have also achieved gold certifications by the RIAA. According to Nielsen SoundScan, Anthrax sold 2.5 million records in the United States from 1991 to 2004, with total worldwide sales of ten million.
== History ==
=== Formation (1981–1982) ===
Anthrax was formed in Queens, New York City, on July 18, 1981, by guitarists Scott Ian and Dan Lilker, with Ian's friend Dave Weiss on drums. The band was named after the disease of the same name which Ian saw in a biology textbook, chosen because it sounded "sufficiently evil". Lilker originally intended for Scott Setari to play bass in the band, during their early phases as a cover band. Anthrax's initial lineup was completed by singer John Connelly, and bassist Paul Kahn. Kahn was briefly replaced by bassist Kenny Kushner before Lilker took over on bass. Future Hittman singer Dirk Kennedy replaced Connelly for a few months and the band brought in lead guitarist Greg Walls. Weiss was then replaced early on by drummer Greg D'Angelo, who was recommended to the band by Walls. Ian's younger brother Jason Rosenfeld had been a temporary vocalist until Ian's former schoolmate Neil Turbin joined the band in late August 1982. Turbin joined the band partly because of guitarist Walls, who Turbin later said was "the best guitarist Anthrax ever had". The band recorded its first demo tape during this time.
=== Neil Turbin era and debut album (1982–1984) ===
The band's first performance with Neil Turbin was at Great Gildersleeves, a New York club, in September 1982. This lineup played regularly in the New York–New Jersey area over the next several months. Anthrax was also on the same bill as then-up-and-coming Metallica for several shows in the spring of 1983. Guitarist Walls left Anthrax that summer because of friction with Ian, and drummer D'Angelo left a month later. Turbin said he was seriously considering leaving because of the loss of Walls and D'Angelo, but he stuck it out for another year. Walls was replaced by Bob Berry, who was recommended to Turbin by Rhett Forrester of Riot. Berry was in turn soon replaced by Dan Spitz, who was previously a member of the New Jersey thrash band Overkill.
Drummer Charlie Benante replaced D'Angelo in September 1983 after a several-month courtship by Ian. By this time, Ian and Lilker had befriended New Jersey record store owner Jon Zazula, to whom they had given their demo tapes to critique. Zazula's new record label Megaforce Records had recently released Metallica's debut album Kill 'Em All to great success. In late 1983, Zazula agreed to sign Anthrax and the band recorded the "Soldiers of Metal" single, which was produced by Ross the Boss of Manowar. The B-side was the song "Howling Furies" which was taken from a previous demo with Greg D'Angelo on drums (his only Anthrax recording).
Anthrax released their debut album Fistful of Metal in January 1984. Former guitarist Walls said he was shocked that the album was released without giving credit to Walls as the primary songwriter on "Panic" and "Metal Thrashing Mad", as well as smaller songwriting contributions throughout the album. Tensions were building between Lilker and Turbin for various reasons, eventually leading to Turbin firing Lilker without informing the rest of the band. He would soon form the band Nuclear Assault with former Anthrax roadie / vocalist John Connelly. Lilker was replaced by Benante's nephew and roadie Frank Bello. The band then went on a successful US tour opening for Raven and others to support Fistful of Metal.
In August 1984, Turbin and Anthrax went their separate ways after long-standing personal issues. In his book Eddie Trunk's Essential Hard Rock and Heavy Metal, music journalist Eddie Trunk admits pressuring Jon Zazula, Scott Ian and Anthrax into firing Turbin because of his personal taste in vocals. Singer Matt Fallon was briefly hired in late 1984, but he and the band soon parted ways. The remaining members decided to play live shows as a four-piece billed as "The Diseased" with Scott Ian on vocals, performing hardcore punk covers until a permanent singer could be found.
=== Joey Belladonna era (1984–1992) ===
In 1984, Joey Belladonna was chosen as the new vocalist. The Armed and Dangerous EP marked Belladonna's recording debut with Anthrax. The 1992 reissue of the EP included the two songs from the "Soldiers of Metal" single that had Neil Turbin performing on them.
Anthrax's second album Spreading the Disease was released in October 1985. It was well-received as both a technical leap forward from Fistful of Metal and as a more original effort, and remains one of the band's most highly regarded albums. With leftover studio time from these sessions, Ian, Benante and former bandmate Dan Lilker collaborated with vocalist Billy Milano to form the side project Stormtroopers of Death, and recorded the album Speak English or Die in three days. It was released in August 1985 and is now considered a pioneering crossover thrash release, featuring one of the earliest examples of a blast beat on record. Afterwards, the project was put on hold as Ian and Benante turned their focus back on Anthrax.
The US tour to support Spreading the Disease opening for Black Sabbath was canceled after four dates due to Sabbath singer Glenn Hughes' voice problems. In April 1986, Anthrax attempted its first tour of Europe beginning in Bochum, Germany, supported by Overkill and Agent Steel. The tour included a show near Chernobyl, Ukraine, immediately after the Chernobyl disaster. Later that year, Anthrax toured Europe with Metallica. The tour began on September 10 at St David's Hall and ended on September 26 in Solnahallen, Sweden. The Swedish show was Anthrax's last performance before the bus accident the following day, which killed Metallica bassist Cliff Burton.
The band's third studio album Among the Living was released in March 1987, and is often considered by both the band and critics to be a major breakthrough for Anthrax. Produced by Eddie Kramer, it showcased the band's humorous, experimental side and began a lyrical trend focusing on movies, politics, comic books and Stephen King novels. The album was dedicated to Cliff Burton's memory. Propelled by the singles "Indians" and "I Am the Law", the success of Among the Living not only turned Anthrax into a household name (along with the remaining "big four" of thrash metal–Metallica, Megadeth and Slayer), but eventually earned them one of their first certified-gold records by the RIAA. "I Am the Law", which was released as the album's second single, was backed with a rap-metal hybrid "I'm the Man" as its B-side. Anthrax further indulged its appreciation for rap by appearing on the title track of U.T.F.O.'s album, Lethal, and their worship for the genre was also attributed to Ian wearing a t-shirt of Public Enemy both on stage and for publicity photo shoots; in response, Public Enemy name-checked Anthrax in the lyrics to their 1988 single "Bring the Noise". Anthrax toured for over a year to promote Among the Living, touring Europe again with Metallica, the United States with Metal Church, Testament, D.R.I., Exodus and Celtic Frost, and supporting Kiss on their Crazy Nights tour.
Anthrax released their fourth album State of Euphoria in September 1988, and it was produced by Mark Dodson, who had previously worked with Judas Priest, U.D.O. and Metal Church. While the album was not quite as well-received as Among the Living, owing to its "rushed" finish, State of Euphoria was certified gold about five months after its release, and one of the singles "Antisocial", originally by French heavy metal band Trust, became an MTV staple as part of the rotation on Headbangers Ball. By 1989, Anthrax was starting to play at arenas as a headlining or opening act, first supporting Ozzy Osbourne on his No Rest for the Wicked tour in North America, and then headlining European tours with Living Colour, Suicidal Tendencies and King's X, and the U.S. Headbangers Ball Tour with Exodus and Helloween. Also in 1989, MTV sponsored a contest in which the winner had her home trashed by the band. This would later inspire Anthrax's 1992 appearance on the television series Married... with Children, in which the Bundys win a similar TV contest.
Anthrax returned to the studio at the end of 1989 to work on their fifth album, again with Dodson as the producer. Released in August 1990, Persistence of Time was written and recorded during a period of turmoil for Anthrax, as Ian had recently been divorced from his first wife, and the middle of the recording session was interrupted by a fire that caused the band to lose more than $100,000 worth of gear and their rehearsal studio. The band members also claimed it was during this period that there were talks of potentially working with a different singer, a situation that Belladonna was unaware of at the time. Considered by fans to be their serious effort, Persistence of Time was darker, more technical and more progressive than the band's previous work, striking a chord with metal fans wary of Anthrax's "silly" side. The most successful single from the album was a cover of Joe Jackson's "Got the Time", which Jackson said he enjoyed. Persistence of Time was certified gold by the RIAA in early 1991, and the band toured for nearly two years to promote the album, opening for Iron Maiden on their No Prayer for the Dying tour in Europe and North America, and appearing on the Clash of the Titans tour with Megadeth, Slayer and opening act Alice in Chains.
In 1991, Anthrax collaborated with Public Enemy on a version of "Bring the Noise". This was a hit, and a successful tour with Public Enemy followed. "Bring the Noise" has been a live staple for Anthrax since they first played it in concert in 1989. The compilation Attack of the Killer B's was released in 1991, and featured three tracks from their 1989 EP Penikufesin, a new version of "I'm the Man" and a cover of "Bring the Noise" on which Ian did some vocals.
=== John Bush era (1992–2005) ===
In early 1992, shortly after reportedly signing a $10 million record deal with Elektra Records and following their appearance in Married... with Children, Belladonna was fired from Anthrax over creative and stylistic differences. After firing Belladonna, the remaining members of Anthrax auditioned several vocalists including Mark Osegueda of Death Angel and Spike Xavier of Mind Over Four. However, Armored Saint vocalist John Bush was the standout favorite and had in fact been floated as a potential replacement for Belladonna a few years earlier, due to questions about his reliability stemming from drug and alcohol abuse. The band's first album with Bush and for Elektra, Sound of White Noise, was released in 1993. Produced by Dave Jerden (then-known for his work with Jane's Addiction and Alice in Chains), the album marked a change from Anthrax's earlier work, with a dark sound influenced by alternative rock, and it received mostly positive reviews. Critic Dave Connolley of AllMusic wrote that Bush "has a lower-register voice than Belladonna, and the result is menacing, premeditated, and sinister." The song "Only" was released as the album's first single. In the liner notes for Return of the Killer A's, Ian said that James Hetfield told him it was a "perfect song". In keeping with the band's eye for unlikely collaborations, classical composer Angelo Badalamenti provided music for "Black Lodge" (a nod to Twin Peaks). This album demonstrated that Anthrax had fully shed its cartoonish persona in favor of mature, thoughtful songwriting, which began with Persistence of Time. The success of Sound of White Noise dissolved any fan worries that the band would not recover from their split with Belladonna; it was certified gold by the RIAA nearly two months after its release, and gave Anthrax their highest chart position to date at number seven on the Billboard 200. The album also saw Anthrax continuing to headline arenas and theaters or amphitheaters, taking several bands such as Suicidal Tendencies, White Zombie, Quicksand, Fight and Clawfinger out as supporting acts.
After Sound of White Noise longtime guitarist Dan Spitz left the band to become a watchmaker, leaving Anthrax a quartet temporarily. In 1995, Anthrax released their seventh studio album Stomp 442, on which Charlie Benante played most of the lead-guitar parts. Benante was assisted by Paul Crook, who later became the band's touring lead guitarist for several years, and Dimebag Darrell of Pantera. The album's release followed a shake-up at Elektra the year before, which saw the firing of the label's president, Bob Krasnow, who was replaced by Sylvia Rhone. During a meeting with the band, Rhone told Anthrax that she wouldn't have signed their record deal. Elektra did not promote Stomp 442, and it was less commercially successful than its predecessor. Frustrated by this, Anthrax severed its ties with the label.
In late 1997, Anthrax signed with Ignition Records, an independent label distributed by Tommy Boy Records. The label released Volume 8: The Threat Is Real in July 1998. As on Stomp 442, Benante performed lead guitar parts along with Crook and Darrell. The album also features Pantera vocalist Phil Anselmo making a guest vocal appearance. Towards the end of 1998, Tommy Boy ended its distribution deal with Ignition, after which the label went bankrupt, disrupting its distribution. Anthrax then signed with Beyond Records, who released the greatest-hits album Return of the Killer A's (1999), after which Beyond went out of business as well. During this period a two-vocalist tour with Belladonna and Bush was planned, but Belladonna decided not to participate at the last minute; however, on the mentioned Return of the Killer A's compilation, a cover of The Temptations song "Ball of Confusion" was recorded with the then-current lineup of the band (Ian/Benante/Bello/Bush/Crook), in addition to former vocalist Belladonna and former bassist Lilker. This is the only song to feature both Belladonna and Bush on co-vocals.
Despite hardships and legal entanglements over album rights, Anthrax continued. In 2001, Rob Caggiano joined the band on lead guitar. During the 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States the band changed its website, providing information about the disease after people began searching "anthrax.com" on internet search engines. Amid a potential PR nightmare, Anthrax issued a press release on October 10, 2001, joking that the band's name would be changed to "something more friendly, like 'Basket Full of Puppies'." Anthrax dispelled any name-change rumors derived from the press release at the November 2001 New York Steel 9/11 benefit concert, when they took the stage in boiler suits with a different word on each one which ultimately read "We're not changing our name". Bello has stated they did so after receiving support from members of the NYPD and FDNY, who believed that changing the name of the band would send the wrong message. A picture of the band in the suits is on the inner tray card of We've Come for You All.
In 2003, the band signed to Sanctuary Records and released their ninth studio album We've Come for You All, praised by metal journalists as a return to form. The band then spent the summer of 2003 on tour with Motörhead.
In early 2004, Anthrax released The Greater of Two Evils, a "live in the studio" re-recording of the earlier work with the band's then-current lineup. Bassist Frank Bello announced shortly afterwards that he was leaving the band to join Helmet, and was replaced by Fates Warning and Armored Saint member Joey Vera.
=== Reunions with Belladonna and Bush (2005–2010) ===
In April 2005, Anthrax announced that the "classic" lineup of Scott Ian, Charlie Benante, Dan Spitz, Joey Belladonna and Frank Bello would reform. At some shows on the following tour, they played Among the Living in its entirety. Although the lineup was expected to record a new album after the tour, in January 2007 Ian said that Belladonna had not agreed to a reunion. John Bush also said he wasn't ready to re-commit to Anthrax and said he had been asked to return but had declined. Asked if he wanted to rejoin the band when Belladonna left, Bush said that he "just didn't feel right to do that."
In December 2007, it was announced that the band's new vocalist would be Dan Nelson, formerly of Devilsize, and Rob Caggiano would return as lead guitarist. In May 2008, Anthrax played its first show in 19 months at Double Door in Chicago.
In his monthly Food Coma column posted in December 2008, Scott Ian wrote that he had "been in the studio working on the new Anthrax album", promising to be "giving birth to a really pissed off, loud, fast and heavy child." He later wrote that the album was being mixed by Dave Fortman, who had worked with Evanescence and Slipknot.
In early 2009, Anthrax began a brief tour opening for Iron Maiden in South America. In July, band manager Izvor Zivkovic confirmed the departure of Dan Nelson due to illness. Nelson denied this, saying that he was fired. All subsequent performances were canceled except the August UK Sonisphere Festival, which featured John Bush on vocals. Fan response after his performance led to a "Bring Back Bush" campaign, which was endorsed by Ian.
Soon afterwards, Benante said that Bush had rejoined the band. In February 2010, Anthrax performed five shows as part of Soundwave in Australia. After the Australian shows, Bush said the band intended to re-record the vocals of several tracks from the upcoming album.
=== Worship Music and For All Kings (2010–2018) ===
In late 2009, Anthrax confirmed their participation in several "Big Four" concerts with Metallica, Megadeth and Slayer as part of the 2010 Sonisphere Festival dates in Europe. John Bush decided that he did not want to commit to the band full-time, and left Anthrax for the second time. Joey Belladonna returned to the band in early 2010 for the Sonisphere dates as well as committing to record a new studio album with the band. In June 2010 Anthrax, Metallica, Megadeth and Slayer performed on the same bill for the first time ever at seven Sonisphere shows. The Sofia, Bulgaria show was broadcast in cinemas and later released on DVD and Blu-ray. The bands would also play a few shows in the U.S. the following year, including a concert at Yankee Stadium in September 2011.
In April 2011, Anthrax headlined in the Philippines for the first time at the annual Pulp Summer Slam with Death Angel and Hellyeah. The band also headlined the Jägermeister side stage at the Mayhem Festival of 2012, co-headlined by Slayer and Slipknot, and toured with Testament and Death Angel. In June Anthrax released the single "Fight 'Em 'Til You Can't" from the then-upcoming new album on their website as a free download to thank fans for their patience in waiting several years for new material. Worship Music was released on September 12, 2011, and debuted at No. 12 on the Billboard 200, their highest chart position since Sound of White Noise in 1993.
In January 2013, Anthrax announced that lead guitarist Rob Caggiano had left the band to join Volbeat. It was announced shortly afterwards that Jonathan Donais of Shadows Fall had been hired as the band's touring lead guitarist. Donais was confirmed as an official member in August of that year. In March, Anthrax released the Anthems EP featuring cover versions of 1970s rock songs as well as two new versions of the song "Crawl" from Worship Music. According to Ian, the band began working on its next studio album in late 2013. They released a live DVD, Chile on Hell in 2014 which featured the band's 2013 performance at the Teatro Caupolican in Santiago, Chile. In early 2015, the band confirmed that they had recorded new material and embarked on a tour with Volbeat.
Since Belladonna's return to Anthrax, the band has been nominated for three Grammys, in 2012, 2013, and 2014.
The band began 2016 with a short US tour with Lamb of God and released their eleventh studio album For All Kings on February 26, 2016. The album debuted on the Billboard 200 charts at number 9, surpassing the number 12 debut of Worship Music. In March, they opened for Iron Maiden on the Latin American leg of their The Book of Souls World Tour. Anthrax spent the summer playing festivals in Europe before embarking on a fall US and Canadian tour with Slayer and Death Angel. The band continued to tour within the next two years, embarking on The Killthrax Tour with Killswitch Engage twice (in 2017 and 2018), and along with Lamb of God, Behemoth, Testament, Napalm Death and Obituary, they supported Slayer on their final world tour from May to December 2018.
On February 1, 2017, the band embarked on the 70,000 Tons of Metal cruise. They played two sets and became the first of the "Big Four" to attend the open seas festival. During the theater set, they played a cover of Stormtroopers of Death's "March of the S.O.D." and debuted the song "Blood Eagle Wings".
In a March 2017 interview, drummer Charlie Benante revealed that there were a few unreleased tracks from the For All Kings sessions that could serve as a genesis for the next Anthrax album, stating, "I think there are two or three that we could dust off and use as a starting point."
The band's recording of "Antisocial" was prominently featured in the 2017 movie It but was not included on its official soundtrack release.
=== Tours, live albums and upcoming twelfth studio album (2018–present) ===
When asked in May 2018 if Anthrax had begun working on their twelfth studio album, guitarist Scott Ian stated, "Very, very, very preliminary stages. There's a couple of really great riffs. Charlie's sent around some really great ideas. But we haven't actually started working on anything. We've just been too busy touring." A month later, bassist Frank Bello claimed that Anthrax had intended to be back in the studio by mid-2018, but because they agreed to open for Slayer on their farewell tour, they were not expected to start writing their new album until at 2019 at the earliest. The band released the live album and DVD Kings Among Scotland in April 2018 which was recorded during their Glasgow, Scotland show on the For All Kings tour.
Anthrax – alongside Testament, Corrosion of Conformity, Armored Saint, DevilDriver, John 5, Doro and Metal Church – participated in Megadeth's first-ever cruise called "Megacruise", which took place in October 2019. They resumed live activity during the summer and fall of 2021, with a livestream performance that saw the band celebrate its 40th anniversary, as well as appearances at U.S. festivals such as Aftershock and Welcome to Rockville.
Although 2021 marked the band's 40th anniversary, the planned global anniversary tour was delayed due to travel complications arising from the COVID-19 pandemic; instead, the band performed a livestream concert on July 16 of that year. The tour was delayed to 2022, with a North American leg beginning on July 16 with Black Label Society and Hatebreed as support, followed by a European tour to begin on September 27 with Municipal Waste, and then they toured North America again in January and February 2023 with Black Label Society and Exodus. The band also released the full livestream setlist as a live album under the title XL on July 15, 2022. Anthrax continued performing live within the next few years, including co-headlining a European tour with Kreator in November and December 2024, with Testament as the opening act. Original Anthrax bassist Dan Lilker performed with the band for the first time in 40 years during their spring 2024 tour of South America and at a few festival shows in the U.S., filling in for Bello, who was unable to perform due to "personal reasons". Along with Metallica, Slayer, Pantera, Alice in Chains and Mastodon, the band served as one of the opening acts of Black Sabbath's one-off reunion show at Villa Park on July 5, 2025. This gig marked the first time in nearly fifteen years, since the "Big Four" concert series, that Anthrax had shared the stage together with both Metallica and Slayer.
After years of false starts and stops, Anthrax entered the studio in the spring of 2023 to begin recording their twelfth studio album. Frontman Joey Belladonna began recording his vocals on November 5, 2023, and production of the album continued within another two years. Although Bello had stated the album would be in the fall of 2025, it was left unfinished by the middle of the year, with drummer Charlie Benante revealing that the band had thrown "out a bunch of old tunes and made some new ones that destroy the older ones", and Belladonna claiming he had "maybe two or three more" songs left to record. Bello confirmed in July 2025 that the album was in the mixing stages, and Benante announced the same month that a new Anthrax song would be released before the end of the year. Bello announced in February 2026 that the new album will be released in May of that year.
Prior to the release of their new album, the band (along with Exodus) opened for Megadeth on the Canadian leg of their final tour in February and March 2026, and they will also support Iron Maiden on select dates to the North American leg of their Run for Your Lives World Tour that fall.
== Ex-members incidents ==
In 2012, Anthrax and former vocalist Dan Nelson reached an undisclosed settlement after he was fired during a 2009 tour.
In October 2014, ex-vocalist Neil Turbin accused guitarist Scott Ian of "fabricating lies" about his split with the band in 1984 to "draw attention" to Ian's autobiography.
In October 2015, former guitarist Dan Spitz took issue with a 2004 Guitar.com article (since offline) which suggested that the band's drummer, Charlie Benante, was responsible for laying down lead guitar on many of the group's classic songs.
In a 2016 interview with Metal Voice, and again in a video that he uploaded to YouTube in December 2020, former guitarist Greg Walls claimed that he had contributed to the writing of the songs on the band's first album, Fistful of Metal, specifically claiming to have written all the music to "Metal Thrashing Mad" and the majority of "Panic" but the band copyrighted the songs without his credit. In the same videos, Walls also claimed that he told Scott to drop the name "Rosenfeld" and simply go by "Scott Ian".
== Musical style, influences, and legacy ==
Anthrax is one of the bands responsible for the emergence of speed metal and thrash metal. Unlike other acts from the "Big Four" of U.S. thrash metal, such as Metallica or Megadeth, the band has been described as having a "good sense to temper their often serious music with a healthy dose of humor and realism." According to Rolling Stone, Anthrax was one of the few heavy metal bands to receive critical praise and redefine the genre during the 1980s. Original guitarists Scott Ian and Dan Spitz' styles were described as "aggressive and head pounding", with power chords and "chugging" pedal points providing the sonic drive. Author Thomas Harrison wrote that Anthrax played metal at a faster tempo because of its punk influences. It is said that many pioneering thrash musicians, such as Anthrax, were influenced equally by heavy metal and punk rock. In 1989, Brad Tolinski of Guitar World magazine noted that, "If Exodus is a speed metal equivalent of the Rolling Stones, then New York-based Anthrax must surely be the genre's Beatles." The band's sixth album, 1993's Sound of White Noise (its first with singer John Bush), incorporated grunge and alternative metal influences in a darker vein. Critics consider the band's studio releases from the Bush era as having a more alternative metal, grunge, groove metal, and speed metal sound. The album Worship Music marked a return to thrash metal and the return of singer Joey Belladonna. Although the songs are credited to the whole band, since Spreading the Disease the music has been written almost entirely by Charlie Benante and the lyrics by Scott Ian, although John Bush made some lyrical contributions during his tenure in the band.
Anthrax has been influenced by hard rock bands such as Rush, Cheap Trick, AC/DC, Kiss, Queen, Thin Lizzy, Boston and Journey, and also heavy metal bands such as Deep Purple, Black Sabbath, Iron Maiden, Judas Priest, Accept, Motörhead, Exodus, UFO, Saxon, and Raven. They were also influenced by hardcore punk bands such as Bad Brains, D.R.I., Suicidal Tendencies, and GBH. Anthrax is a member of the "big four" of thrash metal with Metallica, Megadeth and Slayer, and often credited as one of the first bands of the genre to emerge from the East Coast, along with Overkill and Nuclear Assault. The band has been credited for laying the groundwork for rap metal and nu metal. According to Nielsen SoundScan, Anthrax sold 2.5 million records in the United States from 1991 to 2004, and 10 million worldwide.
Anthrax has influenced multiple bands such as Pantera, Sepultura, Cannibal Corpse, Testament, Slipknot, Death Angel, Korn, Limp Bizkit, 311, Papa Roach, Avenged Sevenfold, Killswitch Engage, Children of Bodom, Sevendust, Terror, and Insane Clown Posse. In 2016, the staff of Loudwire named them the 14nd best metal band of all time.
Anthrax has been known to reference or draw influences from numerous sources in popular culture. "I Am the Law" is about the comic book character Judge Dredd. The title track to the album Among the Living is based on the Stephen King novel The Stand, in particular the character of villain Randall Flagg, while "A Skeleton in the Closet" is based on King's novella Apt Pupil and "Efilnikufesin (N.F.L.)" pays tribute to actor and original Saturday Night Live cast member John Belushi. The song "The Constant" is based on an episode of Lost.
The band, for a period of time, used a caricature of a bald man's face as a mascot; he was colloquially christened the "Not Man". The face itself comes from a rubber kids toy called "Magic Monster".
== Band members ==
Current
Scott Ian – rhythm guitar, backing vocals (1981–present), lead guitar (1981)
Charlie Benante – drums (1983–present), guitars (1989–2002, 2005-present; studio only)
Frank Bello – bass, backing vocals (1984–2004, 2005–present)
Joey Belladonna – lead vocals (1984–1992, 2005–2007, 2010–present)
Jon Donais – lead guitar, backing vocals (2013–present)
== Discography ==
Studio albums
Fistful of Metal (1984)
Spreading the Disease (1985)
Among the Living (1987)
State of Euphoria (1988)
Persistence of Time (1990)
Sound of White Noise (1993)
Stomp 442 (1995)
Volume 8: The Threat Is Real (1998)
We've Come for You All (2003)
Worship Music (2011)
For All Kings (2016)
== Awards and accolades ==
California Music Awards
Classic Rock Roll of Honour Awards
Decibel Hall of Fame
Grammy Awards
Kerrang! Awards
Loudwire Music Awards
Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards
Metal Storm Awards
Metal Hall of Fame
Metal Edge Readers Choice
Revolver Music Awards (formerly known as Revolver Golden Gods Awards) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gli | Gli | Gli (c. 2004 – 7 November 2020) was a cat from Istanbul best known for living in the Hagia Sophia, for which she became an Internet celebrity, grabbing the attention of visiting tourists. Gli was born in 2004 and was raised at the Hagia Sophia. She gained significant media attention when the Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque in 2020.
Gli died on 7 November 2020 at a veterinary clinic in Levent, Istanbul. It was announced that she would be buried on the premises of the Hagia Sophia. The Instagram account @hagiasophiacat was dedicated to Gli and was followed by more than 118,000 people at the time of her death.
== Life ==
Gli was born at the Hagia Sophia in 2004. A kitten of Sofya, she had two siblings, Pati and Kızım. Gli had only one offspring, a jet-black cat aptly named Karakız ("Black Girl"). Gli was loved by the tourists who visited the Hagia Sophia, which was a museum at the time, and she became a symbol of the Hagia Sophia. Gli first became popular when Barack Obama visited the Hagia Sophia in 2009; he and Recep Tayyip Erdoğan petted Gli. After it was announced that the Hagia Sophia would be converted into a mosque, Gli was posted all over social media and mentioned often in the news, receiving a new wave of fame. Presidential spokesman İbrahim Kalın stated: "That cat has become very famous, and there are others who haven't become that famous yet. That cat will be there, and all cats are welcome to our mosques."
Gli died on 7 November 2020 at a veterinary clinic in Levent, where she had been receiving treatment since 24 September. She was buried in the garden of the Hagia Sophia. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diving_duck | Diving duck | The diving ducks, commonly called pochards or scaups, are a category of duck which feed by diving beneath the surface of the water. They are part of Anatidae, the diverse and very large family that includes ducks, geese, and swans.
The diving ducks are placed in a distinct tribe in the subfamily Anatinae, the Aythyini. While morphologically close to the dabbling ducks, there are nonetheless some pronounced differences such as in the structure of the trachea. mtDNA cytochrome b and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 sequence data indicate that the dabbling and diving ducks are fairly distant from each other, the outward similarities being due to convergent evolution.
Alternatively, the diving ducks are placed as a subfamily Aythyinae in the family Anatidae which would encompass all duck-like birds except the whistling-ducks.
The seaducks commonly found in coastal areas, such as the long-tailed duck (formerly known in the U.S. as oldsquaw), scoters, goldeneyes, mergansers, bufflehead and eiders, are also sometimes colloquially referred to in North America as diving ducks because they also feed by diving; their subfamily (Merginae) is a very distinct one however.
Although the group is cosmopolitan, most members are native to the Northern Hemisphere, and it includes several of the most familiar Northern Hemisphere ducks.
This group of ducks is so named because its members feed mainly by diving, although in fact the Netta species are reluctant to dive, and feed more like dabbling ducks.
These are gregarious ducks, mainly found on fresh water or on estuaries, though the greater scaup becomes marine during the northern winter. They are strong fliers; their broad, blunt-tipped wings require faster wing-beats than those of many ducks and they take off with some difficulty. Northern species tend to be migratory; southern species do not migrate though the hardhead travels long distances on an irregular basis in response to rainfall. Diving ducks do not walk as well on land as the dabbling ducks; their legs tend to be placed further back on their bodies to help propel them when underwater.
== Systematics ==
Three genera are included in the Aythyini. The marbled duck which makes up the monotypic genus Marmaronetta, however, seems very distinct and might have diverged prior to the split of dabbling and diving ducks as indicated by morphological and molecular characteristics. The probably extinct pink-headed duck, previously treated separately in Rhodonessa, has been suggested to belong into Netta, but this approach has been questioned. DNA sequence analyses have found it to be the earliest diverging member of the pochard group. The molecular analysis also suggests that the white-winged duck should be placed into a monotypic genus Asarcornis which is fairly close to Aythya and might belong into this subfamily.
=== Family Anatidae ===
Subfamily Anatinae
Tribe Aythyini
Genus Rhodonessa
Pink-headed duck (Rhodonessa caryophyllacea) ; probably extinct (1945?)
Genus Marmaronetta
Marbled duck (Marmaronetta angustirostris)
Genus Netta (provisionally including Rhodonessa)
Red-crested pochard (Netta rufina)
Southern pochard (Netta erythrophthalma)
Rosy-billed pochard (Netta peposaca)
Genus Aythya
Canvasback (Aythya valisineria)
Common pochard (Aythya ferina)
Redhead (Aythya americana)
Ring-necked duck (Aythya collaris)
Hardhead (Aythya australis)
Baer's pochard (Aythya baeri)
Ferruginous duck (Aythya nyroca)
Madagascar pochard (Aythya innotata) – feared to be extinct, rediscovered (2006)
Réunion pochard, (Aythya cf. innotata) – extinct (c. 1690s)
New Zealand scaup (Aythya novaeseelandiae)
Tufted duck (Aythya fuligula)
Greater scaup (Aythya marila)
Lesser scaup (Aythya affinis) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edith! | Edith! | Edith! is a historical fiction podcast written and created by Gonzalo Cordova and Travis Helwig, produced by QCode and Crooked Media starring Rosamund Pike about Edith Wilson. It was directed by Maureen Bharoocha.
== Background ==
The podcast is a collaboration between QCode and Crooked Media. The podcast takes place soon after the Treaty of Versailles and the Spanish flu when Woodrow Wilson fell ill while working to establish the League of Nations. The podcast follows Edith Wilson who took over much of her husband's responsibilities while he was struggling with his health. Rosamund Pike stars as Edith Wilson in the podcast. Other voice actors included Clark Gregg, Adam Conover, Esther Povitsky, Brandon Scott Jones, Chris Mulkey, Diedrich Bader, Tom Amandes, and Stephen Root. The story is based on historical events, but the show is a dramatization of the events and does not aim for historical accuracy which is evident by the subtitle—"The Untold True-ish Story of America's Secret First Female President". The podcast was an eight episode series.
== Reception ==
Nicholas Quah wrote in Vulture that the podcast is "too eagerly and cavalierly clever for its own good". Ammar Kalia wrote in The Guardian that the podcast "is a wry take on the historical machinations of power." Podcast Review, a channel of Los Angeles Review of Books, called the podcast "Quirky, stylish, and probably historically inaccurate". Patricia Nicol praised Pike's acting in The Times saying that she "is superb as the snarky, steely, manoeuvring Edith, always two steps ahead of the men"
=== Awards === |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_Cheese_Olympics | Mountain Cheese Olympics | The International Mountain Cheese Olympics is a cheese festival and competition that has been ongoing for over 18 years. Cheesemakers from all over the world, including Switzerland, Japan, Mexico, Canada, Germany, Italy and many others compete to have the most exceptional quality of artisan mountain cheese. In previous years, the festival was held in Appenzell, Switzerland, and was originally intended to help promote the economic interests of the mountain regions of Switzerland. Currently, the festival is held in Galtür, Austria, a small ski resort village. Some popular tourist attractions in Galtür include hiking, biking, and open-air thermal spas regularly enjoyed by tourists and natives alike. Many people love the mountain air and crystal-clear lakes, but it is high-altitude sunlight, not snow, that is the new obsession. The festival will celebrate its 25th edition in September 2019.
Mountain cheeses are particularly important to this festival and differ from mass-produced cheese sold all around the world. The festival focuses on "mountain cheese" because they have separate and more distinct qualities that other kinds of cheese don't. Mountain cheeses are most often made from sheep or goat milk, and tend to be softer than most types of cheeses. This cheese, focused on in the International Mountain Cheese Olympics, can also be known as Alpine cheese. The term "Alpine cheese" simply means any cheese indigenous to the Alps, the European mountain range marking the borders of Switzerland, France, Austria, and Italy. These cheeses have achieved global fame and replication, however, because of the centuries-old recipes and methods that make these cheeses so special. This particular group of cheese is made from animals, such as sheep and goats, that have grazed in the high elevation pastures. This type of cheese is important because it has a rich and complex flavour, which is why people from around the world come to compete for the best mountain cheese. The cheesemakers allowed to compete in this event have to be cheese artisans, making cheeses at altitudes over 600 m (1,970 ft), with prizes for taste and quality.
The 2021 International Mountain Cheese Olympics will be held in Galtür, Austria, which is a small, well known ski resort village located in the upper Paznaun valley in the state of Tyrol. The Mountain Cheese Olympics were founded in 2002 "to promote the mountain region economy", and the festival itself consists of many events. This annual celebration allows festival visitors to purchase all different types of mountain cheeses by the competitors and explore international cuisine. The competition is the main highlight of the entire annual event, centering around how the mountain cheese is shaped and displayed, as well as taste. According to experts, the cheese industry is affected by several factors; economic factors like marketing and sales, and cultural factors related to the areas where the cheese is manufactured. This is why, at first, Switzerland started this competition to help their economic interest and allow individuals from all around the world to share their appreciation for mountain cheese. Though it was started primarily by Switzerland, France and Italy happen to dominate its awards, and there are typically over 100 entries, from all over the world, including Japan, Mexico, and Ethiopia. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide_Mouth_Mason | Wide Mouth Mason | Wide Mouth Mason is a Canadian blues-based rock band, consisting of Shaun Verreault (lead vocals, guitar), and Safwan Javed (percussion, backing vocals). Former bassist Earl Pereira was also co-founder of Wide Mouth Mason. The band hails from Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, and has been active since 1995.
== Career ==
Wide Mouth Mason took its name from the jar of the same name, and independently released its first album, The Nazarene in 1996. Although only 2,500 copies were pressed, it still drew interest from the major labels. The band would re-record much of The Nazarene at Greenhouse Studios. The re-recorded tracks and new material attracted the attention of Warner Music Canada, who signed the band to a record deal. The new album would be the band's eponymous major-label debut; it was released in 1997 in Canada and the U.S., and a year later in Japan. It established the group's fusion of pop/rock/blues, and yielded the hit singles "Midnight Rain", "My Old Self", and "This Mourning". The album went Gold in Canada, and the band was nominated for Best New Group at the 1998 Juno Awards.
Wide Mouth Mason released a new album in 1999 with Where I Started, a continuance of its prior sound, but adding elements of jazz and world music. The band returned to Greenhouse Studios to record and mix the album. The band performed at the Rivoli in Toronto in March that year to publicize the release of the album. The album, like its predecessor, attained Gold status in Canada. Its lead single, "Why", backed with scratches and cuts from childhood friend and DJ Muchi Mambo, was a hit in Canada, and was followed by two other hits, "Companion (Lay Me Down)" and "Sugarcane".
In 2000, the band quickly followed up with the album Stew. It was more pop-oriented than the band's previous efforts, but also eclectic, hence the title of the album. The single "Smile" charted well in Canada, the follow-up "Change" was popular on MuchMusic, and the album was nominated for Best Rock Album at the 2001 Junos. From March to May 2001, Wide Mouth Mason opened for AC/DC on their Stiff Upper Lip World Tour.
Wide Mouth Mason returned in 2002 with two albums. The first, Rained Out Parade, featured a heavier emphasis on the blues, a deliberate lo-fi production style, and the featured title track. It received a 2003 Juno nomination for Rock Album of the Year. The second album, Greatest Hits, was released exclusively in China.
When its contract with Warner expired, the band signed a license agreement with Curve Music in 2004. The following year, the band would again release two albums, this time on the same day. One was The Essentials, a greatest-hits album, and the other was Shot Down Satellites, a new studio release featuring a hard rock-centred style and the single "I Love Not Loving You". The disc was produced by the band and their former co-manager, Ross Damude.
In 2006, Shaun Verreault released his solo debut, The Daggerlip Sketches, focusing on acoustic-guitar-based material. It featured new songs and stripped-down versions of familiar material from his band. In early 2008, the Wide Mouth Mason's official website announced that Verreault was releasing a second solo album, titled Two Steel Strings, and that the full band was writing new material for a future release Since then, Earl Pereira left the band to concentrate on his own band, The Steadies (formerly Mobadass), which he has fronted since 2005.
In 2010, Wide Mouth Mason supported ZZ Top with Grady/Big Sugar front-man Gordie Johnson on bass. In March 2011, the band announced that Johnson would be joining the band full-time.
Wide Mouth Mason recorded their first album in five years in late 2010 with Gordie Johnson producing. The band has been playing many of these unrecorded songs live over the last year. The album entitled No Bad Days was released on July 12, 2011.
In 2019, the group released the heavily blues-influenced album I Wanna Go with You. The record prominently features Verreault's "Tri-Slide" technique, using three slides on his fretting hand and playing more lap-steel and dobro-style instruments.
In 2023, the band released the album Late Night Walking on streaming platforms, CD, and vinyl. The album was recorded by Ryan Dahle at his studio on Mayne Island, British Columbia, with Gordie Johnson playing bass.
== Discography ==
The Nazarene (1996)
Wide Mouth Mason (1997)
Where I Started (1999)
Stew (2000)
Rained Out Parade (2002)
Shot Down Satellites (2005)
No Bad Days (2011)
I Wanna Go with You (2019)
Late Night Walking (2023) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Harrison | John Harrison | John Harrison (3 April [O.S. 24 March] 1693 – 24 March 1776) was an English carpenter and clockmaker who invented the marine chronometer, a long-sought-after device for solving the problem of how to calculate longitude while at sea.
Harrison's solution revolutionized navigation and greatly increased the safety of long-distance sea travel. The problem he solved had been considered so important following the Scilly naval disaster of 1707 that the British Parliament was offering financial rewards of up to £20,000 (equivalent to £3.67 million in 2023) under the 1714 Longitude Act, though Harrison never received the full reward due to political rivalries. He presented his first design in 1730, and worked over many years on improved designs, making several advances in time-keeping technology, finally turning to what were called sea watches. Harrison gained support from the Longitude Board in building and testing his designs. Towards the end of his life, he received recognition and a reward from Parliament.
== Early life ==
John Harrison was born in Foulby in the West Riding of Yorkshire, the first of five children in his family. His stepfather worked as a carpenter at the nearby Nostell Priory estate. A house on the site of what may have been the family home bears a blue plaque. Around 1700, the Harrison family moved to the Lincolnshire village of Barrow upon Humber. Following his father's trade as a carpenter, Harrison built and repaired clocks in his spare time. Legend has it that at the age of six, while in bed with smallpox, he was given a watch to amuse himself and he spent hours listening to it and studying its moving parts.
He also had a fascination with music, eventually becoming choirmaster for the Church of Holy Trinity, Barrow upon Humber.
Harrison built his first longcase clock in 1713, at the age of 20. The mechanism was made entirely of wood. Three of Harrison's early wooden clocks have survived:
the first (1713) is in the Worshipful Company of Clockmakers' collection, previously in the Guildhall in London and since 2015 on display in the Science Museum.
The second (1715) is also in the Science Museum in London.
the third (1717) is at Nostell Priory in Yorkshire, the face bearing the inscription "John Harrison Barrow".
The Nostell example, in the billiards room of the stately home, has a Victorian outer case with small glass windows on each side of the movement so that the wooden workings may be inspected.
On 30 August 1718 John Harrison married Elizabeth Barret at Barrow upon Humber church. After her death in 1726, he married Elizabeth Scott on 23 November 1726, at the same church.
In the early 1720s Harrison was commissioned to make a new turret clock at Brocklesby Hall, North Lincolnshire. The clock still works, and like his previous clocks has a wooden movement of oak and lignum vitae. Unlike his early clocks, it incorporates some original features to improve timekeeping, for example the grasshopper escapement. Between 1725 and 1728, John and his brother James, also a skilled joiner, made at least three precision longcase clocks, again with the movements and longcase made of oak and lignum vitae. The grid-iron pendulum was developed during this period. Of these longcase clocks:
Number 1 is in a private collection. Until 2004, it belonged to the Time Museum (USA), which closed in 2000.
Number 2 is in the Leeds City Museum, as the centrepiece of a permanent display dedicated to John Harrison's achievements. The exhibition, "John Harrison: The Clockmaker Who Changed the World", opened on 23 January 2014. It was the first longitude-related event marking the tercentenary of the Longitude Act.
Number 3 is in the collection of the Worshipful Company of Clockmakers.
Harrison was a man of many skills and he used these to systematically improve the performance of the pendulum clock. He invented the gridiron pendulum, consisting of alternating brass and iron rods assembled in such a way that the thermal expansions and contractions essentially cancel each other out. Another example of his inventive genius was the grasshopper escapement, a control device for the step-by-step release of a clock's driving power. Developed from the anchor escapement, it was almost frictionless, requiring no lubrication because the pallets were made from wood. This was an important advantage at a time when lubricants and their degradation were little understood. In his earlier work on sea clocks, Harrison was continually assisted, both financially and in many other ways, by the watchmaker and instrument maker George Graham. Harrison was introduced to Graham by the Astronomer Royal Edmond Halley, who championed Harrison and his work. The support was important to Harrison, as he was supposed to have found it difficult to communicate his ideas in a coherent manner.
== Longitude problem ==
Longitude fixes the location of a place on Earth east or west of a north–south reference line called the prime meridian. It is given as an angular measurement that ranges from 0° at the prime meridian to +180° eastward and −180° westward. Knowledge of a ship's east–west position is essential when approaching land. Over long voyages, cumulative errors in estimates of position by dead reckoning frequently led to shipwrecks and a great loss of life. Avoiding such disasters became vital in Harrison's lifetime, in an era when trade and the need for accurate navigation were increasing dramatically around the world.
Many ideas were proposed for how to determine longitude during a sea voyage. Earlier methods attempted to compare local time with the known time at a reference place, such as Greenwich or Paris, based on a simple theory that had first been proposed by Gemma Frisius. The methods relied on astronomical observations that were themselves reliant on the predictable nature of the motions of different heavenly bodies. Such methods were problematic because of the difficulty in maintaining an accurate record of the time at the reference place.
Harrison set out to solve the problem directly, by producing a reliable clock that could keep the time of the reference place accurately over long intervals without having to constantly adjust it. The difficulty was in producing a clock that was not affected by variations in temperature, pressure, or humidity, resisted corrosion in salt air, and was able to function on board a constantly moving ship. Many scientists, including Sir Isaac Newton and Christiaan Huygens, doubted that such a clock could ever be built and favoured other methods for reckoning longitude, such as the method of lunar distances. Huygens ran trials using both a pendulum and a spiral balance spring clock as methods of determining longitude; both produced inconsistent results. Newton observed that "a good watch may serve to keep a reckoning at sea for some days and to know the time of a celestial observation; and for this end a good Jewel may suffice till a better sort of watch can be found out. But when longitude at sea is lost, it cannot be found again by any watch".
== First three marine timekeepers ==
In the 1720s the English clockmaker Henry Sully invented a marine clock that was designed to determine longitude: this was in the form of a clock with a large balance wheel that was vertically mounted on friction rollers and impulsed by a frictional rest Debaufre-type escapement. Very unconventionally, the balance oscillations were controlled by a weight at the end of a pivoted horizontal lever attached to the balance by a cord. This solution avoided temperature error due to thermal expansion, a problem which affects steel balance springs. Sully's clock kept accurate time only in calm weather, however, because the balance oscillations were affected by the pitching and rolling of the ship. Still, his clocks were among the first serious attempts to find longitude by improving the accuracy of timekeeping at sea. Harrison's machines, though much larger, are of similar layout: H3 has a vertically mounted balance wheel and is linked to another wheel of the same size, an arrangement that eliminates problems arising from the ship's motion.
In 1716 Sully presented his first Montre de la Mer to the French Académie des Sciences and in 1726 he published Une Horloge inventée et executée par M. Sulli. In 1730 Harrison designed a marine clock to compete for the Longitude prize and travelled to London, seeking financial assistance. He presented his ideas to Edmond Halley, the Astronomer Royal, who in turn referred him to George Graham, the country's foremost clockmaker. Graham must have been impressed by Harrison's ideas, for he loaned him money to build a model of his "Sea clock". As the clock was an attempt to make a seagoing version of his wooden pendulum clocks, which performed exceptionally well, he used wooden wheels, roller pinions, and a version of the grasshopper escapement. Instead of a pendulum, he used two dumbbell balances which were linked together.
It took Harrison five years to build his first sea clock (or H1). He demonstrated it to members of the Royal Society who spoke on his behalf to the Board of Longitude. The clock was the first proposal that the Board considered to be worthy of a sea trial. In 1736, Harrison sailed to Lisbon on HMS Centurion under the command of Captain George Proctor and returned on HMS Orford after Proctor died at Lisbon on 4 October 1736. The clock lost time on the outward voyage. However, it performed well on the return trip: both the captain and the sailing master of the Orford praised the design. The master noted that his own calculations had placed the ship sixty miles east of its true landfall which had been correctly predicted by Harrison using H1.
This was not the transatlantic voyage stipulated by the Board of Longitude in their conditions for winning the prize, but the Board was impressed enough to grant Harrison £500 for further development. Harrison had moved to London by 1737 and went on to develop H2, a more compact and rugged version. In 1741, after three years of building and two of on-land testing, H2 was ready, but by then Britain was at war with Spain in the War of the Austrian Succession, and the mechanism was deemed too important to risk falling into Spanish hands. In any event, Harrison suddenly abandoned all work on this second machine when he discovered a serious design flaw in the concept of the bar balances. He had not recognized that the period of oscillation of the bar balances could be affected by the yawing action of the ship (when the ship turned upon its vertical axis, such as when "coming about" while tacking). It was this that led him to adopt circular balances in the Third Sea Clock (H3). The Board granted him another £500 and while waiting for the war to end, he proceeded to work on H3.
Harrison spent seventeen years working on this third "sea clock", but despite every effort it did not perform exactly as he had wished. The problem was that, because Harrison did not fully understand the physics behind the springs used to control the balance wheels, the timing of the wheels was not isochronous, a characteristic that affected its accuracy. The engineering world was not to fully understand the properties of springs for such applications for another two centuries. Despite that, it had proved a very valuable experiment and much was learned from its construction. Certainly with this machine Harrison left the world two enduring legacies–the bimetallic strip and the caged roller bearing.
== Longitude watches ==
After steadfastly pursuing various methods during thirty years of experimentation, Harrison found to his surprise that some of the watches made by Graham's successor Thomas Mudge kept time just as accurately as his huge sea clocks. It is possible that Mudge was able to do this after the early 1740s thanks to the availability of the new "Huntsman" or "Crucible" steel first produced by Benjamin Huntsman sometime in the early 1740s, which enabled harder pinions but more importantly a tougher and more highly polished cylinder escapement to be produced. Harrison then realized that a mere watch after all could be made accurate enough for the task and was a far more practical proposition for use as a marine timekeeper. He proceeded to redesign the concept of the watch as a timekeeping device, basing his design on sound scientific principles.
=== "Jefferys" watch ===
He had already in the early 1750s designed a precision watch for his own use, which was made for him by the watchmaker John Jefferys c. 1752–1753. This watch incorporated a novel frictional rest escapement and was not only the first to have a compensation for temperature variations but also contained the first miniature going train fusee of Harrison's design which enabled the watch to continue running whilst being wound. These features led to the very successful performance of the "Jefferys" watch, which Harrison incorporated into the design of two new timekeepers which he proposed to build. These were in the form of a large watch and another of a smaller size but similar pattern. However, only the larger No. 1 watch (or "H4" as it is sometimes called) appears to have been finished (see the reference to "H4" below). Aided by some of London's finest workmen, he proceeded to design and make the world's first successful marine timekeeper that allowed a navigator to accurately assess his ship's position in longitude. Importantly, Harrison showed everyone that it could be done by using a watch to calculate longitude. This was to be Harrison's masterpiece – an instrument of beauty, resembling an oversized pocket watch from the period. It is engraved with Harrison's signature, marked Number 1 and dated AD 1759.
=== H4 ===
Harrison's first "sea watch" (now known as H4) is housed in silver pair cases some 5.2 inches (13 cm) in diameter. The clock's movement is highly complex for the period, resembling a larger version of the then-current conventional movement. A coiled steel spring inside a brass mainspring barrel provides 30 hours of power. That is covered by the fusee barrel which pulls a chain wrapped around the conically shaped pulley known as the fusee. The fusee is topped by the winding square (requiring a separate key). The great wheel attached to the base of this fusee transmits power to the rest of the movement. The fusee contains the maintaining power, a mechanism for keeping the H4 going while being wound. From Gould: The escapement is a modification of the "verge" fitted to... the common watches of Harrison's day. But the modifications are extensive. The pallets are very small, and have their faces set parallel, instead of at the usual angle of 95° or so. Moreover, instead of being steel, they are of diamond, and their backs are shaped to cycloidal curves... The action of this escapement is quite different from that of the verge, which it appears to resemble. In that escapement, the teeth of the crown wheel act only upon the faces of the pallets. But in this, as will be seen from the points of the teeth rest, for a considerable portion of the supplementary arc—from 90° to 145° (limit of banking) past the dead point—upon the backs of the pallets, and tend to assist the balance towards the extreme of its swing and to retard its return. This escapement is obviously a great improvement upon the verge, as the train has far less power over the motions of the balance. The latter is no longer checked in its swing by a force equal to that which originally impelled it, but by the balance spring, assisted only by the friction between the tooth and the back of the pallet.
In comparison, the verge's escapement has a recoil with a limited balance arc and is sensitive to variations in driving torque. According to a review by H. M. Frodsham of the movement in 1878, H4's escapement had "a good deal of 'set' and not so much recoil, and as a result the impulse came very near to a double chronometer action".
The D-shaped pallets of Harrison's escapement are both made of diamond, approximately 2 mm long with the curved side radius of 0.6 mm, a considerable feat of manufacture at the time. For technical reasons the balance was made much larger than in a conventional watch of the period, 2.2 inches (56 mm) in diameter weighing 28+5⁄8 Troy grains (1.85 g) and the vibrations controlled by a flat spiral steel spring of three turns with a long straight tail. The spring is tapered, being thicker at the stud end and tapering toward the collet at the centre. The movement also has centre seconds motion with a sweep seconds hand.
The Third Wheel is equipped with internal teeth and has an elaborate bridge similar to the pierced and engraved bridge for the period. It runs at 5 beats (ticks) per second, and is equipped with a tiny 7+1⁄2 second remontoire. A balance-brake, activated by the position of the fusee, stops the watch half an hour before it is completely run down, in order that the remontoire does not run down also. Temperature compensation is in the form of a 'compensation curb' (or 'Thermometer Kirb' as Harrison called it). This takes the form of a bimetallic strip mounted on the regulating slide, and carrying the curb pins at the free end. During its initial testing, Harrison dispensed with this regulation using the slide, but left its indicating dial or figure piece in place. This first watch took six years to construct, following which the Board of Longitude determined to trial it on a voyage from Portsmouth to Kingston in the Colony of Jamaica. For this purpose it was placed aboard the 50-gun HMS Deptford, which set sail from Portsmouth on 18 November 1761. Harrison, by then 68 years old, sent it on this transatlantic trial in the care of his son, William. The watch was tested before departure by Robertson, Master of the Academy at Portsmouth, who reported that on 6 November 1761 at noon it was 3 seconds slow, having lost 24 seconds in 9 days on mean solar time. The daily rate of the watch was therefore fixed as losing 24⁄9 seconds per day.
When Deptford reached its destination, after correction for the initial error of 3 seconds and accumulated loss of 3 minutes 36.5 seconds at the daily rate over the 81 days and 5 hours of the voyage, the watch was found to be 5 seconds slow compared to the known longitude of Kingston, corresponding to an error in longitude of 1.25 minutes, or approximately one nautical mile. William Harrison returned aboard the 14-gun HMS Merlin, reaching England on 26 March 1762 to report the successful outcome of the experiment. Harrison senior thereupon waited for the £20,000 prize, but the Board were persuaded that the accuracy could have been just luck and demanded another trial. The Board were also not convinced that a timekeeper which took six years to construct met the test of practicality required by the Longitude Act. The Harrisons were outraged and demanded their prize, a matter that eventually worked its way to Parliament, which offered £5,000 for the design. The Harrisons refused but were eventually obliged to make another trip to Bridgetown on the island of Barbados to settle the matter.
At the time of this second trial, another method for measuring longitude was ready for testing: the Method of Lunar Distances. The Moon moves fast enough, some thirteen degrees a day, to easily measure the movement from day to day. By comparing the angle between the Moon and the Sun for the day one left for Britain, the "proper position" (how it would appear in Greenwich, England, at that specific time) of the Moon could be calculated. By comparing this with the angle of the Moon over the horizon, the longitude could be calculated. During Harrison's second trial of his 'sea watch' (H4), Nevil Maskelyne was asked to accompany HMS Tartar and test the Lunar Distances system. Once again the watch proved extremely accurate, keeping time to within 39 seconds, corresponding to an error in the longitude of Bridgetown of less than 10 miles (16 km). Maskelyne's measures were also fairly good, at 30 miles (48 km), but required considerable work and calculation in order to use. At a meeting of the Board in 1765 the results were presented, but they again attributed the accuracy of the measurements to luck. Once again the matter reached Parliament, which offered £10,000 in advance and the other half once he turned over the design to other watchmakers to duplicate. In the meantime Harrison's watch would have to be turned over to the Astronomer Royal for long-term on-land testing.
Unfortunately, Nevil Maskelyne had been appointed Astronomer Royal on his return from Barbados, and was therefore also placed on the Board of Longitude. He returned a report of the watch that was negative, claiming that its "going rate" (the amount of time it gained or lost per day) was due to inaccuracies cancelling themselves out, and refused to allow it to be factored out when measuring longitude. Consequently, this first Marine Watch of Harrison's failed the needs of the Board despite the fact that it had succeeded in two previous trials.
Harrison began working on his second 'sea watch' (H5) while testing was conducted on the first, which Harrison felt was being held hostage by the Board. After three years he had had enough; Harrison felt "extremely ill used by the gentlemen who I might have expected better treatment from" and decided to enlist the aid of King George III. He obtained an audience with the King, who was extremely annoyed with the Board. King George tested the watch No. 2 (H5) himself at the palace and after ten weeks of daily observations between May and July in 1772, found it to be accurate to within one third of one second per day. King George then advised Harrison to petition Parliament for the full prize after threatening to appear in person to dress them down. Finally in 1773, when he was 80 years old, Harrison received a monetary award in the amount of £8,750 from Parliament for his achievements, but he never received the official award (which was never awarded to anyone). He was to live for just three more years.
In total, Harrison received £23,065 for his work on chronometers. He received £4,315 in increments from the Board of Longitude for his work, £10,000 as an interim payment for H4 in 1765 and £8,750 from Parliament in 1773. This gave him a reasonable income for most of his life (equivalent to roughly £450,000 per year in 2007, though all his costs, such as materials and subcontracting work to other horologists, had to come out of this). He became the equivalent of a multi-millionaire (in today's terms) in the final decade of his life. Captain James Cook used K1, a copy of H4, on his second and third voyages, having used the lunar distance method on his first voyage. K1 was made by Larcum Kendall, who had been apprenticed to John Jefferys. Cook's log is full of praise for the watch and the charts of the southern Pacific Ocean he made with its use were remarkably accurate. K2 was loaned to Lieutenant William Bligh, commander of HMS Bounty, but it was retained by Fletcher Christian following the infamous mutiny. It was not recovered from Pitcairn Island until 1808, when it was given to Captain Mayhew Folger, and then passed through several hands before reaching the National Maritime Museum in London.
Initially, the cost of these chronometers was quite high (roughly 30% of a ship's cost). However, over time, the costs dropped to between £25 and £100 (half a year's to two years' salary for a skilled worker) in the early 19th century. Many historians point to relatively low production volumes over time as evidence that the chronometers were not widely used. However, Landes points out that the chronometers lasted for decades and did not need to be replaced frequently–indeed the number of makers of marine chronometers reduced over time due to the ease in supplying the demand even as the merchant marine expanded. Also, many merchant mariners would make do with a deck chronometer at half the price. These were not as accurate as the boxed marine chronometer but were adequate for many. While the Lunar Distances method would complement and rival the marine chronometer initially, the chronometer would overtake it in the 19th century. The more accurate Harrison timekeeping device led to the much-needed precise calculation of longitude, making the device a fundamental key to the modern age. After Harrison, the marine timekeeper was reinvented yet again by John Arnold, who, while basing his design on Harrison's most important principles, at the same time simplified it enough for him to produce equally accurate but far less costly marine chronometers in quantity from around 1783. Nonetheless, for many years even towards the end of the 18th century, chronometers were expensive rarities, as their adoption and use proceeded slowly due to the high expense of precision manufacturing. The expiry of Arnold's patents at the end of the 1790s enabled many other watchmakers including Thomas Earnshaw to produce chronometers in greater quantities at less cost even than those of Arnold.
By the early 19th century, navigation at sea without one was considered unwise to unthinkable. Using a chronometer to aid navigation simply saved lives and ships – the insurance industry, self-interest, and common sense did the rest in making the device a universal tool of maritime trade.
== Death and memorials ==
Harrison died on 24 March 1776, at the age of eighty-two, just shy of his eighty-third birthday. He was buried in the graveyard of St John's Church, Hampstead, in North London, along with his second wife Elizabeth and later their son William. His tomb was restored in 1879 by the Worshipful Company of Clockmakers, even though Harrison had never been a member of the Company.
Harrison's last home was 12 Red Lion Square in the Holborn district of London. There is a blue plaque dedicated to Harrison on the wall of Summit House, a 1925 modernist office block, on the south side of the square. A memorial tablet to Harrison was unveiled in Westminster Abbey on 24 March 2006, finally recognising him as a worthy companion to his friend George Graham and Thomas Tompion, 'The Father of English Watchmaking', who are both buried in the Abbey. The memorial shows a meridian line (line of constant longitude) in two metals to highlight Harrison's most widespread invention, the bimetallic strip thermometer. The strip is engraved with its own longitude of 0 degrees, 7 minutes and 35 seconds West.
The Corpus Clock in Cambridge, unveiled in 2008, is a homage by the designer to Harrison's work but is of an electromechanical design. In appearance it features Harrison's grasshopper escapement, the 'pallet frame' being sculpted to resemble an actual grasshopper. This is the clock's defining feature.
In 2014, Northern Rail named diesel railcar 153316 as the John 'Longitude' Harrison.
On 3 April 2018 Google celebrated his 325th birthday by making a Google Doodle for its homepage.
In February 2020 a bronze statue of Harrison, created by the sculptor Marcus Cornish, was unveiled in Barrow upon Humber.
== Later history ==
After the First World War Harrison's timepieces were rediscovered at the Royal Greenwich Observatory by the retired naval officer Lieutenant Commander Rupert Gould.
The timepieces were in a highly decrepit state and Gould spent many years documenting, repairing and restoring them, without compensation for his efforts. Gould was the first to designate the timepieces from H1 to H5, initially calling them No.1 to No.5. Unfortunately, Gould made modifications and repairs that would not pass today's standards of good museum conservation practice, although most Harrison scholars give Gould credit for having ensured that the historical artifacts survived as working mechanisms to the present time. Gould wrote The Marine Chronometer, published in 1923, which covered the history of chronometers from the Middle Ages to the 1920s, and which included detailed descriptions of Harrison's work and the subsequent evolution of the chronometer. The book remains the authoritative work on the marine chronometer. Today the restored H1, H2, H3, and H4 timepieces can be seen on display in the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. H1, H2, and H3 still work: H4 is kept in a stopped state because, unlike the first three, it requires oil for lubrication and so will degrade as it runs. H5 is owned by the Worshipful Company of Clockmakers of London, and was previously on display at the Clockmakers' Museum in the Guildhall, London, as part of the Company's collection; since 2015 the collection has been displayed in the Science Museum, London.
In the final years of his life, Harrison wrote about his research into musical tuning and manufacturing methods for bells. His tuning system (a meantone system derived from pi), is described in his pamphlet A Description Concerning Such Mechanism ... (CSM). The system challenged the traditional view that harmonics occur at integer frequency ratios and in consequence all music using this tuning produces low-frequency beating. In 2002 Harrison's last manuscript, A true and short, but full Account of the Foundation of Musick, or, as principally therein, of the Existence of the Natural Notes of Melody, was rediscovered in the US Library of Congress. His theories on the mathematics of bell manufacturing (using "Radical Numbers") are yet to be clearly understood.
One of the controversial claims of his last years was that of being able to build a land clock more accurate than any competing design. Specifically, he claimed to have designed a clock capable of keeping accurate time to within one second over a span of 100 days. At the time, such publications as The London Review of English and Foreign Literature ridiculed Harrison for what was considered an outlandish claim. Harrison drew a design but never built such a clock himself, but in 1970 Martin Burgess, a Harrison expert and himself a clockmaker, studied the plans and endeavored to build the timepiece as drawn. He built two versions, dubbed Clock A and Clock B. Clock A became the Gurney Clock which was given to the city of Norwich in 1975, while Clock B lay unfinished in his workshop for decades until it was acquired in 2009 by Donald Saff. The completed Clock B was submitted to the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich for further study. It was found that Clock B could potentially meet Harrison's original claim, so the clock's design was carefully checked and adjusted. Finally, over a 100-day period from 6 January to 17 April 2015, Clock B was secured in a transparent case in the Royal Observatory and left to run untouched, apart from regular winding. Upon completion of the run, the clock was measured to have lost only 5/8 of a second, meaning Harrison's design was fundamentally sound. If we ignore the fact that this clock uses materials such as duraluminium and invar unavailable to Harrison, had it been built in 1762, the date of Harrison's testing of his H4, and run continuously since then without correction, it would now (March 2026) be slow by just 10 minutes and 3 seconds. Guinness World Records has declared Martin Burgess' Clock B the "most accurate mechanical clock with a pendulum swinging in free air."
== In literature, television, drama and music ==
In 1995 inspired by a Harvard University symposium on the longitude problem organized by the National Association of Watch and Clock Collectors, Dava Sobel wrote a book about Harrison's work. Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time became the first popular bestseller on the subject of horology. The Illustrated Longitude, in which Sobel's text was accompanied by 180 images selected by William J. H. Andrewes, appeared in 1998. The book was dramatised for UK television by Charles Sturridge in a Granada Productions 4 episode series for Channel 4 in 1999, under the title Longitude. It was broadcast in the US later in the same year by the co-producer A&E. The production starred Michael Gambon as Harrison and Jeremy Irons as Gould. Sobel's book was the basis for a PBS NOVA episode entitled Lost at Sea: The Search for Longitude.
In 1998 the British composer Harrison Birtwistle wrote the piano piece "Harrison's clocks" which contains musical depictions of Harrison's various clocks. The composer Peter Graham's piece Harrison's Dream is about Harrison's forty-year quest to produce an accurate clock. Graham worked simultaneously on the brass band and wind band versions of the piece, which received their first performances just four months apart in October 2000 and February 2001 respectively.
"John Harrison's Hands", a song about the man and his work, was written by Brian McNeill and Dick Gaughan, and has been recorded by both artists and by Show of Hands.
== Works ==
Principes de la montre. Avignon: veuve François Girard & François Seguin. 1767. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metropolitan_Borough_of_Dudley | Metropolitan Borough of Dudley | The Metropolitan Borough of Dudley is a metropolitan borough of West Midlands, England. It was created in 1974 following the Local Government Act 1972, through a merger of the existing Dudley County Borough with the municipal boroughs of Stourbridge and Halesowen.
The borough's main settlement is Dudley but it also includes the outlying towns of Brierley Hill, Halesowen, Kingswinford, Lye, Netherton, Sedgley, and Stourbridge.
The borough borders Sandwell to the east, the city of Birmingham to the south east, Bromsgrove to the south in Worcestershire, South Staffordshire District to the west, and the city of Wolverhampton to the north.
== History ==
The Metropolitan Borough of Dudley was created in 1974 from the existing boroughs of Dudley, the Municipal Borough of Stourbridge and the Municipal Borough of Halesowen. This followed an earlier reorganisation in 1966, as per the provisions of the Local Government Act 1958, which saw an expansion of the three boroughs from the abolition of the surrounding urban districts of Amblecote, Brierley Hill, Coseley, and Sedgley; and the municipal boroughs of Tipton, Oldbury, and Rowley Regis.
Initially the borough had a two-tier system of local government, with the borough council sharing power with the West Midlands County Council. In 1986 metropolitan county councils were abolished under the Local Government Act 1985, and Dudley effectively became a unitary authority.
== Government ==
Dudley Council has its main offices in Dudley town centre (where Dudley Council House is located), along with additional smaller offices throughout the borough. The council is made up of 72 councillors representing 24 wards.
On its formation in 1974, the Metropolitan Borough of Dudley was controlled by the Labour Party. Since then the controlling party has frequently changed, sometimes with no political party having a clear majority.
Following the local elections in May 2024 the council returned to no overall control.
=== Mayor ===
The Mayor of the Borough acts as the Borough's first citizen attending many civic and ceremonial functions to represent the Council. They are elected at the Annual Meeting of the Council and serves for the whole of the Municipal Year until the next Annual Meeting.
As part of the West Midlands Combined Authority, Dudley is also served by the Mayor of the West Midlands.
=== Wards ===
The 24 wards of the Dudley Borough are each represented by 3 councillors.
=== Demography ===
At the 2021 Census, the total population of Dudley Metropolitan Borough was 323,488, an increase of 10,563 from the 2011 Census. The population density was 3,320.4 residents per square km compared to the West Midlands region population density was 457.8 residents per square km.
84.9% of Dudley's population identified as White, with 82.4% identifying as White British, 0.3% as White Irish, and 2.1% as Other White. The second largest ethnic group was Asian and British Asian, making up 8.4% of the population (an increase from 2011 where the figure was 6.1%). Black and Black British people comprised 2.5% of the population of the borough (an increase from 2011 where the figure was 1.5%).
Statistics on religious beliefs show that 49.3% of the population identify as Christian (65.3% in 2011), with the second largest religious group being Muslim, at 6.2% (4.1% in 2011). 36% identified as having no religion.
Unemployment amongst those aged 16 and over in the borough stood at 3.8%, slightly higher than the national average of 3.5%. 41.1% of those aged 16 and over were economically inactive, consisting of 24.3% retired, 5.2% looking after homes or family, 4.5% long-term sick or disabled, 4.2% students and 3.0% other economically inactive.
== Economy ==
A part of the Black Country, Dudley traditionally has been an industrial centre of manufacturing, quarrying, and mining, although this has declined in more recent years, with a shift in focus towards the service sector (accounting for 79.1% of employment) and tourism. Despite this, there are still numerous large industrial sites around the borough, such as the Pensnett Trading Estate, with the manufacturing industries making up 15.3% of employment.
Tourism is of increasing importance to the local economy, with approximately 6,600 people employed within the sector. Attractions such as the Black Country Living Museum and Dudley Zoo bring in hundreds of thousands of visitors each year.The Merry Hill Shopping Centre in Brierley Hill is one of the largest shopping centres in the UK and is the main retail centre of the borough, with an average of 23.5 million visitors a year, and houses branches of several large retailers including Primark, Marks & Spencer, and Next.
Other large employers in the borough include JCDecaux UK, which has its Birmingham area office in Halesowen, Rentokil Initial, and Midtherm Engineering.
== Tourism and visitor economy ==
Dudley borough has an increasing tourism offer, with attractions such as the Black Country Geopark being recognised in 2020 and the Stourbridge Glass Museum due to open in 2022. Tourism and the visitor economy is an important sector to the borough, supporting approximately 8,000 jobs.
Many of the borough's tourist attractions draw on the industrial heritage of the area. For example, the Red House Glass Cone is an original structure from the 18th Century glass making industry in Stourbridge. The site includes designer-maker studios, galleries and hot glass studio. The Stourbridge Glass Quarter locality is also home to The Lace Guild, Glasshouse Heritage Centre and hosts the International Festival of Glass every 2 years, most recently in 2019 with the 2021 festival postponed to 2022 due to the covid-19 pandemic.
The Caste Hill area of Dudley is also a hub of visitor attractions including the Black Country Living Museum and the Canal and Tunnel Trust. Dudley Zoological Gardens, which is also in this area, is the second most visited paid visitor attraction in the West Midlands. The Archives and Local History Centre is now also the home of the council run Dudley Museum. The museum is also the headquarters of the Black Country Geopark.
Along with sites recognised as part of the Geopark, the borough has seven nature reserves and many parks contributing to its green spaces. In 2021, the Green Flag award was obtained by seven of the boroughs sites (Buffery Park, Huntingtree Park, Mary Stevens Park, Priory Park, The Leasowes, Wrens Nest National Nature Reserve and Saltwells National Nature Reserve). Mary Stevens Park and Priory Park were also awarded Green Heritage Site status, with Abbey Road Allotments recognised with a Green Flag Community Award.
Despite not being in the bounds of Dudley borough, Himley Hall and Park is owned and run by Dudley Metropolitan Borough Council. In addition to the 180 acres of ‘Capability’ Brown landscaped parkland, the Hall has a gallery exhibition space and is a wedding venue.
== Regeneration ==
Large public and private sector developments have taken place in the Metropolitan Borough of Dudley since its creation in 1974.
The closure of Round Oak Steelworks in December 1982 paved the way for the creation of the Merry Hill Shopping Centre on nearby farmland between 1985 and 1989. The Waterfront leisure and commercial complex was developed on the site of the steelworks itself between 1989 and 1995.
Pensnett Trading Estate in Kingswinford has been developed since the 1960s for mostly light industry and services.
A major redevelopment of Halesowen town centre took place in 2007/08, when the bus station was rebuilt and a section of the 1960s shopping area demolished to make way for a new Asda superstore.
A similar redevelopment of Stourbridge town centre in 2011/12 saw most of the Crown Centre completely rebuilt to incorporate a new Tesco superstore.
There are currently several major regeneration projects throughout the borough. Significant infrastructure projects include the new Dudley Transport Interchange and the Wednesbury to Brierley Hill West Midlands Metro extension. The 11 km metro extension will connect Dudley, Merry Hill and Brierley Hill with the metro network and so to the proposed HS2 line. The first phase to Dudley town centre is expected to open for passenger services in 2024. The second phase will then extend to Brierley Hill, terminating in Cottage Street in the town centre following an additional £60million funding from central government.
Regeneration projects around the Castle Hill area are combining innovation and education. The Black Country and Marches Institute of Technology opened in September 2021 and focuses delivery on higher level courses in manufacturing and engineering, medical engineering, modern construction methodologies and digital technologies. The Very Light Rail (VLR) National Innovation Centre will provide a research facility for the development of VLR technologies and projects. The centre will redevelop the former Dudley Railway Station and reconnect the town with the National Rail Network.
The DY5 Business and Innovation Enterprise Zone was launched in 2017 with the ambition to create 7,000 new jobs over 25 years. The zone is centred around the Brierley Hill area.
The Dudley Townscape Heritage programme is on ongoing programme of work improving historical buildings in Dudley town centre. Phase 1 ran from 2008-2015, phase 2 from 2017-2023. Phase 2 started following a National Lottery Heritage Fund grant of £1.2 million. As part of the programme historic buildings were identified, repaired or restored. Heritage trails and open days were also developed. In addition, further development of the former Dudley Museum and Art Gallery site has been proposed as part of a £4million scheme. The former Sessions Court in the same complex of buildings been converted into Brookes Bistro restaurant. Named for Brooke Robinson who was a former MP and coroner for Dudley and left a bequest which led to the building for the former Museum and Art Gallery, Town Hall and Coroners Court.
== Housing ==
Relatively little new council housing has been built in the borough since the early 1980s, with almost all of the new social housing developments since then being built by housing associations. Most of the older private housing in the borough has been renovated rather than demolished during this time. However, there have been a number of redevelopment programmes involving 20th century council housing. In July 1999, four of the borough's tower blocks (two at Eve Hill in Dudley and two at Tanhouse in Halesowen) were demolished on consecutive weekends in controlled explosions. Two years later, two more tower blocks at Queens Cross in Dudley were demolished using the same method. Four tower blocks in Netherton are scheduled for demolition in 2017/18. In 2009, 266 homes on the predominantly 1930s Priory Estate in Dudley were demolished and the land later redeveloped with new housing. In the mid-1990s, the neighbouring Wren's Nest Estate underwent extensive refurbishment as well as improved community facilities in a multimillion-pound project funded by the European Single Budget. Four blocks of low-rise flats on the estate were demolished as part of the regeneration.
Since 2017 small developments of council housing have been built, including bungalows, housing and low-rise flats. Some properties have been designed to accommodate those with specific physical needs or those in need of supported living. The homes have been built across the borough (Brierley Hill, Coseley, Dudley, Halesowen, Kingswinford, Lower Gornal, Sedgley and Stourbridge). During this period Dudley Council have also built a number of homes for private sale.
In November 2021 Dudley Council was named homebuilder of the year (organisations with 16,000 homes or more category) at the Inside Housing UK Housing Awards.
== Education ==
=== Tertiary education ===
There are two further education colleges in the Dudley Borough: Dudley College of Technology, Halesowen College. The borough is also home to the King Edward VI sixth form college in Stourbridge, originally a grammar school established in 1552, converting to a sixth form centre in 1976. A small number of secondary schools in the borough offer sixth form facilities, while several others did so until the beginning of the 1990s when the local authority decided to concentrate post-16 education in further education colleges.
In March 2011 Eton College and Star Academies announced their intention to open one of three sixth form colleges in Dudley, subject to funding through the Department for Education’s Free Schools Programme.
Since the University of Wolverhampton closed its Dudley campus in 2002, the metropolitan borough is the largest district in the UK without its own university. Several projects in the Castle Hill area of the Dudley are now linking with local universities. The Black Country & Marches Institute of Technology opened in September 2021, with a focus on higher level engineering courses, it partners Dudley College of Technology, University of Wolverhampton, University of Worcester, In-Comm Training Services Limited and Avensys UK Limited. A Higher Education Centre for Health & Care is proposed as a partnership between Dudley College of Technology and University of Worcester and expected to be open for Autumn 2024.
=== Primary and secondary education ===
There are 104 Dudley Council schools: 78 Primary, 40 of which include a Nursery Unit (24 Primary Academy); 19 Secondary (of which 15 are Secondary Academy Schools) and 7 Special Schools. Pupils transfer to secondary school at the age of 11, although between 1972 and 1990 pupils in the north of borough transferred to secondary school at the age of 12, and from 1972 to 1982 there was a three-tier education system in Halesowen where pupils entered first school at 5, middle school at 9 and secondary school at 13.
The borough had well over 30 secondary schools on its creation, although this was quickly reduced as a result of the introduction of the comprehensive system a year later, which resulted in a number of schools being merged or closed.
By September 1990, however, the number of secondary schools in the borough had fallen to 22 as a result of the closure of Gilbert Claughton and Mons Hill Schools and the merger of High Park and Longlands Schools in Stourbridge to form Ridgewood High. A year earlier, Castle High had been formed in the town centre of Dudley from a merger of The Dudley School and Blue Coat School; this new school also took in some of the former Gilbert Claughton and Mons Hill pupils. The 1980s had also seen the closure of some the borough's less popular and smaller primary schools, with the older buildings mostly being demolished and the more modern ones being converted for community use.
The closure of Cradley High School in Halesowen in July 2008 saw the number of secondary schools in the borough fall to 21, dropping to 20 with the closure of Pensnett High School in July 2012, and to 19 when the Coseley School closed five years later.
When the Metropolitan Borough of Dudley was formed, many primary schools existed as separate infant and junior - or first and middle schools, but by 1990 virtually all of the separate schools had been merged to create full age-range primary schools, the last separate infant and junior schools to merge were Red Hall in Lower Gornal in January 1997.
There are no grammar schools in the borough since the mid-1970s, all secondary state schools have been comprehensive. The former grammar schools in the borough were Dudley's Boys Grammar and Girls High Schools (merged with Park Secondary Modern School in 1975 to form The Dudley School, which in turn merged with The Blue Coat School to form Castle High in 1989), Sir Gilbert Claughton Grammar School in Dudley (which adopted comprehensive status in 1975 before closing in 1990), Brierley Hill Grammar School (actually situated in Kingswinford; it has been known as the Crestwood School since adopting comprehensive status), King Edward VI Boys Grammar School in Stourbridge (which is now a mixed sixth form college), Stourbridge Girls High School (which merged with the Boys Grammar School and Valley Road Secondary Modern School to form Redhill School), Halesowen Grammar School (which merged with Halesowen Technical School to form Earls High School) and High Arcal Grammar School in Sedgley (which survived as a comprehensive school).
The sole independent school in the borough is the Elmfield Rudolf Steiner School in Stourbridge, which follows the Steiner Waldorf curriculum.
The Old Swinford Hospital school in Stourbridge is one of only 34 state-funded boarding schools in England, with education being funded by the local education authority (LEA).
== Healthcare ==
The main NHS hospital serving the borough is Russells Hall Hospital, situated to the south of Dudley town centre. Following a major expansion of the hospital in 2005, all inpatient services were transferred to the site from smaller hospitals around the borough, resulting in the closure of Wordsley Hospital, and the downgrading of the Guest Hospital and Corbett hospitals into outpatient centres.
Psychiatric care is offered at the Bushey Fields Hospital, located adjacent to Russells Hall Hospital.
See also Healthcare in West Midlands.
== Localities ==
See List of areas in Dudley
== Freedom of the Borough ==
The following have received the Freedom of the Borough of Dudley. The Roll of Freeman is displayed in the Council House on wood panelling at the entrance to the Council Chamber.
=== Individuals ===
William Humble, Earl of Dudley: 10 January 1899
Brooke Robinson: 11 September 1906
Sir Gilbert Henry Claughton, Baronet: 9 November 1912
Edwin John Thompson: 24 November 1936
John Harry Molyneux: 24 February 1959
John Collcott Price : 23 April 1963
Harry Clifford Whitehouse: 23 April 1963
Percy Dale Wadsworth: 25 April 1973
Bert Bissell: 19 February 1981
William Eley Homer: 9 March 1989
John Thomas Wilson: 9 March 1989
John James Curley: 23 January 1992
Frederick Stuart Hunt: 18 May 2000
Sir Lenny Henry: 25 February 2013.
David Murray Caunt: 13 July 2015
David Sparks: 13 July 2015
Jordanne Whiley: 30 November 2015.
Roy Richardson: 4 December 2017
Hilary Bills: 20 May 2021
Les Jones: 20 May 2021
Ian Marshall Kettle: 20 May 2021
=== Military units ===
The Worcestershire Regiment: 8 April 1961
The Staffordshire Regiment (The Prince of Wales's): 29 April 1967
The Mercian Regiment: 15 October 2007
The Royal Mercian and Lancastrian Yeomanry: 22 February 2010
Royal Mercian and Lancastrian Yeomanry (TA): 30 June 2012
RAF Cosford: 4 December 2017
63 Company, 6 Battalion Military Intelligence Company Intelligence Corps: 18 February 2019.
=== Organisations and groups ===
National Health Service, Public Health, Adult Services, Children's Services, Bereavement Services and Care Sector Workers: 23 July 2020 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastman_School_of_Music | Eastman School of Music | The Eastman School of Music is the music school of the University of Rochester, a private research university in Rochester, New York, United States. Established in 1921 by celebrated industrialist and philanthropist George Eastman, it was the first professional school of the university.
The school offers Bachelor of Music (BM) degrees, Master of Arts (MA) degrees, Master of Music (MM) degrees, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degrees, and Doctor of Musical Arts (DMA) degrees in various musical fields, along with a special dual degree with the College of Arts & Sciences for students with multiple interests. The school has three performing orchestras, the Eastman Philharmonia, the Eastman School Symphony Orchestra, and the Philharmonia Chamber Orchestra.
As of 2024, there were more than 950 students enrolled in the collegiate division of the Eastman School (approximately 500 undergraduate and 450 graduate students).
== History ==
Alfred Klingenberg, a Norwegian pianist, was the school's first director, serving from 1921 to 1923. He was succeeded by composer Howard Hanson in 1924, who had an enormous impact on the development of the school, including influencing the creation the first Doctor of Musical Arts degree in the United States. Upon his retirement in 1964, after serving as director of the school for 40 years, Hanson was succeeded by conductor Walter Hendl.
Hendl served as director from 1964 to 1972, and was then succeeded by pianist and musicologist Robert Freeman who served from 1972 to 1996. Associate Director Daniel Patrylak served as the acting director from the time of Hendl's resignation (May 1972) until Robert Freeman assumed the position in July 1973. Following the resignation of Robert Freeman in 1996, James Undercofler was then appointed Director and Dean of the Eastman School, and held that position until he resigned in 2006 to accept the position of CEO and President of the Philadelphia Orchestra.
Jamal Rossi, an Eastman alumnus, was appointed Interim Dean of the Eastman School in April 2006. On May 21, 2007, composer/conductor Douglas Lowry, formerly the dean of the University of Cincinnati College-Conservatory of Music, was appointed Dean of the Eastman School, to begin serving in 2007. Following Lowry's death in 2013, Rossi was appointed Dean.
== Campus and facilities ==
The Eastman School occupies parts of five buildings in downtown Rochester, New York. The main hall includes the renovated 3,094-seat Eastman Theater, the 455-seat Kilbourn Hall, the 222-seat Hatch Recital Hall, and offices for faculty.
The Eastman Theatre opened in 1922 as a center for music, dance, and silent film with orchestral and organ accompaniment. Today, the 3,094-seat theatre is the primary concert hall for the Eastman School's larger ensembles, including its orchestras, wind ensembles, jazz ensembles, and chorale. Also, the Eastman Opera Theatre presents fully staged operatic productions in the theatre each spring. It also is the principal performance venue for the Rochester Philharmonic Orchestra. A $5 million renovation of the theatre was completed in 2004. The theatre is located at 60 Gibbs Street, on the corner of Main and Gibbs Streets. Due to a $10 million donation by Eastman Kodak Inc. in April 2008, the Eastman Theatre was officially renamed "Kodak Hall at Eastman Theatre" upon the renovation's completion in 2010.
The Sibley Music Library—the largest academic music library in North America, is located across the street from the main hall. Hiram Watson Sibley founded the library in 1904 using the fortune he made as first president of Western Union. It moved to its current location in 1989, and occupies 45,000 square feet (4,200 m2) on the 2nd, 3rd and 4th floors of the Miller Center, formerly known as Eastman Place. The Sibley Music Library currently holds almost 750,000 items, ranging from 11th century codices to the latest compositions and recordings. Considered among its jewels are the original drafts of Debussy's impressionistic masterpiece, "La Mer".
The Student Living Center, which is located at 100 Gibbs Street, is the dormitory building of the Eastman School of Music. In 1991, the new building was opened at the corner of Main and Gibbs Streets, replacing the University Avenue dormitories built nearly 70 years earlier. It is a four-story quadrangle and 14-story tower surrounding a landscaped inner courtyard, and contains its own dining hall. The majority of students enrolled in the undergraduate program live on campus in this building.
== Academics ==
The school offers Bachelor of Music (BM) degrees, Master of Arts (MA) degrees, Master of Music (MM) degrees, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degrees, and Doctor of Musical Arts (DMA) degrees in many musical fields. The school also awards a "Performer's Certificate" or "Artist's Diploma" to students who demonstrate exceptionally outstanding performance ability. The Institute for Music Leadership, which was formed in 2001, offers a variety of diploma programs designed to educate and give students the skills and experience necessary to meet the demands of performance and education in today's changing musical world. In 2018, The Institute for Music Leadership created a Master of Arts degree in Music Leadership for musicians who seek to lead traditional or non-traditional musical arts organizations.
== Reputation ==
In 2024, Billboard named the Eastman School of Music as the Top Music Business School.
== Faculty and alumni ==
Eastman alumni include jazz bassist Ron Carter, singer Renée Fleming, bass-baritone William Warfield, Canadian Brass co-founder Charles Daellenbach, cellist Robert deMaine, drummer Steve Gadd, bassist Tony Levin, flugelhornist Chuck Mangione, author and journalist Michael Walsh, trumpeter Allen Vizzutti, scholar Horace Clarence Boyer and composers Thomas Henderson Kerr, Jr., Maria Schneider, Robert Paterson, and Cardon V. Burnham. Current faculty include musicians and pedagogues like the Ying Quartet, Anthony Dean Griffey, Katherine Ciesinski and Paul O'Dette.
=== Directors and deans === |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastiano_Arman | Sebastiano Arman | Sebastiano Arman (born 17 January 1997) is an Italian curler from Cembra. He is the second on Team Joël Retornaz. He has represented Italy at the 2022 and 2026 Winter Olympics.
== Career ==
=== Juniors ===
As a junior curler, Arman represented Italy in three World Junior Curling Championships. He was the alternate for Italy at the 2012 World Junior Curling Championships on a team skipped by Andrea Pilzer, where they finished 9th. Arman would remain as the alternate of the Italian junior team for the 2013 World Junior Curling Championships where they would improve and finish round robin play in 6th place with a 5-4 record.
In his last year in Juniors at the 2014 World Junior Curling Championships, he was elevated to second on the Italian team skipped by Amos Mosaner. There, they would improve their performances in 2012 and 2013, but would just miss the playoffs with 5th-place finish after losing in a tie-breaker to Switzerland's Yannick Schwaller.
=== Mens ===
Arman would begin his men's career being an alternate for the Italian men's team at the 2013, 2014, and 2015 European Curling Championships, as well as the 2015 Ford World Men's Curling Championship. He would later officially join Team Joël Retornaz as their second starting in the 2018–19 curling season. In their first season together, at the 2018 European Curling Championships, they would win the bronze medal game over Germany's Marc Muskatewitz 8–6, winning the country's first medal at the event since 1979. That would qualify them for the 2019 World Men's Curling Championship, where they finished in 7th place. After the 2020 World Men's Curling Championship was canceled due to the pandemic, Team Retornaz represented Italy at the 2021 World Men's Curling Championship in Calgary, Alberta where they finished with a 7–6 record, just missing the playoffs. However, this result would qualify them to represent Italy at the Olympics in 2022, Arman's first. Team Retornaz would finish in 9th place with a 3-6 round robin record.
With Team Retornaz preparing for the 2026 Winter Olympics, in which it would be hosted by their home country of Italy at Cortina d'Ampezzo, they would start to find more success. Notably, they would win 4 Grand Slam of Curling events (the most ever for an Italian team) at the 2022 Masters, 2023 Tour Challenge, 2023 National, and 2023 Masters. They would also win Italy's first medals at the World Men's Curling Championship, with two bronze medals in 2022 and in 2024.
== Personal life ==
In addition to curling, Arman works as a police officer. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature#:~:text=The%202006%20Nobel%20Prize%20in,clash%20and%20interlacing%20of%20cultures.%22 | 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature#:~:text=The 2006 Nobel Prize in,clash and interlacing of cultures." | The 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature was awarded to the Turkish writer Orhan Pamuk (born 1952) "who in the quest for the melancholic soul of his native city has discovered new symbols for the clash and interlacing of cultures."
== Laureate ==
Orhan Pamuk, a leading novelist in Turkey, made his literary debut with the novel Cevdet Bey ve Oğulları (Cevdet Bey and His Sons, 1982), a novel with measured and meticulous prose, set in the backdrop of the last days of an empire and then the slow and troubled rise of a young republic, spanning three generations of a large family and their social connections. His international breakthrough came later and was firmly established with Benim Adım Kırmızı ("My Name is Red", 1998) and Kar ("Snow", 2002). Pamuk's novels are characterized by the search for identity in the borderland between Western and Eastern values, an attempt to understand differences and similarities and an ambivalent yearning for both modern and old traditions. Among his other famous works include Sessiz Ev ("Silent House", 1983) and Masumiyet Müzesi ("The Museum of Innocence", 2008).
== Ladbrokes favourites ==
Among the favorite authors tipped to win the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature were the Syrian poet Adunis, Turkish novelist Orhan Pamuk (who eventually won), American prolific writer Joyce Carol Oates, French writer Jean-Marie Gustave Le Clézio (awarded in 2008), Japanese novelist Haruki Murakami, Swedish poet Tomas Tranströmer (awarded in 2011), Danish poet Inger Christensen, Israeli writer Amos Oz, South Korean poet Ko Un, American author Philip Roth, Polish journalist Ryszard Kapuscinski, American singer-songwriter Bob Dylan (awarded in 2016), and Indo-British novelist Salman Rushdie.
== Reactions ==
When the Swedish Academy announced that he had been awarded the 2006 Nobel Prize, it confounded pundits and oddsmakers who had concluded that Syrian poet Ali Ahmad Said, better known as Adunis, was most likely to receive that year's award. There were concerns within Turkey that the decision to award the Nobel Prize to Pamuk was politically motivated. In its citation, the academy said: "In the quest for the melancholic soul of his native city, [Pamuk] has discovered new symbols for the clash and interlacing of cultures."
The choice of Pamuk was generally well received. "It would be difficult to conceive of a more perfect winner for our catastrophic times.", said Margaret Atwood, "Pamuk gives us what all novelists give us at their best: the truth. Not the truth of statistics, but the truth of human experience at a particular place, in a particular time. And as with all great literature, you feel at moments not that you are examining him, but that he is examining you." In his native Turkey reactions were mixed. Leading newspapers took a political stance and questioned Pamuk's Turkishness. The best reaction to Pamuk's victory was pride, wrote the editor of the pro-government Daily Sabah, but "we can't quite see Pamuk as 'one of us'... We see him as someone who 'sells us out' and ... can't even stand behind what he says."
== Nobel lecture ==
Pamuk held his Nobel Lecture on 7 December 2006 at the Swedish Academy, Stockholm. The lecture was entitled "Babamın Bavulu" ("My Father's Suitcase") and was given in Turkish. In the lecture he allegorically spoke of relations between Eastern and Western civilizations using the theme of his relationship with his father.
What literature needs most to tell and investigate today are humanity's basic fears: the fear of being left outside, and the fear of counting for nothing, and the feelings of worthlessness that come with such fears; the collective humiliations, vulnerabilities, slights, grievances, sensitivities, and imagined insults, and the nationalist boasts and inflations that are their next of kin ... Whenever I am confronted by such sentiments, and by the irrational, overstated language in which they are usually expressed, I know they touch on a darkness inside me. We have often witnessed peoples, societies and nations outside the Western world–and I can identify with them easily—succumbing to fears that sometimes lead them to commit stupidities, all because of their fears of humiliation and their sensitivities. I also know that in the West—a world with which I can identify with the same ease–nations and peoples taking an excessive pride in their wealth, and in their having brought us the Renaissance, the Enlightenment, and Modernism, have, from time to time, succumbed to a self-satisfaction that is almost as stupid.
Pamuk's books broke a record and sold over 200,000 copies after the announcement of his success, leading to him becoming Turkey's best-selling recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Everybody_Wants_to_Rule_the_World | Everybody Wants to Rule the World | "Everybody Wants to Rule the World" is a song by the English pop rock band Tears for Fears from their second studio album Songs from the Big Chair (1985). It was written by Roland Orzabal, Ian Stanley, and Chris Hughes and produced by Hughes. It was released on 22 March 1985 by Phonogram, Mercury, and Vertigo Records as the third single from the album. "Everybody Wants to Rule the World" is a new wave and synth-pop song with lyrics that detail the desire humans have for control and power, and centres on themes of corruption.
An international success, the song peaked at number two in Ireland, Australia, and the United Kingdom and at number one in Canada, New Zealand, and on both the US Billboard Hot 100 and Cashbox. It was certified gold by both Music Canada (MC) and the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). Retrospectively, music critics have praised "Everybody Wants to Rule the World", with some ranking the song among the decade's best. Along with "Shout" (1984), it is one of the band's signature songs.
A music video received promotion from MTV. In 1986, the song won Best Single at the Brit Awards, and was re-recorded by the band as a charity single for the Sport Aid campaign the same year. "Everybody Wants to Rule the World" has been covered extensively since its release, most notably by New Zealand singer Lorde for the soundtrack to the film adaptation of The Hunger Games: Catching Fire (2013).
== Background and release ==
"Everybody Wants to Rule the World" was written by Roland Orzabal, Ian Stanley and Chris Hughes, and produced by Hughes. The song was a "last-minute" addition during recording sessions of Songs from the Big Chair (1985). The decision to include the song in the album came after Orzabal played two chords on his acoustic guitar for Hughes. It was recorded in two weeks and added as the final track on the album. According to Orzabal, the final line in the song's chorus, originally written as "Everybody wants to go to war", contributed to his indifference towards the track.
In an interview with Mix magazine, Hughes said that "as a piece of recording history, [the song is] bland as hell". Orzabal's unimpressed reaction to the track during their songwriting sessions prompted Hughes to convince him to record it, in a calculated effort to garner American chart success. After completing their sessions at 6 p.m., they would spend an hour reviewing each recording many times; this helped Orzabal to create the song's guitar figure and change its title. Orzabal acknowledged that the shuffle beat used in the song was "alien" to their way of writing music, stating it was "jolly rather than square and rigid in the manner of "Shout", but it continued the process of becoming more extrovert." In a 2025 podcast, Orzabal stated that the basic rhythm track had been inspired in part by Simple Minds' "Waterfront" and in part by Linx's 1981 hit "Throw Away the Key". Curt Smith, the song's lead singer, said the themes were "quite seriousU — it's about everybody wanting power, about warfare and the misery it causes." In an interview with Guitar World, Orzabal recalled that the vocals were pitched up, as they felt the melody was not fast enough.
"Everybody Wants to Rule the World" was first released on 22 March 1985 through Phonogram, Mercury and Vertigo Records as the third single from Songs from the Big Chair. The song was released for sale (as a 7-inch, 10-inch and 12-inch vinyl set), which included its B-side, interviews from the band and different versions of the song. To accommodate the vinyl release, a CD video set was also distributed and included the song's music video along with audios of bonus tracks.
== Composition and lyrical interpretation ==
"Everybody Wants to Rule the World" is a new wave and synth-pop song. Sheet music for the song is set in the key of D major (original is slightly detuned) with a 128 time signature and a tempo of 112 beats per minute. The band stated that the driving shuffle rhythm was influenced by Simple Minds' 1983 song "Waterfront", and Linx's 1981 song "Throw Away the Key". "Everybody Wants to Rule the World" incorporates synthesizers, guitar, a shuffle groove, two guitar solos, and keyboards.
According to Joe Strummer (of The Clash) in a 1988 interview, he was in a restaurant and saw Orzabal, whereupon he told him that "you owe me a fiver", explaining that the title of "Everybody Wants to Rule the World" was an exact lift of the first line of the middle eight in "Charlie Don't Surf". According to Strummer, Orzabal simply reached into his pocket and gave him a five pound note. The song's lyrics detail the desire humans have for control and power. In 2017, Tal Rosenberg of Pitchfork stated that its lyrics could be applied in different scenarios such as the environment ("Turn your back on mother nature"), short-lived financial success ("Help me make the most of freedom and of pleasure/Nothing ever lasts forever"), dictatorial rule ("Even while we sleep/We will find you"), and the Cold War ("Holding hands while the walls come tumbling down").
The song's lyrics have elicited different political interpretations. A writer for The Economist called the track "a Cold War anthem" and noted its "timeless message", stating that "the song's lyrics speak to the anxieties of every age". Marc Ambinder from The Atlantic used the lyrics "Say that you'll never, never, never need it / One headline, why believe it? / Everybody wants to rule the world" in his article about the United States government's use of "original classified authority" and the abuse of power between the branches of government. Dominic Pino of National Review described the track as a "conservative pop song", noting the lyrics' tension between "personal ambition" and "channeling that personal ambition to good ends", comparing these themes to James Madison's concerns about private interest in the Federalist Papers. Curt Smith challenged this interpretation.
Tears for Fears revisited the song and its message in a 2017 interview with Yahoo! Music, stating that the song's themes were still "just as poignant" as they were when they first wrote it. They mentioned that they discussed the Cold War with "Everybody Wants to Rule the World" and Songs from the Big Chair but that was the "U.S. and Russia then, and now the concern is more with the U.S. and [North] Korea."
== Reception and legacy ==
Consequence of Sound editor Michael Roffman praised the group for being able to produce a "timeless and influential composition" with minimal effort. Roffman also noted that "Everybody Wants to Rule the World" was appropriate when it was first released, calling it a "meditative commentary on an era that was so corrupt economically and spiritually." AllMusic's Stanton Swihart expressed in his retrospective review that the group "perfectly captured the zeitgeist of the mid-'80s while impossibly managing to also create a dreamy, timeless pop classic." Pitchfork called it a song with "near-universal appeal", as well as a staple for "classic-rock radio, pharmacies, bars, and parties". In their review for the best albums of the 1980s, Eric Henderson from Slant Magazine stated that the song "seems like one of the great indictments of the materialism and false triumphalism of the decade."
"Everybody Wants to Rule the World" was voted the 25th best single in The Village Voice's Pazz & Jop critics' poll for 1985 with 17 points, sharing the spot with Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers' "Don't Come Around Here No More" (1985) and Sade's "Smooth Operator" (1984). Pitchfork placed the song at number 82 on their list for the best songs of the 80s expressing that "underneath the synth-pop sheen, its vague message" and its lesson in how power-driven society could be, the song was able to reach "Reagan and Margaret-era youth fed up with political greed". Kevin Korber from Spectrum Culture ranked the song at 24 on his 80s decade list, calling the song a "testament to how much of a free-for-all the pop landscape was in the 1980s". Korber dismissed the song's vague lyrics but praised its complex melodic structure, saying it was "both the perfect representation of its time and a timeless composition". Treble included the song at number 49 on their decade list. In 2021, Rolling Stone ranked the song at number 319 in their updated list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.
In 1986, the song won "Best Single" at the Brit Awards. Orzabal argued that the song deserved to win the Ivor Novello International Hit of the Year award, claiming that the winner—"19" by Paul Hardcastle—was not an actual song, but only a "dialogue collage". In 2015, 30 years after its release, the song was honoured at the annual BMI Awards in London for achieving 6 million radio airplays. "Everybody Wants to Rule the World" is regarded as the group's signature song, along with "Shout" (1984).
"Everybody Wants to Rule the World" was banned for broadcast by the BBC for the duration of the first Gulf War (2 August 1990 – 28 February 1991) due to the song's political themes. For several years, the song was used as the title theme to the political HBO talk show, Dennis Miller Live.
=== Usage in media ===
The song plays in the end credits of the 1985 film Real Genius.
The song plays at the end of the 2025 film Marty Supreme.
Despicable Me 4 features an ensemble performance of the song in its final scene.
== Commercial performance ==
In the United Kingdom, "Everybody Wants to Rule the World" debuted at number 16 on the UK Singles Chart, in the issue dated 24 March 1985. On the week of 14 April 1985, the song peaked at number two, where it stayed for an additional week, both times being blocked from the top spot by "We Are the World" by USA for Africa. "Everybody Wants to Rule the World" re-entered several times the UK Singles Chart between 2022 and 2026 and received a quintuple platinum certification by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) on 30 January 2026 for 3,000,000 sales. In addition, as of May 2023, is the 12th most streamed song from the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s by British artists in the United Kingdom. The song peaked at number three in Belgium, and at number two in both the Netherlands and Ireland.
In the United States, "Everybody Wants to Rule the World" debuted at number 70 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the issue dated 16 March 1985. On the week of 27 April 1985, the song rose to number 18. On the week of 8 June 1985, the song moved to #1, replacing Wham!'s "Everything She Wants" (1984) on the chart; it would spend a total of two weeks in this position. The song was a commercial success in other American markets, peaking at number two on the Adult Contemporary and Top Rock Tracks and charting at number one on the Hot Dance Club Play, Hot Dance Music/Maxi-Singles Sales, and Cash Box charts. It ranks as the 345th best-charting single of all time in the United States. In Canada, the song reached the number one spot, earning a gold certification from Music Canada (MC) for 40,000 sales shipments on 1 May 1985.
In Australia, the song reached the number two position. On the report dated 19 May 1985, the song debuted at number four on the New Zealand Top 40 Singles chart; it would later peak at number one. It was certified Gold by the Recorded Music NZ (RMNZ) for sales of 10,000.
== B-side: "Pharaohs" ==
"Pharaohs" is the B-side to the "Everybody Wants to Rule the World" single. It samples a recording of BBC Radio 4 announcer Brian Perkins reading the Shipping Forecast for the North Sea region of the United Kingdom. The title of the song has an identical enunciation to the Faroe Islands ("Faroes"), one of the places referenced in the forecast. Orzabal, Ian Stanley, Curt Smith and Hughes share writing credits. "Pharaohs" is included on the Groove Armada compilation album Back to Mine (2000). Chris Hughes wrote about the song in the liner notes of Saturnine Martial & Lunatic (1996), saying:
No matter how horrifying the conditions may really be, the voice reading the shipping forecast is deliberately calm and relaxed. Recorded at the Wool Hall for the B-side of 'Everybody' in a calm and relaxed way.
"Pharaohs" shipping forecast read by Brian Perkins:
== Music video ==
The video for "Everybody Wants to Rule the World" was directed by Nigel Dick. It was filmed in Los Angeles, Desert Hot Springs, Palm Springs, and Cabazon, California. Curt Smith admitted to Pitchfork that the video shoot was a "disaster"; Dick was "in tears" on the second night of shooting. Smith also mentioned that there was an accident while filming the "dirt bikes and four-wheel [sic] off-road vehicles" scene, with one child flying out of a vehicle and smashing his head, leaving him unconscious.
The video begins with Smith driving a vintage Austin-Healey 3000 sports car while a toddler points toy guns in Smith's direction. The car is then seen driving through a desert, on Interstate 10; this scene is intercut with the band performing the song in a studio. In the chorus, a plane is seen. Smith parks the car at the Wheel Inn diner and makes a call from a telephone booth. The camera pans to show a statue of a prospector and his donkey in the foreground. Smith leaves the diner in the car while singing the song's lyrics. The following scene shows two men in suits performing synchronised dance movements in front of two gas pumps. Shots of young people riding three-wheeled ATVs and dirt bikes through desert sand dunes are also shown. Smith is then shown singing in the desert wearing black sunglasses as many of the dirt bike and ATV riders approach from behind him and pass to either side.
The music video promoted the group in America, due to heavy rotation on the music video channel MTV. HuffPost editor Daryl Deino ranked the video at number three on their year-end list for best music videos of 1985 stating that the video "represents pure Americana as it was in 1985". Deino also mentioned that the video "proves that at times, artists were able to do so much with so little."
== Formats and track listings ==
== Personnel ==
Personnel are adapted from the original album liner notes, the liner notes of Saturnine Martial & Lunatic, Reverb Machine, and Mix.
Tears for Fears
Roland Orzabal – electric and acoustic guitars, guitar solo (first), Yamaha DX7 and Prophet T-8 synthesizers, backing vocals
Curt Smith – PPG Wave synth-bass, lead vocals
Ian Stanley – Yamaha DX7 and Fairlight CMI synthesizers, LinnDrum and Oberheim DMX programming
Manny Elias – drums, Oberheim DMX programming
Additional personnel
Neil Taylor – electric and acoustic guitars, guitar solo (second)
Chris Hughes – producer, Oberheim DMX and MIDI programming
Dave Bascombe – engineer
== Charts ==
== Certifications ==
== Covers and re-releases ==
=== "Everybody Wants to Run the World" ===
"Everybody Wants to Run the World" is a re-recording of the band's song "Everybody Wants to Rule the World". The reworked single was released in May 1986 as the theme song for the Sport Aid campaign, a charitable event held to raise money for famine relief in Africa. It was a success in the UK Singles Chart, becoming the band's sixth top 5 hit, peaking at number 5 in June 1986. The song also reached number 4 in Ireland.
=== Lorde version ===
New Zealand singer Lorde recorded a cover of the song for the soundtrack of The Hunger Games: Catching Fire (2013). The cover was produced by Peter Shurkin and Joel Little with arrangement by Michael A. Levine and Lucas Cantor. Orzabal praised Lorde for reinventing the cover, stating that the group finds it interesting when artists take what they do and reinterpret it. For their Rule the World Tour, the duo uses this version to launch their show.
Critics were positively receptive to the cover, some praised it for its darker atmosphere mood although others criticized it for stripping away the song's original upbeat composition. David Haglund from Slate stated that while the song "doesn't top the great original, it does memorably reinvent it". Sam Lansky from Idolator called the cover "haunting and melodramatic". Conversely, Stereogum editor Nate Patrin criticized the chorus and production but praised the "aloof strangeness" in Lorde's vocals for being able to carry the song "past the usual Dramatic Reenvisionings". Paste and Exclaim! included the cover in their respective 2013 year-end lists for covers, while the former ranked it 13th on their decade-end list for covers. Her cover appeared on the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 14. It reached number 53 in Australia, number 65 in the United Kingdom, number 93 in France, and number 27 on the U.S. Hot Rock Songs chart.
=== Other versions ===
Ted Leo and the Pharmacists covered the song in 2010 for the inaugural episode of The A.V. Club's A.V. Undercover web series.
Relient K recorded a version of the song for their 2011 cover album Is for Karaoke.
Weezer covered the song on their 2019 self-titled cover album. They were joined by Orzabal and Smith to perform the song live at Coachella 2019 on April 14, and again two days later on Jimmy Kimmel Live!.
Niall Horan covered a live version of the song mixed with his own song "If You Leave Me" from his 2023 album The Show: The Encore.
Filipino indie rock band Hey June! released a cover version as a single in 2024.
The song was interpolated by Miley Cyrus for a remix of "Black Skinhead" by Kanye West which leaked online in January 2016.
American rapper Lil Baby sampled the song in "The World is Yours to Take" for the Budweiser anthem of the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar and also appeared on the FIFA World Cup Qatar 2022 Official Soundtrack.
The song appears at the end of Despicable Me 4, where Gru and Maxime Le Mal are in prison putting on a talent show for all of the prisoners. The franchise's villains from previous films return in this song. The cover version, performed by the film's cast, also appears on the movie's soundtrack.
The song was covered by British singer Robbie Williams for the 2019 Trevor Horn album Reimagines the Eighties. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria | Bulgaria | Bulgaria, officially the Republic of Bulgaria, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern portion of the Balkans directly south of the Danube river and west of the Black Sea. Bulgaria is bordered by Greece and Turkey to the south, Serbia and North Macedonia to the west, and Romania across the Danube river to the north. It covers a territory of 110,994 square kilometres (42,855 sq mi) and is the tenth largest within the European Union and the sixteenth-largest country in Europe by area. Sofia is the nation's capital and largest city; other major cities include Plovdiv, Varna, and Burgas.
One of the earliest societies in the lands of modern-day Bulgaria was the Karanovo culture (6,500 BC). In the 6th to 3rd century BC, the region was a battleground for ancient Thracians, Persians, Celts, and Macedonians; stability came when the Roman Empire conquered the region in AD 45. After the Roman state splintered, tribal invasions in the region resumed. Around the 6th century, these territories were settled by the early Slavs. The Bulgars, led by Asparuh, attacked from the lands of Old Great Bulgaria and permanently invaded the Balkans in the late 7th century. They established the First Bulgarian Empire, victoriously recognised by treaty in 681 AD by the Byzantine Empire. It dominated most of the Balkans and significantly influenced Slavic cultures by developing the Cyrillic script. Under the rule of the Krum's dynasty, the country rose to the status of a mighty empire and great power. The First Bulgarian Empire lasted until the early 11th century, when Byzantine emperor Basil II conquered and dismantled it. A successful Bulgarian revolt in 1185 established a Second Bulgarian Empire, which reached its apex under Ivan Asen II (1218–1241). After numerous exhausting wars and feudal strife, the empire disintegrated and in 1396 fell under Ottoman rule for nearly five centuries.
The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 resulted in the formation of the third and current Bulgarian state, which declared independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1908. Many ethnic Bulgarians were left outside the new nation's borders, which stoked irredentist sentiments that led to several conflicts with its neighbours and alliances with Germany in both world wars. In 1946, Bulgaria came under the Soviet-led Eastern Bloc and became a socialist state. The ruling Communist Party gave up its monopoly on power after the revolutions of 1989 and allowed multiparty elections. Bulgaria then transitioned into a democracy.
Since adopting a democratic constitution in 1991, Bulgaria has been a parliamentary republic composed of 28 provinces, with a high degree of political, administrative, and economic centralisation. Its high-income economy is part of the European Single Market and is largely based on services, followed by manufacturing, mining, and agriculture. Bulgaria has been influenced by its role as a transit country for natural gas and oil pipelines, as well as its strategic location on the Black Sea. Its foreign relations have been shaped by its geographical location and its modern membership; Bulgaria is a member state of the European Union, in which it is a member of the Schengen Area and the eurozone, and also of NATO, as well as various regional suborganizations such as the Bucharest Nine.
== Etymology ==
The name Bulgaria is derived from the Bulgars, a tribe of Turkic origin that founded the First Bulgarian Empire. Their name is not completely understood and is difficult to trace it back earlier than the 4th century AD; however, it is possibly derived from the Proto-Turkic word bulģha ("to mix", "shake", "stir") and its derivative bulgak ("revolt", "disorder"). The meaning may be further extended to "rebel", "incite" or "produce a state of disorder", and so, in the derivative, the "disturbers". Tribal groups in Inner Asia with phonologically close names were frequently described in similar terms, as the Buluoji, a component of the "Five Barbarian" groups, which during the 4th century were portrayed as both: a "mixed race" and "troublemakers".
== History ==
=== Prehistory and Antiquity ===
Neanderthal remains dating to around 150,000 years ago, or the Middle Paleolithic, are some of the earliest traces of human activity in the lands of modern Bulgaria. Remains from Homo sapiens found there are dated c. 47,000 years BP. This result represents the earliest arrival of modern humans in Europe. The Karanovo culture arose c. 6,500 BC and was one of several Neolithic societies in the region that thrived on agriculture. The Copper Age Varna culture (fifth millennium BC) is credited with inventing gold metallurgy. The associated Varna Necropolis treasure contains the oldest golden jewellery in the world with an approximate age of over 6,000 years. The treasure has been valuable for understanding social hierarchy and stratification in the earliest European societies.
The Thracians, one of the three primary ancestral groups of modern Bulgarians, appeared on the Balkan Peninsula some time before the 12th century BC. The Thracians excelled in metallurgy and gave the Greeks the Orphean and Dionysian cults, but remained tribal and stateless. The Persian Achaemenid Empire conquered parts of present-day Bulgaria (in particular eastern Bulgaria) in the 6th century BC and retained control over the region until 479 BC. The invasion became a catalyst for Thracian unity, and the bulk of their tribes united under king Teres to form the Odrysian kingdom in the 470s BC. It was weakened and vassalised by Philip II of Macedon in 341 BC, attacked by Celts in the 3rd century, and finally became a province of the Roman Empire in AD 45.
By the end of the 1st century AD, Roman governance was established over the entire Balkan Peninsula and Christianity began spreading in the region around the 4th century. The Gothic Bible—the first Germanic language book—was created by Gothic bishop Ulfilas in what is today northern Bulgaria around 381. The region came under Byzantine control after the fall of Rome in 476. The Byzantines were engaged in prolonged warfare against Persia and could not defend their Balkan territories from barbarian incursions. This enabled the Slavs to enter the Balkan Peninsula as marauders, primarily through an area between the Danube River and the Balkan Mountains known as Moesia. Gradually, the interior of the peninsula became a country of the South Slavs, who lived under a democracy. The Slavs assimilated the partially Hellenised, Romanised, and Gothicised Thracians in the rural areas.
=== First Bulgarian Empire ===
Not long after the Slavic incursion, Moesia was once again invaded, this time by the Bulgars under Khan Asparukh. Their horde was a remnant of Old Great Bulgaria, an extinct tribal confederacy situated north of the Black Sea in what is now Ukraine and southern Russia. Asparukh attacked Byzantine territories in Moesia and conquered the Slavic tribes there in 680. A peace treaty with the Byzantine Empire was signed in 681, marking the foundation of the First Bulgarian Empire. The minority Bulgars formed a close-knit ruling caste.
Succeeding rulers strengthened the Bulgarian state throughout the 8th and 9th centuries. Krum introduced a written code of law and checked a major Byzantine incursion at the Battle of Pliska, in which Byzantine emperor Nicephorus I was killed. Boris I abolished paganism in favour of Eastern Orthodox Christianity in 864. The conversion was followed by a Byzantine recognition of the Bulgarian church and the adoption of the Cyrillic alphabet, developed in the capital, Preslav. The common language, religion and script strengthened central authority and gradually fused the Slavs and Bulgars into a unified people speaking a single Slavic language. A golden age began during the 34-year rule of Simeon the Great, who oversaw the largest territorial expansion of the state. The literature produced in Old Bulgarian soon spread north from Bulgaria and became the lingua franca of the Balkans and Eastern Europe. The political, cultural, and spiritual power of the Bulgarian Empire during the Krum's dynasty turned Bulgaria into one of the three superpowers in Europe at that time, alongside the Byzantine Empire and the Carolingian Empire of the Franks, which would later become the Holy Roman Empire.
After Simeon's death, Bulgaria was weakened by wars with Magyars and Pechenegs and the spread of Bogomilism. Simeon's successor Peter I negotiated a favourable peace treaty. The Byzantines agreed to recognise him as Emperor of Bulgaria and the Bulgarian Orthodox Church as an independent Patriarchate, as well as to pay an annual tribute. The peace was reinforced with a marriage between Peter and Romanos's granddaughter Irene Lekapene. This agreement ushered in a period of 40 years of peaceful relations between the two powers. During the first years of his reign, Peter I faced revolts by two of his three brothers, John in 928 and Michael in 930, but both were quelled. During most of the reign of Emperor Peter I, the empire enjoyed a period of political consolidation, economic expansion, and cultural activity.
Preslav was seized by the Byzantine army in 971 after consecutive Rus' and Byzantine invasions. The empire briefly recovered from the attacks under Samuil, but this ended when Byzantine emperor Basil II defeated the Bulgarian army at Klyuch in 1014. Samuil died shortly after the battle, and by 1018 the Byzantines had conquered the First Bulgarian Empire. After the conquest, Basil II prevented revolts by retaining the rule of local nobility, integrating them in Byzantine bureaucracy and aristocracy, and relieving their lands of the obligation to pay taxes in gold, allowing tax in kind instead. The Bulgarian Patriarchate was reduced to an archbishopric, but retained its autocephalous status and its dioceses.
=== Second Bulgarian Empire ===
Byzantine domestic policies changed after Basil's death and a series of unsuccessful rebellions broke out, the largest being led by Peter Delyan. The empire's authority declined after a catastrophic military defeat at Manzikert against Seljuk invaders, and was further disturbed by the Crusades. This prevented Byzantine attempts at Hellenisation and created fertile ground for further revolt. In 1185, Asen dynasty nobles Ivan Asen I and Peter IV organised a major uprising and succeeded in re-establishing the Bulgarian state. Ivan Asen and Peter laid the foundations of the Second Bulgarian Empire with its capital at Tarnovo.
Kaloyan, the third of the Asen monarchs, extended his dominion to Belgrade and Ohrid. He acknowledged the spiritual supremacy of the pope and received a royal crown from a papal legate. The empire reached its zenith under Ivan Asen II (1218–1241), when its borders expanded as far as the coast of Albania, Serbia and Epirus, while commerce and culture flourished. Ivan Asen's rule was also marked by a shift away from Rome in religious matters.
The Asen dynasty became extinct in 1257. Internal conflicts and incessant Byzantine and Hungarian attacks followed, enabling the Mongols to establish suzerainty over the weakened Bulgarian state. In 1277, swineherd Ivaylo led a great peasant revolt that expelled the Mongols from Bulgaria and briefly made him emperor. He was overthrown in 1280 by the feudal landlords, whose factional conflicts caused the Second Bulgarian Empire to disintegrate into small feudal dominions by the 14th century. These fragmented rump states—two tsardoms at Vidin and Tarnovo and the Despotate of Dobrudzha—became easy prey for a new threat arriving from the Southeast: the Ottoman Turks. In the 14th century, Bulgaria entered a period of cultural revival, sometimes called the "Second Golden Age" of the empire. Bulgarian architecture, arts, and literature spread beyond the borders of Bulgaria into Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia, and the Rus' Principalities and affected Slavic culture.
=== Ottoman rule ===
The Ottomans were employed as mercenaries by the Byzantines in the 1340s, but later became invaders in their own right. Sultan Murad I took Adrianople from the Byzantines in 1362; Sofia fell in 1382, followed by Shumen in 1388. The Ottomans completed their conquest of Bulgarian lands in 1393 when Tarnovo was sacked after a three-month siege and the Battle of Nicopolis which brought about the fall of the Vidin Tsardom in 1396. Sozopol was the last Bulgarian settlement to fall, in 1453. The Bulgarian nobility was subsequently eliminated and the peasantry was enserfed to Ottoman masters, while much of the educated clergy fled to other countries.
Bulgarians were subjected to heavy taxes (including Devshirme, or blood tax), their culture was suppressed, and they experienced partial Islamisation. Ottoman authorities established a religious administrative community called the Rum Millet, which governed all Orthodox Christians regardless of their ethnicity. Most of the local population then gradually lost its distinct national consciousness, identifying only by its faith. The clergy remaining in some isolated monasteries kept their ethnic identity alive, enabling its survival in remote rural areas, and in the militant Catholic community in the northwest of the country.
As Ottoman power began to wane, Habsburg Austria and Russia saw Bulgarian Christians as potential allies. The Austrians first backed an uprising in Tarnovo in 1598, then a second one in 1686, the Chiprovtsi Uprising in 1688 and finally Karposh's rebellion in 1689. The Russian Empire also asserted itself as a protector of Christians in Ottoman lands with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca in 1774.
The Western European Enlightenment in the 18th century influenced the initiation of a national awakening of Bulgaria. It restored national consciousness and provided an ideological basis for the liberation struggle, resulting in the April Uprising of 1876. Up to 30,000 Bulgarians were killed as Ottoman authorities put down the rebellion. The massacres prompted the Great Powers to take action. They convened the Constantinople Conference in 1876, but their decisions were rejected by the Ottomans. This allowed the Russian Empire to seek a military solution without risking confrontation with other Great Powers, as had happened in the Crimean War. In 1877, Russia declared war on the Ottomans and defeated them with the help of Bulgarian rebels, particularly during the crucial Battle of Shipka Pass which secured Russian control over the main road to Constantinople.
=== Third Bulgarian state ===
The Treaty of San Stefano was signed on 3 March 1878 by Russia and the Ottoman Empire. It was to set up an autonomous Bulgarian principality spanning Moesia, Macedonia and Thrace, roughly on the territories of the Second Bulgarian Empire, and this day is now a public holiday called National Liberation Day. The other Great Powers immediately rejected the treaty out of fear that such a large country in the Balkans might threaten their interests. It was superseded by the Treaty of Berlin, signed on 13 July. It provided for a much smaller state, the Principality of Bulgaria, only comprising Moesia and the region of Sofia, and leaving large populations of ethnic Bulgarians outside the new country. This significantly contributed to Bulgaria's militaristic foreign affairs approach during the first half of the 20th century.
The Bulgarian principality won a war against Serbia and incorporated the semi-autonomous Ottoman territory of Eastern Rumelia in 1885, proclaiming itself an independent state on 5 October 1908. In the years following independence, Bulgaria increasingly militarised and was often referred to as "the Balkan Prussia". It became involved in three consecutive conflicts between 1912 and 1918—two Balkan Wars and World War I. After a disastrous defeat in the Second Balkan War, Bulgaria again found itself fighting on the losing side as a result of its alliance with the Central Powers in World War I. Despite fielding more than a quarter of its population in a 1,200,000-strong army and achieving several decisive victories at Doiran and Monastir, the country capitulated in 1918. The war resulted in significant territorial losses and a total of 87,500 soldiers killed. More than 253,000 refugees from the lost territories immigrated to Bulgaria from 1912 to 1929, placing additional strain on the already ruined national economy.
The resulting political unrest led to the establishment of a royal authoritarian dictatorship by Tsar Boris III (1918–1943). Bulgaria entered World War II in 1941 as a member of the Axis but declined to participate in Operation Barbarossa and saved its Jewish population from deportation to concentration camps. The sudden death of Boris III in mid-1943 pushed the country into political turmoil as the war turned against Germany, and the communist guerrilla movement gained momentum. The government of Bogdan Filov subsequently failed to achieve peace with the Allies. Bulgaria did not comply with Soviet demands to expel German forces from its territory, resulting in a declaration of war and an invasion by the USSR in September 1944. The communist-dominated Fatherland Front took power, ended participation in the Axis and joined the Allied side until the war ended. Bulgaria suffered little war damage and the Soviet Union demanded no reparations. But all wartime territorial gains, with the notable exception of Southern Dobrudzha, were lost.
The left-wing coup d'état of 9 September 1944 led to the abolition of the monarchy and the executions of some 1,000–3,000 dissidents, war criminals, and members of the former royal elite. But it was not until 1946 that a one-party people's republic was instituted following a referendum. It fell into the Soviet sphere of influence under the leadership of Georgi Dimitrov (1946–1949), who established a repressive, rapidly industrialising Stalinist state. By the mid-1950s, standards of living rose significantly and political repression eased. The Soviet-style planned economy saw some experimental market-oriented policies emerging under Todor Zhivkov (1954–1989). Compared to wartime levels, national GDP increased five-fold and per capita GDP quadrupled by the 1980s, although severe debt spikes took place in 1960, 1977 and 1980. Zhivkov's daughter Lyudmila bolstered national pride by promoting Bulgarian heritage, culture and arts worldwide. Facing declining birth rates among the ethnic Bulgarian majority, Zhivkov's government in 1984 forced the minority ethnic Turks to adopt Slavic names in an attempt to erase their identity and assimilate them. These policies resulted in the emigration of some 300,000 ethnic Turks to Turkey.
The Communist Party was forced to give up its political monopoly on 10 November 1989 under the influence of the Revolutions of 1989. Zhivkov resigned and Bulgaria embarked on a transition to a parliamentary democracy. The first free elections in June 1990 were won by the Communist Party, now rebranded as the Bulgarian Socialist Party. A new constitution that provided for a relatively weak elected president and for a prime minister accountable to the legislature was adopted in July 1991. The new system initially failed to improve living standards or create economic growth—the average quality of life and economic performance remained lower than under communism well into the early 2000s. After 2001, economic, political and geopolitical conditions improved greatly, and Bulgaria achieved high Human Development status in 2003. It became a member of NATO in 2004 and participated in the War in Afghanistan. After several years of reforms, it joined the European Union and the single market in 2007, despite EU concerns over government corruption. Bulgaria hosted the 2018 Presidency of the Council of the European Union at the National Palace of Culture in Sofia.
== Geography ==
Bulgaria is a middle-sized country situated in Southeast Europe, in the east of the Balkans. Its territory covers an area of 110,994 square kilometres (42,855 sq mi), while land borders with its five neighbouring countries run a total length of 1,808 kilometres (1,123 mi), and its coastline is 354 kilometres (220 mi) long. Bulgaria's geographic coordinates are 43° N 25° E. The most notable topographical features of the country are the Danubian Plain, the Balkan Mountains, the Upper Thracian Plain, and the Rila-Rhodope massif. The southern edge of the Danubian Plain slopes upward into the foothills of the Balkans, while the Danube defines the border with Romania. The Thracian Plain is roughly triangular, beginning southeast of Sofia and broadening as it reaches the Black Sea coast.
The Balkan mountains run laterally through the middle of the country from west to east. The mountainous southwest has two distinct alpine type ranges—Rila and Pirin, which border the lower but more extensive Rhodope Mountains to the east, and various medium altitude mountains to west, northwest and south, like Vitosha, Osogovo and Belasitsa. Musala, at 2,925 metres (9,596 ft), is the highest point in both Bulgaria and the Balkans. The Black Sea coast is the country's lowest point. Plains occupy about one third of the territory, while plateaux and hills occupy 41%. Most rivers are short and with low water levels. The longest river located solely in Bulgarian territory, the Iskar, has a length of 368 kilometres (229 mi). The Struma and the Maritsa are two major rivers in the south.
=== Climate ===
Bulgaria has a varied and changeable climate, which results from being positioned at the meeting point of the Mediterranean, Oceanic and Continental air masses combined with the barrier effect of its mountains. Northern Bulgaria averages 1 °C (1.8 °F) cooler, and registers 200 millimetres (7.9 in) more precipitation, than the regions south of the Balkan mountains. Temperature amplitudes vary significantly in different areas. The lowest recorded temperature is −38.3 °C (−36.9 °F), while the highest is 45.2 °C (113.4 °F). Precipitation averages about 630 millimetres (24.8 in) per year, and varies from 500 millimetres (19.7 in) in Dobrudja to more than 2,500 millimetres (98.4 in) in the mountains. Continental air masses bring significant amounts of snowfall during winter.
Considering its relatively small area, Bulgaria has variable and complex climate. The country occupies the southernmost part of the continental climatic zone, with small areas in the south falling within the Mediterranean climatic zone. The continental zone is predominant, because continental air masses flow easily into the unobstructed Danubian Plain. The continental influence, stronger during the winter, produces abundant snowfall; the Mediterranean influence increases during the second half of summer and produces hot and dry weather. Bulgaria is subdivided into five climatic zones: continental zone (Danubian Plain, Pre-Balkan and the higher valleys of the Transitional geomorphological region); transitional zone (Upper Thracian Plain, most of the Struma and Mesta valleys, the lower Sub-Balkan valleys); continental-Mediterranean zone (the southernmost areas of the Struma and Mesta valleys, the eastern Rhodope Mountains, Sakar and Strandzha); Black Sea zone along the coastline with an average length of 30–40 km inland; and alpine zone in the mountains above 1000 m altitude (central Balkan Mountains, Rila, Pirin, Vitosha, western Rhodope Mountains, etc.).
=== Biodiversity and conservation ===
The interaction of climatic, hydrological, geological and topographical conditions has produced a relatively wide variety of plant and animal species.
Bulgaria's biodiversity, one of the richest in Europe, is conserved in three national parks, 11 nature parks, 10 biosphere reserves and 565 protected areas. Ninety-three of the 233 mammal species of Europe are found in Bulgaria, along with 49% of butterfly and 30% of vascular plant species. Overall, 41,493 plant and animal species are present. Larger mammals with sizeable populations include deer (106,323 individuals), wild boar (88,948), golden jackal (47,293) and red fox (32,326). Partridges number some 328,000 individuals, making them the most widespread gamebird. A third of all nesting birds in Bulgaria can be found in Rila National Park, which also hosts Arctic and alpine species at high altitudes. Flora includes more than 3,800 vascular plant species of which 170 are endemic and 150 are considered endangered. A checklist of larger fungi in Bulgaria by the Institute of Botany identifies more than 1,500 species. In Bulgaria forest cover is around 36% of the total land area, equivalent to 3,893,000 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, up from 3,327,000 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 3,116,000 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 777,000 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 18% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 18% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 88% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership and 12% private ownership.
In 1998, the Bulgarian government adopted the National Biological Diversity Conservation Strategy, a comprehensive programme seeking the preservation of local ecosystems, protection of endangered species and conservation of genetic resources. Bulgaria has some of the largest Natura 2000 areas in Europe covering 33.8% of its territory. It also achieved its Kyoto Protocol objective of reducing carbon dioxide emissions by 30% from 1990 to 2009.
Bulgaria ranks 37th in the 2024 Environmental Performance Index, but scores low on air quality. Particulate levels are the highest in Europe, especially in urban areas affected by automobile traffic and coal-based power stations. One of these, the lignite-fired Maritsa Iztok-2 station, is causing the highest damage to health and the environment in the European Union. Pesticide use in agriculture and antiquated industrial sewage systems produce extensive soil and water pollution. Water quality began to improve in 1998 and has maintained a trend of moderate improvement. Over 75% of surface rivers meet European standards for good quality.
== Politics ==
Bulgaria is a parliamentary democracy where the prime minister is the head of government and the most powerful executive position. The political system has three branches—legislative, executive and judicial, with universal suffrage for citizens at least 18 years old. The Constitution also provides possibilities of direct democracy, namely petitions and national referendums. Elections are supervised by an independent Central Election Commission that includes members from all major political parties. Parties must register with the commission prior to participating in a national election. Normally, the prime minister-elect is the leader of the party receiving the most votes in parliamentary elections, although this is not always the case.
Unlike the prime minister, presidential domestic power is more limited. The directly elected president serves as head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and has the authority to return a bill for further debate, although the parliament can override the presidential veto by a simple majority vote. Political parties gather in the National Assembly, a body of 240 deputies elected to four-year terms by direct popular vote. The National Assembly has the power to enact laws, approve the budget, schedule presidential elections, select and dismiss the prime minister and other ministers, declare war, deploy troops abroad, and ratify international treaties and agreements.
Overall, Bulgaria displays a pattern of unstable governments. Boyko Borisov, the leader of the centre-right, pro-EU party GERB, served three terms as prime minister between 2009 and 2021.
It won the 2009 general election and formed a minority government, which resigned in February 2013 after nationwide protests over the low living standards, corruption and the perceived failure of the democratic system.
The subsequent snap elections in May resulted in a narrow win for GERB, but the Bulgarian Socialist Party eventually formed a government led by Plamen Oresharski after Borisov failed to secure parliamentary support. The Oresharski government resigned in July 2014 amid continuing large-scale protests.
The October 2014 elections resulted in a third GERB victory. Borisov formed a coalition with several right-wing parties, but resigned again after the candidate backed by his party failed to win the 2016 Presidential election. The March 2017 snap election was again won by GERB, but with 95 seats in Parliament. They formed a coalition with the far-right United Patriots, who held 27 seats.
Borisov's last cabinet saw a dramatic decrease in freedom of the press, and a number of corruption revelations that triggered yet another wave of mass protests in 2020. GERB came out first in the regular April 2021 election, but with its weakest result so far. All other parties refused to form a government, and after a brief deadlock, another election was called for July 2021. It too failed to break the stalemate, as no political party was able to form a coalition government.
In April 2023, because of the political deadlock, Bulgaria held its fifth parliamentary election since April 2021. GERB was the biggest, winning 69 seats. The bloc led by We Continue the Change won 64 seats in the 240-seat parliament. In June 2023, Prime Minister Nikolai Denkov formed a new coalition between We Continue The Change and GERB. According to the coalition agreement, Denkov will lead the government for the first nine months. He will be succeeded by former European Commissioner, Mariya Gabriel, of the GERB party. She was supposed to take over as prime minister in nine months.
Denkov resigned in accordance with the rotation agreement on 5 March 2024, to allow Gabriel to become the new Prime Minister. On 20 March 2024, the planned government rotation and signing of a renewed government failed due to disagreements between the two alliances on the cabinet and breaking down of relations. Negotiations ensued across to form a new government, but failed to produce any governments that could reach a majority support. GERB rejected the chance to form a government. PP–DB made a limited attempt to respect the original rotation agreement. The final chance to form a government, chosen by president Rumen Radev, went to ITN, which was immediately rejected.
On 29 March, as per Article 98 of the constitution, the President appointed the Chairman of the National Audit Office, Dimitar Glavchev, as the candidate for caretaker prime minister. He was granted a one-week deadline of until 6 April 2024 to propose the composition of the caretaker government.
Glavchev presented his proposal for the caretaker government on 5 April 2024, accepted by the President following negotiations and scheduling the election for 9 June 2024. Glavchev and his cabinet were inaugurated on 9 April 2024 by the National Assembly.
The new elected 51st Parliament replaced the 50th Parliament when all elected members were sworn in on 11 November 2024. After 11 voting rounds, Natalia Kiselova (BSP–OL) was elected as speaker of the National Assembly on 6 December 2024. President Rumen Radev granted the first negotiation mandate to the largest party GERB-SDS on 15 January 2025, which formed a minority government alongside BSP and ITN, with support from APS (Dogan). The government is led by GERB politician Rosen Zhelyazkov. In January 2026, Radev resigned ahead of Bulgaria's eighth national election in five years, succeeded by Iliana Iotova, who became the first female President of Bulgaria.
Freedom House has reported a continuing deterioration of democratic governance after 2009, citing reduced media independence, stalled reforms, abuse of authority at the highest level and increased dependence of local administrations on the central government. Bulgaria is still listed as "Free", with a political system designated as a semi-consolidated democracy, albeit with deteriorating scores. The Democracy Index defines it as a "Flawed democracy". A 2018 survey by the Institute for Economics and Peace reported that less than 15% of respondents considered elections to be fair.
=== Legal system ===
Bulgaria has a civil law legal system. The judiciary is overseen by the Ministry of Justice. The Supreme Administrative Court and the Supreme Court of Cassation are the highest courts of appeal and oversee the application of laws in subordinate courts. The Supreme Judicial Council manages the system and appoints judges. The legal system is regarded by both domestic and international observers as one of Europe's most inefficient due to a pervasive lack of transparency and corruption. Law enforcement is carried out by organisations mainly subordinate to the Ministry of the Interior. The General Directorate of National Police (GDNP) combats general crime and maintains public order. GDNP fields 26,578 police officers in its local and national sections. The bulk of criminal cases are transport-related, followed by theft and drug-related crime; homicide rates are low. The Ministry of the Interior also heads the Border Police Service and the National Gendarmerie—a specialised branch for anti-terrorist activity, crisis management and riot control. Counterintelligence and national security are the responsibility of the State Agency for National Security.
=== Administrative divisions ===
Bulgaria is a unitary state. Since the 1880s, the number of territorial management units has varied from seven to 26. Between 1987 and 1999, the administrative structure consisted of nine provinces (oblasti, singular oblast). A new administrative structure was adopted in parallel with the decentralisation of the economic system. It includes 27 provinces and a metropolitan capital province (Sofia City). All areas take their names from their respective capital cities. The provinces are subdivided into 265 municipalities. Municipalities are run by mayors, who are elected to four-year terms, and by directly elected municipal councils. Bulgaria is a highly centralised state where the Council of Ministers directly appoints regional governors and all provinces and municipalities are heavily dependent on it for funding.
=== Foreign relations ===
Bulgaria became a member of the United Nations in 1955. Since 1966, it has been a non-permanent member of the Security Council three times, most recently from 2002 to 2003. It was also among the founding nations of the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) in 1975. Euro-Atlantic integration has been a priority since the fall of communism, although the communist leadership also had aspirations of leaving the Warsaw Pact and joining the European Communities by 1987. Bulgaria signed the European Union Treaty of Accession on 25 April 2005, and became a full member of the European Union on 1 January 2007. In addition, it has a tripartite economic and diplomatic collaboration with Romania and Greece, good ties with China and Vietnam and a historical relationship with Russia.
Bulgaria deployed significant numbers of both civilian and military advisors in Soviet-allied countries like Nicaragua and Libya during the Cold War. The first deployment of foreign troops on Bulgarian soil since World War II occurred in 2001, when the country hosted six KC-135 Stratotanker aircraft and 200 support personnel for the war effort in Afghanistan. International military relations were further expanded with accession to NATO in March 2004 and the US-Bulgarian Defence Cooperation Agreement signed in April 2006. Bezmer and Graf Ignatievo air bases, the Novo Selo training range, and a logistics centre in Aytos subsequently became joint military training facilities cooperatively used by the United States and Bulgarian militaries. Despite its active international defence collaborations, Bulgaria ranks as among the most peaceful countries globally, tying 6th alongside Iceland regarding domestic and international conflicts, and 26th on average in the Global Peace Index.
Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Bulgaria assisted Ukraine; in 2023, after Gazprom illegally stopped exporting gas to Bulgaria, the country in turn stopped importing Russian oil and gas.
=== Military ===
The Bulgarian Armed Forces are the military of Bulgaria and are composed of land forces, navy and an air force. The Armed Forces have 36,950 active troops, supplemented by 3,000 reservists. The land forces consist of two mechanised brigades and eight independent regiments and battalions; the air force operates 106 aircraft and air defence systems across six air bases, and the navy operates various ships, helicopters and coastal defence weapons. Military inventory mainly consists of Soviet equipment like Mikoyan MiG-29 and Sukhoi Su-25 jets, S-300PT air defence systems and SS-21 Scarab short-range ballistic missiles. The Armed Forces are modernising with F-16 Block 70 fighter jets, new multi-purpose corvettes and other modern NATO-standard equipment. Bulgaria is in the process of buying new US-built Stryker vehicles, new 155 mm self-propelled howitzers, new 3D early-warning radars, new surface-to-air missiles and more.
== Economy ==
Bulgaria has an open, high-income range market economy where the private sector accounts for more than 70% of GDP. From a largely agricultural country with a predominantly rural population in 1948, by the 1980s Bulgaria had transformed into an industrial economy, with scientific and technological research at the top of its budgetary expenditure priorities. The loss of COMECON markets in 1990 and the subsequent "shock therapy" of the planned system caused a steep decline in industrial and agricultural production, ultimately followed by an economic collapse in 1997. The economy largely recovered during a period of rapid growth several years later, but the average salary of 2,072 leva ($1,142) per month remains the lowest in the EU.
A balanced budget was achieved in 2003 and the country began running a surplus the following year. Expenditures amounted to $21.15 billion and revenues were $21.67 billion in 2017. Most government spending on institutions is earmarked for security. The ministries of defence, the interior and justice are allocated the largest share of the annual government budget, whereas those responsible for the environment, tourism and energy receive the least funding. Taxes form the bulk of government revenue at 30% of GDP. Bulgaria has some of the lowest corporate income tax rates in the EU at a flat 10% rate. The tax system is two-tier. Value added tax, excise duties, corporate and personal income tax are national, whereas real estate, inheritance, and vehicle taxes are levied by local authorities. Strong economic performance in the early 2000s reduced government debt from 79.6% in 1998 to 14.1% in 2008. It has since increased to 22.6% of GDP by 2022, but remains the second lowest in the EU.
The Yugozapaden planning area is the most developed region with a per capita gross domestic product (PPP) of $29,816 in 2018. It includes the capital city and the surrounding Sofia Province, which alone generate 42% of national gross domestic product despite hosting only 22% of the population. GDP per capita (in PPS) and the cost of living in 2019 stood at 53 and 52.8% of the EU average (100%), respectively. National PPP GDP was estimated at $143.1 billion in 2016, with a per capita value of $20,116. Economic growth statistics take into account illegal transactions from the informal economy, which is the largest in the EU as a percentage of economic output.
After several consecutive years of high growth, repercussions of the 2008 financial crisis resulted in a 3.6% contraction of GDP in 2009 and increased unemployment. Positive growth was restored in 2010 but intercompany debt exceeded $59 billion, meaning that 60% of all Bulgarian companies were mutually indebted. By 2012, it had increased to $97 billion, or 227% of GDP. The government implemented strict austerity measures with IMF and EU encouragement to some positive fiscal results, but the social consequences of these measures, such as increased income inequality and accelerated outward migration, have been "catastrophic" according to the International Trade Union Confederation.
Siphoning of public funds to the families and relatives of politicians from incumbent parties has resulted in fiscal and welfare losses to society. Bulgaria ranked 71st in the Corruption Perceptions Index in 2017 and experiences the worst levels of corruption in the European Union, a phenomenon that remains a source of profound public discontent. Along with organised crime, corruption has resulted in a rejection of the country's Schengen Area application and withdrawal of foreign investment, though the country officially became a full member of the zone in January 2025. Government officials reportedly engage in embezzlement, influence trading, government procurement violations and bribery with impunity. Government procurement in particular is a critical area in corruption risk. An estimated 10 billion leva ($5.99 billion) of state budget and European cohesion funds are spent on public tenders each year; nearly 14 billion ($8.38 billion) were spent on public contracts in 2017 alone. A large share of these contracts are awarded to a few politically connected companies amid widespread irregularities, procedure violations and tailor-made award criteria. Despite repeated criticism from the European Commission, EU institutions refrain from taking measures against Bulgaria because it supports Brussels on a number of issues, unlike Poland or Hungary.
=== Currency ===
From 1880 to 2026, the Bulgarian National Bank issued its own national currency, lev, which was pegged to the euro at a rate of 1.95583 leva per euro. When Bulgaria joined the EU in 2007 it committed to join the eurozone and replace its currency, the lev, with the euro. In February 2025, the country officially requested off-cycle assessments of their convergence by the European Commission and ECB to determine the country's readiness. The 2025 convergence reports published on 4 June 2025 concluded that Bulgaria met the convergence criteria. On 8 July 2025, the European Parliament endorsed Bulgaria's entry in the eurozone and the Council of the European Union adopted the final three legislative acts required for the admission.
Bulgaria adopted the euro as currency, becoming a part of the euro area on 1 January 2026. The lev and euro were in dual circulation until 31 January 2026; after 1 February 2026, the euro has been the nation's sole currency.
=== Structure and sectors ===
The labour force is 3.36 million people, of whom 6.8% are employed in agriculture, 26.6% in industry and 66.6% in the services sector. Extraction of metals and minerals, production of chemicals, machine building, steel, biotechnology, tobacco, food processing and petroleum refining are among the major industrial activities. Mining alone employs 24,000 people and generates about 5% of the country's GDP; the number of employed in all mining-related industries is 120,000. Bulgaria is Europe's fifth-largest coal producer. Local deposits of coal, iron, copper and lead are vital for the manufacturing and energy sectors. The main destinations of Bulgarian exports outside the EU are Turkey, China and Serbia, while Russia, Turkey and China are by far the largest import partners. Most of the exports are manufactured goods, machinery, chemicals, fuel products and food. Two-thirds of food and agricultural exports go to OECD countries.
Although cereal and vegetable output dropped by 40% between 1990 and 2008, output in grains has since increased, and the 2016–2017 season registered the biggest grain output in a decade. Maize, barley, oats and rice are also grown. Quality Oriental tobacco is a significant industrial crop. Bulgaria is also the largest producer globally of lavender and rose oil, both widely used in fragrances. Within the services sector, tourism is a significant contributor to economic growth. Sofia, Plovdiv, Veliko Tarnovo, coastal resorts Albena, Golden Sands and Sunny Beach and winter resorts Bansko, Pamporovo and Borovets are some of the locations most visited by tourists. Most visitors are Romanian, Turkish, Greek and German. Tourism is additionally encouraged through the 100 Tourist Sites system.
=== Science and technology ===
Spending on research and development amounts to 0.78% of GDP, and the bulk of public R&D funding goes to the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (BAS). Private businesses accounted for more than 73% of R&D expenditures and employed 42% of Bulgaria's 22,000 researchers in 2015. The same year, Bulgaria ranked 39th out of 50 countries in the Bloomberg Innovation Index, the highest score being in education (24th) and the lowest in value-added manufacturing (48th). Bulgaria was ranked 37th in the Global Innovation Index in 2025. Chronic government underinvestment in research since 1990 has forced many professionals in science and engineering to leave Bulgaria.
Despite the lack of funding, research in chemistry, materials science and physics remains strong. Antarctic research is actively carried out through the St. Kliment Ohridski Base on Livingston Island in Western Antarctica. The information and communication technologies (ICT) sector generates three per cent of economic output and employs 40,000 to 51,000 software engineers. Bulgaria was known as a "Communist Silicon Valley" during the Soviet era due to its key role in COMECON computing technology production. A concerted effort by the communist government to teach computing and IT skills in schools also indirectly made Bulgaria a major source of computer viruses in the 1980s and 90s. The country is a regional leader in high performance computing: it operates Avitohol, the most powerful supercomputer in Southeast Europe, and will host one of the eight petascale EuroHPC supercomputers.
Bulgaria has made numerous contributions to space exploration. These include two scientific satellites, more than 200 payloads and 300 experiments in Earth orbit, as well as two cosmonauts since 1971. Bulgaria was the first country to grow wheat in space with its Svet greenhouses on the Mir space station. It was involved in the development of the Granat gamma-ray observatory and the Vega programme, particularly in modelling trajectories and guidance algorithms for both Vega probes. Bulgarian instruments have been used in the exploration of Mars, including a spectrometer that took the first high quality spectroscopic images of Martian moon Phobos with the Phobos 2 probe. Cosmic radiation en route to and around the planet has been mapped by Liulin-ML dosimeters on the ExoMars TGO. Variants of these instruments have also been fitted on the International Space Station and the Chandrayaan-1 lunar probe. Another lunar mission, SpaceIL's Beresheet, was also equipped with a Bulgarian-manufactured imaging payload. Bulgaria's first geostationary communications satellite—BulgariaSat-1—was launched by SpaceX in 2017.
=== Infrastructure ===
Telephone services are widely available, and a central digital trunk line connects most regions. Vivacom (BTC) serves more than 90% of fixed lines and is one of the three operators providing mobile services, along with A1 and Yettel. Internet penetration stood at 69.2% of the population aged 16–74 and 78.9% of households in 2020.
Bulgaria's strategic geographic location and well-developed energy sector make it a key European energy centre despite its lack of significant fossil fuel deposits. Thermal power plants generate 48.9% of electricity, followed by nuclear power from the Kozloduy reactors (34.8%) and renewable sources (16.3%). Equipment for a second nuclear power station at Belene has been acquired, but the fate of the project remains uncertain. Installed capacity amounts to 12,668 MW, allowing Bulgaria to exceed domestic demand and export energy.
The national road network has a total length of 19,512 kilometres (12,124 mi), of which 19,235 kilometres (11,952 mi) are paved. Railroads are a major mode of freight transportation, although highways carry a progressively larger share of freight. Bulgaria has 6,238 kilometres (3,876 mi) of railway track, with rail links available to Romania, Turkey, Greece, and Serbia, and express trains serving direct routes to Kyiv, Minsk, Moscow and Saint Petersburg. Sofia is the country's air travel hub, while Varna and Burgas are the principal maritime trade ports.
== Demographics ==
According to the government's official 2022 estimate, the population of Bulgaria consists of 6,447,710 people, down from 6,519,789 according to the last official census in 2021. The majority of the population, 72.5%, reside in urban areas. As of 2019, Sofia is the most populated urban centre with 1,241,675 people, followed by Plovdiv (346,893), Varna (336,505), Burgas (202,434) and Ruse (142,902). Bulgarians are the main ethnic group and constitute 84.6% of the population. Turkish and Roma minorities account for 8.4 and 4.4%, respectively; some 40 smaller minorities account for 1.3%, and 1.3% do not self-identify with an ethnic group. The Roma minority is usually underestimated in census data and may represent up to 11% of the population. Population density is 55–60 per square kilometre (ultimo 2023), almost half the European Union average.
Bulgaria is in a state of demographic crisis. It has had negative population growth since 1989, when the post-Cold War economic collapse caused a long-lasting emigration wave. Some 937,000 to 1,200,000 people—mostly young adults—had left the country by 2005. The majority of children are born to unmarried women. In 2024, the average total fertility rate (TFR) in Bulgaria was 1.59 children per woman, a slight increase from 1.56 in 2018, and well above the all-time low of 1.1 in 1997, but still below the replacement rate of 2.1 and considerably below the historical high of 5.83 children per woman in 1905. Bulgaria thus has one of the oldest populations in the world, with an average age of 43 years. Furthermore, a third of all households consist of only one person and 75.5% of families do not have children under the age of 16. The resulting birth rates are among the lowest in the world while death rates are among the highest.
Bulgaria scores high in gender equality, ranking 18th in the 2018 Global Gender Gap Report. Although women's suffrage was enabled relatively late, in 1937, women today have equal political rights, high workforce participation and legally mandated equal pay. In 2021, market research agency Reboot Online ranked Bulgaria as the best European country for women to work. Bulgaria has the highest ratio of female ICT researchers in the EU, as well as the second-highest ratio of females in the technology sector at 44.6% of the workforce. High levels of female participation are a legacy of the Socialist era.
=== Largest cities ===
=== Health ===
High death rates result from a combination of an ageing population, high numbers of people at risk of poverty, and a weak healthcare system. Over 80% of deaths are due to cancer and cardiovascular conditions; nearly a fifth of those are avoidable. Although healthcare in Bulgaria is nominally universal, out-of-pocket expenses account for nearly half of all healthcare spending, significantly limiting access to medical care. Other problems disrupting care provision are the emigration of doctors due to low wages, understaffed and under-equipped regional hospitals, supply shortages and frequent changes to the basic service package for those insured. The 2018 Bloomberg Health Care Efficiency Index ranked Bulgaria last out of 56 countries. Average life expectancy is 74.8 years, compared with an EU average of 80.99 and a world average of 72.38.
=== Education ===
Public expenditures for education are far below the European Union average as well. Educational standards were once high, but have declined significantly since the early 2000s. Bulgarian students were among the highest-scoring in the world in terms of reading in 2001, performing better than their Canadian and German counterparts; by 2006, scores in reading, math and science had dropped. By 2018, Programme for International Student Assessment studies found 47% of pupils in the 9th grade to be functionally illiterate in reading and natural sciences. Average basic literacy stands high at 98.4% with no significant difference between sexes. The Ministry of Education and Science partially funds public schools, colleges and universities, sets criteria for textbooks and oversees the publishing process. Education in primary and secondary public schools is free and compulsory. The process spans 12 grades, in which grades one through eight are primary and nine through twelve are secondary level. Higher education consists of a 4-year bachelor degree and a 1-year master's degree. Bulgaria's highest-ranked higher education institution is Sofia University.
=== Language ===
Bulgarian is the only language with official status. It belongs to the Slavic group of languages but has a number of grammatical peculiarities that set it apart from other Slavic languages: these include a complex verbal morphology (which also codes for distinctions in evidentiality), the absence of noun cases and infinitives, and the use of a suffixed definite article.
=== Religion ===
Bulgaria is a secular state with guaranteed freedom of religion by constitution, but Eastern Orthodox Christianity is designated as the traditional religion of the country. Approximately two-thirds of Bulgarians identify as Eastern Orthodox Christians. The Bulgarian Orthodox Church was the first church apart from the Four Ancient Patriarchates of the Eastern Orthodox Church—in Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem—and the first national church to gain autocephalous status in 927 AD. The Bulgarian Patriarchate has 12 dioceses and over 2,000 priests.
Muslims are the second-largest religious community and constitute approximately 10% of Bulgaria's population. A 2011 survey of 850 Muslims in Bulgaria found 30% professing to be "deeply religious" and 50% as just "religious". According to the study, some religious teachings, like Islamic funeral, have been traditionally incorporated and are widely practised while other major ones are less observed, such as the Muslim prayer or abstaining from drinking alcohol, eating pork, and cohabitation.
Other important religions include Roman Catholicism and Judaism, whose history in Bulgaria dates back to the early Middle Ages, the Armenian Apostolic Church, as well as various Protestant denominations, all of which stand for around 2% of Bulgaria's population. An ever increasing number of Bulgarians are either irreligious or unaffiliated with any religion, a percentage that has been growing rapidly over the past 20 years, from 3.9% in 2001, through 9.3% in 2011 and all the way to 15.9% in 2021.
According to the most recent census of 2021 the religious denominations of the population are as follows: Christian (71.5%), Muslim (10.8%), other religions (0.1%). A further 12.4% were unaffiliated or did not respond.
== Culture ==
Contemporary Bulgarian culture blends the formal culture that helped forge a national consciousness towards the end of Ottoman rule with millennia-old folk traditions. An essential element of Bulgarian folklore is fire, used to banish evil spirits and illnesses. Many of these are personified as witches, whereas other creatures like zmey and samodiva (veela) are either benevolent guardians or ambivalent tricksters. Some rituals against evil spirits have survived and are still practised, most notably kukeri and survakari. Martenitsa is also widely celebrated. Nestinarstvo, a ritual fire-dance of Thracian origin, is included in the list of UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage. Nine historical and natural objects are UNESCO World Heritage Sites: Pirin National Park, Sreburna Nature Reserve, the Madara Rider, the Thracian tombs in Sveshtari and Kazanlak, the Rila Monastery, the Boyana Church, the Rock-hewn Churches of Ivanovo and the ancient city of Nesebar. The Rila Monastery was established by Saint John of Rila, Bulgaria's patron saint, whose life has been the subject of numerous literary accounts since Medieval times.The establishment of the Preslav and Ohrid literary schools in the 10th century is associated with a golden period in Bulgarian literature during the Middle Ages. The schools' emphasis on Christian scriptures made the Bulgarian Empire a centre of Slavic culture, bringing Slavs under the influence of Christianity and providing them with a written language. Its alphabet, Cyrillic script, was developed by the Preslav Literary School. The Tarnovo Literary School, on the other hand, is associated with a Silver age of literature defined by high-quality manuscripts on historical or mystical themes under the Asen and Shishman dynasties. Many literary and artistic masterpieces were destroyed by the Ottoman conquerors, and artistic activities did not re-emerge until the National Revival in the 19th century. The enormous body of work of Ivan Vazov (1850–1921) covered every genre and touched upon every facet of Bulgarian society, bridging pre-Liberation works with literature of the newly established state. Notable later works are Bay Ganyo by Aleko Konstantinov, the Nietzschean poetry of Pencho Slaveykov, the Symbolist poetry of Peyo Yavorov and Dimcho Debelyanov, the Marxist-inspired works of Geo Milev and Nikola Vaptsarov, and the Socialist realism novels of Dimitar Dimov and Dimitar Talev. Tzvetan Todorov is a notable contemporary author, while Bulgarian-born Elias Canetti was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1981.
А religious visual arts heritage includes frescoes, murals and icons, many produced by the medieval Tarnovo Artistic School. Like literature, it was not until the National Revival when Bulgarian visual arts began to reemerge. Zahari Zograf was a pioneer of the visual arts in the pre-Liberation era. After the Liberation, Ivan Mrkvička, Anton Mitov, Vladimir Dimitrov, Tsanko Lavrenov and Zlatyu Boyadzhiev introduced newer styles and substance, depicting scenery from Bulgarian villages, old towns and historical subjects. Christo is the most famous Bulgarian artist of the 21st century, known for his outdoor installations.
Folk music is by far the most extensive traditional art and has slowly developed throughout the ages as a fusion of Far Eastern, Oriental, medieval Eastern Orthodox and standard Western European tonalities and modes. Bulgarian folk music has a distinctive sound and uses a wide range of traditional instruments, such as gadulka, gaida, kaval and tupan. A distinguishing feature is extended rhythmical time, which has no equivalent in the rest of European music. The State Television Female Vocal Choir won a Grammy Award in 1990 for its performances of Bulgarian folk music. Written musical composition can be traced back to the works of Yoan Kukuzel (c. 1280–1360), but modern classical music began with Emanuil Manolov, who composed the first Bulgarian opera in 1890. Pancho Vladigerov and Petko Staynov further enriched symphony, ballet and opera, which singers Ghena Dimitrova, Boris Christoff, Ljuba Welitsch and Nicolai Ghiaurov elevated to a world-class level. Bulgarian performers have gained acclaim in other genres like electropop (Mira Aroyo), jazz (Milcho Leviev) and blends of jazz and folk (Ivo Papazov).
The Bulgarian National Radio, bTV and daily newspapers Trud, Dnevnik and 24 Chasa are some of the largest national media outlets. Bulgarian media were described as generally unbiased in their reporting in the early 2000s and print media had no legal restrictions. Since then, freedom of the press has deteriorated to the point where Bulgaria scores 111th globally in the World Press Freedom Index, lower than all European Union members and membership candidate states. The government has diverted EU funds to sympathetic media outlets and bribed others to be less critical on problematic topics, while attacks against individual journalists have increased. Collusion between politicians, oligarchs and the media is widespread.
Bulgarian cuisine is similar to that of other Balkan countries and demonstrates strong Turkish and Greek influences. Yogurt, lukanka, banitsa, shopska salad, lyutenitsa and kozunak are among the best-known local foods. Meat consumption is lower than the European average, given a cultural preference for a large variety of salads. Bulgaria was the world's second-largest wine exporter until 1989, but has since lost that position. The 2016 harvest yielded 128 million litres of wine, of which 62 million was exported mainly to Romania, Poland and Russia. Mavrud, Rubin, Shiroka melnishka, Dimiat and Cherven Misket are the typical grapes used in Bulgarian wine. Rakia is a traditional fruit brandy that was consumed in Bulgaria as early as the 14th century.
=== Sports ===
Bulgaria appeared at the first modern Olympic games in 1896, when it was represented by Swiss gymnast Charles Champaud. Since then, Bulgarian athletes have won 55 gold, 90 silver, and 85 bronze medals, ranking 25th in the all-time medal table. Weightlifting and wrestling are signature sports of Bulgaria. As of 2025, Bulgaria ranks 2nd in the all-time medal table of the European Weightlifting Championships, 3rd in the all-time medal table of the World Weightlifting Championships, 4th in the all-time medal table for Weightlifting at the Summer Olympics, 3rd in the all-time medal table of the European Wrestling Championships, 6th in the all-time medal table of the World Wrestling Championships and 9th in the all-time medal table for wrestling at the Summer Olympics. Coach Ivan Abadzhiev developed innovative training practices that allowed Bulgaria to dominate weightlifting in the 1980s. Bulgarian athletes have also excelled in boxing, gymnastics, volleyball and tennis. Stefka Kostadinova's world record in women's high jump, achieved at the 1987 World Championships, remained unbroken until 2024, making it one of the longest-standing world records in history. Grigor Dimitrov was the first Bulgarian tennis player in the Top 3 ATP rankings.
Football is the most popular sport in the country. The Bulgarian national football team's best performance was a 4th-place finish at the 1994 FIFA World Cup, when the squad was spearheaded by the top goalscorer for the tournament- Hristo Stoichkov. Stoichkov is the most successful Bulgarian player of all time; he was awarded the Golden Boot and the Ballon d'Or and was considered one of the best players in the world while playing for FC Barcelona in the 1990s. CSKA Sofia and Levski Sofia are the most successful clubs domestically and long-standing rivals. Ludogorets is remarkable for having advanced from the local fourth division to the 2014–15 UEFA Champions League group stage in a mere nine years. Placed 39th in 2018, it is Bulgaria's highest-ranked club in UEFA. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Howell_(entrepreneur)#The_Coffee_Connection | George Howell (entrepreneur)#The Coffee Connection | George Howell (born 1945) is an American entrepreneur and one of the pioneers of the specialty-coffee movement in the early 1970s.
== Early life ==
Born and raised in New Jersey, Howell's family moved to Mexico City when he was 13. He studied art history, French, and Spanish literature at Yale University from 1964 to 1967, when he dropped out.
== Career ==
In 1974, Howell and his wife Laurie moved to Boston. After having lived in Berkeley, California, for a time, Howell said, "In 1974 we [decided] to leave the West Coast, I already had two kids with another on the way. We decided to move east to Boston. We drove cross-country. I took with me some whole bean coffee and a grinder. We stopped at the various Howard Johnson’s that were on the interstates on our way and I would go into men’s room, grind the coffee there, leaving it smelling a whole lot better than when I walked in, and then I would take out my French press on the counter, ask for hot water for 35 cents and make my French press at the Howard Johnson’s counter. And within minutes I would always have several people around me wondering what that was, and this is before I even had any clue that I would get into a coffee business."
=== Coffee Connection ===
In 1975, Howell founded Coffee Connection, a coffee shop and retailer in Cambridge, Massachusetts which was a pioneer in third wave coffee. It expanded to 23 locations in the Northeast. It was acquired by Starbucks Corporation for $23 million in 1994 (equivalent to $50 million in 2025), and formed the nexus of their expansion into the Boston area. With the acquisition, Starbucks acquired the rights to use the name Frappuccino for a popular blended iced coffee drink, which Starbucks reformulated.
In 2012, Howell founded George Howell Coffee. Its first location was in Newtonville, Massachusetts, and as of 2026 it is a mini-chain with five locations in the Boston area.
=== Professional activities ===
In 1997, Howell was invited to become a quality consultant to Brazil as part of the Gourmet Project, a 2-year initiative set up by the United Nations’ International Trade Council (ITC) and the International Coffee Organization (ICO), which influenced the creation of the Cup of Excellence competition.
In 1996, Howell received the Specialty Coffee Association of America's Lifetime Achievement Award. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi_Ferraris_(footballer) | Luigi Ferraris (footballer) | Luigi Ferraris (18 November 1887 – 23 August 1915) was an Italian footballer, engineer and soldier who died during World War I.
== Biography ==
Ferraris was born Florence, while his family hailed from Saluzzo, Piedmont. He joined Genoa in 1902, and played there his entire career, where he won the reserve championship (it) 4–0 against Juventus in 1904.
He studied engineering at the Polytechnic University of Milan from 1906 to 1911. Afterwards, he worked at the Officine Elettriche Genovesi (OEG) in San Fruttuoso, then at Pirelli in Milan.
During the World War I, Ferraris served as a volunteer then reached the rank of lieutenant. On 23 August 1915, he died due to a 152mm shrapnel artillery shell which killed him instantly, during a mission in Val Posina, a minor valley of the Val d'Astico at the municipality of Posina, and was buried by his comrades in arms at Monte Maggio.
In 1933, the stadium, Stadio Luigi Ferraris, was named after him. His Silver Medal of Military Valor was then buried under the "Gradinata Nord" of the stadium, home of the Genoa ultras. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Lou_Retton | Mary Lou Retton | Mary Lou Retton (born January 24, 1968) is an American retired gymnast. At the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, she won a gold medal in the individual all-around competition, as well as two silver medals and two bronze medals, which earned her the Sports Illustrated Sportswoman of the Year award.
Retton's performance made her one of the most popular athletes in the United States. Her gold medal win was historic as Retton was the first American woman to win the all-around gold medal in Olympic gymnastics.
== Early life ==
Mary Lou Retton was born on January 24, 1968, in Fairmont, West Virginia. Her father, Ronnie, operated a coal-industry transportation equipment business. She attended Fairmont Senior High School, but did not graduate. She competed in the 1984 Olympic Games in Los Angeles, California, during her sophomore year of high school.
== Gymnastics career ==
When Retton was eight years old she was inspired by watching Nadia Comăneci outshine defending Olympic two-event winner Olga Korbut on television at the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, and she took up gymnastics in her hometown of Fairmont, West Virginia. She was coached by Gary Rafaloski. Her parents then decided to move the family to Houston, Texas, so that she could train under Romanians Béla and Márta Károlyi, who had coached Nadia Comăneci before their defection to the United States. Under the Károlyis, Retton soon began to make a name for herself in the U.S., winning the American Cup in 1983 and placing second to Dianne Durham (another Károlyi student) at the US Nationals that same year. Though Retton missed the World Gymnastics Championships in 1983 due to a wrist injury, she won the American Classic in 1983 and 1984, as well as Japan's Chunichi Cup in 1983.
After winning her second American Cup, the U.S. Nationals, and the U.S. Olympic Trials in 1984, Retton suffered a knee injury when she was performing a floor routine at a local gymnastics center at this time. She had sat down to sign autographs when she felt her knee lock, forcing her to undergo an operation five weeks prior to the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. This was the first time the Summer Olympics had been held in the United States in 52 years.
Retton recovered just in time for this most prestigious of tournaments, and in the competition, which was boycotted by the Soviet bloc nations except for Romania, Retton was engaged in a close battle with Ecaterina Szabo of Romania for the all-around gold medal. Trailing Szabo (after uneven bars and balance beam) by 0.15 with two events to go, Retton scored perfect 10s on floor exercise and vault—the last event in an especially dramatic fashion, as there had been fears that her knee injury and the subsequent surgery might impair her performance. Retton won the all-around gold medal by 0.05 points, beating Szabo to become the first female gymnast from outside Eastern Europe to win the individual all-around gold. She also became the first American woman to be an Olympic all-around champion, which was an honor she held alone until the ongoing six-peat of American all-around champions — Carly Patterson in Athens 2004, Nastia Liukin in Beijing 2008, Gabby Douglas in London 2012, Simone Biles in Rio de Janeiro 2016 and Paris 2024, and Sunisa Lee in Tokyo 2021.
At the same Olympics, Retton won four additional medals: silver in the team competition and the horse vault, and bronze in the floor exercise and uneven bars. For her performance, she was named Sports Illustrated Magazine's "Sportswoman of the Year." She appeared on a Wheaties box, and became the cereal's first official spokeswoman.
In 1985, Retton won the American Cup all-around competition for the third and final time. She retired in 1986.
== Post-gymnastics career ==
=== Political views ===
Retton was an outspoken supporter of the Reagan administration and appeared in a variety of television ads supporting Ronald Reagan as well as appearing at a rally for his reelection campaign just a month after the Olympics in her home state of West Virginia. Retton delivered the Pledge of Allegiance with fellow former gymnast and 1996 Olympic gold medalist Kerri Strug on the second night of the 2004 Republican National Convention.
=== Honors ===
Retton's hometown, Fairmont, West Virginia, named a road and a park in the town after her. In 1985, she received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement presented by Awards Council member General Chuck Yeager.
Retton was elected to the National Italian American Sports Hall of Fame in 1992. In 1993, the Associated Press released results of a sports study in which Retton was statistically tied for first place with fellow Olympian Dorothy Hamill as the most popular athlete in America. In 1997, Retton was inducted into the International Gymnastics Hall of Fame. In January 2020, Retton was the first woman inducted into the Houston Sports Hall of Fame.
=== Compensated endorsements ===
During the 1990s, Retton worked as a spokeswoman, appearing in advertisements for the U.S. drugstore chain Revco.
Retton has had many commercial endorsements, including bowling and shampoo. She was the first female athlete to be pictured on the front of a Wheaties box, and General Mills stated that Wheaties sales improved after her appearance. In 2019, Retton became a spokesperson for Australian Dream, a pain relief cream; and briefly, in 2023 as a spokesperson for Colonial Penn Life Insurance.
== Lobbying against Safe Sport Authorization Act of 2017 ==
After the USA Gymnastics sex abuse scandal hit the news in 2016, the Protecting Young Victims from Sexual Abuse and Safe Sport Authorization Act of 2017 was introduced to the 115th Congress. Retton and other members of USA Gymnastics met with the bill sponsor, Senator Dianne Feinstein, with the aim of convincing her to drop the bill. Despite these efforts, on February 14, 2018, the act was signed into law and became effective immediately.
== Film and TV appearances ==
1985: ABC Funfit; hosted a series of five-minute segments on physical fitness which were broadcast between Saturday morning cartoons
1988: Scrooged (comedy feature film); as herself
1992: Knots Landing (TV drama series); as herself in the episode "Letting Go"
1993: Baywatch (TV series); episode "The Child Inside"
1994: An Evening at the Improv (improv comedy TV series); as herself
1994: Naked Gun 33 1/3: The Final Insult (comedy feature film); as herself
2002: Mary Lou's Flip Flop Shop (PBS TV series)
2014: RadioShack Super Bowl XLVIII commercial "The '80s Called"; cameo appearance
2018: 27th season of Dancing with the Stars (competition TV series), partnered with Sasha Farber; eliminated Week 6, 9th place
== Personal life ==
Retton was born with hip dysplasia, a condition that her years as a competitive gymnast aggravated. After experiencing increased pain from the condition, she underwent multiple hip replacement surgeries.
In 1990, she married Shannon Kelley, a former University of Texas quarterback and Houston real estate developer who worked for the Houston Baptist University athletic department as of 2012. Together they have four daughters: Shayla (born 1995), McKenna (born 1997), Skyla (born 2000), and Emma (born 2002). McKenna was an NCAA gymnast at Louisiana State University, and Emma was an NCAA gymnast at the University of Arkansas. Retton lived in Houston, Texas until 2009, when her family moved to her native West Virginia. They lived there for two years while her husband was a football coach at Fairmont State University. She moved back to Houston in 2012. Retton and Kelley were divorced in February 2018.
On October 10, 2023, Retton's daughter McKenna announced that her mother was critically ill with pneumonia. Retton reportedly did not have health insurance and turned to crowdfunding to raise money for medical expenses. Retton returned home to recover later that month and issued a statement on October 30, 2023, saying "I'm with family continuing to slowly recover and staying very positive as I know this recovery is a long and slow process. When the time is right, I will be sharing more information about my health issues." The total sum collected as of January 22, 2024, was $459,234. Upon inquiry from USA Today, Retton would not comment on any details surrounding her medical issue nor how much of the donations were allocated toward her healthcare. Her daughter said any "remaining funds" would go towards a charity, but failed to provide any details or timeline.
On May 17, 2025, she was arrested in Marion County, West Virginia for DUI. In July 2025 she pleaded no contest to a non-aggravated DUI charge. She was fined $100. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sébastien_Haller | Sébastien Haller | Sébastien Romain Teddy Haller (French pronunciation: [sebastjɛ̃ alɛʁ]; born 22 June 1994) is a professional footballer who plays as a striker for Eredivisie club Utrecht. Born in France, he plays for the Ivory Coast national team.
Haller began his career in France with Auxerre, and moved on loan to Eredivisie side Utrecht in 2015, before signing on a permanent basis. Two years later, he moved to the German club Eintracht Frankfurt, winning the DFB-Pokal in 2018. Premier League side West Ham United signed him a year later for a club-record transfer worth €49.8 million (£45 million). Haller returned to the Netherlands in 2021, signing with Ajax, for a club record fee of €22.5 million (£18.8 million). In his first six months, he won the Eredivisie and the KNVB Cup. He became the first player to score across seven consecutive UEFA Champions League matches during the 2021–22 season, and then transferred to Borussia Dortmund for an initial €31 million.
Haller represented France at youth level, before switching his allegiance in 2020 to the Ivory Coast. He scored on his international debut against Madagascar, and represented the national team at the Africa Cup of Nations in 2021 and 2023, scoring the winning goal in the final of the latter tournament.
== Early life ==
Haller was born in Ris-Orangis, Essonne to a French father and an Ivorian mother.
== Club career ==
=== Auxerre ===
During the 2011 FIFA U-17 World Cup, on 26 June 2011, Haller signed his first professional contract with Auxerre, agreeing to a three-year deal.
Ahead of the 2012–13 season, Haller was promoted to the senior team by manager Jean-Guy Wallemme. His professional debut came on 27 July 2012, in the team's opening league match of the 2012–13 campaign against Nîmes.
=== Utrecht ===
On 24 December 2014, it was announced that Haller was sent on loan to Eredivisie club Utrecht until the end of the season. At the end of the season, it was announced that FC Utrecht had signed Haller. The supporters voted for Haller as the winner of the Di Tommaso Trophy 2015, Utrecht's player of the year award.
=== Eintracht Frankfurt ===
On 15 May 2017, Haller signed with Eintracht Frankfurt on a four-year deal for a reported fee of €7 million. In the 2017–18 DFB-Pokal, he scored four goals for Frankfurt, as the club won the final, marking the first trophy of Haller's career. In the 2018–19 Bundesliga season, he scored 15 league goals in 29 appearances as the club finished seventh.
In addition to his goals scored, he also made nine assists, meaning he was involved in 24 goals, a figure only beaten in the 2018–19 season by Robert Lewandowski with 29.
=== West Ham United ===
On 17 July 2019, Haller signed with West Ham United on a five-year deal for a club record fee, that could rise to £45 million. He made his debut on 10 August, playing the full 90 minutes of a 5–0 Premier League loss against reigning champions Manchester City. Two weeks later, he scored his first goals in a 3–1 away win against Watford in which the latter was an acrobatic bicycle kick. Haller struggled at West Ham, attributing it to David Moyes replacing Manuel Pellegrini as manager and then preferring Michail Antonio up front, as well as the ill health of his wife and newborn son.
In July 2020, Frankfurt reported West Ham to FIFA after they had failed to pay an instalment in May 2020 of £5.4 million as part of the £45 million transfer. West Ham claimed that they had withheld the payment, following a contractual dispute between the two clubs. On 16 December, Haller scored an overhead kick in a 1–1 draw against Crystal Palace that was voted as the Premier League Goal of the Month.
=== Ajax ===
On 8 January 2021, Haller signed a four-and-a-half-year contract with Dutch club Ajax for a club record fee of €22.5 million (£18.8 million), reuniting with his former Utrecht manager Erik ten Hag. He made his debut two days later as a second-half substitute against De Topper rivals PSV, assisting Antony for the equaliser in a 2–2 draw. On 14 January, he scored his first goal, and provided an assist, in a 3–1 away win over Twente. On 3 February, Haller was mistakenly omitted from the club's list for the knockout stages of the UEFA Europa League and therefore would be unable to play for the club in the competition.
In a 5–1 away victory over Sporting CP in the UEFA Champions League on 15 September 2021, Haller scored twice in each half to become the first player to score four on his Champions League debut since Marco van Basten for A.C. Milan in 1992; the Dutchman had however already played in the competition under its former name of the European Cup. In the following fixture 13 days later, he recorded a goal against Beşiktaş, becoming the first player in the history of the competition to score five goals in his first two match appearances; against the same team on 24 November, Haller scored twice in a 2–1 win to become the first player to score nine goals in five consecutive matches of the competition. On 7 December, Haller scored in his team's Champions League group stage match, becoming only the second player to register in all six group games after Cristiano Ronaldo in 2017–18 and became the fastest player to 10 goals in competition history. He also joined Ronaldo, Lionel Messi and Robert Lewandowski as the only players to score in the double-digits for goals in the group stage. On 23 February 2022, he made amends for an earlier own goal, and helped Ajax to a 2–2 away draw against Benfica in the last, becoming the first player to score in seven consecutive matches in the competition; his side lost 3–2 aggregate. With 21 league goals in 31 games, he finished the season as Eredivisie top scorer.
=== Borussia Dortmund ===
On 6 July 2022, Haller signed a contract with Borussia Dortmund until 30 June 2026. The transfer fee paid was €31 million, which could be increased to as much as €34.5 million after undisclosed bonuses. However, on 18 July, the forward withdrew from the club's pre-season training camp in Switzerland, after he was diagnosed with a malignant testicular tumour. He then underwent two surgeries and four cycles of chemotherapy in order to control the spread of the disease.
After successfully completing his treatments, in January 2023 Haller was officially allowed to return to full-time training, as he joined the rest of Dortmund's team at their winter camp in Marbella. On 10 January, he played his first match in almost eight months, featuring in the final minutes of a friendly against Fortuna Düsseldorf. Three days later, he scored a hat-trick within eight minutes in a 6–0 victory in another friendly against Basel. On 22 January, Haller came on as a second-half substitute in a 4–3 home win against Augsburg, finally making his competitive debut for Dortmund after a 6-month battle with cancer. On 4 February, he scored his first professional goal for the club in a 5–1 win against Freiburg. Haller missed a crucial penalty, when his team was trailing 1–0, during the final game of the 2022–23 Bundesliga season which ended in a 2–2 draw with Mainz. Borussia Dortmund subsequently suffered final-day heartbreak as they missed out on a first Bundesliga title for 11 years on goal difference. In 2023–24, he sustained an ankle injury which sidelined him for most of the season, in which he only scored three goals including two against TSV Schott Mainz in the DFB-Pokal and one against Atlético Madrid in the Champions League quarter-final.
==== Loan to Leganés ====
On 30 August 2024, just before the transfer window closed, Haller joined La Liga club Leganés on loan for the 2024–25 season. However, the loan move ended early during the winter transfer window.
=== Return to Utrecht ===
On 9 January 2025, Haller rejoined his former club Utrecht on loan until the end of the season. On 18 August 2025, he returned to Utrecht on a permanent basis with a one-season contract.
== International career ==
=== Youth ===
Haller was a France youth international, having represented his country of birth at every youth level and totalling 51 caps and 27 goals. He played with the under-17 team at the 2011 FIFA U-17 World Cup in Mexico, scoring in a 3–0 win over Argentina in the opening group game.
On 14 November 2013, Haller made his under-21 debut, coming on for Anthony Martial in the 57th minute against Armenia in a European qualifier in Toulouse and scoring to conclude a 6–0 win. He scored a hat-trick on 25 March 2015 in a friendly win of the same score against Estonia, and he did the same on 10 November 2016 in a 5–1 win over the Ivory Coast at the Stade Pierre Brisson.
=== Senior ===
In November 2020, Haller was called up to the Ivory Coast national team. He debuted in a 2–1 2021 Africa Cup of Nations qualification win over Madagascar on 12 November, scoring his side's game-winning goal in the 55th minute. He was called up for the finals in Cameroon, where he scored in a 2–2 group stage draw with Sierra Leone; in the last 16 against Egypt, he was substituted at half time in extra time for Maxwel Cornet as the side lost on penalties.
In December 2023, he was named in the Ivorian squad for the 2023 Africa Cup of Nations hosted in his home nation. In the semi-final match against DR Congo, he scored the only goal in a 1–0 victory, which qualified his country to the final. He later scored the winning goal in the final match against Nigeria which ended in a 2–1 victory. However, ahead of the 2025 Africa Cup of Nations in Morocco, Haller was ruled out of the tournament due to a hamstring injury sustained on 14 December 2025 while playing for his club, and was subsequently withdrawn from the Ivory Coast squad and replaced by Evann Guessand.
== Personal life ==
In 2022 Haller was diagnosed with testicular cancer, which he overcame, returning to professional football in January 2023.
== Career statistics ==
=== Club ===
As of match played 22 February 2026
=== International ===
As of match played 14 November 2025
As of match played 24 March 2025.
Ivory Coast score listed first, score column indicates score after each Haller goal.
== Honours ==
Eintracht Frankfurt
DFB-Pokal: 2017–18
Ajax
Eredivisie: 2020–21, 2021–22
KNVB Cup: 2020–21
Ivory Coast
Africa Cup of Nations: 2023
Individual
David Di Tommaso Trophy: 2015
Bundesliga Rookie of the Month: October 2017
Premier League Goal of the Month: December 2020
Eredivisie Top Scorer: 2021–22
Eredivisie Team of the Month: April 2025 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_aces_from_the_United_States | List of World War II aces from the United States | This is a list of fighter aces in World War II from United States. For other countries see List of World War II flying aces by country
== Aces == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyson_Fury_vs_Oleksandr_Usyk | Tyson Fury vs Oleksandr Usyk | |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seti_I | Seti I | Menmaatre Seti I (or Sethos I in Greek) was the second pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt during the New Kingdom period, ruling c. 1294 or 1290 BC to 1279 BC. He was the son of Ramesses I and Sitre, and the father of Ramesses II (commonly known as Ramesses the Great).
The name Seti means "of Set", which indicates that he was consecrated to the god Set (also termed "Seth" or "Sutekh"). As a result, other Egyptian transliterations of Seti's name can include Sethi or Sutekhi. As with most pharaohs, Seti had several names. Upon his ascension, he took the prenomen "mn-m3't-r' ", usually vocalized in Egyptian as Menmaatre (Established is the Justice of Re). His better known nomen, or birth name, is transliterated as "sty mry-n-ptḥ" or Sety Merenptah, meaning "Man of Set, beloved of Ptah". Manetho incorrectly considered him to be the founder of the 19th Dynasty, and gave him a reign length of 55 years, though no evidence has ever been found for so long a reign.
== Reign ==
=== Background ===
After the enormous social upheavals generated by Akhenaten's religious reform, Horemheb, Ramesses I and Seti I's main priority was to re-establish order in the kingdom and to reaffirm Egypt's sovereignty over Canaan and Syria, which had been compromised by the increasing external pressures from the Hittite state. During the reign of his father Ramesses I, Seti was made both heir apparent and vizier.
Seti, with energy and determination, confronted the Hittites several times in battle. Without succeeding in destroying the Hittites as a potential danger to Egypt, he reconquered most of the disputed territories for Egypt and generally concluded his military campaigns with victories. The memory of Seti I's military successes was recorded in some large scenes placed on the front of the temple of Amun, situated in Karnak. A funerary temple for Seti was constructed in what is now known as Qurna (Mortuary Temple of Seti I), on the west bank of the Nile at Thebes while a magnificent temple made of white limestone at Abydos featuring exquisite relief scenes was started by Seti, and later completed by his son. His capital was at Memphis. He was considered a great king by his peers, but his fame has been overshadowed since ancient times by that of his son, Ramesses II.
=== Reign Length ===
Seti I's accession date is known to be III Shemu day 24.
Seti I's reign length was either 9 or 11 rather than 15 full years. Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen has estimated that it was 15 years, but there are no dates recorded for Seti I after his Year 11 Gebel Barkal stela. As this king is otherwise quite well documented in historical records, other scholars suggest that a continuous break in the record for his last four years is unlikely, although it is technically possible simply that no records have yet been discovered.
Peter J. Brand noted that the king personally opened new rock quarries at Aswan to build obelisks and colossal statues in his Year 9. This event is commemorated on two rock stelas in Aswan. However, most of Seti's obelisks and statues such as the Flaminian and Luxor obelisks were only partly finished or decorated by the time of his death, since they were completed early under his son's reign based on epigraphic evidence (they bore the early form of Ramesses II's royal prenomen "Usermaatre"). Ramesses II used the prenomen Usermaatre to refer to himself in his first year and did not adopt the final form of his royal title "Usermaatre Setepenre" until late into his second year.
Brand aptly notes that this evidence calls into question the idea of a 15 Year reign for Seti I and suggests that "Seti died after a ten to eleven year reign" because only two years would have passed between the opening of the Rock Quarries and the partial completion and decoration of these monuments. This explanation conforms better with the evidence of the unfinished state of Seti I's monuments and the fact that Ramesses II had to complete the decorations on "many of his father's unfinished monuments, including the southern half of the Great Hypostyle Hall at Karnak and portions of his father's temples at Gurnah and Abydos" during the very first Year of his own reign. Critically, Brand notes that the larger of the two Aswan rock stelas states that Seti I "has ordered the commissioning of multitudinous works for the making of very great obelisks and great and wondrous statues (i.e. colossi) in the name of His Majesty, L.P.H. He made great barges for transporting them, and ships crews to match them for ferrying them from the quarry." (KRI 74:12-14) However, despite this promise, Brand stresses that
There are few obelisks and apparently no colossi inscribed for Seti. Ramesses II, however, was able to complete the two obelisks and four seated colossi from Luxor within the first years of his reign, the two obelisks in particular being partly inscribed before he adopted the final form of his prenomen sometime in [his] year two. This state of affairs strongly implies that Seti died after ten to eleven years. Had he [Seti I] ruled on until his fourteenth or fifteenth year, then surely more of the obelisks and colossi he commissioned in [his] year nine would have been completed, in particular those from Luxor. If he in fact died after little more than a decade on the throne, however, then at most two years would have elapsed since the Aswan quarries were opened in year nine, and only a fraction of the great monoliths would have been complete and inscribed at his death, with others just emerging from the quarries so that Ramesses would be able to decorate them shortly after his accession. ... It now seems clear that a long, fourteen-to fifteen-year reign for Seti I can be rejected for lack of evidence. Rather, a tenure of ten or more likely probably eleven, years appears the most likely scenario.
The German Egyptologist Jürgen von Beckerath also accepts that Seti I's reign lasted only 11 Years in a 1997 book. Seti's highest known date is Year 11, IV Shemu day 12 or 13 on a sandstone stela from Gebel Barkal but he would have briefly survived for 2 to 3 days into his Year 12 before dying based on the date of Ramesses II's rise to power. Seti I's accession date has been determined by Wolfgang Helck to be III Shemu day 24, which is very close to Ramesses II's known accession date of III Shemu day 27.
More recently, in 2011, the Dutch Egyptologist Jacobus Van Dijk questioned the "Year 11" date stated in the great temple of Amun on the Gebel Barkal stela—Seti I's previously known highest attested date. This monument is quite badly preserved but still depicts Seti I in erect posture, which is the only case occurring since his Year 4 when he started to be depicted in a stooping posture on his stelae. Furthermore, the glyphs "I ∩" representing the 11 are damaged in the upper part and may just as well be "I I I" instead. Subsequently, Van Dijk proposed that the Gebel Barkal stela should be dated to Year 3 of Seti I, and that Seti's highest date more likely is Year 9 as suggested by the wine jars found in his tomb. In a 2012 paper, David Aston analyzed the wine jars and came to the same conclusion since no wine labels higher than Seti I's 8th regnal year were found in his KV17 tomb.
=== Military campaigns ===
Seti I fought a series of wars in western Asia, Libya and Nubia in the first decade of his reign. The main source for Seti's military activities are his battle scenes on the north exterior wall of the Karnak Hypostyle Hall, along with several royal stelas with inscriptions mentioning battles in Canaan and Nubia.
In his first regnal year, he led his armies along the "Horus Military road", the coastal road that led from the Egyptian city of Tjaru (Zarw/Sile) in the northeast corner of the Egyptian Nile Delta along the northern coast of the Sinai peninsula ending in the town of "Canaan" in the modern Gaza strip. The Ways of Horus consisted of a series of military forts, each with a well, that are depicted in detail in the king's war scenes on the north wall of the Karnak Hypostyle Hall. While crossing the Sinai, the king's army fought local Bedouins called the Shasu. In Canaan, he received the tribute of some of the city states he visited. Others, including Beth-Shan and Yenoam, had to be captured but were easily defeated. A stele in Beth-Shan testifies to that reconquest; according to Grdsseloff, Rowe, Albrecht et Albright, Seti defeated Asian nomads in war against the Apirus (Hebrews). Dussaud commented Albright's article: "The interest of Professor Albright's note is mainly due to the fact that he no longer objects to the identification of "Apiru" with "Ibri" (i.e. the Hebrews) provided that we grant him that the vocal change has been driven by a popular etymology that brought the term "eber" (formerly 'ibr), that is to say the man from beyond the river." It seems that Egypt extends beyond the river. The attack on Yenoam is illustrated in his war scenes, while other battles, such as the defeat of Beth-Shan, were not shown because the king himself did not participate, sending a division of his army instead. The year one campaign continued into Lebanon where the king received the submission of its chiefs who were compelled to cut down valuable cedar wood themselves as tribute.
At some unknown point in his reign, Seti I defeated Libyan tribesmen who had invaded Egypt's western border. Although defeated, the Libyans would pose an ever-increasing threat to Egypt during the reigns of Merenptah and Ramesses III. The Egyptian army also put down a minor "rebellion" in Nubia in the 8th year of Seti I. Seti himself did not participate in it although his crown prince, the future Ramesses II, may have.
=== Capture of Kadesh ===
The greatest achievement of Seti I's foreign policy was the capture of the Syrian town of Kadesh and neighboring territory of Amurru from the Hittite Empire. Egypt had not held Kadesh since the time of Akhenaten. Seti I was successful in defeating a Hittite army that tried to defend the town. He entered the city in triumph together with his son Ramesses II and erected a victory stela at the site which has been found by archaeologists. Kadesh, however, soon reverted to Hittite control because the Egyptians did not or could not maintain a permanent military occupation of Kadesh and Amurru so close to the Hittite homelands. It is unlikely that Seti I made a peace treaty with the Hittites or voluntarily returned Kadesh and Amurru, but he may have reached an informal understanding with the Hittite king Muwatalli on the precise boundaries of their empires. Five years after Seti I's death, however, his son Ramesses II resumed hostilities and made a failed attempt to recapture Kadesh. Kadesh was henceforth effectively held by the Hittites even though Ramesses temporarily occupied the city in his 8th year.
The traditional view of Seti I's wars was that he restored the Egyptian empire after it had been lost in the time of Akhenaten. This was based on the chaotic picture of Egyptian-controlled Syria and Canaan seen in the Amarna letters, a cache of diplomatic correspondence from the time of Akhenaten found at Akhenaten's capital at el-Amarna in Middle Egypt. Recent scholarship, however, indicates that the empire was not lost at this time, except for its northern border provinces of Kadesh and Amurru in Syria and Lebanon. While evidence for the military activities of Akhenaten, Tutankhamun and Horemheb is fragmentary or ambiguous, Seti I left a war monument that glorifies his achievements, along with a number of texts, all of which tend to magnify his prowess on the battlefield.
== Burial ==
=== Mummy ===
From an examination of Seti's extremely well-preserved mummy, Seti I appears to have been less than forty years old when he died unexpectedly. This is in stark contrast to the situation with Horemheb, Ramesses I and Ramesses II who all lived to an advanced age. The reasons for his relatively early death are uncertain, but there is no evidence of violence on his mummy. His mummy was found decapitated, but this was likely caused by tomb robbers after his death. The Amun priest carefully reattached his head to his body with the use of linen cloths. It has been suggested that he died from a disease which had affected him for years, possibly related to his heart. The latter was found placed in the right part of the body, while the usual practice of the day was to place it in the left part during the mummification process. Opinions vary whether this was a mistake or an attempt to have Seti's heart work better in his afterlife. Seti I's mummy is about 1.7 metres (5 feet 7 inches) tall.
In April 2021, his mummy was moved from the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities to the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization along with those of 17 other kings and 4 queens in an event termed the Pharaohs' Golden Parade.
=== Tomb ===
Seti's well-preserved tomb (KV17) was found in 1817 by Giovanni Belzoni, in the Valley of the Kings; it proved to be the longest at 446 feet (136 meters) and deepest of all the New Kingdom royal tombs. It was also the first tomb to feature decorations (including the Book of the Heavenly Cow) on every passageway and chamber with highly refined bas-reliefs and colorful paintings – fragments of which, including a large column depicting Seti I with the goddess Hathor, can be seen in the National Archaeological Museum, Florence. This decorative style set a precedent which was followed in full or in part in the tombs of later New Kingdom kings. Seti's mummy itself was discovered by Émile Brugsch on June 6, 1881, in the Royal Cache (tomb DB320) at Deir el-Bahari and has since been kept at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.
His huge sarcophagus, carved in one piece and intricately decorated on every surface (including the goddess Nut on the interior base), is in Sir John Soane's Museum. Soane bought it for exhibition in his open collection in 1824, when the British Museum refused to pay the £2,000 demanded. On its arrival at the museum, the alabaster was pure white and inlaid with blue copper sulphate. Years of the London climate and pollution have darkened the alabaster to a buff colour and absorbed moisture has caused the hygroscopic inlay material to fall out and disappear completely. A small watercolour nearby records the appearance, as it was.
The tomb also had an entrance to a secret tunnel hidden behind the sarcophagus, which Belzoni's team estimated to be 100 meters (330 feet) long. However, the tunnel was not truly excavated until 1961, when a team led by Sheikh Ali Abdel-Rasoul began digging in hopes of discovering a secret burial chamber containing hidden treasures. The team failed to follow the original passage in their excavations, and had to call a halt due to instabilities in the tunnel; further issues with permits and finances eventually ended Sheikh Ali's dreams of treasure, though they were at least able to establish that the passage was over 30 meters (98 feet) longer than the original estimate. In June 2010, a team from Egypt's Ministry of Antiquities led by Dr. Zahi Hawass completed excavation of the tunnel, which had begun again after the discovery in 2007 of a downward-sloping passage beginning approximately 136 meters (446 feet) into the previously excavated tunnel. After uncovering two separate staircases, they found that the tunnel ran for 174 meters (571 feet) in total; unfortunately, the last step seemed to have been abandoned prior to completion and no secret burial chamber was found.
== Alleged co-regency with Ramesses II ==
Around Year 9 of his reign, Seti appointed his son Ramesses II as the crown prince and his chosen successor, but the evidence for a coregency between the two kings is likely illusory. Peter J. Brand stresses in his thesis that relief decorations at various temple sites at Karnak, Qurna and Abydos, which associate Ramesses II with Seti I, were actually carved after Seti's death by Ramesses II himself and, hence, cannot be used as source material to support a co-regency between the two monarchs. In addition, the late William Murnane, who first endorsed the theory of a co-regency between Seti I and Ramesses II, later revised his view of the proposed co-regency and rejected the idea that Ramesses II had begun to count his own regnal years while Seti I was still alive. Finally, Kenneth Kitchen rejects the term co-regency to describe the relationship between Seti I and Ramesses II; he describes the earliest phase of Ramesses II's career as a "prince regency" where the young Ramesses enjoyed all the trappings of royalty including the use of a royal titulary and harem but did not count his regnal years until after his father's death. This is due to the fact that the evidence for a co-regency between the two kings is vague and highly ambiguous. Two important inscriptions from the first decade of Ramesses' reign, namely the Abydos Dedicatory Inscription and the Kuban Stela of Ramesses II, consistently give the latter titles associated with those of a crown prince only, namely the "king's eldest son and hereditary prince" or "child-heir" to the throne "along with some military titles."
Hence, no clear evidence supports the hypothesis that Ramesses II was a co-regent under his father. Brand stresses that:
Ramesses' claim that he was crowned king by Seti, even as a child in his arms [in the Dedicatory Inscription], is highly self-serving and open to question although his description of his role as crown prince is more accurate...The most reliable and concrete portion of this statement is the enumeration of Ramesses' titles as eldest king's son and heir apparent, well attested in sources contemporary with Seti's reign. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superman_%26_Bugs_Bunny | Superman & Bugs Bunny | Superman & Bugs Bunny is a four-issue comics miniseries released in 2000 by DC Comics. It is the first official DC crossover between the DC Universe and the Looney Tunes characters.
== Plot ==
=== The DC Superheroes Meet the Looney Tunes! ===
In Metropolis, Clark Kent and Lois Lane are investigating reports of a mysterious giant plane (the work of the villainous Toyman) when they encounter Mr. Mxyzptlk. He causes a 'Czarbucks' coffee shop to grow out of the ground like a plant and begins to "seed" the whole city with similar pointless businesses. Clark switches to Superman to pursue him, but ultimately uses his civilian identity to trick Mxyzptlk into saying his name backwards (by getting him to read a list to which Clark has added "Kltpzyxm").
Meanwhile, "in a forest on the edge of some other city in some other universe", Elmer Fudd corners Bugs Bunny. When he tries to shoot Bugs, though, his bullets turn into flowers. This is the work of Yoyo the Dodo, who has left Wackyland via a dimensional transporter in search of people to annoy, but is feeling inadequate due to the fact everyone in the Looney Tunes' world is already crazy. The transporter is not working, leaving him unable to search elsewhere. Inspired by a Superman comic, Bugs tricks Yoyo into saying "Od-od" (Do-do backwards), which sends him to another dimension.
During their respective trips, Mxyzptlk and Yoyo collide and crash-land in yet another dimension. When Mxyzptlk learns that the world Yoyo just left has no superheroes, they build a larger transporter so Mxyzptlk can go to the Looney Tunes' world and cause chaos there. However, he soon learns why Yoyo left when he encounters Foghorn Leghorn (who pies him in the face), Daffy Duck (who drops an anvil on him) and the Tasmanian Devil (who tries to eat him). Mxyzptlk's disappointment is short-lived, as he then comes up with a plan to cause chaos in the DC Universe by sending the Looney Tunes there. Soon the DC superheroes are encountering the Looney Tunes; Green Lantern catches Marvin the Martian plotting to destroy Earth on the Moon, the Flash finds himself racing Speedy Gonzales and later the Road Runner (the latter being pursued by Wile E. Coyote), Plastic Man disguises himself as a cat to spy on a cat-loving gangster only to be romanced by Pepé Le Pew before encountering Sylvester and Tweety, Aquaman is nearly blown out of the water by Yosemite Sam's pirate ship and Batman, on the trail of the Penguin, instead finds Playboy Penguin. The Looney Tunes do not find this unusual, but the fact that they only appear briefly and then vanish means that the superheroes are soon questioning their own sanity. Meanwhile, Mxyzptlk plots to cause even more havoc by swapping Superman with Elmer Fudd.
=== The Wast Son of Kwypton! ===
Mr. Mxyzptlk and the Do-do's partnership turns sour (mostly because the Do-do keeps playing pranks on Mxyzptlk) as the DC superheroes continue to encounter the Looney Tunes - Batman and Plastic Man team up to defeat the Penguin and the gangster Plastic Man was tailing only to meet Charlie Dog immediately afterwards. Meanwhile, Bugs Bunny disguises himself as a park ranger and makes Elmer Fudd perform several embarrassing stunts (including wearing a clown suit) to earn a "wabbit hunting license" before Fudd realizes that he has been fooled (because the stunts are actually to get a FISHING license) and angrily chases Bugs. At this point, Mxyzptlk and the Do-do effect their plan. In the Daily Planet office Clark Kent wants to go rabbit hunting while Bugs is confused by Fudd wearing Superman's costume and reciting heroic monologues. While Perry White encounters Henery Hawk (who believes Perry to be a chicken due to Perry using the term in an argument regarding his courage), news suddenly comes in that the Toyman's giant plane is attacking Metropolis. Mxyzptlk and the Do-do arrange for the broadcast to be heard in the Looney Tunes' world as well, prompting Fudd to fly to the rescue with a terrified Bugs (who sarcastically asked to accompany him, believing Fudd was delusional) in tow. Meanwhile, Kent attempts to switch to Superman, only to discover that he is now wearing Fudd's clown suit and has no superpowers. Daffy Duck, Porky Pig and Foghorn Leghorn witness the chaos on the streets and note how "weird and dark and scary!" the DC Universe is before Daffy is suddenly teleported away (the Do-do intends to swap him for Batman). Fudd and Bugs have been transported to Metropolis, where Fudd lands on the plane to confront the Toyman's goons who, like the general public, are confused to see Superman shorter than usual and accompanied by a cartoon rabbit. On the Toyman's orders, the goons prepare to fire a deadly cannon.
=== The Duck Knight Weturns! ===
Green Arrow meets Junior Bear and is given a box that turns out to contain Michigan J. Frog, whose tendency to sing and dance for only one person causes several people to doubt his sanity.
Elmer Fudd, meanwhile, survives being blasted by the Toyman's goons. The cannon is calibrated for the real Superman and the blast goes harmlessly over the much shorter Fudd's head, while Mr. Mxyzptlk gets angry when he finds out that the Do-do swapped Daffy Duck and Batman without his say-so. The two pranksters start fighting and part of the transporter machine gets damaged, causing the Fudd/Superman switch to be undone and leaving Fudd cowering in terror as the goons prepare to shoot him. Luckily, Bugs Bunny rescues Fudd by tricking the goons into arguing and shooting each other, but this leaves the plane spiralling out of control. Clark Kent is watching helplessly from the street when Foghorn Leghorn (who is a fan of Action Comics) recognises him and encourages him to change to Superman, tearing off Kent's shirt for him and revealing that his costume and superpowers have been restored. The Man of Steel rescues Bugs, Fudd and the unconscious goons and crashes the plane harmlessly in the ocean.
In Gotham City, Commissioner Gordon calls Batman only for Daffy to turn up wearing his costume. He heads off to investigate a lead on stolen mechanical parts while Batman puts on a spare Bat-suit and wonders why he wants to fly south for the winter.
Mxyzptlk has tied up the Do-do and taken control of the whole process, only for the transporter (sabotaged by the Do-do) to blow up in his face. This causes the Justice League (consisting of: Superman, Batman, Wonder Woman, Martian Manhunter, Green Lantern, Flash, Aquaman, Green Arrow and Plastic Man) and several Looney Tunes (consisting of: Bugs Bunny, Elmer Fudd, Porky Pig, Foghorn Leghorn, Speedy Gonzales, Pepé Le Pew, Taz, Yosemite Sam, Sylvester and Tweety) to find themselves in the same location. Discussing what has happened so far, they realize that their two realities are being merged and, when Superman mentions Mxyzptlk and Foghorn remembers meeting him, suspicions arise that he is responsible. Checking the new broadcasts, they discover a more immediate threat - three of the Toyman's deadly giant toys are attacking the Federal Reserves. The Justice League prepare to head to the rescue, but Bugs protests and convinces them to let him and the other Looney Tunes accompany them (after all, they too have done heroic things in their time). Superman appoints them honorary Justice League members.
While Mxyzptlk tries to fix the transporter, the Do-do breaks free and declares that, as he belongs in neither the Looney Tunes' world nor the DC Universe, he will instead merge the two universes forever.
=== Cwisis on Infinite Earths! ===
The Justice League and the Looney Tunes split up into three teams to take out the Toyman's machines:
Superman, Flash, Green Arrow, Elmer Fudd, Foghorn Leghorn and Pepé Le Pew encounter a tank with a cannon powerful enough to incapacitate Superman. Flash warns the Looney Tunes to stay back, but Foghorn wants to help. After hearing Fudd and Pepé argue about Pepé's smell, he comes up with "an idea so good, I wish I could steal it from myself!" They get Green Arrow to shoot an arrow Pepé is clinging onto into the tank, causing the goons inside to rapidly evacuate to escape the cartoon skunk's stench.
Batman, Green Lantern, Plastic Man, Bugs Bunny, Speedy Gonzales and Taz face a giant toy soldier that knocks Green Lantern unconscious and causes him to fall. Speedy quickly stretches Plastic Man into a safety net to rescue the Emerald Gladiator while Bugs convinces Taz to eat one of the robot's feet, causing the whole thing to fall over.
Wonder Woman, Aquaman, Martian Manhunter, Porky Pig, Yosemite Sam, Sylvester and Tweety run into a robotic dragon that easily bests Martian Manhunter with its fiery breath and grabs Wonder Woman and Aquaman. Tweety angrily flies at the dragon and finds himself inside it with the piloting goons. They ignore Tweety, believing him to be harmless, but Tweety starts pressing every button and pulling every switch that he can find, causing the dragon to shake itself to bits.
Meanwhile, Mr. Mxyzptlk tricks the Do-do into trusting him again and proceeds to tie him up a second time before embarking on the "merge the two universes forever" plan himself.
Daffy Duck, still believing he is Batman, finds the Toyman. The criminal easily convinces him to join his organization with a job offer (and a very large salary), but just as they shake on it they find themselves transported through dimensions (their hands get stuck together thanks to some superglue Daffy got himself covered in earlier). The furious Toyman prepares to shoot Daffy, but is put off the idea by the revelation that all the other Looney Tunes and the DC superheroes are all there too. After the Toyman surrenders and is arrested, Bugs and Superman start wondering how they can get everyone home before it is revealed they are all at Mxyzptlk's base. He gleefully threatens to merge the Looney Tunes' world and the DC Universe into one forever, much to the terror of the Looney Tunes (who all note how many problems the DC Universe has).
While Superman and Batman waste time wondering what to do, Bugs takes action. He pretends to congratulate Mxyzptlk, convincing him to brag of his victory by posting it on the popular website "www.kltpzyxm.com"; when Mxyzptlk says it aloud he is transported back to the Fifth Dimension. Freed, the Do-do resets the machine to separate the two universes forever, announcing he intends to stay to run amok in the DC Universe and sending the Looney Tunes home because "I don't need the competition". Superman and Bugs Bunny shake hands as they leave, the Man of Steel commenting that the Looney Tunes are real superheroes.
Back at the Daily Planet, Clark Kent reads a Looney Tunes comic and happily notes that Bugs and the others are back home before being sent on another assignment by Perry White. Perry notices that Kent has left a mysterious box on his desk and opens it out of curiosity, revealing Michigan J. Frog. Perry dreams of fame and fortune with the frog while, back in the Looney Tunes' world, Bugs reads the scene in a Superman comic and glumly foretells the disappointment that awaits Perry. Daffy wonders aloud whether people in the DC Universe would believe what has happened if they knew the truth, to which Bugs replies "Let's put it this way - they'd believe that before they'll believe what Perry White's gonna try and tell them!" as Porky signs off with his classic "Th-th-th-that's all, folks!" |
https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evening_(magazine) | Evening (magazine) | Evening (Japanese: イブニング, Hepburn: Ibuningu) was a bi-weekly Japanese seinen manga magazine published by Kodansha from 2001 to 2023. Circulation was reported by the Japan Magazine Publishers Association at 115,617 copies in 2015.
The magazine ended publication on February 28, 2023, and some titles being serialized in the magazine were moved to Kodansha's Comic Days website.
== List of serialized manga ==
=== 2000s ===
Koi Kaze by Motoi Yoshida (2001–2004)
Sakuran by Moyoco Anno (2001–2003)
Scout Seishirō by Norifusa Mita (2001–2003)
Mister Ajikko II by Daisuke Terasawa (2003–2012)
Moyasimon: Tales of Agriculture by Masayuki Ishikawa (2004–2013, moved to Monthly Morning Two)
Shamo by Izo Hashimoto (story) and Akio Tanaka (art) (2004–2015, moved from Manga Action)
Yugo the Negotiator by Shinji Makari (story) and Shuu Akana (art) (2004–2015)
Blood Alone by Masayuki Takano (2005–2014)
Garōden by Baku Yumemakura (story) and Keisuke Itagaki (art) (2005–2010, moved from Young Magazine Uppers)
Yama Onna Kabe Onna by Atsuko Takakura (2005–2010)
You're Being Summoned, Azazel by Kubo Yasuhisa (2007–2018)
All-Rounder Meguru by Hiroki Endo (2008–2016)
Moteki by Mitsurō Kubo (2008–2010)
Captain Alice by Yuzo Takada (2009–2013)
Noririn by Mohiro Kitoh (2009–2015)
Tōmei Axle by Norifusa Mita (2009–2010)
=== 2010s ===
Ōgari by Sachiko Aoki (2010–2011)
Yoiko no Mokushiroku by Kei Aoyama (2010–2011)
Aventurier by Takashi Morita (2011–2013)
Battle Angel Alita: Last Order by Yukito Kishiro (2011–2014, moved from Ultra Jump)
Boys Be… Adult Season by Masahiro Itabashi (story) and Hiroyuki Tamakoshi (art) (2011–2013)
Hitsuji no Ki by Tatsuhiko Yamagami (story) and Mikio Igarashi (art) (2011–2014)
Lovely Muco by Takayuki Mizushina (2011–2020)
Sanzoku Diary by Kentarō Okamoto (2011–2016)
Narihirabashi Denki Shōten by Hisae Iwaoka (2012–2013)
Bye-Bye Beanbag by Kazuyoshi Takeda (2012–2013)
Kasane by Daruma Matsuura (2013–2018)
Shōta no Sushi 2: World Stage by Daisuke Teraasawa (2013–2015)
Inuyashiki by Hiroya Oku (2014–2017)
Deathtopia by Yoshinobu Yamada (2014–2016)
Gunnm: Mars Chronicle (銃夢火星戦記, Ganmu Kasei Senki) by Yukito Kishiro (2014–2022)
Kaizoku to yobareta otoko by Naoki Hyakuta (story) and Souichi Moto (2014–2017)
Kami-sama no Joker by Michiharu Kusunoki (story) and Mizu Sahara (art) (2015–2016)
Gereksiz by Minoru Furuya (2016–2017)
Op: Yoake Itaru no Iro no Nai Hibi (Op -オプ- 夜明至の色のない日々) by Kou Yoneda (2016–2023)
Kannō-sensei (官能先生) by Motoi Yoshida (2016–2023)
Sanzoku Diary SS by Kentarō Okamoto (2016–2017)
Riū wo Machinagara by Ao Akato (2017–2018)
Hayabusa Chan mo Tondemasu (隼ちゃんもとんでます) by Mohiro Kitoh (2017–2023)
Sōsei no Taiga (創世のタイガ) by Kouji Mori (2017–2023)
Crusher Joe Rebirth (ラッシャージョウ REBIRTH) by Haruka Takachiho (story) and Yu Harii (art) (2017–2023)
Kindaichi 37-sai no Jikenbo (金田一37歳の事件簿) by Shin Kibayashi (story) and Fumiya Satou (art) (2018–2023)
In Hand by Ao Akato (2018–2020)
Raw Hero by Akira Hiramoto (2018–2020)
Futari Solo Camp (ふたりソロキャンプ, Futari Soro Kyanpu) by Yudai Debata (2018–2023)
Island in a Puddle by Kei Sanbe (2019–2021)
=== 2020s ===
Gurazeni: Natsunosuke no Seishun by Yūji Moritaka (story) and Yōsuke Uzumaki (art) (2020–2022)
Legal Egg by Homura Kawamoto (story) and Yasoko Momen (art) (2020–2021)
A-bout! Surf by Masa Ishikawa (2021–2022) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_Family | Modern Family | Modern Family is an American television sitcom created by Steven Levitan and Christopher Lloyd for ABC. It aired for 11 seasons from September 23, 2009, to April 8, 2020. The series follows the lives of three diverse but interrelated family set-ups living in suburban Los Angeles.
Lloyd and Levitan conceived the series while sharing stories of their own "modern families." Modern Family employs an ensemble cast and is presented in a mockumentary style, with the characters frequently speaking directly to the camera in confessional interview segments.
Modern Family was highly acclaimed by critics throughout its first few seasons. Its critical reception became more mixed as it progressed. The final season received positive reviews, and the finale episode had 7.37 million first-run viewers. The retrospective documentary that aired before the final episode had 6.72 million first-run viewers. The series won a total of 22 Emmy Awards, including five Emmy Awards for Outstanding Comedy Series, four Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series (twice each for Eric Stonestreet and Ty Burrell), and two Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series (both for Julie Bowen). It also won the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy in 2011.
The broadcast syndication rights to the series were sold to NBCUniversal's USA Network, the stations of Fox Television Stations, and various other local stations in other markets for a fall 2013 premiere. The success of the series led to it being the 10th-highest revenue-generating show for 2012, earning $2.13 million an episode.
== Premise ==
Modern Family revolves around three different types of families (nuclear, blended, and same-sex) living in suburban Los Angeles, who are interrelated through their patriarch, Jay Pritchett, and his two adult children, Claire and Mitchell.
Jay remarried a much younger woman, Gloria Delgado (née Ramirez), a passionate Colombian immigrant with whom he has a young son, Fulgencio "Joe" Joseph (born in the middle of the fourth season), and a stepson from Gloria's previous marriage, Manuel "Manny" Delgado. Jay's and Gloria's respective former spouses, DeDe and Javier, both also make occasional appearances in the show. They also adopt a dog, Stella, in the second season. Manny briefly has a turtle named Shell Turtlestein.
Claire was a homemaker, though returned to the business world in the fifth season, eventually becoming the chief executive officer of her father's business, Pritchett's Closets and Blinds. Claire is married to Phil Dunphy, a realtor and a self-professed "cool dad" originally from Key West, Florida. Claire and Phil have three children: Haley, a stereotypically ditzy wild teenaged girl; Alex, the middle child who is highly intelligent, gifted, and introverted; and Luke, the offbeat only son, known for his playful, immature, and sometimes dim-witted nature. Haley's on-and-off boyfriend, Dylan, is a permanent fixture on the show, with the two eventually marrying and having twins, Poppy and George, in the tenth season.
Mitchell is a lawyer who is in a same-sex relationship with Cameron Tucker. Cam, from a farm in Missouri, is a former music teacher and later works as a football coach and Vice Principal. The couple have adopted a baby daughter, Lily, of Vietnamese origin. Cam is a stay-at-home dad in the first couple seasons when Lily is young. Mitchell and Cameron are legally married in the fifth season, following the Californian legalization of gay marriage. At the end of the series, they adopt another child, a son, Rexford, and move to Missouri.
As the title suggests, it depicts a modern-day tight-knit extended family; many episodes are comically based on situations that many families encounter in real life.
== Cast and characters ==
=== Main ===
Ed O'Neill as Jason Francis "Jay" Pritchett: the wealthy patriarch of the family; Gloria's husband; Claire, Mitchell and Joe's father; Manny's stepfather. He is the CEO of Pritchett's Closets and runs Dog Beds By Stella after retiring from the closet industry.
Sofía Vergara as Gloria Maria Ramirez Delgado Pritchett: Colombian; Jay's wife; Manny and Joe's mother. She enjoys shopping, fashion and is empathetic and opinionated. She later starts a hot sauce business by using a family recipe.
Julie Bowen as Claire Melinda Dunphy: Dede and Jay's daughter; Mitchell's sister; Phil's wife; Haley, Alex, and Luke's mother. She is uptight and disciplined. She becomes the CEO of Pritchett's Closets after Jay retires. She later quits.
Ty Burrell as Philip Humphrey "Phil" Dunphy: Claire's husband; Haley, Alex, and Luke's father. He is a professional realtor and later a real estate professor. He is also an amateur magician and buys a magic shop.
Jesse Tyler Ferguson as Mitchell Vincent "Mitch" Pritchett: Dede and Jay's son; Claire's brother; Cam's husband; Lily and Rexford's father. He is an environmental lawyer who later becomes a district attorney.
Eric Stonestreet as Cameron Scott "Cam" Tucker: Mitchell's husband; Lily and Rexford's father. He worked at a flower shop. He is a music-turned PE teacher and American football coach. Cam later becomes the vice-principal.
Sarah Hyland as Haley Gwendolyn Marshall (née Dunphy): Claire and Phil's daughter; Alex and Luke's sister; Dylan's wife; Poppy and George's mother. She is street smart, rebellious, sassy party girl. She starts at college but is later expelled after a drunken mishap with police. She is a pro at fashion and works for a stylist Gavin Sinclair, though she is later fired. In 9th and 10th season she works at NERP, a lifestyle company.
Ariel Winter as Alexandra Anastasia "Alex" Dunphy: Claire and Phil's daughter; Haley and Luke's sister. She is academic, nerdy, knowledgeable, often dubbed genius. She studies at CalTech University and toward the end of the series she lands a job in Antarctica.
Nolan Gould as Lucas Philip "Luke" Dunphy: Claire and Phil's son; Haley and Alex's brother. He is curious, clumsy, street smart and worked at Jay's country club for a while.
Rico Rodriguez as Manuel Alberto Javier Alejandro "Manny" Ramirez Delgado: Gloria and Javier's son; Jay's stepson; Joe's half-brother. He is dramatic, socially awkward and enjoys efforts in his appearance. He attends Cal-Arts to study play-writing.
Aubrey Anderson-Emmons as Lily Elizabeth Tucker-Pritchett: Mitchell and Cameron's adopted daughter who was born in Vietnam. She is frank, honest, stern and sassy.
Portrayed by twins Jaden Hiller and Ella Hiller in seasons 1 and 2.
Jeremy Maguire as Fulgencio Joseph "Joe" Pritchett: Gloria and Jay's son. He is naughty, nonchalant and notorious. His birth name is Fulgencio-Joseph Ramirez Pritchett.
Portrayed by Rebecca and Sierra Mark in season 4 and Pierce Wallace in seasons 5 and 6.
Reid Ewing as Dylan Stardust Marshall: Haley's on-and-off boyfriend turned husband; Poppy and George's father. He is not too smart and has a number of weird jobs before he officially becomes a nurse.
=== Recurring ===
Fred Willard as Franklin Bernard "Frank" Dunphy: Phil's father. He is fun, cheerful and marries Phil's old babysitter in season 8 and dies in season 11. Willard was nominated for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards, but lost to Neil Patrick Harris's performance on Glee. Willard also received a posthumous nomination in the same category at the 72nd Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards in 2020 (seasons 1, 4–6, 8–11)
Shelley Long as Lillian Diana "DeDe" Pritchett: Jay's ex-wife; Claire and Mitchell's mother. She is spiritual and a vegan Buddhist. Dede is insecure of Gloria and hates her. She dies in season ten (seasons 1–10)
Justin Kirk as Charles "Charlie" Bingham Jr..: Mitch's boss who owns a sportswear company and invests in environmental issues (seasons 1–3, 5, 7)
Chazz Palminteri as Vincent aka Shorty: Jay's best friend, in honor of whom Mitchell was given his middle name (seasons 1, 3–5, 9–10)
Benjamin Bratt as Javier Alberto Alejandro Delgado: Manny's father and Gloria's ex-husband, he is a thrill seeker and is known for his wild and irresponsible behavior (seasons 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 11)
Elizabeth Banks as Sal: Mitch and Cam's fun-loving party animal friend who officiates their wedding and hates Lily. Banks was nominated for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series at the 67th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards in 2015 (seasons 1, 4–6, 8, 11)
Nathan Lane as Pepper Paul Saltzman: Mitch and Cam's close friend and wedding planner, who plans their wedding. Ronaldo's partner and Lionel's dad. (seasons 2, 4–7, 9–10)
Kevin Daniels as Longinus: Mitch and Cam's friend who owns a local boutique and gets attacked by Phil with cologne in season 2 (seasons 2–7, 9–11)
Celia Weston as Barbara Jessica "Barb" Tucker: Cam and Pam's mother, Mitch's mother-in-law, and Lily, Rexford, and Cal's grandmother from Missouri (seasons 2, 5, 8)
Colin Hanlon as Steven: Cam and Mitch's friend and Stefan's partner (seasons 3–4, 5, 9)
Rodrigo Rojas as Stefan: Cam and Mitch's friends, and Steven's partner (season 3–4, 5, 11)
Spenser McNeild as Reuben: Manny, and Luke's friend from school, who is in love with Alex and has a short relationship with her, much to her embarrassment (seasons 4, 5, 7–9)
Stephanie Beatriz as Sonia Pilar Ramirez: Gloria's sister and Manny and Joe's aunt. She and Gloria have an ongoing feud throughout the series
Rob Riggle as Gilbert Paul "Gil" Thorpe: Phil's realtor rival, who later comes out as gay (seasons 4–6, 8–11)
Adam DeVine as Andrew "Andy" Bailey Jr.: Jay and Gloria's "manny" (male nanny) from Utah, Phil's assistant and Haley's boyfriend (seasons 5–8 and 10)
Andy Daly as Principal Brown: the principal at Alex, Luke and Manny's high school, and Cam's boss, who is chronically single (seasons 5–6, 8, 10)
Matthew Risch as Jotham: Mitch and Cam's friend (seasons 5–7, 9–11)
Dana Powell as Pameron Jessica Tucker: Cam's sister, Mitchells sister-in-law and Lily's aunt (seasons 5, 7–10)
Marsha Kramer as Margaret: Jay's assistant for 40 years at Pritchett's Closets. She works for Alex temporarily until she is fired/retires (seasons 5, 7–9, 11)
Christian Barillas as Ronaldo: Pepper's party planning assistant and later partner; parent of Lionel (seasons 5–11)
Joe Mande as Ben: a marketing executive at Pritchett's Closets and later Alex's boyfriend (seasons 6–9)
Laura Ashley Samuels as Beth: Andy's girlfriend, fiancée and later ex-fiancée who works in the coast guard. She hates Haley with a burning passion.
Steve Zahn as Ronnie LaFontaine and Andrea Anders as Amber LaFontaine: Phil and Claire's annoying and obnoxious neighbors (season 6)
Kasey Mahaffy as Dom: a designer at Pritchett's Closest (seasons 7–9, 11)
Nathan Fillion as Rainer Shine: a weather forecaster, Phil's friend and later Haley's 25-year-older boyfriend. He and Haley get engaged in a restaurant before suddenly breaking up (seasons 8–9)
Mira Sorvino as Nicole Rosemary Page: Haley's boss, founder of NERP; parody of Gwyneth Paltrow and her company Goop (seasons 9–10)
Chris Geere as Arvin Fennerman: a British physics lecturer at CalTech who dates Haley and later Alex. He starts a research project in Switzerland that Alex joins at the end of season 11 (seasons 9–11)
Marcello Reyes as Cal Tucker: Pam's son; Mitch and Cam's nephew who lives with them when Pam is in prison (season 10)
Jimmy Tatro as Bill: Alex's fire-fighter boyfriend who isn't very smart but is known for his muscle and attractiveness (seasons 9–11)
Joshua Tyler Kelly as Lionel, Pepper and Ronaldo's son; he takes horse back riding lessons with Lily (season 9)
=== Family tree ===
The characters in green have regular roles on the show. Dotted lines indicate a parental relationship through adoption or marriage, and dashed lines indicate a divorce between characters. † indicates a deceased character.
== Production ==
=== Initial development ===
As creators Christopher Lloyd and Steven Levitan retold stories about their families, they realized that the stories could be the basis for a show. They started working on the idea of a family being observed in a mockumentary-style show. They later decided that it could be a show about three families and their experiences. It was originally called My American Family, and the camera crew was originally supposed to have been run by a fictitious Dutch filmmaker named Geert Floortje, who had lived as a teenaged exchange student with the Pritchetts and had developed a crush on Claire (while Mitchell had developed a crush on him). The producers later felt that this component was unnecessary, and it was scrapped. Lloyd preferred to look at the show as "a family show done documentary-style".
Lloyd and Levitan pitched the series to CBS, NBC, and ABC (they did not pitch it to Fox because of issues they had with the network over a previous comedy series, Back to You, that Lloyd and Levitan also created and produced). CBS, which was not ready to make a big commitment to the single-camera style of filming, rejected the series. NBC, already broadcasting The Office and Parks and Recreation at the time, decided against taking on a third mockumentary-style show. ABC accepted the pitch.
The pilot episode tested positively with focus groups, resulting in the network ordering 13 episodes and adding it to the 2009–10 fall lineup days ahead of ABC's official schedule announcement. The series was given a full-season pickup in October 2009.
=== Filming ===
Principal photography took place in Los Angeles. Many of the exteriors used are on the city's Westside. The Dunphys' house is in the Cheviot Hills neighborhood. As of 2014, Palisades Charter High School is used for the exteriors of Luke and Manny's school.
Lloyd and Levitan, whose credits both include Frasier, Wings, and Just Shoot Me!, are executive producers of the series, serving as showrunner and head writer under their Lloyd-Levitan Productions label in affiliation with 20th Century Fox Television. The other original producers on the writing team were Paul Corrigan, Sameer Gardezi, Joe Lawson, Dan O'Shannon, Brad Walsh, Caroline Williams, Bill Wrubel, Danny Zuker, and Jeff Morton.
Starting with the second season, Levitan and Lloyd ran the show, not as a team, but separately, with each showrunner supervising half the episodes. "Chris and I are both strong, opinionated people, and we very, very quickly realized it doesn't make sense to sit here and debate each other and waste time," Levitan told The Hollywood Reporter in 2012. "We often come at it from different points of view, so we said, 'Let's just switch off who has final say.'"
=== Litigation ===
In the first season, the adult cast was paid a range of roughly $30,000 to $90,000 per episode. As a result of the show's success, the cast attempted to renegotiate their contracts in the summer of 2012 to obtain higher per-episode fees, but talks broke down to the point that the fourth season's first table read had to be postponed.
Five of the cast members (Ty Burrell, Julie Bowen, Jesse Tyler Ferguson, Eric Stonestreet and Sofía Vergara) retained the Quinn Emanuel law firm and sued 20th Century Fox Television in Los Angeles County Superior Court on July 24, 2012. While not part of the lawsuit, Ed O'Neill joined his fellow castmates in seeking raises for each to about $200,000 per episode; O'Neill had already been earning more money per episode than the other five. The lawsuit invoked the "seven-year rule" in California Labor Code Section 2855 (the De Havilland Law) and requested a declaration that their contracts were void because they were in violation of that rule.
By October 25, 2012, the conflict had been in final talks for a settlement, with plaintiffs planning thereafter to file a dismissal (which they ultimately did on November 19, 2012). The five adult cast members' salaries were increased from $55,000–$65,000 per episode to $150,000–$175,000, with increases every season, plus a percentage of residual profits. O'Neill had already been earning $200,000 an episode, so his salary was lowered to parity with his co-stars, but with a larger percentage of the back-end profits. By that August, four of the five child stars negotiated increases from $15,000–$25,000 to $70,000 per episode, with an additional $10,000 per season raise.
== Episodes ==
== Themes and analysis ==
=== Technology and social media ===
In The New York Times, Bruce Feiler called attention to how the show depicts the increasing way communications technology shapes the way people perceive others, even family members. "[It] is surely the first family comedy that incorporates its own hashtag of simultaneous self-analysis directly into the storyline," he writes. "Mark Zuckerberg may be a greater influence on Modern Family than Norman Lear."
The show's writers and actors agree. "We used to talk about how cellphones killed the sitcom because no one ever goes to anyone's house anymore" for routine information, Abraham Higginbotham told Feiler. "We embrace technology so it's part of the story." Ty Burrell draws on Fran Lebowitz's observation that there is no institution other than media. "I had this little flash of Phil—and me—that we are parsing our personality together externally from how people perceive us."
=== Parenthood challenges and tradition ===
Modern Family thoroughly explores the different parenting styles and challenges presented by modern circumstances and the unique personalities of children.
James Parker of The Atlantic commented, "How does one 'parent'? Who does what, which 'role'? Is Dad sufficiently dad-like and Mom enough of a mom?" Throughout the show, Claire is a "daddy's girl" with a strong relationship with Jay, while Mitch has a much stronger bond with their mother. Jay struggles to connect with his step-son Manny initially, and often ridicules Manny's preferences for luxury and lack of masculine interests. However, Jay learns to accept and celebrate Manny's unique interests and skills in theater and film.
The gendered expectations of parenting are explored with Claire and Phil's family. Their relationship counters traditional male-dominated family structures by showing Claire as the family's decision maker while Phil is a 'fun dad'.
Claire and Phil also deal with their three children's different personalities and life paths as individuals. They attempt to push Haley and Luke to pursue their education seriously and are met with resistance as the two children are more interested in other life paths.
Specifically, Claire has a challenging relationship with Haley: Claire thinks she's helping direct Haley's school and career choices, while Haley thinks she's being too pushy and demanding, and will act out accordingly. Ultimately, Claire learns to respect her eldest daughter's decisions regarding family and career, even though she does not necessarily approve of them.
=== Queer family and parenting ===
One parenting challenge is explored with Jay's straining relationship with Mitchell due to his discomfort at having a gay son. This is explored in the season 5 episode "Message Received": gay marriage is legalized and Mitch and Cam decide to get married. Mitchell questions Jay's motives for not inviting his friends to his son's wedding by asking "So, who doesn't want them there, me or you?". Jay admits he doesn't understand gay marriages and blames Mitchell for not making him comfortable by saying "Now see, why do you get to be you, but I don't get to be me. See, I didn't choose to be uncomfortable. I was born this way." In response, Mitch un-invites his father to his wedding, but they later reconcile and Jay saves the wedding by hosting it at his country club and brags about the marriage to other club members.
Modern Family is notable for its portrayal of queer and non-traditional family structures, primarily through the characters of Mitchell Pritchett and Cameron Tucker, a gay couple raising their adopted Vietnamese daughter, Lily. Their family dynamic was one of the first on prime-time television to center a same-sex couple navigating the challenges and rewards of parenthood, offering audiences an authentic look into LGBTQ+ family life. Throughout the series, Mitch and Cam's relationship showcases both the unique joys and social obstacles facing LGBTQ+ parents, such as dealing with stereotypes, facing subtle forms of prejudice, and navigating societal expectations. By depicting Mitch and Cam's journey as parents and partners in a relatable, humorous light, Modern Family has played a significant role in normalizing LGBTQ+ families in mainstream media. The show's inclusion of various family forms, from blended families to adoptive and queer families, reflects a more inclusive view of what family means today and has been credited with increasing public acceptance of LGBTQ+ families. This representation contributes to broader conversations on family diversity, challenging traditional norms and encouraging viewers to embrace different family structures as equally valid and loving.
=== Masculinity and fatherhood ===
The show has also been praised for portrayal of masculinity and fatherhood. In a 2016 review, journalist Tim Dowling notes that "one of the main complaints voiced by so-called men's rights activists is that in popular culture husbands and fathers are routinely portrayed as moronic incompetents ... More sensible men's advocates, meanwhile, maintain that men are still straitjacketed by old expectations, and given no room to express vulnerability, doubt, or any emotion besides anger. Masculinity, it seems, just doesn't furnish the modern male with very many acceptable ways to be." While Dowling goes on to address the show's portrayal of Phil as the most "subversive" of the four fathers, the characters of Jay, Cam, and Mitchell also contribute to a mediated understanding of fatherhood that legitimizes a variety of "acceptable ways to be" a modern father. Through the vehicle of comedy, which exposes each of the characters' best and worst qualities, viewers can both witness and interrogate the qualities of the "traditional dad" and the "new dad", a distinction that emerges quite clearly as a new generation of men take the parenting reins from their own fathers.
=== Depiction of Los Angeles ===
In a 2014 article in Slate, the site's podcast executive producer, Andy Bowers, a resident of Los Angeles' Westside, where the show films most of its exteriors, praised the series for its realistic depiction of life in that part of the city.
== Release ==
=== Broadcast ===
Modern Family was picked up for syndication by USA Network for $1.5 million per episode, along with being offered in local syndication at the same time, with Fox Television Stations the lead station group picking up the series. It is also shown on Sky Comedy and E4 in the United Kingdom, e.tv in South Africa, Fox in Sweden, yes Comedy in Israel and Star World in India. The series aired on Citytv in Canada for its first ten seasons. The network additionally obtained the syndicated strip-rights to the show when they became available. Subsequently, it moved to Global for its eleventh and final season. Modern Family began airing on TBS since September 25, 2023, and was picked up by Nickelodeon for its Nick at Nite block, starting on September 10, 2024. As of 2025, Modern Family is streaming on Peacock and Hulu.
=== Home media ===
As of 2017, Modern Family had earned $72,226,621 from its domestic home media releases. The series was made available for streaming on Hulu and Peacock in its entirety on February 3, 2021. Internationally, it was released on Disney+.
== Reception ==
=== Ratings ===
Since its premiere, the series has remained popular. In its first season, the show became the sixth-highest rated scripted show in America and the third-highest rated new show. Aided by winning the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series, the show's second season became the highest rated show on Wednesday during premiere week. The show also rose 34% from the previous season among adults between the ages of 18 and 49. The show frequently ranked as television's top scripted series in adults 18–49 as well.
The success of the show has been positively compared to The Cosby Show. During the 2010–2011 season, Modern Family was the highest rated scripted show in the 18–49 demographic, and the third-highest rated overall sitcom behind CBS's The Big Bang Theory and Two and a Half Men. The season also ranked first among DVR viewers.
The third-season premiere became ABC's top-rated season premiere in six years. The series' success in ratings has also led it to being credited for reviving sitcoms.
In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook likes found that Modern Family's "audience pattern is the prototypical example of a city show — most popular in liberal, urban clusters in Boston, San Francisco, and Santa Barbara, California, and least popular in the more rural parts of Kentucky, Mississippi, and Arkansas".
Each U.S. network television season starts in late September and ends in late May, which coincides with the completion of May sweeps.
Following its release on streaming platforms, Modern Family experienced a resurgence in popularity. Market research company Parrot Analytics, which examines consumer engagement across streaming, downloads, and social media, reported that the series has experienced a notable increase in interest since its debut on Hulu and Peacock in 2021. For the week ending August 15, 2021, Whip Media, which tracks global TV viewership habits for nearly 1 million global users of its TV Time app daily, calculated that the series ranked third on its "Binge Report" chart, highlighting shows streamed in sessions of four or more episodes in a single day. Streaming analytics firm FlixPatrol, which monitors daily updated VOD charts and streaming ratings across the globe, reported that Modern Family was the fifth most-streamed show on Disney+ worldwide in 2022, rising to second place in 2023 behind Grey's Anatomy. In 2024, Parrot Analytics listed the series among the 40 most in-demand TV shows worldwide between January 1 and August 8, noting that while most of the top ten shows appealed to viewers aged 15–31, Modern Family attracted primarily Millennial and Gen X audiences (ages 32–42+). Nielsen Media Research, which records streaming viewership on U.S. television screens, announced that the series was watched for 687 million minutes in the U.S. from August 12–18, 2024, making it the seventh most-streamed acquired series that week. In October 2024, FlixPatrol again reported Modern Family as the second most-watched show on Disney+ worldwide, behind Grey's Anatomy. In October 2024, FlixPatrol again reported Modern Family as the second most-watched show on Disney+ worldwide, behind Grey's Anatomy. As of August 5, 2025, the series ranked fifth on Disney+, and by early October 2025, it ranked eighth among the platform's most-viewed shows globally. In December 2025, Disney announced that Modern Family was among the television series to surpass one billion hours streamed on Disney+ in 2025.
=== Critical response ===
==== Season 1 ====
The first season was met with critical acclaim. It scored 100%, based on 28 reviews, on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of 8.55/10 and the critical consensus: "Thanks to sharp writing and an eccentric but exceedingly likeable cast of characters, Modern Family signals the triumphant return of the family comedy." The first season also scored 86/100, based on 27 reviews, on review aggregator website Metacritic, indicating "universal acclaim".
Entertainment Weekly gave it an A−, calling it "immediately recognizable as the best new sitcom of the fall." In Time's review, the show was named "the funniest new family comedy of the year." It has also been compared to the 1970s series Soap because of the multiple-family aspect. Some have made comparisons to The Office and Parks and Recreation because of their mockumentary formats. BuddyTV named the show the second best show in 2009, saying, "Every actor is fantastic, every family is interesting, and unlike many shows, there isn't a weak link." Robert Canning of IGN gave the season an 8.9 calling it "Great" and saying "Simply put, Modern Family was one of the best new comedies of the season." He also praised the ensemble cast and the characters, calling them lovable. According to Metacritic, the first season was the best reviewed new broadcast television series.
Modern Family drew criticism from the LGBT community for its portrayal of Cameron and Mitchell as not being physically affectionate with each other. The criticism spawned a Facebook campaign to demand that Mitchell and Cameron be allowed to kiss. In response to the controversy, producers released a statement that a season two episode would address Mitchell's discomfort with public displays of affection. Executive producer Levitan has said that it was unfortunate that the issue had arisen, since the show's writers had always planned on such a scene "as part of the natural development of the show." The episode "The Kiss" eventually aired with the kiss scene in the background, which drew praise from multiple critics.
==== Season 2 ====
The show's second season received mostly positive reviews from critics. Season two has a rating of 88% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 16 reviews, with an average score of 8.11/10 and the consensus: "Modern Family's sophomore season sings with ingenious sitcom structure and an ensemble in perfect comedic harmony – even if the tunes are a little familiar". Robert Bianco of USA Today gave the second season four out of four stars, saying "Not since Frasier has a sitcom offered such an ideal blend of heart and smarts, or proven itself so effortlessly adept at so many comic variations, from subtle wordplay to big-laugh slapstick to everything in between." In a later review Bianco stated "as good as it was in its first year, is even better in its second", positively comparing the characters to the characters from The Mary Tyler Moore Show, The Cosby Show, and Friends. During the second season, Adweek named the show one of the 100 Most Influential TV Shows (98th chronologically). Despite this, some critics were less favorable toward the season and described it as a sophomore slump. Eric Stonestreet's acting was widely praised throughout the first season, but criticized during season two for being too contrived and "over-the-top"; Alan Sepinwall called Cameron Tucker a "whiny, overly-sensitive diva". On the other hand, the praise for Ty Burrell's performance (as Phil Dunphy) continued.
==== Season 3 ====
The third season was met with critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, season three has a rating of 92% based on 13 reviews, with an average score of 8.33/10 and the consensus: "Modern Family settles into a well-oiled groove, consistently delivering inspired farce and making it look effortless." Slant Magazine reviewer Peter Swanson wrote that while the first episode was "the type of wacky-location stunt that's usually reserved for the fifth or sixth season of a dying sitcom," the following episodes "have been better... but they're still uneven". He also criticized the writers for relying too much on "stunt episodes and celebrity cameos, like David Cross". He ultimately gave the season 3 out of 4 stars. James Parker of The Atlantic said, at the beginning of the third season that "Modern Family is very, very funny, almost ruthlessly so. It's a bit of a master class in pace and brevity. The writing is Vorsprung durch Technik: hectically compressed but dramatically elegant, prodigal in its zingers and snorters but austere in its construction." He found it an exception to his dislike for sitcoms that do not use a laugh track. During the third season, New York Times columnist Frank Bruni argued that gay criticism of Cameron and Mitchell actually showed the progress gays have made toward social acceptance. "A decade ago," he wrote, "[gays] would have balked—and balked loudly—at how frequently Cameron in particular tips into limp-wristed, high-voiced caricature." But now, "most gay people trust that the television audience knows we're a diverse tribe, not easily pigeonholed. Modern Family endows us with a sort of comic banality. It's an odd kind of progress. But it's progress nonetheless."
==== Season 4 ====
The fourth season of Modern Family received positive reviews from critics. Rotten Tomatoes gives the season an approval rating of 67% based on 11 reviews, with an average score of 7.75/10 and the consensus: "Modern Family still has charm to burn and boasts a uniformly excellent cast, but the series' subversive edge has dulled". Halfway through the season, Rachel Stein of Television Without Pity wrote, "much as I liked the pairings and some of the dialogue, ["New Year's Eve"] is just another contrived episode of Modern Family we can cite when we talk later about how a different show should have won the 2013 Emmy for Best Comedy." Dalene Rovenstein of Paste Magazine gave the season a positive review, but said a better season was possible.
==== Season 5 ====
The fifth season of Modern Family also received positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, season five has a rating of 90% based on 10 reviews, with an average score of 7.57/10 and the consensus: "Modern Family returns to its conventional roots with grace in a fifth season that delights in providing reliable laughs and rekindles the show's trademark warmth". Reviewing the season's first eight episodes, Matthew Wolfson of Slant Magazine wrote that the show "appear[ed] to have finally arrived at the depressing and predictable low point toward which it [had] been trending for the past two years." He also went on to say that the show had "turned into a shrill pastiche of stereotypical characterizations and superficial banter lacking both feeling and wit", assigning it a rating of 1.5/4 stars. Different writers for The A.V. Club rated, in total, a majority of the former-half episodes with a "B−" grade or less. One writer for the magazine, Joshua Alston, gave "ClosetCon '13" a "C+" and remarked that "Modern Family becomes a high-wire act when it separates its characters into three storylines with no overlap between them." The second half was more warmly received, with three episodes rated an "A−" or higher.
==== Season 6 ====
The show's sixth season received highly positive reviews from TV critics, with some claiming that it was an improvement over the last few seasons. This season has a rating of 100% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 7 reviews, with an average score of 7.67/10. Joshua Alston and Gwen Ihnat of The A.V. Club have awarded the majority of episodes a "B" grade or higher – with particular praise for "The Day We Almost Died" and "Closet? You'll Love It!" – marking an improvement over the repeated "C" grade given throughout the previous season's former half. "Connection Lost" received high critical acclaim, with many praising the episode's writing, originality and "success in transcending what could have been a gimicky episode". In her review for "Closet? You'll Love It!" Gwen Ihnat of The A.V. Club stated that the episode represents "all the reasons why we still watch Modern Family" and awarded the episode an A−. On the same site, David Kallison reviewed "Grill, Interrupted", saying: "This season proves that sitcoms can survive on solid characters and solid jokes."
==== Season 7 ====
The seventh season received positive reviews from critics with many critics calling it similar to the fourth and fifth seasons. On Rotten Tomatoes, this season is rated 67% with 6 reviews and an average rating of 6.5/10. Kyle Fowle from The A.V. Club had a very mixed reaction to the season, only giving one episode an A− or higher. Fowle felt the season was frustrating, believing the season would be defined "by its lack of character progress and overstuffed episodes."
==== Later seasons ====
The series was renewed for a 9th and 10th season on May 10, 2017. Season 9 premiered on September 27, 2017, while season 10 premiered on September 26, 2018.
Seasons 8 and 9 received mixed-to-positive reviews from critics, with main criticisms directed at the lack of character development, overstuffing of episodes, and too many filler episodes per season. While the show continued to be praised for its charm, witty writing, and the cast's performances, criticism grew in these seasons, particularly from reviewers such as those at The A.V. Club.
In January 2018, Steve Levitan and Christopher Lloyd announced that season 10 would most likely be the final season, during the Television Critics Association's winter press tour. However, in August 2018, reports indicated that ABC was in discussions to renew the series for a potential eleventh season.
Season 10 received positive reviews from critics, citing the season as a significant improvement over the last two. The series was praised for its tackling of Haley's pregnancy, the humor of Mitch and Cam looking after Cal, and its dealing with change in a positive way. Episodes "Torn Between Two Lovers", "Good Grief", and "A Year Of Birthdays" were particularly praised.
The series was renewed for an eleventh season on January 7, 2019, which was confirmed as the final season on February 5. The last season premiered on September 25, 2019, and aired its last episode on April 8, 2020.
Season 11 similarly received positive reviews. The season was praised for its themes of change and ending, and the improved humor upon the last seasons, with particular attention to episodes "The Prescott", "Legacy", "Spuds" and "Finale".
=== Accolades ===
Modern Family has won 22 Primetime Emmy Awards and 6 Writers Guild of America Awards. The show also later received a GLSEN Respect Award for its portrayal of "positive images and storylines that reflect a diverse America, including the depiction of a family headed by a gay couple." In 2010, Modern Family was nominated for five Television Critics Association Awards. To reinforce the idea of an ensemble cast, the cast all submitted themselves in the Supporting Actor and Actress categories instead of Lead Actor and Actress for the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards. The series has also been put on multiple critics' lists. In 2010, the series was listed 2nd on Time's Top Ten Best Shows of 2009, 2nd on BuddyTV's Top Ten Best Shows of 2009, Jason Hughes Best TV of 2009, Modern Family was awarded a Peabody Award in 2009. In 2012, the show won the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy and was nominated for a British Academy Television Award. Every season of the show was also named one of the top 10 TV seasons of the year (from 2009 to 2012) by the American Film Institute.
During the 2012 US presidential election, both First Lady Michelle Obama, in an interview with Kal Penn at the 2012 Democratic National Convention, and Ann Romney, in an interview with The Insider, cited Modern Family as their favorite TV show.
In June 2013, the Writers Guild of America ranked Modern Family number 34 on a list of the 101 most well-written television series ever made. In December 2013, TV Guide ranked it number 43 on its list of the 60 Best Series of all time.
==== Emmy Awards received by cast ====
The following is a list of Emmy nominations received by the cast of the series. Wins are highlighted in boldface.
Ed O'Neill earned three consecutive nominations for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series in 2011, 2012 and 2013.
Sofía Vergara earned four consecutive nominations for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series in 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013.
Julie Bowen earned six consecutive nominations for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series in 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014 and 2015.
Ty Burrell, the most nominated actor in the series, received eight consecutive nominations for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series in 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016 and 2017.
Jesse Tyler Ferguson received five consecutive nominations for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series in 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014.
Eric Stonestreet received three consecutive nominations for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series in 2010, 2011 and 2012.
Nathan Lane received three nominations for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series in 2011, 2013 and 2014.
Fred Willard received two nominations for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series in 2011 and 2020.
Greg Kinnear was nominated for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series in 2012.
Elizabeth Banks was nominated for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series in 2015.
=== Criticism ===
Michelle Haimoff of the Christian Science Monitor criticized the show during its third season for only casting the women as stay-at-home moms while the husbands have highly successful careers: "There is a difference between quirky, flawed characters and ones who are incapable of professional success. And when the latter is reliably female, it makes for sexist television. It also makes for unrealistic television." Late Night with Jimmy Fallon writer Ali Waller asked her Twitter followers in 2013 "If Modern Family is so 'modern' then why don't any of the women have jobs?" Other authors reinforced this criticism, claiming that stay-at-home mothers are no longer the norm in modern society. Claire later went to work in season five.
According to a CNET staffer commenting on a first-season episode: "The wife and daughter are unable to learn how to use the remote and must be taught by the father, while the son is 'good with electronics,' even though he is thought of as the stupidest member of the family." Arianna Reiche from Gawker commented on the episode "Game Changer" in which Gloria hides her skill at chess so her husband will not be upset at losing: "This moment is at best a sappy quip about compromise in an often heavy-handed series, and at worst, it's a moment in a show with 9.3 million viewers, on a network owned by Disney, which explicitly validates girls and women subduing their intellect."
== Impact ==
Several analyses have credited the show with improving attitudes towards gay individuals and normalizing same-sex marriage within American society. Across both Canada and Italy, individuals who watched Modern Family held more favorable beliefs about same gender parenting, fewer perceived problems, and less desire for social distance from same gender parents. For people with more religious beliefs, Modern Family reduced prejudice in Canada. In Italy, most people had never interacted with same gender parents, so Modern Family acted as a first exposure. The show offered a non threatening portrayal and a positive example that showed parents who are loving. Modern Family also used humor to present same sex parenting in a relatable way.
An article by Haji and Fasoli talks about the influence of Modern Family The article looked at if exposure to Modern Family, specifically the same gender adoptive parents, would change attitudes towards same gender parenting. The authors found that by watching Modern Family, and the LGBTQ characters within the show, can reduce prejudice and increase acceptance towards same gender parents. The study found that when queer families are portrayed as "normal" through the lens of a sitcom, people are more likely to support same gender parenting. The study also found that media can act as a unit of change.
== In popular culture ==
In the first episode of the sixteenth season of Family Guy, titled "Emmy-Winning Episode," Modern Family is parodied along with other series. The characters of Family Guy attempt to win an Emmy by mimicking popular shows, including Modern Family. Actresses Julie Bowen and Sofia Vergara also lend their voices as guest characters.
In the seventh episode of WandaVision, titled "Breaking the Fourth Wall," the sitcom elements serve as a tribute to Modern Family. The episode reflects the setting, aesthetic, and mockumentary format of Modern Family, including a title card that closely resembles that of the original series. It also mirrors Modern Family by using brief flashbacks, notably during Wanda Maximoff's reference to the previous night's events. Jacob Sarkisian of Business Insider remarked that Elizabeth Olsen channeled Julie Bowen's Claire Dunphy in her portrayal of Maximoff, closely resembling her and emulating her hand gestures and vocal intonations Actress Julie Bowen expressed her gratitude on Instagram for the homage to Modern Family. Her post included two images: one of a television paused on the WandaVision title sequence, which mimics the font and format of Modern Family, and another of Wanda Maximoff staring deadpan at the camera, reminiscent of Bowen's portrayal of Claire Dunphy. In her caption, Bowen conveyed her surprise and appreciation, extending her thanks to Marvel for the reference.
== Adaptations ==
Chile: MEGA was the first in the world to buy the rights of Modern Family to produce their own version of the series, with the title Familia moderna, which premiered on December 3, 2015. One difference in this is Mitchell and Cameron's counterparts in this version do not adopt, but instead one of them is the biological father of the child as a result of a drunken fling. They take custody of the child while the mother travels overseas.
Greece: Mega Channel bought the rights of Modern Family for Greece and Cyprus and announced a Greek language adaptation, under the name Moderna Oikogeneia, which premiered on March 20, 2014.
Iran: The Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting produced a scene-by-scene remake of Modern Family, titled Haft Sang which premiered on June 30, 2014. However, in this version the same-sex relationship between Cam and Mitchell of the original series was replaced by a heterosexual relationship. Also, Haley Dunphy's character is replaced by a teenage boy. Due to this change, Haley's boyfriend Dylan is replaced by a close friend of the teenage boy.
== Cancelled spinoffs ==
In early 2013, a spin-off series centered around Rob Riggle's character Gil Thorpe was revealed to be in early stages of development.
In June 2020, ABC Entertainment president Karey Burke discussed a spin-off of Modern Family centered around Mitch and Cam, inspired by an idea from series co-creator and executive producer, Steven Levitan. In June 2022, star Jesse Tyler Ferguson confirmed that the script for the show's spinoff is completed. "The script's out there and it's very good," he told. "So you know, who knows? If someone wants to produce it, maybe." In September 2024, Eric Stonestreet stated that the spin-off "[isn't] potential anymore" and that the time to produce it has passed, despite believing that the series would have been a "slam dunk". |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaquina_Bay_Light | Yaquina Bay Light | The Yaquina Bay Light is a lighthouse that was built in 1871, soon after the founding of the city of Newport, Oregon, in the United States. It is located on the north side of Yaquina Bay. In 1871–1874, it was the busiest and most populated of the many coastal ports between Washington and California.
== History ==
The Yaquina Bay Light was built by Ben Simpson and first lit on November 3, 1871. It was active for only three years due to the establishment of the larger Yaquina Head Light in 1873 that was located just 3 miles (4.8 km) north of the Yaquina Bay Light. So the lighthouse was decommissioned on October 1, 1874, because the newer Yaquina Head Light made it obsolete. The fifth-order Fresnel lens was then installed in the Yerba Buena Light in California for its opening in 1875.
The United States Army Corps of Engineers used the lighthouse from 1888 to 1896 as their living quarters while they built the North and South Jetties at the mouth of Yaquina Bay. The United States Coast Guard later used the lighthouse as lookout and living quarters from 1906 to 1915, before moving to their more central quarters which overlooked the busy Newport bayfront. During this period, the Coast Guard also built the eight-story steel observation tower that still stands next to the original lighthouse.
In 1934, the Oregon State Highway Division bought the property around the lighthouse to build a new state park. The park site included the lighthouse, the Coast Guard observation tower, and many acres of forested bluff, ocean dunes and surrounding beaches. It is now the Yaquina Bay State Recreation Area and consists of 32 acres of several day-use areas including hiking trails, picnic areas, fishing, and beach access, and has approximately 1,700,000 visitors per year.
Sometime later in 1946, the lighthouse was scheduled for demolition, which led to the formation of the Lincoln County Historical Society to save it. They raised money for three years to save the dilapidated structure, and got a delay. But by 1951, demolition was again scheduled. Then, Mr. L. E. Warford, who had recently moved to Newport from Ohio, arranged for the Yaquina Bay Lighthouse to be recognized as a historical site supervised by the Historical Society. It served as a county museum for 18 years until 1970.
The lighthouse was then listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1970, and restored under the Historic Preservation Act in 1974. At that time, its ownership was transferred to the Oregon Parks and Recreation Department.
The light was re-lit on December 7, 1996, with "a 9.8-inch (250 mm) modern optic, on loan from lighthouse historian James A. Gibbs." The lighthouse is now a privately maintained navigational aid belonging to the U.S. Coast Guard that displays "a fixed white light visible for six miles," and is open for public viewing and tours daily.
The Yaquina Bay structure is the only existing lighthouse in the state in which the living quarters are housed in the same building as the light. Only a few with this arrangement were built on the entire Pacific coast.
The building is reputed to be haunted. The haunting is the subject of a fictional work by a local author called The Lighthouse Ghost Of Yaquina Bay. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niland_brothers | Niland brothers | The Niland brothers were four American brothers from Tonawanda, New York, who served in the military during World War II. They were sons of Mr. and Mrs. Michael C. Niland. Two survived the war but, for a time, only one, Frederick "Fritz" Niland, was believed to have survived. After the reported deaths of his three brothers, Fritz was sent back to the United States to complete his service, and only later learned that his brother Edward, missing and presumed dead, was captive in a Japanese POW camp in Burma.
== Brothers ==
Technical Sergeant Edward Francis Niland (December 22, 1912 – February 28, 1984), U.S. Army Air Forces: Imprisoned in a Japanese POW camp in Burma, he was captured on May 16, 1944, and liberated on May 4, 1945. After Edward's B-25 Mitchell was hit, he parachuted and wandered through the Burmese jungle before being taken prisoner. Edward lived in Tonawanda until his death in 1984 at the age of 71.
Second Lieutenant Preston Thomas Niland (March 6, 1915 – June 7, 1944), 29, 22nd Infantry Regiment, 4th Infantry Division, was killed in action on June 7, 1944, in Normandy, at the Crisbecq Battery.
Technical Sergeant Robert Joseph "Bob" Niland (February 2, 1919 – June 6, 1944), 25, D Company, 505th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 82nd Airborne Division was killed in action on June 6, 1944, in Normandy. He volunteered to stay behind with Corporal James Kelly and hold off a German advance while his company retreated from Neuville-au-Plain. He was killed while manning his machine gun; Corporal James Kelly survived.
Sergeant Frederick William "Fritz" Niland (April 23, 1920 – December 1, 1983), H Company, 501st Parachute Infantry Regiment, 101st Airborne Division: Fritz was close friends with Warren Muck and Donald Malarkey, from E Company, 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment, 101st Airborne Division. Fritz fought through the first few days of the Normandy campaign. Nine days following D-Day, Fritz had gone to the 82nd Airborne Division to see his brother, Bob. Once he arrived at division, he was informed that Bob had been killed on D-Day. Fritz was shipped back to England, and finally, to the U.S., where he served as an MP in New York until the completion of the war. Fritz was awarded a Bronze Star for his service. This story is evidenced in Stephen Ambrose's book Band of Brothers, as well as from biographical data on Francis L. Sampson. Private James Ryan in the film Saving Private Ryan is loosely based on him. Fritz married Marilyn Hartnett Batt and they had two daughters, Catherine (Cate) and Mary. Fritz died in 1983 in San Francisco at the age of 63.
== Memorials ==
== In popular culture ==
Steven Spielberg's 1998 film Saving Private Ryan is loosely based on the brothers' story. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simba | Simba | Simba is a fictional character in Disney’s The Lion King franchise. He first appears as the main protagonist in The Lion King (1994), starting as a cub where he flees the Pride Lands after his father, Mufasa, is murdered by his uncle, Scar, who deceives Simba into believing he is responsible for the death. Years later, Simba returns as an adult to confront Scar and reclaim his rightful place as king of the Pride Lands. He subsequently appears in the sequels The Lion King II: Simba's Pride and The Lion King 1½.
Created by The Lion King's screenwriters, Irene Mecchi, Jonathan Roberts, and Linda Woolverton, Simba underwent several changes as the film's story developed, including making him a more sympathetic character and establishing his familial relation to Scar. Although conceived as an original character, Simba was inspired by Moses and Joseph from the Bible, as well as the title character from William Shakespeare's Hamlet. Despite sharing similarities with the character from the anime television series Kimba the White Lion, Disney has refuted claims that Simba was inspired by Kimba. Mark Henn and Ruben A. Aquino were supervising animators for the cub and adult Simba, respectively, with both animators researching live lions and drawing inspiration from the character's voice actors. Simba was originally voiced by actors Jonathan Taylor Thomas as a cub and an adult by Matthew Broderick, respectively; various actors have voiced the character in sequels, spin-offs, and related media.
Simba has received a mixed reception from film critics, some of whom praised his design but found him uninteresting as a main character. However, several publications have ranked Simba among Disney's most iconic characters, and consider him to be one of the most famous lions in popular culture. The character's likeness has been used in several tie-in products, including merchandise, television series, and video games. In 1997, The Lion King actors Scott Irby-Ranniar and Jason Raize originated the role on Broadway. In 2019, Donald Glover and JD McCrary voiced the character in a photorealistic remake of the film.
== Role ==
Simba first appears in The Lion King as a cub, the son of King Mufasa and Queen Sarabi. As Mufasa's heir, Simba is destined to become the next King of the Pride Lands. However, Simba's jealous uncle Scar plots against him in order to seize the throne for himself, betraying and killing Mufasa after he rescues Simba from a wildebeest stampede, and then deceiving Simba into believing he is responsible for Mufasa's death. Crippled with guilt, Simba flees to the jungle where he befriends Timon and Pumbaa, a meerkat and warthog who raise him and teach him to live the carefree lifestyle, but, for some reason, Simba hadn't noticed that he continuously struggles to ignore his past just for close attention. Years later, Simba's childhood friend Nala finds him and convinces him to return to the Pride Lands which has grown barren and starving under Scar's rule. After being visited by Rafiki and Mufasa's spirit who reminds him of his responsibilities, Simba confronts Scar who finally admits to killing Mufasa and defeats him, reclaiming his rightful place as king. With order restored and Scar killed by the hyenas, Simba and Nala have a child, thus ushering in hope for the future of the Pride Lands.
In The Lion King II: Simba's Pride, Simba and Nala commemorate the birth of their daughter, Kiara, who Simba is overprotective of since she grows up to be adventurous and rebellious like he was as a cub. Simba discovers that Kiara has visited the forbidden Outlands – home to an enemy pride of Scar's exiled followers known as the Outsiders – and befriended Kovu, the younger son of the pride's leader, Zira. Unbeknownst to them, Zira is grooming Kovu to avenge Scar by usurping Simba. Several years later, Kovu rescues Kiara from a wildfire started by Kovu's siblings, Nuka and Vitani. Simba reluctantly lets Kovu, who claims to have left the Outsiders, live with them, but continues to act coldly towards him. Witnessing Kiara and Kovu's growing friendship, Simba decides to spend a day getting to know Kovu. Realizing that Kovu is beginning to side with Simba due to his feelings for Kiara, Zira ambushes Simba and convinces him that Kovu orchestrated the attack. After narrowly escaping with his life, Simba exiles Kovu and warns Kiara against seeing him, prompting her to leave. When a battle ensues between the Pride Landers and Outsiders, Kiara and Kovu return to stop them, with Kiara helping Simba and the prides reconcile their differences peacefully. Zira attacks Simba as he is about to accept the Outsiders back into his pride, but he she is intercepted by Kiara, causing the pair of lionesses to tumble over the edge of a cliff. Having landed safely on a ledge, Kiara offers to help Zira, who is struggling to hang on. However, Zira, consumed by resentment, refuses help and falls to her death. Simba finally accepts Kovu into the pride and reconciles with his daughter.
In The Lion King 1½, Simba appears as a less prominent character because the film's primary focus is on Timon and Pumbaa's behind-the-scenes role and involvement in the events of The Lion King. Although the two films technically share the same story and timeline, the plot of The Lion King 1½ focuses more on Timon and Pumbaa. The meerkat and warthog unknowingly coexist alongside Simba, and the story fills in the two characters' backstories and events that led up to their long-lasting friendship, coinciding with and often initiating the events that affect Simba's life during the first film. These events include the commemorative bow that occurs during the opening "Circle of Life" musical number and the collapsing of the animal tower that takes place during "I Just Can't Wait to Be King". The film also explores, in further detail, the relationship among the three characters as Timon and Pumbaa struggle to raise Simba as adoptive "parents" and disapprove of his relationship with Nala, portraying Simba as he grows from an energetic young lion cub, into an incorrigible teenager and, finally, an independent young lion.
== Development ==
=== Creation ===
The Lion King was conceived in 1988. Although considered an original story that follows a young lion, Simba, becoming an adult and learning to take responsibility for his actions, the film's creators drew inspiration for the character from various sources, namely several coming-of-age stories and the biblical figures Moses and Joseph. The film underwent several title changes, one of the earliest of which was King of the Jungle. According to producer Don Hahn, this title was intended to serve as an allegory about Simba needing to survive and grow up in both a literal and metaphorical jungle. However, they renamed it The Lion King upon realizing lions don't live in jungles, and wanting to shift focus to a simpler story about a lion becoming king. Some filmmakers nicknamed the film "Bambi in Africa" due to similarities between The Lion King and Disney's own Bambi. The name "Simba" is the Swahili word for "lion". Unlike Disney's three previous romantic films The Little Mermaid, Beauty and the Beast, and Aladdin, The Lion King focuses on Simba's relationship with his father.
In April 1992, the filmmakers hosted a "brainstorming session" in which much of the film, including Simba's personality, was re-written. Story supervisor Brenda Chapman realized they had written a proud, unlikeable character. Originally, Simba was intended to remain with his pride after Mufasa's death until this was revised to make him a more sympathetic character. Additionally, one of the earliest iterations of Scar was a rogue lion unrelated to Simba, whereas Simba was meant to be raised by Scar in another version. According to Disney Theatrical Group president Tom Schumacher, Scar was planned to kill Simba and Mufasa at the same time, only for other characters to mistake him for saving Simba from the stampede. Instead of meeting Timon and Pumbaa, this version of Simba would have grown up a slacker under Scar's reign, making him easier to overthrow. A short scene depicting a young Simba wandering the desert before meeting Timon and Pumbaa was also cut.
Screenwriter Linda Woolverton, one of the writers credited with creating the character, joined the film to revise its screenplay, which included providing Simba with a stronger adversary by changing the rogue lion into Simba's uncle. She felt the change contributed more Shakespearean elements to the story. The character has often been compared to Prince Hamlet from William Shakespeare's tragedy Hamlet. In an earlier version of the script, Simba was meant to lose his final fight to Scar, being thrown from Pride Rock before his uncle ultimately dies in a fire. Nala's younger brother Mheetu, who Simba was to have rescued from a stampede, was also written out of the film, as well as a trio of Simba's childhood friends. For a while, the story team struggled to come up with a convincing reason as to why Simba would believe he was responsible for Mufasa's death, without killing him. Story artist Chris Sanders explained that the key to this was eventually accepting that a child in an extremely emotional state would simply believe what their uncle told them.
Addressing online speculation that Simba and Nala could potentially be related since Mufasa and Scar are the only adult male lions identified in the film, Woolverton acknowledged that although it is possible, she had never written Simba and Nala as cousins or siblings. Although Woolverton admitted that songs such as "Hakuna Matata" were non-essential to the plot and arrived later during the writing process, she confirmed that it helps demonstrate Simba during his "lost boy" phase. Some of Disney's marketing team doubted Simba's marketability, since most of Disney's lead characters at the time were female or princesses.
=== Voice ===
Actor Matthew Broderick provided the speaking voice of adult Simba. The first actor cast for The Lion King, Broderick learned that Disney was interested in him for the lead role while he was vacationing in Ireland, to where Disney sent him sketches of Simba. The filmmakers hired him based on his performance in the teen comedy film Ferris Bueller's Day Off. According to Hahn, Broderick was cast because his voice invoked a character who could be irresponsible yet likeable enough to redeem himself. Minkoff recalled that the actor was able to humanize the character, preventing the hero from "becoming 2-dimensional" using a combination of sensitivity, thoughtfulness, and humor. Having been involved in the film since early development, Broderick said he had always assumed The Lion King was an adaptation of Hamlet, elements of which were most prominent when he was first cast. Broderick worked on the film on-and-off for two-three years, often re-recording his work to match what the animators had drawn several months later. He also slightly lowered his pitch to establish Simba's maturity once he decides to become king. Although Broderick recorded most of his lines alone, he briefly recorded with an actress who had originally been cast as Nala until she was ultimately replaced with Moira Kelly, which Broderick only learned had happened at the film's premiere. The actor said he sometimes felt left out when recording his lines, which were more somber in comparison to the film's supporting cast.
Disney auditioned dozens of child actors for the role of young Simba, searching for an actor who could embody "a scrappy young kid". Actor Jonathan Taylor Thomas was cast as the speaking voice of young Simba. He was 12 years-old at the time. Thomas did not alter his voice for the character, but simply spoke "with a real kid spirit" since Simba had been described to him by the film's directors as "energetically cocky". Thomas recorded his lines in hour-long sessions over the course of a year and a half. Because he was working by himself, he improvised much of what other characters were supposed to be saying to his character due to the lack of other actors on set. Due to his busy schedule, Thomas recorded some his dialogue on the Home Improvement set, the sitcom on which he was starring at the time, since both productions were filmed on Disney's Burbank lot. His recording sessions were video recorded, which animators used to incorporate some of Thomas' expressions and mannerisms into their drawings, namely the actor's "sly smile". His appearance and personality served as creative inspiration for supervising animator Mark Henn in particular. The actor found Simba's curiosity similar to his own. He also likened Simba to his Home Improvement character Randy Taylor, describing both as curious, intuitive, confident, and quick-witted. Hahn recalled "rough[ing Thomas] up" during certain recording sessions when his character was intended to sound active or out of breath, in order to deliver a convincing performance.
Although Broderick recorded his character's songs twice, the studio opted not to use his vocals in the final film, which the actor attributed to Disney being interested in a poppier sound than he was capable of delivering. Toto lead singer Joseph Williams and actor Jason Weaver provided the singing voices of adult and young Simba, respectively. Williams was originally hired to record all of Aladdin's vocals. However, Aladdin's songwriters preferred a more theatrical voice over Williams', and ultimately replaced him with actor Brad Kane. Several months later, Disney's music supervisor Chris Montan invited Williams back to record some demos, which ultimately became the songs used in The Lion King. Although Williams speculated that he would be replaced similar to Aladdin, all of his vocals were retained in the final film. Williams claims Broderick was upset that Disney had decided to dub him. He recorded "Hakuna Matata” and “Can You Feel the Love Tonight" for the film.
Impressed by Weaver's performance as a young Michael Jackson in the miniseries The Jacksons: An American Dream, songwriters Elton John and Tim Rice recruited him to record "I Just Can't Wait to Be King" and "Hakuna Matata" while The Lion King was still in its early stages and little animation had been completed. Weaver said the songwriters approached his mother about wanting Simba's singing voice to have "a young Michael Jackson vibe". Weaver recorded "I Just Can't Wait to Be King" only a few days after completing the miniseries, with John in particular vouching for his involvement in The Lion King. His meeting with Disney in Burbank was intended to only be an audition but he ultimately recorded "I Just Can't Wait to Be King" in two takes, completing his work before he had to fly back to Chicago. His recording from the audition was ultimately retained for the final film, which Weaver said they had prepared for extensively prior. Impressed by his performance, the directors considered offering Weaver the speaking role as well before learning that negotiations with Thomas had already been finalized. Disney originally offered Weaver $2 million USD for his work on The Lion King, but Weaver's mother declined in favor of a deal securing $100,000 upfront and lifetime royalties. Weaver receives a portion of the film's revenue every time it is re-released, and his total earnings have since exceeded Disney's initial offer. Weaver was not invited to the film's premiere and did little promotion for it, which he attributes to Disney's desire to use the bigger names in the cast to promote the film. Voice actor Frank Welker provided the roars of adult Simba and all other lions, simulating the effect using a trash can.
=== Personality and design ===
Disney has long denied accusations that The Lion King is based on the anime series Kimba the White Lion, despite similarities between the names "Simba" and "Kimba", as well as some concept art depicting Simba as a white lion. The studio maintains that any parallels are coincidental. However, Broderick said he thought he had originally been cast in an American remake of Kimba because the characters seemed so similar to him at first. Because Disney was prioritizing Pocahontas over The Lion King, the former of which most of their experienced animators gravitated towards since the studio considered it the more promising of the two projects, Simba was one of the few Lion King characters animated at the studio's main California location. This proved challenging for the production team because Simba shares several scenes with characters who were animated in Florida.
The role of Simba's supervising animator was divided between Ruben A. Aquino and Mark Henn, the former of whom was the first animator hired for The Lion King. Henn served as the supervising animator of Simba as a cub, and Aquino animated him as an adult. Aquino and Henn worked on the character from Disney's California and Florida studios, respectively. According to Aquino, animating four-legged creatures is difficult because artists are required to draw twice as many legs as human characters, while still incorporating human-like qualities. For assistance, Aquino drew inspiration from Disney's previous animal films such as Bambi, Lady and the Tramp, and The Jungle Book. Aquino based his early drawings of Simba on Broderick, whose voice he said offers the character "a lot of humor and vulnerability ... which really gave me something to go on and made it easier for me to flesh out my performance". Aquino would quietly sketch Broderick live during his sessions, which would end up informing each other's performances. Because the adult version of the character is introduced mildly depressed, Aquino originally drew him with sad, soulful eyes and a disheveled mane, but redesigned him to look more heroic at Hahn's request. As a result, Simba ended up resembling Mufasa. To make sure the character looked believable, Aquino studied live lions loaned to the studio and consulted with zoologists.
Henn animated Simba's scenes from the beginning of the film until approximately the "Hakuna Matata" sequence, including Simba's first appearance as an adult towards the end of the musical number. Before The Lion King, his experience as a supervising animator was limited to predominantly female characters, having previously worked on Ariel from The Little Mermaid, Belle from Beauty and the Beast, and Jasmine from Aladdin. He initially campaigned heavily to animate the film's villain, Scar, because he wanted to do something different than the princesses he had become known for, but Hahn convinced him to work on Simba due to his experience with main characters. Hahn reminded Henn that the success of the entire film hinges on Simba's design, since he is considered the most important character in The Lion King, and the animator found it a welcome departure from leading ladies nonetheless. Aside from Andreas Deja who ultimately animated Scar, Henn was the most tenured animator on The Lion King, whose roster mostly consisted of newer or first-time animators. Simba proved to be a challenge because Henn was tasked with creating an animated character who would both appear and behave like a real lion cub for the first time. To achieve believability, Henn visited zoos, studied live lion cubs that were loaned to the studio for research, and consulted with wildlife professionals. Henn maintained that animators can not simply use their cats as reference models due to their different anatomies. Recalling their efforts to make his character as realistic as possible, Henn said that, unlike domestic cats, lion cubs “have a power ... underlying that seemingly soft exterior". He was also responsible for making sure Simba's appearance remained consistent between himself, the directors, and other animators.
When it came to animating the "I Just Can't Wait to Be King" musical sequence, Henn insisted that Simba remain on all-fours, despite the character exhibiting human characteristics by dancing. The animators would often observe and film the actors' recording sessions, using their mannerisms as visual reference, with Thomas proving particularly influential on Simba's design and personality. Henn described his version of the character as a young, cocky, inexperienced cub who had yet to mature, which he hoped would remind viewers of their younger selves. Compared to adult Simba, Simba is "looser" and less physically assured, which allowed Henn to draw him "a little more awkward, his feet were a little bigger, they could be a little floppier than when he’s an adult". Although Henn and Aquino did not spend much time discussing the character's design with each other, both artists referenced live lions and received input from the same research team to determine how Simba should look and behave. Catherine Hinman of the Orlando Sentinel observed that the animators' extensive research resulted in "a lion cub who moves like his aristocratic cousins on the savannah but acts like the kid down the street". Tom Bancroft, an animator who worked on Simba under Henn, described his supervisor as the fastest animator at Disney at the time, making it difficult for other animators to acquire their own scenes to animate as Henn would typically do them himself. According to the Academy of Art University, Henn's work on Simba "further cemented his place in [animation] history".
Some journalists believe Simba's mane was based on how singer Jon Bon Jovi styled his hair during the 1980s. Simba spends 55% of his screen time as a cub, and the remaining 45% as an adult lion. At the time of the film's release, Simba had the most screen time of any Disney hero, appearing in 49.71% of the film (or 43 minutes and 51 seconds).
== Critical reception ==
Reception towards Simba has been generally mixed. The Christian Science Monitor's David Sterritt hailed him as "a superbly realized character". Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly described Simba as "marvelously expressive", to the point where he appears to be more human-like than Aladdin and The Little Mermaid's human characters. In a review for The Fresno Bee, author John Scalzi called Simba "the cutest little lion club you'd ever care to see", and film critic Roger Ebert described him as "cute" several times throughout his review of the film. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone and About.com's David Nusair were moved by Simba's relationship with Mufasa. James Berardinelli of ReelViews enjoyed that the film prioritizes Simba's personal growth over his romantic relationship with Nala, but found Broderick's performance "nondescript".
Vox described Simba as "the least compelling character in The Lion King", acknowledging this might be a controversial opinion. Hal Hinson of The Washington Post gave the character a negative review, questioning Simba as a hero and nicknaming him "the Lion Country incarnation of Fabio". Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times said Simba was outshone by his sidekicks, describing him as "irritatingly callow". Joshua Starnes of ComingSoon.net panned Simba as a main character, describing him as the film's "weak link being both blandly designed and blandly performed". Acknowledging the character's Shakespearean roots, The Baltimore Sun's Stephen Hunter called Simba a less compelling version of Hamlet, Morris the Cat, and Sylvester the Cat. Hunter also found adult Simba to be even less interesting than young Simba, while film critic Gene Siskel found the character boring. Johnny Brayson of Bustle described Simba as "not as great as you remember" despite the character's popularity, criticizing his privileged upbringing, arrogance, and immaturity. Jonathan Allford of The Guardian called Simba "a happy, slightly dislikable lion cub". In 2022, Rachel Ulatowski of Screen Rant wrote that despite differing opinions about the character, "Audiences cannot deny that Simba's design perfectly embodies his role as the tragic hero" with "an intriguing appearance that is heroic, bold, charming, but also weary and disheveled at times. The contrasting elements paint him perfectly as an exiled prince who has been through tragedy in his life".
Despite the character's mixed reviews, several critics have praised Broderick's performance, including The Washington Post's Desson Howe. Annette Basile of FilmInk described Broderick as "excellent" in the role, while Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian called him "sumptuous". Digital Spy's Mayer Nissim described Broderick's work as "wonderful". Several critics and publications have ranked The Lion King among his best films and performances. According to the actor's biography on PBS, Broderick's work in the film and its sequels ironically delivered him "his greatest screen success (to date) in relative anonymity". Gold Derby said the film earned Broderick legions of younger fans, ranking it his sixth best film. MovieWeb ranked Simba the greatest performance of Thomas' career, praising his "wide range of emotions". However, Janet M. Walker of the New York Amsterdam News criticized Disney for casting white actors as Simba, considering his parents are voiced by Black actors James Earl Jones and Madge Sinclair. Christopher Null of Contactmusic.com panned Weaver's performance, likening his singing to Michael Jackson and saying "You almost don't want him to succeed".
When the film was released, some viewers alleged that during one of Simba's scenes, he creates a dust cloud that appears to spell the word "SEX" in the night sky. In a lawsuit filed against Disney in Texas, the studio was accused of including sexual subliminal messages in a family-oriented film, while Catholic activist organization American Life League demanded an apology for including sexual material in its films. Animator Tom Sito claims the letters actually spelled "SFX", an abbreviation for special effects, and was an easter egg animated by the film's special effects department. Beginning in 2002, the letters were edited out of re-releases of The Lion King, and replaced with standard dust clouds.
== Cultural impact ==
=== Legacy and popularity ===
According to a Vox writer, Simba is not as iconic as Scar or Mufasa, which they attributed to the character's perceived lack of agency and tendency to rely on instructions from other characters. Contrarily, Marc Snetiker of Entertainment Weekly described Simba as an iconic character who has "spent nearly a quarter century etched into pop culture". Chhavi Puri of Pinkvilla said characters such as Simba "defined our childhood". The same publication named Simba the second-best Disney character of all-time and "undoubtedly one of the best male Disney characters", while The A.V. Club ranked him 29th. According Toons Mag, Simba is one of the 10 best Disney cartoon characters of all time and "one of Disney's most significant characters". Looper ranked Simba Disney's 37th best character of all-time. Variety named Simba one of Disney's 25 most iconic characters. According to Arunkumar Sekhar of Cinema Express and Rachel Ulatowski of Screen Rant, Simba is one of the studio's most iconic animated characters. In a 1995 article ranking "The most powerful people in entertainment", Entertainment Weekly likened Disney chairman Michael Eisner's success story to that of Simba. Publications such as World Animal Protection, the Los Angeles Times, Wilmington Star-News, and the Birmingham Mail consider Simba to be one of the most famous lions in popular culture. Richard Fink of MovieWeb declared him "the most famous lion in all of cinema".
Charlotte Cripps of The Independent ranked Simba Disney's second best role-model for children. Comic Book Resources ranked Simba Disney's 12th most likeable prince character, due to his relatability. Collider ranked Simba The Lion King's fourth-best character, as well as the best protagonist of the Disney Renaissance. Contributor Tyler B. Searle said Simba "has one of the strongest character arcs of any Disney protagonist". Writing for the same publication, Anas Yamin said Simba has the best character development of all Disney main characters. Comic Book Resources ranked Simba eighth in their ranking, including him among "some of the most beloved and iconic main characters in animation history".
Simba's appearance has also generated online debates discussing whether it is appropriate for fans to consider the character attractive, because he is a cartoon lion. Several publications, such as Refinery 29, HuffPost, Seventeen, The Edge, YourTango, The Daily Edge, Pride, and Thought Catalog, included Simba in listicles about their most memorable "cartoon crushes", while Elle ranked him the fourth most attractive Disney prince. Polygon ranked Simba the sixth "hottest animated animal character", and Mashable ranked him eighth. Refinery29's Anne Cohen lamented that the 2019 remake lacks the "Hot Simba Energy" of the original film. Kayla Cobb of Decider theorized that Disney wanted audiences to know that "in the lion world, Simba is a babe" by drawing him with traditionally attractive and masculine features. Louis Costello, a writer for Pedestrian, said "yes it’s okay to be attracted to adult Simba and yes you’re not the only one". In 2019, the pop culture website Punkee published an article asking readers "Why Are We All So Thirsty For Simba?", which author Jenna Guillaume attributed to the character's long mane, smile, "flirty eyebrow raise", and Broderick's voice. Senior lecturer Dr. Lauren Rosewarne theorized that Simba's story and character development throughout The Lion King offers several opportunities for viewers to find him attractive, progressing from wounded, ostracized cub to “potentially offers a bad boy, and then the hero appeal that some audiences will be drawn to".
=== Pop culture references ===
During the film's opening song, "Circle of Life", Rafiki introduces a newborn Simba to a large crowd of onlooking animals gathered at the foot of Pride Rock by standing towards the edge and holding the cub high above their heads, while Mufasa and Sarabi observe from behind them. The scene is considered to be one of the most famous from The Lion King, and has been parodied in several projects since the film's release. Several fans have recreated the image using their own children or pets, including, controversially, singer Michael Jackson in 1992, and Brendan Fraser at the end of the film George of the Jungle. During the third season finale of Once Upon a Time, the main character Emma Swan asked her parents Snow White and David Nolan if they were going to hold up her yet unnamed baby brother like in The Lion King.
Since the release of The Lion King, the name "Simba" has increased in use and popularity among pet owners, specifically dogs and cats. According to Comcast in 2010, the use of Simba as a dog name reemerged in popularity in 2009 after experiencing a noticeable decline in 2001, ranking the name ninth out of 10 on its list of "Top 10 Trendiest Dog Names of the Year". In May 2013, Yahoo! Lifestyle included the name on its list of "Trendiest Dog Names". According to YouPet, Simba is the 17th most popular cat name out of 100 candidates. Care2 included Simba in its article "All-around Cool Cat Names," while DutchNews.nl reported that Simba ranks among the country's most popular cat names as of July 2013. In its list of "Top Popular Pet Names," BabyNames.com placed Simba at number 64 on its list of most popular dog names out of the 100 that were considered. Yahoo! News UK reported that Simba was one of the most popular pet names in Britain in 2016. Corresponding with the Lion King remake in 2019, Simba was that year's most popular male cat name. According to Daily Hive, Simba ranked among Toronto's 10 most popular dog names in 2021.
== In other media ==
Actors Donald Glover and JD McCrary voiced adult and young Simba, respectively, in the 2019 photorealistic remake of The Lion King. The remake closely adheres the plot and characters from the original, but devotes more time to exploring Simba's transition from lion cub to adult. Although the film had already been completed, Glover asked to rerecord his work after his own father died, claiming the experience strengthened his understanding of his character. To commemorate the remake's release, Funko Pop! released several vinyl figurines of Simba and other main characters from the film. Glover reprised his role in Mufasa: The Lion King, which coveys the story of Mufasa's origins and upbringing to Simba's daughter Kiara.
Simba makes several guest appearances on the animated television series The Lion King's Timon & Pumbaa. Beginning with the television special The Lion Guard: Return of the Roar, Simba guest appears on the animated series The Lion Guard, which mostly occurs during the timeline of The Lion King II: Simba's Pride's. It follows Simba and Nala's second-born cub, Kion, who becomes leader of the Lion Guard tasked with protecting the Pride Lands. Simba is voiced by Rob Lowe. The character was also featured as guest on the animated series House of Mouse, as well as its spin-off film Mickey's Magical Christmas: Snowed in at the House of Mouse.
Actors Scott Irby-Ranniar and Jason Raize played young and adult Simba, respectively, in the original Broadway cast of the stage adaptation of The Lion King. Raize auditioned after learning that director Julie Taymor was looking for ethnically ambiguous actors. Raize said the role was highly sought-after because the musical required more "triple-threat work" than other Broadway shows at the time, and immediately felt connected to Simba. Once cast, Raize found it challenging to maintain the character's duality because Simba is "both man and beast", without sacrificing one for the other. Although hundreds of child actors auditioned for the role of young Simba, the casting process was much less grueling for Irby-Ranniar who, according to Taymor, simply "walked in and he had the part". Both actors received positive reviews for their performances.
=== Merchandising and video games ===
As an part of the franchise's merchandising, Simba has appeared in various The Lion King-related products. The character's likeness has been used in and adapted into a variety of items, including plush toys and figurines, clothing, bedding, household decor, and appliances. The success of the stage musical has also led to its own line of merchandising, including the Simba beanbag doll, based on the character's appearance and costume in the Broadway show.
Simba has appeared as a playable character in several video games both directly and indirectly associated with the Lion King franchise. The character's first appearance as a video game character was in The Lion King (1994), which follows the plot of the original film and features Simba as both a cub and an adult. Simba appears in The Lion King: Simba's Mighty Adventure (2000), which encompasses 10 levels that incorporate the plot of both The Lion King and The Lion King II: Simba's Pride as "Simba ... matures from a precocious cub to an adult lion".
In the Kingdom Hearts video game franchise, Simba appears as a friend and ally of the series' main character, Sora, in Kingdom Hearts, Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories and Kingdom Hearts III, and as a companion in battle in Kingdom Hearts II. Simba also appears as a playable character in Disney Interactive Studios' Disney's Extreme Skate Adventure and Disney Magic Kingdoms. He is one of the central characters in Disney Friends and also appears as a villager in the life simulation adventure game Disney Dreamlight Valley.
=== Walt Disney Parks and Resorts ===
Live versions of Simba appear in the Lion King musical and in the parades and shows at the Walt Disney Parks and Resorts.
Simba was also the main character in "Legend of the Lion King," a former Fantasyland attraction in Walt Disney World's Magic Kingdom, which retold the story of the film using fully articulated puppets. Other Disney attractions that have featured Simba include the Mickey's PhilharMagic 3D show and the Hong Kong Disneyland version of It's a Small World.
He appeared as one of the main characters at Epcot's Land Pavilion 12-minute edutainment film Circle of Life: An Environmental Fable, until its closure in 2018. He currently appears in animatronic form in Festival of the Lion King at Disney's Animal Kingdom. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1932_Summer_Olympics | 1932 Summer Olympics | The 1932 Summer Olympics (officially the Games of the X Olympiad and also known as Los Angeles 1932) were an international multi-sport event held from July 30 to August 14, 1932, in Los Angeles, California, United States. The Games were held during the worldwide Great Depression, with some nations not traveling to Los Angeles as a result; 37 countries competed, compared to the 46 at the 1928 Games in Amsterdam, and even then-U.S. President Herbert Hoover did not attend the Games. The organizing committee did not report the financial details of the Games, although contemporary newspapers stated that the Games had made a profit of US$1 million (equivalent to US$18.67 million in 2024).
== Host city selection ==
The selection of the host city for the 1932 Summer Olympics was made at the 23rd IOC Session in Rome, Italy, on April 9, 1923. Remarkably, the selection process consisted of a single bid, from Los Angeles's Olympic Committee led by Billy May Garland, and as there were no bids from any other city, Los Angeles was selected by default to host the 1932 Games.
== Highlights ==
=== Facilities and opening ceremony ===
Charles Curtis became the first and only U.S. Vice President to inaugurate the Summer Olympic Games. An Olympic Village was built for the first time and became a model for future games, in Baldwin Hills, occupied by male athletes. Female athletes were housed at the Chapman Park Hotel on Wilshire Boulevard. Tenth Street, a major thoroughfare in Los Angeles, was renamed Olympic Boulevard in honor of the Games of the Tenth Olympiad. The Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum was known in 1932 as Olympic Stadium.
The victory podium was used for the first time at the Summer Games (a podium was also used earlier in the year at the 1932 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid). An Olympic mascot, Scottish Terrier Smoky, was featured for the first time in history, albeit unofficially.
=== Athletics and field events ===
Babe Didrikson won two gold medals in the javelin and the hurdles event. She also competed in a jump-off for a gold in the high jump. Her technique in the jump-off was ruled illegal, leaving Didrikson with second place.
Finland's Paavo Nurmi was suspended from competition by the IAAF for alleged violation of amateur rules. Finns charged that the Swedish officials had used devious tricks in their campaign against Nurmi's amateur status, and ceased all athletic relations with Sweden. A year earlier, controversies on the track and in the press had led Finland to withdraw from the Finland-Sweden athletics international. After Nurmi's suspension, Finland did not agree to return to the event until 1939.
Eddie Tolan won both the 100 m and 200 m sprint events. Poland's Stanisława Walasiewicz won the gold medal in the women's 100 m; she also won the silver medal in the event four years later. After her death in 1980, it was discovered that she was intersex and would have been ineligible to participate under modern rules.
Due to an official's error, the 3,000 m steeplechase went for 3,460 m, or one extra lap.
Several women's events debuted at these games, among them the 80 meters hurdles and javelin throw. Babe Didrikson won both events and also competed in the high jump where she was controversially denied gold, leaving her with silver. As women, unlike men, were only allowed to enter a maximum of three events, Didrikson could not compete in the discus throw, long jump, and relay where she would have likely medaled based on her prior results. Had the 200 meters and pentathlon been contested at these games (they debuted in 1964), Didrikson would have won them easily based on her performances prior to the Olympics.
=== Team sports ===
In field hockey, only three nations took part. The host nation lost both matches, 1–24 to India and 2–9 to Japan, but still won a bronze medal.
=== Gymnastics ===
Romeo Neri won three gold medals in gymnastics. Although women's team gymnastics debuted in the previous Olympics, the event was not held in these games; however, there were women gymnasts who traveled to Los Angeles and participated in exhibition events at the 1932 games.
=== Swimming ===
Helene Madison won three gold medals in swimming, while the Japanese upset the men's events and took all but one title. Kusuo Kitamura won the gold medal in the men's 1500 meter freestyle swimming race. He was and continues to be the youngest ever male swimmer to win a gold medal at the Olympic Games.
=== Equestrian ===
Takeichi Nishi (Baron Nishi) was the gold medalist with his horse Uranus in the equestrian show jumping individual event. Nishi's gold medal is Japan's only gold medal in the equestrian event to this day. Nishi died in 1945 as an officer stationed in the defense of the island of Iwo Jima, and as such is an important character in Clint Eastwood's film, Letters from Iwo Jima.
=== Cycling ===
Dunc Gray won Australia's first cycling gold medal; he set a world record of 1m 13s in the 1000 time trial. The Dunc Gray Velodrome, built for the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games, was named after him.
== Medals awarded ==
117 events in 20 disciplines, comprising 14 sports, were part of the Olympic program in 1932. In one of two Equestrian jumping events (team competitions) no medals were awarded. The number of events in each discipline is noted in parentheses.
=== Demonstration sports ===
American football (1)
Lacrosse (1)
=== Art ===
The Art competitions at the 1932 Summer Olympics awarded medals for works inspired by sport-related themes in five categories: architecture, literature, music, painting, and sculpture.
== Venues ==
Fifteen sports venues were used for the 1932 Summer Olympics. In order to control costs in the wake of the Great Depression, existing venues were used. They included two golf courses, two city parks, three public highways, and a city road. The Swimming Stadium was the only new venue constructed for these games. The Rose Bowl, constructed in 1921, was made into a temporary velodrome for track cycling events under the auspices of the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI). The Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, constructed in 1923, was used as the Olympic Stadium. The Olympic Auditorium was constructed in 1924 in preparation for Los Angeles being awarded the Games; it was modified to meet the specifications of the boxing, weightlifting, and wrestling federations. Long Beach Marine Stadium was created in 1925 when Alamitos Bay was dredged, then further dredged seven years later in time for the 1932 Games. Elysian Park, the oldest city park in Los Angeles, was founded in 1886, and has been part of the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) training academy since 1925. The Riviera Country Club opened in 1926 as the Los Angeles Athletic Club Golf Course and was renamed Riviera by the time of the 1932 Games. The Swimming Stadium, constructed adjacent to the Coliseum in 1932, was intended to be a temporary structure. Riverside Drive, Los Angeles Avenue, Vineyard Avenue, and the Pacific Coast Highway were common driving routes in California at the time of the 1932 Games.
The Coliseum was the first (& temporary) Los Angeles home for the National League (NL) Dodgers baseball team when it moved from Brooklyn, New York before the 1958 season. The following year, it hosted the 2nd 1959 MLB All-Star Game and games 3, 4 & 5 of the 1959 World Series. When Dodger Stadium was completed in 1962, the Dodgers moved there where they have been since. The National Football League (NFL) Los Angeles Rams used the Coliseum as its host stadium from 1946 to 1979 when it moved to Anaheim, located southeast of Los Angeles. It also hosted what became known as Super Bowl I in 1967. Even the American Football League's Chargers used the Coliseum as a venue in 1960 until their move to San Diego the following year. The Coliseum continues to host USC Trojans football games to this day, and also hosted UCLA Bruins football for a number of years. The Rams returned to the Coliseum for a span of four years from 2016 to 2019 while SoFi Stadium was being built.
The track constructed in the Rose Bowl was given to the Tournament of Roses Association upon completion of the 1932 Games. The Bowl was expanded between 1932 and the 1984 Summer Olympics three times, increasing its capacity from 83,000 in 1931 to 104,594 in 1972. It hosted Super Bowl XI in 1977, where the Oakland Raiders defeated the Minnesota Vikings 32–14. It is the current home of UCLA Bruins football and the Rose Bowl Game, and was the home of the Major League Soccer (MLS) Los Angeles Galaxy from 1996 to 2003.
Elysian Park's shooting range was left intact for the LAPD to use. Sunset Fields Golf Club was renamed Brentwood Country Club in 1941 and is still in use as of 2010. All of the road courses were returned to public usage after the Olympics. The Olympic Auditorium continued to be of use for boxing and roller derby events until June 2005 when it was bought to be used as a megachurch. Los Angeles Harbor continues to be a major sea port in the Western United States, employing 919,000 people and generating US$39.1 billion in annual wages and tax revenues as of 2007. The Riveria Country Club continues to host golf events, hosting the 1948 U.S. Open and the PGA Championship in 1983 and 1995. The Swim Stadium was renovated in 2003 and continues to be in use as of 2010.
For the 1984 Summer Olympics, the Coliseum and the Rose Bowl were used as venues. Both will become the first stadiums to have ever hosted three different Olympiads during the 2028 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles.
== Participating nations ==
A total of 37 nations were represented at the 1932 Games. Colombia made its first appearance at the Olympic Games, and the Republic of China competed for the first time after its failed appearance at the 1924 Games.
=== Number of athletes by National Olympic Committees ===
== Medal count ==
These are the top ten nations that won medals at the 1932 Games.
== Gallery == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eruption_of_Mount_Vesuvius_in_79_AD | Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD | In 79 AD, Mount Vesuvius, a stratovolcano located in the modern-day region of Campania, erupted, causing one of the deadliest eruptions in history. Vesuvius violently ejected a cloud of super-heated tephra and gases to a height of 33 km (21 mi), ejecting molten rock, pulverized pumice and hot ash at 1.5 million tons per second, ultimately releasing 100,000 times the thermal energy of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The event gives its name to the Vesuvian type of volcanic eruption, characterised by columns of hot gases and ash reaching the stratosphere, although the event also included pyroclastic flows associated with Peléan eruptions.
The event destroyed several Roman towns and settlements in the area. Pompeii and Herculaneum, obliterated and buried underneath massive pyroclastic surges and ashfall deposits, are the most famous examples. Archaeological excavations have revealed much of the towns and the lives of the inhabitants, leading to the area becoming Vesuvius National Park and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The total population of both cities was over 20,000. The remains of over 1,500 people have been found at Pompeii and Herculaneum. The total death toll from the eruption remains unknown.
A detailed firsthand account of the eruption is preserved in two letters of Pliny the Younger, who personally witnessed the event from the town of Misenum.
== Precursor earthquakes ==
A major earthquake caused widespread destruction around the Bay of Naples, particularly to Pompeii, on February 5, 62 AD. Some of the damage had still not been repaired when the volcano erupted in 79 AD.
Another smaller earthquake took place in 64 AD; it was recorded by Suetonius in his biography of Nero, and by Tacitus in Annales because it took place while Nero was in Naples performing for the first time in a public theater. Suetonius recorded that the emperor continued singing through the earthquake until he had finished his song, while Tacitus wrote that the theater collapsed shortly after being evacuated.
Minor earthquakes were reported in the four days before the 79 AD eruption, but the warnings were not recognized. The inhabitants of the area surrounding Mount Vesuvius had been accustomed to minor tremors in the region; Pliny the Younger wrote that they "were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania".
== Nature of the eruption ==
Reconstructions of the eruption and its effects vary considerably in the details but have the same overall features. The eruption lasted for two days. Pliny the Younger, author of the only surviving written testimony, described the morning before the eruption as normal; however, he was staying at Misenum, 29 kilometres (18 mi) from the volcano across the Bay of Naples. The first day of the eruption had little effect on Misenum. Pompeii is never mentioned in Pliny the Younger's letter.
In the early afternoon, Mount Vesuvius erupted violently, spewing up a high-altitude column from which ash and pumice began to fall, blanketing the area and causing roofs to collapse. Rescues and escapes occurred over the next few hours. One or more major earthquakes also occurred at this time making walls collapse and killing some refugees. These were accompanied by a mild tsunami in the Bay of Naples. At some time in the night or early the next day, pyroclastic flows in the close vicinity of the volcano began; lights seen on the mountain were interpreted as fires, and people as far away as Misenum fled for their lives.
The first pyroclastic flow left a few centimetres of ash immediately above the grey pumice but did not cause major damage. A second brief phase left a thin layer mainly of lava and pumice.
In the early morning, a second pyroclastic flow was rapid-moving, dense and very hot, knocking down many walls in its path, and incinerating or suffocating the remaining population. This thick layer of ash sealed many bodies in cavities which preserved their shapes and later allowed plaster casts devised by Giuseppe Fiorelli.
By the evening of the second day, the eruption stopped affecting Misenum, with only haze in the atmosphere, screening sunlight.
Pliny the Younger wrote:
broad flames shone out in several places from Mount Vesuvius, which the darkness of the night contributed to render still brighter and clearer... It was now day everywhere else, but there a deeper darkness prevailed than in the thickest night.
=== Stratigraphic studies ===
Sigurðsson, Cashdollar, and Sparks undertook a detailed stratigraphic study of ash layers based on excavations and surveys, published in 1982. They concluded that the eruption unfolded in two phases, Vesuvian and Pelean, which alternated six times.
A first Plinian phase projected a column of volcanic debris and hot gases between 15 km (9 mi) and 30 km (19 mi) into the stratosphere. This phase lasted 18 to 20 hours and spread pumice and ashes, forming a 2.8 m (9 ft) layer to the south, towards Pompeii. An earthquake caused buildings in Pompeii to collapse at this time.
The following Pelean phase produced pyroclastic surges of molten rock and hot gases that reached as far as Misenum, to the west. Concentrated to the south and southeast, two pyroclastic surges engulfed Pompeii with a 1.8-metre-deep (6 ft) layer, burning and asphyxiating any living beings who had remained behind. Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Oplontis received the brunt of the surges and were buried in fine pyroclastic deposits, pulverized pumice and lava fragments up to 20 m (70 ft) deep. Surges 4 and 5 are believed to have destroyed and buried Pompeii. Surges are identified in the deposits by dune and cross-bedding formations, which are not produced by fallout.
The eruption is considered primarily phreatomagmatic, i.e. a blast driven by energy from escaping steam produced by seawater seeping into the deep-seated faults and interacting with hot magma.
==== Timing of explosions ====
In an article published in 2002, Sigurðsson and Casey concluded that an early explosion produced a column of ash and pumice which rained on Pompeii to the southeast but not on Herculaneum, which was upwind. Subsequently, the cloud collapsed as the gases densified and lost their capability to support their solid contents.
The authors suggest that the first ash falls are to be interpreted as early-morning, low-volume explosions not seen from Misenum, causing Rectina to send her messenger on a ride of several hours around the Bay of Naples, then passable, providing an answer to the paradox of how the messenger might miraculously appear at Pliny's villa so shortly after a distant eruption that would have prevented him.
=== Magnetic studies ===
A 2006 study by Zanella, Gurioli, Pareschi, and Lanza used the magnetic characteristics of over 200 samples of lithic, roof-tile, and plaster fragments collected from pyroclastic deposits in and around Pompeii to estimate the equilibrium temperatures of the deposits. The deposits were placed by pyroclastic density currents (PDCs) resulting from the collapses of the Plinian column. The authors argue that fragments over 2–5 cm (0.8–2 in) were not in the current long enough to acquire its temperature, which would have been much higher. Therefore, they distinguish between the depositional temperatures, which they estimated, and the emplacement temperatures, which in some cases, based on the cooling characteristics of some types and fragment sizes of rocks they believed they also could estimate. The final figures are considered to be those of the rocks in the current just before deposition.
All crystal rock contains some iron or iron compounds, rendering it ferromagnetic, as do Roman roof tiles and plaster. These materials may acquire a residual field from several sources. When individual molecules, which are magnetic dipoles, are held in alignment by being bound in a crystalline structure, the small fields reinforce each other to form the rock's residual field. Heating the material adds internal energy to it. At the Curie temperature, the vibration of the molecules is sufficient to disrupt the alignment; the material loses its residual magnetism and assumes whatever magnetic field might be applied to it only for the duration of the application. The authors term this phenomenon unblocking. Residual magnetism is considered to "block out" non-residual fields.
A rock is a mixture of minerals, each with its own Curie temperature; the authors, therefore, looked for a spectrum of temperatures rather than a single temperature. In the ideal sample, the PDC did not raise the temperature of the fragment beyond the highest blocking temperature. Some constituent materials retained the magnetism the Earth's field imposed when the item was formed. The temperature was raised above the lowest blocking temperature; therefore, some minerals on recooling acquired the magnetism of the Earth as it was in 79 AD. The broad field of the sample was the vector sum of the fields of the high-blocking material and the low-blocking material.
This type of sample made it possible to estimate the low unblocking temperature. Using special equipment that measured field direction and strength at various temperatures, the experimenters raised the temperature of the sample in increments of 40 °C (70 °F) from 100 °C (210 °F) until it reached the low unblocking temperature. Deprived of one of its components, the overall field changed direction. A plot of direction at each increment identified the increment at which the sample's resultant magnetism had formed. That was considered the equilibrium temperature of the deposit. Considering the data for all the surge deposits arrived at a surge deposit estimate. The authors discovered that the city of Pompeii was a relatively cool spot within a much hotter field, which they attributed to the interaction of the surge with the "fabric" of the city.
The investigators reconstruct the sequence of volcanic events as follows:
On the first day of the eruption, a fall of white pumice containing clastic fragments of up to 3 centimetres (1 in) fell for several hours. It heated the roof tiles to 120–140 °C (250–280 °F). This period would have been the last opportunity to escape. Subsequently, a second column deposited a grey pumice with clastics up to 10 cm (4 in), temperature unsampled, but presumed to be higher, for 18 hours. These two falls were the Plinian phase. The collapse of the edges of these clouds generated the first dilute PDCs, which must have been devastating to Herculaneum, but did not enter Pompeii.
Early in the second morning, the grey cloud began to collapse to a greater degree. Two major surges struck and destroyed Pompeii. Herculaneum and all its population no longer existed. The emplacement temperature range of the first surge was 180–220 °C (360–430 °F), minimum temperatures; of the second, 220–260 °C (430–500 °F). The depositional temperature of the first was 140–300 °C (280–570 °F). Upstream and downstream of the flow it was 300–360 °C (570–680 °F).
The variable temperature of the first surge was due to interaction with the buildings. Any population remaining in structural refuges could not have escaped, as gases of incinerating temperatures surrounded the city. The lowest temperatures were in rooms under collapsed roofs. These were as low as 100 °C (212 °F), the boiling point of water. The authors suggest that elements of the bottom of the flow were decoupled from the main flow by topographic irregularities and made cooler by introducing turbulent ambient air. In the second surge, the irregularities were gone, and the city was as hot as the surrounding environment.
During the last surge, which was very dilute, an additional 1 metre (3.3 ft) of deposits fell over the region.
== The two Plinys ==
The only surviving eyewitness account of the event consists of two letters by Pliny the Younger, who was 17 at the time of the eruption, written to the historian Tacitus some 25 years after the event. Observing the first volcanic activity from Misenum across the Bay of Naples from the volcano, approximately 29 kilometres (18 mi) away, Pliny the Elder (Pliny the Younger's uncle) launched a rescue fleet and went himself to the rescue of a personal friend. His nephew declined to join the party. One of the nephew's letters relates what he could discover from witnesses of his uncle's experiences. In a second letter, the younger Pliny details his own observations after the departure of his uncle.
=== Pliny the Younger ===
Pliny the Younger saw an extraordinarily dense cloud rising rapidly above the mountain:the appearance of which I cannot give you a more exact description of than by likening it to that of a pine-tree, for it shot up to a great height in the form of a very tall trunk, which spread itself out at the top into a sort of branches. [...] it appeared sometimes bright and sometimes dark and spotted, according as it was either more or less impregnated with earth and cinders.
These events and a request by messenger for an evacuation by sea prompted the elder Pliny to order rescue operations in which he sailed away to participate. His nephew attempted to resume a normal life, continuing to study and bathe, but that night a tremor woke him and his mother, prompting them to abandon the house for the courtyard. At another tremor at dawn, the population abandoned the village. After a third tremor, "the sea seemed to roll back upon itself, and to be driven from its banks", which is evidence of a tsunami. There is, however, no evidence of extensive damage from wave action.
A black cloud obscured the early light through which shone flashes, which Pliny likens to sheet lightning, but more extensive. The cloud obscured Point Misenum near at hand and the island of Capraia (Capri) across the bay. Fearing for their lives, the population began calling each other and moving back from the coast along the road. Pliny's mother requested him to abandon her and save his own life, as she was too fleshy and aged to go further, but seizing her hand, he led her away as best he could. A rain of ash fell. Pliny needed to shake off the ash periodically to avoid being buried. Later that same day, the ash stopped falling, and the sun shone weakly through the cloud, encouraging Pliny and his mother to return home and wait for news of Pliny the Elder. The letter compares the ash to a blanket of snow. The earthquake and tsunami damage at that location were not severe enough to prevent continued use of the home.
=== Pliny the Elder ===
Pliny's uncle, Pliny the Elder, was in command of the Roman fleet at Misenum and had meanwhile decided to investigate the phenomenon at close hand in a light vessel. As the ship was preparing to leave the area, a messenger came from his friend Rectina (wife of Bassus) living on the coast near the foot of the volcano, explaining that her party could only get away by sea and asking for rescue. Pliny ordered the immediate launching of the fleet galleys to the evacuation of the coast. He continued in his light ship to the rescue of Rectina's party.
He set off across the bay but encountered thick showers of hot cinders, lumps of pumice, and pieces of rock in the shallows on the other side. Advised by the helmsman to turn back, he stated "Fortune favors the brave" and ordered him to continue to Stabiae (about 4.5 km or 2.8 mi from Pompeii), where Pomponianus was. Pomponianus had already loaded a ship with possessions and was preparing to leave, but the same onshore wind that brought Pliny's ship to the location had prevented anyone from leaving.
Pliny and his party saw flames coming from several parts of the mountain, which Pliny and his friends attributed to burning villages. After staying overnight, the party was driven from the building by its violent shaking. They woke Pliny, who had been napping and snoring loudly. They elected to take to the fields with pillows tied to their heads to protect them from rockfall. They approached the beach again, but the wind had not changed. Pliny sat down on a sail spread for him and could not rise, even with assistance. His friends then departed, escaping ultimately by land. Very likely, he had collapsed and died, the most popular explanation for why his friends abandoned him, although Suetonius offers an alternative story of his ordering a slave to kill him to avoid the pain of incineration. How the slave would have escaped remains a mystery. There is no mention of such an event in his nephew's letters.
In the first letter to Tacitus, his nephew suggested that his death was due to the reaction of his weak lungs to a cloud of poisonous, sulphurous gas that wafted over the group. However, Stabiae was 16 km (9.9 mi) from the vent (roughly where the modern town of Castellammare di Stabia is situated), and his companions were apparently unaffected by the fumes, and so it is more likely that the corpulent Pliny died from some other cause, such as a stroke or heart attack. An asthmatic attack is also not out of the question. His body was found with no apparent injuries the next day once the plume had dispersed.
== Casualties from the eruption ==
Apart from Pliny the Elder, the only casualties of the eruption to be known by name were:
The Herodian princess Drusilla and her son Agrippa, who was born in her marriage with the procurator Antonius Felix.
The Roman Senator Pomponianus
The merchant Aulus Umbricius Scaurus
The businessman Alleius Nigidius Maius
The poet Caesius Bassus
By 2003, approximately 1,044 casts made from impressions of bodies in the ash deposits had been recovered in and around Pompeii, with the scattered bones of another 100. The remains of about 332 bodies have been found at Herculaneum (300 in arched vaults discovered in 1980). The total number of fatalities remains unknown.
Thirty-eight percent of the 1,044 were found in the ash fall deposits, the majority inside buildings. This differs from modern experience over the last 400 years when ash falls have killed only around 4% of victims during explosive eruptions. This cohort was possibly sheltering in buildings when they were overcome. The remaining 62% of bodies found at Pompeii lay in the pyroclastic surge deposits, which probably killed them. It was initially believed that due to the state of the bodies found at Pompeii and the outline of clothes on the bodies, it was unlikely that high temperatures were a significant cause. Later studies indicated that during the fourth pyroclastic surge (the first surge to reach Pompeii), the temperature reached 300 °C (572 °F), which was enough to kill people in a fraction of a second. The contorted postures of bodies as if frozen in suspended action were not the effects of long agony, but of the cadaveric spasm, a consequence of heat shock on corpses. The heat was so intense that organs and blood were vaporised, and it has been suggested that at least one victim's brain was vitrified by the temperature, though this has been disputed.
Herculaneum, which was much closer to the crater, was saved from tephra falls by the wind direction but was buried under 23 metres (75 ft) of material deposited by pyroclastic surges. It is likely that most, or all, of the known victims in this town, were killed by the surges, particularly given evidence of high temperatures found on the skeletons of the victims found in the arched vaults on the seashore and the existence of carbonised wood in many of the buildings. These people were concentrated in the vaults at a density as high as three per square metre and were all caught by the first surge, dying of thermal shock and partly carbonised by later and hotter surges. The vaults were most likely boathouses, as the crossbeams overhead were probably for the suspension of boats used for the earlier escape of some of the population. As only 85 metres (279 ft) of the coast have been excavated, more casualties may be waiting to be unearthed.
== Date of the eruption ==
Vesuvius and its destructive eruption are mentioned in first-century Roman sources, but not the day of the eruption. For example, Josephus in his Antiquities of the Jews mentions that the eruption occurred "in the days of Titus Caesar." Suetonius, a second-century historian, in his Life of Titus simply says that, "There were some dreadful disasters during his reign, such as the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in Campania."
Writing well over a century after the actual event, Roman historian Cassius Dio (as translated in the Loeb Classical Library 1925 edition) wrote that, "In Campania remarkable and frightful occurrences took place; for a great fire suddenly flared up at the very end of the summer."
For more than five centuries, until approximately 2018, articles about the eruption of Vesuvius typically stated that the eruption began on August 24, 79 AD. This date came from a 1508 printed copy of a letter addressed by Pliny the Younger to the Roman historian Tacitus, originally written some 25 years after the event. Pliny was a witness to the eruption and provided the only known eyewitness account. Over fourteen centuries of manuscript hand-copying up to the 1508 printing of his letters, the date given in Pliny's original letter may have been corrupted. Manuscript experts believe that the date originally given by Pliny was one of August 24, October 30, November 1, or November 23. This odd scattered set of dates is due to the Romans' convention for describing calendar dates. The large majority of extant medieval manuscript copies (there are no surviving Roman copies) indicate a date corresponding to August 24. Since the discovery of the cities, this was accepted by most scholars and by nearly all books written about Pompeii and Herculaneum for the general public. In 2022, an analysis of the historical translations claims that no other date than August 24 is supported by evidence from Pliny.
Since at least the late 18th century, a minority among archaeologists and other scientists have suggested that the eruption began after August 24, during the autumn, perhaps in October or November. In 1797, the researcher Carlo Rosini reported that excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum had uncovered traces of fruits and braziers indicative of autumn, not the summer.
More recently, in 1990 and 2001, archaeologists discovered more remnants of autumnal fruits (such as the pomegranate), the remains of victims of the eruption in heavy clothing, and large earthenware storage vessels laden with wine (at the time of their burial by Vesuvius). The wine-related discovery suggests that the eruption might have happened after the grape harvest.
In 2007, a study of prevailing winds in Campania showed that the southeasterly debris pattern of the first-century eruption is quite consistent with an autumn event and inconsistent with an August date. During June, July, and August, the prevailing winds flow to the west – an arc between the southwest and northwest – virtually all the time.
As Emperor Titus of the Flavian dynasty (reigning June 24, 79 AD to September 13, 81 AD) garnered victories on the battlefield (including his destroying the Temple of Jerusalem) and other honors, his administration issued coins enumerating his ever-growing accolades. Given the limited space on each coin, his achievements were stamped on the coins using an arcane encoding. Two of these coins, from early in Titus' reign, were found in a hoard recovered at Pompeii's House of the Golden Bracelet. Although the coins' minting dates are somewhat in dispute, a numismatic expert at the British Museum, Richard Abdy, concluded that the latest coin in the hoard was minted on or after June 24 (the first date of Titus' reign) and before September 1, 79 AD. Abdy states that it is "remarkable that both coins will have taken just two months after minting to enter circulation and reach Pompeii before the disaster."
In October 2018, Italian archaeologists uncovered a charcoal inscription reading "the 16th day before the calends (first) of November," or October 17, that was probably "made by a worker renovating a home", and which has subsequently been suggested as "the most likely date for the eruption". While the "graffito does not have a year listed [...] the nature of the writing suggests it was done just before the eruption of Vesuvius. It was found in an area of a house that was in the process of being renovated, likely just before the volcano erupted". while the charcoal writing itself is "fragile and unlikely to have been preserved for years prior to the utter destruction of Pompeii." However, "it is not known whether the Oct[ober] 17 graffito referred to that day, or a day in the past or the future." There is some debate about whether charcoal graffito would last more than a year: a study by the Pompeii Archeological Park showed that charcoal graffiti can last for more than a year at the site of the discovered ancient graffito, casting doubt on whether the October date was in 79 AD.
A collaborative study in 2022 has determined a date of "between October 24th and November 1st" for the eruption in 79 AD. This conclusion has been challenged. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Court_of_Thorns_and_Roses | A Court of Thorns and Roses | A Court of Thorns and Roses is a fantasy romance series by American author Sarah J. Maas, which follows the journey of 19-year-old Feyre Archeron after she is brought into the faerie lands of Prythian. The first book of the series, A Court of Thorns and Roses, was released in May 2015. The series centers on Feyre's adventures across Prythian and the faerie courts, following the epic love story and fierce struggle that ensues after she enters the fae lands. The series has sold over 13 million copies. There are currently five novels in the series, with the sixth scheduled to release on October 27, 2026, and the seventh on January 12, 2027. An eighth installment is set to conclude the continuous story told across books six, seven and eight.
The series is a New York Times Best Seller and has been optioned by Hulu for a television series adaptation by Ronald D. Moore. Variety magazine reported in 2024 that the project was still in development at Hulu, although the development was not active.
== Books ==
=== Main ===
=== Companions ===
A Court of Thorns and Roses Coloring Book (2017)
== Development ==
Maas initially intended the series as a retelling of the fairy tales Beauty and the Beast, East of the Sun and West of the Moon, and Tam Lin. These tales inspired the finished series, though it was not ultimately a dedicated retelling.
She began writing A Court of Thorns and Roses in early 2009, with the first draft taking about five weeks to complete.
A Court of Mist and Fury's first draft was written entirely in a split point of view between Feyre and Rhysand. The second book went through multiple name changes, including A Court of Wind and Stone, A Court of Calm and Fury, A Court of Stars and Smoke, A Court of Wings and Stars, A Court of Venom and Silver and A Court of Stars and Frost. Like the first novel, the second is based upon multiple fairy tales and myths, including Hades and Persephone, with the Greek mythology-inspired characters such as Rhysand and Feyre and their home in the Night Court. Other fairy tale inspirations include Hansel and Gretel, which spawned the character of the Weaver, and the Book of Exodus, which loosely inspired parts of the backstory for Miryam and Drakon.
The final cover of A Court of Wings and Ruin was designed by Adrian Dadich, with the dress pictured on the cover originally designed by Charlie Bowater and later adapted by Dadich.
On July 12, 2016, Entertainment Weekly reported that Maas was writing five new books for the series, that would include two novellas and three further novels which would be set before and after the first trilogy.
In 2020, the series was reprinted and published by Bloomsbury with new illustrated covers. A Court of Thorns and Roses has existed between the Young Adult and New Adult fiction categories since the publication of the first book. At the time A Court of Thorns and Roses was published, the New Adult categorization had not caught on the way publishers hoped it would. Maas agreed to publish the book as YA so long as her editor did not censor any of the sexual content. The A Court of Thorns and Roses series is now classified as New Adult.
In September 2023, Maas publicly discussed writing a sixth book for the series. On July 11, 2025, a post on Maas' Instagram account indicated she has completed the first draft. In March 2026, Sarah J. Maas confirmed on the Call Her Daddy podcast that the sixth through eighth books would be "a book told in four parts". The sixth book is set to be released on October 27, 2026, and the seventh book on January 12, 2027. The eighth book is yet to be written and has no release date attached.
== Reception ==
=== Awards and nominations ===
=== Accolades ===
=== Censorship in the United States ===
In 2022, according to the American Library Association's Office of Intellectual Freedom, A Court of Mist and Fury was tied for the tenth-most banned and challenged book in the United States. In 2023 a school district in Mason City, Iowa, made international news when they banned the book from library shelves after running a list of books through ChatGPT and asking it if the books, "contain a description or depiction of a sex act."
In 2023, the Central Media Advisory Committee for Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools in North Carolina voted to ban A Court of Frost and Starlight, the fourth installment in the series. The committee declares responsibility for the "review and removal of books" as a result of material that is "educationally unsuitable, pervasively vulgar or obscene, or inappropriate to the age, maturity or grade level of students." The book is still accessible online, but students can be denied access due to parental controls.
In February 2024, individuals in the Rutherford County Schools (RCS) library system in Tennessee were "...quietly instructed by higher ups to remove 20 books from all RCS library shelves", with the entirety of this five-book series being included among those twenty selections; an internal review by RCS determined that two of those twenty titles did not meet the standard for obscenity as defined by Tennessee state law and were accordingly allowed to remain upon school shelves. The removal of the eighteen remaining books occurred without seeking input from librarians and without due process policy for the school system being applied; as of mid-March 2024, all of those eighteen books (still including this entire series) remain off RCS shelves. The Rutherford County Library Alliance, a nonprofit organization whose mission statement defines them as being "...dedicated to safeguarding the principles of intellectual freedom and unrestricted access to information within the public library system of Rutherford County, Tennessee", is in the process of challenging this censorship.
In 2024, all five books in the series were among 13 banned from all Utah public schools by the state school board for containing "objective sensitive material." One additional Maas book, Empire of Storms, was also banned.
== Adaptations ==
A Court of Thorns and Roses was optioned by Jo Bamford's and Piers Tempest's Tempo Productions in November 2015. The producers revealed in 2018 they had hired Rachel Hirons to work as the movie's screenwriter.
In March 2021, it was announced that A Court of Thorns and Roses series had been opted for a television adaptation by 20th Television for Hulu. The series is set to be developed by Ronald D. Moore alongside Maas. In an interview with The New York Times, Maas confirmed that she was developing the project with the writers and the showrunner as the executive producer of the adaptation. As of December 2023, no cast had been set, but writing for the script has continued for the adaptation. In February 2024, it was announced by TVLine that the adaptation has been scrapped and will not be shopped to other networks; however, Variety reported that these reports were inaccurate. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camp_David_Accords | Camp David Accords | The Camp David Accords were a pair of political agreements signed by Egyptian president Anwar Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin on 17 September 1978, following twelve days of secret negotiations at Camp David, the country retreat of the president of the United States in Maryland. The two framework agreements were signed at the White House and were witnessed by President Jimmy Carter. The second of these frameworks (A Framework for the Conclusion of a Peace Treaty between Egypt and Israel) led directly to the 1979 Egypt–Israel peace treaty. Due to the agreement, Sadat and Begin received the shared 1978 Nobel Peace Prize. The first framework (A Framework for Peace in the Middle East), which dealt with the Palestinian territories, was written without participation of the Palestinians and was condemned by the United Nations.
The agreement sparked broad discontent throughout much of the Arab world, as it was perceived as a unilateral peace initiative that neglected the establishment of a Palestinian state, ultimately seen as weakening the cohesion of the Arab position.
== Preceding diplomacy ==
=== Carter Initiative ===
Carter's and Secretary of State Cyrus Vance's exploratory meetings gave a basic plan for reinvigorating the peace process based on a Geneva Peace Conference and had presented three main objectives for Arab–Israeli peace: Arab recognition of Israel's right to exist in peace, Israel's withdrawal from occupied territories gained in the Six-Day War through negotiating efforts with neighboring Arab nations to ensure that Israel's security would not be threatened, and securing an undivided Jerusalem.
The Camp David Accords were the result of 14 months of diplomatic efforts by Egypt, Israel, and the United States that began after Jimmy Carter became president. The efforts initially focused on a comprehensive resolution of disputes between Israel and the Arab countries, gradually evolving into a search for a bilateral agreement between Israel and Egypt.
Upon assuming office on 20 January 1977, President Carter moved to rejuvenate the Middle East peace process that had stalled throughout the 1976 presidential campaign in the United States. Following the advice of a Brookings Institution report, Carter opted to replace the incremental, bilateral peace talks which had characterized Henry Kissinger's shuttle diplomacy following the 1973 Yom Kippur War with a comprehensive, multilateral approach. The Yom Kippur War further complicated efforts to achieve the objectives written in United Nations Security Council Resolution 242.
Israel's prime minister Yitzhak Rabin and his successor, Menachem Begin, were both skeptical of an international conference. While Begin, who took office in May 1977, officially favored the reconvening of the conference, perhaps even more vocally than Rabin, and even accepted the Palestinian presence, in actuality the Israelis and the Egyptians were secretly formulating a framework for bilateral talks. Even earlier, Begin had not been opposed to returning the Sinai, but a major future obstacle was his firm refusal to consider relinquishing control over the West Bank.
=== Participating parties ===
Carter visited the heads of government on whom he would have to rely to make any peace agreement feasible. By the end of his first year (1977) in office, Carter had met with Anwar El Sadat of Egypt, Hussein of Jordan, Hafez al-Assad of Syria, and Yitzhak Rabin of Israel. The new Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin however, taking over the office from Yitzhak Rabin in June 1977, specifically demanded that the PLO would be excluded from peace talks. Despite the fact that Jordan’s King Hussein supported Sadat's peace initiative, Hussein refused to take part in the peace talks; Menachem Begin offered Jordan little to gain and Hussein also feared he would isolate Jordan from the Arab world and provoke Syria and the PLO if he engaged in the peace talks as well. Hafez al-Assad, who had no interest in negotiating peace with Israel, also refused to come to the United States.
=== Sadat Initiative ===
Sadat first spoke about the possibility of peace with Israel in February 1971; Egypt was the initiator of many moves in the 1970s. On 9 November 1977, he startled the world by announcing his intention to go to Jerusalem and speak before the Knesset. Shortly afterward, the Israeli government cordially invited him to address the Knesset in a message passed to Sadat via the US ambassador to Egypt. Ten days after his speech, Sadat arrived for the groundbreaking three-day visit, which launched the first peace process between Israel and an Arab state. As would be the case with later Israeli–Arab peace initiatives, Washington was taken by surprise; the White House and State Department were particularly concerned that Sadat was merely reaching out to reacquire Sinai as quickly as possible, putting aside the Palestinian problem. Considered as a man with strong political convictions who kept his eye on the main objective, Sadat had no ideological base, which made him politically inconsistent. The Sadat visit came about after he delivered a speech in Egypt stating that he would travel anywhere, "even Jerusalem," to discuss peace. That speech led the Begin government to declare that, if Israel thought that Sadat would accept an invitation, Israel would invite him. In Sadat's Knesset speech he talked about his views on peace, the status of Israel's occupied territories, and the Palestinian refugee problem. This tactic went against the intentions of both the West and the East, which were to revive the Geneva Conference.
The gesture stemmed from an eagerness to enlist the help of the NATO countries in improving the ailing Egyptian economy, a belief that Egypt should begin to focus more on its own interests than on the interests of the Arab world, and a hope that an agreement with Israel would catalyze similar agreements between Israel and her other Arab neighbors and help solve the Palestinian problem. Prime Minister Begin's response to Sadat's initiative, though not what Sadat or Carter had hoped, demonstrated a willingness to engage the Egyptian leader. Like Sadat, Begin also saw many reasons why bilateral talks would be in his country's best interests. It would afford Israel the opportunity to negotiate only with Egypt instead of with a larger Arab delegation that might try to use its size to make unwelcome or unacceptable demands. Israel felt Egypt could help protect Israel from other Arabs and Eastern communists. In addition, the commencement of direct negotiations between leaders – summit diplomacy – would distinguish Egypt from her Arab neighbors. Carter's people apparently had no inkling of the secret talks in Morocco between Dayan and Sadat's representative, Hassan Tuhami, that paved the way for Sadat's initiative. Indeed, in a sense Egypt and Israel were ganging up to push Carter off his Geneva track. The basic message of Sadat's speech at the Knesset were the request for the implementation of Resolutions 242 and 338. Sadat's visit was the first step to negotiations such as the preliminary Cairo Conference in December 1977.
=== Searching a negotiation modus ===
A mechanism had yet to be created for Israel and Egypt to pursue the talks begun by Sadat and Begin in Jerusalem. The Egyptian president suggested to Begin that Israel place a secret representative in the American embassy in Cairo. With American "cover," the true identity of the Israeli, who would liaise between the Egyptian and Israeli leaders, would be known only to the American ambassador in Cairo.
Carter's acceptance of the proposed liaison scheme would have signaled American backing for Sadat's unprecedented peace initiative, but Carter rejected the proposal. However, Carter could not thwart the Israeli–Egyptian peace push. Within days Israeli journalists were allowed into Cairo, breaking a symbolic barrier, and from there the peace process quickly gained momentum. An Israeli–Egyptian working summit was scheduled for 25 December in Ismailiya, near the Suez Canal.
== Proceedings of the Camp David meeting ==
Accompanied by their capable negotiating teams and with their respective interests in mind, the Israeli and Egyptian leaders Menachem Begin and Anwar Sadat converged on Camp David for 13 days of tense and dramatic negotiations from 5 to 17 September 1978.
Carter's advisers insisted on the establishment of an Egyptian–Israeli agreement which would lead to an eventual solution to the Palestine issue. They believed in a short, loose, and overt linkage between the two countries amplified by the establishment of a coherent basis for a settlement. However, Carter felt they were not "aiming high enough" and was interested in the establishment of a written "land for peace" agreement with Israel returning the Sinai Peninsula and West Bank. Numerous times both the Egyptian and Israeli leaders wanted to scrap negotiations, only to be lured back into the process by personal appeals from Carter.
Begin and Sadat had such mutual antipathy toward one another that they only seldom had direct contact; thus Carter had to conduct his own microcosmic form of shuttle diplomacy by holding one-on-one meetings with either Sadat or Begin in one cabin, then returning to the cabin of the third party to relay the substance of his discussions. Begin and Sadat were "literally not on speaking terms," and "claustrophobia was setting in."
A particularly difficult situation arose on the tenth stalemated day of the talks. The issues of Israeli settlement withdrawal from the Sinai and the status of the West Bank created what seemed to be an impasse. In response, Carter had the choice of trying to salvage the agreement by conceding the issue of the West Bank to Begin, while advocating Sadat's less controversial position on the removal of all settlements from the Sinai Peninsula. Or he could have refused to continue the talks, reported the reasons for their failure, and allowed Begin to bear the brunt of the blame.
Carter chose to continue and for three more days negotiated. During this time, Carter even took the two leaders to the nearby Gettysburg National Military Park in the hopes of using the American Civil War as a simile to their own struggle.
Consequently, the 13 days marking the Camp David Accords were considered a success, in part due to Carter's determination in obtaining an Israeli–Egyptian agreement, which represented considerable time focused on a singular international problem. Additionally, Carter was beneficiary to a fully pledged American foreign team. Likewise, the Israeli delegation had a stable of excellent talent in Ministers Dayan and Weizman and legal experts Dr. Meir Rosenne and Aharon Barak. Furthermore, the absence of the media contributed to the Accord's successes: there were no possibilities provided to either leader to reassure his political body or be driven to conclusions by members of his opposition. An eventual scrap of negotiations by either leader would have proven disastrous, resulting in taking the blame for the summit's failure as well as a disassociation from the White House. Ultimately, neither Begin nor Sadat was willing to risk those eventualities. Both of them had invested enormous amounts of political capital and time to reach an agreement.
== Partial agreements ==
The Camp David Accords comprise two separate agreements: "A Framework for Peace in the Middle East" and "A Framework for the Conclusion of a Peace Treaty between Egypt and Israel", the second leading towards the Egypt–Israel peace treaty signed in March 1979. The agreements and the peace treaty were both accompanied by "side-letters" of understanding between Egypt and the U.S. and Israel and the U.S.
=== Framework for Peace in the Middle East ===
The preamble of the "Framework for Peace in the Middle East" starts with the basis of a peaceful settlement of the Arab–Israeli conflict:
The agreed basis for a peaceful settlement of the conflict between Israel and its neighbors is United Nations Security Council Resolution 242, in all its parts.
The framework itself consists of 3 parts. The first part of the framework was to establish an autonomous self-governing authority in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip and to fully implement Resolution 242.
The Accords recognized the "legitimate rights of the Palestinian people", a process to be implemented guaranteeing the full autonomy of the people within a period of five years. The Israeli prime minister Begin insisted on the adjective "full" to ensure that it was the maximum political right attainable; however, Begin also specifically insisted that "on no condition will there be a Palestinian state". This so-called 'full autonomy' was to be discussed with the participation of Israel, Egypt, Jordan and the Palestinians. The withdrawal of Israeli troops from the West Bank and Gaza was agreed to occur after an election of a self-governing authority to replace Israel's military government. The Accords did not mention the Golan Heights, Syria, or Lebanon. This was not the comprehensive peace that Kissinger, Ford, Carter, or Sadat had in mind during the previous American presidential transition. It was less clear than the agreements concerning the Sinai, and was later interpreted differently by Israel, Egypt, and the United States. The fate of Jerusalem was deliberately excluded from this agreement.
The second part of the framework dealt with Egyptian–Israeli relations, the real content worked out in the second Egypt–Israel framework. The third part, "Associated Principles," declared principles that should apply to relations between Israel and all of its Arab neighbors.
==== West Bank, Gaza and "the Palestinian problem" ====
Egypt, Israel, Jordan and the representatives of the Palestinian people should participate in negotiations on the resolution of the Palestinian problem in all its aspects.
(1.) Egypt and Israel agree that, in order to ensure a peaceful and orderly transfer of authority, and taking into account the security concerns of all the parties, there should be transitional arrangements for the West Bank and Gaza for a period not exceeding five years. In order to provide full autonomy to the inhabitants, under these arrangements the Israeli military government and its civilian administration will be withdrawn as soon as a self-governing authority has been freely elected by the inhabitants of these areas to replace the existing military government.
(2.) Egypt, Israel, and Jordan will agree on the modalities for establishing elected self-governing authority in the West Bank and Gaza. The delegations of Egypt and Jordan may include Palestinians from the West Bank and Gaza or other Palestinians as mutually agreed. The parties will negotiate an agreement which will define the powers and responsibilities of the self-governing authority to be exercised in the West Bank and Gaza. A withdrawal of Israeli armed forces will take place and there will be a redeployment of the remaining Israeli forces into specified security locations. The agreement will also include arrangements for assuring internal and external security and public order. A strong local police force will be established, which may include Jordanian citizens. In addition, Israeli and Jordanian forces will participate in joint patrols and in the manning of control posts to assure the security of the borders.
(3.) When the self-governing authority (administrative council) in the West Bank and Gaza is established and inaugurated, the transitional period of five years will begin. As soon as possible, but not later than the third year after the beginning of the transitional period, negotiations will take place to determine the final status of the West Bank and Gaza and its relationship with its neighbors and to conclude a peace treaty between Israel and Jordan by the end of the transitional period. These negotiations will be conducted among Egypt, Israel, Jordan and the elected representatives of the inhabitants of the West Bank and Gaza. ... The negotiations shall be based on all the provisions and principles of UN Security Council Resolution 242. The negotiations will resolve, among other matters, the location of the boundaries and the nature of the security arrangements. The solution from the negotiations must also recognize the legitimate right of the Palestinian peoples and their just requirements.
The framework merely concerned autonomy of the inhabitants of West Bank and Gaza. It neither mentions the status of Jerusalem, nor the Palestinian Right of Return.
==== Criticism on the concept of 'autonomy' ====
The French historian, arabist, orientalist and professor Jean-Pierre Filiu, diplomatic adviser to three French ministers between 1990 and 2002, and also U.S.-born (with Palestinian roots) historian and Professor Rashid Khalidi, in the years 2013–2014 criticised the concept of 'autonomy' as used in the Camp David Accords: it is "devoid of meaning and content", it does not facilitate Palestinian's "right to liberty and self-determination" (etc.). The Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin, these professors say, had emphatically construed an 'autonomy'-concept that did not include (or according to Begin not even allowed for) a Palestinian state to be created. This flawed non-sovereignty-concept would be repeated in the 1993 Oslo Accords, Khalidi asserted.
==== UN Rejection of the Middle East Framework ====
The UN General Assembly rejected the Framework for Peace in the Middle East, because the agreement was concluded without participation of UN and PLO and did not comply with the Palestinian right of return, of self-determination and to national independence and sovereignty. In December 1978, it declared in Resolution 33/28 A that agreements were only valid if they are within the framework of the United Nations and its Charter and its resolutions, include the Palestinian right of return and the right to national independence and sovereignty in Palestine, and concluded with the participation of the PLO. On 6 December 1979, the UN condemned in Resolution 34/70 all partial agreements and separate treaties that did not meet the Palestinian rights and comprehensive solutions to peace; it condemned Israel's continued occupation and demanded withdrawal from all occupied territories. On 12 December, in Resolution 34/65 B, the UN rejected more specific parts of the Camp David Accords and similar agreements, which were not in accordance with mentioned requirements. All such partial agreements and separate treaties were strongly condemned. The part of the Camp David Accords regarding the Palestinian future and all similar ones were declared invalid.
=== Framework Peace Treaty Egypt and Israel ===
The second framework outlined a basis for the peace treaty six months later, in particular deciding the future of the Sinai Peninsula. Israel agreed to withdraw its armed forces from the Sinai, gave up its four air bases that had been built there since the Six-Day War (see map to the right), evacuate its 4,500 civilian inhabitants, and restore it to Egypt in return for normal diplomatic relations with Egypt, guarantees of freedom of passage through the Suez Canal and other nearby waterways (such as the Straits of Tiran), and a restriction on the forces Egypt could place on the Sinai peninsula, especially within 20–40 km from Israel. This process would take three years to complete. Israel also agreed to limit its forces a smaller distance (3 km) from the Egyptian border, and to guarantee free passage between Egypt and Jordan. With the withdrawal, Israel also returned Egypt's Abu-Rudeis oil fields in western Sinai, which contained long term, commercially productive wells.
== Implementation and outcomes ==
The Camp David Accords changed Middle Eastern politics. Notably, the perception of Egypt within the Arab world changed. With the most powerful of the Arab militaries and a history of leadership in the Arab world under Nasser, Egypt had more leverage than any of the other Arab states to advance Arab interests. Egypt was subsequently suspended from the Arab League from 1979 until 1989.
Jordan's King Hussein saw it as a slap to the face when Sadat volunteered Jordan's participation in deciding how functional autonomy for the Palestinians would work. Specifically, Sadat effectively said that Jordan would have a role in how the West Bank would be administered. Like the Rabat Summit Resolution, the Camp David Accords circumscribed Jordan's objective to reassert its control over the West Bank. Focusing as it did on Egypt, the Carter administration accepted Sadat's claim that he could deliver Hussein. However, with Arab world opposition building against Sadat, Jordan could not risk accepting the Accords without the support of powerful Arab neighbours, like Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Syria. Hussein consequently felt diplomatically snubbed. One of Carter's regrets was allowing Sadat to claim that he could speak for Hussein if Jordan refused to join the talks, but by then the damage was done to the Jordanians.
The Camp David Accords also prompted the disintegration of a unified Arab front in opposition to Israel. Egypt's realignment created a power vacuum that Saddam Hussein of Iraq, at one time only a secondary power, hoped to fill. Because of the vague language concerning the implementation of Resolution 242, the Palestinian problem became the primary issue in the Arab–Israeli conflict. Many of the Arab nations blamed Egypt for not putting enough pressure on Israel to deal with the Palestinian problem in a way that would be satisfactory to them. Syria also informed Egypt that it would not reconcile with the nation unless it abandoned the peace agreement with Israel.
According to The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East:
The normalization of relations [between Israel and Egypt] went into effect in January 1980. Ambassadors were exchanged in February. The boycott laws were repealed by Egypt's National Assembly the same month, and some trade began to develop, albeit less than Israel had hoped for. In March 1980 regular airline flights were inaugurated. Egypt also began supplying Israel with crude oil".
According to Kenneth Stein in Heroic Diplomacy: Sadat, Kissinger, Carter, Begin, and the Quest for Arab–Israeli Peace:
The Accords were another interim agreement or step, but negotiations that flowed from the Accords slowed for several reasons. These included an inability to bring the Jordanians into the discussions; the controversy over settlements; the inconclusive nature of the subsequent autonomy talks; domestic opposition sustained by both Begin and Sadat and, in Sadat's case, ostracism and anger from the Arab world; the emergence of a what became a cold peace between Egypt and Israel; and changes in foreign policy priorities including discontinuity in personnel committed to sustaining the negotiating process[.]
Historian Jørgen Jensehaugen argues that by the time Carter left office in January 1981:
[Carter] was in an odd position—he had attempted to break with traditional US policy but ended up fulfilling the goals of that tradition, which had been to break up the Arab alliance, side-line the Palestinians, build an alliance with Egypt, weaken the Soviet Union and secure Israel.
== Israeli public support ==
Although most Israelis supported the Accords, the Israeli settler movement opposed them because Sadat's refusal to agree to a treaty in which Israel had any presence in the Sinai Peninsula at all meant they had to withdraw from the entire Sinai Peninsula. Israeli settlers tried to prevent the government from dismantling their settlements, but were unsuccessful.
In Israel, there is lasting support of the Camp David Peace Accords, which have become a national consensus, supported by 85% of Israelis according to a 2001 poll taken by the Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies (Israel-based).
== Assassination of Anwar Sadat ==
President Sadat's signing of the Camp David Accords on 17 September 1978 and his shared 1978 Nobel Peace Prize with Israeli prime minister Begin led to his assassination on 6 October 1981 by members of the Egyptian Islamic Jihad during the annual victory parade held in Cairo to celebrate Egypt's crossing of the Suez Canal. The president's personal protection was infiltrated by four members of this organization, who were hiding in a truck passing through the military parade with other military vehicles. As the truck approached the president, the leader of the belligerents – Lieutenant Khalid Islambouli – came out of the truck and threw three grenades towards the president; only one of the three exploded. The rest of the team opened fire with automatic assault rifles and struck President Sadat with 37 rounds. He was airlifted to a military hospital, where he died two hours after arriving.
In total, 11 were killed from collateral gunfire and 28 were injured. Among the killed were the Cuban ambassador, an Omani general, and a Coptic Orthodox bishop. Among the wounded were Egyptian Vice-President Hosni Mubarak, Irish Defence Minister James Tully, and four U.S. military liaison officers. One of the assassins was killed and the other three were wounded and taken into custody. The surviving assassins were tried and found guilty of assassinating the president and killing 10 others in the process; they were sentenced to capital punishment, and were executed on 15 April 1982.
== Arab–Israeli peace diplomacy and treaties ==
Treaties and meetings
Paris Peace Conference, 1919
Faisal–Weizmann Agreement (1919)
1949 Armistice Agreements
Geneva Conference (1973)
Camp David Accords (1978)
Egypt–Israel peace treaty (1979)
Madrid Conference of 1991
Oslo Accords (1993)
Israel–Jordan peace treaty (1994)
Camp David 2000 Summit
Philadelphi Accord (2005)
Abraham Accords (2020)
General articles
International law and the Arab–Israeli conflict
Israeli–Palestinian peace process
List of Middle East peace proposals
Projects working for peace among Israelis and Arabs |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Boys_(1995_film) | Bad Boys (1995 film) | Bad Boys is a 1995 American action comedy film, directed by Michael Bay in his feature directorial debut, and produced by Don Simpson and Jerry Bruckheimer. The film stars Martin Lawrence and Will Smith as Marcus Burnett and Mike Lowrey, two Miami narcotics detectives who are investigating $100 million worth of stolen packs of heroin and must also protect a woman from a drug dealer after she witnessed a key murder.
The film was released on April 7, 1995, by Columbia Pictures. It received mixed reviews from critics, and was commercially successful, grossing $141 million, and spawning three sequels: Bad Boys II (2003), Bad Boys for Life (2020), and Bad Boys: Ride or Die (2024).
== Plot ==
Lifelong friends Mike Lowrey and Marcus Burnett are devoted Miami Police narcotics detectives investigating $100 million of seized Mafia heroin, their biggest career bust which was stolen from a secure police vault. Internal Affairs suspects that it was an inside job and threatens to shut down the entire department unless they recover the drugs within 72 hours.
Mike asks one of his informants and ex-girlfriend Maxine "Max" Logan to look for people who are newly rich and therefore suspects. She gets herself and her best friend Julie Mott hired as escorts by Eddie Dominguez, a crooked former cop.
The party is soon interrupted by Dominguez's French drug kingpin boss Fouchet and his henchmen Casper, Ferguson, and Noah (who informed Fouchet of Eddie’s wrecklessness). Fouchet, knowing that Max has seen too much, distracts her by asking her to model for him; he then shoots and kills her. He also shoots Eddie in the leg, knowing he’s a liability, and has his henchman kill Eddie. While this is going on, Julie hides in the bathroom and manages to escape. The madam who hired Julie and Max is disposed of by Noah, who then knocks out Mike as he investigates Max's death.
Frantically calling the police, Julie insists on talking only to Mike, who is following up on a lead with the madam. Knowing she never met Mike, Captain Conrad Howard forces Marcus to impersonate him to talk to her. At her apartment, Marcus and Julie are attacked by some of Fouchet's henchmen, one of whom Marcus kills.
While he rendezvous with Mike at the precinct the next morning, Captain Howard forces Marcus and Mike to impersonate each other, with Mike living at the Burnett residence while Marcus stays with Julie at Mike's. They struggle to keep up the charade in Julie's presence, and she soon begins to suspect the truth.
Looking through mugshots, Julie identifies Noah as one of the henchmen. The partners go to Club Hell, one of Noah's known hangouts, and she follows unbeknownst to them. After being spotted, Marcus knocks Casper unconscious during a bathroom fight. Julie tries to kill Fouchet, but Marcus stops her.
In the ensuing car chase, Mike kills Noah. The three manage to get away, but are caught on camera by a news helicopter. The ensuing report is later seen by Marcus's family, who were told that he was temporarily reassigned to Cleveland.
Mike and Marcus meet their old informant Jojo and learn about the location of the chemist who is cutting the stolen drugs. The three return to Mike's apartment, where Marcus's wife Theresa confronts them and confirms Julie's suspicion they have been impersonating each other. Fouchet and his gang show up and kidnap Julie.
Mike and Marcus's department is shut down by Internal Affairs. Despite being reassigned, Howard delays the order, giving Mike and Marcus more time to solve the case. They access Dominguez's private police database profile and learn that the police secretary Francine is his former girlfriend. She was being blackmailed by Fouchet and Dominguez after they took nude photos of her, threatening to post them at her kids's school.
Mike, Marcus, and detectives Sanchez and Ruiz, head to the Miami-Opa Locka Executive Airport. During a fierce shootout, they kill Fouchet's remaining henchmen, including Casper and Ferguson, and rescue Julie. They chase a fleeing Fouchet and force his car into a concrete barrier. As he tries to flee, Mike pulls his sidearm on him and commands him to freeze while Marcus tells Mike that Fouchet is not worth killing. Mike instead shoots him in the leg and closes in on him, kicks his gun away, then pauses before attempting to arrest him at gunpoint.
As Fouchet tries to bait Mike into shooting him, Marcus pulls him back and makes him holster his weapon. Fouchet surreptitiously draws a gun but is shot to death by Mike, avenging Max's death. An exhausted Marcus leaves Julie with Mike handcuffing them to each other and heads home, eager to spend quality time with his wife.
== Cast ==
== Development ==
In the film's early stages of development, Simpson and Bruckheimer initially envisioned Dana Carvey and Jon Lovitz in the roles. When the film was written for Carvey and Lovitz, the original title for Bad Boys was Bulletproof Hearts. The film was initially set up at Hollywood Pictures, a Walt Disney Studios subsidiary, but it was placed into turnaround by management and sold the project to Columbia Pictures. Arsenio Hall turned down the role of Lowrey and claims that choice as the worst mistake he has ever made. The role eventually went to Smith.
== Production ==
Principal photography began on June 27, 1994, at the Dade Tire company near downtown Miami, the city chosen to replace the original New York locale. Filming continued throughout the area, including South Beach's Tides Hotel, the Mediterranean Biltmore Hotel, the Dade County Courthouse and a multimillion-dollar estate on a private island. The second floor of downtown Miami's Alfred DuPont building was converted into a police station; a freighter on the Miami River into a drug lab. Bad Boys’s' climactic scenes were filmed at the Opa-Locka Airport. Both Lawrence and Smith were starring in their own hit television shows, Martin and The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, when filming Bad Boys; filming was quick due to the television schedules of the stars with production wrapping on August 31. The opening sequence was written and shot during post-production.
=== Improvisation ===
Director Bay did not like the script and often engaged Smith and Lawrence in discussions about how the dialogue and scenes could improve. He often allowed them to improvise while the cameras were rolling. He secretly told Smith to call Lawrence a bitch before the car scene. The line "two bitches in the sea" was improvised, as was Lawrence's comment when Leoni called him gay. The scene in the convenience store, when the clerk puts a gun to Burnett and Lowrey's heads and yells, telling them to "Freeze, mother bitches!", is also improvised. They came up with: "No, you freeze, bitch! Now back up, put the gun down and get me a pack of Tropical Fruit Bubbalicious". "And some Skittles." According to Bay in the DVD commentary, at the end of the film when Mike and Marcus are recuperating, Mike says "I love you, man." Bay claims that Smith refused to say the line, causing the director and actor to argue back and forth over the line. Bay wanted Smith to say the line as he felt it summed up the friendship between the cops. After their argument had lasted for half of the day's shoot and much of the crew was ready to pack up, a fed up Bay told Smith to do whatever he wanted, after which Smith changed his mind and agreed to say the line.
== Music ==
== Reception ==
=== Box office ===
Bad Boys generated a total of $15.5 million during its opening weekend, beating out A Goofy Movie and Tommy Boy to reach the number one spot. For its second weekend, it remained at the top spot with $11 million. Despite being dethroned by While You Were Sleeping, the film still made $7 million in its third weekend, while also outgrossing Kiss of Death. Bad Boys was commercially successful, grossing $141,407,024 worldwide — $65,807,024 in North America and $75,600,000 internationally.
=== Critical reception ===
On Rotten Tomatoes, Bad Boys holds an approval rating of 44% based on 70 reviews, with an average rating of 5.3/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "Bad Boys stars Will Smith and Martin Lawrence have enjoyable chemistry; unfortunately, director Michael Bay too often drowns it out with set pieces and explosions in place of an actual story." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 41 out of 100, based on 24 critics, indicating "mixed or average" reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.
Most of the criticisms focused on the fact that despite the production of the film and the ability of the stars, the script did not diverge from the generic plot of a buddy-cop genre film, instead opting for repeated use of formulaic scenes.
Roger Ebert in his video review of the film on At the Movies noted that despite the highly energetic approach of the two lead actors and the visual style of the film, their acting talents were mostly "new wine in old bottles". He illustrated that many of the elements featured in the film including both the plot and characters had been recycled from other films, particularly those from the Lethal Weapon and Beverly Hills Cop series—recurrent stock-characters, police detective clichés and over-long action scenes. In describing the archetypal cop-buddy genre action scene adhered to by the film, Ebert noted "Whenever a movie like this starts to drag, there's always one infallible solution; have a car-chase and then blow something up real good." Ebert gave the film 2 out of 4 stars.
Gene Siskel in his appraisal of the film said that he had lost interest in the film after its introduction due to the very formulaic approach, and repeated Roger Ebert's criticism that the talents of the lead actors were wasted; suggesting that the production company did not spend significant time producing a script which would be suitable for their talents. Siskel gave the film 2 out of 4.
== Home media ==
Bad Boys was released on VHS and LaserDisc on November 7, 1995. It would then premiere DVD on June 27, 2000. A UMD was released on December 20, 2005. A Blu-ray release followed on June 1, 2010. Bad Boys was released in a two movie pack that includes its successor Bad Boys II on Ultra HD Blu-ray on September 4, 2018. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Bishop%27s_House | Russian Bishop's House | The Russian Bishop's House (Russian: Русский Архиерейский Дом), once the Russian Mission Orphanage (Russian: Российская Миссия Орфанадж), is a historic house museum and National Historic Landmark at Lincoln and Monastery Streets in Sitka, Alaska. Built in 1841–43, this log structure is one of the oldest surviving buildings of Russian America, and was one of the centerpieces of the Russian Orthodox church's efforts to spread its influence among the natives of Alaska. It was the home and administrative center of Ivan Veniaminov, the first Bishop of Alaska, later canonized as Innocent of Alaska. The house is now a unit of Sitka National Historical Park, and is administered by the National Park Service.
== Description ==
The Russian Bishop's House is a two-story log structure, measuring about 42 by 63 feet (13 m × 19 m). It is divided into nine bays, each measuring about 7 feet (2.1 m) (one sazhen) square, and covered by a hip roof. The east and west ends of the building are further extended by shed-roof "galleries" that are 14 feet (4.3 m) wide, which historically provided space for stairwells, storage, latrines, and entrances.
The exterior has undergone a number of alterations since construction. The south facade was sheathed in clapboarding c. 1851, and the galleries were roofed in metal around that time. In 1887 the galleries were sheathed in board-and-batten siding. The interior was repeatedly altered over the decades, and underwent a major restoration once the property was acquired by the National Park Service 1973.
=== Secondary buildings ===
The property on which the Bishop's House stands includes two secondary buildings associated with the activities of the Russian Orthodox Church. East of the main house stands the Old School, a two-story wood-frame structure built in 1897 to provide a kindergarten and girls' school. House 105 is a 1+1⁄2-story wood-frame structure which stands facing Monastery Street. It was originally on a separate parcel of land, and was apparently moved to its present location in the 1950s.
== History ==
The Russian Bishop's House was built between 1841 and 1843 by Finnish laborers brought in by the Russian American Company, to provide housing for Reverend Ivan Veniaminov, who had been appointed the first Bishop of Alaska by the Russian Orthodox Church. From his seat in Sitka, Veniaminov oversaw the spread of Orthodox missionary and educational work to the indigenous peoples of southern Alaska, nearly doubling the number of Orthodox worshippers in the region between 1841 and 1860. Missionary efforts were continued after the United States purchased Alaska in 1867 and were only significantly cut back after funding cuts in the wake of the Russian Revolution in 1917. The seat of the Russian diocese was relocated to San Francisco in 1872, and the Bishop's House was repurposed to provide housing quarters for priests. Its first floor also served as an inn for a time.
In 1903 a bishop was once again assigned to a district with its seat at Sitka. For most of the 20th century, the upper floors housed a chapel and the quarters of the bishop, while the ground floor was used in a variety of ways. In the 1920s it housed a printing operation that produced, in addition to church publications, the Sitka Sun and the Sitka Tribune.
The Old School was used as a church school building until 1922, and as a public school thereafter. House 105, while not of architectural note, was used as a church rental property for many years, and is one of the oldest buildings in Sitka.
The property was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1962, and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the "Russian Mission Orphanage" in 1966, reflecting its major function at that time. The National Register designation was altered to "Russian Bishop's House" in 1980.
The Russian Bishop's House is now owned and managed by the National Park Service as a unit of Sitka National Historical Park. It is open to the public on ranger-guided tours. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Cameron | James Cameron | James Francis Cameron (born August 16, 1954) is a Canadian filmmaker and deep-sea explorer. His films combine cutting-edge film technology with classical filmmaking techniques and have grossed over $10 billion worldwide, making him the second-highest-grossing film director of all time. A major figure in the post-New Hollywood era, Cameron has received numerous accolades, including three Academy Awards, two Primetime Emmy Awards, and four Golden Globe Awards, as well as nominations for six British Academy Film Awards.
Born and raised in Ontario, Cameron moved to California aged 17 and enrolled at Fullerton Community College. Beginning his career with the short film Xenogenesis (1978), he first gained recognition for writing and directing the science fiction action film The Terminator (1984). He had further success with Aliens (1986), The Abyss (1989), Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991), and True Lies (1994), as well as the Avatar franchise (2009–present). He directed, wrote, co-produced, and co-edited the historical romance epic Titanic (1997), winning Academy Awards for Best Picture, Best Director, and Best Film Editing.
Three of Cameron's films—Avatar (2009), Avatar: The Way of Water (2022) and Titanic—are amongst the top four highest-grossing films of all time. He directed the first film to gross over $1 billion, the first two films to gross over $2 billion each, is the only director to have had three films gross over $2 billion each, and is the first director to have four consecutive feature films gross over $1 billion each. The Terminator, Terminator 2: Judgment Day, and Titanic have been selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress. Cameron also co-founded the production companies Lightstorm Entertainment, Digital Domain, and Earthship Productions. In 2010, Time named Cameron one of the 100 most influential people in the world.
In addition to filmmaking, he is a National Geographic explorer-in-residence and has produced many documentaries on deep-ocean exploration, including Ghosts of the Abyss (2003) and Aliens of the Deep (2005). Cameron has also contributed to underwater filming and remote vehicle technologies, and helped create the new digital 3D Fusion Camera System. In 2012, he became the first person to complete a solo descent to the bottom of the Mariana Trench, the deepest part of Earth's ocean, in the Deepsea Challenger submersible. He is also an environmentalist and runs several sustainability businesses.
== Early life and education ==
James Francis Cameron was born on August 16, 1954, in Kapuskasing, Ontario, to Philip Cameron, an electrical engineer, and Shirley (née Lowe), an artist and nurse. He is the first of five children, with two brothers and two sisters. His paternal great-great-great-grandfather emigrated from Balquhidder, Scotland, in 1825. Cameron spent summers on his grandfather's farm in Southern Ontario. He attended Stamford Collegiate in Niagara Falls, Ontario. At age 17, Cameron and his family moved from Chippawa, Ontario to Brea, California. He attended Sonora High School and then moved to Brea Olinda High School. Classmates recalled that he was not a sportsman but instead enjoyed building things that "either went up into the air or into the deep".
After high school, Cameron enrolled at Fullerton College, a community college, in 1973 to study physics. He switched subjects to English, but left the college at the end of 1974. Cameron worked odd jobs, including as a truck driver and a high school janitor. He drank beer, frequently consumed cannabis and LSD, and wrote in his free time. During this period, he learned about special effects by reading other students' work on "optical printing, or front screen projection, or dye transfers, anything that related to film technology" at the University of Southern California library. After the excitement of seeing Star Wars in 1977, Cameron quit his job as a truck driver to enter the film industry.
== Career ==
=== 1978–1989: Early career and breakthrough ===
Cameron's directing career began in 1978. After borrowing money from a consortium of dentists, he learned to direct, write and produce his first short film, Xenogenesis (1978), with a friend. Learning as he went, Cameron said he felt like a doctor doing his first surgical procedure. He then served as a production assistant for Rock 'n' Roll High School (1979). While educating himself about filmmaking techniques, Cameron started a job as a miniature model maker at Roger Corman Studios. He was soon employed as an art director for the science-fiction film Battle Beyond the Stars (1980). He carried out the special effects for John Carpenter's Escape from New York (1981), served as production designer for Galaxy of Terror (1981), and consulted on the design for Android (1982).
Cameron was hired as the visual effects director for the sequel to Piranha (1978), titled Piranha II: The Spawning in 1982. The original director, Miller Drake, left the project due to creative differences with producer Ovidio Assonitis. Shot in Rome, Italy, and on Grand Cayman Island, the film gave Cameron the opportunity to become director for a major film for the first time. Cameron later said that it did not feel like his first film due to power-struggles with Assonitis. Upon release of Piranha II: The Spawning, critics were not impressed; author Tim Healey called it "a marvellously bad movie which splices clichés from every conceivable source".
In 1982, inspired by John Carpenter's horror film Halloween (1978), as well as a nightmare about an invincible robot hit-man sent from the future to assassinate him, Cameron wrote the script for The Terminator (1984), a sci-fi action film about a cyborg sent from the future to carry out a lethal mission. Cameron wanted to sell the script so that he could direct the film. While some film studios expressed interest in the project, many executives were unwilling to let a new and unfamiliar director make the film. Gale Anne Hurd, a colleague and founder of Pacific Western Productions, agreed to buy Cameron's script for one dollar, on the condition that Cameron direct the film. He convinced the president of Hemdale Pictures to make the film, with Cameron as director and Hurd as a producer. Lance Henriksen, who starred in Piranha II: The Spawning, was considered for the lead role, but Cameron decided that Arnold Schwarzenegger was more suitable as the cyborg villain due to his bodybuilder appearance. Henriksen was given a smaller role instead. Michael Biehn and Linda Hamilton also joined the cast. The Terminator was a box office success, exceeding expectations set by Orion Pictures, and earning over $78 million worldwide. George Perry of the BBC praised Cameron's direction, writing "Cameron laces the action with ironic jokes, but never lets up on hinting that the terror may strike at any moment". In 2008, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry, being deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
In 1984, Cameron was hired to write a sequel to First Blood; it was rewritten by Sylvester Stallone and released as Rambo: First Blood Part II. Cameron was then hired to write and direct a sequel to Alien (1979), a science fiction horror film directed by Ridley Scott. Like the original, the sequel Aliens (1986) featured Sigourney Weaver as Ellen Ripley. Aliens follows Ripley as she helps a group of marines fight off extraterrestrials. Despite conflicts with cast and crew during production, and having to replace one of the lead actors—James Remar with Michael Biehn—Aliens was a box office success, generating over $130 million worldwide. The film was nominated for seven Academy Awards in 1987; Best Actress, Best Art Direction, Best Film Editing, Best Original Score and Best Sound. It won awards for Best Sound Editing and Best Visual Effects. In addition, Weaver and the film made the cover of Time in July 1986.
After Aliens, Cameron and Gale Anne Hurd decided to make The Abyss, a story about oil-rig workers who discover strange intelligent life in the ocean. Based on an idea which Cameron had conceived of during high school, the film was initially budgeted at $41 million, although it ran considerably over this amount. It starred Ed Harris, Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio and Michael Biehn. The production process began in the Cayman Islands and in South Carolina, in two huge water tanks "reclaimed from" an unfinished nuclear power plant. The cast and crew recall Cameron's dictatorial behavior, and the filming of water scenes which were mentally and physically exhausting. Upon the film's release, The Abyss was praised for its special effects, and earned $90 million at the worldwide box office. The Abyss received four Academy Award nominations, and won Best Visual Effects.
=== 1990–1999: Stardom and acclaim ===
In 1990, Cameron co-founded the firm Lightstorm Entertainment with collaborator Lawrence Kasanoff. In 1991, Cameron served as executive producer for Point Break (1991), directed by Kathryn Bigelow. After the success of The Terminator, there were discussions for a sequel, and by the late 1980s, Mario Kassar of Carolco Pictures secured the rights to the sequel, allowing Cameron to begin production of the film, Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991). Written by Cameron and William Wisher Jr., Schwarzenegger and Linda Hamilton reprise their roles. The story follows on from Terminator, depicting a new villain (T-1000), with shape-shifting abilities who hunts for Sarah Connor's son, John (Edward Furlong). Cameron cast Robert Patrick as T-1000 because of his lean and thin appearance—a sharp contrast to Schwarzenegger. Cameron explained: "I wanted someone who was extremely fast and agile. If the T-800 is a human Panzer tank, then the T-1000 is a Porsche". Terminator 2 was one of the most expensive films to be produced, costing at least $94 million ($222 million in 2025). Despite the challenging use of computer-generated imagery (CGI), the film was completed on time and released on July 3, 1991. Terminator 2 broke box office records (including the opening weekend record for an R-rated film), earning over $200 million in North America and being the first to earn over $300 million worldwide (respectively over $473 million and $709 million in 2025). It won four Academy Awards: Best Makeup, Best Sound Mixing, Best Sound Editing and Best Visual Effects. It also received nominations for Best Cinematography and Best Film Editing.
In subsequent years, Cameron planned to do a third Terminator film, but plans never materialized. The rights to the Terminator franchise were eventually purchased by Kassar from a bankruptcy sale of Carolco's assets. Cameron moved on to other projects and, in 1993, co-founded Digital Domain, a visual effects production company. In 1994, Cameron and Schwarzenegger reunited for their third collaboration, True Lies, a remake of the 1991 French comedy La Totale!. The story depicts an American secret agent who leads a double life as a married man, whose wife believes he is a computer salesman. The film co-stars Jamie Lee Curtis, Eliza Dushku and Tom Arnold. Cameron's Lightstorm Entertainment signed a deal with 20th Century Fox for the production of True Lies. Budgeted at a minimum of $100 million, the film earned $146 million in the United States and Canada. The film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Visual Effects and Curtis won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress. It was during the production of True Lies that he would first meet Jon Landau, who at the time oversaw the film's production for Fox. In July 2024, Cameron stated that he "lured" Landau away from Fox to Lightstorm.
In 1995, Cameron co-produced Strange Days, a science fiction thriller. Directed by Kathryn Bigelow and co-written by Jay Cocks, Strange Days was critically and financially unsuccessful. In 1996, Cameron reunited with the cast of Terminator 2 to film T2 3-D: Battle Across Time, an attraction at Universal Studios Florida, and in other parks around the world.
His next major project was Titanic (1997), an epic about the RMS Titanic, which sank in 1912 after hitting an iceberg. With a production budget of $200 million, at the time it was the most expensive film ever made. Starting in 1995, Cameron took several dives to the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean to capture footage of the wreck, which would later be used in the film. A replica of the ship was built in Rosarito Beach and principal photography began in September 1996. Titanic made headlines before its release, for being over-budget and exceeding its schedule. In a radical departure from Cameron's previous work, his completed screenplay depicts two star-crossed lovers, portrayed by Leonardo DiCaprio and Kate Winslet, from different social classes who fall in love amid the backdrop of the ship's tragedy. The supporting cast includes Billy Zane, Kathy Bates, Frances Fisher, Gloria Stuart, Bernard Hill, Jonathan Hyde, Victor Garber, Danny Nucci, David Warner and Bill Paxton. The film was also Cameron's first large-scale production with Landau as a co-producer.
After months of delay, Titanic premiered on December 19, 1997. The film received strong critical acclaim and became the highest-grossing film of all time, holding this position for twelve years, until Cameron's Avatar beat the record in 2010. The costumes and sets were praised, and The Washington Post considered the CGI graphics to be spectacular. Titanic received a record-tying fourteen nominations (tied with All About Eve in 1950) at the 1998 Academy Awards. It won eleven of the awards, tying the record for most wins with 1959's Ben-Hur (now also tied with 2003's The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King) including: Best Picture, Best Director, Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography, Best Visual Effects, Best Film Editing, Best Costume Design, Best Sound Mixing, Best Sound Editing, Best Original Score and Best Original Song. Upon receiving Best Picture, Cameron and producer Jon Landau asked for a moment of silence to remember the 1,500 people who died when the ship sank. Film critic Roger Ebert praised Cameron's storytelling, writing: "It is flawlessly crafted, intelligently constructed, strongly acted, and spellbinding". Authors Kevin Sandler and Gaylyn Studlar wrote in 1999 that the romance, historical nostalgia and James Horner's music contributed to the film's cultural phenomenon. In 2017, on its 20th anniversary, Titanic became Cameron's second film to be selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.
After the huge success of Titanic, Cameron kept a low profile. In 1998, he and his brother, John, formed Earthship Productions, to stream documentaries about the deep sea, one of Cameron's interests. Again during 1998, Cameron considered doing a large-scale technological/religious film by an unknown writer, but after three tries was forced to personally pass on the project "due to his secular nature." Cameron had also planned to make a film about Spider-Man, a project developed by Menahem Golan of Cannon Films. Columbia hired David Koepp to adapt Cameron's ideas into a screenplay, but due to various disagreements, Cameron abandoned the project. In 2002, Spider-Man was released with the screenplay credited solely to Koepp.
=== 2000–2009: Established career ===
In 2000, Cameron made his debut in television and, with Charles H. Eglee, co-created Dark Angel, a television series influenced by cyberpunk, biopunk, contemporary superheroes and third-wave feminism. Dark Angel starred Jessica Alba as Max Guevara, a genetically enhanced super-soldier created by a secretive organization. While the first season was moderately successful, the second season did less well, which led to its cancellation.
In 2002, Cameron served as producer on the 2002 film Solaris, a science fiction drama directed by Steven Soderbergh. The film gained mixed reviews and failed at the box office. Keen to make documentaries, Cameron directed Expedition: Bismarck, about the German Battleship Bismarck. In 2003, he directed Ghosts of the Abyss, a documentary about RMS Titanic which was released by Walt Disney Pictures and Walden Media, and designed for 3D theaters. Cameron told The Guardian his intention for filming everything in 3D. In 2005, Cameron co-directed Aliens of the Deep, a documentary about the various forms of life in the ocean. He also starred in Titanic Adventure with Tony Robinson, another documentary about the Titanic shipwreck. In 2006, Cameron co-created and narrated The Exodus Decoded, a documentary exploring the Biblical account of the Exodus. In 2007, Cameron and fellow director Simcha Jacobovici, produced The Lost Tomb of Jesus. It was broadcast on Discovery Channel on March 4, 2007; the documentary was controversial for arguing that the Talpiot Tomb was the burial place of Jesus of Nazareth.
By the mid-2000s, Cameron returned to directing and producing his first mainstream film since Titanic. Cameron had displayed interest in making Avatar (2009) and Alita: Battle Angel (2019) as early as June 2005, with both films to be shot using 3D technology. He wanted to make Alita: Battle Angel first, followed by Avatar, but switched the order in February 2006. Although Cameron had written an 80-page treatment for Avatar in 1995, Cameron stated that he wanted the necessary technology to improve before starting production. Avatar, with the story line set in the mid-22nd century, had an estimated budget in excess of $300 million. The cast includes Sam Worthington, Zoe Saldaña, Stephen Lang, Michelle Rodriguez and Sigourney Weaver. It was composed with a mix of live-action footage and computer-generated animation, using an advanced version of the motion capture technique, previously used by director Robert Zemeckis in The Polar Express. Cameron intended Avatar to be 3D-only but decided to adapt it for conventional viewing as well.
Intended for release in May 2009, Avatar premiered on December 18, 2009. This delay allowed more time for post-production and the opportunity for theaters to install 3D projectors. Avatar broke several box office records during its initial theatrical run. It grossed $749.7 million in the United States and Canada and more than $2.74 billion worldwide, becoming the highest-grossing film of all time in the United States and Canada, surpassing Titanic. It was the first film to earn more than $2 billion worldwide. Avatar was nominated for nine Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director, and won three: Best Art Direction, Best Cinematography and Best Visual Effects. In July 2010, an extended theatrical re-release generated an additional $33.2 million worldwide (equivalent to $46,480,000 in 2024) at the box office. In his mixed review, Sukhdev Sandhu of The Telegraph complimented the 3D, but opined that Cameron "should have been more brutal in his editing". That year, Vanity Fair reported that Cameron's earnings were US$257 million, making him the highest earner in Hollywood. As of 2022, Avatar and Titanic hold the achievement for being the first two of the six films in history to gross over $2 billion worldwide. As with Titanic, Landau would greatly assist Cameron as the co-producer of the Avatar films as well.
=== 2010–present: Continued work and prospective projects ===
In June 2010, Cameron met with officials of the Environmental Protection Agency to discuss possible solutions to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. It was reported that he offered his assistance to help stop the oil well from leaking. He is a member of the NASA Advisory Council and he worked with the space agency to build cameras for the Curiosity rover sent for Mars. NASA launched the rover without Cameron's technology due to a lack of time during testing. He has expressed interest in a project about Mars, stating: "I've been very interested in the Humans to Mars movement ... and I've done a tremendous amount of personal research for a novel, a miniseries, and a 3D film." Cameron is a member of the Mars Society, a non-profit organization lobbying for the colonization of Mars. Cameron endorsed Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton for the 2016 United States presidential election.
In 2011, Cameron served as an executive producer for Sanctum, a disaster-survival film about a cave diving expedition which turns deadly. Although receiving mixed reviews, the film earned a fair $108 million at the worldwide box office. Cameron re-investigated the sinking of RMS Titanic with eight experts in a 2012 TV documentary special, Titanic: The Final Word with James Cameron, which premiered on April 8 on the National Geographic channel. In the feature, the experts revised the CGI animation of the sinking conceived in 1995. In March 2010, Cameron announced that Titanic would be converted and re-released in 3D to commemorate the centennial anniversary of the tragedy. On March 27, 2012, Titanic 3D premiered at London's Royal Albert Hall. He also served as executive producer of Cirque du Soleil: Worlds Away and Deepsea Challenge 3D in 2012 and 2014, respectively.Cameron starred in the 2017 documentary Atlantis Rising, with collaborator Simcha Jacobovici. The pair goes on an adventure to explore the existence of the city of Atlantis. The programme aired on January 29 on National Geographic. Next, Cameron produced and appeared in a documentary about the history of science fiction. James Cameron's Story of Science Fiction, the six-episodic series was broadcast on AMC in 2018. The series featured interviews with guests including Ridley Scott, Steven Spielberg, George Lucas and Christopher Nolan. He stated "Without Jules Verne and H. G. Wells, there wouldn't have been Ray Bradbury or Robert A. Heinlein, and without them, there wouldn't be [George] Lucas, [Steven] Spielberg, Ridley Scott or me".
Alita: Battle Angel was finally released in 2019, after being in parallel development with Avatar. Written by Cameron and friend Jon Landau, the film was directed by Robert Rodriguez and produced by Cameron. The film is based on a 1990s Japanese manga series Battle Angel Alita, depicting a cyborg who cannot remember anything of her past life and tries to uncover the truth. Produced with similar techniques and technology as in Avatar, the film starred Rosa Salazar, Christoph Waltz, Jennifer Connelly, Mahershala Ali, Ed Skrein, Jackie Earle Haley and Keean Johnson. The film premiered on January 31, 2019, to generally positive reviews and $404 million (equivalent to $487,500,000 in 2024) at the worldwide box office. In her review, Monica Castillo of RogerEbert.com called it "an awe-inspiring jump for [Rodriguez]" and "a visual bonanza", despite the bulky script. Cameron then returned to the Terminator franchise as producer and writer for Tim Miller's Terminator: Dark Fate (2019).
In August 2013, Cameron announced plans to direct three sequels to Avatar simultaneously, for release in December 2016, 2017, and 2018. However, the release dates were adjusted due to Cameron's other priorities, with Avatar 3, 4 and 5 to be released, respectively, on December 20, 2024, December 18, 2026, and December 22, 2028. Deadline Hollywood estimated that the budget for these would be over $1 billion. Avatar 2 (later given the subtitle The Way of Water) and Avatar 3 (later given the subtitle Fire and Ash) began simultaneous production in Manhattan Beach, California on August 15, 2017. Principal photography began in New Zealand on September 25, 2017. Parts of Avatar 4 were also filmed during this time. Cameron stated in a 2017 interview: "Let's face it, if Avatar 2 and 3 don't make enough money, there's not going to be a 4 and 5". Avatar: The Way of Water had its world premiere in London on December 6, 2022. It became the highest-grossing film released in 2022, and as of 2023 stood as the 3rd highest-grossing film of all time, behind only Avatar and Avengers: Endgame, and just ahead of Titanic.
Lightstorm Entertainment bought the film rights to the Taylor Stevens novel The Informationist, a thriller set in Africa with Cameron planning to direct. In 2010, he indicated he would adapt the Charles R. Pellegrino book The Last Train from Hiroshima, which is about the survivors of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Cameron met with survivor Tsutomu Yamaguchi before his death in 2010. In 2024, Deadline Hollywood confirmed that Cameron had purchased the rights of not only The Last Train from Hiroshima, but also of Pellegrino's forthcoming Ghosts of Hiroshima, to make an "uncompromising theatrical epic motion picture" titled Last Train From Hiroshima about a Japanese man who survives Hiroshima's bombing at the height of World War II only to then take a train to Nagasaki's bombing, which he will shoot as soon as the Avatar sequels' production permits. Feeling that he and Pellegrino owe Yamaguchi for handing the baton of his personal story to them so they could pass his unique and harrowing experience to future generations, Cameron was assisted by the Avatar sequels co-writer Shane Salerno and Pellegrino, who previously served as Cameron's science consultant on Titanic and Avatar.
In 2025, Cameron announced that Lightstorm Entertainment had acquired the rights to Joe Abercrombie's novel The Devils and that he would begin working on a screenplay for a film based on the novel after completion of Avatar: Fire and Ash. In November 2025, Cameron directed Billie Eilish – Hit Me Hard and Soft: The Tour (Live in 3D), a concert film documenting Billie Eilish's Hit Me Hard and Soft: The Tour.
=== Deep-sea and space exploration ===
Cameron has experience with deep-sea exploration, in part because of his work on The Abyss, Titanic, and Avatar: The Way of Water and his childhood fascination with shipwrecks. He has contributed to advancements in underwater filming and remotely operated vehicles, and helped develop the 3D Fusion Camera System. In 2011, Cameron became a National Geographic explorer-in-residence. In this role, on March 7, 2012, he dived five miles deep to the bottom of the New Britain Trench with the Deepsea Challenger. 19 days later, Cameron reached the Challenger Deep, the deepest part of the Mariana Trench. He spent more than three hours exploring the ocean floor, becoming the first to accomplish the trip alone. During his dive to the Challenger Deep, he discovered new species of sea cucumber, squid worm and a giant single-celled amoeba. He was preceded by unmanned dives in 1995 and 2009, as well as by Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh, the first men to reach the bottom of the Mariana Trench aboard the bathyscaphe Trieste in 1960.
In the aftermath of the Titan submersible implosion, Cameron said he was "struck by the similarity" between the submersible's implosion and the events that resulted in the Titanic disaster. He noted that both disasters seemed preventable, and were caused indirectly by someone deliberately ignoring safety warnings from others. Cameron criticized the company OceanGate and its late CEO Stockton Rush for their choice of carbon-fibre composite construction of the pressure vessel, saying it has "no strength in compression" when subject to the immense pressures at depth. Cameron said that pressure hulls should be made out of contiguous materials such as steel, titanium, ceramic, or acrylic, and that the wound carbon fibre of Titan's hull had seemed like a bad idea to him from the beginning. He stated that it was long known that composite hulls were vulnerable to microscopic water ingress, delamination, and progressive failure over time. He also criticized Rush's real-time monitoring of the hull as an inadequate solution that would do little to prevent an implosion. Cameron expressed regret for not being more outspoken about these concerns before the accident, and criticized what he termed "false hopes" being presented to the victims' families; he and his colleagues realized early on that for communication and tracking (the latter housed in a separate pressure vessel, with its own battery) to be lost simultaneously, the cause was almost certainly a catastrophic implosion.
In 2016, Premier Exhibitions, owner of many RMS Titanic artifacts, filed for bankruptcy. Cameron supported the UK's National Maritime Museum and National Museums Northern Ireland decision to bid for the artifacts, but they were acquired by an investment group before a formal bid took place.
Cameron also expressed a strong interest in visiting the space stations Mir and International Space Station (ISS). He spent the summer of 2000 in Moscow getting ready for a potential trip to space, and was offered an opportunity to go by NASA. However, the trip did not include a visit to the space station, so he declined the offer as it did not align with his terms. The shuttle flight he turned down was the tragic Space Shuttle Columbia. Cameron attended the memorial service for the victims of the disaster.
== Legal issues ==
In June 2013, British artist Roger Dean filed a copyright complaint against Cameron, seeking damages of $50 million (equivalent to $66,200,000 in 2024). The lawsuit stated that Cameron used and referenced Dean's designs in AVATAR, accusing the filmmaker of "wilful and deliberate copying, dissemination and exploitation" of Dean's original images. The case was dismissed by US district judge Jesse Furman in 2014.
== Personal life ==
Cameron has been married five times. He was married to Sharon Williams from 1978 to 1984. A year after he and Williams divorced, Cameron married film producer Gale Anne Hurd, a close collaborator for his 1980s films. They divorced in 1989. Soon after separating from Hurd, Cameron met the director Kathryn Bigelow, whom he wed in 1989; they divorced in 1991. Cameron then began a relationship with Linda Hamilton, the lead actress in The Terminator series. Their daughter was born in 1993. Cameron married Hamilton in 1997. Amid speculation of an affair between Cameron and actress Suzy Amis, Cameron and Hamilton separated after two years of marriage, with Hamilton receiving a settlement of $50 million. He married Amis, his fifth wife, in 2000. They have one son and two daughters together.
Cameron applied for American citizenship in 2004, but withdrew his application after George W. Bush won the presidential election. Cameron resided in the United States, but after filming Avatar in New Zealand, Cameron bought a home and a farm there in 2012. He divided his time between Malibu, California and New Zealand until 2020, after which he sold his Malibu home and decided to live in New Zealand permanently. He said in August 2020: "I plan to make all my future films in New Zealand, and I see the country having an opportunity to demonstrate to the international film industry how to safely return to work. Doing so with Avatar [sequels] will be a beacon that, when this is over [COVID-19 pandemic], will attract more production to New Zealand and continue to stimulate the screen industry and the economy for years." In February 2025, Cameron was planning to formally become a New Zealand citizen. He was formally granted New Zealand citizenship at a ceremony on August 13, 2025.
Cameron is an atheist; he formerly associated himself with agnosticism, a stance he said he had come to see as "cowardly atheism." Since 2011, he is vegan. Cameron met close friend Guillermo del Toro on the production of his 1993 film, Cronos. In 1997, del Toro's father Federico was kidnapped in Guadalajara and Cameron gave del Toro more than $1 million (equivalent to $1,790,000 in 2024) in cash to pay a ransom and have his father released. Cameron had been friends with Titanic expert Paul-Henri Nargeolet for over 25 years before the latter's death.
Cameron joined the board of directors of AI company Stability AI in September 2024.
== Filmmaking style ==
=== Themes ===
Cameron's films are often based on themes which explore the conflicts between intelligent machines and humanity or nature, dangers of corporate greed, strong female characters, and a romance subplot. Cameron has further stated in an interview with The Talks, "All my movies are love stories". Both Titanic and Avatar are noted for featuring star-crossed lovers. The Avatar franchise also explores themes like family dynamics and grief. Characters suffering from emotionally intense and dramatic environments in the sea wilderness are explored in The Abyss and Titanic. The Terminator series amplifies technology as an enemy which could lead to devastation of mankind. Similarly, Avatar views tribal people as an honest group, whereas a "technologically advanced imperial culture is fundamentally evil". The danger of nuclear war, as featured in The Terminator, Terminator 2: Judgement Day and in his forthcoming Last Train From Hiroshima film, has been one of Cameron's fears since he watched the Cuban Missile Crisis unfold when he was eight years old.
=== Method ===
Cameron is regarded as an innovative filmmaker in the industry, with a classical filmmaking style, and a reputation of being not easy to work for. Radio Times critic John Ferguson described Cameron as "the king of hi-tech thrillers". Dalin Rowell of /Film stated: "Known for his larger-than-life creations and unique filmmaking style, director James Cameron is in a league all of his own. With his genre-spanning work, lofty ambitions, and unrestrained energy, Cameron has carved out a name for himself in Hollywood as an artist willing to do anything to see his vision come true." Rebecca Keegan, author of The Futurist: The Life and Films of James Cameron, describes Cameron as "comically hands-on", and as someone who would try to do every job on the set. Andrew Gumbel of The Independent says Cameron "is a nightmare to work with. Studios fear his habit of straying way over schedule and over budget. He is notorious on set for his uncompromising and dictatorial manner, as well as his flaming temper". Author Alexandra Keller writes that Cameron is an egomaniac, obsessed with vision, but praises his "technological ingenuity" at creating a "visceral viewing experience".
According to Ed Harris, who starred in Cameron's film The Abyss, Cameron behaved in an autocratic manner. Orson Scott Card, who novelized The Abyss, stated that Cameron "made everyone around him miserable, and his unkindness did nothing to improve the film in any way. Nor did it motivate people to work faster or better". Harris later said: "I like Jim. He's an incredibly talented, intelligent guy", adding that "it was always good to see him" in later years. Speaking of her experience on Titanic, Kate Winslet said that she admired Cameron, but "there were times I was genuinely frightened of him". Describing him as having "a temper like you wouldn't believe", she had said she would not work with him again unless it was "for a lot of money". Despite this, Winslet and Cameron still looked for future projects and Winslet was eventually cast in Avatar: The Way of Water. Her co-star Leonardo DiCaprio told Esquire: "When somebody felt a different way on the set, there was a confrontation. He lets you know exactly how he feels", but complimented Cameron, "he's of the lineage of John Ford. He knows what he wants his film to be." Sam Worthington, who starred in Avatar, said that if a mobile phone rang during filming, Cameron would "nail it to the wall with a nail gun". Composer James Horner was also not immune to Cameron's demands; he recalls having to write music in a short time frame for Aliens. After the experience, Horner did not work with Cameron for a decade. In 1996, they reconciled their friendship and Horner produced the soundtracks for Titanic and Avatar.
Despite this reputation, Sigourney Weaver has praised Cameron's perfectionism and attention to detail, saying: "He really does want us to risk our lives and limbs for the shot, but he doesn't mind risking his own". In 2015, Weaver and Jamie Lee Curtis both applauded Cameron in an interview. Curtis remarked: "He can do every other job [than acting]. I'm talking about every single department, from art direction to props to wardrobe to cameras, he knows more than everyone doing the job". Curtis also said Cameron "loves actors", while Weaver referred to Cameron as "so generous to actors" and a "genius". Michael Biehn, a frequent collaborator, also praised Cameron, saying he "is a really passionate person. He cares more about his movies than other directors care about their movies", adding, "I've never seen him yell at anybody". Biehn acknowledged that Cameron is "not real sensitive when it comes to actors and their trailers, and waiting for actors to come to the set". Worthington commented: "He demands excellence. If you don't give it to him, you're going to get chewed out. And that's a good thing". When asked in 2012 about his reputation, Cameron dryly responded: "I don't have to shout any more, because the word is out there already".
In 2021, while giving a MasterClass during a break from his work on the Avatar sequels, Cameron acknowledged his past demanding behaviour, opining that if he could go back in time, he would improve the working relationship with his cast and crew members by being less autocratic, thinking of himself as a "tinpot dictator"; Cameron stated that when he visited one of Ron Howard's sets, he was "dumbfounded" at how much time Howard took to compliment his crew, aspiring to become "his inner Ron Howard".
=== Influence ===
Cameron's work has had an impact in the Hollywood film industry. The Avengers (2012), directed by Joss Whedon, was inspired by Cameron's approach to action sequences. Whedon also admires Cameron's ability for writing heroic female characters such as Ellen Ripley of Aliens, adding that he is "the leader and the teacher and the Yoda". Director Michael Bay idolizes Cameron and was convinced by him to use 3D cameras for filming Transformers: Dark of the Moon (2011). Cameron's approach to 3D inspired Baz Luhrmann during the production of The Great Gatsby (2013). Other directors that have been inspired by Cameron include Peter Jackson, Neill Blomkamp, and Xavier Dolan.
When asked how Cameron uses technology in the Avatar films in a way that allow them to remain appealing to future generations without appearing dated, Cameron replied:
"I think people use the term technology, but really, I think it's our desire to create a kind of dreamlike reality that seems very lucid and very real and doesn't look like other movies. So, it's really about creating that journey, and I think everything conspires within that. It's not just the technology we use to capture the actors, for example, or to do the CG finish on it. It's all those things, but it's also the performance, it's the design, it's the music, it's the 3D. It's all of those things working together, kind of symphonically, to create a unique experience that you, as an audience member, feel is worth turning off your streaming, leaving the house, going to a place where you don't have control, and just going on that ride and having it come at you."
Cameron advises modern filmmakers to not replace actors with artificial intelligence, reasoning that while actors may be expensive, they are not generic but idiosyncratic. Cameron instead prescribes the use of artificial intelligence to be limited to beginners' previsualization, and that filmmakers should spend at least a year studying acting, citing his experiences with Sigourney Weaver and Zoe Saldaña as the reasons why he trusts actors.
== Filmography ==
== Awards and recognition ==
Cameron received the inaugural Ray Bradbury Award from the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America in 1992 for Terminator 2: Judgment Day. In recognition of "a distinguished career as a Canadian filmmaker", Carleton University awarded Cameron the honorary degree of Doctor of Fine Arts on June 13, 1998. Cameron received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1998, presented by Awards Council member George Lucas. He also received an honorary doctorate in 1998 from Brock University in St. Catharines, Ontario, for his accomplishments in the international film industry. In 1998, Cameron attended a convocation to receive an honorary degree from Ryerson University, Toronto. The university awards its highest honor to those who have made extraordinary contributions in Canada or internationally. A year later, Cameron received the honorary Doctor of Fine Arts degree from California State University, Fullerton. He accepted the degree at the university's summer annual commencement exercise.
Cameron's work has been recognized by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences; as one of the few directors to have won three Academy Awards in a single year. For Titanic, he won Best Director, Best Picture (shared with Jon Landau) and Best Film Editing (shared with Conrad Buff and Richard A. Harris). In 2009, he was nominated for awards in Best Film Editing (shared with John Refoua and Stephen E. Rivkin, Best Director and Best Picture for Avatar. Cameron has won two Golden Globes: Best Director for Titanic and Avatar.
In recognition of his contributions to underwater filming and remote vehicle technology, University of Southampton awarded Cameron the honorary degree of doctor of the university in July 2004. Cameron accepted the award at the National Oceanography Centre. In 2008, Cameron received a star on Canada's Walk of Fame and a year later, received the 2,396th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. On February 28, 2010, Cameron was honored with a Visual Effects Society (VES) Lifetime Achievement Award. In June 2012, Cameron was inducted to The Science Fiction Hall of Fame at the Museum of Pop Culture for his contribution to the science fiction and fantasy field. Cameron collaborated with Walt Disney Imagineering and served as a creative consultant on Pandora – The World of Avatar, an Avatar-themed land at Disney's Animal Kingdom in Florida which opened to the public on May 27, 2017. A species of frog, Pristimantis jamescameroni, was named after Cameron for his work in promoting environmental awareness and advocacy of veganism.
In 2010, Time magazine named Cameron one of the 100 most influential people in the world. That same year, he was ranked at the top of the list in The Guardian Film Power 100 and in 30th place in New Statesman's list of "The World's 50 Most Influential Figures 2010". In 2013, Cameron received the Nierenberg Prize for Science in the Public, which is annually awarded by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. In 2019, Cameron was appointed as a Companion of the Order of Canada by Governor General Julie Payette, giving him the Post Nominal Letters "CC" for life.
In 2020, Cameron was the subject of the second season of the Epicleff Media dramatic podcast Blockbuster. The audio drama, created and narrated by Emmy Award-winning journalist and filmmaker Matt Schrader, chronicles Cameron's life and career (leading up to the creation and release of Titanic), and stars actor Ross Marquand in the lead voice role as Cameron.
Cameron was appointed as an Officer of the Legion of Honour in February 2025, the highest and most prestigious order of merit in France. He will officially be presented with the award at the 2025 United Nations Ocean Conference in Nice, where he will be one of the guests of honour.
In 2026 he was named a recipient of the Governor General's Performing Arts Award. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_(band) | Queen (band) | Queen are a British rock band formed in London in 1970 by Freddie Mercury (lead vocals, piano), Brian May (guitar, vocals), and Roger Taylor (drums, vocals), later joined by John Deacon (bass). Their earliest works were influenced by progressive rock, hard rock and heavy metal, but the band gradually ventured into more conventional and radio-friendly works by incorporating further styles, such as arena rock and pop rock.
Before forming Queen, May and Taylor had played together in the band Smile. Mercury was a fan of Smile and encouraged them to experiment with more elaborate stage and recording techniques. He joined in 1970 and suggested the name "Queen". Deacon was recruited in February 1971, before the band released their self-titled debut album in 1973. Queen first charted in the UK with their second album, Queen II, in 1974. Sheer Heart Attack later that year and A Night at the Opera in 1975 brought them international success. The latter featured "Bohemian Rhapsody", which topped the UK singles chart for nine weeks and helped popularise the music video format. The band's 1977 album News of the World contained "We Will Rock You" and "We Are the Champions", which have become anthems at sporting events. By the early 1980s, Queen were one of the biggest stadium rock bands in the world. "Another One Bites the Dust" from The Game (1980) became their best-selling single, and their 1981 compilation album Greatest Hits is the best-selling album in the UK and has been certified 9× Platinum in the US by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Their performance at the 1985 Live Aid concert is ranked among the greatest in rock history by various publications. In August 1986, Mercury gave his last performance with Queen at Knebworth, England.
Mercury was diagnosed with AIDS in 1987. The band released two more albums, The Miracle in 1989 and Innuendo in 1991. On 23 November 1991, Mercury publicly revealed his AIDS diagnosis, and the next day died of bronchopneumonia, a complication of AIDS. One more album was released featuring Mercury's vocals, 1995's Made in Heaven. Deacon retired in 1997, while May and Taylor continued to make sporadic appearances together. Since 2004, they have toured as "Queen +", with vocalists Paul Rodgers until 2009 and Adam Lambert since 2011.
Queen have been a global presence in popular culture for more than half a century. Estimates of their record sales range from 250 million to 300 million, making them one of the world's best-selling music artists. In 1990, Queen received the Brit Award for Outstanding Contribution to British Music. They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2001, and with each member having composed hit singles, all four were inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2003. In 2005, they received the Ivor Novello Award for Outstanding Song Collection from the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers, and Authors. In 2018, they were presented the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award, and they were awarded the Polar Music Prize in 2025.
== History ==
=== 1968–1971: Foundations ===
The founding members of Queen met in west London during the late 1960s. Guitarist Brian May had built his own guitar with his father in 1963, and formed the group 1984 (named after Orwell's novel) the following year with singer Tim Staffell. May left the group in early 1968 to focus on his degree in Physics and Infrared Astronomy at Imperial College and find a group that could write original material. He formed the group Smile with Staffell (now playing bass) and keyboardist Chris Smith. To complete the line-up, May placed an advertisement on a college notice board for a "Mitch Mitchell/Ginger Baker type" drummer; Roger Taylor, a young dental student, auditioned and got the job. Smith left the group in early 1969, immediately before a gig at the Royal Albert Hall with Free and the Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band.
While attending Ealing Art College in west London, Staffell became friends with fellow student Farrokh "Freddie" Bulsara, who was from Zanzibar and of Indian Parsi descent. Bulsara had studied fashion design for a year before switching to graphic art and design, and soon became a keen fan of Smile. He asked if he could join the group as lead singer, but May felt Staffell would not give up that role. He also ran a stall in Kensington Market with Taylor.
In 1970, Staffell quit Smile, feeling his interests in soul and R&B clashed with the group's hard rock sound and being fed up with the lack of success. He formed the group Humpy Bong with former Bee Gees drummer Colin Petersen. The remaining members accepted Bulsara as lead singer, and recruited Taylor's friend Mike Grose as bassist. The four played their first gig at a fundraising event in Truro on 27 June 1970. Bulsara suggested the group should be renamed to "Queen". The others were uncertain at first, but he said, "it's wonderful, dear, people will love it". At the same time, he decided to change his surname to Mercury, inspired by the line "Mother Mercury, look what they've done to me" in the song "My Fairy King". The group played their first London gig on 18 July. The early set consisted of material that later appeared on the first two albums, along with various rock and roll covers, such as Cliff Richard and the Shadows' "Please Don't Tease". They attracted the attention of producer John Anthony, who was interested in the group's sound but thought they had the wrong bass player. After three live gigs, Mike Grose decided not to continue with the band and was replaced by Barry Mitchell (ex Crushed Butler). Mitchell played thirteen gigs with Queen between August 1970 and January 1971. In turn, Mitchell left in January 1971 and was replaced by Doug Bogie for two live gigs.
=== 1971–1974: Queen and Queen II ===
In February 1971, John Deacon joined Queen. In addition to being an experienced bassist, his quiet demeanour complemented the band, and he was skilled in electronics. On 2 July, Queen played their first show with the classic line-up of Mercury, May, Taylor and Deacon at a Surrey college outside London. May called Terry Yeadon, an engineer at Pye Studios where Smile had recorded, to see if he knew anywhere where Queen could go. Yeadon had since moved to De Lane Lea Studios' new premises in Wembley, and they needed a group to test out the equipment and recording rooms. He tried asking the Kinks but couldn't get hold of them. Therefore, he told Queen they could record some demos in exchange for the studio's acoustic tests. They recorded five of their own songs, "Liar", "Keep Yourself Alive", "Great King Rat", "The Night Comes Down" and "Jesus". During the recording, producers John Anthony and Roy Thomas Baker visited the band. The two were taken with "Keep Yourself Alive" and began promoting the band to several record companies.
Promoter Ken Testi managed to attract the interest of Charisma Records, who offered Queen an advance of around £25,000, but the group turned them down as they realised the label would promote Genesis as a priority. Testi then entered discussions with Trident Studios' Norman Sheffield, who offered the band a management deal under Neptune Productions, a subsidiary of Trident, to manage the band and enable them to use their facilities, while the management searched for a deal. This suited both parties, as Trident were expanding into management, and under the deal, Queen were able to make use of the hi-tech recording facilities used by signed musicians. Taylor later described these early off-peak studio hours as "gold dust".
Queen began 1972 with a gig at Bedford College, London where only six people turned up. After a few more shows, they stopped live performances for eight months to work on the album with Anthony and Baker. During the sessions at Trident, they saw David Bowie with the Spiders from Mars live and realised they needed to make an impact with the album, otherwise they would be left behind. Co-producers Anthony and Baker initially clashed with the band (May in particular) on the direction of the album, bringing the band's inexperience in the studio to bear. The band's fighting centered around their efforts to integrate technical perfection with the reality of live performances, leading to what Baker referred to as "kitchen sink overproduction". The resulting album was a mix of heavy metal and progressive rock. The group were unhappy with the re-recording of "The Night Comes Down", so the finished album uses the De Lane Lea demo. Another track, "Mad the Swine" was dropped from the running order after the band and Baker could not agree on a mix. Mike Stone created the final mix for "Keep Yourself Alive", and he went on to work on several other Queen albums. By January 1972, the band finished recording their debut album, but had yet to secure a record contract. In order to attract record company interest, Trident booked a "showcase" gig on 6 November at The Pheasantry, followed by a show at the Marquee Club on 20 December.
Queen promoted the unreleased album in February 1973 on BBC Radio 1, still unsigned. The following month, Trident managed to strike a deal with EMI Records. "Keep Yourself Alive" was released as a single on 6 July, with the album Queen appearing a week later. The front cover showed a shot of Mercury live on stage taken by Taylor's friend Douglass Puddifoot. Deacon was credited as "Deacon John" while Taylor used his full name, Roger Meddows-Taylor. The album was received well by critics; Gordon Fletcher of Rolling Stone called it "superb", and Chicago's Daily Herald called it an "above-average debut". However, it drew little mainstream attention, and "Keep Yourself Alive" sold poorly. Retrospectively, it is cited as the album's highlight, and in 2008 Rolling Stone ranked it 31st in the "100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time", describing it as "an entire album's worth of riffs crammed into a single song". The album was certified gold in the UK and the US.
The group began to record their second album, Queen II in August 1973. Now able to use regular studio time, they decided to make full use of the facilities available. May created a multi-layer guitar introduction "Procession", while Mercury wrote "The Fairy Feller's Master Stroke" based on the painting of the same name by Richard Dadd. The group spent the remainder of the year touring the UK, supporting Mott the Hoople, and began to attract an audience. The tour ended with two shows at the Hammersmith Odeon on 14 December, playing to 7,000 people.
In January 1974, Queen played the Sunbury Pop Festival in Australia. They arrived late, and were jeered and taunted by the audience who expected to see home grown acts. Before leaving, Mercury announced, "when we come back to Australia, Queen will be the biggest band in the world!" Queen II was released in March, and features Mick Rock's iconic Dietrich-inspired image of the band on the cover. This image would later be used as the basis for "Bohemian Rhapsody" music video production. The album reached number five on the British album chart and became the first Queen album to chart in the UK. The Mercury-written lead single "Seven Seas of Rhye" reached number 10 in the UK, giving the band their first hit. The album featured a 'layered' sound which would become their signature, and features long complex instrumental passages, fantasy-themed lyrics, and instrumental virtuosity. Aside from its only single, the album also included the song "The March of the Black Queen", a six-minute epic which lacks a chorus. Critical reaction was mixed; the Winnipeg Free Press, while praising the band's debut album, described Queen II as an "over-produced monstrosity". AllMusic has described the album as a favourite among the band's hardcore fans, and it is the first of three Queen albums to feature in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. The group ended their early 1974 UK tour with a show at the Rainbow Theatre on 31 March. Mercury chose to a wear a Zandra Rhodes-designed tunic for the gig, changing into a slashed black top midway through the show.
=== 1974–1976: Sheer Heart Attack to A Night at the Opera ===
In May 1974, a month into the band's first US tour opening for Mott the Hoople, May collapsed and was diagnosed with hepatitis, forcing the cancellation of their remaining dates. May was still absent when the band started work on their third album, but he returned midway through the recording process. Released in 1974, Sheer Heart Attack reached number two in the UK, sold well throughout Europe, and went gold in the US. It gave the band their first real experience of international success, and was a hit on both sides of the Atlantic. The album experimented with a variety of musical genres, including British music hall, heavy metal, ballads, ragtime, and Caribbean. May's "Now I'm Here" documented the group's curtailed American tour, and "Brighton Rock" served as a vehicle for his regular on-stage solo guitar spot. Deacon wrote his first song for the group, "Misfire", while the live favourite "Stone Cold Crazy" was credited to the whole band. Mercury wrote the closing number, "In the Lap of the Gods… Revisited", with the intention that the audience could sing along to the chorus when played live. This would be repeated later on, more successfully, in songs such as "We Are the Champions.
The single "Killer Queen" was written by Mercury about a high-class prostitute. It reached number two on the British charts, and became their first US hit, reaching number 12 on the Billboard Hot 100. The song was partly recorded at Rockfield Studios in Wales. With Mercury playing the grand piano, it combines camp, vaudeville, and British music hall with May's guitar. "Now I'm Here" was released as the second single, reached number eleven. In 2006, Classic Rock ranked Sheer Heart Attack number 28 in "The 100 Greatest British Rock Albums Ever", and in 2007, Mojo ranked it No.88 in "The 100 Records That Changed the World". It is also the second of three Queen albums to feature in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.
In January 1975, Queen left for a world tour with an upgraded light show. They toured the US as headliners, and played in Canada for the first time. Several dates were cancelled after Mercury contracted laryngitis. The band then toured Japan from mid-April to the beginning of May. They were greeted by thousands of screaming fans, and played eight times in seven cities. Despite the success, Queen were still tied to the original Trident deal and wages. They were all living in relative poverty in bedsits, and Deacon was refused money for a deposit on a house. EMI contacted lawyer Jim Beach, who tried to find a way of extracting them from their contract. Trident complained that they had invested £200,000 in Queen and wanted their money back first. In August, after an acrimonious split with Trident, the band negotiated themselves out of their contract and searched for new management. One of the options they considered was an offer from Led Zeppelin's manager, Peter Grant, who wanted them to sign with Led Zeppelin's own production company, Swan Song Records. The band were concerned about being a lower priority than Zeppelin and Bad Company (also signed to Swan Song) and instead contacted Elton John's manager, John Reid, who accepted the position. Reid's first instruction to the band was "I'll take care of the business; you make the best record you can".
Queen started work on their fourth album A Night at the Opera, taking its name from the popular Marx Brothers movie. At the time, it was the most expensive album ever produced, costing £40,000 and using three different studios. Like its predecessor, the album features diverse musical styles and experimentation with stereo sound. Mercury wrote the opening song "Death on Two Legs", a savage dig at perceived wrongdoers (and later dedicated to Trident in concert) and the camp vaudeville "Lazing on a Sunday Afternoon" and "Seaside Rendezvous". May's "The Prophet's Song" was an eight-minute epic; the middle section is a canon, with simple phrases layered to create a full-choral sound. The Mercury penned ballad, "Love of My Life", featured a harp and overdubbed vocal harmonies.
The best-known song on the album, "Bohemian Rhapsody", originated from pieces of music that Mercury had written at Ealing College. Mercury played a run-through of the track on piano in his flat to Baker, stopping suddenly to announce, "This is where the opera section comes in". When the rest of the band started recording the song they were unsure as to how it would be pieced together. After recording the backing track, Baker left a 30-second section of tape to add the operatic vocals. Reportedly, 180 overdubs were used, to the extent that the original tape wore thin. EMI initially refused to release the single, thinking it too long, and demanded a radio edit which Queen refused. Mercury's close friend and advisor, Capital London radio DJ Kenny Everett, played a pivotal role in giving the single exposure. He was given a promotional copy on the condition he didn't play it, but ended up doing so fourteen times over a single weekend. Capital's switchboard was overwhelmed with callers inquiring when the song would be released. With EMI forced to release "Bohemian Rhapsody" due to public demand, the single reached number one in the UK for nine weeks. It is the third-best-selling single of all time in the UK, surpassed only by Band Aid's "Do They Know It's Christmas?" and Elton John's "Candle in the Wind 1997", and is the best-selling commercial single (i.e. not for charity) in the UK. It also reached number nine in the US (a 1992 re-release reached number two on the Billboard Hot 100 for five weeks). It is the only single ever to sell a million copies on two separate occasions, and became the Christmas number one twice in the UK, the only single ever to do so. It has also been voted the greatest song of all time in three different polls.
"Bohemian Rhapsody" was promoted with a music video directed by Bruce Gowers, who had already shot several of Queen's live concerts. The group wanted a video so they could avoid appearing on the BBC's Top of the Pops, which would clash with tour dates, and it would have looked strange miming to such a complex song. Filmed at Elstree Studios in Hertfordshire, the video cost £3,500, five times the typical promotional budget, and was shot in three hours. The operatic section featured a reprise of the Queen II cover, with the band member's heads animated. On the impact of the "Bohemian Rhapsody" promotional video, Rolling Stone states: "Its influence cannot be overstated, practically inventing the music video seven years before MTV went on the air." Ranking it number 31 on their list of the 50 key events in rock music history, The Guardian stated it "ensured videos would henceforth be a mandatory tool in the marketing of music". Radio broadcaster Tommy Vance states, "It became the first record to be pushed into the forefront by virtue of a video. Queen were certainly the first band to create a 'concept' video. The video captured the musical imagery perfectly. You cannot hear that music without seeing the visuals in your mind's eye."
A Night at the Opera was very successful in the UK, and went triple platinum in the United States. The British public voted it the 13th-greatest album of all time in a 2004 Channel 4 poll. It has also ranked highly in international polls; in a worldwide Guinness poll, it was voted the 19th-greatest of all time, and an ABC poll saw the Australian public vote it the 28th-greatest of all time. A Night at the Opera has frequently appeared in "greatest albums" lists reflecting the opinions of critics. Among other accolades, it was ranked number 16 in Q magazine's "The 50 Best British Albums Ever" in 2004, a poll done in collaboration with British music and entertainment retailer HMV. It was also placed at number 230 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time" in 2003. A Night at the Opera is the third and final Queen album to be featured in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. The second single from the album was Deacon's "You're My Best Friend", which peaked at number sixteen on the US Billboard Hot 100, and went on to become a worldwide top-ten hit. The band's A Night at the Opera Tour began in November 1975, and covered Europe, the US, Japan, and Australia. On 24 December, Queen played a special concert at the Hammersmith Odeon which was broadcast live on the BBC show The Old Grey Whistle Test, with the audio being later broadcast on BBC Radio 1. It became one of the band's most popular bootleg recordings for decades before being officially released in 2015.
=== 1976–1979: A Day at the Races to Live Killers ===
By 1976, Queen were back in the studio recording A Day at the Races, which is often regarded as a sequel album to A Night at the Opera. It again borrowed the name of a Marx Brothers movie, and its cover was similar to that of A Night at the Opera, a variation on the same Queen logo. The most recognisable of the Marx Brothers, Groucho Marx, invited Queen to visit him in his Los Angeles home in March 1977; there the band thanked him in person, and performed "'39" a cappella. Baker did not return to produce the album; instead the band self-produced with assistance from Mike Stone, who performed several of the backing vocals. The major hit on the album was "Somebody to Love", a gospel-inspired song in which Mercury, May, and Taylor multi-tracked their voices to create a gospel choir. The song went to number two in the UK, and number thirteen in the US. The album also featured one of the band's heaviest songs, May's "Tie Your Mother Down", which became a staple of their live shows. Musically, A Day at the Races was by both fans' and critics' standards a strong effort, reaching number one in the UK and Japan, and number five in the US.
Queen played a landmark gig on 18 September 1976, a free concert in Hyde Park, London, organised by the entrepreneur Richard Branson. It set an attendance record at the park, with 150,000 people confirmed in the audience. Queen were late arriving onstage and ran out of time to play an encore; the police informed Mercury that he would be arrested if he attempted to go on stage again. May enjoyed the gig particularly, as he had been to see previous concerts at the park, such as the first one organised by Blackhill Enterprises in 1968, featuring Pink Floyd.
On 1 December 1976, Queen were the intended guests on London's early evening Today programme, but they pulled out at the last minute, which caused their late replacement on the show, EMI labelmate the Sex Pistols, to give their infamous expletive-strewn interview with Bill Grundy. During the A Day at the Races Tour in 1977, Queen performed sold-out shows at Madison Square Garden, New York, in February, supported by Thin Lizzy, and Mercury and Taylor socialised with that group's leader Phil Lynott. They ended the tour with two concerts at Earls Court, London, in June, which commemorated the Silver Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II, and at the cost of £50,000 the band used a lighting rig in the shape of a crown for the first time.
The band's sixth studio album News of the World was released in 1977, which has gone four times platinum in the US, and twice in the UK. The album contained many songs tailor-made for live performance, including two of rock's most recognisable anthems, "We Will Rock You" and the rock ballad "We Are the Champions", both of which became enduring international sports anthems, and the latter reached number four in the US. Queen commenced the News of the World Tour in November 1977, and Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times called this concert tour the band's "most spectacularly staged and finely honed show". During the tour they sold out another two shows at MSG, and in 1978 they received the Madison Square Garden Gold Ticket Award for passing more than 100,000 unit ticket sales at the venue.
In 1978, Queen released Jazz, which reached number two in the UK and number six on the Billboard 200 in the US. The album included the hit singles "Fat Bottomed Girls" and "Bicycle Race" on a double-sided record. Critical reviews of the album in the years since its release have been more favourable than initial reviews. Another notable track from Jazz, "Don't Stop Me Now", provides another example of the band's exuberant vocal harmonies.
In 1978, Queen toured the US and Canada, and spent much of 1979 touring in Europe and Japan. They released their first live album, Live Killers, in 1979; it went platinum twice in the US. Queen also released the very successful single "Crazy Little Thing Called Love", a rockabilly inspired song done in the style of Elvis Presley. The song made the top 10 in many countries, topped the Australian ARIA Charts for seven consecutive weeks, and was the band's first number one single in the US where it topped the Billboard Hot 100 for four weeks. Having written the song on guitar and played rhythm on the record, Mercury played rhythm guitar when performing the song live, the first time he ever played guitar in concert. On 26 December 1979, Queen played the opening night at the Concert for the People of Kampuchea in London, having accepted a request by the event's organiser, Paul McCartney. The concert was the last date of their Crazy Tour of London.
=== 1980–1982: The Game, Hot Space and stadium tours ===
Queen began their 1980s career with The Game. It featured the singles "Crazy Little Thing Called Love" and "Another One Bites the Dust", both of which reached number one in the US. After attending a Queen concert in Los Angeles, Michael Jackson suggested to Mercury backstage that "Another One Bites the Dust" be released as a single, and in October 1980 it spent three weeks at number one. The album topped the Billboard 200 for five weeks, and sold over four million copies in the US. It was also the first appearance of a synthesiser on a Queen album. Heretofore, their albums featured a distinctive "No Synthesisers!" sleeve note. The note is widely assumed to reflect an anti-synth, pro-"hard"-rock stance by the band, but was later revealed by producer Roy Thomas Baker to be an attempt to clarify that those albums' multi-layered solos were created with guitars, not synths, as record company executives kept assuming at the time. In September 1980, Queen performed three sold-out shows at Madison Square Garden. In 1980, Queen also released the soundtrack they had recorded for Flash Gordon. At the 1981 American Music Awards in January, "Another One Bites the Dust" won the award for Favorite Pop/Rock Single, and Queen were nominated for Favorite Pop/Rock Band, Duo, or Group.
In February 1981, Queen travelled to South America as part of The Game Tour, and became the first rock band outside the Americas to play stadiums in Latin America. On playing the concerts, Classic Rock magazine states, "They were under the spotlight from all quarters, as the entire music industry waited to see if their ambitious plans would bear fruit". Tom Pinnock in the March 1981 issue of Melody Maker wrote, Queen chalked up a major international "first" by becoming the band to do for popular music in South America what The Beatles did for North America 17 years ago. Half a million Argentinians and Brazilians, starved of appearances of top British or American bands at their peak, gave Queen a heroic welcome which changed the course of pop history in this uncharted territory of the world rock map. The ecstatic young people saw eight Queen concerts at giant stadia, while many more millions saw the shows on TV and heard the radio broadcasts live.
The tour included five shows in Argentina, one of which drew the largest single concert crowd in Argentine history with an audience of 300,000 in Buenos Aires and two concerts at the Morumbi Stadium in São Paulo, Brazil, where they played to more than 131,000 people in the first night (then the largest paying audience for a single band anywhere in the world) and more than 120,000 people the following night. A region then largely ruled by military dictatorships, the band were greeted with scenes of fan-fever, and the promoter of their first shows at the Vélez Sarsfield Stadium in Buenos Aires was moved to say: "For music in Argentina, this has been a case of before the war and after the war. Queen have liberated this country, musically speaking." The group's second show at Vélez Sarsfield was broadcast on national television and watched by over 30 million. Backstage, they were introduced to footballer Diego Maradona.
Topping the charts in Brazil and Argentina, the ballad "Love of My Life" stole the show in South American concerts. Mercury would stop singing and would then conduct the audience as they took over, with Lesley-Ann Jones writing "the fans knew the song by heart. Their English was word-perfect." Later that year Queen performed for more than 150,000 on 9 October at Monterrey (Estadio Universitario) and 17 and 18 at Puebla (Estadio Zaragoza), Mexico. Though the gigs were successful, they were marred by a lack of planning and suitable facilities, with audiences throwing projectiles on stage. Mercury finished the final gig saying, "Adios, amigos, you motherfuckers!" On 24 and 25 November, Queen played two nights at the Montreal Forum, Quebec, Canada. One of Mercury's most notable performances of The Game's final track, "Save Me", took place in Montreal, and the concert is recorded in the live album, Queen Rock Montreal.
Queen worked with David Bowie on the 1981 single "Under Pressure". The first-time collaboration with another artist was spontaneous, as Bowie happened to drop by the studio while Queen were recording. Mercury and Bowie recorded their vocals on the track separately to each other, each coming up with individual ideas. The song topped the UK charts. In October, Queen released their first compilation album, titled Greatest Hits, which showcased the group's highlights from 1974 to 1981. The best-selling album in UK chart history, it is the only album to sell over seven million copies in the UK. As of July 2022, it has spent over 1000 weeks in the UK Album Chart. According to The Telegraph, approximately one in three families in the UK own a copy. The album is certified nine times platinum in the US. As of August 2024, it has spent over 600 weeks on the US Billboard 200. Greatest Hits has sold over 25 million copies worldwide.
In 1982, the band released the album Hot Space, a departure from their trademark seventies sound, this time being a mixture of pop rock, dance, disco, funk, and R&B. Most of the album was recorded in Munich during the most turbulent period in the band's history. Mercury and Deacon enjoyed the new soul and funk influences, but Taylor and May were less favourable, and were critical of the influence Mercury's personal manager Paul Prenter had on him. According to Mack, Queen's producer, Prenter loathed rock music and was in Mercury's ear throughout the Hot Space sessions. May was also scathing of Prenter—Mercury's manager from 1977 to 1984—for being dismissive of the importance of radio stations and their vital connection between the artist and the community, and for denying them access to Mercury. May states, "this guy, in the course of one tour, told every record station to fuck off". Queen roadie Peter Hince wrote "None of the band cared for him [Prenter], apart from Freddie", with Hince regarding Mercury's favouring of Prenter as an act of "misguided loyalty". During the Munich sessions, Mercury spent time with Mack and his family, becoming godfather to Mack's first child. Q magazine would list Hot Space as one of the top fifteen albums where great rock acts lost the plot. Though the album confused some fans with the change of musical direction, it still reached number 4 in the UK.
Queen toured to promote Hot Space, but found some audience unreceptive to the new material. At a gig in Frankfurt, Mercury told some people heckling the new material, "If you don't want to listen to it, go home!" Former Mott the Hoople keyboardist Morgan Fisher joined as an additional touring member. Shows were planned at Arsenal Stadium and Old Trafford, but these were cancelled as Pope John Paul II was touring Britain, leading to a lack of available outdoor facilities such as toilets. The gigs were moved to the Milton Keynes Bowl and Elland Road, Leeds instead. The Milton Keynes concert was filmed by Tyne Tees Television and later released on DVD. On 14 and 15 September 1982, the band performed their last two gigs in the US with Mercury on lead vocals, playing at The Forum in Inglewood, California. Fisher was replaced as touring keyboardist by Fred Mandel for the North American shows. The band stopped touring North America after their Hot Space Tour, as their success there had waned, although they performed on American television for the only time during the eighth-season premiere of Saturday Night Live on 25 September of the same year; it became the final public performance of the band in North America before the death of their frontman. Their fall in popularity in the US has been partially attributed to homophobia: Mercury had adopted what Rolling Stone's Mikal Gilmore referred to as a "gay clone look," with a thick mustache. Gilmore wrote, "At some shows on the band's 1980 American tour, fans tossed disposable razor blades onstage: They didn't like this identity of Mercury—what they perceived as a brazenly gay rock & roll hero—and they wanted him to shed it." The group finished the year with a Japanese tour.
=== 1983–1984: The Works ===
After the Hot Space Tour concluded with a concert at Seibu Lions Stadium in Tokorozawa, Japan in November 1982, Queen decided they would take a significant amount of time off. May later said at that point, "we hated each other for a while". The band reconvened nine months later to begin recording a new album at the Record Plant Studios, Los Angeles and Musicland Studios, Munich. Several members of the band also explored side projects and solo work. Taylor released his second solo album, Strange Frontier. May released the mini-album Star Fleet Project, collaborating with Eddie Van Halen. Queen left Elektra Records, their label in the US, Canada, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand, and signed onto EMI/Capitol Records.
In February 1984, Queen released their eleventh studio album, The Works. Hit singles included "Radio Ga Ga", which makes a nostalgic defence of the radio format, "Hammer to Fall" and "I Want to Break Free". Rolling Stone hailed the album as "the Led Zeppelin II of the eighties." In the UK The Works went triple platinum and remained in the albums chart for two years. The album failed to do well in the US, where, in addition to issues with their new record label Capitol Records (who had recently severed ties with their independent promotions teams due to a government report on payola), the cross-dressing video for "I Want to Break Free", a spoof of the British soap opera Coronation Street, proved controversial and was banned by MTV. The concept of the video came from Roger Taylor via a suggestion from his girlfriend. He told Q magazine: "We had done some really serious, epic videos in the past, and we just thought we'd have some fun. We wanted people to know that we didn't take ourselves too seriously, that we could still laugh at ourselves." Director of the video David Mallet said Mercury was reluctant to do it, commenting "it was a hell of a job to get him out of the dressing room".
That year, Queen began The Works Tour, the first tour to feature keyboardist Spike Edney as an extra live musician. The tour featured nine sold-out dates in October in Bophuthatswana, South Africa, at the arena in Sun City. Upon returning to England, they were the subject of outrage, having played in South Africa during the height of apartheid and in violation of worldwide divestment efforts and a United Nations cultural boycott. The band responded to the critics by stating that they were playing music for fans in South Africa, and they also stressed that the concerts were played before integrated audiences. Queen donated to a school for the deaf and blind as a philanthropic gesture but were fined by the British Musicians' Union and placed on the United Nations' blacklisted artists. In 2021, Taylor voiced his regret for the decision to perform at Sun City, saying that "we went with the best intentions, but I still think it was kind of a mistake."
=== 1985–1986: Live Aid, A Kind of Magic and tours ===
In January 1985, Queen headlined two nights of the first Rock in Rio festival at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and played in front of over 300,000 people each night. The Boston Globe described it as a "mesmerising performance". Highlights from both nights were released on VHS as Queen: Live in Rio, which was broadcast on MTV in the US. In April and May 1985, Queen completed the Works Tour with sold-out shows in Australia and Japan.
At Live Aid, held at Wembley on 13 July 1985, in front of the biggest-ever TV audience of an estimated 400 million, Queen performed some of their greatest hits. Many of the sold-out stadium audience of 72,000 people clapped, sang, and swayed in unison. The show's organisers, Bob Geldof and Midge Ure; other musicians such as Elton John and Cliff Richard; and journalists writing for the BBC, CNN, Rolling Stone, MTV, The Guardian and The Daily Telegraph, among others, described Queen as the highlight. Interviewed backstage, Roger Waters stated: "Everybody's been buzzing about Queen that I've run into. They had everybody completely spellbound." An industry poll in 2005 ranked it the greatest rock performance of all time. Mercury's powerful, sustained note—"Aaaaaay-o"—during the call-and-response a cappella segment came to be known as "The Note Heard Round the World". The band were revitalised by the response to Live Aid—a "shot in the arm" Roger Taylor called it—and the ensuing increase in record sales. In 1986 Mercury commented: "From our perspective, the fact that Live Aid happened when it did was really lucky. It came out of nowhere to save us. For sure that was a turning point. Maybe you could say that in the history of Queen, it was a really special moment."
Queen ended 1985 by releasing the single "One Vision" and a limited-edition boxed set of Queen albums, The Complete Works. The package included the 1984 Christmas single "Thank God It's Christmas" and previously unreleased material. In early 1986, Queen recorded the album A Kind of Magic, containing several reworkings of songs written for the fantasy action film Highlander. The album was successful in the UK, West Germany and several other countries, producing a string of hits including "A Kind of Magic", "Friends Will Be Friends", "Princes of the Universe" and "Who Wants to Live Forever"; the latter featuring an orchestra conducted by Michael Kamen. The album was less successful in North America, reaching 46 in the US, and was described by biographer Mark Blake as "a so-so album" and "a somewhat uneven listening experience". In 2007, Classic Rock ranked it the 28th greatest soundtrack album of all time.
In mid-1986, Queen went on the Magic Tour, their final tour with Mercury. They once again hired Spike Edney. Queen began the tour at the Råsunda Stadium in Stockholm, Sweden, and later performed a concert at Slane Castle, Ireland, in front of an audience of 95,000, which broke the venue's attendance record. The band also played behind the Iron Curtain when they performed to a crowd of 80,000 at the Népstadion in Budapest (released in the concert film Hungarian Rhapsody: Queen Live in Budapest), in what was one of the biggest rock concerts ever held in Eastern Europe. More than one million people saw Queen on the tour—400,000 in the UK alone, a record at the time.
The Magic Tour's highlight was at Wembley Stadium and resulted in the live double album Queen at Wembley, released on CD and as a live concert VHS/DVD, which has gone five times platinum in the US and four times platinum in the UK. The demand for tickets saw extra dates added to the tour, with concert promoter Harvey Goldsmith stating "they seem to have an endless market." Queen could not book Wembley for a third night, but played at Knebworth Park in Hertfordshire on 9 August. The show sold out within two hours and over 120,000 fans packed the park for what was Queen's final performance with Mercury. At the end of the concert the band appeared on stage for the final time to an encore of "God Save the Queen", with Mercury, in his crown and gown, bidding the crowd "goodnight and sweet dreams". Roadie Peter Hince states, "At Knebworth, I somehow felt it was going to be the last for all of us"; Brian May recalled Mercury saying "I'm not going to be doing this forever. This is probably the last time."
=== 1988–1992: The Miracle, Innuendo and Mercury's final years ===
In October 1986, two months after his final concert, Mercury, on his return to London from holiday, was confronted by a tabloid frenzy at Heathrow Airport with the British newspapers the News of the World and The Sun reporting he had his blood tested for HIV/AIDS at a Harley Street clinic, but Mercury was quoted as saying he was "perfectly fit and healthy". Fans noticed his increasingly gaunt appearance in 1988, with Mercury insisting he was merely "exhausted" and too busy to provide interviews; he was now 42 years old and had been involved in music for nearly two decades. He had in fact been diagnosed as HIV positive in 1987, but did not make his illness public, with only his inner circle of colleagues and friends aware of his condition.
After working on various solo projects during 1988 (including Mercury's collaboration with Montserrat Caballé, Barcelona), the band released The Miracle in 1989. The album continued the direction of A Kind of Magic, using a pop-rock sound mixed with a few heavy numbers. It spawned the hit singles "I Want It All"—which became an anti-apartheid anthem in South Africa—"Scandal", and "The Miracle". The Miracle also began a change in direction of Queen's songwriting philosophy. Beforehand, nearly all songs had been written by and credited to a single member. With The Miracle, their songwriting became more collaborative, and they vowed to credit the final product only to Queen as a group.
In 1990, Queen ended their contract with Capitol and signed with Hollywood Records; through the deal, Disney acquired the North American distribution rights to Queen's catalogue for $10 million, and remains the group's recorded-music rights owner and distributor in the US and Canada; the band retained ownership of the global rights through the UK-based Queen Productions Ltd. In February that year, Mercury made what would prove to be his final public appearance when he joined the rest of Queen onstage at the Dominion Theatre in London to collect the Brit Award for Outstanding Contribution to British Music.
Their fourteenth studio album, Innuendo, was released in early 1991 with "Innuendo" and other charting singles released later in the year. The music video for "The Show Must Go On" featured archive footage of Queen's performances between 1981 and 1989, and along with the manner of the song's lyrics, fuelled reports that Mercury was dying. Mercury was increasingly ill and could barely walk when the band recorded "The Show Must Go On" in 1990. Because of this, May had concerns about whether he was physically capable of singing it, but May recalled that he "completely killed it". The rest of the band were ready to record when Mercury felt able to come into the studio, for an hour or two at a time. May says of Mercury: "He just kept saying. 'Write me more. Write me stuff. I want to just sing this and do it and when I am gone you can finish it off.' He had no fear, really." The band's second-greatest hits compilation, Greatest Hits II, followed in October 1991; it is the tenth best-selling album in the UK, the seventh best-selling album in Germany, is certified Diamond in France where it is one of the best-selling albums, and has sold 16 million copies worldwide.
On 23 November 1991, in a prepared statement made on his deathbed, Mercury confirmed that he had AIDS. Within 24 hours of the statement, he died of bronchial pneumonia, which was brought on as a complication of the disease. His funeral service on 27 November in Kensal Green, West London was private, and held in accordance with the Zoroastrian religious faith of his family.
"Bohemian Rhapsody" was re-released as a single shortly after Mercury's death, with "These Are the Days of Our Lives" as the double A-side. The music video for the latter contains Mercury's final scenes in front of the camera. Ron Hart of Rolling Stone wrote, "the conga-driven synth ballad "These Are the Days of Our Lives" is Innuendo's most significant single, given that its video marked the last time his fans were able to see the singer alive." The video was recorded on 30 May 1991 (which proved to be Mercury's final work with Queen). The single went to number one in the UK, remaining there for five weeks—the only recording to top the Christmas chart twice and the only one to be number one in four different years (1975, 1976, 1991, and 1992). Initial proceeds from the single—approximately £1,000,000—were donated to the Terrence Higgins Trust, an AIDS charity.
Queen's popularity was stimulated in North America when "Bohemian Rhapsody" was featured in the 1992 comedy film Wayne's World. Its inclusion helped the song reach number two on the Billboard Hot 100 for five weeks in 1992 (including its 1976 chart run, it remained in the Hot 100 for a combined 41 weeks), and won the band an MTV Award at the 1992 MTV Video Music Awards. The compilation album Classic Queen also reached number four on the Billboard 200, and is certified three times platinum in the US. Wayne's World footage was used to make a new music video for "Bohemian Rhapsody", with which the band and management were delighted.
On 20 April 1992, The Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert was held at London's Wembley Stadium to a crowd of 72,000. Performers, including Def Leppard, Robert Plant, Tony Iommi, Roger Daltrey, Guns N' Roses, Elton John, David Bowie, George Michael, Annie Lennox, Seal, Extreme, and Metallica performed various Queen songs along with the three remaining Queen members (and Spike Edney.) The concert is listed in the Guinness Book of Records as "The largest rock star benefit concert", as it was televised to over 1.2 billion viewers worldwide, and raised over £20,000,000 for AIDS charities.
=== 1995–2003: Made in Heaven to 46664 Concert ===
Queen's last album with Mercury, titled Made in Heaven, was released in 1995, four years after his death. Featuring tracks such as "Too Much Love Will Kill You" and "Heaven for Everyone", it was constructed from Mercury's final recordings in 1991, material left over from their previous studio albums and re-worked material from May, Taylor, and Mercury's solo albums. The album also featured the song "Mother Love", the last vocal recording Mercury made, which he completed using a drum machine, over which May, Taylor and Deacon later added the instrumental track. After completing the penultimate verse, Mercury had told the band he "wasn't feeling that great" and stated, "I will finish it when I come back, next time". Mercury never returned to the studio afterwards, leaving May to record the final verse of the song. Both stages of recording, before and after Mercury's death, were completed at the band's studio in Montreux, Switzerland. The album reached number one in the UK following its release, their ninth number one album, and sold 20 million copies worldwide. On 25 November 1996, a statue of Mercury was unveiled in Montreux overlooking Lake Geneva, almost five years to the day since his death.
In 1997, Queen returned to the studio to record "No-One but You (Only the Good Die Young)", a song dedicated to Mercury and all those who die too soon. It was released as a bonus track on the Queen Rocks compilation album later that year, and features in Greatest Hits III. In January 1997, Queen performed "The Show Must Go On" live with Elton John and the Béjart Ballet in Paris on a night Mercury was remembered, and it marked the last performance and public appearance of John Deacon, who chose to retire; this left May and Taylor as the two remaining original members. The Paris concert was only the second time Queen had played live since Mercury's death, prompting Elton John to urge them to perform again. Brian May and Roger Taylor performed together at several award ceremonies and charity concerts, sharing vocals with various guest singers. During this time, they were billed as Queen + followed by the guest singer's name. In 1998, the duo appeared at Luciano Pavarotti's benefit concert with May performing "Too Much Love Will Kill You" with Pavarotti, later playing "Radio Ga Ga", "We Will Rock You", and "We Are the Champions" with Zucchero. They again attended and performed at Pavarotti's benefit concert in Modena, Italy in May 2003. Several of the guest singers recorded new versions of Queen's hits under the Queen + name, such as Robbie Williams providing vocals for "We Are the Champions" for the soundtrack of A Knight's Tale (2001).
In November 1999, Greatest Hits III was released. This featured, among others, "Queen + Wyclef Jean" on a rap version of "Another One Bites the Dust". A live version of "Somebody to Love" by George Michael and a live version of "The Show Must Go On" with Elton John were also featured in the album. By this point, Queen's vast amount of record sales made them the second-bestselling artist in the UK of all time, behind the Beatles. In November 2000, the band released the box set, The Platinum Collection. It is certified seven times platinum in the UK and five times platinum in the US. On 18 October 2002, Queen were awarded the 2,207th star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, for their work in the music industry, which is located at 6358 Hollywood Blvd. On 29 November 2003, May and Taylor performed at the 46664 Concert hosted by Nelson Mandela at Green Point Stadium, Cape Town, to raise awareness of the spread of HIV/AIDS in South Africa. A new song, "Invincible Hope", featuring Mandela's speech and credited to Queen + Nelson Mandela, was performed during the concert and later released on the 46664: One Year On EP. During that period May and Taylor spent time at Mandela's home, discussing how Africa's problems might be approached, and two years later the band were made ambassadors for the 46664 cause.
=== 2004–2009: Queen + Paul Rodgers ===
At the end of 2004, May and Taylor announced that they would reunite and return to touring in 2005 with Paul Rodgers (founder and former lead singer of Free and Bad Company). Brian May's website also stated that Rodgers would be "featured with" Queen as "Queen + Paul Rodgers", not replacing Mercury. In November 2004, Queen were among the inaugural inductees into the UK Music Hall of Fame, and the award ceremony was the first event at which Rodgers joined May and Taylor as vocalist.
Between 2005 and 2006, Queen + Paul Rodgers embarked on a world tour, which was the first time Queen toured since their last tour with Freddie Mercury in 1986. Taylor said: "We never thought we would tour again, Paul came along by chance and we seemed to have a chemistry. Paul is just such a great singer. He's not trying to be Freddie." The first leg was in Europe, the second in Japan, and the third in the US in 2006. Queen received the inaugural VH1 Rock Honors at the Mandalay Bay Events Center in Las Vegas, Nevada, on 25 May 2006. Foo Fighters performed "Tie Your Mother Down" to open the ceremony before being joined on stage by May, Taylor, and Rodgers, who played a selection of Queen hits.
Queen + Paul Rodgers performed at the Nelson Mandela 90th Birthday Tribute held in Hyde Park, London on 27 June 2008, to commemorate Mandela's ninetieth birthday, and again promote awareness of the HIV/AIDS pandemic. The first Queen + Paul Rodgers album, titled The Cosmos Rocks, was released in Europe on 12 September 2008 and in the US on 28 October 2008. The band again toured Europe, opening on Kharkiv's Freedom Square in front of 350,000 Ukrainian fans; the concert was released on DVD. The tour then moved to Russia, and the band performed two sold-out shows at the Moscow Arena. Having completed the first leg of the European tour, which saw the band play 15 sold-out dates across nine countries, the UK leg of the tour sold out within 90 minutes of going on sale and included three London dates, the first of which was the O2 Arena on 13 October. The last leg of the tour was in South America, and included a sold-out concert at José Amalfitani Stadium, Buenos Aires.
Queen and Paul Rodgers split up on 12 May 2009. Rodgers stated: "My arrangement with [Queen] was similar to my arrangement with Jimmy [Page] in The Firm in that it was never meant to be a permanent arrangement". Rodgers did not rule out the possibility of working with Queen again.
=== 2009–2011: Departure from EMI, 40th anniversary ===
On 20 May 2009, May and Taylor performed "We Are the Champions" live on the season finale of American Idol with winner Kris Allen and runner-up Adam Lambert providing a vocal duet. A new greatest hits compilation Absolute Greatest was released on 16 November and peaked at number 3 in the UK. It contains 20 of Queen's hits spanning their career and was released in four different formats: single disc, double disc (with commentary), double disc with feature book, and a vinyl record. Before its release, Queen ran an online competition to guess the track listing as a promotion for the album. On 15 November 2009, May and Taylor performed "Bohemian Rhapsody" live on the British TV show The X Factor alongside the finalists.
On 20 August 2010, Queen's manager Jim Beach announced that the band had signed a new contract with Universal Music Group after almost 40 years with EMI. On 22 September, May confirmed that the band's new deal was with Island Records, a subsidiary of Universal. Hollywood Records remained as the group's label and owner of recorded-music rights in the US and Canada. For the first time since the late 1980s, Queen's catalogue now has the same distributor worldwide, as Universal distributes for both the Island and Hollywood labels (for a time in the late 1980s, Queen was on EMI-owned Capitol Records in the US).
On 14 March 2011, the band's 40th anniversary, Queen's first five albums were re-released in the UK and some other territories as remastered deluxe editions; the US versions were released on 17 May. The second five albums of Queen's back catalogue were released worldwide on 27 June, and on 27 September in the US and Canada. The final five were released in the UK on 5 September.
In May 2011, Jane's Addiction vocalist Perry Farrell said that Queen were scouting their live bassist Chris Chaney to join the band. In the same month, Paul Rodgers stated he might tour with Queen again in the future. At the 2011 Broadcast Music, Incorporated (BMI) Awards held in London on 4 October, Queen received the BMI Icon Award for their airplay success in the US. At the 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards on 6 November, Queen received the Global Icon Award, which Katy Perry presented to Brian May. Queen closed the awards ceremony, with Lambert singing "The Show Must Go On", "We Will Rock You" and "We Are the Champions". The collaboration received a positive response from fans and critics, resulting in speculation about future projects together.
=== 2011–present: Queen + Adam Lambert, Queen Forever ===
On 25 and 26 April, May and Taylor appeared on the eleventh series of American Idol at the Nokia Theatre, Los Angeles, performing a Queen medley with the six finalists on the first show, and the following day performed "Somebody to Love" with the 'Queen Extravaganza' band. Queen were scheduled to headline Sonisphere at Knebworth on 7 July 2012 with Adam Lambert before the festival was cancelled. Queen said that they were looking to find another venue. Queen + Adam Lambert played two shows at the Hammersmith Apollo, London on 11 and 12 July 2012. Both shows sold out within 24 hours of tickets going on sale. A third London date was scheduled for 14 July. On 30 June, Queen + Lambert performed in Kyiv, Ukraine at a joint concert with Elton John for the Elena Pinchuk ANTIAIDS Foundation. Queen also performed with Lambert on 3 July 2012 at Moscow's Olympic Stadium, and on 7 July 2012 at the Municipal Stadium in Wroclaw, Poland.
On 12 August 2012, Queen performed at the closing ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London. The performance at London's Olympic Stadium opened with a remastered video clip of Mercury on stage performing his call and response routine during their 1986 concert at Wembley Stadium. Following this, May performed part of the "Brighton Rock" solo before being joined by Taylor and solo artist Jessie J for a performance of "We Will Rock You".
On 20 September 2013, Queen + Adam Lambert performed at the iHeartRadio Music Festival at the MGM Grand Hotel & Casino in Las Vegas. Queen + Adam Lambert toured North America in 2014 and Australia and New Zealand in August and September 2014. In an interview with Rolling Stone, May and Taylor said that although the tour with Lambert is a limited thing, they are open to him becoming an official member, and cutting new material with him. In November 2014 Queen released a new album Queen Forever. The album is largely a compilation of previously released material but features three new tracks featuring vocals from Mercury with backing added by the surviving members of Queen. One new track, "There Must Be More to Life Than This", is a duet between Mercury and Michael Jackson. Queen + Adam Lambert performed in Central Hall, Westminster, at the Big Ben New Year concert on New Year's Eve 2014 and New Year's Day 2015.
In 2016, the group embarked across Europe and Asia on the Queen + Adam Lambert 2016 Summer Festival Tour. This included closing the Isle of Wight Festival in England on 12 June where they performed "Who Wants to Live Forever" as a tribute to the victims of the mass shooting at a gay nightclub in Orlando, Florida earlier that day. On 12 September they performed at the Yarkon Park in Tel Aviv, Israel for the first time in front of 58,000 people. As part of the Queen + Adam Lambert Tour 2017–2018, the band toured North America in mid-2017, Europe in late 2017, then played Australia and New Zealand in February and March 2018. On 24 February 2019, Queen + Adam Lambert opened the 91st Academy Awards ceremony held at the Dolby Theatre in Hollywood, Los Angeles. In July 2019 they embarked on the North American leg of The Rhapsody Tour, with the dates sold out in April. They toured Japan and South Korea in January 2020 followed by Australia and New Zealand the following month. On 16 February the band reprised their Live Aid set for the first time in 35 years at the Fire Fight Australia concert at ANZ Stadium in Sydney to raise money for the 2019–20 Australian bushfire crisis.
Because Queen were not able to tour due to the COVID-19 pandemic, they released a live album with Adam Lambert on 2 October 2020. The song collection, titled Live Around the World, contains highlights selected by the band members from over 200 shows throughout their history. It marked their first live album with Lambert who, as of 2020, has played 218 shows with the band. On 31 December 2020, Queen performed on the Japanese New Year's Eve television special Kōhaku with composer Yoshiki and vocalist Sarah Brightman. In 2021, Queen received the Japan Gold Disc Award for the fourth time (having previously won it in 2005, 2019 and 2020) as the most popular Western act in Japan.
On 4 June 2022, Queen + Adam Lambert opened the Platinum Party at the Palace outside Buckingham Palace to mark the Queen's Platinum Jubilee. Performing a three-song set, they opened with "We Will Rock You" which had been introduced in a comedy segment where Queen Elizabeth II and Paddington Bear tapped their tea cups to the beat of the song. A previously unheard Queen song with Mercury's vocals, "Face It Alone", recorded over thirty years previously and originally thought "unsalvageable" by May and Taylor, was released on 13 October 2022; five more songs — "You Know You Belong to Me", "When Love Breaks Up", "Dog With a Bone", "Water", and "I Guess We're Falling Out" — were released on 18 November 2022 as part of The Miracle Collector's Edition box set.
On 19 June 2024, it was reported that Sony Music would acquire Queen's catalogue for approximately £1 billion (around $1.27 billion). Under the deal, Sony would acquire the publishing and recording rights to the entire Queen catalogue outside of the US and Canada. Similarly, the group's distribution deal, which is currently with Universal, will go to Sony in all territories outside the US and Canada when it expires in 2026 or 2027. Disney's Hollywood Records will continue to retain the recorded-music rights to Queen's catalogue in the US and Canada in perpetuity.
On 13 September 2025, May and Taylor performed "Bohemian Rhapsody" at the Last Night of the Proms in celebration of the song's fiftieth anniversary, accompanied by the BBC Symphony Orchestra and with theatrical tenor Sam Oladeinde providing the lead vocal.
== Music style and influences ==
Queen drew artistic influence from British rock acts of the 1960s and early 1970s, such as the Beatles, the Kinks, Cream, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, the Who, Black Sabbath, Slade, Deep Purple, David Bowie, Genesis, and Yes, with Mercury also inspired by the rock and roll singers Little Richard, Elvis Presley and the gospel singer Aretha Franklin. On the Beatles, Brian May stated they "built our bible as far as musical composition, arrangement and production went. The White Album is a complete catalogue of how you should use a studio to build songs." Mercury said, "John Lennon was larger than life, and an absolute genius. Even at a very early stage when they were the Beatles, I always preferred John Lennon's things. I don't know why. He just had that magic." May and Mercury were influenced by Jimi Hendrix, with Mercury saying "he really had everything any rock 'n' roll star should have", and May saying "Jimi is, of course, my number one. And I've always said that [...] I never stop learning from Jimi." Mercury's thesis for his Ealing College diploma was on Hendrix, and Mercury and Taylor closed their Kensington Market stall on 18 September 1970 to commemorate his death.
At their outset in the early 1970s, Queen's music has been characterised as "Led Zeppelin meets Yes" due to its combination of "acoustic/electric guitar extremes and fantasy-inspired multi-part song epics". Although Mercury stated Robert Plant as his favourite singer and Led Zeppelin as "the greatest" rock band, he also said Queen "have more in common with Liza Minnelli than Led Zeppelin. We're more in the showbiz tradition than the rock'n'roll tradition". In his book on Essential Hard Rock and Heavy Metal, Eddie Trunk described Queen as "a hard rock band at the core but one with a high level of majesty and theatricality that delivered a little something for everyone", as well as observing that the band "sounded British". Rob Halford of Judas Priest commented, "It's rare that you struggle to label a band. If you're a heavy metal band you're meant to look and sound like a heavy metal band but you can't really call Queen anything. They could be a pop band one day or the band that wrote 'Bicycle Race' the next and a full-blown metal band the next. In terms of the depth of the musical landscape that they covered, it was very similar to some extent to the Beatles." While stating they were influenced by various artists and genres, Joe Bosso of Guitar World magazine writes, "Queen seemed to occupy their own lane."
Queen composed music that drew inspiration from many different genres of music, often with a tongue-in-cheek attitude. The music styles and genres they have been associated with include progressive rock (also known as symphonic rock), art rock, glam rock, arena rock, heavy metal, operatic pop, pop rock, psychedelic rock, baroque pop, and rockabilly. Queen also wrote songs that were inspired by musical styles not typically associated with rock groups, such as opera, music hall, folk music, gospel, ragtime, and dance/disco. Their 1980 single "Another One Bites the Dust" became a major hit single in the funk rock genre. Known for their anthemic songs which are a staple of sports arenas and stadiums the world over, several Queen songs were written with audience participation in mind, such as "We Will Rock You" and "We Are the Champions". Similarly, "Radio Ga Ga" became a live favourite for the band because it would have "crowds clapping like they were at a Nuremberg rally".
In 1963, the teenage Brian May and his father custom-built his signature guitar Red Special, which was purposely designed to feedback. May has used Vox AC30 amplifiers almost exclusively since a meeting with Rory Gallagher at a gig in London during the late 1960s or early 1970s. He also uses a sixpence as a plectrum. Sonic experimentation figured heavily in Queen's songs. A distinctive characteristic of Queen's music are the vocal harmonies which are usually composed of the voices of May, Mercury, and Taylor best heard on the studio albums A Night at the Opera and A Day at the Races. Some of the development of this sound is attributed to the producer Roy Thomas Baker and engineer Mike Stone. Queen were also known for multi-tracking voices to imitate the sound of a large choir through overdubs. For instance, according to Brian May, there are over 180 vocal overdubs in "Bohemian Rhapsody". The band's vocal structures have been compared with the Beach Boys.
== Media ==
=== Logo ===
Having studied graphic design in art college, Mercury also designed Queen's logo, called the Queen crest, shortly before the release of the band's first album. The logo combines the zodiac signs of all four members: two lions for Leo (Deacon and Taylor), a crab for Cancer (May), and two fairies for Virgo (Mercury). The lions embrace a stylised letter Q, the crab rests atop the letter with flames rising directly above it, and the fairies are each sheltering below a lion. There is also a crown inside the Q and the whole logo is over-shadowed by an enormous phoenix. The whole symbol bears a passing resemblance to the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom, particularly with the lion supporters. The original logo, as found on the reverse side of the cover of the band's first album, was a simple line drawing. Later sleeves bore more intricately coloured versions of the logo.
=== Music videos ===
Directed by Bruce Gowers, the groundbreaking "Bohemian Rhapsody" promotional video sees the band adopt a "decadent 'glam' sensibility". Replicating Mick Rock's photograph of the band from the cover of Queen II—which itself was inspired by a photo of actress Marlene Dietrich from Shanghai Express (1932)—the video opens with "Queen standing in diamond formation, heads tilted back like Easter Island statues" in near darkness as they sing the a cappella part.
One of the industry's leading music video directors, David Mallet, directed some of their subsequent videos. Some of their later videos use footage from classic films: "Under Pressure" incorporates 1920s silent films, Sergei Eisenstein's Battleship Potemkin and F. W. Murnau's Nosferatu; the 1984 video for "Radio Ga Ga" includes footage from Fritz Lang's Metropolis (1927); "Calling All Girls" was a homage to George Lucas's THX 1138; and the 1995 video "Heaven for Everyone" shows footage from Georges Méliès' A Trip to the Moon (1902) and The Impossible Voyage (1904). The first part of Mallet's music video for "I Want to Break Free" spoofed the popular long-running British soap opera Coronation Street.
The music video for "Innuendo" combines stop motion animation with rotoscoping and band members appear as illustrations and images taken from earlier Queen music videos on a cinema screen akin to the dystopian film Nineteen Eighty-Four (1984). The music videos for "Flash" (from Flash Gordon) and "Princes of the Universe" (from Highlander) are themed on the films the band recorded soundtracks for, with the latter featuring Mercury briefly re-enact the sword-fighting scene with the titular character. Queen also appeared in conventional music videos. "We Will Rock You" was filmed outdoors in Roger Taylor's back garden during a cold day in early January 1977. Filmed at the New London Theatre later that year, the music video for "We Are the Champions" features the band—with Mercury in a trademark Harlequin outfit—performing in front of an enthusiastic crowd who wave Queen scarves in a manner similar to English football fans. The last music video of the group while Mercury was alive, "These Are the Days of Our Lives", was filmed in black and white to hide the full extent of his illness.
=== Musical theatre ===
In May 2002, a musical or "rock theatrical" based on the songs of Queen, titled We Will Rock You, opened at the Dominion Theatre in London's West End. The musical was written by British comedian and author Ben Elton in collaboration with Brian May and Roger Taylor, and produced by Robert De Niro. It has since been staged in many cities around the world. The launch of the musical coincided with Queen Elizabeth II's Golden Jubilee. As part of the Jubilee celebrations, Brian May performed a guitar solo of "God Save the Queen", as featured on Queen's A Night at the Opera, from the roof of Buckingham Palace. The recording of this performance was used as video for the song on the 30th Anniversary DVD edition of A Night at the Opera. Following the Las Vegas premiere on 8 September 2004, Queen were inducted into the Hollywood RockWalk in Sunset Boulevard, Los Angeles.
The original London production was scheduled to close on Saturday, 7 October 2006, at the Dominion Theatre, but due to public demand, the show ran until May 2014. We Will Rock You has become the longest-running musical ever to run at this prime London theatre, overtaking the previous record holder, the musical Grease. Brian May stated in 2008 that they were considering writing a sequel to We Will Rock You. The musical toured around the UK in 2009, playing at Manchester Palace Theatre, Sunderland Empire, Birmingham Hippodrome, Bristol Hippodrome, and Edinburgh Playhouse. By December 2022 the musical had been seen by 20 million people across 28 countries. In the summer of 2023 it returned to London with a 12-week run at the London Coliseum.
Sean Bovim created "Queen at the Ballet", a tribute to Mercury, which uses Queen's music as a soundtrack for the show's dancers, who interpret the stories behind tracks such as "Bohemian Rhapsody", "Radio Ga Ga", and "Killer Queen". Queen's music also appears in the Off-Broadway production Power Balladz, most notably the song "We Are the Champions", with the show's two performers believing the song was "the apex of artistic achievement in its day".
=== Software and digital releases ===
In conjunction with Electronic Arts, Queen released the computer game Queen: The eYe in 1998. The game received mixed reviews. Several reviewers described the fight sequences as frustrating, due to unresponsive controls and confusing camera angles. PC Zone found the game's graphics unimpressive, although PC PowerPlay considered them "absolutely stunning". The extremely long development time resulted in graphic elements that already seemed outdated by the time of release.
Under the supervision of May and Taylor, numerous restoration projects have been under way involving Queen's lengthy audio and video catalogue. DVD releases of their 1986 Wembley concert (titled Live at Wembley Stadium), 1982 Milton Keynes concert (Queen on Fire – Live at the Bowl), and two Greatest Video Hits (Volumes 1 and 2, spanning the 1970s and 1980s) have seen the band's music remixed into 5.1 and DTS surround sound. So far, only two of the band's albums, A Night at the Opera and The Game, have been fully remixed into high-resolution multichannel surround on DVD-Audio. A Night at the Opera was re-released with some revised 5.1 mixes and accompanying videos in 2005 for the 30th anniversary of the album's original release (CD+DVD-Video set). In 2007, a Blu-ray edition of Queen's previously released concerts, Queen Rock Montreal & Live Aid, was released, marking their first project in 1080p HD.
Queen have been featured multiple times in the Guitar Hero franchise: a cover of "Killer Queen" in the original Guitar Hero, "We Are The Champions", "Fat Bottomed Girls", and the Paul Rodgers collaboration "C-lebrity" in a track pack for Guitar Hero World Tour, "Under Pressure" with David Bowie in Guitar Hero 5, "I Want It All" in Guitar Hero: Van Halen, "Stone Cold Crazy" in Guitar Hero: Metallica, and "Bohemian Rhapsody" in Guitar Hero: Warriors of Rock. On 13 October 2009, Brian May revealed there was "talk" going on "behind the scenes" about a dedicated Queen Rock Band game.
Queen have also been featured multiple times in the Rock Band franchise: a track pack of 10 songs which are compatible with Rock Band, Rock Band 2, and Rock Band 3 (three of those are also compatible with Lego Rock Band). Their hit "Bohemian Rhapsody" was featured in Rock Band 3 with full harmony and keys support.
The band also appeared in the video game Lego Rock Band as playable Lego avatars. In March 2009, Sony Computer Entertainment released a Queen branded version of the company's karaoke franchise, SingStar. The game, which is available on PlayStation 2 and PlayStation 3, is titled SingStar Queen and has 25 songs on the PS3 and 20 on the PS2. "We Will Rock You" and other songs by Queen also appear in DJ Hero.
=== Bohemian Rhapsody ===
In a September 2010 BBC interview, Brian May announced that Sacha Baron Cohen was to play Mercury in a biographical film about the band. Time commented with approval on his singing ability and visual similarity to Mercury. However, in July 2013, Baron Cohen dropped out of the role due to "creative differences" between him and the surviving band members. In December 2013, it was announced that Ben Whishaw, known for playing Q in the James Bond film Skyfall, was a possible replacement for Baron Cohen in the role of Mercury, but Whishaw pulled out a few months later amidst uncertainty about how the film was progressing.
The project regained momentum in 2016. It was announced on 4 November that the film had secured the backing of 20th Century Fox, New Regency and GK Films. By this time, the film's working title was Bohemian Rhapsody, after the band's song of the same name. Freddie Mercury was to be played by Rami Malek, and shooting was scheduled to begin in early 2017. The motion picture was written by Anthony McCarten, with a story by McCarten and Peter Morgan, who received Oscar nominations for his screenplays The Queen and Frost/Nixon.
Released in October 2018, Bohemian Rhapsody focuses on Queen's formative years and the period leading up to the celebrated performance at the 1985 Live Aid concert. The film has grossed over $900 million worldwide, making it the highest-grossing musical biographical film of all time. Despite receiving mixed reviews, it won the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Drama. Malek received wide acclaim and numerous accolades for his portrayal of Mercury, including the Academy Award for Best Actor. The Live Aid segment was praised, but there was criticism from not exploring more complex themes involving Mercury, with the New York Post's Johnny Oleksinski stating, "What we ultimately wanted from Bohemian Rhapsody was not carbon-copied concerts, but behind-closed-doors insight into a deeply private, complicated, internationally beloved superstar." After the release of the film, "Bohemian Rhapsody" re-entered the US Billboard Hot 100 for the third time (having previously charted in 1976 and 1992), charting at number 33 on 12 November 2018. Bohemian Rhapsody: The Original Soundtrack received an American Music Award for Top Soundtrack.
=== Other films ===
The soundtrack for the film Flash Gordon (1980) was by Queen. The band also contributed music to Highlander (the original 1986 film), with "A Kind of Magic", "One Year of Love", "Who Wants to Live Forever", "Hammer to Fall", and the theme "Princes of the Universe", which was also used as the theme of the Highlander TV series (1992–1998). In choosing music for Highlander, director Russell Mulcahy stated, "I thought about one band – Queen. They write strong, anthemic songs and this movie needs their energy". In the US, "Bohemian Rhapsody" was re-released as a single in 1992 after appearing in the comedy film Wayne's World. The single subsequently reached number two on the Billboard Hot 100 (with "The Show Must Go On" as the first track on the single) and helped rekindle the band's popularity in North America.
Several films have featured their songs performed by other artists. A version of "Somebody to Love" by Anne Hathaway was in the 2004 film Ella Enchanted. In 2006, Brittany Murphy also recorded a cover of the same song for the 2006 film Happy Feet. In 2001, a version of "The Show Must Go On" was performed by Jim Broadbent and Nicole Kidman in the film musical Moulin Rouge!. The 2001 film A Knight's Tale has a version of "We Are the Champions" performed by Robbie Williams and Queen; the film also features "We Will Rock You" played by the medieval audience.
=== Television ===
"I Was Born to Love You" was used as the theme song of the Japanese television drama Pride on Fuji Television in 2004, starring Takuya Kimura and Yūko Takeuchi. The show's soundtrack also contained other songs by Queen. A song that has grown in popularity four decades since its release, the initial rebirth of "Don't Stop Me Now" has been attributed to its appearance in the 2004 cult classic zombie apocalypse film Shaun of the Dead. The song has featured in the BBC television show Top Gear, and in 2005 it was voted as "The Greatest Driving Song Ever" by the series' viewers. In the Channel 4 sitcom Father Ted, Graham Norton as Father Noel Furlong performs "Bohemian Rhapsody" in the episode "The Mainland".
Keeping in a tradition of naming each season's episodes after songs by 1970s rock bands, the eighth and final season of That '70s Show had episodes named after Queen songs. "Bohemian Rhapsody" served as the season premiere. With an entry for the year 1977, Queen featured in the VH1 series I Love the '70s, broadcast in the US. The Simpsons has made storylines which have featured Queen songs such as "We Will Rock You", "We Are the Champions" (both sung by Homer), and "You're My Best Friend". The latter also appears in Family Guy, as does "Another One Bites the Dust", and an episode of the show, "Killer Queen", is named after (and features) the song. Queen were profiled in season 1, episode 16 of VH1's Legends, broadcast in 1998.
On 11 April 2006, Brian May and Roger Taylor appeared on the American singing contest television show American Idol. Each contestant was required to sing a Queen song during that week of the competition. Songs which appeared on the show included "Bohemian Rhapsody", "Fat Bottomed Girls", "The Show Must Go On", "Who Wants to Live Forever", and "Innuendo". Brian May later criticised the show for editing specific scenes, one of which made the group's time with contestant Ace Young look negative, despite it being the opposite. Taylor and May again appeared on the American Idol season 8 finale in May 2009, performing "We Are the Champions" with finalists Adam Lambert and Kris Allen. On 15 November 2009, Brian May and Roger Taylor appeared on the singing contest television show The X Factor in the UK.
In 2007, Queen featured as one of the main artists in the fifth episode of the BBC/VH1 series Seven Ages of Rock—focusing on stadium rock, the episode itself was named "We Are the Champions". In the autumn of 2009, Glee featured the fictional high school's show choir singing "Somebody to Love" as their second act performance in the episode "The Rhodes Not Taken". The performance was included on the show's Volume 1 soundtrack CD. In June 2010, the choir performed "Another One Bites the Dust" in the episode "Funk". The following week's episode, "Journey to Regionals", features a rival choir performing "Bohemian Rhapsody" in its entirety. The song was featured on the episode's EP. In May 2012, the choir performed "We Are the Champions" in the episode "Nationals", and the song features in The Graduation Album. In November 2014, The Nation's Favourite Queen Song, a 90-minute television special counting down Britain's 20 favourite Queen songs, aired on ITV in the UK. In November 2021, The Queen Family Singalong, featuring performances of songs by Queen accompanied with on-screen karaoke lyrics encouraging viewers to sing along, aired on ABC in the US.
== Legacy ==
Upon being awarded the Polar Music Prize in 2025, Queen were described as being "a band synonymous with the very fabric of pop culture" who "have made an impact on music that spans decades, generations and genres", and they are "beloved the world over".
In 2002, "Bohemian Rhapsody" was voted "the UK's favourite hit of all time" in a poll conducted by the Guinness World Records British Hit Singles Book. In 2004, the song was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. Many scholars consider the "Bohemian Rhapsody" music video groundbreaking, crediting it with popularising the medium. Rock historian Paul Fowles stated that the song is "widely credited as the first global hit single for which an accompanying video was central to the marketing strategy". It has been hailed as paving the way for the MTV Generation. In December 2018, "Bohemian Rhapsody" became the most-streamed song from the 20th century, and the most-streamed classic rock song of all time. The song and original video were downloaded more than 1.6 billion times. In March 2021 it was certified Diamond in the US for combined digital sales and streams equal to 10 million units. Acclaimed for their stadium rock, in 2005 an industry poll ranked Queen's performance at Live Aid in 1985 as the best live act in history. In 2007, they were also voted the greatest British band in history by BBC Radio 2 listeners.
As of 2005, according to the Guinness Book of World Records, Queen albums have spent a total of 1,322 weeks (twenty-six years) on the UK Album Charts, more time than any other act. Also in 2005, with the release of their live album with Paul Rodgers, Queen moved into third place on the list of acts with the most aggregate time spent on the British record charts. In 2022, Greatest Hits was the best-selling album in UK chart history, and the only album to sell over seven million copies in the UK. As of August 2024, the album has spent over 600 weeks on the US Billboard 200. Their Greatest Hits II album is the UK's tenth best seller, with sales of 3,746,404 copies. Based on record sales, Billboard charts performance, online views and popularity on Spotify, in 2018 Business Insider in the US ranked Queen the third most popular rock band of all time, after the Beatles and Led Zeppelin.
The band have released a total of 18 number-one albums, 18 number-one singles, and 10 number-one DVDs worldwide, making them one of the world's best-selling music artists. Estimates of their record sales range from 250 million to 300 million worldwide. Inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2001, the band is the only group in which every member has composed more than one chart-topping single, and all four members were inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2003. In 2009, "We Will Rock You" and "We Are the Champions" were inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, and the latter was voted the world's favourite song in a 2005 Sony Ericsson global music poll. The band received Ivor Novello Awards for Outstanding Contribution to British Music, in 1987, and Outstanding Song Collection, in 2005, from the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers, and Authors. In recognition of the vocal harmonies of Mercury, May and Taylor, in 2006 Queen were inducted into the Vocal Group Hall of Fame. In 2018 they were presented the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. In their list for the Global Recording Artist of the Year, the IFPI named Queen the sixth best-selling artist worldwide in 2018, and the fifth best-selling artist in 2019, in both cases the most popular act of their contemporaries. In January 2020, Queen became the first band to join Elizabeth II on a British coin, with the commemorative £5 coin, issued by the Royal Mint, featuring the instruments of all four bandmembers. In July 2020, Queen became the third band (after the Beatles and Pink Floyd) to feature on a series of UK postage stamps issued by the Royal Mail.
Queen are one of the most bootlegged bands ever, according to Nick Weymouth, who manages the band's official website. A 2001 survey discovered the existence of 12,225 websites dedicated to Queen bootlegs, the highest number for any band. Bootleg recordings have contributed to the band's popularity in certain countries where Western music is censored, such as Iran. In a project called Queen: The Top 100 Bootlegs, many of these have been made officially available to download for a nominal fee from Queen's website, with profits going to the Mercury Phoenix Trust. In 2004, Queen became the first Western rock act to be officially accepted in Iran following the release of their Greatest Hits album. Rolling Stone ranked Queen at number 52 on its list of the "100 Greatest Artists of All Time", while ranking Mercury the 18th-greatest singer, and May the twenty-sixth-greatest guitarist. Rolling Stone readers voted Mercury the second-greatest frontman. Queen were named 13th on VH1's 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock list, and in 2010 were ranked 17th on VH1's 100 Greatest Artists of All Time list. In 2012, Gigwise readers named Queen the best band of the past 60 years. Eddie Trunk argued that Queen's importance, in common with Thin Lizzy and Deep Purple, was "not as fully recognized" in the US because elsewhere they "often played to much bigger crowds in stadium venues". Queen had stopped touring the US in 1982 as their success there had started to wane, but they remained a touring "juggernaut", filling stadiums and arenas internationally in the 1980s until their final tour (with Mercury) in 1986.
=== Influence ===
Queen have been credited with making a significant contribution to genres such as hard rock and heavy metal. In the early 1970s, they helped spur the metal genre's evolution by discarding much of its blues influence. Their 1974 song "Stone Cold Crazy" has been cited as a precursor of speed metal. Metallica recorded a cover version of "Stone Cold Crazy", which first appeared on the Rubáiyát: Elektra's 40th Anniversary album in 1990, and they still performed it live in the 2000s. Swedish guitarist Yngwie Malmsteen, a pioneer of "neo-classical metal", listened to Queen as a child, and spoke of Brian May being "very inventive when it comes to tones and having all those pickup configurations. Brian tends not to stick to just pentatonics, either; he mixes it all up, which is how I like to think, too."
The band have been cited as an influence by many other musicians. Moreover, like their music, the bands and artists that have claimed to be influenced by Queen or have expressed admiration for them are diverse, spanning different generations, countries, and genres, including heavy metal: Judas Priest, Iron Maiden, Dream Theater, Trivium, Megadeth, Anthrax, Melvins, Slipknot, Rob Zombie, and Rage Against the Machine; hard rock: Guns N' Roses, Def Leppard, Mötley Crüe, Steve Vai, the Cult, the Darkness, and Foo Fighters; alternative rock: Nirvana, Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails, Muse, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Jane's Addiction, the Flaming Lips, Kid Rock, and Billy Corgan of the Smashing Pumpkins; shock rock: Marilyn Manson; pop rock: the Killers, My Chemical Romance, and Panic! at the Disco; country: Faith Hill, and Carrie Underwood; pop: George Michael, Robbie Williams, Adele, Lady Gaga, and Katy Perry; and K-pop: Psy, and BTS.
Musicians have been saying for decades Queen are in the pantheon of all-time greats. In the countless interviews I have done over the years they have been name checked by numerous superstars. What is most impressive though is the diversity of artists they've influenced. Why Queen were able to cut across such an incredibly wide range of musicians is easy to see – they are one of the most versatile bands that rock has ever had.
Thom Yorke of Radiohead received his first guitar at seven years old, encouraged after seeing May in a broadcast of a Queen concert. At 10 years old, he made his own homemade guitar, trying to imitate what May had done with his Red Special, but he was not satisfied with the result. Subsequently, Queen became one of the first influences of his band.
== Band members ==
=== Current members ===
Brian May – guitars, backing and occasional lead vocals, keyboards, bass guitar (1970–present)
Roger Taylor – drums, backing and occasional lead vocals, percussion, guitars, keyboards, bass guitar (1970–present)
=== Former members ===
Freddie Mercury – lead vocals, piano, keyboards, occasional guitar (1970–1991; his death)
John Deacon – bass guitar, guitars, keyboards, occasional backing vocals (1971–1997)
=== Long-term Queen + vocalists ===
Paul Rodgers – lead vocals, rhythm guitar, keyboards (2004–2009)
Adam Lambert – lead vocals (2011–present)
=== Current touring members ===
Spike Edney – keyboards, piano, rhythm guitar, backing vocals (1984–present)
Neil Fairclough – bass, backing vocals (2011–present)
Tyler Warren – percussion, drums, backing vocals (2017–present)
=== Former touring members ===
Morgan Fisher – keyboards (1982)
Fred Mandel – keyboards (1982)
David Grosman – bass, backing vocals, keyboards (1998–2004)
Jamie Moses – rhythm guitar, backing vocals, bass (1998–2009)
Danny Miranda – bass, backing vocals, acoustic guitar (2005–2009)
Neil Murray – bass (substitute 2008)
Rufus Tiger Taylor – percussion, drums, backing vocals (2011–2017)
=== Early members ===
Mike Grose – bass (1970)
Barry Mitchell – bass (1970–1971)
Doug Bogie – bass (1971)
=== Timeline ===
== Awards and nominations ==
== Discography ==
Studio albums
Queen (1973)
Queen II (1974)
Sheer Heart Attack (1974)
A Night at the Opera (1975)
A Day at the Races (1976)
News of the World (1977)
Jazz (1978)
The Game (1980)
Flash Gordon (1980)
Hot Space (1982)
The Works (1984)
A Kind of Magic (1986)
The Miracle (1989)
Innuendo (1991)
Made in Heaven (1995)
== Concert tours == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivy_League | Ivy League | The Ivy League is an American collegiate athletic conference of eight private research universities in the Northeastern United States. It participates in the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I, and in football, in the Football Championship Subdivision (FCS). The term Ivy League is used more broadly to refer to the eight schools that belong to the league, which are globally renowned as elite colleges associated with academic excellence, highly selective admissions, and social elitism. The term was used as early as 1933, and it became official in 1954 following the formation of the Ivy League athletic conference. At times, they have also been referred to as the "Ancient Eight".
The eight members of the Ivy League are Brown University, Columbia University, Cornell University, Dartmouth College, Harvard University, University of Pennsylvania, Princeton University, and Yale University. The conference headquarters is in Princeton, New Jersey. All of the "Ivies" except Cornell were founded during the colonial period and therefore make up seven of the nine colonial colleges. The other two colonial colleges, Queen's College (now Rutgers University) and the College of William & Mary, became public institutions.
== Overview ==
Ivy League schools are some of the most prestigious universities in the world. All eight universities place in the top 15 of the 2025 U.S. News & World Report National Universities ranking. U.S. News has named a member of the Ivy League as the best national university every year since 2001: as of 2020, Princeton eleven times, Harvard twice, and the two schools tied for first five times. In the 2024–2025 U.S. News & World Report Best Global University Ranking, six Ivies rank in the top 20: Harvard (#1), Columbia (#9), Yale (#10), Penn (#14), Princeton (#18), and Cornell (#19)—ranks that U.S. News says are based on "indicators that measure their academic research performance and their global and regional reputations." All eight Ivy League schools are members of the Association of American Universities, the most prestigious alliance of American research universities.
Undergraduate enrollments range from about 4,500 to about 15,000, larger than most liberal arts colleges and smaller than most state university systems. Total enrollment, which includes graduate students, ranges from approximately 6,600 at Dartmouth to over 20,000 at Columbia, Cornell, Harvard, and Penn. Ivy League financial endowments range from Brown's $6.9 billion to Harvard's $53.2 billion, the largest financial endowment of any academic institution in the world.
The Ivy League is similar to other groups of universities in other countries, such as Oxbridge in England, the C9 League in China, the Écoles Normales Supérieures in France, the SKY Universities in South Korea, and the Imperial Universities in Japan.
== Members ==
Ivy League universities have some of the largest university financial endowments in the world, allowing the universities to provide abundant resources for their academic programs, financial aid, and research endeavors. As of 2021, Harvard University had an endowment of $53.2 billion, the largest of any educational institution. Each university attracts millions of dollars in annual research funding from both the federal government and private sources.
=== Current schools ===
=== Former affiliate members ===
Before the 2000s, many of the Ivy League championships for men's and women's cross country, indoor and outdoor track & field, and swimming & diving were formatted as invitationals that many schools across the eastern United States would attend. In other sports, such as fencing, wrestling, men's and women's ice hockey, and men's and women's rowing, all of the Ivy League schools were members of other single-sport conferences and the top-performing Ivy League team would be crowned the champion.
The United States Military Academy and the United States Naval Academy were members of the Ivy League in many sports and were crowned as Ivy League champions while competing with Ivy League teams. Both schools left the conference in the early 2000s to join with their current conference, the Patriot League, except for football, for which they are affiliate members of the American Athletic Conference.
== History ==
=== Institutional history ===
Note: Six of the eight Ivy League universities consider their founding dates to be simply the date that they received their charters and thus became legal corporations with the authority to grant academic degrees. Harvard University uses the date that the legislature of the Massachusetts Bay Colony formally allocated funds for the creation of a college. Harvard was chartered in 1650, although classes had been conducted for approximately a decade by then. The University of Pennsylvania's founding date is discussed in the footnote above. "Religious affiliation" refers to financial sponsorship, formal association with, and promotion by, a religious denomination. All of the institutions in the Ivy League are private (Cornell includes both private and state-supported schools) and are no longer associated with any religion.
=== Origin of the name ===
"Planting the ivy" was a customary class day ceremony at many colleges in the 1800s. In 1893, an alumnus told The Harvard Crimson, "In 1850, class day was placed upon the University Calendar ... the custom of planting the ivy, while the ivy oration was delivered, arose about this time." At Penn, graduating seniors started the custom of planting ivy at a university building each spring in 1873 and that practice was formally designated as "Ivy Day" in 1874. Ivy planting ceremonies are recorded at Yale University, Simmons College, and Bryn Mawr College among other schools. Princeton's "Ivy Club" was founded in 1879.
The first usage of Ivy in reference to a group of colleges is from sportswriter Stanley Woodward (1895–1965).
A proportion of our eastern ivy colleges are meeting little fellows another Saturday before plunging into the strife and the turmoil.
The first known instance of the term Ivy League appeared in The Christian Science Monitor on February 7, 1935. Several sportswriters and other journalists used the term shortly later to refer to the older colleges, those along the northeastern seaboard of the United States, chiefly the nine institutions with origins dating from the colonial era, together with the United States Military Academy (West Point), the United States Naval Academy, and a few others. These schools were known for their long-standing traditions in intercollegiate athletics, often being the first schools to participate in such activities. At this time, however, none of these institutions made efforts to form an athletic league.
A common folk etymology attributes the name to the Roman numeral for four (IV), asserting that there was such a sports league originally with four members. The Morris Dictionary of Word and Phrase Origins helped to perpetuate this belief. The supposed "IV League" was formed over a century ago and consisted of Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and a fourth school that varies depending on who is telling the story. However, it is clear that Harvard, Princeton, Columbia, and Yale met on November 23, 1876, at the so-called Massasoit Convention to decide on uniform rules for the emerging game of American football, which rapidly spread.
=== Pre–Ivy League ===
Seven out of the eight Ivy League schools are Colonial Colleges: institutions of higher education founded prior to the American Revolution. Cornell, the exception to this commonality, was founded immediately after the American Civil War. These seven colleges served as the primary institutions of higher learning in British America's Northern and Middle Colonies. During the colonial era, the schools' faculties and founding boards were largely drawn from other Ivy League institutions. Also represented were British graduates from the University of Cambridge, the University of Oxford, the University of St. Andrews, and the University of Edinburgh.
The influence of these institutions on the founding of other colleges and universities is notable. This included the Southern public college movement which blossomed in the decades surrounding the turn of the 19th century when Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and Virginia established what became the flagship universities of their respective states. In 1801, a majority of the first board of trustees for what became the University of South Carolina were Princeton alumni. They appointed Jonathan Maxcy, a Brown graduate, as the university's first president. Thomas Cooper, an Oxford alumnus and University of Pennsylvania faculty member, became the second president of the South Carolina college. The founders of the University of California came from Yale, hence Berkeley's colors are Yale Blue and California Gold. Stanford University has, since its earliest days, been nicknamed the "Cornell of the West": more than half of Stanford's initial faculty, as well as its first two presidents, had connections to Cornell as alumni or faculty. Samuel Jones, the Baptist minister from Philadelphia who rewrote Brown's original charter (itself written by future Yale College president Ezra Stiles) was a graduate of the College of Philadelphia.
The majority of the Ivy League schools have identifiable Protestant roots. Harvard, Yale, and Dartmouth all held early associations with the Congregationalists. Princeton was financed by New Light Presbyterians, though originally led by a Congregationalist. Brown was founded by Baptists, though the university's charter stipulated that students should enjoy "full liberty of conscience." Columbia was founded by Anglicans, who composed 10 of the college's first 15 presidents. Penn and Cornell were officially nonsectarian, though Protestants were well represented in their respective founding. In the early nineteenth century, the specific purpose of training Calvinist ministers was handed off to theological seminaries, but a denominational tone and religious traditions including compulsory chapel often lasted well into the twentieth century.
"Ivy League" is sometimes used as a way of referring to an elite class, even though institutions such as Cornell University were among the first in the United States to reject racial and gender discrimination in their admissions policies. This dates back to at least 1935. Novels and memoirs attest this sense, as a social elite; to some degree independent of the actual schools.
=== History of the athletic league ===
==== 19th century ====
In 1870, the nation's first formal athletic league was created in 1870 with the formation of the Rowing Association of American Colleges (RAAC), composed exclusively of Ivy League universities. RAAC hosted a national championship in rowing from 1870 to 1894.
The first Harvard vs Yale rugby football contest was held in 1875, two years after the inaugural Princeton–Yale rugby football contest. Harvard athlete Nathaniel Curtis challenged Yale's captain, William Arnold to a rugby-style game.
Program for the "Foot Ball Match", Harvard v Yale, the first intercollegiate game. It is considered the first rugby game between Ivy League teams. The game was played at Hamilton Park, a venue in New Haven, Connecticut (located at the intersection of Whalley Avenue and West Park Avenue). The two teams played with 15 players (rugby) on a side instead of 11 (soccer) as Yale would have preferred.
In 1881, Penn, Harvard College, Haverford College, Princeton University (then known as College of New Jersey), and Columbia University (then known as Columbia College) formed The Intercollegiate Cricket Association, which Cornell University later joined. Penn won The Intercollegiate Cricket Association championship 23 times, including 18 solo victories and three shared with Haverford and Harvard, one shared with Haverford and Cornell, and one shared with just Haverford, during the 44 years that the Intercollegiate Cricket Association existed from 1881 through 1924.
In 1895, Cornell, Columbia, and Penn founded the Intercollegiate Rowing Association, which remains the oldest collegiate athletic organizing body in the US. To this day, the IRA Championship Regatta determines the national champion in rowing and all of the Ivies are regularly invited to compete.
A basketball league was later created in 1902, when Columbia, Cornell, Harvard, Yale, and Princeton formed the Eastern Intercollegiate Basketball League; they were later joined by Penn and Dartmouth.
==== 20th century ====
In 1906, the organization that eventually became the National Collegiate Athletic Association was formed, primarily to formalize rules for the emerging sport of football. But of the 39 original member colleges in the NCAA, only two of them (Dartmouth and Penn) later became Ivies. In February 1903, intercollegiate wrestling began when Yale accepted a challenge from Columbia, published in the Yale News. The dual meet took place prior to a basketball game hosted by Columbia and resulted in a tie.
Two years later, Penn and Princeton also added wrestling teams, leading to the formation of the student-run Intercollegiate Wrestling Association, now the Eastern Intercollegiate Wrestling Association (EIWA), the first and oldest collegiate wrestling league in the US.
Though schools now in Ivy League (such as Yale and Columbia) played against each other in the 1880s, it was not until 1930 that Columbia, Cornell, Dartmouth, Penn, Princeton and Yale formed the Eastern Intercollegiate Baseball League; they were later joined by Harvard, Brown, Army and Navy. Before the formal establishment of the Ivy League, there was an "unwritten and unspoken agreement among certain Eastern colleges on athletic relations". The earliest reference to the "Ivy colleges" came in 1933, when Stanley Woodward of the New York Herald Tribune used it to refer to the eight current members plus Army. In 1935, the Associated Press reported on an example of collaboration between the schools:
The athletic authorities of the so-called "Ivy League" are considering drastic measures to curb the increasing tendency toward riotous attacks on goal posts and other encroachments by spectators on playing fields.
Despite such collaboration, the universities did not seem to consider the formation of the league as imminent. Romeyn Berry, Cornell's manager of athletics, reported the situation in January 1936 as follows:
I can say with certainty that in the last five years—and markedly in the last three months—there has been a strong drift among the eight or ten universities of the East which see a good deal of one another in sport toward a closer bond of confidence and cooperation and toward the formation of a common front against the threat of a breakdown in the ideals of amateur sport in the interests of supposed expediency.
Please do not regard that statement as implying the organization of an Eastern conference or even a poetic "Ivy League". That sort of thing does not seem to be in the cards at the moment.
Within a year of this statement and having held month-long discussions about the proposal, on December 3, 1936, the idea of "the formation of an Ivy League" gained enough traction among the undergraduate bodies of the universities that the Columbia Daily Spectator, The Cornell Daily Sun, The Dartmouth, The Harvard Crimson, The Daily Pennsylvanian, The Daily Princetonian and the Yale Daily News would simultaneously run an editorial entitled "Now Is the Time", encouraging the seven universities to form the league in an effort to preserve the ideals of athletics. Part of the editorial read as follows:
The Ivy League exists already in the minds of a good many of those connected with football, and we fail to see why the seven schools concerned should be satisfied to let it exist as a purely nebulous entity where there are so many practical benefits which would be possible under definite organized association. The seven colleges involved fall naturally together by reason of their common interests and similar general standards and by dint of their established national reputation they are in a particularly advantageous position to assume leadership for the preservation of the ideals of intercollegiate athletics.
The Ivies have been competing in sports as long as intercollegiate sports have existed in the United States. Rowing teams from Harvard and Yale met in the first sporting event held between students of two U.S. colleges on Lake Winnipesaukee, New Hampshire, on August 3, 1852. Harvard's team, "The Oneida", won the race and was presented with trophy black walnut oars from then-presidential nominee General Franklin Pierce. The proposal to create an athletic league did not succeed. On January 11, 1937, the athletic authorities at the schools rejected the "possibility of a heptagonal league in football such as these institutions maintain in basketball, baseball and track." However, they noted that the league "has such promising possibilities that it may not be dismissed and must be the subject of further consideration."
==== Integration of athletic competition in the Ivy League ====
The integration of athletics followed a similar pattern to the overall integration of the Ivy League's in the 19th and early 20th century. There was no active policy that would discriminate against incorporating Black student athletes into the athletic coalition. Harvard has the earliest record of breaking the color barrier in athletics after recruiting William Henry Lewis to their football team in 1892. Dartmouth followed suit, with Black athletes integrating onto their football teams in 1904. Brown integrated their football team shortly after, in 1916. Cornell added the first Black athlete to their football team in 1937.
Penn had Black students on their track and field team as early as 1903 (John Baxter Taylor, Jr., the first Black athlete in the U.S. to win a gold medal in the Olympics) and a Black student was named captain of the track team in 1918. Columbia's track and field team would be integrated in 1934. Basketball would become integrated at Yale in 1926, at Princeton in 1947.
==== Post–World War II ====
In 1945 the presidents of the eight schools signed the first Ivy Group Agreement, which set academic, financial, and athletic standards for the football teams. The principles established reiterated those put forward in the Harvard-Yale-Princeton presidents' Agreement of 1916. The Ivy Group Agreement established the core tenet that an applicant's ability to play on a team would not influence admissions decisions:
The members of the Group reaffirm their prohibition of athletic scholarships. Athletes shall be admitted as students and awarded financial aid only on the basis of the same academic standards and economic need as are applied to all other students.
In 1954, the presidents extended the Ivy Group Agreement to all intercollegiate sports, effective with the 1955–56 basketball season. This is generally reckoned as the formal formation of the Ivy League. As part of the transition, Brown, the only Ivy that had not joined the EIBL, did so for the 1954–55 season. A year later, the Ivy League absorbed the EIBL. The Ivy League claims the EIBL's history as its own. Through the EIBL, it is the oldest basketball conference in Division I.
As late as the 1960s many of the Ivy League universities' undergraduate programs remained open only to men, with Cornell the only one to have been coeducational from its founding (1865) and Columbia being the last (1983) to become coeducational. Before they became coeducational, many of the Ivy schools maintained extensive social ties with nearby Seven Sisters women's colleges, including weekend visits, dances and parties inviting Ivy and Seven Sisters students to mingle. This was the case not only at Barnard College and Radcliffe College, which are adjacent to Columbia and Harvard, but at more distant institutions as well. The movie Animal House includes a satiric version of the formerly common visits by Dartmouth men to Massachusetts to meet Smith and Mount Holyoke women, a drive of more than two hours. As noted by Irene Harwarth, Mindi Maline, and Elizabeth DeBra, "The 'Seven Sisters' was the name given to Barnard, Smith, Mount Holyoke, Vassar, Bryn Mawr, Wellesley, and Radcliffe, because of their parallel to the Ivy League men's colleges."
In 1982 the Ivy League considered adding two members, with Army, Navy, and Northwestern as the most likely candidates; if it had done so, the league could probably have avoided being moved into the recently created Division I-AA (now Division I FCS) for football. In 1983, following the admission of women to Columbia College, Columbia University and Barnard College entered into an athletic consortium agreement by which students from both schools compete together on Columbia University women's athletic teams, which replaced the women's teams previously sponsored by Barnard.When Army and Navy departed the Eastern Intercollegiate Baseball League in 1992, nearly all intercollegiate competition involving the eight schools became united under the Ivy League banner. The major exception is hockey, with the Ivies that sponsor hockey—all except Penn and Columbia—members of ECAC Hockey. Wrestling was a second exception through the 2023-24 academic calendar; up until that point the Ivies that sponsor wrestling—all except Dartmouth and Yale— were members of the Eastern Intercollegiate Wrestling Association.
The Ivy League was the first athletic conference to respond to the COVID-19 pandemic by shutting down all athletic competition in March 2020, leaving many Spring schedules unfinished. The Fall 2020 schedule was canceled in July, and winter sports were canceled before Thanksgiving. Of the 357 men's basketball teams in Division I, only ten did not play; the Ivy League made up eight of those ten. By giving up its automatic qualifying bid to March Madness, the Ivy League forfeited at least $280,000 in NCAA basketball funds. As a consequence of the pandemic, an unprecedented number of student athletes in the Ivy League either transferred to other schools, or temporarily unenrolled in hopes of maintaining their eligibility to play post-pandemic. Some Ivy alumni expressed displeasure with the League's position. In February 2021 it was reported that Yale declined a multi-million dollar offer from alum Joseph Tsai to create a sequestered "bubble" for the lacrosse team. The league announced in a May 2021 joint statement that "regular athletic competition" would resume "across all sports" in fall 2021.
Following the Black Lives Matter protests in 2020, the Ivy League Conference committed itself to uphold "diversity, equity, and inclusion," to combat racism and homophobia. At Brown, Columbia, Cornell, Dartmouth, Harvard, and Princeton there are Black Student Athlete groups and other affinity groups that are dedicated to ensuring their organizations are committed to anti-racism and anti-homophobia. In 2023, two former Brown University basketball players sued the Ivy League alleging that by denying athletic scholarships, the 1954 "Ivy League Agreement" is anticompetititive and violates antitrust laws. The lawsuit claims that the agreement constitutes price-fixing in violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, and in effect raises the cost of Ivy League education for student athletes.
== Academics ==
=== Undergraduate admissions ===
The Ivy League schools are highly selective, with seven out of the eight universities reporting undergraduate acceptance rates below 6%. Admitted students come from around the world, although those from the Northeastern United States make up a significant proportion of students.
In 2021, all eight Ivy League schools recorded record high numbers of applications and record low acceptance rates. Year-over-year increases in the number of applicants ranged from 14.5% at Princeton to 51% at Columbia.
There have been arguments that Ivy League schools discriminate against Asian-American candidates. For example, in August 2020, the U.S. Justice Department argued that Yale University discriminated against Asian-American candidates on the basis of their race, a charge the university denied. Harvard faced a similar challenge from Students for Fair Admissions, which ultimately won its case in the U.S. Supreme Court in 2023, leading to the end of affirmative action in college admissions.
=== Prestige ===
Members of the League have been highly ranked by various university rankings. All of the Ivy League schools are consistently ranked within the top 20 national universities by the U.S. News & World Report Best Colleges Ranking.
=== Collaboration ===
Collaboration between the member schools is illustrated by the student-led Ivy Council that meets in the fall and spring of each year, with representatives from every Ivy League school. The governing body of the Ivy League is the Council of Ivy Group presidents, composed of each university president. During meetings, the presidents discuss common procedures and initiatives for their universities.
The universities collaborate academically through the IvyPlus Exchange Scholar Program, which allows students to cross-register at one of the Ivies or another eligible school such as Berkeley, Chicago, MIT, and Stanford.
== History of diversity ==
=== Racial segregation and integration ===
Ivy League institutions have a complex history of racial segregation, and, eventually, integration. All of the universities in the Ivy League besides Cornell University were chartered during the American era of slavery. In 2003, Brown University was the first of the Ivies to take accountability for their historic ties to slavery and the transatlantic slave trade. Following Brown, other Ivy League universities formed committees to examine their ties to slavery, and found various institutional relationships to slavery. Yale University, for example, used profits from slave traders and owners to fund its first scholarships, libraries, and faculty positions. To date, some of Yale's residential colleges are named after slave traders and supporters. The investigations at Harvard, Princeton, Columbia, and the University of Pennsylvania all found that, in the century following their charters, enslaved Black people lived on campus to care for students, professors, or the universities' presidents. Notably, Princeton's first nine presidents were slave owners, and in 1766, a slave auction reportedly took place on Princeton's campus.
A small number of Black people did attend Ivy League institutions as students during their early years. These early students, however, were not always granted degrees. For example, some Black students were recorded studying privately with the Princeton University president as early as 1774, but no Black students received Princeton degrees until the middle of the twentieth century. Jonathan and Philip Gayienquitioga, two brothers of the Mohawk People, were the first people of color to enroll at Penn in 1755 after being recruited by Benjamin Franklin to attend the Academy of Philadelphia (then part of Penn). But there is no evidence that either earned a degree, as the first Native American to graduate Penn did not occur until 1847 when Robert Daniel Ross, a member of the Cherokee Nation, graduated with a degree from Penn's medical school.
==== 19th and early 20th centuries ====
In 1900, W. E. B. Du Bois oversaw and edited The College-bred Negro a study on Black integration in colleges and universities that found a combined total of 52 Black students had graduated from Ivy League schools in their collective histories. Since no official policies prohibited schools in the Ivy League from admitting students of color each university in the League had different policies regarding the admission of Black students. Dartmouth's first Black student graduated in 1828, while Princeton would only admit their first Black student under the V-12 Navy College Training Program in the 1940s.
Early Black student admits to Ivy League universities were controversial and often faced backlash. Dartmouth initially denied its first Black graduate, Edward Mitchell, supposedly to avoid "offend[ing] students". Dartmouth students protested this decision, leading to Mitchell's admission in 1824. Richard Henry Green was awarded an MD degree by Dartmouth College in 1864.
Harvard admitted its first Black student, Beverly Garnett Williams, in 1847. News of his admission incited protests by Harvard students and faculty. Williams died before the academic year began, however, and never matriculated. Richard Theodore Greener was the first African American to receive a Harvard degree in 1870. Between 1890 and 1940, an average of three Black men enrolled at Harvard per year. In 1923, Harvard's Board of Overseers overruled University President Abbot Lawrence's ban on Black students living in dorms, announcing that all freshmen would be permitted to live in dorms regardless of race, but upheld that "men of the white and colored races shall not be compelled to live and eat together." Brown seems to have refused admission to Black students outright prior to the Civil War. Abolitionist Elizabeth Buffum Chase wrote in her book Anti Slavery Reminiscences about "a lad of rare excellence and attainments [who] was refused an examination for admission by the authorities of Brown University on account of the color of his skin." Inman E. Page was the first Black student to graduate from Brown in 1877, and was class speaker.
William Adger, James Brister, and Nathan Francis Mossell were the first Black students enrolled at Penn in 1879. Brister graduated from the School of Dental Medicine (Penn Dental) in 1881 as the first African American to earn a degree from Penn, while Adger was the first African American to graduate from the college in 1883.
Columbia University has claimed that four Black students earned University degrees between 1875 and 1900, though their names are apparently unknown.
Yale's Edward Bouchet, was the first Black person (a) elected to Phi Beta Kappa in the US in 1874 and (b) to earn a Ph.D. from any American university, completing his dissertation in physics in 1876. Bouchet was thought to have been the first African-American graduate of Yale, but research publicized in 2014 reported that Yale awarded a Black man, Richard Henry Green, a bachelor of arts degree in 1857.
Cornell seemed the most inclusive of the Ivy Leagues at its inception, with admission open to any race and gender. University co-founder Andrew Dickson White wrote in 1874 that the school had "no colored students...at present but shall be very glad to receive any who are prepared to enter...if even one offered himself and passed the examinations, we should receive him even if all our five hundred white students were to ask for dismissal on that account." In 1890, Charles Chauveau Cook and Jane Eleanor Datcher were the first Black students awarded four-year undergraduate Cornell degrees. Despite this, Black students faced legal and social segregation in the town of Ithaca, New York. In 1905, Black students reported being denied housing while attending Cornell.
Princeton University, sometimes referred to as the "Southern-most Ivy", was the last to integrate. In Du Bois' The College-bred Negro (1900), a Princeton representative is quoted: "We have never had any colored students here, though there is nothing in the University statutes to prevent their admission. It is possible, however, in view of our proximity to the South and the large number of southern students here, that Negro students would find Princeton less comfortable than some other institutions." Notably, in 1939, Princeton revoked admittance to Black student Bruce Wright upon his arrival on campus, when Director of Admission Radcliffe Heermance noticed Wright's race. When a disappointed Wright wrote Heermance requesting an explanation, Heermance responded:
I cannot conscientiously advise a colored student to apply for admission to Princeton simply because I do not think that he would be happy in this environment. There are no colored students in the University and a member of your race might feel very much alone... My personal experience would enforce my advice to any colored student that he would be happier in an environment of others of his race, and that he would adjust himself far more easily to the life of a New England college or university, or one of the large state universities than he would to a residential college of this particular type.
The few early Black students admitted to Ivy League universities were often from wealthy Caribbean families. Barriers preventing African American students from attending Ivy League universities included the universities' policies, poor recruitment, tuition costs, and the lack of secondary education opportunities in a racially segregated country. More Black students attended Ivy League graduate and professional schools than their undergraduate programs. By the middle of the 20th century, only 54 Black men and women had graduated with a bachelor degree from Ivy League universities.
==== Late 20th century ====
By the middle of the 20th century, some Ivy League students and alumni were advocating for increased racial integration efforts. These efforts were met with mixed reactions from the schools themselves. Without a goal for integration shared by the institutions as a collective, each school increased racial diversity at different rates, with Dartmouth having 120 Black undergraduates in the class of 1945 and Princeton having a cumulative total of fewer than 100 Black undergraduates by 1967.
The V-12 Navy College Training Program in 1942 effectively forced all eight Ivy institutions to increase Black student enrollment. At Princeton University, the Black students in this program were the first ever granted bachelor's degrees by the University.
The 1954 Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education did not require private universities like those in the Ivy League to abide by the ruling. It wasn't until the Court's 1976 decision in Runyon v. McCrary that private institutions became legally prohibited from discriminating on the basis of race. By the early 1960s, however, some admissions offices in the Ivy League began to make concerted efforts to increase their number of Black applicants, rolling out initiatives that actively sought Black talent from high schools. Efforts for racial integration at Ivy League institutions relied on the support of student organizations, faculty-led initiatives, and third-party organizations like the National Scholarship Service and Fund for Negro Students to seek prospective Black applicants. These efforts also prompted internal University action, such as the creation of Cornell's Committee on Special Educational Projects (COSEP), an organization aimed to recruit and support Black students. By 1965, however, Black students still were only 2% of admitted students across all the Ivies.
Prior to the 1960s, the majority of Ivy League universities explicitly prohibited the admission of women, instead forming partnerships with nearby women's colleges. As such, Black women were not able to attend Ivy League universities until they changed their policies. Lillian Lincoln Lambert was the first Black woman to receive a degree from Harvard University after graduating with a master's degree from Harvard Business School in 1969. Lincoln Lambert was also a founding member of Harvard's African American Student Union, which according to her, actively recruited Black students and created "a space where Black students could find not only support but resources for everything from barber shops that cut Black hair to churches."
As Black student populations grew at Ivy League schools, on-campus activism saw an increase during the civil rights movement. In 1969, students in Cornell's Afro-American Society led an armed occupation of Willard Straight Hall to protest the university's racist policies and "its slow progress in establishing a Black studies program." In the same year, students associated with Yale's New Left organization, Students for a Democratic Society, worked closely with the New Haven Black Panthers to lead sit-ins and protests that advocated for the admission of more students of color and the establishment of an African American studies department. At Brown University, identity-based student organizations such as the United African People and the African American Society called for an increase to the number of Black faculty and increased attention to the needs of Black students. Demonstrations at Harvard and Columbia took the form of occupations and non-violent sit-ins that were often subject to forceful removal by local police called by University administrators. Activism at Dartmouth took a different shape during this time period, as students would use demonstrations that were happening at other Ivies and colleges around the country, to effectively position their demands for progress within the prospect of taking actions similar to those happening elsewhere.
==== 21st century ====
Continuing the trajectory of the late 20th century, the number of Black students on Ivy League campuses has continued to increase in the 21st century. From 2006 to 2018, there was an approximated 50% increase in the admission of Black students into entering classes, growing from 1,110 to 1,663. As of 2018, the Ivy League universities unanimously supported Harvard University's "race-conscious admissions" model. Harvard University representatives credited this form of affirmative action as one of the factors increasing campus diversity.
In 2014 case Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action, 572 U.S. 291 (2014)—the Supreme Court upheld Michigan's ban on affirmative action for public institutions and in 2016 inFisher v. University of Texas II, No. 14-981, 579 U.S. ___ (2016) the court upheld the university's limited use of race in admissions decisions because the university showed it had a clear goal of limited scope without other workable race-neutral means to achieve it. However, in 2023—Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College, No. 20-1199, 600 U.S. ___ (2023) the United States Supreme Court overruled the decades old decisionsRegents of University of California v. Bakke and Grutter v. Bollinger and other cases mentioned above in this paragraph but disallowing non-individualized racial preferences in admissions for civilian universities. In essence, the court interpreted the Fourteenth Amendment as not permitting Harvard's "race-conscious admissions" as the court decision now forbids the consideration of race in higher education admissions.
Institutions in favor of Harvard's model argue that in addition to academic excellence they also aim to form a diverse student body, while individuals that argue against the model state that it is discriminatory against certain applicants.
The growing Black student population in Ivy League universities in the early 2000s was accompanied by an increase in the number of Black faculty at these institutions, though rates of change among faculty have been slower and inconsistent. In 2005, 588– or about 3.9%– of the Ivies' 14,831 full-time faculty members were Black. This proportion decreased to 3.4% in 2015. Notably, in 2001, Ruth J. Simmons became the president of Brown University, making her the first and only Black president of an Ivy League institution.
The 21st century saw the continuation of demonstrations by Ivy League students revolving around race. Many of these demonstrations have sought to continue the work of their 20th century predecessors by advocating for increased admission and support of Black students. In light of the Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College Supreme Court case, students from Yale and Harvard joined other universities in protesting in defense of race-conscious admissions policies.
Likewise, Black students from Ivy League institutions continue to protest for the betterment of Black students' lives on campus and beyond. Following Michael Brown's death in 2014, students across the Ivies formed the Black Ivy Coalition, which included members from all eight institutions and aimed to combat anti-Black racism. Individual Ivy League universities also formed their own advocacy organizations and movements as a direct response to instances of anti-Black violence. After the murder of Michael Brown, Princeton University students formed the Black Justice League, which in 2015, occupied Nassau Hall and presented a list of demands to university administrators. Similarly, in 2017, Cornell students made demands to their administration protesting the assault of a Black student. Led by Black Students United, the demands included banning the Psi Upsilon fraternity for hate crimes, implementing implicit bias training, and introducing policies to increase the number of Black students at the university.
Student demonstrations have also focused on sparking change beyond Ivy League campuses. Following the Black Lives Matter protests in 2020, Harvard's Black Law Students Association, beyond calling for more Black faculty, critical race theory curriculum, and protection for student protestors, also called on the university to divest from prisons and denounce state-sanctioned violence.
In response to racially charged incidents across the country and prompting from student activists, Ivy League universities have removed and renamed campus landmarks. In response to the 2016 Black Lives Matter protests, Cornell renamed their botanical gardens, previously called the "Cornell Plantations," to the "Cornell Botanical Gardens." In 2018, Brown renamed one of its largest academic and administrative buildings after its first Black graduates, Inman E. Page and Ethel Tremaine Robinson. In response to the murder of George Floyd in 2020, Princeton University removed Woodrow Wilson's name from a residential college and the School of Public and International Affairs because of his "racist thinking and policies."
=== Fashion and lifestyle ===
Different fashion trends and styles have emerged from Ivy League campuses over time, and fashion trends such as Ivy League and preppy are styles often associated with the Ivy League and its culture.
Ivy League style is a style of men's dress, popular during the late 1950s, believed to have originated on Ivy League campuses. The clothing stores J. Press and Brooks Brothers represent perhaps the quintessential Ivy League dress manner. The Ivy League style is said to be the predecessor to the preppy style of dress.
Preppy fashion started around 1912 to the late 1940s and 1950s as the Ivy League style of dress. J. Press represents the quintessential preppy clothing brand, stemming from the collegiate traditions that shaped the preppy subculture. In the mid-twentieth century J. Press and Brooks Brothers, both being pioneers in preppy fashion, had stores on Ivy League school campuses, including Harvard, Yale, and Princeton.
Some typical preppy styles also reflect traditional upper class New England leisure activities, such as equestrian, sailing or yachting, hunting, fencing, rowing, lacrosse, tennis, golf, and rugby. Longtime New England outdoor outfitters, such as L.L. Bean, became part of conventional preppy style. This can be seen in sport stripes and colors, equestrian clothing, plaid shirts, field jackets and nautical-themed accessories. Vacationing in Palm Beach, Florida, long popular with the East Coast upper class, led to the emergence of bright colors combinations in leisure wear seen in some brands such as Lilly Pulitzer. By the 1980s, other brands such as Lacoste, Izod and Dooney & Bourke became associated with preppy style.
Though the Ivy League style is most commonly associated with the white, male elites that historically made up Ivy League campuses, the style was quickly popularized among Black communities during the civil rights era. Reinterpretations of this style by African-American men in the 1950s and 1960s combined the preppy Ivy League style with other popular Black styles of dress. This led to the emergence of a new style of dress, the Black Ivy style.
Today, Ivy League styles continue to be popular on Ivy League campuses, throughout the U.S., and abroad, and are oftentimes labeled as "Classic American style" or "Traditional American style".
=== Social elitism ===
The Ivy League is often associated with the upper class White Anglo-Saxon Protestant community of the Northeast, Old money, or more generally, the American upper middle and upper classes. Although most Ivy League students come from upper-middle and upper-class families, the student body has become increasingly more economically and ethnically diverse. The universities provide significant financial aid to help increase the enrollment of lower income and middle class students. Several reports suggest, however, that the proportion of students from less-affluent families remains low.
Phrases such as "Ivy League snobbery" are ubiquitous in nonfiction and fiction writing of the early and mid-twentieth century. A Louis Auchincloss character dreads "the aridity of snobbery which he knew infected the Ivy League colleges". A business writer, warning in 2001 against discriminatory hiring, presented a cautionary example of an attitude to avoid (the bracketed phrase is his):
We Ivy Leaguers [read: mostly white and Anglo] know that an Ivy League degree is a mark of the kind of person who is likely to succeed in this organization.
The phrase Ivy League historically has been perceived as connected not only with academic excellence but also with social elitism. In 1936, sportswriter John Kieran noted that student editors at Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Princeton, Cornell, Dartmouth, and Penn were advocating the formation of an athletic association. In urging them to consider "Army and Navy and Georgetown and Fordham and Syracuse and Brown and Pitt" as candidates for membership, he exhorted:
It would be well for the proponents of the Ivy League to make it clear (to themselves especially) that the proposed group would be inclusive but not "exclusive" as this term is used with a slight up-tilting of the tip of the nose.
Aspects of Ivy stereotyping were illustrated during the 1988 presidential election, when George H. W. Bush (Yale '48) derided Michael Dukakis (graduate of Harvard Law School) for having "foreign-policy views born in Harvard Yard's boutique." New York Times columnist Maureen Dowd asked "Wasn't this a case of the pot calling the kettle elite?" Bush explained, however, that, unlike Harvard, Yale's reputation was "so diffuse, there isn't a symbol, I don't think, in the Yale situation, any symbolism in it. ... Harvard boutique to me has the connotation of liberalism and elitism" and said Harvard in his remark was intended to represent "a philosophical enclave" and not a statement about class. Columnist Russell Baker opined that "Voters inclined to loathe and fear elite Ivy League schools rarely make fine distinctions between Yale and Harvard. All they know is that both are full of rich, fancy, stuck-up and possibly dangerous intellectuals who never sit down to supper in their undershirt no matter how hot the weather gets." Still, the next five consecutive presidents all attended Ivy League schools for at least part of their education—George H. W. Bush (Yale undergrad), Bill Clinton (Yale Law School), George W. Bush (Yale undergrad, Harvard Business School), Barack Obama (Columbia undergrad, Harvard Law School), and Donald Trump (Penn undergrad). Indeed, since 1989, Joe Biden has been the only president to not be Ivy League-educated.
=== U.S. presidents in the Ivy League ===
Of the 45 persons who have served as President of the United States, 16 have graduated from an Ivy League university with either a Bachelor's or advanced degree. Of them, eight have degrees from Harvard, five from Yale, three from Columbia, two from Princeton and one from Penn. Twelve presidents have earned Ivy undergraduate degrees. Four of these were transfer students: Woodrow Wilson transferred from Davidson College, Barack Obama transferred from Occidental College, Donald Trump transferred from Fordham University, and John F. Kennedy transferred from Princeton to Harvard. John Adams was the first president to graduate from college, graduating from Harvard in 1755.
== Student demographics ==
=== Race and ethnicity ===
=== Geographic distribution ===
Students of the Ivy League largely hail from the Northeast, largely from the New York City, Boston, and Philadelphia areas. As all eight Ivy League universities are within the Northeast, most graduates end up working and residing in the Northeast after graduation. An unscientific survey of Harvard seniors from the Class of 2013 found that 42% hailed from the Northeast and 55% overall were planning on working and residing in the Northeast. Boston and New York City are traditionally where many Ivy League graduates end up living.
=== Socioeconomics and social class ===
Students of the Ivy League, both graduate and undergraduate, come primarily from upper middle and upper class families. In recent years, however, the universities have looked towards increasing socioeconomic and class diversity, by providing greater financial aid packages to applicants from lower, working, and lower middle class American families.
In 2013, a Harvard Crimson writer estimated that 46% of Harvard undergraduate students came from families in the top 3.8% of all American households (i.e., over $200,000 annual income). In 2012, the bottom 25% of the American income distribution accounted for only 3–4% of students at Brown, a figure that had remained unchanged since 1992. In 2014, 69% of incoming freshmen students at Yale College came from families with annual incomes of over $120,000, putting most Yale College students in the upper-middle and upper classes. (The median household income in the U.S. in 2013 was $52,700.)
In the 2011–2012 academic year, students qualifying for Pell Grants (federally funded scholarships on the basis of need) constituted 20% at Harvard, 18% at Cornell, 17% at Penn, 16% at Columbia, 15% at Dartmouth and Brown, 14% at Yale, and 12% at Princeton. Nationally, 35% of American university students qualify for a Pell Grant.
=== Graduation rates ===
== Faculty demographics ==
=== Race and ethnicity ===
== Competition and athletics ==
Ivy champions are recognized in sixteen men's and sixteen women's sports. In some sports, Ivy teams actually compete as members of another league, the Ivy championship being decided by isolating the members' records in play against each other; for example, the six league members who participate in ice hockey do so as members of ECAC Hockey, but an Ivy champion is extrapolated each year. In one sport, rowing, the Ivies recognize team champions for each sex in both heavyweight and lightweight divisions. While the Intercollegiate Rowing Association governs all four sex- and bodyweight-based divisions of rowing, the only one that is sanctioned by the NCAA is women's heavyweight. The Ivy League was the last Division I basketball conference to institute a conference postseason tournament; the first tournaments for men and women were held at the end of the 2016–17 season. The tournaments only award the Ivy League automatic bids for the NCAA Division I Men's and Women's Basketball Tournaments; the official conference championships continue to be awarded based solely on regular-season results. Before the 2016–17 season, the automatic bids were based solely on regular-season record, with a one-game playoff (or series of one-game playoffs if more than two teams were tied) held to determine the automatic bid. The Ivy League is one of only two Division I conferences which award their official basketball championships solely on regular-season results; the other is the Southeastern Conference. Since its inception, an Ivy League school has yet to win either the men's or women's Division I NCAA basketball tournament.
On average, each Ivy school has more than 35 varsity teams. All eight are in the top 20 for number of sports offered for both men and women among Division I schools. Unlike most Division I athletic conferences, the Ivy League prohibits the granting of athletic scholarships; all scholarships awarded are need-based (financial aid). In addition, the Ivies have a rigid policy against redshirting, even for medical reasons; an athlete loses a year of eligibility for every year enrolled at an Ivy institution. Additionally, the Ivies prohibit graduate students from participating in intercollegiate athletics, even if they have remaining athletic eligibility. The only exception to the ban on graduate students was that seniors graduating in 2021 were allowed to play at their current institutions as graduate students in 2021–22. This was a one-time-only response to the Ivies shutting down most intercollegiate athletics in 2020–21 due to COVID-19. Ivy League teams' non-league games are often against the members of the Patriot League, which have similar academic standards and athletic scholarship policies (although unlike the Ivies, the Patriot League allows both redshirting and play by eligible graduate students). To promote diversity and inclusion, student-athletes are required to have their gender pronouns listed on their roster pages on the athletic websites for most Ivy League schools.
In the time before recruiting for college sports became dominated by those offering athletic scholarships and lowered academic standards for athletes, the Ivy League was successful in many sports relative to other universities in the country. In particular, Princeton won 26 recognized national championships in college football (last in 1935), and Yale won 18 (last in 1927). Both of these totals are considerably higher than those of other historically strong programs such as Alabama, which has won 15, Notre Dame, which claims 11 but is credited by many sources with 13, and USC, which has won 11. Yale, whose coach Walter Camp was the "Father of American Football," held on to its place as the all-time wins leader in college football throughout the entire 20th century, but was finally passed by Michigan on November 10, 2001. Harvard, Yale, Princeton and Penn each have over a dozen former scholar-athletes enshrined in the College Football Hall of Fame. Currently Dartmouth holds the record for most Ivy League football titles, with 18, followed closely by Harvard and Penn, each with 17 titles. In addition, the Ivy League has produced Super Bowl winners Kevin Boothe (Cornell), two-time Pro Bowler Zak DeOssie (Brown), Sean Morey (Brown), All-Pro selection Matt Birk (Harvard), Calvin Hill (Yale), Derrick Harmon (Cornell) and Justin Watson (wide receiver), (three-time Super Bowl champion, winning Super Bowl LV with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and Super Bowl LVII and LVIII with the Kansas City Chiefs), (Penn).
=== FCS Championship ===
Beginning with the 1982 football season, the Ivy League has competed in Division I-AA (renamed FCS in 2006). The Ivy League teams are eligible for the FCS tournament held to determine the national champion, and the league champion is eligible for an automatic bid (and any other team may qualify for an at-large selection) from the NCAA. However, from its inception in 1956 until 2024, the Ivy League had not played any postseason games due to concerns about the extended December schedule's effects on academics. (The last postseason game for a member before 2025 was the 1934 Rose Bowl, won by Columbia.) For this reason, any Ivy League team invited to the FCS playoffs turned down the bid. The Ivy League plays a strict 10-game schedule, compared to other FCS members' schedules of 11 (or, in some seasons, 12) regular season games, plus post-season, which expanded in 2013 to five rounds with 24 teams, with a bye week for the top eight teams. Football had been the only sport in which the Ivy League declined to compete for a national title. However, beginning in 2025, the Ivy League will participate in the FCS playoffs, with its conference champion automatically qualifying for the tournament.
=== Sprint football ===
In addition to varsity football, Penn and Cornell also field teams in the 9-team Collegiate Sprint Football League, in which all players must weigh 178 pounds or less. With Princeton canceling its program in 2016, Penn is the last remaining founding members of the league from its 1934 debut, and Cornell is the next-oldest, joining in 1937. Yale and Columbia previously fielded teams in the league but no longer do so.
=== Teams ===
=== Men's sponsored sports by school ===
==== Men's varsity sports not sponsored by the Ivy League ====
Notes:
Though the Ivy League lists ice hockey as a sponsored sport, all six ice hockey–playing Ivy League schools participate as members of ECAC Hockey.
=== Women's sponsored sports by school ===
==== Women's varsity sports not sponsored by the Ivy League ====
Notes:
Though the Ivy League lists ice hockey as a sponsored sport, all six ice hockey–playing Ivy League schools participate as members of ECAC Hockey.
The Ivy League is home to some of the oldest college rugby teams in the United States. Although none of the men's teams and half of the women's teams are not "varsity" sports, they all compete against each other as part of the Ivy Rugby Conference in addition to their own local conferences. Four of the women's teams (Brown, Dartmouth, Harvard, and Princeton) play as part of the NCAA emerging sport category.
=== Historical results ===
The table above includes the number of team championships won from the beginning of official Ivy League competition (1956–57 academic year) through 2016–17. Princeton and Harvard have on occasion won ten or more Ivy League titles in a year, an achievement accomplished 10 times by Harvard and 24 times by Princeton, including a conference-record 15 championships in 2010–11. Only once has one of the other six schools earned more than eight titles in a single academic year (Cornell with nine in 2005–06). In the 38 academic years beginning 1979–80, Princeton has averaged 10 championships per year, one-third of the conference total of 33 sponsored sports.
In the 12 academic years beginning 2005–06 Princeton has won championships in 31 different sports, all except wrestling and men's tennis.
=== Rivalries ===
Rivalries run deep in the Ivy League. For instance, Princeton and Penn are longstanding men's basketball rivals; "Puck Frinceton" T-shirts are worn by Quaker fans at games. In only 11 instances in the history of Ivy League basketball, and in only seven seasons since Yale's 1962 title, has neither Penn nor Princeton won at least a share of the Ivy League title in basketball, with Princeton champion or co-champion 26 times and Penn 25 times. Penn has won 21 outright, Princeton 19 outright. Princeton has been a co-champion 7 times, sharing 4 of those titles with Penn (these 4 seasons represent the only times Penn has been co-champion).
Harvard won its first title of either variety in 2011, losing a dramatic play-off game to Princeton for the NCAA tournament bid, then rebounded to win outright championships in 2012, 2013, and 2014. Harvard also won the 2013 Great Alaska Shootout, defeating TCU to become the only Ivy League school to win the now-defunct tournament.
Rivalries exist between other Ivy league teams in other sports, including Cornell and Harvard in hockey, Harvard and Princeton in swimming, and Harvard and Penn in football (Penn and Harvard have won 28 Ivy League Football Championships since 1982, Penn-16; Harvard-12). During that time Penn has had 8 undefeated Ivy League Football Championships and Harvard has had 6 undefeated Ivy League Football Championships. In men's lacrosse, Cornell and Princeton are perennial rivals, and they are two of three Ivy League teams to have won the NCAA tournament. In 2009, the Big Red and Tigers met for their 70th game in the NCAA tournament. No team other than Harvard or Princeton has won the men's swimming conference title outright since 1972, although Yale, Columbia, and Cornell have shared the title with Harvard and Princeton during this time. Similarly, no program other than Princeton and Harvard has won the women's swimming championship since Brown's 1999 title. Princeton or Cornell has won every indoor and outdoor track and field championship, both men's and women's, every year since 2002–03, with one exception (Columbia women won the indoor championship in 2012). Harvard and Yale are football and crew rivals although the competition has become unbalanced; Harvard has won all but one of the last 15 football games and all but one of the last 13 crew races.
==== Intra-conference football rivalries ====
The Yale–Princeton series is the nation's second-longest by games played, surpassed only by "The Rivalry" between Lehigh and Lafayette, which began later in 1884 but included two or three games in each of 17 early seasons. For the first three decades of the Yale-Princeton rivalry, the two played their season-ending game at a neutral site, usually New York City, and with one exception (1890: Harvard), the winner of the game also won at least a share of the national championship that year, covering the period 1869 through 1903. This phenomenon of a finale contest at a neutral site for the national title created a social occasion for the society elite of the metropolitan area akin to a Super Bowl in the era prior to the establishment of the NFL in 1920. These football games were also financially profitable for the two universities, so much that they began to play baseball games in New York City as well, drawing record crowds for that sport also, largely from the same social demographic. In a period when the only professional team sports were fledgling baseball leagues, these high-profile early contests between Princeton and Yale played a role in popularizing spectator sports, demonstrating their financial potential and raising public awareness of Ivy universities at a time when few people attended college.
==== Extra-conference football rivalries ====
== Championships ==
=== NCAA team championships ===
This list, which is current through January 8, 2018, includes NCAA championships and women's AIAW championships (one each for Yale and Dartmouth and five for Cornell). Excluded from this list are all other national championships earned outside the scope of NCAA competition, including football titles and retroactive Helms Foundation titles.
== Athletic facilities ==
== Other Ivies ==
The term Ivy is sometimes used to connote a positive comparison to or an association with the Ivy League, often along academic lines. The term has been used to describe the Little Ivies, a grouping of small liberal arts colleges in the Northeastern United States. Other common uses include the Public Ivies, the Hidden Ivies, the Southern Ivies, and the Black Ivies.
=== IvyPlus ===
The informal term IvyPlus refers to the original eight Ivy league institutions along with a select group of other elite institutions including the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Stanford University, Duke University, and University of Chicago. Johns Hopkins University is often included as well. Beyond rankings and prestige, these schools are included in the grouping given their formal participation in exchange programs, university consortia, shared academic resources, collaborative alumni associations, or endowment comparisons. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark | Denmark | Denmark is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It is the metropole and most populous constituent of the Kingdom of Denmark, also known as the Danish Realm, a constitutionally unitary state that includes the autonomous territories of the Faroe Islands and Greenland in the north Atlantic Ocean. Metropolitan Denmark, also called "continental Denmark" or "Denmark proper", consists of the northern Jutland peninsula and an archipelago of 406 islands. It is the southernmost of the Scandinavian countries, lying southwest of Sweden, south of Norway, and north of Germany, with which it shares a short border. Denmark proper is situated between the North Sea to the west and the Baltic Sea to the east.
The Kingdom of Denmark, including the Faroe Islands and Greenland, has roughly 1,400 islands greater than 100 square metres (1,100 sq ft) in area; 443 have been named and 78 are inhabited. Denmark's population is over 6 million (1 May 2025), of which roughly 40% live in Zealand, (Sjælland) the largest and most populated island in Denmark proper; Copenhagen, (København) the capital and largest city of the Danish Realm, is situated on Zealand and Amager and Slotsholmen. Composed mostly of flat, arable land, Denmark is characterised by sandy coasts, low elevation, and a temperate climate. Denmark exercises hegemonic influence in the Danish Realm, devolving powers to the other constituent entities to handle their internal affairs. Home rule was established in the Faroe Islands in 1948; Greenland achieved home rule in 1979 and further autonomy in 2009.
The unified Kingdom of Denmark emerged in the eighth century AD as a maritime power amid the struggle for control of the Baltic Sea. In 1397, it formed the Kalmar Union with Norway and Sweden. This union persisted until Sweden's secession in 1523. The remaining Kingdom of Denmark–Norway endured a series of wars in the 17th century that resulted in territorial cessions to Sweden. A surge of nationalist movements in the 19th century were defeated by the Danes in the First Schleswig War of 1848. The adoption of the Constitution of Denmark on 5 June 1849 ended the absolute monarchy. In the Second Schleswig War Denmark lost Schleswig-Holstein, which led to changes in Danish politics henceforth emphasising social cohesion in the diminished realm, as well as the clearing of the vast moors of Jutland for agriculture, new Christian movements split between Indre Mission and Grundtvig, but generally a stronger self-perception among the people of belonging to a unified country and state. In 1920, North Schleswig became Danish again.
Denmark began industrialising in the mid 19th century, becoming a major agricultural exporter. It introduced social and labour market reforms in the early 20th century, forming the basis for the present welfare state model and advanced mixed economy. Denmark remained neutral during World War I; Danish neutrality was violated in World War II by a rapid German invasion in April 1940. During occupation, a resistance movement emerged in 1943, while Iceland declared independence in 1944; Denmark was liberated after the end of the war in May 1945. In 1973, Denmark, together with Greenland but not the Faroe Islands, became a member of what is now the European Union; however, it negotiated certain opt-outs, such as retaining its own currency, the krone.
Denmark is a developed country with an advanced high-income economy, high standard of living, and robust social welfare policies. Danish culture and society are broadly progressive egalitarian, and socially liberal; Denmark was the first country to legally recognise same-sex partnerships. It is a founding member of NATO, the Nordic Council, the OECD, the OSCE, the Council of Europe and the United Nations, and is part of the Schengen Area. Denmark maintains close political, cultural, and linguistic ties with its Scandinavian neighbours.
== Etymology ==
The etymology of the name "Denmark", the relationship between "Danes" and "Denmark", and the emergence of Denmark as a unified kingdom are topics of continuous scholarly debate. This is centred primarily on the morpheme "Dan" and whether it refers to the Dani or a historical person Dan and the exact meaning of the -"mark" ending.
Most etymological dictionaries and handbooks derive "Dan" from a word meaning "flat land", related to German Tenne "threshing floor", English den "cave". The element mark is believed to mean woodland or borderland (see marches), with probable references to the border forests in south Schleswig.
The first recorded use of the word Danmark within Denmark itself is found on the two Jelling stones, which are runestones believed to have been erected by Gorm the Old, considered to be Denmark's first king, (c. 955) and Harald Bluetooth (c. 965). The larger of the two stones is popularly cited as the "baptismal certificate" (dåbsattest) of Denmark, though both use the word "Denmark", in the accusative ᛏᛅᚾᛘᛅᚢᚱᚴ tanmaurk ([danmɒrk]) on the large stone, and the genitive ᛏᛅᚾᛘᛅᚱᚴᛅᚱ "tanmarkar" (pronounced [danmarkaɽ]) on the small stone, while the dative form tąnmarku (pronounced [danmarkʊ]) is found on the contemporaneous Skivum stone. The inhabitants of Denmark are there called tani ([danɪ]), or "Danes", in the accusative.
== History ==
=== Prehistory ===
The earliest archaeological finds in Denmark date back to the Eem interglacial period from 130,000 to 110,000 BC. Denmark has been inhabited since around 12,500 BC and agriculture has been evident since 3900 BC. The Nordic Bronze Age (1800–600 BC) in Denmark was marked by burial mounds, which left an abundance of findings including lurs and the Sun Chariot.
During the Pre-Roman Iron Age (500 BC – AD 1), native groups began migrating south, and the first tribal Danes came to the country between the Pre-Roman and the Germanic Iron Age, in the Roman Iron Age (AD 1–400). The Roman provinces maintained trade routes and relations with native tribes in Denmark, and Roman coins have been found in Denmark. Evidence of strong Celtic cultural influence dates from this period in Denmark and much of North-West Europe and is among other things reflected in the finding of the Gundestrup cauldron.
The tribal Danes came from the east Danish islands (Zealand) and Scania, today Skåne in Southern Sweden, and spoke an early form of North Germanic. Historians believe that before their arrival, most of Jutland and the nearest islands were settled by tribal Jutes. Many Jutes migrated to Great Britain, according to legend some as mercenaries of Brythonic King Vortigern, and formed the south-eastern territories of Kent, the Isle of Wight and other areas, where they settled. They were later absorbed or ethnically cleansed by the invading Angles and Saxons, who formed the Anglo-Saxons. The remaining Jutish population in Jutland assimilated in with the settling Danes.
A short note about the Dani in Getica by the historian Jordanes is believed to be an early mention of the Danes, one of the ethnic groups from whom modern Danes are descended. The Danevirke defence structures were built in phases from the 3rd century forward and the sheer size of the construction efforts in AD 737 are attributed to the emergence of a Danish king. A new runic alphabet was first used around the same time and Ribe, the oldest town of Denmark, was founded about AD 700.
=== Viking and Middle Ages ===
From the 8th to the 10th century the population of the wider Scandinavian region was called Vikings by non-Scandinavians. While they mostly lived off agriculture, fishing and trade, they were excellent sailors and would travel as far as Iceland, Greenland and Canada. They traded in all parts of Europe, down to Constantinople and beyond, but would also raid local settlements and set up colonies in far-flung places. The Danish Vikings were most actively raiding the eastern and southern British Isles and Western Europe. They settled in parts of England (known as the Danelaw) under King Sweyn Forkbeard in 1013, and in France where Danes and Norwegians were allowed to settle in what would become Normandy in exchange of allegiance to Robert I of France with Rollo as first ruler. Some Anglo-Saxon pence of this period have been found in Denmark.
Denmark was largely consolidated by the late 8th century and its rulers are consistently referred to in Frankish sources as kings (reges). Under the reign of Gudfred in 804 the Danish kingdom may have included all the lands of Jutland, Scania and the Danish islands, excluding Bornholm.
The extant Danish monarchy traces its roots back to Gorm the Old, who established his reign in the early 10th century. As attested by the Jelling stones, the Danes were Christianised around 965 by Harald Bluetooth, the son of Gorm and Thyra. It is believed that Denmark became Christian for political reasons so as not to get invaded by the Holy Roman Empire. A rising Christian power in Europe, the Holy Roman Empire was an important trading partner for the Danes. As a deterrent against this threat, Harald built six fortresses around Denmark called Trelleborg and built a further Danevirke. In the early 11th century, Canute the Great won and united Denmark, England, and Norway for almost 30 years with a Scandinavian army.
Throughout the High and Late Middle Ages, Denmark also included Skåneland (the areas of Scania, Halland, and Blekinge in present-day southern Sweden) and Danish kings ruled Danish Estonia, as well as the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. Most of the latter two now form the state of Schleswig-Holstein in northern Germany.
In 1397, Denmark entered into a personal union known as the Kalmar Union with Norway and Sweden, united under Queen Margaret I. The three countries were to be treated as equals in the union. However, even from the start, Margaret may not have been so idealistic; treating Denmark as the clear "senior" partner of the union. Thus, much of the next 125 years of Scandinavian history revolves around this union, with Sweden breaking off and re-joining the Kalmar Union repeatedly. The issue was for practical purposes resolved on 17 June 1523, as Swedish King Gustav Vasa conquered the city of Stockholm. The Protestant Reformation spread to Scandinavia in the 1530s, and following the Count's Feud civil war, Denmark converted to Lutheranism in 1536. Later that year, Denmark entered into a new union with Norway.
=== Early modern history (1536–1849) ===
After Sweden permanently broke away from the Kalmar Union, Denmark tried on several occasions to reassert control over its neighbour. King Christian IV attacked Sweden in the 1611–1613 Kalmar War but failed to accomplish his main objective of forcing it to return to the union. The war led to no territorial changes, but Sweden was forced to pay a war indemnity of 1 million silver riksdaler to Denmark, an amount known as the Älvsborg ransom. King Christian used this money to found several towns and fortresses, most notably Glückstadt (founded as a rival to Hamburg) and Christiania. Inspired by the Dutch East India Company, he founded a similar Danish company and planned to claim Ceylon as a colony, but the company only managed to acquire Tranquebar on India's Coromandel Coast. Denmark's large colonial aspirations included a few key trading posts in Africa and India. While Denmark's trading posts in India were of little note, it played an important role in the highly lucrative Atlantic slave trade, through its trading outposts in Fort Christiansborg in Osu, Ghana through which 1.5 million slaves were traded. While the Danish colonial empire was sustained by trade with other major powers, and plantations – ultimately a lack of resources led to its stagnation.
In the Thirty Years' War, Christian tried to become the leader of the Lutheran states in Germany but suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Lutter. The result was that the Catholic army under Albrecht von Wallenstein was able to invade, occupy, and pillage Jutland, forcing Denmark to withdraw from the war. Denmark managed to avoid territorial concessions, but King Gustavus Adolphus' intervention in Germany was seen as a sign that the military power of Sweden was on the rise while Denmark's influence in the region was declining. Swedish armies invaded Jutland in 1643 and claimed Scania in 1644. In the 1645 Treaty of Brømsebro, Denmark surrendered Halland, Gotland, the last parts of Danish Estonia, and several provinces in Norway.
Seeing an opportunity to tear up the Treaty of Brømsebro, King Frederick III of Denmark, in 1657, declared war on Sweden, the latter being deeply involved in the Second Northern War (1655–1660), and marched on Bremen-Verden. This led to a massive Danish defeat as the armies of King Charles X Gustav of Sweden conquered Jutland and, following the Swedish March across the frozen Danish straits, occupied Funen and much of Zealand before signing the Peace of Roskilde in February 1658, which gave Sweden control of Scania, Blekinge, Bohuslän, Trøndelag, and the island of Bornholm. Charles X Gustav quickly regretted not having ruined Denmark and in August 1658, he launched a second attack on Denmark, conquered most of the Danish islands, and began a two-year-long siege of Copenhagen. King Frederick III actively led the defence of the city, rallying its citizens to take up arms, and repelled the Swedish attacks. The siege ended following the death of Charles X Gustav in 1660. In the ensuing peace settlement, Denmark managed to maintain its independence and regain control of Trøndelag and Bornholm. Attaining great popularity following the war, Frederick III used this to disband the elective monarchy in favour of absolute monarchy, which lasted until 1848 in Denmark.
Denmark tried but failed to regain control of Scania in the Scanian War (1675–1679). After the Great Northern War (1700–21), Denmark managed to regain control of the parts of Schleswig and Holstein ruled by the house of Holstein-Gottorp in the 1720 Treaty of Frederiksborg and the 1773 Treaty of Tsarskoye Selo, respectively. Denmark prospered greatly in the last decades of the 18th century due to its neutral status allowing it to trade with both sides in the many contemporary wars. In the Napoleonic Wars, Denmark traded with both France and the United Kingdom and joined the League of Armed Neutrality with Russia, Sweden, and Prussia. British fears that Denmark-Norway would ally with France led to two attacks against Danish targets in Copenhagen in 1801 and 1807. These attacks resulted in the British capturing most of the Dano-Norwegian navy and led to the outbreak of the Gunboat War. In 1807 much of Copenhagen was burned down as a result of these bombardments, including Vor Frue Kirke, the main Danish cathedral. British control of the waterways between Denmark and Norway proved disastrous to the union's economy and in 1813 Denmark–Norway went bankrupt.
The union was dissolved by the Treaty of Kiel in 1814; the Danish monarchy "irrevocably and forever" renounced claims to the Kingdom of Norway in favour of the Swedish king. Denmark kept the possessions of Iceland (which retained the Danish monarchy until 1944), the Faroe Islands and Greenland, all of which had been governed by Norway for centuries. Apart from the Nordic colonies, Denmark continued to rule over Danish India from 1620 to 1869, the Danish Gold Coast (Ghana) from 1658 to 1850, and the Danish West Indies from 1671 to 1917.
=== Constitutional monarchy (1849–present) ===
A nascent Danish liberal and national movement gained momentum in the 1830s; after the European Revolutions of 1848, Denmark peacefully became a constitutional monarchy on 5 June 1849. A new constitution established a two-chamber parliament. Denmark faced war against both Prussia and the Austrian Empire in what became known as the Second Schleswig War, lasting from February to October 1864. Denmark was defeated and obliged to cede Schleswig and Holstein to Prussia. This loss came as the latest in the long series of defeats and territorial losses that had begun in the 17th century. After these events, Denmark pursued a policy of neutrality in Europe.
Industrialisation came to Denmark in the second half of the 19th century. The nation's first railways were constructed in the 1850s, and improved communications and overseas trade allowed industry to develop in spite of Denmark's lack of natural resources. Trade unions developed, starting in the 1870s. There was a considerable migration of people from the countryside to the cities, and Danish agriculture became centred on the export of dairy and meat products.
Denmark maintained its neutral stance during World War I. After the defeat of Germany, the Versailles powers offered to return the region of Schleswig-Holstein to Denmark. Fearing German irredentism, Denmark refused to consider the return of the area without a plebiscite; the two Schleswig Plebiscites took place on 10 February and 14 March 1920, respectively. On 10 July 1920, Northern Schleswig was recovered by Denmark, thereby adding some 163,600 inhabitants and 3,984 square kilometres (1,538 sq mi). The country's first social democratic government took office in 1924.
In 1939, Denmark signed a 10-year nonaggression pact with Nazi Germany. However, Germany invaded Denmark on 9 April 1940, and the Danish government quickly surrendered. However, as around 10% of the German army's foodstuff was supplied by Danish agricultural output and Germany wanted that supply line to continue, the occupation was more cooperative and less harsh than many other countries in Europe. World War II in Denmark was characterised by economic co-operation with Germany until 1943, when the Danish government refused further co-operation and its navy scuttled most of its ships and sent many of its officers to Sweden, which was neutral. At that point the government fell. The Danish resistance performed a rescue operation that managed to evacuate several thousand Jews and their families to safety in Sweden before the Germans could send them to death camps. Some Danes supported Nazism by joining the Danish Nazi Party or volunteering to fight with Germany as part of the Frikorps Danmark. Iceland severed ties with Denmark and became an independent republic in 1944; Germany surrendered in May 1945. In 1948, the Faroe Islands gained home rule. In 1949, Denmark became a founding member of NATO.
Denmark was a founding member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). During the 1960s, the EFTA countries were often referred to as the Outer Seven, as opposed to the Inner Six of what was then the European Economic Community (EEC). In 1973, along with Britain and Ireland, Denmark joined the European Economic Community (now the European Union) after a public referendum. The Maastricht Treaty, which involved further European integration, was rejected by the Danish people in 1992; it was only accepted after a second referendum in 1993, which provided for four opt-outs from policies. The Danes rejected the euro as the national currency in a referendum in 2000. Greenland gained home rule in 1979 and was awarded self-determination in 2009. Neither the Faroe Islands nor Greenland are members of the European Union, the Faroese having declined membership of the EEC in 1973 and Greenland in 1986, in both cases because of fisheries policies.
Constitutional change in 1953 led to a single-chamber parliament elected by proportional representation, female accession to the Danish throne, and Greenland becoming an integral part of Denmark. The centre-left Social Democrats led a string of coalition governments for most of the second half of the 20th century, introducing the Nordic welfare model. The Liberal Party and the Conservative People's Party have also led centre-right governments.
Since 2025 the Danish territory of Greenland has been the target of US hybrid warfare under Donald Trump. Mette Frederiksen said that "the Kingdom of Denmark—and thus Greenland—is a member of NATO and is therefore covered by the Alliance’s collective security guarantee [...] I [...] strongly urge the United States to cease its threats against a historically close ally."
== Geography ==
Located in Northern Europe, Denmark consists of the northern part of the Jutland peninsula and an archipelago of 406 islands. Of these, the largest island is Zealand, on which the capital Copenhagen is situated, followed by the North Jutlandic Island, Funen, and Lolland. The island of Bornholm is located some 150 km east of the rest of the country, in the Baltic Sea. Many of the larger islands are connected by bridges; a bridge-tunnel across the Øresund connects Zealand with Sweden; the Great Belt Fixed Link connects Funen with Zealand; and the Little Belt Bridge connects Jutland with Funen. Ferries or small aircraft connect to the smaller islands. The four cities with populations over 100,000 are the capital Copenhagen on Zealand; Aarhus and Aalborg in Jutland; and Odense on Funen.
The metropolitan part occupies a total area of 42,943.9 square kilometres (16,581 sq mi). The area of inland water is 600 km2 (232 sq mi). The size of the land area cannot be stated exactly since the ocean constantly erodes and adds material to the coastline, and because of human land reclamation projects (to counter erosion). Post-glacial rebound raises the land by a bit less than 1 cm (0.4 in) per year in the north and east, extending the coast. A circle enclosing the same area as Denmark would be 234 kilometres (145 miles) in diameter with a circumference of 736 km (457 mi) (land area only: 232.33 km (144.36 mi) and 730 km (454 mi) respectively). It shares a border of 68 kilometres (42 mi) with Germany to the south and is otherwise surrounded by 8,750 km (5,437 mi) of tidal shoreline (including small bays and inlets). No location in Denmark is farther from the coast than 52 km (32 mi). On the south-west coast of Jutland, the tide is between 1 and 2 m (3.28 and 6.56 ft), and the tideline moves outward and inward on a 10 km (6.2 mi) stretch. Denmark's territorial waters total 105,000 square kilometres (40,541 square miles).
Denmark's northernmost point is Skagen point (the north beach of the Skaw) at 57° 45' 7" northern latitude; the southernmost is Gedser point (the southern tip of Falster) at 54° 33' 35" northern latitude; the westernmost point is Blåvandshuk at 8° 4' 22" eastern longitude; and the easternmost point is Østerskær at 15° 11' 55" eastern longitude. This is in the small Ertholmene archipelago 18 kilometres (11 mi) north-east of Bornholm. The distance from east to west is 452 kilometres (281 mi), from north to south 368 kilometres (229 mi).
The metropolitan part is flat with little elevation, having an average height above sea level of 31 metres (102 ft). The highest natural point is Møllehøj, at 170.86 metres (560.56 ft). Although this is by far the lowest high point in the Nordic countries and also less than half of the highest point in Southern Sweden, Denmark's general elevation in its interior is generally at a safe level from rising sea levels. Lammefjorden, deeper than −7 m (−23 ft) (near Audebo), is the lowest point. A sizeable portion of Denmark's terrain consists of rolling plains whilst the coastline is sandy, with large dunes in northern Jutland. Although once extensively forested, today Denmark largely consists of arable land. It is drained by a dozen or so streams, and the most significant include the Gudenå, Odense, Skjern, Suså and Vidå—a stream that flows along its southern border with Germany. The country has 1008 lakes, 16 have an area of more than 500 hectares (1,200 acres). Lake Arresø, located northwest of Copenhagen, is the largest lake.
The Kingdom of Denmark includes two overseas territories, both well to the west of Denmark: Greenland, the world's largest island, and the Faroe Islands in the North Atlantic Ocean. These territories are self-governing under their own parliaments (the Løgting and Inatsisartut) and form, together with continental Denmark, part of the Danish Realm, a country.
=== Climate ===
Denmark has a temperate climate, characterised by cool to cold winters, with mean temperatures in January of 1.5 °C (34.7 °F), and mild summers, with a mean temperature in August of 17.2 °C (63.0 °F). The most extreme temperatures recorded in Denmark, since 1874 when recordings began, was 36.4 °C (97.5 °F) in 1975 and −31.2 °C (−24.2 °F) in 1982. Denmark has an average of 179 days per year with precipitation, on average receiving a total of 765 millimetres (30 in) per year; autumn is the wettest season and spring the driest. The position between a continent and an ocean means that the weather is often unstable.
Because of Denmark's northern location, there are large seasonal variations in daylight: short days during the winter with sunrise around 8:45 am and sunset 3:45 pm (standard time), as well as long summer days with sunrise at 4:30 am and sunset at 10 pm (daylight saving time). In the middle of summer, it is light all night long.
=== Ecology ===
Denmark belongs to the Boreal Kingdom and can be subdivided into two ecoregions: the Atlantic mixed forests and Baltic mixed forests. Almost all of Denmark's primeval temperate forests have been destroyed or fragmented, chiefly for agricultural purposes during the last millennia. The deforestation has created large swaths of heathland and devastating sand drifts. In spite of this, there are several larger second growth woodlands in the country and, in total, 12.9% of the land is now forested. Norway spruce is the most widespread tree (2017); an important tree in the Christmas tree production. Denmark holds a Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 0.5/10, ranking it 171st globally out of 172 countries—behind only San Marino.
Roe deer occupy the countryside in growing numbers, and large-antlered red deer can be found in the sparse woodlands of Jutland. Denmark is also home to smaller mammals, such as polecats, hares and hedgehogs. Approximately 400 bird species inhabit Denmark and about 160 of those breed in the country. Large marine mammals include healthy populations of harbour porpoises, growing numbers of pinnipeds and occasional visits of whales, including blue whales and orcas. Cod, herring and plaice are abundant culinary fish in Danish waters and form the basis for a large fishing industry.
=== Environment ===
Denmark historically taken a progressive stance on environmental preservation: In 1971, it established a Ministry of Environment and was the first country in the world to implement an environmental law in 1973. Land and water pollution are two of Denmark's most significant environmental issues, although much of its household and industrial waste is now increasingly filtered and sometimes recycled. Denmark is a signatory to the Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, its national ecological footprint is 8.26 global hectares per person, which is very high compared to a world average of 1.7 in 2010. Contributing factors are an exceptionally high value for cropland and grazing land, possibly due to substantially high meat production (115.8 kilograms (255 lb) meat annually per capita) and economic size of the meat and dairy industries.
Notwithstanding its relatively high emissions, Denmark topped the list of the 2015 Climate Change Performance Index due to its implementation effective climate protection policies. The country has consistently placed first since 2020. Denmark ranked 10th in the Environmental Performance Index, which measures progress at mitigating climate change, safeguarding ecosystem vitality, and promoting environmental health. In 2021, Denmark joined Costa Rica to launch the "Beyond Oil and Gas alliance" for stopping use fossil fuels. The Danish government stopped issuing new licences for oil and gas extraction in December 2020.
Denmark's territories, Greenland and the Faroe Islands, catch approximately 650 whales per year. Greenland's quotas for the catch of whales are determined according to the advice of the International Whaling Commission (IWC), having quota decision-making powers.
== Government services and politics ==
Politics in Denmark operate under a framework laid out in the Constitution of Denmark. First written in 1849, it establishes a sovereign state in the form of a constitutional monarchy, with a representative unicameral parliamentary system. The monarch officially retains executive power and presides over the Council of State (privy council). In practice, the duties of the monarch are strictly representative and ceremonial, such as the formal appointment and dismissal of the Prime Minister and other Government ministers. The Monarch is not answerable for their actions, and their person is sacrosanct. Hereditary monarch King Frederik X has been head of state since 14 January 2024.
The Danish political system, which emphasises broad consensus, is used by American political scientist Francis Fukuyama as a reference point for near-perfect governance; his phrase "getting to Denmark" refers to the country's status as a global model for stable social and political institutions.
=== Government ===
The Danish parliament is unicameral and called the Folketing (Danish: Folketinget). It is the legislature of the Kingdom of Denmark, passing acts that apply in Denmark and, variably, Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Folketing is also responsible for adopting the state's budgets, approving the state's accounts, appointing and exercising control of the Government, and taking part in international co-operation. Bills may be initiated by the Government or by members of parliament. All bills passed must be presented before the Council of State to receive Royal Assent within thirty days in order to become law.
Denmark is a representative democracy with universal suffrage. Membership of the Folketing is based on proportional representation of political parties, with a 2% electoral threshold. Denmark elects 175 members to the Folketing, with Greenland and the Faroe Islands electing an additional two members each—179 members in total. Parliamentary elections are held at least every four years, but it is within the powers of the prime minister to ask the monarch to call for an election before the term has elapsed. On a vote of no confidence, the Folketing may force a single minister or an entire government to resign.
The Government of Denmark operates as a cabinet government, where executive authority is exercised—formally, on behalf of the monarch—by the prime minister and other cabinet ministers, who head ministries. As the executive branch, the Cabinet is responsible for proposing bills and a budget, executing the laws, and guiding the foreign and internal policies of Denmark. The monarch usually, but not necessarily, requests the person most likely to command the confidence majority in the Folketing to become prime minister; this is often the current leader of the largest political party or, more effectively, through a coalition of parties. A single party generally does not have sufficient political power in terms of the number of seats to form a cabinet on its own; Denmark has often been ruled by coalition governments, themselves usually minority governments dependent on non-government parties.
Following the 2022 Danish general election in November 2022, incumbent prime minister and Social Democratic leader Mette Frederiksen in December 2022 formed the current Frederiksen II Cabinet, a coalition government with the until then leading opposition party Venstre and the recently founded Moderate party.
=== Law and judicial system ===
Denmark has a civil law system with some references to Germanic law. Denmark resembles Norway and Sweden in never having developed a case-law like that of England and the United States nor comprehensive codes like those of France and Germany. Much of its law is customary.
The judicial system of Denmark is divided between courts with regular civil and criminal jurisdiction and administrative courts with jurisdiction over litigation between individuals and the public administration. Articles sixty-two and sixty-four of the Constitution (grundloven) ensure judicial independence from government and Parliament by providing that judges shall only be guided by the law, including acts, statutes and practice. The Kingdom of Denmark does not have a single unified judicial system – Denmark has one system, Greenland another, and the Faroe Islands a third. However, decisions by the highest courts in Greenland and the Faroe Islands may be appealed to the Danish High Courts. The Danish Supreme Court is the highest civil and criminal court responsible for the administration of justice in the Kingdom.
=== Danish Realm ===
The Kingdom of Denmark is a unitary state that comprises, in addition to metropolitan Denmark, two autonomous territories in the North Atlantic Ocean: the Faroe Islands and Greenland. They have been integrated parts of the Danish Realm since the 18th century; however, due to their separate historical and cultural identities, these parts of the Realm have extensive political powers and have assumed legislative and administrative responsibility in a substantial number of fields. Home rule was granted to the Faroe Islands in 1948 and to Greenland in 1979, each having previously had the status of counties.
The Faroe Islands and Greenland have their own home governments and parliaments and are effectively self-governing in regards to domestic affairs apart from the judicial system and monetary policy. High Commissioners (Rigsombudsmand) act as representatives of the Danish government in the Faroese Løgting and in the Greenlandic Parliament, but they cannot vote. The Faroese home government is defined to be an equal partner with the Danish national government, while the Greenlandic people are defined as a separate people with the right to self-determination.
=== Administrative divisions ===
Denmark, with a total area of 43,094 square kilometres (16,639 sq mi), is divided into five administrative regions (Danish: regioner). The regions are further subdivided into 98 municipalities (kommuner). The easternmost land in Denmark, the Ertholmene archipelago, with an area of 39 hectares (0.16 sq mi), is neither part of a municipality nor a region but belongs to the Ministry of Defence. The provinces of Denmark are statistical divisions of Denmark, positioned between the administrative regions and municipalities. They are not administrative divisions, nor subject for any kind of political elections, but are mainly for statistical use.
The regions were created on 1 January 2007 to replace the 16 former counties. At the same time, smaller municipalities were merged into larger units, reducing the number from 271 to 98. Most municipalities have a population of at least 20,000 to give them financial and professional sustainability, although a few exceptions were made to this rule. The administrative divisions are led by directly elected councils, elected proportionally every four years; the most recent Danish local elections were held on 18 November 2025. Other regional structures use the municipal boundaries as a layout, including the police districts, the court districts and the electoral wards.
==== Regions ====
The governing bodies of the regions are the regional councils, each with forty-one councillors elected for four-year terms. The councils are headed by regional district chairmen (regionsrådsformand), who are elected by the council.
The areas of responsibility for the regional councils are the national health service, social services and regional development. Unlike the counties they replaced, the regions are not allowed to levy taxes and the health service is partly financed by a national health care contribution until 2018 (sundhedsbidrag), partly by funds from both government and municipalities. From 1 January 2019 this contribution will be abolished, as it is being replaced by higher income tax instead.
The area and populations of the regions vary widely; for example, the Capital Region has a population three times larger than that of North Denmark Region. Under the county system certain densely populated municipalities, such as Copenhagen Municipality and Frederiksberg, had been given a status equivalent to that of counties, making them first-level administrative divisions. These sui generis municipalities were incorporated into the new regions under the 2007 reforms.
On 1 January 2027, the Capital Region and Region Zealand will be merged to form the Region of Eastern Denmark.
=== Foreign relations ===
Denmark wields considerable influence in Northern Europe and is a middle power in international affairs. In recent years, Greenland and the Faroe Islands have been guaranteed a say in foreign policy issues such as fishing, whaling, and geopolitical concerns. The foreign policy of Denmark is substantially influenced by its membership of the European Union (EU); Denmark including Greenland joined the European Economic Community (EEC), the EU's predecessor, in 1973. Denmark held the Presidency of the Council of the European Union on seven occasions, most recently from January to June 2012. Following World War II, Denmark ended its two-hundred-year-long policy of neutrality. It has been a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) since 1949, and membership remains highly popular.
As a member of Development Assistance Committee (DAC), Denmark has for a long time been among the countries of the world contributing the largest percentage of gross national income to development aid. In 2015, Denmark contributed 0.85% of its gross national income (GNI) to foreign aid and was one of only six countries meeting the longstanding UN target of 0.7% of GNI. The country participates in both bilateral and multilateral aid, with the aid usually administered by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The organisational name of Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA) is often used, in particular when operating bilateral aid. According to the 2024 Global Peace Index, Denmark is the 8th most peaceful country in the world.
=== Military ===
Denmark's armed forces are known as the Danish Defence (Danish: Forsvaret). The Minister of Defence is commander-in-chief of the Danish Defence, and serves as chief diplomatic official abroad. During peacetime, the Ministry of Defence employs around 33,000 people in total. The main military branches employ almost 27,000: 15,460 in the Royal Danish Army, 5,300 in the Royal Danish Navy and 6,050 in the Royal Danish Air Force (all including conscripts). The Danish Emergency Management Agency employs 2,000 (including conscripts), and about 4,000 are in non-branch-specific services like the Danish Defence Command and the Danish Defence Intelligence Service. Furthermore, around 44,500 serve as volunteers in the Danish Home Guard.
Denmark is a long-time supporter of international peacekeeping, but since the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999 and the War in Afghanistan in 2001, Denmark has also found a new role as a warring nation, participating actively in several wars and invasions. This relatively new situation has stirred some internal critique, but the Danish population has generally been very supportive, in particular of the War in Afghanistan. The Danish Defence has around 1,400 staff in international missions, not including standing contributions to NATO SNMCMG1. Danish forces were heavily engaged in the former Yugoslavia in the UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR), with IFOR, and now SFOR. Between 2003 and 2007, there were approximately 450 Danish soldiers in Iraq. Denmark also strongly supported American operations in Afghanistan and has contributed both monetarily and materially to the ISAF. These initiatives are often described by the authorities as part of a new "active foreign policy" of Denmark.
=== Postal service ===
Denmark's postal service was known as Post Danmark. It merged with Sweden's postal service organisation to form PostNord Danmark. After 31 December 2025, PostNord Danmark ceased all delivery of paper letter envelopes to encourage the use of electronic mailing in Denmark, reduce the costs of recycling products derived from trees in Denmark, focus mostly on delivering parcels, and make its delivery service more efficient throughout the country of Denmark. Since June 2025, approximately 1,500 mailboxes have been eliminated in Denmark. It is the first country in the world to end the delivery of paper letter envelopes within the national postal system. Greenland's postal delivery system is separate from Denmark's. A third of employees working for PostNord Danmark or 1,500 workers will be unemployed in 2026.
== Economy ==
Denmark has a developed mixed economy that is classed as a high-income economy by the World Bank. In 2022, it ranked 8th in the world in terms of gross national income (PPP) per capita and 10th in nominal GNI per capita. Denmark's economy stands out as one of the most free in the Index of Economic Freedom and the Economic Freedom of the World. It is the 10th most competitive economy in the world, and 7th in Europe and North America, according to the World Economic Forum in its Global Competitiveness Report 2019.
Denmark has the fourth highest ratio of tertiary degree holders in the world. The country ranks highest in the world for workers' rights. GDP per hour worked was the 16th highest in 2022. The country has a market income inequality close to the OECD average, but after taxes and public cash transfers the income inequality is considerably lower. According to Eurostat, Denmark's Gini coefficient for disposable income was the 7th-lowest among EU countries in 2017.
According to the International Monetary Fund, Denmark has the world's highest minimum wage. As Denmark has no minimum wage legislation, the high wage floor has been attributed to the power of trade unions. For example, as the result of a collective bargaining agreement between the 3F trade union and the employers group Horesta, workers at McDonald's and other fast food chains make the equivalent of US$20 an hour, which is more than double what their counterparts earn in the United States, and have access to paid vacation, parental leave and a pension plan. Union density in 2015 was 68%.
Once a predominantly agricultural country on account of its arable landscape, since 1945 Denmark has greatly expanded its industrial base and service sector. By 2017 services contributed circa 75% of GDP, manufacturing about 15% and agriculture less than 2%. Major industries include wind turbines, pharmaceuticals, medical equipment, machinery and transportation equipment, food processing, and construction. Circa 60% of the total export value is due to export of goods, and the remaining 40% is from service exports, mainly sea transport. The country's main export goods are: wind turbines, pharmaceuticals, machinery and instruments, meat and meat products, dairy products, fish, furniture and design. Denmark is a net exporter of food and energy and has for a number of years had a balance of payments surplus which has transformed the country from a net debitor to a net creditor country. By 1 July 2018, the net international investment position (or net foreign assets) of Denmark was equal to 64.6% of GDP.
Denmark is part of the European Union's internal market, which represents more than 508 million consumers. Several domestic commercial policies are determined by agreements among European Union (EU) members and by EU legislation. Support for free trade is high among the Danish public; in a 2016 poll 57% of respondents saw globalisation as an opportunity whereas 18% viewed it as a threat. 70% of trade flows are inside the European Union. As of 2017, Denmark's largest export partners are Germany, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States.
Denmark's currency, the krone (DKK), is pegged at approximately 7.46 kroner per euro through the ERM II. Although a September 2000 referendum rejected adopting the euro, the country follows the policies set forth in the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union (EMU) and meets the economic convergence criteria needed to adopt the euro. The majority of the political parties in the Folketing support joining the EMU, but since 2010 opinion polls have consistently shown a clear majority against adopting the euro. In March 2018, 29% of respondents from Denmark in a Eurobarometer opinion poll stated that they were in favour of the EMU and the euro, whereas 65% were against it. The exact same poll conducted in November 2023, was almost unchanged with 31% in favour and 63% against.
Ranked by turnover in Denmark, the largest Danish companies are: A.P. Møller-Mærsk (international shipping), Novo Nordisk (pharmaceuticals), ISS A/S (facility services), Vestas (wind turbines), Arla Foods (dairy), DSV (transport), Carlsberg Group (beer), Salling Group (retail), Ørsted A/S (power), Danske Bank.
The Danish government focused into methods to increase taxes on energy dealers in 2023.
=== Public policy ===
Danes enjoy a high standard of living and the Danish economy is characterised by extensive government welfare provisions. Denmark has a corporate tax rate of 22% and a special time-limited tax regime for expatriates. The Danish taxation system is broad based, with a 25% value-added tax, in addition to excise taxes, income taxes and other fees. The overall level of taxation (sum of all taxes, as a percentage of GDP) was 46% in 2017. The tax structure of Denmark (the relative weight of different taxes) differs from the OECD average, as the Danish tax system in 2015 was characterised by substantially higher revenues from taxes on personal income and a lower proportion of revenues from taxes on corporate income and gains and property taxes than in OECD generally, whereas no revenues at all derive from social security contributions. The proportion deriving from payroll taxes, VAT, and other taxes on goods and services correspond to the OECD average
As of 2022, 6.5% of the population was reported to live below the poverty line, when adjusted for taxes and transfers. Denmark had the 2nd lowest relative poverty rate in the OECD after Czech Republic, below the 11.4% OECD average. The 6% of the population reporting that they could not afford to buy sufficient food was less than half of the OECD average.
=== Labour market ===
Like other Nordic countries, Denmark has adopted the Nordic Model, which combines free market capitalism with a comprehensive welfare state and strong worker protection. As a result of its acclaimed "flexicurity" model, Denmark has the freest labour market in Europe, according to the World Bank. Employers can hire and fire whenever they want (flexibility), and between jobs, unemployment compensation is relatively high (security). According to OECD, initial as well as long-term net replacement rates for unemployed persons were 65% of previous net income in 2016, against an OECD average of 53%. No restrictions apply regarding overtime work, which allows companies to operate 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. With an employment rate in 2017 of 74.2% for people aged 15–64-years, Denmark ranks 9th highest among the OECD countries, and above the OECD average of 67.8%. The unemployment rate was 5.7% in 2017, which is considered close to or below its structural level.
Danish workers work on average 1,394 hours per year, which is 22% lower than the OECD average of 1,746 hours. The job satisfaction is high in Denmark. Among Danes, 94% are satisfied with their work conditions. Danish work-life balance is generally considered to be among the best in the world and also a key contributor to Denmark's consistently high rank in the World Happiness Index.
The level of unemployment benefits is dependent on former employment and normally on membership of an unemployment fund, which is usually closely connected to a trade union, and previous payment of contributions. Circa 65% of the financing comes from earmarked member contributions, whereas the remaining third originates from the central government and hence from general taxation.
=== Business ===
Establishing a business in Denmark can be undertaken in a matter of hours and at very low costs. The Danish government operates a "Danish Business Authority", and launched a series of initiatives in 2012 aiming to simplify business rules, making it easier to run a business without jeopardising the intended goals of relevant legislation.
=== Science and technology ===
Denmark has a long tradition of scientific and technological invention and engagement, and has been involved internationally from the start of the Scientific Revolution. In current times, Denmark is participating in many high-profile international science and technology projects, including CERN, ITER, ESA, ISS and E-ELT. Denmark was ranked 9th in the Global Innovation Index in 2025.
In the 20th century, Danes have also been innovative in several fields of the technology sector. Danish companies have been influential in the shipping industry with the design of the largest and most energy efficient container ships in the world, the Maersk Triple E class, and Danish engineers have contributed to the design of MAN Diesel engines. In the software and electronic field, Denmark contributed to design and manufacturing of Nordic Mobile Telephones, and the now-defunct Danish company DanCall was among the first to develop GSM mobile phones.
Life science is a key sector with extensive research and development activities. Danish engineers are world-leading in providing diabetes care equipment and medication products from Novo Nordisk and, since 2000, the Danish biotech company Novozymes, the world market leader in enzymes for first generation starch-based bioethanol, has pioneered development of enzymes for converting waste to cellulosic ethanol. Medicon Valley, spanning the Øresund Region between Zealand and Sweden, is one of Europe's largest life science clusters.
Danish-born computer scientists and software engineers have taken leading roles in some of the world's programming languages: Anders Hejlsberg (Turbo Pascal, Delphi, C#); Rasmus Lerdorf (PHP); Bjarne Stroustrup (C++); David Heinemeier Hansson (Ruby on Rails); Lars Bak, a pioneer in virtual machines (V8, Java VM, Dart). Physicist Lene Vestergaard Hau is the first person to stop light, leading to advances in quantum computing, nanoscale engineering, and linear optics.
=== Energy ===
Denmark has considerably large deposits of oil and natural gas in the North Sea and ranks as number 32 in the world among net exporters of crude oil and was producing 259,980 barrels of crude oil a day in 2009. Denmark is a long-time leader in wind power: In 2015 wind turbines provided 42.1% of the total electricity consumption. In May 2011 Denmark derived 3.1% of its gross domestic product from renewable (clean) energy technology and energy efficiency, or around €6.5 billion ($9.4 billion). Denmark is connected by electric transmission lines to other European countries.
Denmark's electricity sector has integrated energy sources such as wind power into the national grid. Denmark now aims to focus on intelligent battery systems (V2G) and plug-in vehicles in the transport sector. The country is a member nation of the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA).
Denmark exported roughly 460 million GJ of energy in 2018.
=== Transport ===
Significant investment has been made in building road and rail links between regions in Denmark, most notably the Great Belt Fixed Link, which connects Zealand and Funen. It is now possible to drive from Frederikshavn in northern Jutland to Copenhagen on eastern Zealand without leaving the motorway. The main railway operator is DSB for passenger services and DB Cargo for freight trains. The railway tracks are maintained by Banedanmark. The North Sea and the Baltic Sea are intertwined by various, international ferry links. Construction of the Fehmarn Belt Fixed Link, connecting Denmark and Germany with a second link, Started in 2021. Copenhagen has a rapid transit system, the Copenhagen Metro, and an extensive electrified suburban railway network, the S-train. In the four largest cities – Copenhagen, Aarhus, Odense, Aalborg – light rail systems are planned to be in operation around 2020.
Cycling in Denmark is a very common form of transport, particularly for the young and for city dwellers. With a network of bicycle routes extending more than 12,000 km and an estimated 7,000 km of segregated dedicated bicycle paths and lanes, Denmark has a solid bicycle infrastructure.
Private vehicles are increasingly used as a means of transport. Because of the high registration tax (150%), VAT (25%), and one of the world's highest income tax rates, new cars are very expensive. The purpose of the tax is to discourage car ownership.
In 2007, an attempt was made by the government to favour environmentally friendly cars by slightly reducing taxes on high mileage vehicles. However, this has had little effect, and in 2008 Denmark experienced an increase in the import of fuel inefficient old cars, as the cost for older cars—including taxes—keeps them within the budget of many Danes.
As of 2011, the average car age is 9.2 years.
With Norway and Sweden, Denmark is part of the Scandinavian Airlines flag carrier. Copenhagen Airport is Scandinavia's busiest passenger airport, handling almost 30 million passengers in 2024. Other notable airports are Billund Airport, Aalborg Airport, and Aarhus Airport.
== Demographics ==
=== Population ===
In May 2025, the population of Denmark, as registered by Statistics Denmark, was 6 million. Denmark has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 42.2 years, with 0.99 males per female. Despite a low birth rate of 11.3 births per 1000 population, the population is growing at an average annual rate of 0.44% because of net immigration and increasing longevity. The World Happiness Report frequently ranks Denmark's population as the happiest in the world. This has been attributed to the country's highly regarded education and health care systems, and its low level of income inequality. People in Denmark feel responsible for social welfare. The rate of taxation is among the world's highest and can be half a Dane's income but they get most healthcare free, university tuition is also free and students get grants, there is subsidised child care and old people get pensions and care helpers.
Denmark is a historically homogeneous nation. However, as with its Scandinavian neighbours, Denmark has recently transformed from a nation of net emigration, up until World War II, to a nation of net immigration. Today, residence permits are issued mostly to immigrants from other EU countries (54% of all non-Scandinavian immigrants in 2017). Another 31% of residence permits were study- or work-related, 4% were issued to asylum seekers and 10% to persons who arrive as family dependants. Overall, the net migration rate in 2017 was 2.1 migrant(s)/1,000 population, somewhat lower than the United Kingdom and the other Nordic countries.
There are no official statistics on ethnic groups, but according to 2020 figures from Statistics Denmark, 86.1% of the population in Denmark was of Danish descent (including Faroese and Greenlandic), defined as having at least one parent who was born in the Kingdom of Denmark and holds Danish nationality. The remaining 13.89% were of foreign background, defined as immigrants or descendants of recent immigrants. With the same definition, the most common countries of origin were Turkey, Poland, Syria, Germany, Iraq, Romania, Lebanon, Pakistan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Somalia. Minorities in Denmark include Turks, Poles, Syrians, Germans, Iraqis, Romanians and people from former Yugoslavia. There are also other Asian and African populations in the country. Small numbers of Romani people and Hungarians live in Denmark. There is also a small Jewish population.
The Inuit are Indigenous to Greenland in the Kingdom and have traditionally inhabited Greenland and the northern parts of Canada and Alaska in the Arctic. From the 18th century up to the 1970s, the Danish government (Dano-Norwegian until 1814) tried to assimilate the Greenlandic Inuit, encouraging them to adopt the majority language and culture. Because of this "Danization process", some persons of Inuit ancestry now identify their mother tongue as Danish.
=== Languages ===
Danish is the de facto national language of Denmark. Faroese and Greenlandic are the official languages of the Faroe Islands and Greenland respectively. German is a recognised minority language in the area of the former South Jutland County (now part of the Region of Southern Denmark), which was part of the German Empire prior to the Treaty of Versailles. Danish and Faroese belong to the North Germanic (Nordic) branch of the Indo-European languages, along with Icelandic, Norwegian, and Swedish. There is some degree of mutual intelligibility between Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish. Danish is more distantly related to German, which is a West Germanic language. Greenlandic or "Kalaallisut" is an Inuit language, and is entirely unrelated to Danish, although it has adopted many Danish loanwords including the words for numbers.
A large majority of Danes (87%) speak English at a conversational level. German is the second most widely spoken foreign language, with 49% reporting conversational proficiency. Denmark had 25,900 native speakers of German in 2007 (mostly in the South Jutland area).
=== Religion ===
Christianity is the dominant religion in Denmark. As of 2024, 71.2% of the population of Denmark were members of the Church of Denmark (Den Danske Folkekirke), the officially established church, which is Protestant in classification and Lutheran in orientation. The membership percentage has been in steady decline since the 1970s, mainly as fewer newborns are being baptised into it. Only 3% of the population regularly attend Sunday services and only 19% of Danes consider religion to be an important part of their life.
The Constitution states that the sovereign must have the Lutheran faith, though the rest of the population is free to adhere to other faiths. In 1682 the state granted limited recognition to three religious groups dissenting from the Established Church: Roman Catholicism, the Reformed Church and Judaism, although conversion to these groups from the Church of Denmark remained illegal initially. Until the 1970s, the state formally recognised "religious societies" by royal decree. Today, religious groups do not need official government recognition; they can be granted the right to perform weddings and other ceremonies without this recognition. Denmark's Muslims make up approximately 4.4% of the population and form the country's second largest religious community and largest minority religion. The Danish Foreign Ministry estimates that other religious groups comprise less than 1% of the population individually and approximately 2% when taken all together. Just under 20% of the Danish population identifies as atheist.
According to a 2010 Eurobarometer poll, 28% of Danish nationals polled responded that they "believe there is a God", 47% responded that they "believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 24% responded that they "do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God or life force". Another poll, carried out in 2009, found that 25% of Danes believe Jesus is the son of God, and 18% believe he is the saviour of the world.
In its 2024 Freedom in the World report, Freedom House rated the country 4 out of 4 for religious freedom.
=== Education ===
All educational programmes in Denmark are regulated by the Ministry of Education and administered by local municipalities. Folkeskole covers the entire period of compulsory education, encompassing primary and lower secondary education. Most children attend folkeskole for 10 years, from the ages of 6 to 16. There are no final examinations, but pupils can choose to sit an exam when finishing ninth grade (14–15 years old). The test is obligatory if further education is to be attended. Alternatively pupils can attend an independent school (friskole), or a private school (privatskole), such as Christian schools or Waldorf schools.
Following graduation from compulsory education, there are several continuing educational opportunities; the Gymnasium (STX) attaches importance in teaching a mix of humanities and science, Higher Technical Examination Programme (HTX) focuses on scientific subjects and the Higher Commercial Examination Programme emphasises on subjects in economics. Higher Preparatory Examination (HF) is similar to Gymnasium (STX), but is one year shorter. For specific professions, there is vocational education, training young people for work in specific trades by a combination of teaching and apprenticeship.
The government records upper secondary school completion rates of 83% and tertiary enrolment and completion rates of 45% in 2018. All university and college (tertiary) education in Denmark is free of charges; there are no tuition fees to enrol in courses. Students aged 18 or above may apply for state educational support grants, known as Statens Uddannelsesstøtte (SU), which provides fixed financial support, disbursed monthly. Danish universities offer international students a range of opportunities for obtaining an internationally recognised qualification in Denmark. Many programmes may be taught in the English language, the academic lingua franca, in bachelor's degrees, master's degrees, doctorates and student exchange programmes.
=== Health ===
As of 2022, Denmark has a life expectancy of 81.3 years at birth (79.5 for men, 83.2 for women), up from 80.6 years in 2015. This ranks it 26th among 193 nations, behind the other Nordic countries. The National Institute of Public Health of the University of Southern Denmark has calculated 19 major risk factors among Danes that contribute to a lowering of the life expectancy; this includes smoking, alcohol, drug abuse and physical inactivity. Although the obesity rate is lower than in North America and most other European countries, the large number of overweight Danes results in an annual additional consumption in the health care system of DKK 1,625 million. In a 2012 study, Denmark had the highest cancer rate of all countries listed by the World Cancer Research Fund International; researchers suggest the reasons are better reporting, but also lifestyle factors like heavy alcohol consumption, smoking and physical inactivity.
Denmark has a universal health care system, characterised by being publicly financed through taxes and, for most of the services, run directly by the regional authorities. One of the sources of income was a national health care contribution (sundhedsbidrag) (2007–11:8%; '12:7%; '13:6%; '14:5%; '15:4%; '16:3%; '17:2%; '18:1%; '19:0%) but it was phased out from January 2019 in favour of income taxes. This means that most health care provision is free at the point of delivery for all residents. Additionally, roughly two in five have complementary private insurance to cover services not fully covered by the state, such as physiotherapy. As of 2012, Denmark spends 11.2% of its GDP on health care; this is up from 9.8% in 2007 (US$3,512 per capita). This places Denmark above the OECD average and above the other Nordic countries.
=== Vulnerable residential areas ===
Certain social housing districts in Denmark fulfilling specific statistical criteria of relatively low employment, school attendance, relatively low income, a relatively low educational level or relatively many convicted inhabitants are officially listed by the government as vulnerable residential areas. In some cases, the majority of the neighbourhoods consist of non-Western immigrants and their descendants. Over the years, several government initiatives have been taken to further integration and counter urban decay in these neighbourhoods. Major plans to this end were presented in 1994 and 2000 by the governments of Poul Nyrup Rasmussen, in 2004 by the Anders Fogh Rasmussen I Cabinet, in 2010 by the Lars Løkke Rasmussen I Cabinet, in 2013 by the Helle Thorning-Schmidt I Cabinet, in 2018 by the Lars Løkke Rasmussen III Cabinet, and in 2021 by the Mette Frederiksen I Cabinet. Some of the policies have been criticised for undercutting 'equality before law' and for portraying immigrants, especially Muslim immigrants, in a bad light.
During the years 2010–2021, the term "ghetto" was used officially to designate some or all of the vulnerable areas. The term was considered controversial, however, and removed in 2021. Denmark is the only country to have officially used the word 'ghetto' in the 21st century to denote certain residential areas. From 2021, four different lists are published, depending on the residents' income levels, employment status, education levels, criminal convictions and origin (a statistical criterion based on parents' geographical birthplace and citizenship). In 2023, there were 19 vulnerable residential areas in Denmark.
== Culture ==
Denmark shares strong cultural and historic ties with its Scandinavian neighbours Sweden and Norway. It has historically been one of the most socially progressive cultures in the world. In 1969, Denmark was the first country to legalise pornography, and in 2012, Denmark replaced its "registered partnership" laws, which it had been the first country to introduce in 1989, with gender-neutral marriage, and allowed same-sex marriages to be performed in the Church of Denmark. Modesty and social equality are important parts of Danish culture. In a 2016 study comparing empathy scores of 63 countries, Denmark ranked 4th world-wide having the highest empathy among surveyed European countries.
The astronomical discoveries of Tycho Brahe, Ludwig A. Colding's neglected articulation of the principle of conservation of energy, and the contributions to atomic physics of Niels Bohr indicate the range of Danish scientific achievement. The fairy tales of Hans Christian Andersen, the philosophical essays of Søren Kierkegaard, the short stories of Karen Blixen (penname Isak Dinesen), the plays of Ludvig Holberg, and the dense, aphoristic poetry of Piet Hein, have earned international recognition, as have the symphonies of Carl Nielsen. From the mid-1990s, Danish films have attracted international attention, especially those associated with Dogme 95 like those of Lars von Trier and Thomas Vinterberg.
A major feature of Danish culture is Jul (Danish Christmas). The holiday is celebrated throughout December, starting either at the beginning of Advent or on 1 December with a variety of traditions, culminating with the Christmas Eve meal.
There are seven heritage sites inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage list in Northern Europe: Christiansfeld, a Moravian Church Settlement, the Jelling Mounds (Runic Stones and Church), Kronborg Castle, Roskilde Cathedral, and the Par force hunting landscape in North Zealand and 3 in the World Heritage list in North America: Ilulissat Icefjord, Aasivissuit—Nipisat, Kujataa within the Kingdom of Denmark.
=== Human rights ===
Denmark is usually considered a progressive country, which has adopted legislation and policies to support women's rights, minority rights, and LGBT rights. Human rights in Denmark are protected by the state's Constitution of the Realm (Danmarks Riges Grundlov); applying equally in Denmark proper, Greenland and the Faroe Islands, and through the ratification of international human rights treaties. Denmark has held a significant role in the adoption of both the European Convention on Human Rights and in the establishment of the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR). In 1987, the Kingdom Parliament (Folketinget) established a national human rights institution, the Danish Centre of Human Rights, now the Danish Institute for Human Rights.
In 2009, a referendum on changing the Danish Act of Succession were held to grant absolute primogeniture to the Danish throne, meaning that the eldest child, regardless of gender, takes precedence in the line of succession. As it was not retroactive, the current successor to the throne is the eldest son of the King, rather than his eldest child. The Danish constitution Article 2 states that "The monarchy is inherited by men and women".
The Inuit have for decades been the subject of discrimination and abuse by the dominant colonisers from Europe, those countries claiming possession of Inuit lands. The Inuit have never been a single community in a single region of Inuit. From the 18th century up to the 1970s, the Danish government (Dano-Norwegian until 1814) tried to assimilate the Indigenous people of Greenland, the Greenlandic Inuit, encouraging them to adopt the majority language, culture and religion. Denmark has been greatly criticised by the Greenlandic community for the politics of Danisation (1950s and 1960s) of and discrimination against the Indigenous population of the country. Critical treatment paying non-Inuit workers higher wages than the local people, the relocation of entire families from their traditional lands into settlements, and separating children from their parents and sending them away to Denmark for schooling has been practised. Nevertheless, Denmark ratified, in 1996, to recognise the ILO-convention 169 on Indigenous people recommended by the UN.
Denmark was the first country in the world to grant legal recognition to same-sex unions in the form of registered partnerships in 1989. On 7 June 2012, the law was replaced by a new same-sex marriage law, which came into effect on 15 June 2012. Greenland and the Faroe Islands legalised same-sex marriage in April 2016, and in July 2017 respectively. In January 2016, a resolution was implemented by the Danish parliament which prevented transgender identity being classified as a mental health condition. In doing so, Denmark became the first country in Europe to go against the World Health Organization (WHO) standards, which classified transgender identity as being a mental health issue until June 2018.
In its 2024 Freedom in the World report, Freedom House rated the country "free" with a score of 97 (out of 100).
=== Media ===
Danish cinema dates back to 1897 and since the 1980s has maintained a steady stream of productions due largely to funding by the state-supported Danish Film Institute. There have been three big internationally important waves of Danish cinema: erotic melodrama of the silent era; the increasingly explicit sex films of the 1960s and 1970s; and lastly, the Dogme 95 movement of the late 1990s, where directors often used hand-held cameras to dynamic effect in a conscious reaction against big-budget studios. Danish films have been noted for their realism, religious and moral themes, sexual frankness and technical innovation. The Danish filmmaker Carl Th. Dreyer is considered one of the greatest directors of early cinema.
Other Danish filmmakers of note include Erik Balling, the creator of the popular Olsen-banden films; Gabriel Axel, an Oscar-winner for Babette's Feast in 1987; and Bille August, the Oscar-, Palme d'Or- and Golden Globe-winner for Pelle the Conqueror in 1988. In the modern era, notable filmmakers in Denmark include Lars von Trier, who co-created the Dogme 95 movement with Thomas Vinterberg, and multiple award-winners Susanne Bier and Nicolas Winding Refn. Mads Mikkelsen is a world-renowned Danish actor, as is Nikolaj Coster-Waldau.
Danish mass media date back to the 1540s, when handwritten fly sheets reported on the news. In 1666, Anders Bording, the father of Danish journalism, began a state paper. In 1834, the first liberal, factual newspaper appeared, and the 1849 Constitution established lasting freedom of the press in Denmark.
Modern Danish mass media and news programming are dominated by a few large corporations. In printed media JP/Politikens Hus and Berlingske Media, between them, control the largest newspapers Politiken, Berlingske Tidende and Jyllands-Posten and major tabloids B.T. and Ekstra Bladet. In television, publicly owned stations DR and TV 2 have large shares of the viewers. DR in particular is famous for its high quality TV-series often sold to foreign broadcasters and often with leading female characters like internationally known actresses Sidse Babett Knudsen and Sofie Gråbøl. In radio, DR has a near monopoly, currently broadcasting on all four nationally available FM channels, competing only with local stations.
=== Music ===
Denmark and its multiple outlying islands have a wide range of folk traditions. The country's most famous classical composer is Carl Nielsen (1865–1931), especially remembered for his six symphonies and his Wind Quintet, while the Royal Danish Ballet specialises in the work of the Danish choreographer August Bournonville. The Royal Danish Orchestra is among the world's oldest orchestras. Danes have distinguished themselves as jazz musicians, and the Copenhagen Jazz Festival has acquired international recognition.
The modern pop and rock scene has produced a few names of international fame, including Aqua, Alphabeat, D-A-D, King Diamond, Kashmir, Lukas Graham, Mew, Michael Learns to Rock, MØ, Oh Land, The Raveonettes and Volbeat, among others. Lars Ulrich, the drummer of the band Metallica, has become the first Danish musician to be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.
Roskilde Festival near Copenhagen is the largest music festival in Northern Europe since 1971 and Denmark has many recurring music festivals of all genres throughout, including Aarhus International Jazz Festival, Skanderborg Festival, The Blue Festival in Aalborg, Esbjerg International Chamber Music Festival and Skagen Festival among many others.
Denmark has participated in the Eurovision Song Contest since 1957 and has won the contest three times, in 1963, 2000 and 2013.
=== Architecture and design ===
Denmark's architecture became firmly established in the Middle Ages when first Romanesque, then Gothic churches and cathedrals sprang up throughout the country. From the 16th century, Dutch and Flemish designers were brought to Denmark, initially to improve the country's fortifications, but increasingly to build magnificent royal castles and palaces in the Renaissance style.
During the 17th century, many impressive buildings were built in the Baroque style, both in the capital and the provinces. Neoclassicism from France was slowly adopted by native Danish architects who increasingly participated in defining architectural style. A productive period of Historicism ultimately merged into the 19th-century National Romantic style.
The 20th century brought along new architectural styles; including expressionism, best exemplified by the designs of architect Peder Vilhelm Jensen-Klint, which relied heavily on Scandinavian brick Gothic traditions; and Nordic Classicism, which enjoyed brief popularity in the early decades of the century. It was in the 1960s that Danish architects such as Arne Jacobsen entered the world scene with their highly successful Functionalist architecture. This, in turn, has evolved into more recent world-class masterpieces including Jørn Utzon's Sydney Opera House and Johan Otto von Spreckelsen's Grande Arche in Paris, paving the way for a number of contemporary Danish designers such as Bjarke Ingels to be rewarded for excellence both at home and abroad.
Danish design is a term often used to describe a style of functionalistic design and architecture that was developed in the mid-20th century, originating in Denmark. Danish design is typically applied to industrial design, furniture and household objects, which have won many international awards. The Royal Porcelain Factory is famous for the quality of its ceramics. Danish design is also a well-known brand, often associated with world-famous, 20th-century designers and architects such as Børge Mogensen, Finn Juhl, Hans Wegner, Arne Jacobsen, Poul Henningsen and Verner Panton. Other designers of note include Kristian Solmer Vedel in the area of industrial design, Jens Quistgaard for kitchen furniture and implements and Ole Wanscher who had a classical approach to furniture design.
=== Literature and philosophy ===
The first known Danish literature is myths and folklore from the 10th and 11th century. Saxo Grammaticus, normally considered the first Danish writer, worked on a chronicle of Danish history (Gesta Danorum). Very little is known of other Danish literature from the Middle Ages. With the Age of Enlightenment came Ludvig Holberg whose comedy plays are still being performed.
In the late 19th century, literature was seen as a way to influence society. Known as the Modern Breakthrough, this movement was championed by Georg Brandes, Henrik Pontoppidan (awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature) and J. P. Jacobsen. Romanticism influenced the renowned writer and poet Hans Christian Andersen, known for his stories and fairy tales, e.g. The Ugly Duckling, The Little Mermaid and The Snow Queen. In recent history Johannes Vilhelm Jensen was also awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. Karen Blixen is famous for her novels and short stories. Other Danish writers of importance are Herman Bang, Gustav Wied, William Heinesen, Martin Andersen Nexø, Piet Hein, Hans Scherfig, Klaus Rifbjerg, Dan Turèll, Tove Ditlevsen, Inger Christensen and Peter Høeg.
Danish philosophy has a long tradition as part of Western philosophy. Perhaps the most influential Danish philosopher was Søren Kierkegaard, the creator of Christian existentialism. Kierkegaard had a few Danish followers, including Harald Høffding, who later in his life moved on to join the movement of positivism. Another Danish philosopher of note is Grundtvig, whose philosophy gave rise to a new form of non-aggressive nationalism in Denmark, and who is also influential for his theological and historical works.
=== Painting and photography ===
While Danish art was influenced over the centuries by trends in Germany and the Netherlands, the 15th and 16th century church frescos, which can be seen in many of the country's older churches, are of particular interest as they were painted in a style typical of native Danish painters.
The Danish Golden Age, which began in the first half of the 19th century, was inspired by a new feeling of nationalism and romanticism, typified in the later previous century by history painter Nicolai Abildgaard. Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg was not only a productive artist in his own right but taught at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts where his students included Wilhelm Bendz, Christen Købke, Martinus Rørbye, Constantin Hansen, and Wilhelm Marstrand.
In 1871, Holger Drachmann and Karl Madsen visited Skagen in the far north of Jutland where they quickly built up one of Scandinavia's most successful artists' colonies specialising in Naturalism and Realism rather than in the traditional approach favoured by the academy. Hosted by Michael and his wife Anna, they were soon joined by P.S. Krøyer, Carl Locher and Laurits Tuxen. All participated in painting the natural surroundings and local people. Similar trends developed on Funen with the Fynboerne who included Johannes Larsen, Fritz Syberg and Peter Hansen, and on the island of Bornholm with the Bornholm school of painters including Niels Lergaard, Kræsten Iversen and Oluf Høst.
Painting has continued to be a prominent form of artistic expression in Danish culture, inspired by and also influencing major international trends in this area. These include impressionism and the modernist styles of expressionism, abstract painting and surrealism. While international co-operation and activity has almost always been essential to the Danish artistic community, influential art collectives with a firm Danish base includes De Tretten (1909–1912), Linien (1930s and 1940s), COBRA (1948–1951), Fluxus (1960s and 1970s), De Unge Vilde (1980s) and more recently Superflex (founded in 1993). Notable Danish painters from modern times representing various art movements include Theodor Philipsen (impressionism and naturalism), Anna Klindt Sørensen (expressionism), Franciska Clausen (Neue Sachlichkeit, cubism, surrealism and others), Henry Heerup (naivism), Robert Jacobsen (abstract painting), Carl Henning Pedersen (abstract painting), Asger Jorn (Situationist, abstract painting), Bjørn Wiinblad (art deco, orientalism), Per Kirkeby (neo-expressionism, abstract painting), Per Arnoldi (pop art), and Michael Kvium (neo-surrealism).
Danish photography has developed from strong participation and interest in the very beginnings of the art of photography in 1839. Pioneers such as Mads Alstrup and Georg Emil Hansen paved the way for a rapidly growing profession during the last half of the 19th century. Today Danish photographers such as Astrid Kruse Jensen and Jacob Aue Sobol are active in key exhibitions around the world.
=== Cuisine ===
The traditional cuisine of Denmark, like that of the other Nordic countries and of Northern Germany, consists mainly of meat, fish and potatoes. Danish dishes are highly seasonal, stemming from the country's agricultural past, its geography, and its climate of long, cold winters.
The open sandwiches on rye bread, known as smørrebrød, can be considered a national speciality. Hot meals traditionally consist of ground meats, such as frikadeller (meat balls of veal and pork) and hakkebøf (minced beef patties), or of more substantial meat and fish dishes such as flæskesteg (roast pork with crackling) and kogt torsk (poached cod) with mustard sauce. Denmark is known for its Carlsberg and Tuborg beers and for its akvavit and bitters.
Since around 1970, chefs and restaurants across Denmark have introduced gourmet cooking, largely influenced by French cuisine. Also inspired by continental practices, Danish chefs have recently developed a new innovative cuisine and a series of gourmet dishes based on high-quality local produce known as New Danish cuisine. As a result of these developments, Denmark now has a considerable number of internationally acclaimed restaurants of which several have been awarded Michelin stars. This includes Geranium and Noma in Copenhagen.
=== Sports ===
Sports are popular in Denmark, and its citizens participate in and watch a wide variety. The national sport is football, with over 320,000 players in more than 1600 clubs. Denmark qualified six times consecutively for the European Championships between 1984 and 2004, and were crowned European champions in 1992; other significant achievements include winning the Confederations Cup in 1995 and reaching the quarter-final of the 1998 World Cup.
The Denmark women's national handball team celebrated great successes during the 1990s and has won a total of 13 medals—seven gold (in 1994, 1996 (2), 1997, 2000, 2002 and 2004), four silver (in 1962, 1993, 1998 and 2004) and two bronze (in 1995 and 2013). On the men's side, Denmark has won 12 medals—four gold (in 2008, 2012, 2016 and 2019), four silver (in 1967, 2011, 2013 and 2014) and four bronze (in 2002, 2004, 2006 and 2007)—the most that have been won by any team in European Handball Championship history. In 2019, the Danish men's national handball team won their first World Championship title.
In recent years, Denmark has made a mark as a strong cycling nation, with Michael Rasmussen reaching King of the Mountains status in the Tour de France in 2005 and 2006. Other popular sports include golf—which is mostly popular among those in the older demographic; tennis—in which Denmark is successful on a professional level; basketball—Denmark joined the international governing body FIBA in 1951; rugby—the Danish Rugby Union dates back to 1950; ice hockey—often competing in the top division in the Men's World Championships; rowing—Denmark specialise in lightweight rowing and are particularly known for their lightweight coxless four, having won six gold and two silver World Championship medals and three gold and two bronze Olympic medals; and several indoor sports—especially badminton, table tennis and gymnastics, in each of which Denmark holds World Championships and Olympic medals. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Want_to_Know_What_Love_Is | I Want to Know What Love Is | "I Want to Know What Love Is" is a song by the British-American rock band Foreigner. The power ballad was released in November 1984 as the lead single from their fifth album, Agent Provocateur. The song reached number one on both the United Kingdom singles chart and the United States Billboard Hot 100 and is the group's biggest hit.
"I Want to Know What Love Is" remains one of Foreigner's best-known songs and most enduring radio hits, charting in the top 25 in 2000, 2001, and 2002 on the Billboard Hot Adult Contemporary Recurrents chart. The song has continued to garner critical acclaim, and is listed as one of Rolling Stone magazine's greatest songs of all time at number 476 in 2004 and at number 479 in 2010.
== Song information ==
"I Want to Know What Love Is" was the first single released from Foreigner's album Agent Provocateur (1984). It is credited to Mick Jones, although former Foreigner frontman Lou Gramm asserts that he contributed to the song and should be credited to its creation (somewhere between 5% according to Jones and 35% according to Gramm). Despite Gramm's claims, Foreigner's then-bassist Rick Wills states that "I Want to Know What Love Is" was solely written by Jones. It was produced by Jones and Alex Sadkin. The song features backing vocals from the New Jersey Mass Choir affiliated with the Gospel Music Workshop of America, Dreamgirls star Jennifer Holliday, and featured keyboard work by Thompson Twins frontman Tom Bailey. The choir also appears in the song's music video, directed by Brian Gibson.
According to Gramm, Jones was originally reluctant to let Gramm hear his initial rough version of the song. Gramm speculated that the song was emotional to Jones because it "represented things in his own life that he hadn't been able to resolve, and he wasn't too sure he wanted to have millions of people hear about it".
Cash Box reviewed the single, calling it "a highly dramatic and ultimately very touching song which amply displays Foreigner's musical talents and versatility." Cash Box specifically praised the band's performances, especially that of lead singer Gramm, who they said "delivers a moving and personal quality which captures the essence of the lyrics. Billboard said that the "dramatic mood piece grows out of quiet introspection into a full-blown production number with choir."
"I Want to Know What Love Is" reached number one on the UK Singles Chart on January 15, 1985, displacing Band Aid's "Do They Know It's Christmas?", staying there for three weeks, and knocked Madonna's long-running "Like a Virgin" out of number one on the Billboard Hot 100 on February 2, 1985. It was Foreigner's first and only pop chart-topper in either country, although the band had four number one Mainstream Rock hits and a number one adult contemporary radio hit in the US. This was the band's third of four number one singles on the Mainstream Rock chart. The song spent five weeks at number one in Australia and also hit the top of the charts in Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, Norway and Sweden, while peaking at number two in Switzerland and South Africa.
The song has received positive retrospective reviews from critics, with Bret Adams of AllMusic writing: "It's not hard to see why it became Foreigner's first number one single. Its dreamy, hypnotic feel is due in part to Lou Gramm's soulful lead vocals and the New Jersey Mass Choir's background vocals."
The song was also issued as a 12-inch single with a longer running time of 6:23. This version contains a slightly longer intro and an extended vocal chorus/fadeout ending. The single's B-side, "Street Thunder (Marathon Theme)," is an instrumental track originally appearing on The Official Music of the XXIII Olympiad – Los Angeles 1984 and later on the band's two-CD compilation Jukebox Heroes: The Foreigner Anthology (2000).
Soon after Foreigner's single topped the charts, the New Jersey Mass Choir released its own similar-sounding version of the song on an album also titled I Want to Know What Love Is. The choir's single peaked at number 37 on the then-Hot Black Singles chart and number 12 on the Hot Dance Music/Maxi-Singles Sales chart.
"I Want to Know What Love Is" was ranked as the number four Billboard Hot 100 single of 1985. It was the band's third platinum single in the US and their first and only gold single in the UK. It was certified double-platinum in the UK in 2023.
Jones has rated it as one of his 11 favorite Foreigner songs.
Originally consisting of three verses, a pre-chorus and a chorus, the song was extended with a bridge written by original songwriter Mick Jones specifically for Tina Arena's cover in 1998.
Musician Mark Ronson has claimed that Jones wrote the song for his mother, Ann Dexter-Jones.
== Personnel ==
Foreigner
Lou Gramm – lead vocals
Mick Jones – keyboards, synthesizers, backing vocals
Rick Wills – bass, backing vocals
Dennis Elliott – drums
Personnel
Produced by Mick Jones and Alex Sadkin
Mixed by Frank Filipetti
Guest Musicians
Tom Bailey – synthesizers
Don Harper – backing vocals
Jennifer Holliday – backing vocals and arrangements
New Jersey Mass Choir of the GMWA – backing vocals
== Charts ==
== Certifications ==
== Tina Arena version ==
"I Want to Know What Love Is" was covered by Australian singer Tina Arena and her recording was released as a single in 1998 from her album In Deep. Arena's version of the song was produced by Foreigner band member Mick Jones, who wrote the song. This version of the song includes a previously unrecorded bridge between the second and third choruses, specifically written for Tina Arena by Mick Jones.
=== Track listings ===
European Maxi Single
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Single Edit)
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (R & B Mix)
"I Want to Spend My Lifetime Loving You" (G-Vo Extended Mix)
"Not For Sale"
Australian CD1 Maxi Single
"I Want To Know What Love Is" (Single Edit)
"Now I Can Dance" (Spanglish Version)
"Now I Can Dance" (Live)
"If I Didn't Love You" (Remix)
Australian CD2 Maxi Single – The Remixes
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (R'n'B Mix)
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Urban Mix)
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Extended Urban Mix)
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Single Edit)
=== Charts ===
=== Certifications ===
== Wynonna Judd version ==
"I Want to Know What Love Is" was covered by American country singer Wynonna Judd and her recording was released on August 24, 2004, as the fourth single from her album What the World Needs Now Is Love. Wynonna's version of the song was produced by Narada Michael Walden, known for his work with Mariah Carey, Whitney Houston, Diana Ross, Aretha Franklin and George Michael. This version of the song was included in a popular Brazilian soap opera, Senhora do Destino.
=== Personnel ===
=== Track listings ===
Digital download
"I Want to Know What Love Is" – 5:41
Remixes
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Piper Remix) – 4:05
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Piper Club Mix) – 7:42
=== Charts ===
In the US, the song peaked at number 14 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart. On the Hot Dance Club Songs of Billboard, it debuted at number 50 and peaked at number 12. It is also her first single to chart in Sweden, where it debuted at number 67 and peaked at number 15.
=== Release history ===
== Mariah Carey version ==
"I Want to Know What Love Is" was covered by American singer Mariah Carey and released as the second single on September 22, 2009, from her twelfth studio album, Memoirs of an Imperfect Angel (2009). The single, produced by Carey, C. "Tricky" Stewart and James "Big Jim" Wright, was sent to European radio stations on August 28 and first impacted US radio on September 14, 2009. Mick Jones said of her version: "I think she's actually retained the integrity of the song. You know, the arrangement is very similar to the original. They haven't tampered with the song too much. She's captured a certain emotional thing, a feeling." The remixes of her rendition were released on October 20, 2009.
=== Critical reception ===
The single was generally well received by critics; Australian magazine Rhyme & Reason stated that "[While Carey stayed] [...] true to the original, this piano-led remake is less an overhaul of the classic '80s hit than it is a modest but impressive update." Bill Lamb from About.com said that "Mariah Carey's new version could leave you speechless. The diversity of vocal coloring expressed in this recording is stunning. While the single 'Obsessed' remains disappointing, this single is a reminder of just how formidable Carey's talents are given a strong production and arrangement".
Writing in a Los Angeles Times music blog, Todd Martens said, "[T]ackling a well-known power ballad seems like a safe choice. It's a comfortable fall-back plan after "Obsessed" performed well, but did far from blockbuster numbers. It will undoubtedly be a hit, but it's giving me more reason to fear Imperfect Angel."
=== Chart performance ===
The song peaked on the US Billboard Adult Contemporary chart at number 10 bringing Carey's total number of Top Ten hits on that chart to 20, one short of Celine Dion's record. She has since surpassed this and is now tied with Dion after her single "Oh Santa!" reached number one in 2010. However, it only peaked at #60 on the US Hot 100. On the UK Singles Chart, the song debuted at number 19 on the week ending November 29, 2009, becoming her highest debuting and peaking song since 2008's "Touch My Body", which peaked at number five. "I Want to Know What Love Is" was also a successful hit on the Dance Club Songs chart, peaked at #2 on the week of December 19, 2009.
The song debuted at number six in France, selling 1,910 CDs in its first week.
Carey's version particularly found massive success in Brazil. Boosted by its inclusion in the international soundtrack for the popular telenovela Viver a Vida, the song stayed at number one for 27 consecutive weeks on the airplay chart, becoming the longest running number one song ever in the country. The song has since been certified Diamond in Brazil.
=== Music video ===
Carey filmed a music video for "I Want to Know What Love Is" in September 2009 in New York City, directed by Hype Williams.
The video premiered on Carey's official website on November 13, 2009.
The video features Carey singing in Yankee Stadium, intercut with shots of the audience, often accompanied by loved ones, and some glimpses into the tough times in their past, as they grow emotional from the song's performance. A gospel choir joins Carey at the center of the stadium at the video's end. Carey wears the signature curly hairstyle from the initial stages of her career circa 1990–1993, maintaining the Memoirs theme of the album.
=== Live performances ===
Carey debuted "I Want to Know What Love Is" at her Live at the Pearl concerts in the Pearl Arena at the Palms Casino & Resort, Las Vegas, on September 11 and 12, 2009. She later performed the song live on The Oprah Winfrey Show on September 18. Following the album's release, she performed at Rockefeller Plaza for Today on October 2, where she sang the song along with "Obsessed" and "H.A.T.E.U.", also from the album, as well as "Make It Happen" (1992). New York radio station WWPR-FM contest featured as its prize a mini concert by Carey at the P.C. Richard Theater in TriBeCa, New York on October 5, where she performed the song as well as "Obsessed" and "H.A.T.E.U.". While in Asia, Carey performed the track on TV shows You Hee-yeol's Sketchbook and Music Station, in South Korea and Japan, respectively. In Europe, Carey performed the single on X Factor Italia on November 11, 2009. She also performed the single on the British version of The X Factor on November 22, 2009. Carey additionally performed "I Want to Know What Love Is" on British talk shows Alan Carr: Chatty Man and GMTV.
In response to the song's success in the region, Carey performed the song during a concert in Brazil on August 21, 2010. More than a decade later, Carey performed the song as an encore in both concerts she did in Brazil in September 2024. The next year, she returned to the country and performed "I Want to Know What Love Is" at The Town Festival on September 13, 2025.
=== Formats and track listings ===
Digital download
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (album version) – 3:27
UK bundle
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (album version) – 3:27
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Moto Blanco Club Edit) – 3:25
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Chew Fu Radio Fix) – 3:51
European CD single
"I Want to Know What Love Is" – 3:37
"Obsessed" (Cahill Club Mix) – 6:23
Digital maxi-single
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (album version) – 3:27
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Moto Blanco Club Edit) – 3:25
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Chriss Ortega Club Edit) – 3:36
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Cutmore's Club Shakedown) – 6:44
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Donni Hotwheel Tempo Mix) – 3:05
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Low Sunday Tempo Mix) – 3:14
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Chew Fu Radio Fix) – 3:51
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Nu Addiction Club Edit) – 3:29
I Want to Know What Love Is (The Remixes)
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Donni Hotwheel Tempo Mix) – 3:06
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Low Sunday Tempo Mix) – 3:16
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Moto Blanco Club Edit) – 3:25
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Cutmore's Radio Shakedown) – 3:13
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Chew Fu Radio Fix) – 3:52
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Chriss Ortega Club Edit) – 3:36
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Nu Addiction Club Edit) – 3:30
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Moto Blanco Club Mix) – 6:53
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Cutmore's Club Shakedown) – 6:45
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Chew Fu Club Fix) – 6:03
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Chriss Ortega Club Mix) – 6:05
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Nu Addiction Club Mix) – 6:54
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Moto Blanco Dub) – 6:23
"I Want to Know What Love Is" (Nu Addiction Dub) – 8:43
=== Credits and personnel ===
Adapted from CD liner notes.
Recording locations
Recorded at The Boom Boom Room (Burbank, California), The Setai (Miami, Florida) and Honeywest Studios (New York City).
Additional background vocals and mixing at Soapbox Studios (Atlanta).
Personnel
=== Charts ===
=== Certifications and sales ===
=== Release history === |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rule_of_Names | The Rule of Names | "The Rule of Names" is a short story by American writer Ursula K. Le Guin, first published in the April 1964 issue of Fantastic and reprinted in collections such as The Wind's Twelve Quarters. This story and "The Word of Unbinding" convey Le Guin's initial concepts for the Earthsea realm, including its places and physical manifestation. Most of the characters from the novels do not make an appearance, with the exception of the dragon Yevaud. Both stories help explain the foundations of the Earthsea realm, in particular the importance of true names to magic.
== Plot summary ==
Sattins Island (among the Islands of Earthsea, though this is not mentioned in the original story) contains a rustic village and a resident wizard, nicknamed "Underhill" because he lives in a cave below a hill. Fat, shy, and largely incompetent, Underhill mostly uses simple magic to help the villagers with day-to-day minor medical and agricultural difficulties. Meanwhile, the village's teacher, the pretty Palani, introduces the concept of naming to her schoolchildren: each citizen of Earthsea has one name as a child, which they abandon at puberty in favor of their "true name", but this name must be kept private as it can be used by ill-intentioned magicians to control the individual.
One day, a lone handsome stranger from the distant Archipelago arrives on the island. The locals dub him Blackbeard. He hires a village lad called Birt to guide him to Underhill's home. Speaking to Birt, Blackbeard reveals his purpose: he is a powerful magician searching for his ancestors' treasure, which was stolen by a dragon. He believes Underhill to be a wizard who defeated the dragon and made off with the treasure.
Birt and Blackbeard arrive at Underhill's home. There, Blackbeard confronts Underhill, culminating in a battle in which the two magicians shapeshift into different animals and natural forces. After Underhill transforms into a massive dragon, Blackbeard reveals that he knows Underhill's true name, Yevaud, and that speaking the name will lock Underhill into his true form. This proves effective, but not as Blackbeard expected; Underhill explains that he is in fact the dragon who stole the treasure of Blackbeard's ancestors, and so his true form is indeed that of a dragon. Blackbeard, caught out, is swiftly dispatched by Yevaud. Meanwhile, Birt flees the island, taking his love Palani with him. As he does so, Yevaud, embracing his predatory dragon nature, prepares to devour the villagers of Sattins Island.
In A Wizard of Earthsea, Ged knows this tale as an ancient bit of lore and makes a desperate gamble based on it.
== Literary significance and criticism ==
Susan Wood writes that during the early 1960s, when Ursula K. Le Guin was selling stories such as "The Word of Unbinding" and "The Rule of Names", she "was an accomplished writer, expressing valuable insights with grace and humour".
The story underscores the importance of language to the entire Earthsea Cycle. In particular, the use of "names" in the title, along with the use of "word" in "The Word of Unbinding", solidifies this message in the first two Earthsea stories. Specifically, within the Earthsea realm, knowing another man's or dragon's true name gives one power over them; as a result, sharing one's true name with another is an act of complete trust.
Richard D. Erlich writes that Le Guin has the dragon Yevaud take on the Tolkienian use-name "Mr. Underhill", because "he lives in a small Hobbit-style house under a hill".
In later parts of the Earthsea Cycle, the concept of humans and dragons being akin and having been originally one species is developed, and some persons such as Tehanu have a dual human-dragon nature. However, there is no hint of that in this early story. Yevaud had turned himself into a human being for the purpose of hiding, as Ged turned into a bird in A Wizard of Earthsea and Festin into a fish in "The Word of Unbinding", and there is no suggestion that being human was inherent to him in any way. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Fluegelman | Andrew Fluegelman | Andrew Cardozo Fluegelman (November 27, 1943 – c. July 6, 1985) was an American publisher, photographer, programmer and attorney best known as a pioneer of what is now known as the shareware business model for software marketing. He was also the founding editor of both PC World and Macworld and the leader of the 1970s New Games movement, which advocated the development of noncompetitive games.
== Early life ==
Fluegelman was raised in White Plains, New York. He graduated from Yale University in 1969.
== Career ==
=== Attorney ===
Following graduation, Fluegelman worked in Midtown Manhattan before moving to California and working for a law firm in San Francisco. He was admitted to the State Bar of California in January 1971. He resigned in 1972 without any particular plan about his future.
=== Writing ===
The following year, Fluegelman started working for the Whole Earth Catalog, a job that lasted for about a year. During that time, he separated from his wife and starting living in Sausalito, California. At one point, he fasted for 49 days, drinking only water.
He started writing and publishing books, such as San Francisco Free and Easy and The New Games Book. By 1981 he had published about 15 books, and began writing computer software reviews, the first being for EasyWriter.
=== Publisher ===
In 1981, Fluegelman was the owner and sole employee of The Headlands Press, a small book publisher in Tiburon, California. He had attended an early computer expo in San Francisco in the late 1970s, and after agreeing to publish and coauthor Writing in the Computer Age decided to purchase his first computer. In October, Fluegelman bought one of the first IBM PCs sold in San Francisco, and in two weeks began to write his own accounting program in IBM BASIC, despite never having used a computer before that year. He recalled "I spent the first month [programming], and I loved it".
=== Shareware ===
In 1982 Fluegelman developed PC-Talk, a very popular and successful communications program. He marketed it under a system he called "Freeware" and became known as shareware, which he characterized as "an experiment in economics more than altruism". PC-Talk was licensed under terms that encouraged users to make voluntary payments for the software, and it allowed users to copy and redistribute the software freely as long as the license terms and text were not altered. He collaborated with PC-File developer Jim Knopf to adopt similar names (PC-File was originally "Easy-File"), and prices, for their initial shareware offerings; they also agreed to mention each other's products in their program's documentation.
=== Magazine editor ===
Fluegelman edited PC World magazine from its introduction in 1982 until 1985, and Macworld magazine from its introduction in 1984 until 1985.
== Disappearance ==
Fluegelman suffered from ulcerative colitis. In July 1985, he was prescribed prednisone to treat the condition. Within a few days of beginning to take the medication, he became depressed and agitated. He started profusely apologizing to his colleague for perceived failures. In order to reduce his stress, his employer rearranged his work schedule; Fluegelman's behavior did not improve.
On the afternoon of July 6, 1985, he left his office in Tiburon, California. A week later, his abandoned car was found at the north end of the Golden Gate Bridge near San Francisco. His family held a memorial service for Fluegelman, and he is presumed dead, though his body has never been found. Kevin Strehlo, InfoWorld columnist, submitted a memorial column which mentioned that "friends say a suicide note was found inside" his car. InfoWorld rejected this column, but an online news service published it.
== Works ==
=== Books edited ===
The Headlands Press produced books and negotiated publishing contracts for them with major publishers. Many of the books were designed by Howard Jacobsen and produced by his company, Community Type and Design. This list is arranged by year of book publication:
The New Games Book
Edited by Andrew Fluegelman and Shoshana Tembeck.
A Headlands Press Book, Dolphin/Doubleday (1976).
ISBN 0-385-12516-X
A Traveler's Guide to El Dorado & the Inca Empire
By Meisch, Lynn.
A Headlands Press Book.
Publisher: Penguin Books New York (1977).
ISBN 0-14-046280-5
Familiar Subjects: Polaroid SX-70 Impressions
By Norman Locks.
A Headlands Press Book.
HARPER & ROW, PUBLISHERS, San Francisco (1978).
ISBN 0-06-250530-0
How to Make and Sell Your Own Record
By Diane Sward Rapaport.
A Headlands Press Book.
Putnam, Prentice-Hall (1979).
ISBN 0-8256-9932-0
How to watch a football game
By Frank Barrett; Lynn Barrett.
Publisher: New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston (1980).
ISBN 0-03-056958-3
Worksteads: Living and Working in the Same Place
By Jeremy Joan Hewes.
The Headlands Press, Inc., San Francisco.
Doubleday (1981).
ISBN 0-385-15995-1
More New Games
By The New Games Foundation.
Main Street Books
New York: Dolphin Books/Doubleday & Company (1981).
ISBN 0-385-17514-0
SUSHI
By Mia Detrick, Illustrated by Kathryn Kleinman
A Headlands Press Book. Chronicle Books LLC (1983)
ISBN 0-87701-238-5
=== Books co-authored ===
Writing in the Computer Age: Word Processing Skills and Style for Every Writer
By Andrew Fluegelman and Jeremy Joan Hewes.
Anchor Press/Doubleday Publishing Group (1983)
ISBN 0-385-18125-6
=== Photography ===
Mime: A Playbook of Silent Fantasy
By Kay Hamblin.
The Doubleday Publishing Group (1978)
ISBN 0-385-14246-3 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baldur%27s_Gate_3# | Baldur's Gate 3# | Baldur's Gate 3 (also known as BG3 and Baldur's Gate III) is a 2023 role-playing video game by Larian Studios. It is the third installment in the Baldur's Gate series. The game's full release for Windows happened on August 3, with PlayStation 5, macOS, and Xbox Series X/S later in the same year. In the game's narrative, the party seeks to cure themselves of the Illithid parasites infecting their brains. It can be played alone or in a group.
Adapted from the fifth edition of tabletop role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons, Baldur's Gate 3 takes its mechanics and setting, the Forgotten Realms, from the tabletop game. Players create a customizable character and embark on quests with a party of voiced companions. Alternatively, they can play as a companion instead. The gameplay comprises real-time exploration of large areas, turn-based combat, and narrative choices which impact the party and the wider world. Outcomes for combat, dialogue and world interaction are generally determined by rolling a 20-sided die.
Baldur's Gate (1998) and Baldur's Gate II: Shadows of Amn (2000) were developed by BioWare. A third game, subtitled The Black Hound and developed by Black Isle, was cancelled in 2003 following a licensing dispute. Dungeons and Dragons owner Wizards of the Coast (WotC) declined Larian's first pitch to make the game following the release of Divinity: Original Sin (2014). Impressed by prerelease material for Divinity: Original Sin II (2017), WotC welcomed a new pitch and eventually greenlit Larian's development. The company grew considerably in the six-year production. In August 2020, Larian released the game's first act in early access, providing them with player feedback and revenue. After the full release, Larian added free new content to the game until the final patch in April 2025.
Baldur's Gate 3 received critical acclaim and had record-breaking awards success, with praise directed at its cinematic visuals, writing, production quality, and performances. It became the first title to win Game of the Year at all five major video game awards ceremonies and received the same accolade from several publications. It was both a financial and critical success, generating significant profits for Larian Studios and for Hasbro (Wizards of the Coast's parent company), and is widely regarded as one of the greatest video games ever made.
== Gameplay ==
Baldur's Gate 3 is a role-playing game, and can be played in single-player or multiplayer. It has a free-floating camera, with players able to adjust the perspective from top-down isometric to third person. Based on the fifth edition rules of the tabletop game Dungeons & Dragons (D&D 5e), several mechanics are identical between the two. A major feature is that outcomes are decided by rolling a twenty-sided die (d20). Some rolls occur with "advantage" or "disadvantage", meaning two d20s are rolled and the player receives the best or worst result, respectively. The game includes support for modding, but using them disables achievements.
In character creation, the player selects a class, species, and backstory. If the selected class uses magic, they will also choose their starting spells. Characters level up by collecting experience points by several means—examples include exploration, combat, and solving puzzles. Levelling up provides access to new class features. The maximum player level of Baldur's Gate 3 is level 12; in the tabletop game, the limit is level 20. Available at certain level intervals are feats. These diversify or specialise a character's style of play. With each feat, players choose a new ability or increase their stats, which are called abilities. After levelling up, players can also choose to place a level into a different class, known as multiclassing.
=== Quests and exploration ===
The game is divided into three acts, with a large, explorable location tied to each. In non-combat scenarios, the game is primarily experienced in real time. There are 288 quests, with significant creative freedom as to how they are completed, some being mutually exclusive, and some unfolding across multiple arcs. Companions have their own side quests, but the game can be completed without companion presence. Almost any character can die, including those integral to the narrative, and all speaking characters are fully voiced. Using a spell or potion, players can speak to any encountered animal, and a more limited number of corpses.
Players can set up a camp as a way to rest from the adventure and talk with companions. There are 17 unique camp locations, contextually dependent on where in the game world the camp is set up. A non-player character based at camp, Withers, allows players to respec. Limited resources—for example, hit points and spell slots—are replenished by resting. There are two types of rest: long and short. A short rest restores 50% of the characters' maximum hit points alongside some class-specific features. Players can short rest twice before they must long rest to replenish them. Long rests teleport players back to camp and fully replenish resources.
Players select items in the world, such as chests, to interact with them. Items, like explosive barrels, can be sent to a camp stash and retrieved later. Picking locks, disarming traps, and exploring locations grant experience. If the player attempts to pick a lock, the game rolls dice and the result is compared against the value required to open the lock. A character's skills or abilities can add to the rolled value, improving likelihood of success.
=== Combat ===
The game's combat systems are modelled on D&D 5e. Entering combat switches the game to turn-based mode. A d4 roll, called an initiative roll, determines the order in which each character acts. In a turn, each character has limited resources. The primary resources are actions, bonus actions, and movement. Major instructions to a character, like attacking with a sword or casting a spell, consume an action. Smaller commands, like jumping or drinking a potion, consume a bonus action. Characters can also move a set distance. When the player has finished the available actions for a character, their turn ends; combat is finished when all enemies are defeated. The player can also have controlled characters leave combat by moving sufficiently far from enemies. The outcomes of player actions—for example, whether an attack hits and how much damage it deals—are primarily determined through dice rolls.
When a character attacks, the game rolls a d20—this is called an attack roll. The result is compared against the target's armour class; if the roll value is lower than the armour class, the attack misses. Players can see the percentage-chance that an attack will hit before making it; this value is impacted by things like terrain. Some attacks have damage types. These can amplify one another (e.g., applying grease and fire to a target will make them burn for multiple turns) or counteract the other's effect (e.g., shooting a fire arrow at an enemy standing in ice will melt the ice, leaving a water surface). Environmental elements like explosive barrels can be exploited, and weapons can be dipped in poison.
=== Social ===
Conversations are another area of gameplay in Baldur's Gate 3. Some conversations include skill checks, wherein the player rolls a d20, with the result affecting the outcome. Players can initiate combat by selecting an aggressive dialogue option, or use dialogue to avoid combat entirely. This is a major feature of the charisma-focused bard class. Dialogue options can involve persuasion, intimidation, and deception.
Player characters can initiate romance or sexual relationships with many non-player characters. Actions and dialogue options affect relationship outcomes. Characters that can be romanced are "playersexual", meaning the player character's gender does not impact romance availability. The game has thirteen romance options.
== Narrative ==
=== Setting ===
Baldur's Gate 3 shares its Dungeons and Dragons setting, called the Forgotten Realms, with previous games in the franchise. BG3 and its predecessors take place on the continent of Faerûn, primarily near or inside the namesake city of Baldur's Gate. BG3 occurs over 100 years after the events of Baldur's Gate II: Shadows of Amn (2000) and shortly after the events of the D&D tie-in adventure, Baldur's Gate: Descent into Avernus (2019). The game features monsters from the Forgotten Realms, including owlbears, gnolls, and mind flayers.
The game's first act has no designated tutorial, but certain resources and encounters throughout the act are deliberately constructed to guide the player. The act is primarily set around a mind flayer ship wreckage. Players have access to several locations, including a druids' grove, goblin camp, and a monastery set against a mountain pass. Writer Ali Jones characterises the first act as "fairytale backdrop", and IGN's Leana Hafer said it was "mostly idyllic wilderness". Eight of the game's ten companions are introduced in act one, with six recruitable near the start. The Underdark is a large subterranean area accessible through multiple locations; each entrance leads to unique environments. Act one ends when players traverse the mountain pass or Underdark to reach act two's setting. In act two, players traverse the Shadow Cursed lands to reach Moonrise Towers, an oppressive and dark environment. Only one companion is introduced in act two. Locations explored include the Last Light Inn and the Gauntlet of Shar. The third and final act is primarily set in the dense city environment of Baldur's Gate, but with some areas accessible outside of the city, like a visiting circus and the shoreline. The city is the location of the tenth and final recruitable companion.
=== Characters ===
The world, alongside the player's thoughts and observations, are recounted by the game's narrator (Amelia Tyler), acting as BG3's dungeon master. While the narrator was originally planned to deliver lines contemptuously, Larian was impressed by Tyler's deadpan delivery. Of the ten companions, six can be chosen as the player character in the character creator. Known as origin characters, they have a pre-set character class, race, and appearance. Although their classes can be changed, origin character personalities and backstories are sometimes related to them.
Astarion is a hedonistic high elf vampire spawn rogue voiced by Neil Newbon and written by Stephen Rooney. At the game's start, Astarion has recently escaped his vampire master, Cazador. Newbon's performance was partly inspired by the harlequin figure of commedia dell'arte. Of the origin characters, Astarion was the second most selected protagonist.
Gale (Tim Downie) is a human wizard from the city of Waterdeep, and the most popular choice for origin character playthroughs.
Shadowheart is a half-human, half-high elf cleric of Shar, the goddess of loss, portrayed by Jennifer English and written by John Corcoran. Originally pitched as a Jason Bourne-style character, she has no memories of her past. She is the most popular romance option for players in the game.
Lae'zel is a fanatical githyanki with a default base class of fighter. She is quick to anger, disobliging, and the first companion encountered in Baldur's Gate 3. Lae'zel was portrayed by Devora Wilde, with Kevin VanOrd working as her lead writer. Vincke said VanOrd found Lae'zel's "voice" early in development, changing least of the companions during development.
Wyll is a human warlock folk hero who gained his powers through a pact with the demon Mizora. After early access, Wyll's voice actor was changed, with Theo Solomon portraying him in the final release. Wyll's character underwent extensive rewrites following the early access.
Karlach is a tiefling and former soldier of Avernus who is a barbarian by default. She was portrayed by Samantha Béart and written by Sarah Baylus. Karlach was heavily iterated across development. According to Béart, she was changed due to similarities to Lae'zel.
The seventh origin character, the Dark Urge, cannot be recruited. The Dark Urge narrative is linked closely with the main narrative. In this origin, the player is the compulsively evil spawn of Bhaal, the god of murder, and can choose to resist or indulge these desires.
There are four non-origin characters who can be recruited:
Minthara is a dark elf Paladin, initially encountered as an enemy, whose recruitment at launch required an evil playthrough, but Larian made recruiting her easier following release. Written by Sarah Baylus, she was portrayed by Emma Gregory.
Halsin (Dave Jones) is a wood elf druid and the master of the druids' grove that the player visits during the game's first act. Initially not recruitable during early access, player reception to Halsin was so positive that he was given a companion role.
Jaheira (Tracy Wiles) is a half-elf druid and leader of the Harpers, an organization dedicated to the preservation of historical lore and knowledge.
Minsc (Matthew Mercer) is a human ranger who carries a hamster named Boo with him; Jaheira and Minsc previously appeared in both Baldur's Gate and Baldur's Gate II: Shadows of Amn.
The game's overarching villain is an illithid elder brain known as the Absolute, voiced by prolific voice actress Cissy Jones. Three other antagonists control the elder brain—Ketheric Thorm, Enver Gortash, and Orin the Red. Actor J. K. Simmons portrays Ketheric Thorm, a tragic villain planned as recruitable in early development. Jason Isaacs and Maggie Robertson portray Enver Gortash and Orin the Red, respectively. The Emperor is a mind flayer detached from the species' hive mind. A controversial, complex character, and a player romance option, he was voiced by Scott Joseph. Raphael, a devil, is a supporting villain encountered early who offers the player a deal to remove the parasite in their head. Voice actor Andrew Wincott portrays Raphael as a theatrical villain influenced by Shakespeare's Iago.
=== Plot ===
The protagonist wakes up inside a giant dimension-crossing illithid (mind flayer) flying ship. They are infected with a parasitic tadpole that enthralls and transforms people into illithids; however, the transformation does not happen, and the ship comes under attack from githyanki warriors riding red dragons. The mind flayer crew teleports the ship to the Nine Hells and are attacked by an army of Devils. The protagonist is freed during the fighting and steers the damaged ship to Faerûn, where it crashes. They encounter other survivors of the wreck, all likewise implanted with tadpoles.
The party seeks to remove their parasites through numerous avenues, all of which fail to provide a cure. They are saved from the tadpoles' overwhelming psychic force by a "Dream Guardian" inside Shadowheart's mysterious prism, a device that is sought after by the githyanki. The protagonist then becomes involved in the fate of the Emerald Grove, where local druids and tiefling refugees face off against the goblin horde that worships a cult of the "Absolute". Once the party either sacks or saves the grove, they travel through the mountains or the Underdark to reach Moonrise Towers, a cultist stronghold, in search of a new cure.
The protagonist seeks sanctuary from the curse around Moonrise Towers in a tavern called the Last Light, held by a group of tiefling refugees, Flaming Fist conscripts, and Harpers. General Ketheric Thorm, the reigning lord of Moonrise and Chosen of Myrkul, is using a relic named the "Nightsong" as an engine for his immortality. The party scours the Gauntlet of Shar, a deserted temple to the goddess of darkness and loss, in pursuit of the Nightsong, revealed to be Dame Aylin, a daughter of Selûne, the goddess of the moon and Shar's sister. After either slaying or freeing the Nightsong, the protagonist confronts Ketheric, as well as his cohorts—Orin the Red (the Chosen of Bhaal) and Enver Gortash (the Chosen of Bane). Through their Netherstones and a mysterious crown, the triumvirate collectively controls the Absolute (revealed to be an Elder Brain, the ultimate form of the illithid race) and seeks to rule the Sword Coast by manipulating everyone infected with a tadpole. Orin and Gortash depart with the Elder Brain for Baldur's Gate, while the protagonist defeats Ketheric and claims his Netherstone.
The protagonist arrives at Baldur's Gate as Gortash and Orin attempt to pit them against the other, while the companions find closure for their personal quests. It is revealed that the "Dream Guardian" is, in fact, a visage taken by a renegade illithid called the Emperor, who resides within the prism and oversees the imprisonment of a powerful githyanki, Orpheus. Orpheus is the source of psionic resistance the party possesses against the Absolute, and the Emperor has been leveraging this in his favour. The protagonist eventually faces off against Gortash and Orin, assembling the Netherstones to subdue the Elder Brain. The Elder Brain, having anticipated the triumvirate and the protagonist's every move, overpowers the party before the Emperor comes to the rescue.
Realizing that the Netherstones require an illithid wielder with Orpheus' powers to be effective, the protagonist can either allow the Emperor to consume Orpheus or else the player character, Karlach or Orpheus must transform into an illithid. If working with the Emperor, he or the illithid in the party consumes Orpheus; otherwise, the Emperor leaves to side with the Elder Brain to save himself while the party frees and allies with Orpheus. After defeating the Elder Brain, the protagonist can choose to either betray their comrades and rule as the Absolute, let the Emperor rule and serve at his side, or kill the Elder Brain and every illithid tadpole with it, ending the threat forever.
== Development ==
=== Background ===
The Baldur's Gate series began development in 1995 when Wizards of the Coast's predecessor, TSR, Inc., asked publisher Interplay Entertainment to produce a video game using the Dungeons & Dragons (D&D) property. BioWare agreed to develop the title, having formed a partnership with Interplay for Shattered Steel (1996). Initially titled Iron Throne, the game was retitled Baldur's Gate (1998) at the suggestion of Interplay co-founder Brian Fargo. Created by a largely inexperienced group of developers, BioWare delivered the game a year behind Interplay's schedule and achieved commercial success, leading to an expansion in 1999. A direct sequel followed, Baldur's Gate II: Shadows of Amn (2000), using the second edition of D&D for its rule set, and was also published by Interplay and Black Isle Studios. The first two Baldur's Gate games provided pre-scripted, branching narratives. BioWare's third game with the D&D property, Neverwinter Nights (2002), used D&D's third edition, and facilitated a gameplay experience closer to the tabletop game by emphasising multiplayer and allowing players to control non-player characters. Following a licensing issue, another Dungeons and Dragons video game, The Black Hound, was designated as the third game in the Baldur's Gate series; it was cancelled when Interplay lost the rights to release Baldur's Gate titles on PC.
Several companies sought the rights to make the title over the following decade. Interplay's Brian Fargo described interest from Obsidian Entertainment's CEO Feargus Urquhart, Larian Studios' CEO Swen Vincke, and Fargo himself. Canadian developer Beamdog made enhanced editions of the first and second games, followed by Baldur's Gate: Siege of Dragonspear (2016), a large expansion using the Infinity Engine. Cameron Tofer, co-founder of Beamdog, said making the third game was the studio's "long-term goal".
Vincke first approached Wizards of the Coast (WotC) about making the game during Larian's development of Divinity: Original Sin (2014), but WotC declined, citing their inexperience. Shortly before the release of the sequel, Divinity: Original Sin II (2017), WotC were intrigued by prerelease footage and asked Larian for a pitch for Baldur's Gate 3. Vincke created a design document around a month before the release of Original Sin II in a hotel room with several designers and writers. The pitch was scheduled for the release day of Original Sin II, leading to a short turnaround time. WotC did not like the pitch, but granted Larian's request for more time. WotC had a new chief executive officer at this time and Vincke met him on one of his first days. Larian had to meet several milestones, including an approved design document. A later pitch was received positively and WotC granted Larian the licence. In an October 2019 Twitter post, Fargo said he knew who was developing Baldur's Gate 3.
=== Studio growth and challenges ===
Larian wanted to produce a game with triple-A production values, budget, and marketing; they viewed Baldur's Gate, alongside Fallout and Ultima, as an intellectual property capable of enabling that. Larian built new cinematic functionality into their game engine, viewing these capabilities as key to accessibility. The studio's cinematic ambitions came with challenges, requiring the studio grow considerably. Close-up dialogue scenes required new teams responsible for cinematics quality assurance and lighting. The size of the art and audio teams increased because the technical requirements differed from those of Original Sin II. Clothing designs and textures, for example, had to work from close and far perspectives because of the cinematic camera. Baldur's Gate 3 uses technology from the eighth generation of video game consoles, like screen-spaced reflections and shadow maps for lighting and shadow.
The studio's size increased from around 140 employees in 2017 to over 450 in 2023, making it one of the world's largest privately owned video game companies. Industry journalist Jason Schreier described Larian Studios as a "unicorn": large enough to make triple-A games but not subject to the mechanics mandated by publicly traded publishers, like microtransactions and battle passes, that "maximize revenue" and "minimize risk".
In part due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Baldur's Gate 3 had an unusually long 6-year development cycle. Larian closed its Saint Petersburg office following the invasion. Anticipating military enlistment for staff, they liaised with embassies and consulates to support relocation efforts, with 90% of employees based in Saint Petersburg moving office. The game's complex code base meant the effects of closing the office were felt throughout development.
Vincke described Baldur's Gate 3 as Larian's "Covid game", with the pandemic reducing productivity, causing communication issues internally and with external partners, and preventing performance motion capture. The studio lost staff over the 6-year development period, including cinematics lead Jim Southworth, who died shortly after the game's release. The credits bear a dedication to Southworth.
=== Writing and motion capture ===
Dungeons and Dragons creative director Mike Mearls said the team welcomed Larian changes to D&D lore, hoping changes would tie into increased player agency. Mearls said that collaborating with Larian felt like a natural extension of Wizards of the Coast's D&D team, with both companies anticipating required adjustments to fifth-edition rules. Vincke suggested using mind flayers as antagonists after seeing an illustration in Volo's Guide to Monsters. Writer Adam Smith said WotC had not documented the process of transforming into one, so Larian produced a 7-day timeline, inspired by body horror and the films of David Cronenberg. Baldur's Gate 3 is set over 100 years after the first two entries; Smith said WotC had "filled out" the intervening century because the area was integral to the Forgotten Realms and Sword Coast settings. Larian collaborated with WotC on a precursor module for the game, Baldur's Gate: Descent into Avernus (2019). The module provided information on events occurring since Baldur's Gate II.
Larian had two London-based studios working on motion capture. Vincke estimated this spanned 1.5 million words of dialogue in 2020; in 2024, Vincke estimated 1.3 million lines and over 140 hours of cutscenes. In development, the multiplayer mode allowed players to role play with their partner, but the feature was removed because of the added complexity. All 248 of the game's voice actors performed the motion capture for their characters. There are over 170 ending variations, which required substantial testing, and Larian's writers worked on ending dialogue and descriptions for over a year. Larian encouraged the main cast to interact with fans, which Devora Wilde, who portrays Lae'zel, said was unusual in the industry.
Smith described the team's approach as "reactive", saying that identifying frequent player choices informed their writing decisions. Some characters were changed substantially throughout development. Larian reduced the hostility of companions to the player character, including Shadowheart and Lae'zel. Karlach's infernal heart was a late addition to the game. According to region producer Elena Statsenko, Larian aimed to incorporate moral dilemmas and outcome variety for different player types into quests. Other design considerations included integration with the main story and adjustments if the player controlled an origin character.
== Release ==
=== Early access ===
Larian Studios revealed Baldur's Gate 3 with a trailer at a conference for Google's cloud gaming platform, Stadia, in July 2019. Vincke said letting potential customers play without installing the game had "great conversion power", but stated the title would not be exclusive to Stadia. Following Google's discontinuation of Stadia in 2023, Vincke expressed regret, describing it as "a really stupid deal", but said the funds provided by the deal had funded the game's visuals.
Larian partially released an unfinished version of the game's first act into early access in October 2020. The early access had over 2.5 million players with the resulting revenue sustaining the studio. The game's scope increased throughout this period. Some companions were not recruitable in the early access, and it contained many bugs. Other changes included new character classes and subclasses, user interface updates and game balancing. Eurogamer's Ruth Cassidy said that the changes to characterisation before the full release, such as decreasing hostility to the player and increasing their vulnerability, felt like fan service. Continuous rewriting of the script required voice actors to return to the studio.
During early access the game's Steam user reviews dropped below 75%, which Vincke characterised as a "disaster". IGN, PC Gamer and GameSpot's reviewers said it was fun but that bugs meant waiting for the full release would be advantageous, with David Wildgoose describing the game as "rough", "messy", and "just barely hanging together". Ars Technica and Siliconera's reviews said the early access provided an overall disappointing experience.
=== Full release ===
Larian experienced issues while developing a version for Xbox Series X and Series S. Performance variation between the two consoles in split-screen co-operative play was an issue because feature parity was a requirement of the Xbox platform. Following an in-person meeting with Microsoft Games executive Phil Spencer at Gamescom, Vincke and Spencer arranged a compromise where the game could be brought to Xbox consoles without split-screen play on the Xbox Series S.
In March 2023, Larian Studios staff were concerned that the game would be delayed to avoid competition from another title, Bethesda Softworks' Starfield, after the lengthy development cycle. Vincke accelerated the game's Windows release by four weeks, and delayed the PlayStation 5 version by one week. The game was released for Windows on 3 August 2023, PlayStation 5 on 6 September 2023, and macOS on 22 September 2023. Following the PlayStation 5 version's launch, Larian revealed an animated short, "The Launch Party", co-produced with UK-based animation studio Mashed. On 7 December 2023, directly following The Game Awards 2023, Larian released Baldur's Gate 3 on Xbox Series X and Series S.
=== Post-release ===
After release, Larian Studios provided new content and improvements via patching, with release dates sometimes varying by platform. Released for PC in August 2023, the first patch added over 1,000 bug fixes and balance changes, alongside increased polish for animations. The September 2023 update permitted players to customise their appearance, support for modding, and increased the number of endings for evil playthroughs. A November 2023 patch added customisation for player characters and hirelings; increased the frequency of autosaving; and new idle animations. In December 2023, the developer added two difficulty modes and an expanded epilogue featuring over 3,500 new lines of dialogue. An eighth and final patch was released in April 2025. The patch introduced 12 new sub-classes, a photo mode, cross-platform play, and co-operative split-screen for Xbox Series S. Jasmine Gould-Wilson regretted that GamesRadar+ could not name BG3 as their 2024 game of the year despite extensive changes.
The developer was widely criticised for not providing full credits for localisation teams involved in the game. Vincke blamed the error on Larian's localisation provider, Altagram, and promised a fix. Altagram published an apology.
Larian released a physical edition of the game but the disc did not contain the full game, instead providing a downloader for it. The game's full soundtrack was distributed across three discs, and it featured a cloth-printed map, stickers, and a chalk-paper mind flayer poster.
== Reception ==
According to review aggregator website Metacritic, Baldur's Gate 3 received "universal acclaim" from critics, with 98% of critics recommending the game on aggregator OpenCritic. Critics praised the game's detail and scope, with several comparing the studio to a gracious dungeon master, and describing the game as faithfully emulating the tabletop Dungeons and Dragons experience. The Guardian's Nick Rueben said the game enabled players to solve problems creatively. Several reviews praised the game's production quality, citing the cinematics, performance capture, and fully voiced cast. Polygon's Gita Jackson described the game as a "masterpiece" with limits imposed by a flawed tabletop predecessor.
The writing received wide praise. IGN's Leana Hafer said the side quests were "strong", with Allen Van Aken praising quest outcome variety; Dekker said the game rightly prioritised player freedom over satisfying quest resolution. Eurogamer's Ruth Cassidy criticised the main narrative as having false urgency. Windows Central's Jennifer Young said narrative decisions had weight because almost every character could die. PCMag's reviewers criticised that some choices could inadvertently prevent players accessing some plot lines. The Dark Urge character origin received dedicated coverage.
Several reviews praised the characters as elevating the narrative above standard fantasy tropes and archetypes. Andrew Zucosky, the reviewer for Digital Trends, said the companions' stories were his main motivation for playing. Ali Jones said companion's personalities contrasted well with their character classes—for example, Shadowheart as a healer "[serving] a goddess of darkness and loss" and Karlach as a traumatised barbarian "determined to draw on joy". Jackson praised the companion's reactivity, highlighting the vampire spawn Astarion's embrace of his freedom. Eurogamer's Ruth Cassidy criticised the rushed initiation of romance arcs, while PCMag's reviewers praised them for developing naturally and being "unabashedly sexual". Hafer and Jones praised the romance overall, with Jones describing the approach as more "mature" than "picking the right dialogue options". A month after launch, Vincke explained that a bug had made companions "so horny".
Some reviewers praised BG3's combat, citing the range of options, reactivity, and approaches enabling combat avoidance. Eric Van Allen of Destructoid said combat "ranges from interesting to overwhelming". Cassidy praised the game for encouraging positional strategy and preparation. Two critics suggested that the game's complexity would be divisive. Some reviewers described combat as tedious. Polygon's Maddy Myers criticised some elements as unintuitive, citing how weapons are dipped in poison by interacting with them as if they are a health potion instead of the "dip weapon" function. Jackson said she saved before every combat encounter because random outcomes often had devastating, uncontrollable consequences. Young said combat would be "daunting" to D&D newcomers.
There were complaints about bugs and diminishing polish in later portions of the game. The original review by Digital Foundry's Alex Battaglia said the PC version's technical polish was impressive. Following suggestions by players to review the end of the game, Battaglia noted substantial performance drops in the third act caused by the city's density. Rebekah Valentine said the game's size concealed issues with the final act, describing it as less polished than the preceding two; several other reviewers highlighted bugs. Writing for Digital Spy, Jess Lee said "cracks began to show" in act three, citing two companions reacting with relationship-ending anger to a decision and forgetting shortly thereafter. According to IGN, bug complaints persisted months beyond release; the game's first major patch fixed over 1000 bugs. PC Gamer's Fraser Brown, meanwhile, expressed surprise at how few bugs surfaced on his playthrough given BG3's scope and complexity.
=== Sales ===
Prior to the game's full release, Jason Schreier wrote that its success was likely, citing positive reception to the early access, strong pre-order sales, and high interest in the Dungeons and Dragons property. The game sold 2.5 million copies during the early access period.
It became one of 2023's largest launches after release. In February 2024, Larian's publishing director Michael Douse said the game had over 10 million players. As of 2023, Larian has not released precise sales figures. The Irish Independent reported in November 2024 that Larian's 2023 pre-tax profit reached €249 million, a twentyfold from the previous year, and that the game had thus far sold 15 million copies.
Vincke described the game's performance as "way beyond" expectations; he had been concerned the game's entire audience had purchased it during early access. In a Q4 2023 earnings call, Wizards of the Coast's parent company Hasbro said the game had earned the company $90 million. Douse said the game's player count increased 20% over 2024, with IGN's Wesley Yin-Poole attributing this to modding support.
By the end of 2025, the game had sold over 20 million copies.
== Accolades ==
Baldur's Gate 3 had record-breaking award success continuing over a year beyond its release. According to Vincke, Larian sent rotating groups of staff to award ceremonies because it started to impact the studio's development activities. In April 2024, the game became the first to win Game of the Year, or the equivalent category, at all five major ceremonies: the Golden Joystick Awards, the Game Developers Choice Awards, the D.I.C.E. Awards, the BAFTAs, and The Game Awards. Several publications also selected Baldur's Gate 3 as the best title of the year, including Ars Technica, GameSpot, GamesRadar+, and PC Gamer. It won the 2024 Hugo Award for Best Game or Interactive Work.
At the Golden Joystick Awards, the game broke the previous record with seven wins, including Best Storytelling, Best Visual Design, and Studio of the Year for Larian. At The Game Awards, the game won in six of the nine nominated categories, including Best Role Playing Game, Best Community Support, and Best Multiplayer Game. Baldur's Gate 3 was one of two titles to win multiple awards at the 27th Annual D.I.C.E. Awards, receiving Role-Playing Game of the Year alongside Outstanding Achievements in Story, Game Design, and Game Direction. At the BAFTA Game Awards, the title won five awards; lead writer Sarah Baylus and composer Borislav Slavov accepted the awards for Best Narrative and Best Music, respectively. At the 24th Game Developers Choice Awards in San Francisco, it received four awards, including Best Narrative and Best Design. It led The Steam Awards in 2023 with two wins, including Game of the Year and Outstanding Story-Rich Game.
The game's performances received awards recognition. Neil Newbon (Astarion) won Best Supporting Performer at the Golden Joysticks and Best Performance at The Game Awards. Newbon shared nominated with the game's narrator, Amelia Tyler, at several ceremonies, including the New York Game Awards and the Golden Joysticks. Newbon's performance was also nominated at the DICE Awards alongside Samantha Béart (Karlach). At the BAFTAs, Newbon, Béart and Tyler were nominated for Performer in a Leading Role. There were three nominations for the Performer in a Supporting Role award: Tracy Wiles (Jaheira), Dave Jones (Halsin) and Andrew Wincott (Raphael), with Wincott's performance winning. Several awards were for BG3's LGBTQ representation. It won the GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding Video Game. At the 2024 Gayming Awards, it received four nominations, including two for Best LGBTQ Character, winning with Shadowheart, and the Game of the Year.
The game's score, and composer Borislav Slavov, received several nominations. In 2020 and 2021, he received Hollywood Music in Media Awards nominations for Original Song – Video Games ("Weeping Dawn" and "I Want to Live", respectively), and for the full score in 2023. Slavov was nominated for Best Score and Music at The Game Awards. Slavov won in the Music category at the BAFTAs.
== Future ==
Following its release, Larian Studios reiterated their commitment to supporting the game further would not commit to downloadable content (DLC). While delivering a March 2024 talk at Game Developers Conference, Vincke said the studio would not develop a sequel or DLC. While Larian started work on DLC because of fan demand, there was no passion for the idea internally. Larian subsequently said it was working on two projects, using their own intellectual property for both and targeting a pre-2030 release for the first. One of these projects was revealed to be Divinity at the 2025 Game Awards.
A team of fan modders announced an independent expansion, called "Path to Menzoberranzan", with the alpha build scheduled for release in 2026.
=== Television series ===
HBO announced the development of a television series continuing the story of Baldur's Gate 3, set to be helmed by Craig Mazin, co-creator of HBO's adaptation of The Last of Us. Mazin indicated that he would contact the voice cast to gauge their interest in being involved. Vincke said Mazin and HBO had reached out to Larian for their input, and expressed excitement on behalf of the studio. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentine_Grand_Prix | Argentine Grand Prix | The Argentine Grand Prix (Spanish: Gran Premio de Argentina) was a round of the Formula One championship, held intermittently from 1953 to 1998, at the Autódromo Oscar y Juan Gálvez in the Argentine national capital of Buenos Aires.
== Origins and history ==
The Buenos Aires Grand Prix was an event first started in 1930 as a sportscar event held at the Costanera circuit until 1940 and switched to the Retiro circuit for 1941. After a six-year break and by then Juan Peron in office, racing resumed in 1947 at Retiro with the start of the South American "Temporada" Grand Prix series, competing twice that year under the Formula Libre regulations. Italian Luigi Villoresi won all 1947 Temporada events. The race regularly attracted Brazilian and European drivers and also Argentine drivers competing in Europe, such as Juan Manuel Fangio and José Froilán González. For the 1948 Grand Prix season, the race was moved to Palermo until the end of 1950. In 1951, the Costanera Norte circuit would host its last three Grand Prix events before completion of the Autodromo 17 de Octubre (October 17), a purpose-built circuit where the championship Formula One Argentine Grand Prix was held on different variants of the facility from 1953 to 1960, 1972 to 1981 and 1995 to 1998.
=== Buenos Aires ===
Built in 1952 on swampland just outside Buenos Aires, the circuit featured a white archway dedicated to the memory of Admiral William Brown. The circuit opened in March 1952 with the fifth edition of the "Perón Cup", which was won by Juan Manuel Fangio and in 1953, hosted the first Formula One race to be held in South America.
The track featured four different configurations for Grand Prix racing. From 1953 to 1960, the Argentine Grand Prix was held on the "No. 2" layout, clockwise for all these years except 1954, when it was run counterclockwise. From 1971 to 1973 the race was held on the "No. 9" configuration, more or less the same as the "No. 2" configuration but for the section after Tobogan which was shortened and the Horquilla turn was made tighter and shorter. Then from 1974 to 1981, the race was run on the "No. 15" configuration, the longest and fastest layout that combined two very fast successive right and left hand corners with two long straights and a spectacular long and wide third corner (called the Curvon Salotto) into the infield section from the previous "No. 9" configuration. For the period from 1995 to 1998, the race was held on the twisty "No. 6" configuration using only the infield section with the S-shaped Los Mixos chicane.
==== 1953–1960 ====
The 1953 race saw Fangio retire his Maserati after 36 laps due to a transmission failure; Alberto Ascari's victory for Ferrari was overshadowed by an accident which killed nine people and injured many others due to overcrowding along the track. The race was heavily advertised and it is believed that around 400,000 people turned up for the event. The facility was so packed that people were standing on the edges of corners, inches away from the cars apexing the corners.
The following year, the circuit was run in an anticlockwise direction, and Fangio did reach the top of the podium, winning his home Grand Prix on his second attempt; he would go on to win the next three Grands Prix in Argentina, one of which was the 1955 race. It was one of the hottest races on record, at 40C (104F) with track temperatures reaching 51C (122F). Fangio, now driving for Mercedes, was the only driver to complete the 96 laps after three hours without handing his car over to another driver. One of his legs was badly burned by a chassis tube heated by the exhaust, an injury that forced a three-month recovery. In 1958, Stirling Moss took the win, in the penultimate race in Fangio's career. It was also the first Formula One championship victory for a rear or mid-engined car and the first for a privateer. New Zealander Bruce McLaren won in 1960. With Fangio's retirement and the subsequent retirement of fellow Argentine driver José Froilán González, combined with unstable governments after the exile of Peron (in 1955), the Argentine Grand Prix disappeared from the F1 calendar in 1961 for over a decade.
==== 1971–1981 ====
A non-championship Formula One race was held at Buenos Aires in 1971, won by Chris Amon over two heats. In 1972 the Argentine Grand Prix returned to the World Championship, with Carlos Reutemann emerging as the new home favorite. The variant used for these two years was similar to the one used before, except the straight leading into the hairpin after the Toboggan esses was shortened. Reutemann took pole position in his world championship debut, becoming only the second driver to achieve this feat. The race was won by world champion Jackie Stewart. 1973 saw Emerson Fittipaldi take victory at the last part of the race from Frenchman François Cevert.
For 1974, the circuit used the faster and longer No. 15 circuit, which included two very fast and slightly banked corners that led into a section that went around a lake, which included a 0.91 km (3,000 ft) long straight that led into a flat-out right handed 180 corner called the Curvon, and this led into a 1.2 km (4,000 ft) straight which returned to the twisty arena that had always been used before. The cars were flat-out for 45 whole seconds throughout this whole lake loop: overtaking was rife on this part of the circuit. During the 1974 race, homeland hero Reutemann so very nearly took victory, but the Brabham mechanics apparently did not put enough fuel in the Argentine's car and he ran out, and victory went to veteran New Zealander Denny Hulme. 1977 saw South African Jody Scheckter take an amazing victory in the Walter Wolf team's first ever Grand Prix in extremely hot weather, and 1978 saw Mario Andretti begin his domination of that season, driving for Lotus. 1979 was an exciting race, the race started with a huge accident at the first two very fast esses; Scheckter and John Watson in a McLaren collided and took out nine cars; six of whom were eliminated on the spot. The race was restarted, and the blue Ligiers of Frenchmen Jacques Laffite and Patrick Depailler lead much of the proceedings, but the wily Reutemann, now driving for Lotus, drove methodically through the field and pressed Laffite, but could not catch the flying Frenchman, and Reutemann finished 2nd.
In 1980, the drivers, led by Emerson Fittipaldi attempted to boycott the race due to the poor state of the track; the new surface was breaking up in many spots because of the hot weather and the extreme suction of the ground-effect cars of the time, and gravel was strewn all over the track from the cracks in the tarmac. The race went ahead anyway after some repairs (which proved not to be good enough, and the track broke up again) and Australian Alan Jones in a Williams, Brazilian Nelson Piquet in a Brabham, Canadian Gilles Villeneuve, Laffite and Reutemann all battled for top positions; Reutemann went out early with engine problems after he went off the circuit after attempting to pass Piquet and he got grass in his radiators. Because of the track breaking apart and being littered with gravel, Jones went off twice at the Ombu section and was passed by Laffite, Villeneuve and Piquet (who all went off at other parts of the track); and he went into the pits, got the grass out of his radiators and came out in 4th. He charged through the field and passed Villeneuve and Piquet; Laffite retired with engine problems; and the Australian took victory followed by Piquet and Keke Rosberg scoring his first podium finish; and Frenchman Alain Prost scored one point in his debut F1 race, driving for McLaren. The 1981 race, which was held in cooler April weather, was a Brabham procession; designer Gordon Murray found a way to circumvent the new regulations with a hydropneumatic suspension which lowered the cars closer to the ground; and therefore were faster around corners than everyone else. Piquet took victory, Reutemann finished 2nd and Prost took 3rd.
The 1982 round was supposed to be held in early March, but the political fallout during the drivers strike just before the South African Grand Prix caused the sponsors of the Argentine Grand Prix to back out of the race; and the race was initially postponed five weeks before it was due to take place; and then the Argentine political situation was problematic and they also entered a brief war with the United Kingdom over the Falkland Islands in early April, and within the context of an entirely European sport that consisted mostly of British organizations, this caused the Argentine organizers' contract to be terminated. An attempt to bring back the Argentine Grand Prix to the same circuit in Buenos Aires in 1986 did not work out, and the race did not return for nine years.
==== 1995–1998 ====
A private consortium purchased the Buenos Aires track in 1991, renamed it and began to upgrade it. They secured a place on the 1994 F1 season calendar, but the race (set for October) was aborted to continue modernization. The general layout was not changed, but an "S" chicane named after Ayrton Senna was added. The No. 6 arena circuit was used, which did not include the flat-out lake run. This tight, twisty circuit was extremely criticized by Formula One drivers (who were already feeling the effects of other winding tracks such as Monaco, Hungaroring and Aida) and it was very difficult to pass on this variant because of the corners being so close together. The modernized Argentine Grand Prix returned in 1995, with victory going to Damon Hill. Hill won the event again in 1996 (his championship season), and in 1997 Jacques Villeneuve won the race in his championship season.
The organizers of the event ran into financial difficulties, and the 1998 race was the last running of the Argentine Grand Prix, the checkered flag waving victory to Michael Schumacher, in his ninth win for Ferrari.
==== Absence ====
A race was scheduled for 1999, but was cancelled pre-season, leaving a five-week gap between the opening two rounds of the 1999 championship.
In February 2012, Argentine president Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner announced that negotiations were coming to a close to bring the Grand Prix back to the country by 2013, this time at a street circuit to be created in the seaside resort city of Mar del Plata, scotching stories which surfaced in December 2011 that suggested a new circuit, being constructed at Zárate, was to target F1. Contracts were expected to be signed in May 2012, but this did not happen. Bernie Ecclestone, commercial rights holder of Formula One, said "we are open to racing in Argentina when I can deal with serious people".
== Winners ==
=== Repeat winners (drivers) ===
=== Repeat winners (constructors) ===
Teams in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in 2026.
=== Repeat winners (engine manufacturers) ===
Manufacturers in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in 2026.
* Designed and built by Cosworth, funded by Ford
=== By year ===
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caldecott_Medal#Recipients | Caldecott Medal#Recipients | The Randolph Caldecott Medal, frequently shortened to just the Caldecott, annually recognizes the preceding year's "most distinguished American picture book for children". It is awarded to the illustrator by the Association for Library Service to Children (ALSC), a division of the American Library Association (ALA). The Caldecott and Newbery Medals are considered the most prestigious American children's book awards. Besides the Caldecott Medal, the committee awards a variable number of citations to runners-up they deem worthy, called the Caldecott Honor or Caldecott Honor Books.
The Caldecott Medal was first proposed by Frederic G. Melcher in 1937. The award was named after English illustrator Randolph Caldecott. Unchanged since its founding, the medal, which is given to every winner, features two of Caldecott's illustrations. The awarding process has changed several times over the years, including the use of the term "Honor" for the runner-ups beginning in 1971. There have been between one and five honor books named each year.
To be eligible for a Caldecott, the book must be published in English, in the United States first, and be drawn by an American illustrator. An award committee decides on a winner in January or February, voting using a multi-round point system. The committee judges books on several criteria to meet the Caldecott's goal of recognizing "distinguished illustrations in a picture book and for excellence of pictorial presentation for children."
Winning the award can lead to a substantial rise in books sold. It can also increase the prominence of illustrators. Illustrator and author Marcia Brown is the most recognized Caldecott illustrator, having won three medals and having six honor books. In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of minority characters and illustrators recognized. However, this is something which has fluctuated over the history of the award.
== History ==
The Caldecott was suggested in 1937 by Frederic G. Melcher, former editor of Publishers Weekly, following the establishment of the Newbery Medal in 1921. The American Library Association adopted Melcher's suggestion of awarding a medal to the illustrator "who had created the most distinguished picture book of the year." According to children's literature expert Leonard S. Marcus, the award helped draw American artists into the field of children's books.
The award has been tweaked over the years, with the most recent changes in 2009. When the award was founded, books could be considered either for the Newbery or the Caldecott, with the same committee judging both awards. The committee noted other books of merit, which were frequently referred to as runner-ups. In 1971, these books were formally named Caldecott Honor books, with this name applied retroactively. In 1977, books became eligible for both awards and, beginning with the 1980 award, separate committees for each award were formed. Until 1958, a previous winner could win again only by unanimous vote of the committee, and it was only in 1963 when joint winners were first permitted.
=== Medal ===
The award is named for Randolph Caldecott, a nineteenth-century English illustrator. Rene Paul Chambellan designed the Medal in 1937. The obverse scene is derived from Randolph Caldecott's front cover illustration for The Diverting History of John Gilpin (Routledge, 1878, an edition of the 1782 poem by William Cowper), which depicts John Gilpin astride a runaway horse. The reverse is based on "Four and twenty blackbirds baked in a pie", one of Caldecott's illustrations for the nursery rhyme "Sing a Song of Sixpence".
Each illustrator receives a bronze copy of the medal, which, despite being awarded by the Association for Library Service to Children (ALSC), lists Children's Librarian's Section, the original awarding group, for historical reasons.
== Eligibility and criteria ==
A picture book, according to the award criteria, provides "a visual experience. A picture book has a collective unity of storyline, theme, or concept, developed through the series of pictures" that constitute the book. The Medal is "for distinguished illustrations in a picture book and for excellence of pictorial presentation for children". Specifically, the illustrations are judged on their artistic technique, interpretation of the book's story and theme, the fit between the illustrations and the story and themes, the precision of depiction of elements of the book, like characters and mood, and how well the illustrations serve their targeted audience. Honor books need to fulfill the same criteria. The book must be self-contained, independent of other media for its enjoyment. Components other than illustration, including the book's text or overall design, may be considered as they affect the overall effectiveness of the book's illustrations.
To be eligible for the Caldecott, the artist must be a US citizen or resident, the book must have been published in English, in the United States first, or simultaneously in other countries. Picture books for any audience up to the age of 14 may be considered. In December 2019, children's literature expert Leonard S. Marcus suggested that the Caldecott had achieved its mission in the US and the award should be expanded so children's book illustrations from anywhere in the world be considered.
== Selection process ==
The committee that decides on the Caldecott Award winner comprises fifteen members of ALSC. Seven members are elected by the entire ALSC membership and eight, including the chairperson, are appointed by the ALSC President. Members are chosen based on their experience. Consideration is also done to ensure a diversity of libraries (e.g. public and school, small and large), and geographical areas are represented as well. Publishers send copies of books to the committee; in 2009, each member received more than 700. However, a book does not need to be sent to the committee to be considered. Instead, to help identify possible contenders, committee members formally nominate seven books in three rounds over the year, and less formally recommend others.
At ALSC's annual midwinter meeting, held in late January or early February, the committee will discuss the nominations and hold a vote on the winner. When voting, committee members list their first place, second place, and third place selections. Each vote is assigned a point value, with first place votes receiving four points, second place three points, and third place two points. The winner must receive at least eight first place votes and be at least eight points ahead of the second-place finisher. After a winner is selected, the committee can decide whether to award any honor books. They may be chosen from runner-ups to the winner, or be selected in a separate ballot. The winner and honor books are kept secret until they are publicly announced, with the committee calling the winning illustrators the morning of the announcement.
In 2015, K. T. Horning of the University of Wisconsin–Madison's Cooperative Children's Book Center proposed to ALSC that old discussions of the Newbery and Caldecott be made public in the service of researchers and historians. This proposal was met with both support and criticism by former committee members and recognized authors. As of 2020, no change has been made.
== Impact and analysis ==
The Caldecott and Newbery awards have historically been considered the most important children's book awards. Anita Silvey, children's book author, editor, and critic, suggests they might even be the most important book awards, saying that "no other award has the economic significance of the Newbery and Caldecott". According to Silvey, a Caldecott winner can have sales increased from 2,000 to 100,000–200,000. Silvey also credits the Caldecott for helping to establish Bradbury Press and Roaring Brook Press as important publishers. It can also be an important recognition for authors. According to Leonard Marcus, Where the Wild Things Are's recognition brought its author and illustrator, Maurice Sendak, to national prominence.
A 1999 study on the reading levels of Caldecott recipients suggested that most winners were written at the elementary age level, with the average reading level having decreased over time. A 2007 study of Caldecott recipients found that the prevalence and importance of female characters had risen and fallen several times over the history of the Caldecott. It also found that, unlike recipients of the Pura Belpré Award and Coretta Scott King Award, the behaviors of male and female characters remained distinct and adhered to traditional gender norms. A different 2007 study, by one of the same authors, also found an increase in the number of minority characters following a 1965 critique by Nancy Larrick, however the number of minorities had fallen by the 2000s. In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of minority characters and illustrators recognized. The Horn Book Magazine editor Martha Parravano has noted how rarely non-fiction books, especially non-fiction books about science, are recognized by the Caldecott.
== Recipients ==
In 1938, Dorothy P. Lathrop’s illustrations for Animals of the Bible won her the inaugural Caldecott Medal, awarded for the year’s “most distinguished American picture book for children.”
== Multiple award winners ==
Listed below are all illustrators who have won at least two Caldecott Medals or who have won a medal and multiple honors. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II | World War II | World War II, or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945), was a global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies and the Axis powers. Nearly all of the world's countries participated. Tanks and aircraft played major roles, the latter enabling the strategic bombing of cities and delivery of the only nuclear weapons used in war. World War II was the deadliest conflict in history, causing the death of 60 to 75 million people. Millions died in genocides, including the Holocaust, and by massacres, starvation, and disease. After the Allied victory, Germany, Austria, Japan, and Korea were occupied, and German and Japanese leaders were tried for war crimes.
The causes of World War II included unresolved tensions in the aftermath of World War I, and the rise of fascism in Europe and militarism in Japan. Key events preceding the war included Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Spanish Civil War, the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, and Germany's annexations of Austria and the Sudetenland. World War II is generally considered to have begun on 1 September 1939, when Nazi Germany, under Adolf Hitler, invaded Poland, after which the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany. Poland was also invaded by the Soviet Union in mid-September, and was partitioned between Germany and the Soviet Union under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. In 1940, the Soviet Union annexed the Baltic states and parts of Finland and Romania, while Germany conquered Norway, Denmark, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. After the fall of France in June 1940, the war continued mainly between Germany, now assisted by Fascist Italy, and the British Empire/British Commonwealth, with fighting in the Balkans, Mediterranean, and Middle East, East Africa, the aerial Battle of Britain and the Blitz, and the naval Battle of the Atlantic. By mid-1941, Yugoslavia and Greece had also been defeated by Axis countries. In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union, opening the Eastern Front.
In December 1941, Japan attacked American and British territories in Asia and the Pacific, including Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, leading the United States to enter the war against the Axis. Japan conquered much of coastal China and Southeast Asia, but its advances in the Pacific were halted in June 1942 at the Battle of Midway. In early 1943, Axis forces were defeated in North Africa and at Stalingrad in the Soviet Union. An Allied invasion of Italy in July resulted in the fall of its fascist regime, and Allied offensives in the Pacific and the Soviet Union forced the Axis to retreat on all fronts. In 1944, the Western Allies invaded France at Normandy, and the Soviet Union advanced into Central Europe. During the same period, Japan suffered major setbacks, including the crippling of its navy by the United States, the loss of key Western Pacific islands, and defeats in South-Central China and Burma.
The war in Europe concluded with the liberation of German-occupied territories and the invasion of Germany by the Allies which culminated in the fall of Berlin to Soviet troops, and Germany's unconditional surrender on 8 May 1945. On 6 and 9 August, the US dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. Japan announced its unconditional surrender on 15 August, and signed a surrender document on 2 September 1945. World War II transformed the political, economic, and social structures of the world, and established the foundation of international relations for the rest of the 20th century and into the 21st century. The United Nations was created to foster international cooperation and prevent future conflicts, with the victorious great powers—China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the US—becoming the permanent members of its Security Council. The Soviet Union and the US emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War. In the wake of Europe's devastation, the influence of its great powers waned, triggering the decolonisation of Africa and of Asia. Many countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery and expansion.
== Start and end dates ==
Most historians agree that World War II began with the German invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939 and the British and French declarations of war on Germany two days later. Dates for the beginning of the Pacific War include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or the earlier Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 18 September 1931. Other proposed starting dates include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939. Others view the Spanish Civil War as the start or prelude to World War II.
The date of the war's end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 15 August 1945 (V-J Day), rather than with the formal surrender of Japan on 2 September 1945, which officially ended the war in Asia. A peace treaty between Japan and the Allies was signed in 1951. A 1990 treaty regarding Germany's future allowed the reunification of East and West Germany to take place. No formal peace treaty between Japan and the Soviet Union was ever signed, although the state of war between the two countries was terminated by the Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956, which also restored full diplomatic relations between them.
== Background ==
=== Aftermath of World War I ===
World War I radically altered the European political map. The most prominent nations of the Central Powers each lost territory in their respective peace treaties at the conclusion of the conflict. New nation-states were created out of the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires.
To prevent a future world war, the League of Nations was established in 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference. The organisation's primary function was to prevent armed conflict through collective security, military, and naval disarmament, as well as settling international disputes through peaceful negotiations and arbitration.
Despite strong pacifist sentiment after World War I, irredentist and revanchist nationalism had emerged in several European states. These sentiments were especially pronounced in Germany due to the significant territorial, colonial, and financial losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. Under the treaty, Germany lost around 13 percent of its home territory and all its overseas possessions, while German annexation of other states was prohibited, reparations were imposed, and limits were placed on the size and capability of the country's armed forces.
=== Germany and Italy ===
The German Empire was dissolved in the German revolution of 1918–1919, and a democratic government, later known as the Weimar Republic, was created. The interwar period saw strife between supporters of the new republic and hardline opponents on both the political right and left. Italy, as an Entente ally, had made some post-war territorial gains; however, Italian nationalists were angered that the promises made by the United Kingdom and France to secure Italian entrance into the war were not fulfilled in the peace settlement. From 1922 to 1925, the fascist movement led by Benito Mussolini seized power in Italy with a nationalist, totalitarian, and class collaborationist agenda that abolished representative democracy, repressed socialist, left-wing, and liberal forces, and pursued an aggressive expansionist foreign policy aimed at making Italy a world power, promising the creation of a "New Roman Empire."
Adolf Hitler, after an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the German government in 1923, eventually became the chancellor of Germany in 1933 when President Paul von Hindenburg and the Reichstag appointed him. Following Hindenburg's death in 1934, Hitler proclaimed himself Führer of Germany and abolished democracy, espousing a radical, racially motivated revision of the world order, and soon began a massive rearmament campaign. France, seeking to secure its alliance with Italy, allowed Italy a free hand in Ethiopia, which Italy desired as a colonial possession. The situation was aggravated in early 1935 when the Territory of the Saar Basin was legally reunited with Germany, and Hitler repudiated the Treaty of Versailles, accelerated his rearmament programme, and introduced conscription.
=== European treaties ===
The United Kingdom, France and Italy formed the Stresa Front in April 1935 in order to contain Germany, a key step towards military globalisation; however, that June, the United Kingdom made an independent naval agreement with Germany, easing prior restrictions. The Soviet Union, concerned by Germany's goals of capturing vast areas of Eastern Europe, drafted a treaty of mutual assistance with France. Before taking effect, though, the Franco-Soviet pact was required to go through the bureaucracy of the League of Nations, which rendered it essentially toothless. The United States, concerned with events in Europe and Asia, passed the Neutrality Act in August of the same year.
Hitler defied the Versailles and Locarno Treaties by remilitarising the Rhineland in March 1936, encountering little opposition due to the policy of appeasement. In October 1936, Germany and Italy formed the Rome–Berlin Axis. A month later, Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, which Italy joined the following year.
=== Asia ===
The Kuomintang party in China launched a unification campaign against regional warlords and nominally unified China in the mid-1920s, but was soon embroiled in a civil war against its former Chinese Communist Party (CCP) allies and new regional warlords. In 1931, an increasingly militaristic Empire of Japan, which had long sought influence in China as the first step of what its government saw as the country's right to rule Asia, staged the Mukden incident as a pretext to invade Manchuria and establish the puppet state of Manchukuo.
China appealed to the League of Nations to stop the Japanese invasion of Manchuria. Japan withdrew from the League of Nations after being condemned for its incursion into Manchuria. The two nations then fought several battles, in Shanghai, Rehe, and Hebei, until the Tanggu Truce was signed in 1933. Thereafter, Chinese volunteer forces continued the resistance to Japanese aggression in Manchuria, and Chahar and Suiyuan. After the 1936 Xi'an Incident, the Kuomintang and CCP forces agreed on a ceasefire to present a united front to oppose Japan.
== Pre-war events ==
=== Italian invasion of Ethiopia (1935) ===
The Second Italo-Ethiopian War was a colonial war that began in October 1935 and ended in May 1936. The war began with the invasion of the Ethiopian Empire (also known as Abyssinia) by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy (Regno d'Italia), which was launched from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea. The war resulted in the military occupation of Ethiopia and its annexation into the newly created colony of Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana); in addition it exposed the weakness of the League of Nations as a force to preserve peace. Both Italy and Ethiopia were member nations, but the League did little when the former clearly violated Article X of the League's Covenant. The United Kingdom and France supported imposing sanctions on Italy for the invasion, but the sanctions were not fully enforced and failed to end the Italian invasion. Italy subsequently dropped its objections to Germany's goal of absorbing Austria.
=== Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) ===
When civil war broke out in Spain, Hitler and Mussolini lent military support to the Nationalist rebels, led by General Francisco Franco. Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain. The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the Spanish Republic. More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades, also fought against the Nationalists. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics. The Nationalists won the civil war in April 1939; Franco, now dictator, remained officially neutral during World War II but generally favoured the Axis. His greatest collaboration with Germany was the sending of volunteers to fight on the Eastern Front.
=== Japanese invasion of China (1937) ===
In July 1937, Japan captured the former Chinese imperial capital of Peking after instigating the Marco Polo Bridge incident, which culminated in the Japanese campaign to invade all of China following years of tension and low-level conflicts. The Soviets quickly signed a non-aggression pact with China to lend materiel support, effectively ending China's prior cooperation with Germany.
From September to November, the Japanese attacked Taiyuan, engaged the Kuomintang Army around Xinkou, fought Communist forces in Pingxingguan,Yang Kuisong, "On the reconstruction of the facts of the Battle of Pingxingguan" and wrestled control over China's northern railway network. Nationalist Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek deployed his best army to defend Shanghai, but after three months of heavy fighting, Shanghai fell. The Japanese continued to push Chinese forces back, capturing the capital Nanking in December 1937.
In March 1938, Nationalist Chinese forces won their first major victory at Taierzhuang, but ultimately lost control of the city of Xuzhou in May. In June 1938, Chinese forces stalled the Japanese advance by flooding the Yellow River; buying time for the Chinese to prepare their defences at Wuhan at heavy cost to the local civilian population, but the city was taken by October after heavy fighting along the Yangtze River.
Japanese military victories did not destroy Chinese resistance; instead, the Chinese government relocated inland to Chongqing and continued the war. Aiming to break Chinese morale, Japanese aircraft began striking cities in the Sichuan basin in a bombing campaign, killing tens of thousands of civilians.
=== Soviet–Japanese border conflicts ===
In the mid-to-late 1930s, Japanese forces in Manchukuo had sporadic border clashes with the Soviet Union and Mongolia. The Japanese doctrine of Hokushin-ron, which emphasised Japan's expansion northward, was favoured by the Imperial Army during this time. This policy would prove difficult to maintain in light of the Japanese defeat at Khalkin Gol in 1939, the ongoing Second Sino-Japanese War and ally Nazi Germany pursuing neutrality with the Soviets. Japan and the Soviet Union eventually signed a Neutrality Pact in April 1941, and Japan adopted the doctrine of Nanshin-ron, promoted by the Navy, which took its focus southward and eventually led to war with the United States and the Western Allies.
=== European occupations and agreements ===
In Europe, Germany and Italy were becoming more aggressive. In March 1938, Germany annexed Austria, again provoking little response from other European powers. Encouraged, Hitler began pressing German claims on the Sudetenland, an area of Czechoslovakia with a predominantly ethnic German population. Soon the United Kingdom and France followed the appeasement policy of British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain and conceded this territory to Germany in the Munich Agreement, which was made against the wishes of the Czechoslovak government, in exchange for a promise of no further territorial demands. Soon afterwards, Germany and Italy forced Czechoslovakia to cede additional territory to Hungary, and Poland annexed the Trans-Olza region of Czechoslovakia.
Although all of Germany's stated demands had been satisfied by the agreement, privately Hitler was furious that British interference had prevented him from seizing all of Czechoslovakia in one operation. In subsequent speeches Hitler attacked British and Jewish "war-mongers" and in January 1939 secretly ordered a major build-up of the German navy to challenge British naval supremacy. In March 1939, Germany invaded the remainder of Czechoslovakia and subsequently split it into the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and a pro-German client state, the Slovak Republic. Hitler also delivered an ultimatum to Lithuania on 20 March 1939, forcing the concession of the Klaipėda Region, formerly the German Memelland.
Following further demands from Hitler regarding the Free City of Danzig and the Polish corridor, the United Kingdom and France guaranteed their support for Polish independence. When Italy conquered Albania in April 1939, the same guarantee was extended to the Kingdoms of Romania and Greece. Shortly after the Franco-British pledge to Poland, Germany and Italy formalised their own alliance with the Pact of Steel. Hitler accused the United Kingdom and Poland of trying to encircle Germany and renounced the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish declaration of non-aggression.
The situation became a crisis in late August as Germany concentrated its forces near the Polish border. On 23 August, the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact with Germany, after tripartite negotiations for a military alliance between France, the United Kingdom, and Soviet Union had stalled. This pact had a secret protocol that defined German and Soviet spheres of influence: Lithuania for Germany; Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Bessarabia for the Soviet Union; and Poland to be partitioned between the two powers. The pact ensured that Germany would not face a war with the Soviet Union when it invaded Poland. Immediately afterwards, Hitler ordered the attack to proceed on 26 August, but upon hearing that the United Kingdom had concluded a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland and that Italy would maintain neutrality, he decided to delay it.
Germany offered Britain an alliance if Britain helped Germany gain Danzig, the Polish corridor and its former colonies, but Britain replied that it would honour its guarantee to Poland. On 29 August, Hitler demanded that a Polish plenipotentiary travel to Berlin by the following day to negotiate a solution to the crisis, but Britain rejected the timeline as unreasonable. On the night of 30–31 August, the British ambassador Nevile Henderson met German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop. Ribbentrop handed him Hitler's demands regarding Poland then announced that the deadline for Poland's acceptance had already passed.
== Course of the war ==
=== War breaks out in Europe (1939–1940) ===
On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland after having staged several false flag border incidents as a pretext to initiate the invasion. The first German attack of the war came against the Polish defences at Westerplatte. The United Kingdom responded with an ultimatum for Germany to cease military operations, and on 3 September, after the ultimatum was ignored, Britain and France declared war on Germany. During the Phoney War period, the alliance provided no direct military support to Poland, outside of a cautious French probe into the Saarland. The Western Allies also began a naval blockade of Germany, which aimed to damage the country's economy and war effort. Germany responded by ordering U-boat warfare against Allied merchant and warships, which would later escalate into the Battle of the Atlantic.
On 8 September, German troops reached the suburbs of Warsaw. The Polish counter-offensive to the west halted the German advance for several days, but it was outflanked and encircled by the Wehrmacht. Remnants of the Polish army broke through to besieged Warsaw. On 17 September 1939, two days after signing a cease-fire with Japan, the Soviet Union invaded Poland under the supposed pretext that the Polish state had ceased to exist. On 27 September, the Warsaw garrison surrendered to the Germans, and the last large operational unit of the Polish Army surrendered on 6 October. Despite the military defeat, Poland never surrendered; instead, it formed the Polish government-in-exile and a clandestine state apparatus remained in occupied Poland. A significant part of Polish military personnel evacuated to Romania and Latvia; many of them later fought against the Axis in other theatres of the war.
Germany annexed western Poland and occupied central Poland; the Soviet Union annexed eastern Poland. Small shares of Polish territory were transferred to Lithuania and Slovakia. On 6 October, Hitler made a public peace overture to the United Kingdom and France but said that the future of Poland was to be determined exclusively by Germany and the Soviet Union. The proposal was rejected and Hitler ordered an immediate offensive against France, which was postponed until the spring of 1940 due to bad weather.
After the outbreak of war in Poland, Stalin threatened Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania with military invasion, forcing the three Baltic countries to sign pacts allowing the creation of Soviet military bases in these countries; in October 1939, significant Soviet military contingents were moved there. Finland refused to sign a similar pact and rejected ceding part of its territory to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union invaded Finland in November 1939, and was subsequently expelled from the League of Nations for this crime of aggression. Despite overwhelming numerical superiority, Soviet military success during the Winter War was modest, and the Finno–Soviet war ended in March 1940 with some Finnish concessions of territory.
In June 1940, the Soviet Union occupied the entire territories of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, as well as the Romanian regions of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region. In August 1940, Hitler imposed the Second Vienna Award on Romania which led to the transfer of Northern Transylvania to Hungary. In September 1940, Bulgaria demanded Southern Dobruja from Romania with German and Italian support, leading to the Treaty of Craiova. The loss of one-third of Romania's 1939 territory caused a coup against King Carol II, turning Romania into a fascist dictatorship under Marshal Ion Antonescu, with a course set towards the Axis in the hopes of a German guarantee. Meanwhile, German–Soviet political relations and economic co-operation gradually stalled, and both states began preparations for war.
=== Western Europe (1940–1941) ===
In April 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect shipments of iron ore from Sweden, which the Allies were attempting to cut off. Denmark capitulated after six hours, and despite Allied support, Norway was conquered within two months. British discontent over the Norwegian campaign led to the resignation of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, who was replaced by Winston Churchill on 10 May 1940.
On the same day, Germany launched an offensive against France. To circumvent the strong Maginot Line fortifications on the Franco-German border, Germany directed its attack at the neutral nations of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. The Germans carried out a flanking manoeuvre through the Ardennes region, which was mistakenly perceived by the Allies as an impenetrable natural barrier against armoured vehicles. By successfully implementing new Blitzkrieg tactics, the Wehrmacht rapidly advanced to the Channel and cut off the Allied forces in Belgium, trapping the bulk of the Allied armies in a cauldron on the Franco-Belgian border near Lille. The United Kingdom was able to evacuate a significant number of Allied troops from the continent by early June, although they had to abandon almost all their equipment.
On 10 June, Italy invaded France, declaring war on both France and the United Kingdom. The Germans turned south against the weakened French army, and Paris fell to them on 14 June. Eight days later France signed an armistice with Germany; it was divided into German and Italian occupation zones, and an unoccupied rump state under the Vichy Regime, which, though officially neutral, was generally aligned with Germany. France kept its fleet, which the United Kingdom attacked on 3 July in an attempt to prevent its seizure by Germany.
The air Battle of Britain began in early July with Luftwaffe attacks on shipping and harbours. The German campaign for air superiority started in August but its failure to defeat RAF Fighter Command forced the indefinite postponement of the proposed German invasion of Britain. The German strategic bombing offensive intensified with night attacks on London and other cities in the Blitz, but largely ended in May 1941 after failing to significantly disrupt the British war effort.
Using newly captured French ports, the German Navy enjoyed success against an over-extended Royal Navy, using U-boats against British shipping in the Atlantic. The British Home Fleet scored a significant victory on 27 May 1941 by sinking the German battleship Bismarck.
In November 1939, the United States was assisting China and the Western Allies, and had amended the Neutrality Act to allow "cash and carry" purchases by the Allies. In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of the United States Navy was significantly increased. In September the United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for British bases. Still, a large majority of the American public continued to oppose any direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941. In December 1940, President Franklin D. Roosevelt accused Hitler of planning world conquest and ruled out any negotiations as useless, calling for the United States to become an "arsenal of democracy" and promoting Lend-Lease programmes of military and humanitarian aid to support the British war effort; Lend-Lease was later extended to the other Allies, including the Soviet Union after it was invaded by Germany. The United States started strategic planning to prepare for a full-scale offensive against Germany.
At the end of September 1940, the Tripartite Pact formally united Japan, Italy, and Germany as the Axis powers. The Tripartite Pact stipulated that any country—with the exception of the Soviet Union—that attacked any Axis Power would be forced to go to war against all three. The Axis expanded in November 1940 when Hungary, Slovakia, and Romania joined. Romania and Hungary later made major contributions to the Axis war against the Soviet Union, in Romania's case partially to recapture territory ceded to the Soviet Union.
=== Mediterranean (1940–1941) ===
In early June 1940, the Italian Regia Aeronautica attacked and besieged Malta, a British possession. From late summer to early autumn, Italy conquered British Somaliland and made an incursion into British-held Egypt. In October, Italy attacked Greece, but the attack was repulsed with heavy Italian casualties; the campaign ended within months with minor territorial changes. To assist Italy and prevent Britain from gaining a foothold, Germany prepared to invade the Balkans, which would threaten Romanian oil fields and strike against British dominance of the Mediterranean.
In December 1940, British Empire forces began counter-offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa. The offensives were successful; by early February 1941, Italy had lost control of eastern Libya, and large numbers of Italian troops had been taken prisoner. The Italian Navy also suffered significant defeats, with the Royal Navy putting three Italian battleships out of commission after a carrier attack at Taranto, and neutralising several more warships at the Battle of Cape Matapan.
Italian defeats prompted Germany to deploy an expeditionary force to North Africa; at the end of March 1941, Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps launched an offensive which drove back Commonwealth forces. In less than a month, Axis forces advanced to western Egypt and besieged the port of Tobruk.
By late March 1941, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact; however, the Yugoslav government was overthrown two days later by pro-British nationalists. Germany and Italy responded with simultaneous invasions of both Yugoslavia and Greece, commencing on 6 April 1941 with a massive bombing of Belgrade; both nations were forced to surrender within the month. The airborne invasion of the Greek island of Crete at the end of May completed the German conquest of the Balkans. Partisan warfare subsequently broke out against the Axis occupation of Yugoslavia, which continued until the end of the war.
In the Middle East in May, Commonwealth forces quashed an uprising in Iraq which had been supported by German aircraft from bases within Vichy-controlled Syria. Between June and July, British-led forces invaded and occupied the French possessions of Syria and Lebanon, assisted by the Free French.
=== Axis attack on the Soviet Union (1941) ===
With the situation in Europe and Asia relatively stable, Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union made preparations for war. With the Soviets wary of mounting tensions with Germany, and the Japanese planning to take advantage of the European War by seizing resource-rich European possessions in Southeast Asia, the two powers signed the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact in April 1941. By contrast, the Germans were steadily making preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union, massing forces on the Soviet border.
Hitler believed that the United Kingdom's refusal to end the war was based on the hope that the United States and the Soviet Union would enter the war against Germany. On 31 July 1940, Hitler decided that the Soviet Union should be eliminated and aimed for the conquest of Ukraine, the Baltic states and Byelorussia. However, other senior German officials like Ribbentrop saw an opportunity to create a Euro-Asian bloc against the British Empire by inviting the Soviet Union into the Tripartite Pact. In November 1940, negotiations took place to determine if the Soviet Union would join the pact. The Soviets showed some interest but asked for concessions from Finland, Bulgaria, Turkey, and Japan that Germany considered unacceptable. On 18 December 1940, Hitler issued the directive to prepare for an invasion of the Soviet Union.
On 22 June 1941, Germany, supported by Italy and Romania, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa, with Germany accusing the Soviets of plotting against them; they were joined shortly by Finland and Hungary. The primary targets of this surprise offensive were the Baltic region, Moscow and Ukraine, with the ultimate goal of ending the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk–Astrakhan line—from the Caspian to the White Seas. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate communism, generate Lebensraum ("living space") by dispossessing the native population, and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed to defeat Germany's remaining rivals.
Although the Red Army was preparing for strategic counter-offensives before the war, Operation Barbarossa forced the Soviet supreme command to adopt strategic defence. During the summer, the Axis made significant gains into Soviet territory, inflicting immense losses in both personnel and materiel, mainly in massive encirclements around Minsk, Smolensk, and Uman.
Nazi policy entailed that Wehrmacht subject Soviet POWs to murderous treatment, executing all Jewish and Communist POWs immediately per the Commissar Order, and subjecting the remainder to forced marches to open-air concentration camps, where they were to be deliberately starved to death. By the end of the winter of 1941, 2.8 million Soviet POWs had died in German captivity. Some 3.3 million Soviet POWs would die in German captivity by the war's end in total, a nearly 60% mortality rate.
By mid-August, however, the German Army High Command decided to suspend the offensive of a considerably depleted Army Group Centre, and to divert the 2nd Panzer Group to reinforce troops advancing towards central Ukraine and Leningrad. The Kiev offensive was overwhelmingly successful, resulting in encirclement and elimination of four Soviet armies, and made possible further advance into Crimea and industrially-developed eastern Ukraine (the First Battle of Kharkov).
The diversion of three-quarters of the Axis troops and the majority of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the Eastern Front prompted the United Kingdom to reconsider its grand strategy. In July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against Germany and in August, the United Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter, which outlined British and American goals for the post-war world. In late August the British and Soviets invaded neutral Iran to secure the Persian Corridor, Iran's oil fields, and preempt any Axis advances through Iran toward the Baku oil fields or India.
By October, Axis powers had achieved operational objectives in Ukraine and the Baltic region, with only the sieges of Leningrad and Sevastopol continuing. A major offensive against Moscow was renewed; after two months of fierce battles in increasingly harsh weather, the German army almost reached the outer suburbs of Moscow, where the exhausted troops were forced to suspend the offensive. Large territorial gains were made by Axis forces, but their campaign had failed to achieve its main objectives: two key cities remained in Soviet hands, the Soviet capability to resist was not broken, and the Soviet Union retained a considerable part of its military potential. The blitzkrieg phase of the war in Europe had ended.
By early December, freshly mobilised reserves allowed the Soviets to achieve numerical parity with Axis troops. This, as well as intelligence data which established that a minimal number of Soviet troops in the East would be sufficient to deter any attack by the Japanese Kwantung Army, allowed the Soviets to begin a massive counter-offensive that started on 5 December all along the front and pushed German troops 100–250 kilometres (62–155 mi) west.
=== War breaks out in the Pacific (1941) ===
Following the Japanese false flag Mukden incident in 1931, the Japanese shelling of the American gunboat USS Panay in 1937, and the 1937–1938 Nanjing Massacre, Japanese-American relations deteriorated. In 1939, the United States notified Japan that it would not be extending its trade treaty and American public opinion opposing Japanese expansionism led to a series of economic sanctions—the Export Control Acts—which banned US exports of chemicals, minerals and military parts to Japan, and increased economic pressure on the Japanese regime. During 1939 Japan launched its first attack against Changsha, but was repulsed by late September. Despite several offensives by both sides, by 1940 the war between China and Japan was at a stalemate. To increase pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position Japanese forces in the event of a war with the Western powers, Japan invaded and occupied northern Indochina in September 1940.
Chinese nationalist forces launched a large-scale counter-offensive in early 1940. In August, Chinese communists launched an offensive in Central China; in retaliation, Japanese armies in North China implemented the Three Alls Policy, a massive scorched earth initiative to depopulate regions deemed hostile to Japanese occupation.. Continued antipathy between Chinese communist and nationalist forces culminated in armed clashes in January 1941, effectively ending their co-operation. In March, the Japanese 11th army attacked the headquarters of the nationalist Chinese 19th army but was repulsed during the Battle of Shanggao. In September, Japan attempted to take the city of Changsha again and clashed with Chinese nationalist forces.
German successes in Europe prompted Japan to increase pressure on European governments in Southeast Asia. The Dutch government agreed to provide Japan with oil supplies from the Dutch East Indies, but negotiations for additional access to their resources ended in failure in June 1941. In July 1941 Japan sent troops to southern Indochina, threatening British and Dutch possessions in the Far East. The United States, the United Kingdom, and other Western governments reacted to this move with a freeze on Japanese assets and a total oil embargo. At the same time, Japan was planning an invasion of the Soviet Far East, intending to take advantage of the German invasion in the west, but abandoned the operation after the sanctions.
Since early 1941, the United States and Japan had been engaged in negotiations in an attempt to improve their strained relations and end the war in China. Japan advanced a number of proposals which were dismissed by the Americans as inadequate. At the same time the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands engaged in secret discussions for the joint defence of their territories, in the event of a Japanese attack against any of them. Roosevelt reinforced the Philippines (an American protectorate scheduled for independence in 1946) and warned Japan that the United States would react to Japanese attacks against any "neighboring countries".
Frustrated at the lack of progress and pressured by American–British–Dutch sanctions, especially in oil, Japan prepared for war. Emperor Hirohito, after initial hesitation about Japan's chances of victory, began to favour Japan's entry into the war. As a result, Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe resigned. Hirohito refused the recommendation to appoint Prince Naruhiko Higashikuni in his place, choosing War Minister Hideki Tojo instead. On 3 November, Nagano explained in detail the plan of the attack on Pearl Harbor to the Emperor. On 5 November, Hirohito approved in imperial conference the operations plan for the war. On 20 November, the new government presented an interim proposal as its final offer. It called for the end of American aid to China and for lifting the embargo on the supply of oil and other resources to Japan. In exchange, Japan promised not to launch any attacks in Southeast Asia and to withdraw its forces from southern Indochina. The American counter-proposal of 26 November required that Japan evacuate all of China without conditions and conclude non-aggression pacts with all Pacific powers. That meant Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in China, or seizing the natural resources it needed in the Dutch East Indies by force; the Japanese military did not consider the former an option, and many officers considered the oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war.
Japan planned to seize European colonies in Asia to create a large defensive perimeter stretching into the Central Pacific. The Japanese would then be free to exploit the resources of Southeast Asia while exhausting the over-stretched Allies by fighting a defensive war. To prevent American intervention while securing the perimeter, it was further planned to neutralise the United States Pacific Fleet and the American military presence in the Philippines from the outset. On 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asian time zones), Japan attacked British and American holdings with near-simultaneous offensives against Southeast Asia and the Central Pacific. These included an attack on the American fleets at Pearl Harbor and the Philippines, as well as invasions of Guam, Wake Island, Malaya, Thailand, and Hong Kong.
These attacks led the United States, United Kingdom, China, Australia, and several other states to formally declare war on Japan, whereas the Soviet Union, being heavily involved in large-scale hostilities with European Axis countries, maintained its neutrality agreement with Japan. Germany, followed by the other Axis states, declared war on the United States in solidarity with Japan, citing as justification the American attacks on German war vessels that had been ordered by Roosevelt.
=== Axis advance stalls (1942–1943) ===
On 1 January 1942, the Allied Big Four—the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, and the United States—and 22 smaller or exiled governments issued the Declaration by United Nations, thereby affirming the Atlantic Charter and agreeing not to sign a separate peace with the Axis powers.
During 1942, Allied officials debated on the appropriate grand strategy to pursue. All agreed that defeating Germany was the primary objective. The Americans favoured a straightforward, large-scale attack on Germany through France. The Soviets demanded a second front. The British argued that military operations should target peripheral areas to wear out German strength, leading to increasing demoralisation, and bolstering resistance forces; Germany itself would be subject to a heavy bombing campaign. An offensive against Germany would then be launched primarily by Allied armour, without using large-scale armies. Eventually, the British persuaded the Americans that a landing in France was infeasible in 1942 and they should instead focus on driving the Axis out of North Africa.
At the Casablanca Conference in early 1943, the Allies reiterated the statements issued in the 1942 Declaration and demanded the unconditional surrender of their enemies. The British and Americans agreed to continue to press the initiative in the Mediterranean by invading Sicily to fully secure the Mediterranean supply routes. Although the British argued for further operations in the Balkans to bring Turkey into the war, in May 1943, the Americans extracted a British commitment to limit Allied operations in the Mediterranean to an invasion of the Italian mainland, and to invade France in 1944.
=== Pacific (1942–1943) ===
By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost conquered Burma, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, Singapore, and Rabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a large number of prisoners. Japanese advances were accompanied by numerous atrocities, including the Sook Ching Massacre in Singapore.
Despite stubborn resistance by Filipino and US forces, the Philippine Commonwealth was eventually captured in May 1942, forcing its government into exile. Following the capture of Bataan, Japanese armies forced some 75,000 Filipino and American prisoners on a 42km death march, resulting in thousands of deaths. On 16 April, in Burma, 7,000 British soldiers were encircled by the Japanese 33rd Division during the Battle of Yenangyaung and rescued by the Chinese 38th Division. Japanese forces achieved naval victories in the South China Sea, Java Sea, and Indian Ocean, and bombed the Allied naval base at Darwin, Australia. In January 1942, the only Allied success against Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha. These easy victories over the unprepared US and European opponents left Japan overconfident, and overextended.
In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The planned invasion was thwarted when an Allied task force, centred on two American fleet carriers, fought Japanese naval forces to a draw in the Battle of the Coral Sea. Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid, was to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be eliminated; as a diversion, Japan would also send forces to occupy the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. In mid-May, Japan started the Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign in China, with the goal of inflicting retribution on the Chinese who aided the surviving American airmen in the Doolittle Raid by destroying Chinese air bases and fighting against the Chinese 23rd and 32nd Army Groups. In early June, Japan put its operations into action, but the Americans had broken Japanese naval codes in late May and were fully aware of the plans and order of battle, and used this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over the Imperial Japanese Navy.
With its capacity for aggressive action greatly diminished as a result of the Midway battle, Japan attempted to capture Port Moresby by an overland campaign in the Territory of Papua. The Americans planned a counterattack against Japanese positions in the southern Solomon Islands, primarily Guadalcanal, as a first step towards capturing Rabaul, the main Japanese base in Southeast Asia.
Both plans started in July, but by mid-September, the Battle for Guadalcanal took priority for the Japanese, and troops in New Guinea were ordered to withdraw from the Port Moresby area to the northern part of the island, where they faced Australian and United States troops in the Battle of Buna–Gona. Guadalcanal soon became a focal point for both sides with heavy commitments of troops and ships in the battle for Guadalcanal, with Japanese forces suffering massive losses in the attrition, especially amongst their elite pilots. By the start of 1943, the Japanese were defeated on the island and withdrew their troops. In Burma, Commonwealth forces mounted two operations. The first was a disastrous offensive into the Arakan region in late 1942 that forced a retreat back to India by May 1943. The second was the insertion of irregular forces behind Japanese frontlines in February which, by the end of April, had achieved mixed results.
=== Eastern Front (1942–1943) ===
Despite considerable losses, in early 1942 Germany and its allies stopped a major Soviet offensive in central and southern Russia, keeping most territorial gains they had achieved during the previous year. In May, the Germans defeated Soviet offensives in the Kerch Peninsula and at Kharkov. The fortress city of Sevastopol, which the Red Army had held out against Axis siege for nearly 250 days, was finally seized with the use of massive artillery bombardments and poison gas.
In June 1942 Germany launched its main summer offensive against southern Russia, to seize the oil fields of the Caucasus and occupy the Kuban steppe, while maintaining positions on the northern and central areas of the front. The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River. The Soviet Union decided to make its stand at Stalingrad on the Volga.
By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting. The Soviet Union began its second winter counter-offensive, starting with an encirclement of the German Sixth Army at Stalingrad, and an assault on the Rzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed. By early February 1943, the German army had taken tremendous losses; German troops at Stalingrad had been defeated, and the front-line had been pushed back beyond its position before the summer offensive. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov, creating a salient in their front line around the Soviet city of Kursk.
=== Western Europe/Atlantic and Mediterranean (1942–1943) ===
Exploiting poor American naval command decisions, the German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic coast. By November 1941, Commonwealth forces had launched a counter-offensive in North Africa, Operation Crusader, and reclaimed all the gains the Germans and Italians had made. The Germans also launched a North African offensive in January, pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala line by early February, followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany used to prepare for their upcoming offensives. Concerns that the Japanese might use bases in Vichy-held Madagascar caused the British to invade the island in early May 1942. An Axis offensive in Libya forced an Allied retreat deep inside Egypt until Axis forces were stopped at El Alamein. On the Continent, raids of Allied commandos on strategic targets, culminating in the failed Dieppe Raid, demonstrated the Western Allies' inability to launch an invasion of continental Europe without much better preparation, equipment, and operational security.
In August 1942, the Allies succeeded in repelling a second attack against El Alamein and, at a high cost, managed to deliver desperately needed supplies to the besieged Malta. A few months later, the Allies commenced an attack of their own in Egypt, dislodging the Axis forces and beginning a drive west across Libya. This attack was followed up shortly after by Anglo-American landings in French North Africa, which resulted in the region joining the Allies. Hitler responded to the French colony's defection by ordering the occupation of Vichy France; although Vichy forces did not resist this violation of the armistice, they managed to scuttle their fleet to prevent its capture by German forces. Axis forces in Africa withdrew into Tunisia, which was conquered by the Allies in May 1943.
In June 1943, the British and Americans began a strategic bombing campaign against Germany with a goal to disrupt the war economy, reduce morale, and "de-house" the civilian population. The firebombing of Hamburg was among the first attacks in this campaign, inflicting significant casualties and considerable losses on infrastructure of this important industrial centre.
=== Allies gain momentum (1943–1944) ===
After the Guadalcanal campaign, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in the Pacific. In May 1943, Canadian and US forces were sent to eliminate Japanese forces from the Aleutians. Soon after, the United States, with support from Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Islander forces, began major ground, sea and air operations to isolate Rabaul by capturing surrounding islands, and breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the Gilbert and Marshall Islands. By the end of March 1944, the Allies had completed both of these objectives and had also neutralised the major Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands. In April, the Allies launched an operation to retake Western New Guinea.
In the Soviet Union, both the Germans and the Soviets spent the spring and early summer of 1943 preparing for large offensives in central Russia. On 5 July 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge. Within a week, German forces had exhausted themselves against the Soviets' well-constructed defences, and for the first time in the war, Hitler cancelled an operation before it had achieved tactical or operational success. This decision was partially affected by the Western Allies' invasion of Sicily launched on 9 July, which, combined with previous Italian failures, resulted in the ousting and arrest of Mussolini later that month.
On 12 July 1943, the Soviets launched their own counter-offensives, thereby nearly completely dispelling any chance of German victory or even stalemate in the east. The Soviet victory at Kursk marked the end of German superiority, giving the Soviet Union the initiative on the Eastern Front. The Germans tried to stabilise their eastern front along the hastily fortified Panther–Wotan line, but the Soviets broke through it at Smolensk and the Lower Dnieper Offensive.
On 3 September 1943, the Western Allies invaded the Italian mainland, following Italy's armistice with the Allies and the ensuing German occupation of Italy. Germany, with the help of the fascists, responded to the armistice by disarming Italian forces that were in many places without superior orders, seizing military control of Italian areas, and creating a series of defensive lines. German special forces then rescued Mussolini, who then soon established a new client state in German-occupied Italy named the Italian Social Republic, causing an Italian civil war. The Western Allies fought through several lines until reaching the main German defensive line in mid-November.
German operations in the Atlantic also suffered. By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly effective, the resulting sizeable German submarine losses forced a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. In November 1943, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran. The former conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory and the military planning for the Burma campaign, while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat.
From November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde, the Chinese awaited Allied relief as they forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition. In January 1944, the Allies launched a series of attacks in Italy against the line at Monte Cassino and tried to outflank it with landings at Anzio.
On 27 January 1944, Soviet troops launched a major offensive that expelled German forces from the Leningrad region, thereby ending the most lethal siege in history. The following Soviet offensive was halted on the pre-war Estonian border by the German Army Group North aided by Estonians hoping to re-establish national independence. This delay slowed subsequent Soviet operations in the Baltic Sea region. By late May 1944, the Soviets had liberated Crimea, largely expelled Axis forces from Ukraine, and made incursions into Romania, which were repulsed by the Axis troops. The Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and, at the cost of allowing several German divisions to retreat, Rome was captured on 4 June.
The Allies had mixed success in mainland Asia. In March 1944, the Japanese launched the first of two invasions, an operation against Allied positions in Assam, India, and soon besieged Commonwealth positions at Imphal and Kohima. In May 1944, British and Indian forces mounted a counter-offensive that drove Japanese troops back to Burma by July, and Chinese forces that had invaded northern Burma in late 1943 besieged Japanese troops in Myitkyina. The second Japanese invasion of China aimed to destroy China's main fighting forces, secure railways between Japanese-held territory and capture Allied airfields. By June, the Japanese had conquered the province of Henan and begun a new attack on Changsha.
=== Allies Offensives (1944) ===
On 6 June 1944 (commonly known as D-Day), after three years of Soviet pressure, the Western Allies invaded northern France. After reassigning several Allied divisions from Italy, they also attacked southern France. These landings were successful and led to the defeat of the German Army units in France. Paris was liberated on 25 August by the local resistance assisted by the Free French Forces, both led by General Charles de Gaulle, and the Western Allies continued to push back German forces in western Europe during the latter part of the year. An attempt to advance into northern Germany spearheaded by a major airborne operation in the Netherlands failed. After that, the Western Allies slowly pushed into Germany, but failed to cross the Roer river. In Italy, the Allied advance slowed due to the last major German defensive line.
On 22 June, the Soviets launched a strategic offensive in Belarus that nearly destroyed the German Army Group Centre. Soon after that, another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The Soviet Red Army however halted in the Praga district on the other side of the Vistula as the Germans quelled the Warsaw Uprising initiated by the Home Army (the main faction of the Polish resistance, loyal to the non-communist government-in exile), killing over 150,000 Poles. The national uprising in Slovakia was also quelled by the Germans. The Soviet Red Army's strategic offensive in eastern Romania cut off and destroyed the considerable German troops there and triggered a successful coup d'état in Romania and in Bulgaria, followed by those countries' shift to the Allied side.
In September 1944, Soviet troops advanced into Yugoslavia and forced the rapid withdrawal of German Army Groups E and F in Greece, Albania, and Yugoslavia to rescue them from being cut off. By this point, the communist-led Partisans under Marshal Josip Broz Tito, who had led an increasingly successful guerrilla campaign against the occupation since 1941, controlled much of the territory of Yugoslavia and engaged in delaying efforts against German forces further south. In northern Serbia, the Soviet Red Army, with limited support from Bulgarian forces, assisted the Partisans in a joint liberation of the capital city of Belgrade on 20 October. A few days later, the Soviets launched a massive assault against German-occupied Hungary that lasted until the fall of Budapest in February 1945. Unlike rapid Soviet victories in the Balkans, bitter Finnish resistance to the Soviet offensive in the Karelian Isthmus denied the Soviets occupation of Finland and led to a Soviet-Finnish armistice on relatively mild conditions, although Finland was obligated to fight their German former allies.
By the start of July 1944, Commonwealth forces in Southeast Asia had repelled the Japanese sieges in Assam, pushing the Japanese back to the Chindwin River while the Chinese captured Myitkyina. In September 1944, Chinese forces captured Mount Song and reopened the Burma Road. In China, the Japanese had more successes, having finally captured Changsha in mid-June and the city of Hengyang by early August. Soon after, they invaded the province of Guangxi, winning major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou by the end of November and successfully linking up their forces in China and Indochina by mid-December.
In the Pacific, US forces continued to push back the Japanese perimeter. In mid-June 1944, they began their offensive against the Mariana and Palau islands and decisively defeated Japanese forces in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. These defeats led to the resignation of the Japanese Prime Minister, Hideki Tojo, and provided the United States with air bases to launch intensive heavy bomber attacks on the Japanese home islands. In late October, American forces invaded the Filipino island of Leyte; soon after, Allied naval forces scored another large victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval battles in history.
=== Axis collapse and Allied victory (1944–1945) ===
On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes and along the French-German border, hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port at Antwerp. By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled. In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia. On 4 February Soviet, British, and US leaders met for the Yalta Conference. They agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and on when the Soviet Union would join the war against Japan.
In February, the Soviets entered Silesia and Pomerania, while the Western Allies entered western Germany and closed to the Rhine river. By March, the Western Allies crossed the Rhine north and south of the Ruhr, encircling the German Army Group B. In early March, in an attempt to protect its last oil reserves in Hungary and retake Budapest, Germany launched its last major offensive against Soviet troops near Lake Balaton. Within two weeks, the offensive had been repulsed, the Soviets advanced to Vienna, and captured the city. In early April, Soviet troops captured Königsberg, while the Western Allies finally pushed forward in Italy and swept across western Germany capturing Hamburg and Nuremberg. American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe river on 25 April, leaving unoccupied pockets in southern Germany and around Berlin.
Soviet troops stormed and captured Berlin in late April. In Italy, German forces surrendered on 29 April, while the Italian Social Republic capitulated two days later. On 30 April, the Reichstag was captured, signalling the military defeat of Nazi Germany.
Major changes in leadership occurred on both sides during this period. On 12 April, President Roosevelt died and was succeeded by his vice president, Harry S. Truman. Benito Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans on 28 April. On 30 April, Hitler committed suicide in his headquarters, and was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz (as President of the Reich) and Joseph Goebbels (as Chancellor of the Reich). Goebbels also committed suicide on the following day and was replaced by Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk, in what would later be known as the Flensburg Government. Total and unconditional surrender in Europe was signed on 7 and 8 May, to be effective by the end of 8 May. German Army Group Centre resisted in Prague until 11 May. On 23 May, all remaining members of the German government were arrested by Allied forces in Flensburg. On 5 June, all German political and military institutions were placed under Allied control through the Berlin Declaration.
In the Pacific theatre, American forces accompanied by the forces of the Philippine Commonwealth advanced in the Philippines, clearing Leyte by the end of April 1945. They landed on Luzon in January 1945 and recaptured Manila in March, during which Japanese forces killed 100,000 Filipino civilians in the city. Fighting continued on Luzon, Mindanao, and other islands of the Philippines until the end of the war.
Meanwhile, the United States Army Air Forces launched a massive firebombing campaign of strategic cities in Japan in an effort to destroy Japanese war industry and civilian morale. A devastating bombing raid on Tokyo of 9–10 March was the deadliest conventional bombing raid in history.
In May 1945, Australian troops landed in Borneo, overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March, and the British pushed on to reach Rangoon by 3 May. Chinese forces started a counterattack in the Battle of West Hunan that occurred between 6 April and 7 June 1945. American naval and amphibious forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by March, and Okinawa by the end of June. At the same time, a naval blockade by submarines was strangling Japan's economy and drastically reducing its ability to supply overseas forces.
On 11 July, Allied leaders met in Potsdam, Germany. They confirmed earlier agreements about Germany, and the American, British and Chinese governments reiterated the demand for unconditional surrender of Japan, specifically stating that "the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction". During this conference, the United Kingdom held its general election, and Clement Attlee replaced Churchill as Prime Minister.
The call for unconditional surrender was rejected by the Japanese government, which believed it would be capable of negotiating for more favourable surrender terms. In early August, the United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Between the two bombings, the Soviets, pursuant to the Yalta agreement, declared war on Japan, invaded Japanese-held Manchuria and quickly defeated the Kwantung Army, which was the largest Japanese fighting force. These two events persuaded previously adamant Imperial Army leaders to accept surrender terms. The Red Army also captured the southern part of Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands. On the night of 9–10 August 1945, Emperor Hirohito ordered the Japanese cabinet to accept the terms demanded by the Allies in the Potsdam Declaration. On 15 August, the Emperor communicated this decision to the Japanese people through a speech broadcast on the radio (Gyokuon-hōsō, literally "broadcast in the Emperor's voice"). On 15 August 1945, Japan surrendered, with the surrender documents finally signed at Tokyo Bay on the deck of the American battleship USS Missouri on 2 September 1945, ending the war.
== Aftermath ==
The Allies established occupation administrations in Austria and Germany, both initially divided between western and eastern occupation zones controlled by the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, respectively. However, their paths soon diverged. In Germany, the western and eastern occupation zones officially ended in 1949, with the respective zones becoming separate countries, West Germany and East Germany. In Austria, however, occupation continued until 1955, when a joint settlement between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union permitted the reunification of Austria as a democratic state officially non-aligned with any political bloc (although in practice having better relations with the Western Allies). A denazification program in Germany led to the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the Nuremberg trials and the removal of ex-Nazis from power, although this policy moved towards amnesty and re-integration of ex-Nazis into West German society.
Germany lost a quarter of its pre-war (1937) territory. Among the eastern territories, Silesia, Neumark and most of Pomerania were taken over by Poland, and East Prussia was divided between Poland and the Soviet Union, followed by the expulsion to Germany of the nine million Germans from these provinces, as well as three million Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia. By the 1950s, one-fifth of West Germans were refugees from the east. The Soviet Union also took over the Polish provinces east of the Curzon Line, from which two million Poles were expelled. Northeastern Romania, parts of eastern Finland, and the Baltic states were annexed into the Soviet Union. Italy lost its monarchy, colonial empire, and some European territories.
In an effort to maintain world peace, the Allies formed the United Nations, which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, and adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 as a common standard for all member nations. The great powers that were the victors of the war—France, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States—became the permanent members of the UN's Security Council. The five permanent members remain so to the present, although there have been two seat changes, between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China in 1971, and between the Soviet Union and its successor state, the Russian Federation, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union had begun to deteriorate even before the war was over.
Besides Germany, the rest of Europe was also divided into Western and Soviet spheres of influence. Most eastern and central European countries fell into the Soviet sphere, which led to the establishment of Communist-led regimes, with full or partial support of the Soviet occupation authorities. As a result, East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, and Albania became Soviet satellite states. Communist Yugoslavia conducted a fully independent policy, causing tension with the Soviet Union. A communist uprising in Greece was put down with Anglo-American support and the country remained aligned with the West.
Post-war division of the world was formalised by two international military alliances, the United States-led NATO and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact. The long period of political tensions and military competition between them—the Cold War—would be accompanied by an unprecedented arms race and number of proxy wars throughout the world.
In Asia, the United States led the occupation of Japan and administered Japan's former islands in the Western Pacific, while the Soviets annexed South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. Korea, formerly under Japanese colonial rule, was divided and occupied by the Soviet Union in the North and the United States in the South between 1945 and 1948. Separate republics emerged on both sides of the 38th parallel in 1948, each claiming to be the legitimate government for all of Korea, which led ultimately to the Korean War.
In China, nationalist and communist forces resumed the civil war in June 1946. Communist forces prevailed and established the People's Republic of China on the mainland, while nationalist forces retreated to Taiwan in 1949. In the Middle East, the Arab rejection of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine and the creation of Israel marked the escalation of the Arab–Israeli conflict. While European powers attempted to retain some or all of their colonial empires, their losses of prestige and resources during the war rendered this unsuccessful, leading to decolonisation.
The global economy suffered heavily from the war, although participating nations were affected differently. The United States emerged much richer than any other nation, leading to a baby boom, and by 1950 its gross domestic product per person was much greater than that of any of the other powers, and it dominated the world economy. The Allied occupational authorities pursued a policy of industrial disarmament in Western Germany from 1945 to 1948. Due to international trade interdependencies, this policy led to an economic stagnation in Europe and delayed European recovery from the war for several years.
At the Bretton Woods Conference in July 1944, the Allied nations drew up an economic framework for the post-war world. The agreement created the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which later became part of the World Bank Group. The Bretton Woods system lasted until 1973. Recovery began with the mid-1948 currency reform in West Germany, and was sped up by the liberalisation of European economic policy that the US Marshall Plan economic aid (1948–1951) both directly and indirectly caused. The post-1948 West German recovery has been called the German economic miracle. Italy also experienced an economic boom and the French economy rebounded. By contrast, the United Kingdom was in a state of economic ruin, and although receiving a quarter of the total Marshall Plan assistance, more than any other European country, it continued in relative economic decline for decades. The Soviet Union, despite enormous human and material losses, also experienced rapid increases in production in the immediate post-war era, having seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and exacted war reparations from its satellite states. Japan recovered much later. China returned to its pre-war industrial production by 1952.
== Impact ==
=== Casualties ===
An estimated 60 million to more than 75 million people died in the war including at least 20 million who died from deprivation, famine and disease. Civilian deaths have been estimated to comprise 67% to 80% of all direct and indirect deaths from the war. The Soviet Union had the highest overall death toll (estimated at 20 million to 28 million), followed by China (at least 15 million), Germany (6 million to 8.7 million) and Poland (5 million to 6.5 million).
The countries which sustained the most military deaths were the Soviet Union (about 8.7 million), Germany (around 5.3 million), China (2 million to 3 million) and Japan (1.7 million to 2.5 million). Of the 20 million to 25 million military deaths in the war, the majority were of German and Soviet soldiers, including prisoners of war (POWs), on the Eastern Front.
The high civilian death toll relative to military deaths was unusual for major wars up to that time. Some 10 million to 15 million people died of starvation and disease in China and the Soviet Union, and 8 million to 10 million in India and under Japanese occupation elsewhere in Asia and the Pacific. Around 15 million civilians died in genocides and other deliberate killings, while millions in total died in concentration camps, aerial bombings and in combat zones.
=== Genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity ===
In trials following the war, representatives of the Axis powers and their accomplices were convicted of numerous war crimes, crimes against humanity and complicity in genocides. The Nazis killed about 6 million Jews in a racially motivated genocide known as the Holocaust. They also killed millions of Slavs, over 130 thousand Romani, and members of other groups that they considered racially inferior. Almost 300,000 people with mental and physical disabilities were also systematically killed in Germany and its occupied territories.
The killing of civilians and POWs through massacres and deliberate starvation was especially common in the Eastern European and Asia-Pacific theatres. German forces on the Eastern Front destroyed or confiscated available food, massacred civilians in reprisals and routinely shot prisoners. The Japanese killed millions of civilians in occupied areas through massacres and scorched earth strategies; for example, in their "kill all, burn all, loot all" policy in China. In the Nanking Massacre, between 40,000 and 200,000 Chinese civilians and POWs were killed. Japan also used biological weapons in China and in early conflicts against the Soviets. The Soviet Union was responsible for imprisoning, deporting and often executing hundreds of thousands of civilians and POWs from occupied or annexed territories. This included the Katyn massacre of 22,000 Polish officers and intellectuals.
War crimes were also committed in civil wars and conflicts between resistance groups in occupied territories. In Yugoslavia, numerous war crimes, including the massacre of civilians and prisoners, were committed by Axis forces and the Axis-aligned Croatian Ustaše. The main resistance groups, the Serbian-Nationalist Chetniks and the Communist-led partisans, also committed massacres and persecutions of their enemies. In Poland, about 100,000 Poles were killed by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army in the Volhynia massacres between 1943 and 1945. About 10,000 Ukrainians were killed by Poles in reprisal attacks. In Greece, Axis forces were mainly responsible for civilian deaths through deliberate starvation and reprisal massacres, although the major resistance forces, ELAS and EDES, also committed war crimes.
The Soviet Union, Japan and Germany inflicted high death rates on POWs through executions, starvation, forced labour and other mistreatment. The Soviet Union and Japan had not ratified the Geneva Convention on treatment of POWs, and Germany regarded itself as exempt from the convention on the Eastern Front. About a third of those taken prisoner by the Japanese died, as did almost 60 per cent of Soviet prisoners of the Germans. About a third of Germans taken prisoner by the Soviet Union died in captivity. The mortality rate of German and Japanese prisoners of the Western allies was 1 to 2 per cent.
Germany, Japan and the Soviet Union made extensive use of forced labour of foreign civilians and POWs. In greater Germany, there were 7.6 million foreign workers (including POWs undertaking forced labour) and about 500,000 slave labourers in concentration camps by late 1944. Those civilians and POWs from Soviet-occupied territories who were deported to the Soviet Union were usually imprisoned in the Soviet forced labour camps, known as the gulag. Between 200,000 and one million Soviet POWs and civilians repatriated from German camps were also sent to the gulag as alleged Axis collaborators where many died from malnutrition, the harsh climate and overwork. The Japanese conscripted millions of foreign civilians and POWs to undertake forced labour in Japan and its occupied territories where they suffered harsh treatment and high death rates. Up to 200,000 Korean and Chinese women were forced into sex slavery.
While all the major belligerents committed rapes, the rape of civilians was particularly widespread among the German, Japanese and Soviet military. The post-war international military tribunals found the evidence of rape by German forces "overwhelming". Twenty-nine Japanese defendants, mostly generals, were convicted of complicity in mass rape. Soviet soldiers also committed mass rapes in occupied territories, especially Germany.
War crimes were committed by the Western Allied powers, but not on the same scale as those of the Axis powers and the Soviet Union. The Western Allies prosecuted a number of war crimes committed by their own forces, but Allied war crimes were not prosecuted by the post-war international military tribunals. There has been continued debate over whether the area bombing of cities in Germany and Japan, and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, were war crimes.
=== Occupation ===
In Europe, occupation came under two forms. In Western, Northern, and Central Europe (France, Norway, Denmark, the Low Countries, and the annexed portions of Czechoslovakia) Germany established economic policies through which it collected roughly 69.5 billion reichsmarks (27.8 billion US dollars) by the end of the war; this figure does not include the plunder of industrial products, military equipment, raw materials and other goods. Thus, the income from occupied nations was over 40 percent of the income Germany collected from taxation, a figure which increased to nearly 40 percent of total German income as the war went on.
In the East, the intended gains of Lebensraum were never attained as fluctuating front-lines and Soviet scorched earth policies denied resources to the German invaders. Unlike in the West, the Nazi racial policy encouraged extreme brutality against what it considered to be the "inferior people" of Slavic descent; most German advances were thus followed by mass atrocities and war crimes. The Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million ethnic Poles in addition to Polish-Jewish victims of the Holocaust. Although by 1942 resistance groups formed in most occupied territories, the assessments of the effectiveness of Soviet partisans and French Resistance suggests that they did not significantly hamper German operations until late 1943.
In Asia, Japan termed nations under its occupation as being part of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, essentially a Japanese hegemony which it claimed was for purposes of liberating colonised peoples. Although Japanese forces were sometimes welcomed as liberators from European domination, Japanese war crimes frequently turned local public opinion against them. During Japan's initial conquest, it captured 4,000,000 barrels (640,000 m3) of oil (~550,000 tonnes) left behind by retreating Allied forces; and by 1943, was able to get production in the Dutch East Indies up to 50 million barrels (7,900,000 m3) of oil (~6.8 million tonnes), 76 percent of its 1940 output rate.
=== Home fronts and production ===
In the 1930s, Britain and the United States together controlled almost 75% of world mineral output—essential for projecting military power.
In Europe, before the outbreak of the war, the Allies had significant advantages in both population and economics. In 1938, the Western Allies (United Kingdom, France, Poland and the British Dominions) had a 30 percent larger population and a 30 percent higher gross domestic product than the European Axis powers (Germany and Italy); including colonies, the Allies had more than a 5:1 advantage in population and a nearly 2:1 advantage in GDP. In Asia at the same time, China had roughly six times the population of Japan but only an 89 percent higher GDP; this reduces to three times the population and only a 38 percent higher GDP if Japanese colonies are included.
The United States produced about two-thirds of all munitions used by the Allies in World War II, including warships, transports, warplanes, artillery, tanks, trucks, and ammunition. Although the Allies' economic and population advantages were largely mitigated during the initial rapid blitzkrieg attacks of Germany and Japan, they became the decisive factor by 1942, after the United States and Soviet Union joined the Allies and the war evolved into one of attrition. While the Allies' ability to out-produce the Axis was partly due to more access to natural resources, other factors, such as Germany and Japan's reluctance to employ women in the labour force, Allied strategic bombing, and Germany's late shift to a war economy contributed significantly. Additionally, neither Germany nor Japan planned to fight a protracted war, and had not equipped themselves to do so. Germany, Japan and the Soviet Union used millions of slave labourers in war-related industries.
=== Advances in technology and its application ===
Aircraft were used for reconnaissance, as fighters, bombers, and ground-support, and each role developed considerably. Innovations included airlift (the capability to quickly move limited high-priority supplies, equipment, and personnel); and strategic bombing (the bombing of enemy industrial and population centres to destroy the enemy's ability to wage war). Anti-aircraft weaponry also advanced, including defences such as radar and surface-to-air artillery, in particular the introduction of the proximity fuze. The use of the jet aircraft was pioneered and led to jets becoming standard in air forces worldwide.
Advances were made in nearly every aspect of naval warfare, most notably with aircraft carriers and submarines. Although aeronautical warfare had relatively little success at the start of the war, actions at Taranto, Pearl Harbor, and the Coral Sea established the carrier as the dominant capital ship (in place of the battleship). In the Atlantic, escort carriers became a vital part of Allied convoys, increasing the effective protection radius and helping to close the Mid-Atlantic gap. Carriers were also more economical than battleships due to the relatively low cost of aircraft and because they are not required to be as heavily armoured. Submarines, which had proved to be an effective weapon during the First World War, were expected by all combatants to be important in the second. The British focused development on anti-submarine weaponry and tactics, such as sonar and convoys, while Germany focused on improving its offensive capability, with designs such as the Type VII submarine and wolfpack tactics. Gradually, improving Allied technologies such as the Leigh Light, Hedgehog, Squid, and homing torpedoes proved effective against German submarines.
Land warfare changed from the static frontlines of trench warfare of World War I, which had relied on improved artillery that outmatched the speed of both infantry and cavalry, to increased mobility and combined arms. The tank, which had been used predominantly for infantry support in the First World War, had evolved into the primary weapon. In the late 1930s, tank design was considerably more advanced than it had been during World War I, and advances continued throughout the war with increases in speed, armour and firepower. At the start of the war, most commanders thought enemy tanks should be met by tanks with superior specifications. This idea was challenged by the poor performance of the relatively light early tank guns against armour, and German doctrine of avoiding tank-versus-tank combat. This, along with Germany's use of combined arms, were among the key elements of their highly successful blitzkrieg tactics across Poland and France. Many means of destroying tanks, including indirect artillery, anti-tank guns (both towed and self-propelled), mines, short-ranged infantry antitank weapons, and other tanks were used. Even with large-scale mechanisation, infantry remained the backbone of all forces, and throughout the war, most infantry were equipped similarly to World War I. The portable machine gun spread, a notable example being the German MG 34, and various submachine guns which were suited to close combat in urban and jungle settings. The assault rifle, a late war development incorporating many features of the rifle and submachine gun, became the standard post-war infantry weapon for most armed forces.
Most major belligerents attempted to solve the problems of complexity and security involved in using large codebooks for cryptography by designing ciphering machines, the most well-known being the German Enigma machine. Development of SIGINT (signals intelligence) and cryptanalysis enabled the countering process of decryption. Notable examples were the Allied decryption of Japanese naval codes and British Ultra, a pioneering method for decoding Enigma that benefited from information given to the United Kingdom by the Polish Cipher Bureau, which had been decoding early versions of Enigma before the war. Another component of military intelligence was deception, which the Allies used to great effect in operations such as Mincemeat and Bodyguard.
Other technological and engineering feats achieved during, or as a result of, the war include the world's first programmable computers (Z3, Colossus, and ENIAC), guided missiles and modern rockets, the Manhattan Project's development of nuclear weapons, operations research, the development of artificial harbours, and oil pipelines under the English Channel. Although penicillin was discovered before the war, the development of industrial production technology as well as the mass production and use began during the war. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Target_House,_London | Target House, London | Target House is a modern commercial building designed by British modernist architect Rodney Gordon (1933–2008) of Tripos Architects. It is located at 66 St James's Street, London, at the junction with St James's Place.
== Design and construction ==
The building was designed in 1979 and completed in 1984. It replaced Map House, designed by R.J. Worley. The anodised bronze and aluminum cladding of the building made it a departure from the "brutalist" concrete designs more usually produced by Gordon.
== Reception ==
Charles McKean, the architecture correspondent for The Times, praised Target House, then known just as 66 St James's Street, for its boldness and panache but doubted the medieval credentials of the building claimed by the designers. He pointed out that the area had been developed in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and was not known for its medieval architecture apart from the faux medievalism of the nineteenth century.
McKean argued that the reference to the medieval was a red-herring and the building was in fact more notable for its modernity and affinity with the "space programme". He speculated that the chopped-off towers at roof-line, that made the spectator say "ouch" and were the least successful part of the design in his opinion, were really the result of planning regulations that restricted the height of new buildings in the area.
== Occupancy ==
The design included retail premises, offices and flats and the building was used in that form for many years. The ground floor is still occupied by the Stern Pissarro Gallery, founded in 1964. In February 2013, a successful planning application was made to Westminster Council to allow a change of use of the first to fourth floors from B1 (offices) to C3 (residential) use.
== Ownership ==
In 2012, the building was sold by Standard Life Investments to Albert Hay's Capital and City Group for £10.5 million. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_and_Remembrance_(miniseries) | War and Remembrance (miniseries) | War and Remembrance is an American miniseries based on the 1978 novel of the same name written by Herman Wouk. The miniseries, which aired from November 13, 1988, to May 14, 1989, covers the period of World War II from the American entry into World War II immediately after Pearl Harbor in December 1941 to the day after the bombing of the Japanese city of Hiroshima. It is the sequel to the 1983 miniseries The Winds of War, which was also based on one of Wouk's novels.
== Plot ==
The television mini-series continues the story of the extended Henry family and the Jastrow family starting on December 15, 1941 and ending on August 7, 1945 and their life experiences during World War II.
== Cast ==
== Production ==
=== Development ===
War and Remembrance had a multi-year production timeline. It was, at the time, the most expensive single project in the history of filmed entertainment and the most expensive single-story undertaking in United States television history. Costing $135 million (according to ABC head Brandon Stoddard in his Television Academy Foundation interview), it took over ABC's broadcast schedule for two one-week periods in 1988 and 1989, totaling 30 prime-time hours.
Up to that point, television had been dominated by the Big Three broadcasting networks in the United States, ABC, NBC and CBS. Shortly afterwards, cable television began the fragmentation of the United States broadcasting audience in earnest, leaving War and Remembrance the last of the giant miniseries. Miniseries had been major events on American television and ABC had produced some of the most seminal, under its ABC Novels for Television banner, including QB VII, Rich Man, Poor Man, Roots, Roots: The Next Generations, and Masada.
Because Herman Wouk was happy with Dan Curtis's 1983 ABC Novel for Television adaptation of The Winds of War, Wouk allowed Curtis to adapt the sequel novel as well. Curtis turned the project down at first, however. He feared it would be impossible to accomplish, even with virtually unlimited resources. Curtis worried that the massive naval battles could not be recreated, because so few WWII-era ships and planes still existed. More importantly, Curtis, who was Jewish, wondered how to do justice to the reality of the Holocaust, saying "to put on film the true horror was impossible. Once one false note sneaks in, you're gone. And, in my own eyes, I felt failing would be an absolute crime." Curtis credited his wife Norma with convincing him to take on the mammoth job, recounting that she told him "You'll kill yourself if someone else finishes this story."
Paramount Television had produced The Winds of War at a cost of $40 million, $32 million of which was covered by ABC's licensing fee. However, Paramount decided not to produce the sequel and sold the rights to ABC, which produced the massive miniseries itself. ABC first planned a $65 million, 20-hour series, but when they went to Curtis, he said he wanted to make a $100 million, 30-hour series, which they eventually greenlit. There were also strict contractual restrictions on advertising that Herman Wouk had negotiated in 1977, before either miniseries aired. He had approval over all ads and required them not to disturb the narrative or to run under 30 seconds. Wouk also refused to allow any advertising for personal care products, foods, or any other ABC programming. Major eventual sponsors were Ford Motors, Nike, IBM, GE and American Express. In addition, Wouk required that certain Holocaust sequences run uninterrupted by commercials of any kind. ABC's standards and practices division also agreed to an unprecedented waiver allowing frontal nudity during the lengthy Holocaust sequences, running parental advisories before any episodes beginning before 8pm.
The screenplay took two years to write. While Wouk wrote the script for The Winds of War alone, for War and Remembrance Curtis and Earl W. Wallace wrote the dramatic scenes dealing with the fictional Henry family, while Wouk wrote the scenes involving historical figures. The series was nearly called off in 1985, just as it was nearing the completion of $16 million in preproduction, when ABC was bought by Capital Cities Communications, which instituted a thrifty executive direction.
=== Casting ===
Although most of the enormous cast of The Winds of War returned to their roles in War and Remembrance, including Robert Mitchum, Victoria Tennant, Polly Bergen and Jeremy Kemp, several roles were recast. John Houseman, who played Aaron Jastrow in Winds of War, was too frail for War and Remembrance's lengthy production schedule. He died of spinal cancer in 1988, the year War and Remembrance was broadcast. Houseman was replaced by John Gielgud. Jane Seymour was cast as Natalie Henry in place of Ali MacGraw after Seymour campaigned for the role and made a screen test. Dan Curtis was struck by her performance and immediately cast her in the vital role.
Jan-Michael Vincent, who played Byron Henry in The Winds of War, was busy as the action lead in the American television series Airwolf. Cast and crew also hint in more recent interviews in the featurette on the Winds of War DVD that Vincent's drinking made him difficult on set. Vincent was replaced by Hart Bochner. Other major replacements include Sharon Stone as Janice (replacing Deborah Winters), Leslie Hope as Madeline (replacing Lisa Eilbacher), Michael Woods as Warren (replacing Ben Murphy), Robert Morley as Alistair Tudsbury (replacing Michael Logan), Barry Bostwick as Aster (replacing Joseph Hacker), and Steven Berkoff as Adolf Hitler (replacing Günter Meisner). William Woodson again serves as narrator.
=== Filming ===
During preproduction, Dan Curtis lobbied the Polish Communist government tirelessly for permission to film on the grounds of the Auschwitz concentration camp, and after two years it was eventually granted, making War and Remembrance the first major commercial motion picture to be filmed there. His request was aided by the intercession of TVP, the public Polish TV network, and the support of Poland's preeminent World War II expert, who approved the script. Curtis said that he was allowed to film at Auschwitz on the condition that the script not have "one word about Polish antisemitism" during the war.
Filming of the miniseries began with production at Auschwitz from January to May 1986. When the Chernobyl nuclear disaster happened nearby, causing legitimate fears of fallout spreading across Scandinavia and Eastern Europe, Curtis called in nuclear scientists from the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna to give the location a clean bill of health, but allowed any crew members who were still afraid to wait in Munich for the production to return. The crematoriums were rebuilt adjacent to the original site, from the original German blueprints, because they had been demolished by the Nazis at the end of the war.
Because the miniseries was being shot out of sequence, Jane Seymour's long hair could not be cut for the scenes at Auschwitz, which were the very first she filmed. Instead, make-up artists took shears to a full scalp wig for her to wear for those scenes instead. Both Curtis and Seymour contracted pneumonia in the brutal sub-zero temperatures there and the production had to briefly shut down as a result. Several actual Auschwitz-Birkenau survivors were cast as extras for the Auschwitz-Birkenau selection sequence and former Auschwitz internee Branko Lustig, later a two-time Oscar-winning producer, served as assistant director on the series.
Filmed from January 1986 to September 1987, the 1,492 page script (by Earl W. Wallace, Dan Curtis, and Herman Wouk) contained 2,070 scenes. There were 757 sets: 494 in Europe, including France, Italy, Austria, Yugoslavia, Switzerland, West Germany, England, and Poland, and 263 in the United States (including Hawaii) and Canada. There were 358 speaking parts in the script; 30,310 extras were employed in Europe and 11,410 in the United States. The gargantuan production was filmed in a series of seven 13-week shooting blocks, after each of which it would shut down for a month to do preliminary work for the next 13-week shoot.
The series was shot in Yugoslavia in Zagreb and Osijek, where the old town district of Tvrđa, a Habsburg star-shaped fortress, was used as a primary location, doubling for the almost identical fortress town of Terezín in Czechoslovakia, which was converted by the Nazis to a Jewish ghetto. Filming took place in France throughout Paris, including the Paris Opera, where a scene from The Marriage of Figaro was staged with a 42-piece symphony orchestra and 500 extras, and Lourdes, where the production took over the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Lourdes; in West Germany in Baden-Baden and Berchtesgaden, where members of the United States Army, stationed nearby were hired as extras for some of the scenes shot at Hitler's Eagle's Nest; in Rome and Siena, Italy; Bern, Switzerland; London and Cambridge, England; and Vienna, Austria. Scenes set in Russia were filmed in Montreal in temperatures reaching 40 degrees below zero Celsius. In addition, miniatures for the sea battles were filmed in the water tank of the 007 Stage at Pinewood Studios in the United Kingdom.
In the US, the production shot extensively in and around Los Angeles. Filming also took place in Washington, D.C.; at the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland; at Long Beach Naval Station in Long Beach, California aboard USS New Jersey; in Bremerton, Washington; at Naval Air Station Pensacola in Pensacola, Florida aboard the aircraft carrier USS Lexington; in Mobile, Alabama, aboard USS Alabama; and throughout Hawaii, including Pearl Harbor aboard USS Bowfin and Waianae, where a large group of warships were assembled.
After principal photography was completed, a wrap party for cast and crew was held on January 8, 1988 aboard the ocean liner RMS Queen Mary in Long Beach, which had previously been used as a filming location for The Winds of War.
== Episodes ==
== Broadcast ==
The scope of the production had required it to be greenlit years in advance. By 1988, network viewership had shrunk to just 68 percent of television viewers. As a result, by the time the series aired, it was never expected to earn a profit. ABC stated that they fully expected to lose at least $20 million on it. The miniseries was originally intended to run on consecutive nights in January 1989, but the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike caused ABC to move the first half, chapters I–VII, up to air in the fall of 1988. The strike raised ABC's ratings hopes, because it meant that the series would run without any other original programming opposite it on the other networks. However, when they were broadcast in November 1988, the first seven episodes no longer aired on consecutive nights, as originally planned, running instead spread out over eleven days.
Although the miniseries won every time slot against its competition on NBC and CBS, and outperformed ABC's regular programming, it still underperformed ABC's ratings expectations, with the first chapter averaging an 18.6 Nielsen rating and a 29% viewer share. Because the ratings were lower than ABC had promised the various sponsors, the network was obligated to give additional free "make-good" advertising time to them. The low ratings were also reported to be partly responsible for ABC entertainment head Brandon Stoddard losing his job in April 1989. Dan Curtis blamed the lower-than-expected ratings partly on the confusing airdates, saying in a 2002 interview that ABC "skipped Saturdays and Mondays, the viewers lost the thread, and they didn't even put up a sign saying 'To Be Continued' at the end of the first half." In addition, because the editing schedule was so compressed, ABC allowed Curtis to turn in episodes of enormously varying length, running anywhere from two to three hours with commercials, often with odd running times like two hours and five minutes or two hours and twenty minutes. As a result, the episodes had extremely inconsistent start and end times each night they ran. NBC mocked ABC's airing strategy in a promo for their November sweeps programming, comparing their schedule of various regular series, television premieres of acquired films, the Vanna White telefilm Goddess of Love and a Comedy Store special against ABC's "eighteen hours of a war story that doesn't end."
Due to the lower than expected ratings for the first half, the second half, chapters VIII–XII (marketed by ABC as "The Final Chapter"), had several hours cut before airing. The second half was also mixed and aired in mono, instead of the stereo used on the first half. This was not a cost-cutting measure, but the result of a technical issue encountered with airing the stereo mix on the first half.
With the series costing $105 million to produce, Capital Cities/ABC lost an estimated $30-$40 million on the production. This began the downfall of the miniseries, where the format faced decreasing lengths and ratings into the mid-1990s as a result of increasing VCR ownership and cable television; by the 1996–1997 season, the longest-running network miniseries airing was a six-hour adaptation of The Shining (1996).
== Awards ==
War and Remembrance received 15 Emmy Award nominations, including best actor (John Gielgud), actress (Jane Seymour) and supporting actress (Polly Bergen), and won for best miniseries, special effects and single-camera production editing. It also won three Golden Globes, receiving trophies for Best Miniseries, as well as two awards for John Gielgud and Barry Bostwick, who tied for Best Supporting Actor. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kundavai_Pir%C4%81ttiy%C4%81r | Kundavai Pirāttiyār | Kundavai Pirattiyar, commonly known mononymously as Kundavai, was a Chola Indian princess who lived in the tenth century in South India. She was the daughter of Parantaka II and Vanavan Mahadevi. She was born in Tirukoilur and was the elder sister of Chola emperor Rajaraja I. She had title as Ilaiyapirātti Kundavai Nachiyar.
However, when her husband Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan was crowned king in his hometown Bana kingdom, she did not accept the offer to become queen of the kingdom and remained as the princess of Tanjore.
== Life ==
Kundavai (also transliterated as Kundhavai or Kunthavai) was born in 945 CE. She was the only daughter of the Chola king Parantaka II and queen Vanavan Mahadevi. She had an elder brother – Aditha Chola II, and a younger brother – Raja Raja Chola I.
Kundavai married Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, a member of the Bana dynasty, a feudatory of the Cholas mentioned in the Tanjore inscriptions. He was also the commander of the Chola infantry that fought in Sri Lanka in the days of Rajaraja l. The territory under his authority was known as 'Vallavaraiyanadu', and occasionally 'Brahmadesam'.
Along with her great-aunt Sembiyan Mahadevi, Kundavai brought up her nephew, Rajendra I, who was the son of Rajaraja I and Thiripuvana Madeviyar, princess of Kodumbalur. Rajendra I spent most of his childhood in Pazhaiyarai with Kundavai and Sembiyan Mahadevi.
== Life and works ==
Kundavai commissioned many temples for Tirthankars, Vishnu and Siva. She revered many Jain Monks and Vedantic seers . She features in Chola inscriptions.
..vessels and ornaments made of gold, silver and pearl and presented to the temples of Kundavai-Vinnagar-Alvar, Iravikulamanikka-Iswara and Kundavai Jinalaya, built by the princess Parantakan Kundavai Pirattiyar, daughter of Ponmaligaittunjiyadevar(Parantaka Sundara Chola).
She is believed to have built many Jain temples but at least two Jain temples have inscriptions that records to have been built by her, one at Rajarajeswaram later known as Darasuram and the other at Tirumalai. She built a hospital after her father named Vinnagar athura salai at Thanjavur and donated extensive lands for its maintenance. She made lavish donations to the Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur during the reign of her younger brother Rajaraja Chola I and her nephew Rajendra Chola I.
One of the inscriptions reads:
Records gift of sheep for lamps to the temple of Kundavai-Vinnagar-Alvar by princess Pirantakan-Kundavai-Pirattiyar. Also mentioned is the senapati, Mummudi-Chola Brahmamarayar who was in charge of the management of the temple Some of the images or idols set up by princess Kundavai include:
Here is an excerpt from the 29th year of Rajaraja that lists some of her gifts to Brihadeeswarar Temple:
Hail! Prosperity! Until the twenty-ninth year (of the reign) of Ko-Rajakesarivarman alias Sri-Rajarajadeva who..-Arvar Parantakan Kundavaiyar, (who was) the venerable elder sister of the lord Sri-Rajarajadeva and the great queen of Vallavaraiyar Vandyadevar..gave three thousand five hundred karanju of gold, which was a quarter superior in fineness to the (gold standard called) dandavani, and one thousand five hundred karanju of gold, which was one (degree) inferior in fineness to the dandavani, – altogether, five thousand karanju of gold.
Hail ! Prosperity! Until the third year (of the reign) of Ko-Parakesarivarman, alias the lord Sri-Rajendra-Soradeva,-Arvar Parantakan Kundavaiyar, (who was) the venerable elder sister of the lord Sri-Rajarajadeva (and) the great queen of Vallavaraiyar Vandyadevar gave-..One sacred girdle (tiruppattigai), (containing) ninety-seven karanju and a half, four manjadi and nine-tenths of gold. Six hundred and sixty-seven large and small diamonds with smooth edges, set (into it), – including such as had spots, cracks, red dots, black dots, and marks as of burning, – weighed two karanju and a quarter and six-tenths (of a manjadi). Eighty-three large and small rubies, viz., twenty-two halahalam of superior quality, twenty halahalam, twenty smooth rubies, nine bluish rubies, two sattam and ten unpolished rubies, – including such as had cavities, cuts, holes, white specks, flaws, and such as still adhered to the ore, – weighed ten karanju and three-quarters, three manjadi and two-tenths. Two hundred and twelve pearls, strung or sewn on, – including round pearls, roundish pearls, polished pearls, small pearls, nimbolam, ambumudu, (pearls) of brilliant water and of red water, such as had been polished while still adhering to the shall, (and pearls with) lines, stains, red dots, white specks and wrinkles, – weighed eighteen karanju and two manjadi. Altogether, (the girdle) weighed one hundred and twenty-nine karanju and seven-tenths (of a manadi), corresponding to a value of four thousand and five hundred kasu.. One ring for the foot of the goddess, (containing) seventy-one karanju and a half and two manjadi of gold. Four hundred and fifty-nine diamonds, set (into it), viz., four hundred and fifty diamonds with smooth edges, and nine small square diamonds with smooth edges, including such as had spots, cracks, red dots, black dots, and marks as of burning, – weighed (one) karanju and a half, three manjadi and nine-tenths. Thirty-nine large and small rubies, viz., ten halahalam of superior quality, eight halahalam, nine smooth rubies, three bluish rubies and nine unpolished rubies, – including such as had cavities, cuts, holes, white speeks, flaws, and such as still adhered to the ore, – weighed three karanju and three-quarters, three manjadi and six-tenths. Altogether, (the ring) weighed seventy-seventy-seven karanju, four manjadi and (one) kunri, corresponding to a value of a five hundred kasu.
Kundavai spent the last days of her life with her nephew Rajendra I at the palace in Pazhaiyarai.
..run-tiru-amudu sëd-arulavaum ăga nellu padin kalam-āga ōrādaikku nellu nūrru irubadin kalamum udaiyār sri-Rājarājadēvarkku mun pirand-arulina sri ālvār sri-Kundavai Pirāttiyār pirand-arulina avitta-tirunālāl tingal oru nāl tiru-vilā elund-arulavu.
== Influence ==
Kundavai is celebrated as mentor to Rajaraja I. Her influence continued into the next generation as she helped rear Rajendra Chola. Uniquely for her era, where royal women were used to forge alliances, Kundavai's father allowed her to exercise her free will, whereupon the princess resolved to stay in the Chola kingdom all her life. Esteemed throughout the Chola realm for her taste and learning, Kundavai was requested to look after the daughters of other royal clans, tutoring them in art, music, and literature.
== In popular culture ==
Ponniyin Selvan a 1955 historical fiction novel by Kalki Krishnamurthy revolves around the early days of Rajaraja, the mysteries surrounding the assassination of Aditha Karikalan and the subsequent accession of Uttama to the Chola throne.
S. Varalakshmi portrayed Kundavai Pirattiyar in the 1973 movie Rajaraja Cholan that had Sivaji Ganesan portray the role of Raja Raja Chola.
Trisha Krishnan portrayed Kundavai Pirattiyar in the movies Ponniyin Selvan: I and Ponniyin Selvan: II. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackson_Hole_Mountain_Resort | Jackson Hole Mountain Resort | Jackson Hole Mountain Resort (JHMR) is a ski resort in the western United States in Teton Village, Wyoming. It is in the Teton Range of the Rocky Mountains, twelve miles (20 km) northwest of Jackson and due south of Grand Teton National Park.
It is named after the historically significant Jackson Hole valley and is known for its steep terrain and large continuous vertical drop of 4,139 ft (1,262 m). JHMR appears frequently in the media as one of North America's most expensive ski resorts.
== Ski area information ==
The ski area partially covers Rendezvous and Apres Vous Mountains and is known for its challenging terrain, including the infamous Corbet's Couloir. Half of the terrain is rated expert, 40% intermediate, and only 10% beginner. The intermediate terrain is primarily on south-facing Apres Vous Mountain, while Rendezvous Mountain has Jackson Hole's more advanced terrain, including bowls, glades, and chutes. At over 4,000 vertical feet of skiing, Jackson Hole boasts one of the greatest continuous inbounds rises in the U.S, after nearby Big Sky, Montana, which has an overall vertical of 4,350 feet (1,326 m), but its continuous vertical is 700 feet (213 m) less; and Snowmass in Colorado, which has a vertical drop of 4,406 feet (1,343 m)). Timberline Lodge ski area on Mount Hood, East of Portland Oregon has the greatest vertical drop of any ski area in the United States at 4,540'. The Upper elevation is 8,540 and the lowest elevation is 4,000.
In addition to the skiable terrain in-bounds, there is an even larger area to be explored off-piste (out of bounds). These areas are accessed through marked gates by expert skiers/boarders who are equipped with avalanche safety gear.
Jackson Hole's original aerial tram was closed to the public in the spring of 2006 and replaced with a new tram that opened in 2008. The tram's vertical rise is 4,139 feet (1,262 m) to an elevation of 10,450 feet (3,185 m) above sea level. Construction on the new, 100-passenger Doppelmayr CTEC tram began the day after the Resort closed for the 2006-2007 ski season. Service began on December 20, 2008. During the two seasons without a tram, a temporary double chairlift named East Ridge was built to service the runs at the top of Rendezvous Mountain. This lift was subsequently moved and renamed the Marmot Chair, which provides access from the base of the Thunder Lift to the Bridger Gondola summit.
In the summer, the resort offers numerous activities such as mountain biking, hiking, paragliding, bungee trampoline, ropes course, rock climbing, and the Via ferrata in Casper Bowl at the top of the Bridger gondola. The resort and region is served by the Jackson Hole Airport KJAC, located 11 miles north east of Teton Village and offers seasonal service to 20 cities across the United States.
== History ==
Before 1961, the area of the future resort was the Crystal Springs Girl Scout Ranch. Paul McCollister purchased the ranch and formed the Jackson Hole Ski Corporation in 1963 with partners Alex Morley and Gordon Graham. Construction began a year later, and Apres Vous mountain opened to the public the 1965-66 winter with 3 double chairlifts. Eagles rest, Teewinot, and Apres Vous. The original tram on Rendezvous opened on July 31, 1966; with capacity for 62 people and 1 conductor. It took between 8–12 minutes, depending on speed set, to reach the summit of Rendezvous Mountain at 10,450 ft. The Aerial Tram officially opened to the skiing public Winter Season 1966/67. The Resort opened winter of 1965/66 and reigning Olympic gold medalist Josef "Pepi" Stiegler of Austria was hired that same year as ski school director. In 1992, McCollister sold his interests in the resort to John Kemmerer III. From there, the Kemmerer Family made multiple new changes to the resort, including new lifts, hotels, and new ski runs.
Jackson Hole hosted World Cup ski races in the inaugural 1967 season, and again in 1970 and 1975. The most recent races in 1975 were downhills, won by Franz Klammer and Marie-Theres Nadig. The first national Powder 8 Championship was held at Jackson Hole in 1970.
== Avalanches ==
Jackson Hole was the site of two in-bounds avalanches in late 2008, first on December 27 and another two days later on December 29. The first avalanche resulted in the death of skier David Nodine, one of three in-bound deaths in the American West in the 2008-09 ski season, the most since three skiers were killed at Alpine Meadows in 1976. The second avalanche occurred in the Headwall area and buried part of the Bridger Restaurant but resulted in no injuries.
== Lifts ==
Jackson Hole has 13 lifts. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/68th_Academy_Awards | 68th Academy Awards | The 68th Academy Awards ceremony, organized by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS), honored the best films of 1995 in the United States and took place on March 25, 1996, at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles beginning at 6:00 p.m. PST / 9:00 p.m. EST. During the ceremony, AMPAS presented Academy Awards (commonly referred to as Oscars) in 24 categories. The ceremony, televised in the United States by ABC, was produced by David Salzman and Quincy Jones and directed by Jeff Margolis. Actress Whoopi Goldberg hosted the show for the second time, having previously presided over the 66th ceremony in 1994. Three weeks earlier, in a ceremony held at the Regent Beverly Wilshire Hotel in Beverly Hills, California, on March 2, the Academy Awards for Technical Achievement were presented by host Richard Dreyfuss.
Braveheart won five awards, including Best Picture. Other winners included Apollo 13, Pocahontas, Restoration, and The Usual Suspects with two awards and Anne Frank Remembered, Antonia's Line, Babe, A Close Shave, Dead Man Walking, Leaving Las Vegas, Lieberman in Love, Mighty Aphrodite, One Survivor Remembers, Il Postino: The Postman, and Sense and Sensibility with one. The telecast garnered almost 45 million viewers in the United States.
== Winners and nominees ==
The nominees for the 68th Academy Awards were announced on February 13, 1996, at 5:38 a.m. PST (13:38 UTC) at the Samuel Goldwyn Theater by president of the academy, and the music producer Quincy Jones. Braveheart led all nominees with ten nominations; Apollo 13 came in second with nine.
The winners were announced during the awards ceremony on March 25, 1996. Braveheart was the ninth film to win Best Picture with no acting nominations. With her Best Supporting Actress win for Mighty Aphrodite, Mira Sorvino became the second consecutive actress to win the aforementioned category for a performance in a film directed by Woody Allen. Best Adapted Screenplay winner Emma Thompson was the first person to win Oscars for both acting and screenwriting. She had previously won Best Actress for her performance in the 1992 film Howards End. This was the first year since the 42nd Academy Awards—and last to date—that none of the acting winners appeared in Best Picture nominees.
=== Awards ===
Winners are listed first and highlighted in boldface.
=== Special Achievement Award ===
To John Lasseter, for his inspired leadership of the Pixar Toy Story team, resulting in the first feature-length computer-animated film.
=== Honorary Awards ===
To Kirk Douglas, for fifty years as a creative and moral force in the motion picture community.
To Chuck Jones, for the creation of classic cartoons which have brought worldwide joy for more than half a century.
=== Multiple nominations and awards ===
== Presenters and performers ==
The following individuals, listed in order of appearance, presented awards or performed musical numbers.
=== Presenters ===
=== Performers ===
== Ceremony information ==
As a result of the negative reception of David Letterman's stint as host from the preceding year's ceremony, veteran film and television director Gil Cates declined to helm the upcoming festivities. In November 1995, AMPAS recruited music producer and Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award recipient Quincy Jones as producer of the 1996 ceremony. Jones immediately selected actress and comedian Whoopi Goldberg to host the ceremony. In an interview with Los Angeles Times writer Susan King, Jones explained the decision to hire Goldberg saying, "She has all the qualifications to move on a dime, to carry the elegance and the dignity of the show and is very funny. She understands the street. She has everything."
One segment that was staged during the ceremony was an elaborate fashion show showcasing the nominees for Best Costume Design. Produced by fashion photographer Matthew Rolston, the production featured models such as Cameron Alborzian, Tyson Beckford, Tyra Banks, Marcus Schenkenberg and Joel West sporting various costumes from the five films nominated in the category. Initially, actor Jack Nicholson was approached to introduce the segment along with models Naomi Campbell and Claudia Schiffer. However, actor Pierce Brosnan accepted the role of presenter of the segment and award after Nicholson declined those respective duties.
Several other people and elements were also involved with the production of the ceremony. Jeff Margolis served as director for the program. Actress and talk show host Oprah Winfrey interviewed several nominees and other attendees during a seven-minute red carpet arrival segment shown at the beginning of the telecast. Musician and saxophonist Tom Scott served as musical director for the ceremony. Choreographer Jamie King supervised the performances of the Best Song nominees and two dance numbers. Babe, the pig from the eponymous film, and Miss Piggy participated in a comedy sketch during the proceedings. Actor Christopher Reeve, who was paralyzed in a horse riding accident nearly a year earlier, made a surprise appearance on the telecast urging filmmakers to make movies that face the world's most important issues head-on.
=== Rainbow Coalition protest ===
Several days before the ceremony, activist group Rainbow Coalition, led by Reverend Jesse Jackson, planned a protest regarding African Americans and other racial minorities in the film industry. The group was voicing its objections to unflattering portrayals of minorities in film and television and the fact that minorities were underemployed in the entertainment industry. Jackson further pointed out the disparity in racial minorities in Hollywood by noting that Best Live Action Short Film nominee Dianne Houston was the only African American nominated that year. Although the group initially planned to demonstrate outside the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion, an agreement between Jackson and producer Jones caused the protest to be moved adjacent to the broadcast facilities of the local ABC affiliate KABC-TV. Nevertheless, Jones remarked that the Academy Awards were not the appropriate venue for such protest declaring "Why should the movie business be different from anything else in America? It's a problem that permeates everything in the country. Every facet of America discriminates."
=== Division of Best Original Score category ===
Beginning with this ceremony, the AMPAS music branch divided the category of Best Original Score into two categories: Best Dramatic Score and Best Musical or Comedy Score. This was seen as a response to the dominance of Walt Disney Feature Animation films in the Original Score and Original Song categories in recent years. Four years later, the two scoring categories were merged back into one category.
=== Christopher Reeve appearance ===
At the ceremony, Christopher Reeve presented a montage of films which tackled social issues. His appearance was a surprise to the majority of those present and occurred less than a year after the horse-riding accident in which he was paralyzed. Reeve's appearance was kept secret in part so that if any physical issue came about, he could drop out quietly. He attended an early morning closed-door rehearsal, during which he vetoed the idea of using John Williams' 1978 Superman Theme as entrance music. Reeve, along with Jones, had chosen the film clips used in the montage. Reeve received a two-minute standing ovation during his appearance.
=== Box office performance of nominees ===
At the time of the nominations announcement on February 13, the combined gross of the five Best Picture nominees at the US box office was $333 million, with an average of $66.5 million per film. Apollo 13 was the highest earner among the Best Picture nominees with $172 million in domestic box office receipts. The film was followed by Braveheart ($67 million), Babe ($58.2 million), Sense and Sensibility ($24.6 million) and finally Il Postino: The Postman ($10.7 million).
Of the top 50 grossing movies of the year, 47 nominations went to 14 films on the list. Only Toy Story (2nd), Apollo 13 (3rd), Braveheart (23rd), Babe (29th), 12 Monkeys (31st), Casino (38th) and Mr. Holland's Opus (39th) were nominated for directing, acting, screenwriting, or Best Picture. The other box office hits that earned nominations were Batman Forever (1st), Pocahontas (4th), Seven (9th), Crimson Tide (10th), Waterworld (12th), The Bridges of Madison County (21st), The American President (27th) and Sabrina (34th).
=== Critical reviews ===
The show received a positive reception from most media publications. The New York Times film critic Janet Maslin raved, "Mr. Jones pointedly turned this year's ceremony into a showcase for Hollywood's new guard." She also praised host Goldberg's opening monologue, remarking that it "established the sharpness of this year's gag writing." People columnist Janice Min wrote that "the most egregious crime at the 68th Academy Awards on March 25 was–egad!–the relentless elegance and good taste that deprived viewers of genuine, Grade A snicker fodder. Television critic Howard Rosenberg of the Los Angeles Times applauded Goldberg's performance, noting that her "confident performance [...] was symbolic of her whopping improvement as host over her showing on the 1994 Oscars."
Some media outlets were more critical of the show. Chicago Tribune television critic Steve Johnson lamented that Goldberg "settled into bland script reading that made one long for David Letterman's cranky unpredictability in the role last year." He also stated that the "Best Costume Design fashion show" was the silliest opening Oscar production number since Rob Lowe and Snow White sang "Proud Mary" in 1989. Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly bemoaned that the dominance of Best Picture winner Braveheart and the lack of fashion glamour "had the makings of a tiresome evening."
=== Ratings and reception ===
The American telecast on ABC drew in an average of 44.81 million people over its length, which was a 9% decrease from the previous year's ceremony. The show also garnered lower Nielsen ratings compared to the previous ceremony, with 30.48% of households watching over a 48.88 share. It also earned a lower 18–49 demographic rating with an 18.76 rating over a 35.27 share among viewers in that demographic.
In July 1996, the ceremony presentation received seven nominations at the 48th Primetime Emmys. Two months later, the ceremony won one of those nominations for Greg Brunton's lighting design and direction during the telecast.
== "In Memoriam" ==
The annual "In Memoriam" tribute was presented by Academy President Arthur Hiller. The montage featured an excerpt of the main title of The Prince of Tides composed by James Newton Howard.
A separate tribute to actor, dancer and veteran Oscar host Gene Kelly featured tap dancer Savion Glover dancing to the song "Singin' in the Rain" from the 1952 film of the same name. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tusk_(album) | Tusk (album) | Tusk is the twelfth studio album by the British and American rock band Fleetwood Mac, released as a double album on 12 October 1979 in the United States and on 19 October 1979 in the United Kingdom by Warner Bros. Records. It is considered more experimental than their previous albums, partly as a consequence of Lindsey Buckingham's sparser songwriting arrangements and the influence of post-punk. The production costs were initially estimated to be about $1 million but many years later were revealed to be about $1.4 million (equivalent to $6.21 million in 2025), making it the most expensive rock album recorded to that date.
The band embarked on a nine-month tour to promote Tusk. They travelled extensively across the world, including the US, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, France, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, and the UK. In Germany, they shared the bill with Bob Marley. On this world tour, the band recorded music for the Fleetwood Mac Live album, released in 1980.
Compared to 1977's Rumours, which sold ten million copies by February 1978, Tusk was regarded as a commercial failure by the label, selling four million copies. In 2013, NME ranked Tusk at number 445 in their list of "500 Greatest Albums of All Time". The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die. In 2000, it was voted number 853 in Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums.
== Background ==
Going into Tusk, Lindsey Buckingham was adamant about creating an album that sounded nothing like Rumours. Buckingham commented that he intended for Tusk to subvert the expectations of creating a "Rumours 2 and Rumours 3, which is kind of the business model Warner Bros. would have liked us to follow." Mick Fleetwood decided early on that Tusk was to be a double album. Beach Boys drummer Dennis Wilson, who was dating Christine McVie at the time, offered to host the band at the Beach Boys' studio, which they were planning to renovate. While the band initially agreed to this idea, an attorney for the Beach Boys later told Fleetwood Mac that they would still have to pay for the facility even if they decided not to use it. Fleetwood Mac subsequently backed out of the deal and approached Geordie Hormel, who offered to construct a custom studio for the band at The Village Recorder. Hormel presented them with an option to either purchase the studio or rent it. Fleetwood Mac producer Ken Caillat suggested that the band purchase the studio, reckoning that this would be the cheaper option. However, Fleetwood's attorney opted to rent the custom studio, which was named Studio D.
Buckingham – infatuated with bands such as Talking Heads – was "desperate to make Mac relevant to a post-punk world", according to music journalist Bob Stanley, who commented that, compared to Rumours, Tusk was "unleavened weirdness, as close to its predecessor as the Beach Boys' lo-fi Smiley Smile had been to Pet Sounds. Much of it sounded clattery, half-formed, with strange rhythmic leaps and offbeat tics." Journalist Adam Webb described the Tusk recording sessions as a "cocaine blizzard" from which Christine McVie's then-boyfriend, Beach Boy drummer Dennis Wilson, "never really came out." Music historian Domenic Priore claimed that, for research purposes during the album's recording, Buckingham accessed the master tapes for the Beach Boys' unreleased album Smile, and that the tracks "That's All for Everyone" and "Beautiful Child" most strongly exemplify its influence.
== Recording ==
After the studio was built, Buckingham queried Fleetwood about recording some songs at his home studio. Fleetwood acquiesced, but told Buckingham that the other members of Fleetwood Mac would need to be integrated during the recording sessions. For certain songs, Buckingham played a Kleenex box as a snare drum and had Fleetwood overdub his own drums over Buckingham's demos. Several of Buckingham's songs were recorded at his home studio on a 24-track machine with him playing all of the instruments, including "The Ledge", "Save Me a Place", and "That's Enough for Me".
Caillat recalled that Buckingham's nature in the recording studio was the source of some tension: "He was a maniac. The first day, I set the studio up as usual. Then he said, 'Turn every knob 180 degrees from where it is now and see what happens.' He'd tape microphones to the studio floor and get into a sort of push-up position to sing. Early on, he came in and he'd freaked out in the shower and cut off all his hair with nail scissors. He was stressed." Compared to the sonics of the Rumours album, which featured tighter dynamics, the engineers aimed to achieve a darker sounding album by aiming for fuller low frequencies and a higher treble. To accomplish this, they recorded the album at a magnetic tape speed of 30 inch per second with the use of a Dolby noise-reduction system to reduce tape hiss. Buckingham was interested in starting a solo career during the making of Tusk and according to Caillat had threatened to leave Fleetwood Mac; the rest of the band acquiesced to Buckingham's desire to create a more experimental album in an effort to appease him. Caillat later expressed his disapproval of Buckingham's proclivity for harsher textures and said that he attempted to bury some of these sounds in the mix.
Production costs rose beyond a million dollars, far more than Rumours. Regarding the album's production costs, guitarist Lindsey Buckingham stated: "During the making of Tusk, we were in the studio for about 10 months and we got 20 songs out of it. Rumours took the same amount of time. It [Rumours] didn't cost so much because we were in a cheaper studio. There's no denying what it cost, but I think it's been taken out of context."
== Artwork ==
Rather than solicit the services of Herbert W. Worthington, who created the cover art for Rumours and the 1975 self-titled album, the band opted to select three photographers from different disciplines to design the album sleeve for Tusk. Larry Vigon, who served as the album's designer, reached out to Peter Beard after seeing some of his artwork in one of his journals, which included sundry items such as feathers, dried leaves, and newspaper headlines.
Beard, who specialised as a documentary photographer, was enlisted by Vigon to supply images for the album sleeve and spent two weeks in the recording studio taking Polaroids of the band and its inner circle. He also augmented this footage with images of elephant tusks. During one of those sessions, Beard took a photo of Caillat's dog biting his leg, which ultimately became the cover art for Tusk. Fleetwood had originally promised Nicks that the cover art would feature an image of her twirling and dancing; Nicks later told Caillat that she placed a curse on his dog for "stealing her cover". Beard also incorporated several images of Scooter throughout the album's collages that he created, including one with a cropped photo of Scooter's head imposed onto the body of a naked woman. According to Dashut, Beard bled onto some of the collage by cutting his hand with a razor blade.
The liner notes contained group shots of the band taken by Norman Seeff, with one of those images featuring a moonlit gazebo in the background. Seeff recounted that he encountered some difficulties in assembling all five members into one location.
It was like being a sort of a school teacher in the kindergarten because everyone was having their own wonderful time...Each of them was individually fascinating, but together you could feel an electricity between everyone. And I'm working with all the stories of what was going on with them. It was magic, because rather than being five separate people they became one.
Jayme Odgers was responsible for creating the upside-down photograph found in the booklet, which featured Fleetwood clinging to a chair on the ceiling, Buckingham and Nicks suspended in the air, and both McVies firmly planted on the ground. When Odgers proposed the idea, the band was uncooperative and refused to be in the same room together, so Odgers instead took photographs of the band individually in different poses. Odgers pieced together the separate shots into a more cohesive photograph and credited the band's obstinance for achieving the final product. "Unbeknownst to them, my photographic forte was putting separate images together seamlessly, so I pushed on. Had they all been willing to be photographed together, the image never would have looked like it does."
The photo taken by Odgers served as a point of contention for Warner Bros, who opposed its inclusion in the booklet. According to Odgers, Fleetwood informed him that the band spent two hours discussing the fate of the image; Fleetwood ultimately convinced Warner Bros to keep the image on the grounds that it would potentially elicit further discussion among the public. In 2016, a black-and-white version of Odger's photo was used as the front cover of the Alternate Tusk album, a collection issued by Rhino Records consisting of alternate takes and live recordings.
== Title ==
Varying accounts have been provided by Fleetwood Mac and their production team of naming the album Tusk. In Fleetwood's first memoir, he said that the title was in reference to male genitalia and claimed that Nicks threatened to quit the band after learning about the origin of the name. Nicks commented that "there was nothing beautiful or elegant about the word 'tusk'. All it really brought to mind was people stealing ivory. Even then, in 1979, you just thought about rhinos being poached, tusks being stolen, elephants being slaughtered and ivory being sold on the black market." She said that she "liked the title even less" when she was told about the meaning of the title and mentioned that the studio's mixing console was nicknamed "Tusk" due to the fake tusks that were mounted on the device.
Caillat said the band "thought that the tusk was a sign of male prowess" and remembered hearing the male members of the band making tusk jokes during the recording sessions. Richard Dashut, who co-produced the album, recalled that the band occasionally made phallic jokes, although he said that the title was instead attributed to the album's artwork.
I'm not sure if any of us knew what it meant. It became more of a cause of the elephants. Mick also brought in his tusks from his cast. They weren't real, but they were full-size elephant tusks that were mounted. What I'm fairly certain of is that it didn't come from the dick meaning. Maybe Mick would dispute me.
Larry Vigon, who designed the album, credited the title to Peter Beard's affinity for wildlife and African art. He said that the band settled on the name Tusk after Beard incorporated elephant references into the album artwork. Beard commented that "the album was named Tusk because of all my photographs with tusks in them." Buckingham said that tusk was a "nice sounding word" and that "there's no specific hidden meaning behind it."
== Release ==
Tusk was one of the first albums to be digitally mixed, having occurred the same year as Ry Cooder's album Bop Till You Drop. Caillat remembered that their efforts of digitally mixing the album were marred by issues related to unwanted surface noise due to issues with the vinyl pressing process. Similar issues occurred when the initial batch of singles for the title track were recalled by Warner Bros in September due a scratch on the vinyl's B-side. Caillat commented that "after Tusk came out, we had a meeting, of literally all the vinyl manufacturers. We had [them] all come in and actually tell us why there were so many problems". According to Caillat, they generally attributed these issues to industry changes on how the vinyl formula was made.
An advertisement campaign was arranged by Warner Bros Records that utilised aspects of the album package, including the polaroid photo of the dog and italicised font found on the cover, and Seef's photo found in the inner sleeve. The company also developed what Rolling Stone described as "a motorized floor display that features a silk-screened image of the dog". The company originally outsourced the promotion responsibility to New York advertising agency Lord, Geller, Federico and Einstein to develop the album's marketing strategy, although Fleetwood Mac balked at the idea over the belief that "they were being sold like a product - like chewing gum."
The album was scheduled for release on 12 October 1979 in the United States and 19 October in the United Kingdom. To counter the circulation of comparatively poor quality tape recordings of Tusk, Warner Bros distributed the album to retail record stores one week earlier than planned, with the first shipments beginning on the weekend of 5 October. According to Russ Thyret, who at the time served as an executive for Warner Bros. Records, staffers at Warner Bros. Records worked three double shifts to press enough copies for the promotional personnel to hand-deliver Tusk to "as many radio stations as possible" ahead of the album's release date. The RKO radio chain obtained access to Tusk and prematurely played the album in its entirety on several of its radio stations across the United States. Warner Bros secured an injunction against RKO, which prevented the company from playing the album on its stations. They also barred RKO from claiming exclusive access to the album and requested that the radio chain refrain from disposing any of their copies with the intended goal of tracking down the source of the leak. Thyret stated his intention of identifying the leaker and prosecuting them "to the fullest extent of the law".
As part of a proclamation from the Los Angeles mayor Tom Bradley to declare 10 October as "Fleetwood Mac Day", members of the USC Trojan Marching Band opened the event with a rendition of the title track, which at that point had been released as the album's lead single. The band also received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and had the album played for 600 guests at a private party.
Fleetwood called Tusk his second favourite Fleetwood Mac studio album behind Then Play On. Christine McVie reflected that the band was apprehensive about clashing with Buckingham over the creative direction of Tusk and expressed mixed feelings about the final product, saying "sometimes I love it, sometimes I simply hate it. Bassist John McVie thought that the album "sounds like the work of three solo artists"; Buckingham told Classic Rock magazine that "you got that sweetness [from Nicks and McVie] and me as the complete nutcase. That's what makes us Fleetwood Mac."
The album was remade in its entirety by American alternative rock band Camper Van Beethoven and released in 2003. Buckingham expressed his approval of the cover album, saying that the band "took some of the songs to such different places."
== Commercial performance ==
Tusk peaked at number four on the Billboard 200 in the United States and spent almost nine months on the chart. It was certified double platinum for shipping two million copies. It peaked at number one in the UK and achieved a platinum award for shipments in excess of 300,000 copies. The album gave the group two US top-10 hit singles, with the Buckingham-penned title track (US number eight/UK number six), and the Stevie Nicks composition "Sara" (US number seven/UK number 37).
Further releases from the album "Not That Funny" (UK-only single release), "Think About Me", and "Sisters of the Moon" were slightly remixed for radio, and were less successful. The latter two appear in their 'single versions' on the 2002 compilation The Very Best of Fleetwood Mac, while "Sara", which was cut to 41⁄2 minutes for both the single and the first CD release of the album, appears in its unedited form on the 1988 Greatest Hits compilation, the 2002 release The Very Best of Fleetwood Mac, and the 2004 reissue of Tusk.
Though the album sold four million copies worldwide, and earned a Grammy nomination in 1981 for its art design in the category "Best Album Package", the band's record label deemed the project a failure, laying the blame squarely with Buckingham (considering the comparatively huge sales of Rumours and the album's unprecedented recording expense). Fleetwood, however, blames the album's relative failure on the RKO radio chain playing the album in its entirety prior to release, thus allowing mass home recording. In addition, Tusk was a double album, with a high list price of US$16.00, or $71 in 2025 terms. The band originally considered the idea of releasing Tusk as two single albums each with the price of $7.98, but the record label decided against this.
== Critical reception ==
In his review for Rolling Stone, Stephen Holden emphasised the experimental nature of the album, comparing it to the Beatles' "White Album" in that "Tusk is less a collection of finished songs than a mosaic of pop-rock fragments by individual performers." Robert Christgau of The Village Voice was more ambivalent, lauding Buckingham's production and experimentation, while dismissing Christine McVie's and Stevie Nicks's contributions. Music Week thought that the album "did not have the same impact" as Rumours.
Cashbox characterised Tusk as the band's "most adventuresome LP to date" and posited that it would take "six months before people really realize what a creative masterpiece the two-LP set is." Record World called Tusk "a highly progressive disc that takes more than one listen to digest." Reviewing the album for Billboard, Ed Harrison thought there was sufficient material on Tusk to classify it as "an artistically successful venture". He also believed that Tusk would have been "an incredible follow-up to Rumours" if it was condensed from a double album to a single disc. In a different review from Billboard written one week prior to Harrison's writeup, the publication said that some tracks on Tusk "sound as if they were culled right off the 'Rumours' LP."
Retrospectively, AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine found the album to be timeless, calling it "a peerless piece of pop art" that rivals the more accessible Rumours album in terms of quality. Amanda Petrusich of Pitchfork found the album "self-indulgent" and "terrifically strange". Clark Collis of Blender felt that the album lacked enough quality material to justify a 2-disc collection. Kris Needs wrote in Record Collector that McVie's tracks "have best stood the test of time" and felt that they bore the closest resemblance to the band's work on Rumours. Retrospective reviews noted the stark contrast between the album's lush opening track, "Over & Over", and the production of the following track, "The Ledge".
== Track listing ==
=== Record one ===
=== Record two ===
Notes:
On earlier CD pressings, "Sara" is edited to 4:39.
The CD mixes of "Not That Funny" and "I Know I'm Not Wrong" differ from their LP mixes.
== Personnel ==
Fleetwood Mac
Lindsey Buckingham – vocals, guitars, bass guitar, keyboards, drums, percussion, charango, kalimba
Stevie Nicks – vocals, tack piano (on "Sara" doubled with Christine McVie's piano)
Christine McVie – vocals, keyboards
John McVie – bass guitar
Mick Fleetwood – drums, percussion
Additional musicians
Peter Green – guitar (on "Brown Eyes")
USC Trojan Marching Band – horns and percussion (on "Tusk")
Production
Fleetwood Mac – producers
Richard Dashut; Ken Caillat – producers, engineers
Lindsey Buckingham – engineer
Hernán Rojas – assistant engineer, additional engineering
Rich Feldman – assistant engineer (with digital mix-down equipment)
Ken Perry – mastering (at Capitol Records)
Greg Thomason; Raymond Lindsey; Patrick Byrne – studio crew
Larry Vigon – art direction, design
Peter Beard; Jayme Odgers; Norman Seeff – photography
== Charts ==
== Certifications == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tallest_statues | List of tallest statues | This list of tallest statues includes completed statues that are at least 50 m (160 ft) tall. The height values in this list are measured to the highest part of the human or animal figure, but exclude the height of any pedestal (plinth), or other base platform as well as any mast, spire, or other structure that extends higher than the tallest figure in the monument.
The definition of statue for this list is a free-standing sculpture (as opposed to a relief), representing one or more people or animals (real or mythical), in their entirety or partially (such as a bust). Heights stated are those of the statue itself and (separately) the total height of the monument that includes structures the statue is standing on or holding. Monuments that contain statues are included in this list only if the statue fulfills these and the height criteria.
== Existing ==
== Destroyed ==
== Under construction == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glendale_Galleria | Glendale Galleria | The Glendale Galleria is a large three-story regional shopping center and office complex located in downtown Glendale, California, United States. Opened in 1976 with 1,600,000-square-foot (150,000 m2) of retail space, it is the third-largest mall in Los Angeles County after Lakewood Center and Del Amo Fashion Center.
The mall is owned and managed by Brookfield Properties since 2002. It has been consistently ranked as one of the highest-grossing shopping centers in the United States.
The mall features the traditional retailers Target, Dick's Sporting Goods, JCPenney, Macy's, and Bloomingdale's.
== History ==
The Glendale Galleria was developed by Glendale Associates, a partnership between J.S. Griffiths Co, Broadway Hale Stores and M.J. Brock & Sons. Construction of the mall started in 1973 as agreements were negotiated with Glendale's Redevelopment Agency. The mall cost US$75 million. The architect was Jon Jerde, who credited his design to a Ray Bradbury essay on reviving retail districts. The first shops to open in the mall were the Buffums and The Broadway department stores, both in August 1976, a few months prior to the mall's formal opening. The Galleria officially opened on October 14, 1976. Ohrbach's and JCPenney opened locations in October and November 1976, respectively.
The Galleria's first expansion, Galleria II, was completed in 1983. It expanded a wing of the mall and added another anchor store, Nordstrom along with Mervyn's. The first Panda Express restaurant opened in Galleria II in the same year, on level 3 near Bloomingdale's.
The first Disney Store opened in the Glendale Galleria on March 28, 1987. By 1990, the mall was 1.6 million square feet (150,000 m2) in size, and had annual revenues of $350 million. In 1990, the Buffums store closed, which was demolished and replaced by a three-story Robinsons-May store in 1993. In 1996, The Broadway closed, and was replaced by a Macy's.
Glendale Galleria was selected by Apple Inc. as the location of one of the first two Apple Stores in the world (along with Tysons Corner Center in McLean, Virginia); both officially opened on May 19, 2001.
On September 4, 2002, the Galleria's three owners at the time; J.S. Griffiths, Cigna, and the New York State Teachers' Retirement System, put the mall up for sale "for reasons unrelated to the mall's performance". On October 28, 2002, it was announced that General Growth Properties (now Brookfield Properties) would buy the Glendale Galleria for $415 million. The acquisition was completed on December 6, 2002.
The Galleria includes the world's first three-story Target store, which opened to the public on July 29, 2007 replacing the former Robinsons-May store, which closed in 2006. Mervyn's filed for bankruptcy and closed in 2009, and Bloomingdale's replaced it in 2013. In 2014, Nordstrom moved next door to the Americana, and in 2016, Dick's Sporting Goods reconstructed a portion of the previous Nordstrom. In 2019, Gold's Gym opened in the other half.
In 2016, it was reported that 30 million people have visited the Galleria throughout the year, making it one of the top 100 shopping centers according to Green Street Advisors. As of 2017, over 200 stores operate in the Galleria, with 6 of them acting as anchor stores.
== Architecture ==
Originally, the Galleria was covered in a windowless, unadorned brick finish. This type of architecture reflected the style of other shopping malls built across the country between the 1960s and 1970s.
=== Renovation ===
Starting April 25, 2012, the Galleria underwent an extensive renovation. Designed by Kevin Kennon, objectives of the renovation included a modernized look, improved signage, and enhanced circulation and access. Various metal panels and meshes, most made out of white marble and black granite, were added to the building's facades. The renovation cost $57.5 million and was completed on November 9, 2013.
== In popular culture ==
In 2020, American pop singer Billie Eilish used Glendale Galleria as the setting for her "Therefore I Am" music video. |
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