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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann_Elizabeth_Fowler_Hodges | Ann Elizabeth Fowler Hodges | Ann Elizabeth Fowler Hodges (also known as Mrs. Hodges, Mrs. Hewlett Hodges, and Mrs. Huelitt Hodges; February 2, 1920 – September 10, 1972) was an American woman known for being the first documented individual to be struck by a meteorite and survive.
== Meteorite impact ==
At 12:46 PM (CST) on Tuesday November 30, 1954, a meteorite fell through the skies above Sylacauga, Alabama. It split into at least three fragments, with one of the fragments falling through a roof and then landing on Hodges, who was napping on her couch. She recalled the meteorite came through her roof around 2:00 PM local time, although the official time the meteorite fell was 12:46 PM. The meteorite left a 3-foot (91 cm) wide hole in the roof of her house, bounced off a radio, and hit her on her upper thigh and hand, giving her a large bruise.
Hodges and her mother, who were in the house at the time, thought the chimney had collapsed as there was a lot of dust and debris. Once they noticed the large rock, they called both the police and fire department. Hodges' husband, Eugene Hodges, came home later that evening at about 6:00 PM local time, unaware of what had happened to his wife. She told him there was a "little excitement." That night she did not sleep well and ended up going to the hospital the next day due to being distressed by the incident, rather than for her physical injury, which was said to be only the large bruise on her upper thigh.
== After the incident ==
Members from the Maxwell Air Force Base went to the Hodges home to look at and confiscate the meteorite. They confirmed its identity as a chondrite meteorite. The Mayor of Sylacauga, Ed J. Howard, originally intended to give it to the Alabama Museum of Natural History (AMNH) of the University of Alabama. Hodges stated that she had "enough evidence that the thing fell in my house" and the meteorite was eventually given back to the Hodges. Although the meteorite had crashed through the Hodges home and hit Mrs. Hodges, the owner of the house, Birdie Guy, declared ownership. After a year-long legal battle, Mrs. Guy and the Hodgeses agreed on a $500 settlement and Mrs. Hodges was able to keep the meteorite.
Ann Hodges had immense, although short-term, attention for the incident. About 200 reporters were waiting to talk to her outside of her house, most of whom were unwelcome. Ann was invited to and attended the game show I’ve Got a Secret hosted by Garry Moore. Mrs. Hodges also received lots of fan mail and questions, although she did not reply to them.
Mr. Hodges indicated they had received several offers for the meteorite while it was at the Air Force Base, but could not accept offers since it was not in their possession. One offer, he states, was close to $5,500. By the time the meteorite was returned to Ann following the legal battle with Mrs. Guy, they could not find a buyer, since the excitement of the event had dwindled. In 1956, Mrs. Hodges decided to sell the meteorite to the Alabama Museum of Natural History, against her husband's wishes, and as he recalled, for about $25.
== Personal life ==
Eugene says that following the incident, Ann's behavior changed. Her health problems worsened, her shyness became social anxiety, and she suffered from what appeared to be post-traumatic stress disorder. Ann and Eugene Hodges were divorced in 1964; they had no children.
== Death ==
Hodges died in a nursing home from kidney failure on September 10, 1972.
== Legacy ==
The meteorite that flew through the sky that night was named the Sylacauga meteorite and the fragment that hit Hodges was aptly named the Hodges Fragment. Another fragment from the original meteorite was sold to the Smithsonian, while the Hodges Fragment remains on exhibit at the Alabama Museum of Natural History.
The radio that was hit by the meteorite was later loaned to the American Museum of Natural History in 2005 by Eugene Hodges, fifty years after the impact event.
In June 2025, a meteorite blasted through the roof of a home in McDonough, Georgia, just south of Atlanta, missing its owner by about 14 feet. Scientists estimate that more than 50,000 meteorites have hit earth–with 27 landing in Georgia–but, the Hodges Fragment remains the only one that is known to have hit a person. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Thompson_(actor) | Jack Thompson (actor) | John Hadley Thompson, AM (né Pain; born 31 August 1940) is an Australian actor and a major figure of Australian cinema, particularly Australian New Wave. He is best known for his role as a lead actor in several acclaimed Australian films, including such classics as The Club (1980), Sunday Too Far Away (1975), The Man from Snowy River (1982) and Petersen (1974). He won Cannes and AFI acting awards for the latter film.
In 2002, he was made an honorary member of the Australian Cinematographers Society, and was the recipient of a Living Legend Award at the 2005 Inside Film Awards.
== Early life ==
Born John Hadley Pain in Manly, a suburb of Sydney, Thompson was three years old when his mother Marjorie died, leaving his father Harold (a purser for Qantas, seconded to the RAAF during the war) unable to care for him and his brother, David.He was sent to Lake House orphanage in Narrabeen by his aunt and was subsequently adopted by the poet and ABC broadcaster John Thompson and his wife Pat, after which he changed his surname. Jack is film reviewer Peter Thompson's adopted brother.
Thompson was educated at Sydney Boys High School. He left school at 14, became a jackaroo in the Northern Territory, and took labouring jobs in New South Wales.
After working in an agricultural lab, Thompson at the age of 20, joined the army in 1960 so that he could earn a science degree.
== Career ==
=== Theatre ===
He enrolled at the University of Queensland in 1963 and transferred to an arts degree, performing in theatre at night, including the Twelfth Night Theatre and UQ Dramatic Society in Brisbane.
His talent was nurtured and developed at the Producers Authors Composers and Talent (PACT) Centre.
He appeared on stage in The Devils in 1968.
=== Television roles ===
Thompson decided to take acting seriously, giving himself a year to make it.
His TV career began with the soap opera Motel (1968), and he had guest appearances on numerous serials, including Riptide, Woobinda, Animal Doctor, Skippy, The Rovers, Division 4, Homicide and Matlock Police. He also appeared in the documentary short Personnel, or People? (1969), directed by Donald Crombie.
Thompson had a leading role in spy drama series Spyforce (1971–1973), playing the role of Erskine who did missions in World War II.
He continued to guest-star on shows such as Over There, Matlock Police (again), Ryan, Boney and Elephant Boy.
He guest-starred on The Evil Touch and Homicide again; he also appeared in Marijuana: Possession and the Law (1974).
=== Films and stardom ===
Thompson made his film debut in That Lady from Peking in 1968, and his first lead role was in TV movie Silo 15 (filmed in 1969 and released in 1971).
He had a supporting role in Wake in Fright in 1971, and he received excellent reviews for his performance in one of the stories in Libido in 1973, with his segment written by David Williamson. He also starred in TV movie Linehaul in 1973.
Thompson became an Australian film star playing the title role in Petersen (1974), written by Williamson and directed by Tim Burstall. The film was a success at the box office. He did the TV movie Human Target (1974), then starred in the highly acclaimed Sunday Too Far Away (1975), playing a shearer.
Thompson played the title role in Scobie Malone (1975), based on the Jon Cleary novel Helga's Web. It was produced by American Casey Robinson, who said "Jack Thompson is a great part of my reason to become involved in this venture. I have no doubt whatsoever that when this film is seen overseas he'll be turned instantly into an international star. There aren't many male actors like him around any more. There's something there that reminds me very much of Bogart." The film was a failure at the box office.
He did an episode of Armchair Theatre, titled "Tully".
Thompson had a supporting role in Caddie (1976), directed by Crombie, which was a big success.
Thompson had become nationally famous playing "macho" type roles. "I think it reflects its time so accurately," he said later. "There was a preoccupation with the macho Australian male; it's a thing that had to be examined or purged in film."
=== Character actor ===
Thompson then deliberately decided to take character parts, out of a fear of typecasting and "also an understanding that unless I could get out of that target area, then I wouldn't be allowed to be seen as an actor."
He guest starred in an episode of Luke's Kingdom and played the second lead in Mad Dog Morgan (1976) with Dennis Hopper. He took some time off to work on a script with his brother then had a key support role in The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith (1978). He supported imported stars Karen Black and Keir Dullea in a TV movie shot in Australia, Because He's My Friend (1978).
Thompson returned to acting after another break to play the lead role in a sex comedy, The Journalist (1979). "I haven't made any films since then because I haven't liked the parts I've been offered, and also I've been too busy promoting the Australian film industry overseas", said Thompson at the time. The film became a notorious flop. He worked on a script with his brother called Welcome Stranger.
He was offered a role in Breaker Morant (1980), directed by Bruce Beresford - the part of Private Hancock. Thompson turned it down, Beresford rewrote the script and offered him the part again, and Thompson accepted. Then filming was delayed. John Hargreaves who was to play the lawyer became unavailable; Thompson took that part and Bryan Brown played Hancock. The film was a considerable success. Thompson won the Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actor.
Thompson supported US stars William Holden and Rick Schroeder in The Earthling (1980) then was top billed in The Club (1980), directed by Beresford from a play by Williamson.
"You get awfully fed up with the public image that you must live up to", he said in an interview around this time. "I just want to continue becoming a part of the Australian film industry, not for materialistic reasons but because I enjoy it. I not only want to act, but produce and possibly direct".
Thompson went to New Zealand to make Bad Blood (1982) playing killer Stanley Graham, then had a support role in The Man from Snowy River (1982), playing Clancy of the Overflow. Among the roles he auditioned for around this time were the leads in Flash Gordon and The Thing.
=== International career ===
Thompson went overseas to support Ingrid Bergman in A Woman Called Golda (1982). He was Lee Remick's husband in a remake of The Letter (1982), and played a British POW in Merry Christmas Mr. Lawrence (1983) with David Bowie and Tom Conti.
Back in Australia Thompson starred in a mini series about wharfies in the Depression, Waterfront (1983). He went to Europe to star in a swashbuckler for Paul Verhoeven, Flesh + Blood (1985), then returned to Australia to star in Burke and Wills (1985). This film was a box office disappointment.
Thompson supported Linda Evans and Jason Robards in a TV mini series, The Last Frontier (1986), which was a huge ratings success. In the US he had a role in Kojak: The Price of Justice (1987) then returned home to play an ASIO officer in Ground Zero (1987).
Thompson was a love interest for Stefanie Powers in Beryl Markham: A Shadow on the Sun (1988) on US TV, and had the lead in an Australian TV movie, The Riddle of the Stinson (1989), playing Bernard O'Reilly.
He co-starred with Raquel Welch in Trouble in Paradise (1989) for US TV, then did a mini series in New Zealand, The Rainbow Warrior Conspiracy (1989).
He did a US TV movie After the Shock (1990) and had a support part in Turtle Beach (1992) and Wind (1992).
He had a supporting part as Cliegg Lars in George Lucas's Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones (2002).
=== Character actor ===
Thompson began to increasingly work as a character actor in the US with roles in Ruby Cairo (1993), directed by Graeme Clifford, and A Far Off Place (1994). He narrowly missed being cast in the lead part in Schindler's List.
He returned to Australia to play Russell Crowe's father in The Sum of Us (1994), then did A Woman of Independent Means (1995) in the US and Flight of the Albatross (1995) in New Zealand.
He had a support role in Broken Arrow (1996), did The Thorn Birds: The Missing Years (1996) back home and Last Dance (1996) for Beresford in the US.
Thompson starred in the Australian TV movie McLeod's Daughters (1996). He was Alicia Silverstone's father in Excess Baggage (1997), then did Under the Lighthouse Dancing (1997) in Australia. He appeared in the Clint Eastwood-directed Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil (1997) as Sonny Seiler, the attorney of Kevin Spacey's character, Jim Williams. (Seiler himself appeared in the movie as the judge in Williams' trial.) "I was amazed at how he adapted to Geechee to fit the role of playing me," Seiler said. "It was a pleasure working with him."
Back in Australia Thompson provided a voice for The Magic Pudding (2000) and appeared in Yolngu Boy (2001). He had a support part in the new version of South Pacific (2001), the mini series based on My Brother Jack (2001), Original Sin (2001), Star Wars: Episode II - Attack of the Clones (2002), The Assassination of Richard Nixon (2004), and Oyster Farmer (2005).
Thompson had a key role in two films directed by Brett Leonard: the Marvel Comics based Man-Thing (2005) and Feed (2006), the latter written by and starring his son.
Thompson had support roles in The Good German (2006), Bastard Boys (2007), December Boys (2007), Leatherheads (2008), Ten Empty (2008), Australia (2008), Mao's Last Dancer (2009) for Beresford, The Karenskys (2009), Don't Be Afraid of the Dark (2010), Rake (2010), Blinder (2013), The Great Gatsby (2013), Mystery Road (2013), Around the Block (2013), Bonnie & Clyde (2013) for Beresford, Devil's Playground (2014), Ruben Guthrie (2015), The Light Between Oceans (2016), Don't Tell (2017), Blue World Order (2017) and Swinging Safari (2018).
He has also acted in television miniseries and appeared as the host of the Channel 7 factual series Find My Family.
=== Other appearances ===
Thompson was the first nude male centrefold in Cleo in 1972. He has also appeared in television commercials, including as the face of the Bank of Melbourne for a decade, and for Claytons. Thompson is featured in a series of recordings of Australian poetry, reciting poems by Henry Lawson, Banjo Paterson, C. J. Dennis, Patrick Joseph Hartigan (aka John O'Brien) and John O'Grady (see Discography below). Interviewed in the Sydney Morning Herald he explains his love of poetry, noting that 'Poetry is sometimes seen as too arty and perhaps not a suitable interest for blokes.'
== Personal life ==
Thompson married Beverley Hackett in 1963, and the five-year marriage produced his son Patrick Thompson. He met Leona King and her sister Bunkie in 1969, and they entered into a 15-year polyamorous relationship. Leona was 20 and Bunkie was 15 when the relationship began. Bunkie left the relationship in 1985, and is estranged from her sister. Leona remained with Thompson, and gave birth to his second son, Billy.
Thompson featured in the first episode of the Australian version of Who Do You Think You Are?, which was televised on 13 January 2008 on SBS, with Thompson discovering that his great-grandfather was Captain Thomas Pain, and his great-great uncle was Alfred Lee, a prominent figure in Sydney society, who donated the journal of Joseph Banks, from Captain Cook's navigation to Australia in the 1770s, to the Mitchell Library in Sydney.
Thompson used to own Hotel Gearin in Katoomba, Blue Mountains. He sold the hotel in June 2011.
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
== Awards ==
1975 AFI Award: Best Actor, for Sunday Too Far Away and Petersen
1980 AFI Award: Best Actor in a Lead Role, for Breaker Morant
1980 Cannes Film Festival: Best Supporting Actor, for Breaker Morant
1986 Appointed a Member of the Order of Australia for services to the Australian film industry
1994 AFI Award: Raymond Longford Award
1998 Film Critics Circle of Australia Awards: Special Achievement Award
2005 Inside Film Awards: Living Legend IF Award
2011 Australian Film Festival: Inductee into the Australian Film Walk of Fame
Thompson also served as an UNHCR Goodwill Ambassador.
== Discography ==
Jack Thompson: The Bush Poems of A.B. (Banjo) Paterson (Audio recording)|The Bush Poems of A.B. (Banjo) Paterson (2008)
Jack Thompson: The Campfire Yarns of Henry Lawson (2009)
Jack Thompson: The Sentimental Bloke, The Poems of C.J. Dennis (2009)
Jack Thompson: The Battlefield Poems of A.B (Banjo) Paterson (2010)
Jack Thompson: Favourite Australian Poems (2010)
Jack Thompson: The Poems of Henry Lawson (2011)
Jack Thompson: Live at the Gearin Hotel (DVD & CD) (2011)
Jack Thompson: The Poems of Lewis Carroll (2011)
Jack Thompson: Live at the Lighthouse CD (2011) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Fox_(actor) | Edward Fox (actor) | Edward Charles Morice Fox (born 13 April 1937) is an English actor and a member of the Fox family.
Fox starred in the film The Day of the Jackal (1973), playing the part of a professional assassin, known only as the "Jackal", who is hired to assassinate French president, Charles de Gaulle, in the summer of 1963. Fox is also known for his roles in Battle of Britain (1969), The Go-Between (1971), for which he won a BAFTA award, and The Bounty (1984). He also collaborated with director Richard Attenborough, appearing in his films Oh! What a Lovely War (1969), A Bridge Too Far (1977) and Gandhi (1982).
Fox won the British Academy Television Award for Best Actor for playing Edward VIII in the television drama series Edward & Mrs. Simpson (1978). He also appeared in the historical series Taboo (2017). In addition to film and television work, Fox has received acclaim as a stage actor.
== Early life and education ==
Fox was born the first of three sons on 13 April 1937 in Chelsea, London, to Robin Fox, a theatrical agent, and Angela Muriel Darita Worthington, an actress and writer. He is the father of actors Emilia Fox and Freddie Fox, the elder brother of actor James Fox and film producer Robert Fox, and an uncle of actor Laurence Fox. His paternal great-grandfather was industrialist and inventor Samson Fox, and his paternal grandmother was Hilda Hanbury, sister of stage performer Lily Hanbury. His maternal grandfather was dramatist Frederick Lonsdale, and his maternal grandmother was the daughter of football player and stockbroker Charles Morice.
Fox was educated at Harrow School and completed his National Service in the Loyals, having failed to gain a commission in the Coldstream Guards. He left a two-year course at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art, saying that it was not useful to him and did not compare to "an apprenticeship in repertory theatre".
== Career ==
Fox's first film appearance was as an extra in The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner (1962). He also had a non-speaking part as a waiter in This Sporting Life (1963). Throughout the 1960s he worked mostly on stage, including a turn as Hamlet. In the late 1960s and early 1970s he established himself with roles in major British films, including Oh! What a Lovely War (1969), Battle of Britain (1969) and The Go-Between (1971). In The Go-Between he played the part of Lord Hugh Trimingham, for which he won a BAFTA award for Best Supporting Actor. His acting ability also brought him to the attention of director Fred Zinnemann, who was looking for an actor who was not well known and could be believable as the assassin in the film The Day of the Jackal (1973). Fox won the role, beating other contenders such as Roger Moore and Michael Caine.
From then on Fox was much sought after, appearing in such films as A Bridge Too Far (1977) as Lieutenant General Horrocks, a role he has cited as a personal favourite, and for which he won the Best Supporting Actor award at the British Academy Film Awards. He also starred in Force 10 from Navarone (1978), with Robert Shaw and Harrison Ford.
In 1990 Fox appeared as a contestant on Cluedo, facing off against fellow actor Joanna David.
Fox portrayed King Edward VIII in the television drama Edward & Mrs Simpson (1978). In the film Gandhi (1982), Fox portrayed Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer, who was responsible for the Amritsar massacre in India. He then appeared as M in the unofficial Bond film Never Say Never Again (1983), a remake of Thunderball (1965). He also appeared in The Bounty (1984) and Wild Geese II (1985), both opposite Laurence Olivier, and in The Importance of Being Earnest (2002), Nicholas Nickleby (2002), and Stage Beauty (2004).
=== Later stage work ===
Fox consolidated his reputation with regular appearances on stage in London's West End. He was seen in Four Quartets, a set of four poems by T. S. Eliot, accompanied by the keyboard music of Johann Sebastian Bach, performed by Christine Croshaw. In 2010 Fox performed a one-man show, An Evening with Anthony Trollope, directed by Richard Digby Day. In 2013 he replaced Robert Hardy in the role of Winston Churchill in the premiere of The Audience, after Hardy withdrew for health reasons. In 2018 he appeared with his son Freddie Fox in an adaption of Oscar Wilde's An Ideal Husband.
== Awards ==
== Honours ==
Fox was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire for his services to drama in the 2003 New Year Honours.
== Personal life ==
From 1958 until their 1961 divorce, Fox was married to actress Tracy Reed, with whom he has a daughter. In 1971 he began a relationship with actress Joanna David; they married in July 2004. They have two children together, actors Emilia and Frederick.
Fox has two grandchildren through his daughters.
Fox has residences in London and Wareham, Dorset.
== Views and advocacy ==
Fox spoke at the conference for the Referendum Party ahead of the 1997 general election and was a friend of its leader, James Goldsmith. He has also been a patron of the UK Independence Party.
In 2002 Fox joined the Countryside March to support hunting rights in the UK. He supported the restoration of the Royal Hall, Harrogate, funded by his great-grandfather Samson Fox.
In 2010 Fox gave his support to a local campaign to prevent a supermarket being built close to his home in Dorset, citing the impact it would have upon small and independent businesses in the area. He chronicled the events in an article for The Daily Telegraph.
Fox also endorsed the successful Leave vote campaign ahead of the referendum to leave the European Union.
== Filmography ==
== Selected theatre performances ==
Harry, Lord Monchensey in The Family Reunion by T. S. Eliot. Directed by Michael Elliott at the Royal Exchange, Manchester. 1979)
Captain in The Dance of Death by August Strindberg. Directed by Kenneth MacMillan at the Royal Exchange, Manchester. (1983)
Crichton in The Admirable Crichton by J.M.Barrie at the Theatre Royal, Haymarket, London. (1989)
== Other projects and contributions ==
When Love Speaks (2002, EMI Classics) – William Shakespeare's "Sonnet 140" ("Be wise as thou art cruel; do not press"), a compilation album that features interpretations of Shakespeare's sonnets and excerpts from his plays by famous actors and musicians.
=== Books ===
Fox, Edward (1980). "Contributor". David Jacob's Book of Celebrities' Jokes & Anecdotes. By Jacobs, David. Robson Books. p. 50. ISBN 0860511251. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossroads_(2002_film)#Reception | Crossroads (2002 film)#Reception | Crossroads is a 2002 American teen road comedy-drama film directed by Tamra Davis, from a screenplay by Shonda Rhimes. The film stars Britney Spears, Anson Mount, Zoe Saldaña, Taryn Manning, Kim Cattrall, and Dan Aykroyd. Set in Georgia, its plot centers on three teenage girls on a cross-country road trip, as they find themselves and their friendship in the process.
Development began in late 2000 when Spears created a concept that was later expanded by Rhimes. Principal filming began in March 2001, and encompassed over six months. Crossroads was produced by MTV Films and released on February 15, 2002, in North America by Paramount Pictures, and was a box office success, grossing $61.7 million worldwide on a $10‒12 million budget. The film received unfavorable reviews from critics, though Spears' performance was praised. Spears's third studio album Britney (2001) was promoted as the soundtrack to the film, in addition to Crossroads (Music from the Major Motion Picture).
As part of a promotional campaign for Spears' memoir The Woman in Me, the movie was acquired by Sony Music Entertainment (via RCA Records label, current holders of the former Zomba Recording Corporation / Jive Records' catalogue) who re-released it to theaters on October 23 and 25, 2023, alongside a special edition of the soundtrack.
== Plot ==
As children growing up in a small Georgia town, Lucy, Kit, and Mimi bury a "wish box" and vow to dig it up on the night of their high school graduation. However, as the trio grows up, their friendship fades: Lucy becomes the introverted valedictorian, Kit becomes the most popular girl in school, and Mimi becomes an outcast from the trailer park facing teenage pregnancy.
On the night of graduation, they reunite to dig up the "wish box", remembering their old wishes: Kit wanted to get married, Lucy wanted to find her mother who abandoned her, and Mimi wanted to travel to California. Lucy and Kit try to convince Mimi, who is five months pregnant, not to go to Los Angeles to audition for a record company. Lucy's secret dream was being a singer like Kit and her father wanted her go to medical school. However, they decide to go with her to Los Angeles the next morning. Kit is going to see her fiancé who is a student at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), and Lucy is going to find her mother in Tucson, Arizona.
Unbeknownst to her overbearing father Pete, Lucy, Kit, and Mimi depart in a yellow 1973 Buick Skylark convertible with Mimi's friend Ben. During the trip, the car breaks down in Louisiana and, with little money, Mimi suggests that they sing karaoke at a New Orleans bar for tips. At the bar, Mimi develops stage fright and is unable to sing. Lucy takes her place and is a hit, and the girls earn enough money to fix the car and continue on their way.
While staying at a motel in Alabama, Kit tells Lucy and Mimi that she heard a rumor about Ben going to jail for killing a guy. Uneasy for most of the trip, the girls finally confront Ben about the rumor, who reveals that he actually went to jail for driving his stepsister across state lines without parental consent because his stepfather was abusing her. Lucy and Ben fall in love with each other, and the girls have their first honest conversation since they were children: Lucy reveals that her mother left her and her father when she was three years old, but believes that her mother wants to see her again. Kit, who was overweight as a child, reveals that her mother sent her to "fat camp" every summer until she reached her goal weight. Mimi mentions that her baby's father is not her ex-boyfriend Kurt, but a man who raped her at a party, and that she is planning to put her baby up for adoption.
In Tucson, Lucy finds her mother Caroline, who has remarried with two young sons and is unhappy to see her. Caroline reveals that Lucy was an unintended pregnancy and that she wants nothing to do with her, leaving Lucy heartbroken. At the motel, Ben consoles Lucy and impresses her by writing music to a poem she has written during the trip. Lucy then rejoins Kit, Mimi, and Ben, and they reach Los Angeles.
One night, Kit takes Mimi with her to surprise her fiancé Dylan. Alone together in the motel, Lucy loses her virginity to Ben. Kit and Mimi arrive at Dylan's apartment to find him cheating on Kit with another woman. She then realizes that it was Dylan who raped Mimi, and punches him in the face. While running away, Mimi falls down the stairs and loses her baby. In the hospital, Lucy and Kit console her as she comes to terms with her loss, having decided to keep her baby once they reached Los Angeles.
Lucy calls her father to come take her, Kit, and Mimi back home, and Kit and Mimi tell her that she should go to the audition in Mimi's place. Lucy declines and prepares to leave with them and her father, but realizes that everything she has done has been to please her father instead of herself. Lucy tells her father to let her go, runs to Ben, and they kiss. She, Kit, and Mimi head to the audition with Ben and receive a standing ovation for their performance of her song, "I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman". The girls re-bury the "wish box" at a Los Angeles beach, deciding not to make any wishes for the future, but to focus on the present and their friendship.
== Cast ==
== Production ==
In early 2001, Spears said that she had plans to make her film debut. She and her team then created a concept for it, which was later developed by Grey's Anatomy creator Shonda Rhimes. Spears commented that she "talked to [Rhimes] and told her what I wanted the movie to be about and she elaborated on it. It was my little project. When you do a movie, I think you have to be really passionate about it. I was having a lot of offers, but this is something my heart was into." A press conference was held during the Marché International du Disque et de l'Edition Musicale (MIDEM) in Cannes, France, on January 19, 2002, where Spears also premiered the film.
Filming for Crossroads initiated in March 2001 in New Orleans, Metairie, Baton Rouge, and Tangipahoa Parish, Louisiana, near Spears' hometown. Due to the fact that Spears was also recording her third studio album along with the film's production, filming wrapped up after only six months. Additional scenes were filmed in Los Angeles County, California. Crossroads had a total budget of $12 million; a relatively low budget by industry standards. According to the Louisiana Film and Video Commission, the film was originally titled What Friends Are For. Spears described it as a teen movie that deals with real issues that normal teenagers live on a daily basis. She continued to explain the film's content, saying that it "is about this journey that the three of us best friends take, finding ourselves and what we want out of life and getting our friendship back. Friends are all you have at the end of the day. When your boyfriend breaks up with you, who do you call? Your girlfriend. I just love that message."
Justin Long, who plays one of Lucy's best friends from high school, thought that Crossroads is "like a road trip buddy movie for girls." Long also said that he was impressed by Spears' work ethic, commenting that "she could not have been more down to earth. She's the sweetest girl. After 10 minutes, I forgot she was a big pop star." Anson Mount revealed that before he took the role of Ben, he was on the set of the film City by the Sea with actor Robert De Niro. De Niro saw Mount with the Crossroads script and encouraged Mount to take the role, running a few of Spears' lines with him.
== Reception ==
=== Box office ===
Crossroads was released in the United States on February 15, 2002. On its opening day, Crossroads grossed an estimated $5.2 million in 2,380 theaters, becoming the second highest-grossing film of the day. On the first weekend of its release, Crossroads placed second behind John Q., grossing an estimate of $14,527,187. By the second week, the film dropped a 52% on tickets sales, ranking at number five at the box office. Crossroads was a moderate financial success, grossing a total $37,191,304 in the United States. Worldwide, the film grossed a total of $61,141,030 until its close day, on May 9, 2002.
=== Critical response ===
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 15% approval rating based on 103 reviews, with an average rating of 4.10/10, with the consensus: "A cliched and silly pop star vanity project, Crossroads is strictly for Britney fans only." Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score, gave the film a 27 out of 100 based on 31 reviews from critics, indicating "generally unfavorable" reviews. Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade "B" on scale of A to F.
John Anderson of Los Angeles Times commented "Spears acquits herself as well as anyone might, in a movie as contrived and lazy as this one". Chris Kaltenbach of The Baltimore Sun said, "go see Crossroads if you want to hear Britney sing or see her wear next-to-nothing. But otherwise, avoid this train wreck at all costs". Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a positive review, commenting Crossroads "not only makes excellent use of the singer's sweetly coltish acting abilities, but it also promotes a standardized set of sturdy values with none of Mariah Carey's desperate Glitter, or any of Mandy Moore's gummy pap in A Walk to Remember". Jane Crowther of BBC rated the film 3 out of 5 stars, applauded Cattrall and Aykroyd's interactions with the characters, and said that "Spears manages to come across on film as natural, endearing, and extremely likable".
Robert K. Elder of the Chicago Tribune said "Spears delivers a performance with the same sincerity she invests into a Pepsi commercial, only this film contains twice the sugary calories", while New York Daily News writer Elizabeth Weitzman noted, "Here's what Crossroads does not have: Cohesive direction from Tamra Davis, intelligent dialogue, a comprehensible plot". Maitland McDonagh of TV Guide commented that "the film's mealy-mouthed messages about feminine empowerment will almost certainly fall on deaf ears, since even 11-year-olds know Spears's power resides largely in her taut torso". Claudia Puig of USA Today considered it "less a movie than a mind-numbingly dull road trip", while The Washington Post reporter Ann Hornaday said, "not a music video, not yet a movie, but more like an extended-play advertisement for the Product that is Britney".
Jane Dark of Village Voice compared Crossroads to Mariah Carey's Glitter, saying, "you spend a lot of time wondering, 'Better or worse than Glitter?' You think if the projectionist cranked the volume a little you could actually sort of get into this".
The film was criticized for not promoting safe sex, to which Spears responded: "I think by the time my character, Lucy, decides to make love in the film the audience realizes she's responsible enough and hopefully did do that. There was a scene where I took a box of condoms out but they took that scene out because the movie was too long." In 2010, Time named it one of the top 10 worst chick flicks.
=== Critical reevaluation ===
In the years following its release, Crossroads has been reassessed more favorably by several critics and publications. In October 2023, Rolling Stone published an article titled "Britney Spears' Crossroads Is a Lost Classic," highlighting the film's enduring appeal and cultural significance. The piece emphasized the film's themes of female friendship and empowerment, noting that it has gained recognition as a "lost classic" over time. The article also praised Britney Spears's performance, describing her as "absolutely breathtaking to watch," and commended the film for its portrayal of complicated female characters, reflecting early expertise in writing such roles.
Writing for Time in 2023, Stephanie Zacharek praised Britney Spears’s performance as “much better than she herself probably thinks it is,” highlighting moments where the singer “comes off as fully relaxed and alive.” Vanity Fair noted that although the film “initially received poor reviews,” it is now “being reevaluated in a more favorable light,” emphasizing its female-driven creative team and themes of friendship and empowerment. Business Insider similarly reported that director Tamra Davis believes the film “deserves a second look,” pointing to how early criticism was shaped by gendered biases in media coverage of Spears and her work. In a 2022 reflection for the CBC, journalist Amil Niazi wrote that she had expected the film to be “a shallow hate-watch,” but was surprised by how “invested [she] found [herself] in the characters” and how much she “rooted for them,” calling it a sincere story of friendship rather than a disposable pop-star vanity project.
In 2021, Pamela Hutchinson wrote a critical reassessment in The Guardian, noting that prior negative reviews had "recoiled at the film's savvy as a star vehicle – the way it builds up and reinforces Spears's commercial persona, from her virginity to her work ethic." Hutchinson argued "Crossroads was designed to represent what Britney Spears meant to her young fans, a hand to hold through the minefield of growing up. That's why her endearing earnestness shines through every deliberately unironic scene."
=== Accolades ===
=== Home media ===
Crossroads was released on VHS and DVD on July 23, 2002. It is out of print and has yet to be released as a Blu-ray version, or a DVD re-release.
In October 2023, the film's director, Tamra Davis, confirmed that Sony Music Entertainment had acquired the film's distribution rights back from Paramount Pictures. Later, it was reported that Netflix had purchased worldwide streaming rights for the film and was made available to watch on February 15, 2024.
== Soundtrack ==
Crossroads (Music from the Major Motion Picture) features two songs by Spears: a karaoke version of her cover version of "I Love Rock 'n' Roll" and a remix of "Overprotected" by JS16. The release also includes tracks by Mystikal, Matthew Sweet, Jars of Clay and Bowling for Soup. A new, expanded version of the soundtrack was released in October 2023, which accompanied the film's theatrical rerelease.
Spears's third studio album Britney (2001) contains three tracks that were used in Crossroads: "I Love Rock 'n' Roll", "Overprotected", and "I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman". Britney was also promoted as the soundtrack to the movie. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1965_Leeds_City_Council_election | 1965 Leeds City Council election | The 1965 municipal elections for Leeds were held on Thursday 13 May 1965, with one third of the council and an extra vacancy in Allerton to be elected.
Building upon the previous year, the Conservatives fully reversed the downward trend they'd been on since 1960. With a whopping 10.2% swing their way, they defeated the Labour Party in a manner not seen since 1951, with Labour's share reduced to the thirties - surpassing even their record low then.
The Conservatives six gains were largely a regaining of Labour's 1963 gains, with the notable exceptions of Beeston, which they already held, and Kirkstall - a first for the ward, which had been monolithically Labour since the boundary changes in 1951.
The Conservatives also recovered Roundhay from Labour who gained it in a by-election in 1963.
Elsewhere, the Liberals continued their decline from the 1962 highs, now at near enough where they were pre-spike. In contrast, the Communists, having steadily raised their candidates in each election since the mid-1950s were now fielding a record of 12, achieving party records in both vote and share. Turnout fell again by just over two percent on last year's figure to 34.5%.
== Election result ==
The result had the following consequences for the total number of seats on the council after the elections:
== Ward results == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dismal_Euphony | Dismal Euphony | Dismal Euphony was a Norwegian dark metal band that mixed styles including gothic metal, black metal, death metal, melodic metal, and classical music.
== History ==
The history of Dismal Euphony began in 1992 in Stavanger, Norway by bassist Ole K. Helgesen and drummer Kristoffer Vold Austrheim under the name The Headless Children, a cover band of Slayer and Kreator. A year later, singer Erik Borgen and guitarist Kenneth Bergsagel joined the group.
They changed the name to Carnal Tomb, then Borgen left the band and Helgesen became the singer/bassist with the female voice of Linn Achre Tveit (Keltziva). Elin Overskott joined the band as a keyboard player.
This was the first lineup of Dismal Euphony, officially formed in 1995. In the same year, the group composed the demo Spellbound. After this publication, they were signed by Napalm Records. Here they produced other albums like Soria Moria slott, Autumn Leaves: The Rebellion of Tides and the Lady Ablaze EP (which already features Anja Natasha as female singer).
Later, Dismal Euphony joined Nuclear Blast and released All Little Devils, with the new female singer Anja Natasha.
Their last album is Python Zero. After this release, the band split up.
== Band members ==
=== Last known lineup ===
Ole Helgesen – bass, vocals
Kristoffer Vold (a.k.a. Kristoffer Austrheim) – drums; also occasional guitars, bass and electronics
Frode Clausen – guitars
Svenn-Aksel Henriksen – keyboards
Anja Natasha – vocals
=== Former members ===
Dag Achre Tveit – bass
Kenneth Bergsagel – guitars
Elin Overskott – keyboards (1994–1998; died 2004)
Erik Borgen – vocals (1994)
Linn Achre Tveit – vocals (1994–1998)
== Discography ==
Spellbound (demo, 1995)
Dismal Euphony (EP, 1996)
Soria Moria slott (1996)
Autumn Leaves: The Rebellion of Tides (1997)
All Little Devils (1999)
Lady Ablaze (EP, 2000)
Lady Ablaze (video/VHS, 2000)
Python Zero (2001) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honshu | Honshu | Honshu (Japanese: 本州, Hepburn: Honshū; pronounced [hoꜜɰ̃.ɕɯː] ; lit. 'main province'), historically known as Akitsushima (秋津島; lit. 'dragonfly island') or Hondo (lit. 'mainland') , is the largest of Japan's four main islands. It lies between the Pacific Ocean (east) and the Sea of Japan (west). It is the seventh-largest island in the world, and the second-most populous after the Indonesian island of Java.
Honshu had a population of 104 million as of 2017, constituting 81.3% of the entire population of Japan, and mostly concentrated in the coastal areas and plains. Approximately 30% of the total population resides in the Greater Tokyo Area on the Kantō Plain. As the historical center of Japanese cultural and political power, the island includes several past Japanese capitals, including Kyoto, Nara, and Kamakura. Much of the island's southern shore forms part of the Taiheiyō Belt, a megalopolis that spans several of the Japanese islands. Honshu also contains Japan's highest mountain, Mount Fuji, and its largest lake, Lake Biwa.
Most of Japan's industry is located in a belt running along Honshu's southern coast, from Tokyo to Nagoya, Kyoto, Osaka, Kobe, and Hiroshima. The island is linked to the other three major Japanese islands by a number of bridges and tunnels. The island primarily shares two climates, with Northern Honshu having four seasons with largely varying temperatures while the south experiences long, hot summers and cool to mild winters.
== Etymology ==
The name of the island, Honshū (本州), stems from Middle Chinese. It directly translates to "main province" or "home land" in English.
== History ==
=== Early history ===
Humans first arrived in Honshu at least approximately 37,000 years ago. The first humans to arrive in Honshu were Stone Age hunter-gatherers from Northeast Asia, likely following the migration of ice age megafauna. Surviving artifacts from this period include finely crafted stone blades, similar to those found in Siberia.
After the initial arrival of hunter-gatherers, the island saw the emergence of the Jōmon period (c. 14,000–300 BCE), one of the earliest known eras of prehistoric Japanese culture. The Jōmon people were known for their distinctive cord-marked pottery and dogū clay figurines, many of which have been excavated at archaeological sites across Honshu. These artifacts reflect a complex spiritual life and early forms of sedentary communities, particularly along the coasts and river valleys.
=== Meiji Restoration ===
The Meiji Restoration, in Japanese history, is the political revolution in 1868 that brought the final demise of the Tokugawa shogunate (which was a military government). It ended the Edo (Tokugawa) Period (1603–1867) and at least nominally returned control of the country to direct imperial rule under Mutsuhito (the Emperor Meiji). One of the main leaders of the restoration (who were mostly young samurai) was Chōshū in far western Honshu, which was one of the feudal areas, hostile to Tokugawa authority domains.
== Geography ==
The island is roughly 1,300 km (810 mi) long and ranges from 50 to 230 km (31 to 143 mi) wide, and its total area is 227,960 km2 (88,020 sq mi). It is slightly larger than Britain. Its land area has been increasing with land reclamation and coastal uplift in the north due to plate tectonics with a convergent boundary. Honshu has 10,084 kilometres (6,266 mi) of coastline.
Mountainous and volcanic, Honshu experiences frequent earthquakes (such as the Great Kantō earthquake, which heavily damaged Tokyo in September 1923; and the earthquake of March 2011, which moved the northeastern part of the island by varying amounts of as much as 5.3 m (17 ft) while causing devastating tsunamis). The highest peak is the active volcano Mount Fuji at 3,776 m (12,388 ft), which makes Honshu the world's 7th highest island. There are many rivers, including the Shinano River, Japan's longest. The Japanese Alps span the width of Honshu, from the 'Sea of Japan' coast to the Pacific shore. Western Japan experiences a temperate climate with hot summers and cool to mild winters.
In addition to the general climate patterns, central Honshu, particularly the regions surrounding the Japanese Alps, experiences heavy snowfall in winter. Areas such as Niigata, Toyama, and Nagano prefectures are renowned for their snow accumulation, making them popular destinations for skiing and winter sports. These regions are among the snowiest inhabited places in the world, due to the humid air masses from the Sea of Japan colliding with the mountainous terrain.
=== Population ===
Honshu has a total population of 104 million people, according to a 2017 estimate, 81.3% of the entire population of Japan. The largest city is Tokyo (population: 13,988,129), the capital of Japan and part of the Greater Tokyo Area, the most populous metropolitan area in the world.
=== Extreme points ===
==== Bridges and tunnels ====
Honshu is connected to the islands of Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku by tunnels and bridges. Three bridge systems have been built across the islands of the Inland Sea between Honshu and Shikoku (Akashi Kaikyo Bridge and the Ōnaruto Bridge; Shin-Onomichi Bridge, Innoshima Bridge, Ikuchi Bridge, Tatara Bridge, Ōmishima Bridge, Hakata–Ōshima Bridge, and the Kurushima Kaikyō Bridge; Shimotsui-Seto Bridge, Hitsuishijima Bridge, Iwakurojima Bridge, Yoshima Bridge, Kita Bisan-Seto Bridge, and the Minami Bisan-Seto Bridge), the Seikan Tunnel connects Honshu with Hokkaido, and the Kanmonkyo Bridge and Kanmon Tunnel connect Honshu with Kyushu.
=== Flora and fauna ===
These are notable flora and fauna of Honshu.
=== Geologic activity ===
Being on the Ring of Fire, the island of Honshu is seismically active, and is home to 40 active volcanoes.
In 2011, an earthquake of magnitude 9.0–9.1 occurred off the coast of Honshu, generating tsunami waves up to 40.5 meters (133 ft) high and killing 19,747. It was the most powerful earthquake ever recorded in Japan, and the fourth most powerful earthquake in the world since modern record-keeping began in 1900. The tsunami subsequently led to the meltdown of 3 nuclear reactors at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant, leading to the Fukushima nuclear disaster.
=== Parks ===
== Economy ==
Honshu island generates around US$3.5 trillion or more than 80% of Japan's GDP.
=== Agriculture ===
Fruit, vegetables, grains, rice and cotton make up the main produce grown in Honshu. The Tōhoku region, spanning the north-eastern part of the island, is notable for its rice production, with 65% of cultivated land being rice paddy fields – almost a quarter of all paddy fields in Japan. Chiba Prefecture is famous for its peanuts, also being the largest producer in Japan. Rare species of the lichen genus Menegazzia are found only in Honshu.
=== Industry ===
Most of Japan's tea and silk is from Honshu. Japan's three largest industrial regions are all located on Honshu: the Keihin region, the Hanshin Industrial Region, and the Chūkyō Industrial Area.
=== Minerals and fuels ===
Honshu is home to a large portion of Japan's minimal mineral reserves, including small oil and coal deposits. Several coal deposits are located in the northern part of the island, concentrated in Fukushima Prefecture and Niigata Prefecture, though Honshu's coal production is negligible in comparison to Hokkaido and Kyushu. Most of Japan's oil reserves are also located in northern Honshu, along the west coast, spanning Niigata, Yamagata, and Akita Prefectures.
Most of Japan's copper, lead, zinc and chromite is located on Honshu, along with smaller, scattered deposits of gold, silver, arsenic, sulfur and pyrite.
== Transportation ==
The Tokaido Shinkansen, opened in 1964 between Tokyo and Shin-Ōsaka, is Japan's first high-speed rail line. It is the world's oldest high-speed rail line and one of the most heavily used. The San'yō Shinkansen connects stations in the two largest cities in western Japan, Shin-Osaka in Osaka with Hakata Station in Fukuoka. Both the Tokaido Shinkansen and the Sanyo Shinkansen help form a continuous high-speed railway through the Taiheiyō Belt megalopolis.
The island is served by Japan's 4 major airports which are:
Haneda Airport (serving Tokyo)
Narita International Airport (serving Tokyo and Chiba Prefecture)
Chubu Centrair International Airport (serving the Chūkyō region)
Kansai International Airport (serving the Keihanshin region)
== Administrative regions and prefectures ==
The island is divided into five nominal regions and contains 34 prefectures, including metropolitan Tokyo. Administratively, some smaller islands are included within these prefectures, notably including the Ogasawara Islands, Sado Island, Izu Ōshima, and Awaji Island.
The regions and their prefectures are: |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiny_Tina%27s_Wonderlands | Tiny Tina's Wonderlands | Tiny Tina's Wonderlands is a 2022 action role-playing first-person shooter video game developed by Gearbox Software and published by 2K. As a spin-off in the Borderlands series and a sequel to Tiny Tina's Assault on Dragon Keep DLC for Borderlands 2, the game is set within the world of a fantasy-themed tabletop role-playing game. The game was released for PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Windows, Xbox One and Xbox Series X/S in March 2022.
== Gameplay ==
Similar to its predecessors, the game is a first-person shooter with elements of an action role-playing game. The game can be played solo or with up to three other players in online or local split-screen multiplayer. The game is set within the world of a fantasy-themed tabletop role-playing game. The game features an overworld, which is used by the playable characters to traverse the various locations in the game. There are random combat encounters and quests that can only be completed in the overworld.
Tiny Tina's Wonderlands builds upon the standards set by the Borderlands franchise that it originated from while also differing in several key aspects. In terms of the characters themselves, rather than playing as a specific vault hunter, with their own personality and voice lines, players instead play as a custom made character using the game's character creator system. The game features six (Blightcaller class from a DLC being the seventh) different character classes, and for the first time in the series, players can mix and match these skills for their characters. The playable avatars have stats that can be upgraded using "hero points". Players have a large arsenal of weapons and firearms at their disposal, and for the first time in the series, players can wield melee weapons. The game features the same procedurally generated loot system from the Borderlands series that is capable of generating numerous combinations of weapons and other gear. The game also features new types of gear for the players to use to improve their strength. Melee weapons have their own 5th weapon slot to encourage the player to fight up close. Grenades, which have been a franchise staple, have been replaced with a spell slot on a cooldown. Players can cast spells such as summoning meteors, or transforming enemies into sheep. Lastly in terms of new equipment are two ring slots, and an amulet slot to further increase the power of the character.
After completing the main campaign, players will unlock an infinite dungeon mode known as Chaos Chamber. Each Chaos Chamber consists of six levels and includes two boss characters. The combination of enemies and bosses is randomly selected by the game. After completing each level, they will gain access to a portal which would grant the player additional perks or combat advantages, or "curses" that hinder their combat abilities. Boss characters will drop legendary weapons, and players can also spend crystals to unlock extra loots.
== Plot ==
Set after the Borderlands 2 expansion pack Tiny Tina's Assault on Dragon Keep, the campaign is set within the world of a fantasy-themed tabletop role-playing game named "Bunkers & Badasses". Tiny Tina (Ashly Burch) is its dungeon master and can change the game's world on the fly.
The story starts with Valentine (Andy Samberg), Frette (Wanda Sykes), and the player, known as The Newbie, about to defeat the Dragon Lord (Will Arnett). The Dragon Lord uses his magic to raise the undead, but is stopped by Butt Stallion, wielding the Sword of Souls. The Dragon Lord is imprisoned for centuries, and the game begins anew, this time with the Newbie being "The Fatemaker". The Fatemaker goes through the starting area with the help of Butt Stallion as their guide. They are stopped by a gang of skeletons and their leader, who has plans to awaken the Dragon Lord, who was banished in a crypt hidden in a dungeon. Despite defeating the skeleton leader, the Dragon Lord is awakened, and disappears.
The player goes to Brighthoof, which is under siege by skeletons brought by the Dragon Lord. After defeating the skeleton army, the Player is tasked by Queen Butt Stallion to retrieve the Sword of Souls from the nearby graveyard. After recovering the Sword and charging it up with the soul of The Dragon Lord’s poltergeist ally, the Player returns to Brighthoof and places the sword into the central fountain, repairing the town. For their efforts, the Queen decides to make the Player an official Knight of Brighthoof. Before she is able to, the Dragon Lord appears and steals the Sword of Souls, using it to decapitate Queen Butt Stallion. He disappears, taking the Sword and Queen Butt Stallion’s head back to his base, The Fear-amid. The Player is tasked to cross the ocean on a ship and stop the Dragon Lord, before he uses the Sword’s power to destroy the Wonderlands. Before they can cross, the Player is told to get their boat blessed by a bard or risk getting killed by an ocean monster. After finding a bard (Chris Rager), he dispels the bad vibes surrounding the player (Valentine and Frette’s arguing over how to play the game). Unfortunately, the spell works too well and instead destroys the ocean, forcing the Player to cross on foot instead.
While crossing, the Dragon Lord secretly talks to the Player, revealing that he is fully aware that Wonderlands is just a game. He further reveals that he plans to harvest a massive amount of soul energy to use the Sword of Souls to sever Tina’s control over the Wonderlands, as he views her as insecure and quick to anger. Before entering the Fear-amid, the Dragon Lord shows the Player his backstory. He was originally the Dragon Knight, Tina’s personal character when she was first introduced to Bunkers and Badasses by Roland (Markus Lloyd). However, after she improperly used the Sword of Souls to wipe out all evil, this caused her character to turn evil, which angered Tina. She swore to only play as Bunker Master from then on, creating a world where only heroes win and the Dragon Lord, as a reoccurring villain, always loses. When the Dragon Lord realized his actions weren’t his own, he swore vengeance on Tina.
After entering the Fear-amid and defeating the Dragon Lord, the Player is encouraged by Tina, Valentine, and Frette to use the Sword of Souls improperly again. However, the Player uses the Sword to revive Queen Butt Stallion, and neutralize the Dragon Lord instead of killing him. Valentine, Frette and the Newbie had so much fun playing Tina’s adventure that they decide to continue playing. The Player is made an official Knight of Brighthoof, while the Dragon Lord is sentenced to 200 years of imprisonment for his crimes.
== Development ==
Tiny Tina's Wonderlands was developed by Gearbox Software with support from Lost Boys Interactive. According to Gearbox founder Randy Pitchford, the studio has been planning to release a fantasy spin-off of the series since the early 2010s, and it had unsuccessfully pitched several fantasy projects to publishers during the early days of the studio. The game's overworld system was inspired by Japanese role-playing games such as the Final Fantasy series. Gearbox intentionally designed five maps that can only be accessed through the overworld. These maps feature their own narrative threads that are also connected to the main story. Ashly Burch returned to provide her voice for Tiny Tina, while Andy Samberg, Will Arnett and Wanda Sykes portrayed other main characters in the game.
Despite Embracer Group's acquisition of Gearbox Software in 2020, the studio continued to partner with series publisher 2K Games. The game was officially announced by 2K on June 10, 2021. It was released on March 25, 2022 for PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Windows, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X and Series S. The PS5 and Xbox Series X/S versions will include the Dragon Lord Pack downloadable content. Players who pre-ordered the game would gain access to the Golden Hero Armor Pack. Tiny Tina's Wonderlands is the first game in the Borderlands franchise to feature full crossplay between PlayStation, Xbox, and PC; 2019's Borderlands 3 also features crossplay, but the feature was initially limited in terms of platforms that could play together, although these limitations were addressed in an update that the game received after the release of Wonderlands.
Ahead of Wonderlands's release, Gearbox made the Borderlands 2 DLC Assault on Dragon Keep available as a standalone game Tiny Tina's Assault on Dragon Keep: A Wonderlands One-Shot Adventure, released on November 8, 2021 for PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One.
=== Post-release ===
Gearbox revealed a brief synopsis of season pass one in March 2022. Players can expect a new endgame content named the Mirrors of Mystery featuring constantly increasing difficulty on repeat playthroughs. The first Mirror of Mystery, Coiled Captors, was released on April 20, 2022. It received an underwhelming response from players, who compared it unfavourably to other DLC packs in the Borderlands franchise. The second pack, titled Glutton's Gamble, was released on May 20, 2022. The pack features a new villain known as the Sand Witch, whose powers are culinary-themed. The third DLC, Molten Mirrors, was released on June 21, 2022. The fourth DLC, titled Shattering Spectreglass, introduced a new character class known as the Blightcaller, who was described by Gearbox as an "elementalist" who "wields the noxious essence of swamps with potent precision". The DLC pack was released on August 14, 2022.
== Reception ==
=== Critical reception ===
Tiny Tina's Wonderlands received "generally favorable" reviews, according to review aggregator website Metacritic. Reviewers praised the game's new dynamic environments, gameplay, humor and voice acting but felt that many of the problems present in Borderlands 3 were also present in this game.
EGM criticized the game's meaningless reward system, lack of resemblance to an actual tabletop role-playing experience, and quality of life issues, but commended the build customization and fantastical subclasses, claiming that Tiny Tina's Wonderlands had "...the best FPS action in the series so far." Game Informer wrote highly of the game, praising the voice acting, dialogue, story scenarios, flow, humor, fantasy elements, and gunplay, stating, "Tiny Tina's Wonderlands is Gearbox Software's best game." GameSpot praised the fantasy environments, gameplay variety, and the Chaos Chamber mode while lamenting its tonally disjointed key moments, overabundance of exposition, UI, and quest structure. While GamesRadar+ lauded the cast, humor, and gunplay, they criticized the game's repetitive nature and its inability to retain the player's engagement. Hardcore Gamer stated that the Wonderlands' humor was a marked improvement over that of Borderlands 3 and heavily praised the ability to combine classes. IGN noted that while the game's premise felt safe, it still had excellent writing and voice acting, writing, "The excellent laugh-out-loud writing is elevated by one of the strongest comedy casts of any game." PC Gamer similarly praised the game's tone and comedy while acknowledging that the quality of the game was a result of how the Borderlands formula had been honed over the years. PCGamesN gave the game an 8 out of 10, writing, "Still recognisably Borderlands, but the sense of place and improvisation elevates Tiny Tina's Wonderlands beyond expectations. The overworld map feels tacked-on, but Gearbox commits to the bit in every other aspect." Shacknews found merit in the game's character building options, humor, art style, and usage of Dungeons & Dragons tropes and mechanics.
=== Sales ===
The PlayStation 4 version of Tiny Tina’s Wonderlands sold 5,427 copies within its first week of release in Japan, making it the fourteenth bestselling retail game of the week in the country. The PlayStation 5 version sold 2,835 copies in Japan throughout the same week, making it the twenty-sixth bestselling retail game of the week in the country. Tiny Tina's Wonderlands was the second-best-selling retail video game in the United Kingdom in its week of release, according to Chart-Track. 77% of the game's launch sales in the UK, however, were digital. It was the 11th best-selling game in the US in March 2022 by dollar sales. In May 2022, Take-Two Interactive revealed that the sales of Tiny Tina's Wonderlands had exceeded the publisher's expectations. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nintendo_Entertainment_System | Nintendo Entertainment System | The Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) is a home video game console developed and marketed by Nintendo. It was released as the Family Computer (Famicom), in Japan on July 15, 1983, and as the NES in test markets in the United States on October 18, 1985, followed by a nationwide launch on September 27, 1986. The NES was distributed in Europe, Australia, and parts of Asia throughout the 1980s. It was Nintendo's first programmable home console, succeeding the Color TV-Game line of dedicated consoles, and primarily competed with Sega's Master System in the third generation of video game consoles.
The engineer Masayuki Uemura designed the 8-bit Famicom after Nintendo's president Hiroshi Yamauchi called for a simple, cheap console that could run arcade games from cartridges. Its hardware was based on that of Nintendo's arcade game Donkey Kong (1981) and its controller design was reused from Nintendo's portable Game & Watch hardware. For Western markets, Lance Barr and Don James redesigned it as the NES to resemble a video cassette recorder. To aid its acceptance in stores, Nintendo released add-ons such as the Zapper, a light gun for shooting games, and R.O.B., a toy robot. In Japan, Nintendo released the Famicom Disk System add-on to distribute games on floppy disks, although it gradually reduced support for the peripheral due to hardware constraints.
Nintendo released the NES in the aftermath of the video game crash of 1983. In Japan and North America, it quickly dominated and gave Nintendo a near-monopoly on the home console market. Unlike the previous market leader, Atari, Nintendo sought the support of third-party developers, such as Capcom, Hudson Soft, Konami, Namco, Enix, and Square. Its restrictive licensing terms, which included platform exclusivity and a five-game-per-year limit, led to accusations of antitrust violations in the US, culminating in a 1991 settlement with the Federal Trade Commission. Nintendo sold 61.91 million consoles; though dominant in Japan and North America, the NES performed less well in Europe, where it faced strong competition from the Master System and home computers such as the Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum.
Nintendo released the Super Nintendo Entertainment System in 1990, although it continued to support the NES well into the 16-bit era. It ceased NES production in 1995 and Famicom production in 2003. The NES is regarded as one of the most influential consoles, as it helped revitalize the American gaming industry following the 1983 crash and pioneered the now-standard business model of licensing third-party developers to produce and distribute games. Several games released for the NES, including Super Mario Bros. (1985), The Legend of Zelda (1986), Dragon Warrior (1986), and Final Fantasy (1987), became major franchises.
== History ==
=== Background ===
The video game industry experienced rapid growth and popularity from the late 1970s to the early 1980s, marked by the golden age of arcade games and the second generation of consoles. Games like Space Invaders (1978) became a phenomenon across arcades worldwide, while home consoles such as the Atari 2600 and home computers such as the Commodore 64 and the Intellivision gained a foothold in the American market. Many companies emerged to capitalize on the growing industry, including the card and toy company Nintendo.
Nintendo president Hiroshi Yamauchi realized that breakthroughs in the electronics industry meant that entertainment products could be produced at lower prices. Companies such as Atari and Magnavox were already selling gaming devices for use with television sets to moderate success. Yamauchi negotiated a license with Magnavox for the patents on the technology used in the Magnavox Odyssey. Since Nintendo's operation was not yet sophisticated enough to design its own hardware, Yamauchi forged an alliance with Mitsubishi Electric and hired several Sharp Electronics employees to assist in developing the Color TV-Game 6 and the Color TV-Game 15 in Japan. This was followed by the handheld Game & Watch series. The successes of these consoles gave Yamauchi the confidence to expand Nintendo's influence in the fledgling video game industry.
In 1978, Yamauchi split Nintendo into separate research and development divisions. He appointed Masayuki Uemura as head of Nintendo Research & Development 2. Yamauchi, through extensive discussions with Uemura and other engineers, recognized the potential of the developing console beyond gaming. He envisioned a home computer system disguised as a toy, which could significantly expand Nintendo's reach if it became popular with children. This popularity would drive demand for games, with Nintendo as the sole provider. Indeed, by 1980 several systems had already been released in Japan by both American and Japanese companies. Yamauchi tasked Uemura with developing a system that would be superior to its competitors and difficult to replicate for at least a year. Uemura's main challenge was economic rather than technological; Yamauchi wanted the system to be affordable enough for widespread household adoption, aiming for a price of ¥9,800 (less than $75) compared to existing machines priced at ¥30,000 to ¥50,000 ($200 to $350). The new system had to outperform other systems, both Japanese and American, while being significantly more affordable.
=== Inception ===
As development progressed on the new video game system, engineers sought Yamauchi's guidance on its features. They questioned whether to include a disk drive, keyboard, data port, as well as the potential for a modem, expanded memory, and other computer-like capabilities. Yamauchi ultimately instructed Uemura to prioritize simplicity and affordability, omitting these peripherals entirely. Game cartridges, which Uemura saw as "less intimidating" to consumers, were chosen as the format. The team designed the system with 2,000 bytes of random-access memory (RAM).
The console's hardware was largely based on arcade video games, particularly the hardware for Namco's Galaxian (1979) and Nintendo's own Donkey Kong (1981), with the goal of matching their powerful sprite and scrolling capabilities in a home system. A test model was constructed in October 1982 to verify the functionality of the hardware, and work began on programming tools. Because 65xx CPUs had not been manufactured or sold in Japan by that time, no cross-development software was available, and had to be developed from scratch. Early Famicom games were written on a PC-8001 computer. LEDs on a grid were used with a digitizer to design graphics, as no such software design tools existed at the time.
The codename for the project was GameCom, but Masayuki Uemura's wife proposed the name Famicom, arguing that "In Japan, 'pasokon' is used to mean a personal computer, but it is neither a home nor personal computer. Perhaps we could say it is a family computer." Meanwhile, Yamauchi decided that the console should use a red and white color scheme after seeing a hoarding for DX Antenna (a Japanese antenna manufacturer) that used those colors.
=== Development ===
The Famicom was influenced by the ColecoVision, Coleco's competition against the Atari 2600 in the United States; the ColecoVision's top-seller was a port of Nintendo's Donkey Kong. The project's chief manager Takao Sawano brought a ColecoVision home to his family, who was impressed by its smooth graphics, which contrasted with the flicker and slowdown commonly seen on Atari 2600 games. Uemura said the ColecoVision set the bar for the Famicom. The team, wanting to surpass the ColecoVision and match the more powerful Donkey Kong arcade hardware, took a Donkey Kong arcade cabinet to chip manufacturer Ricoh for analysis, which led to Ricoh producing the Picture Processing Unit (PPU) chip for the Famicom.
During development, Yamauchi directed engineers to reduce costs by removing non-essential components. However, he insisted on including a low-cost circuit and connector that allowed the CPU to send or receive unmodified signals, enabling future hardware expansions such as modems or keyboards. This built-in capability led some within Nintendo to refer to the console as "Yamauchi's Trojan Horse": it entered homes as a simple gaming device with two controllers, and yet contained features far beyond its apparent function. A 1989 corporate report later acknowledged, "In the initial stages of [the system's] development, we foresaw these possibilities... we built a data communications function into the system." Lead engineer Masayuki Uemura credited luck for this foresight, while colleague Genyo Takeda remarked that Uemura's lack of experience allowed him to attempt what others might have deemed unfeasible. Design decisions were also carefully considered. Yamauchi took a hands-on role in determining the controller layout, casing shape, and overall aesthetic. The final design featured a directional pad and two buttons on the right controller, a microphone on the left controller, rounded edges, and a red and white color scheme deliberately made to appear more like a toy than a computer.
Original plans called for the Famicom's cartridges to be the size of a cassette tape, but they ultimately ended up being twice as large. Careful design attention was paid to the cartridge connectors, as loose and faulty connections often plagued arcade machines. Because it necessitated 60 connection lines for the memory and expansion, Nintendo decided to produce its own connectors. Each cartridge typically contained two primary chips: one for the game’s program code (up to 32 kilobytes), and another for graphical data used to render on-screen characters (up to 8 kilobytes). Nintendo's R&D3 team designed the "UNROM" cartridge, which enabled larger memory capacities and the use of bank switching. This technique involved storing additional data in RAM and dynamically accessing it as needed, thereby significantly expanding gameplay possibilities. At Gunpei Yokoi's suggestion, a cartridge eject lever was also added, not for functionality, but to amuse children.
The Famicom design team initially considered arcade-style joysticks, and even dismantled existing models from American consoles, but ultimately rejected them due to concerns about durability and the risk of children stepping on them. Instead, they adopted the D-pad and two action button layout developed by R&D1 for their handheld Game & Watch series. As an early prototype, Katsuya Nakagawa attached a Game & Watch D-pad to the Famicom and found it comfortable and easy to use. To reduce costs, the controllers were hardwired to the console and stored in molded pockets on the case. A 15-pin expansion port was added to the front of the console so that an optional arcade-style joystick could be used. The second controller also included a microphone, which Uemura envisioned being used to make players' voices come through the TV speaker.
=== Japanese launch ===
On July 15, 1983, the console was released in Japan as the Home Cassette Type Video Game: Family Computer, priced at ¥14,800 (¥20,718 in 2025) with three launch games, all of which were ports of popular Nintendo arcade games: Donkey Kong (1981), Donkey Kong Jr. (1982), and Popeye (1982). Although it was priced higher than originally intended, the Famicom remained less than half the cost of rival consoles. Backed by a robust marketing campaign, 500,000 units were sold within the first two months. However, a major fault emerged ahead of the critical Japanese New Year season, as reports began surfacing of consoles crashing during gameplay. Uemura and engineer Gunpei Yokoi traced the issue to a defective integrated circuit that could lock under specific data conditions. Upon reporting the issue to Yamauchi, staff proposed selectively replacing affected units. However, they were warned that a partial response could damage consumer trust and jeopardize Nintendo's first-mover advantage before competitors could respond. Yamauchi considered their input, then issued a decisive directive: "Recall them all."
After a product recall and the release of a revised model with a new motherboard, the system's popularity soared. By the end of 1984, the Famicom had become the best-selling game console in Japan in what came to be called the "Famicom Boom". Following the sale of the first million units, demand showed no signs of slowing. Japanese retailers inundated Nintendo with urgent requests for stock. Anticipation for new game releases reached unprecedented levels, with children lining up outside shops and games selling out almost immediately. This phenomenon, soon dubbed "Nintendomania", overwhelmed the supply chain and further increased demand. The Famicom's success quickly cleared the field of competition in Japan. Fourteen rival console manufacturers exited the market, and Sega's SG-1000, launched in Japan on the same day as the Famicom, failed to gain traction.
At launch, Nintendo released only first-party games for the Famicom. However, in 1984, after being approached by Namco and Hudson Soft, the company agreed to allow third-party titles. Developers paid a 30% fee to cover console licensing and production costs, a revenue model that would later influence the video game industry for decades.
=== Venture into North America ===
Nintendo initially planned for the console to enter the North American market through a distribution agreement with Atari. The agreement was expected to be finalized at the Summer Consumer Electronics Show (CES) in June 1983. However, during the show, Atari discovered that Coleco was demonstrating an unlicensed port of Nintendo's Donkey Kong on its Adam computer system. Atari, believing this violated its exclusive license for the game, delayed the deal. Shortly afterward, Atari CEO Ray Kassar was fired, the deal fell apart, and Nintendo decided to market its system on its own.
Nintendo believed that the Famicom name might not resonate with American consumers, and initially rebranded the console as the Advanced Video System (AVS). The AVS resembled a home computer rather than a "toy", featuring a built-in keyboard, a cassette-based data drive, and infrared wireless controllers. By positioning the console as a more "sophisticated" consumer electronics product, Nintendo aimed to distance itself from the recent failures of companies such as Atari, Coleco, and Mattel. The AVS was publicly demonstrated at the Winter CES in January 1985, but the reaction was lukewarm. While the hardware and games were praised, there was deep skepticism that the console could succeed in the United States, as the industry there was still recovering from the video game crash of 1983. Electronic Games magazine reported in March 1985 that the video game market in America "[had] virtually disappeared", and believed "[it] could be a miscalculation on Nintendo's part".
With American retailers still wary of stocking game consoles after the 1983 crash, Yamauchi saw an opportunity to introduce the Famicom's hardware to North America through arcades. In 1984, Nintendo launched the VS. System, an arcade conversion system that featured ports of select Famicom games, with a focus on two-player competitive play. The VS. System became a major success, selling nearly 100,000 cabinets and becoming the highest-grossing arcade machine of 1985 in the United States. This success gave Nintendo the confidence to pursue a home console launch in North America, and provided a platform to test new titles to help shape the launch line-up.
Nintendo of America designers Lance Barr and Don James were disappointed with the prototype console they received from Japan, which they nicknamed "the lunchbox". For the console's western redesign, they added a two-tone gray color scheme with a black stripe and red lettering, as well as a front-loading, zero insertion force slot modeled after a videocassette recorder which concealed the game cartridge once inserted. The redesigned console, now called the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), was unveiled by Nintendo at the June 1985 Summer CES, and dropped the home computer features of the earlier AVS prototype while retaining its gray color scheme and boxy form factor. It also replaced the Famicom's hardwired controllers and the AVS's wireless ones with detachable wired controllers using proprietary 7-pin connectors. To avoid the language used by earlier game consoles, marketing manager Gail Tilden coined alternative terms for the NES's hardware, calling the cartridges "Game Paks" and the console itself the "Control Deck", which would later aid its acceptance in toy stores. To further distance the NES from previous consoles, Nintendo heavily promoted optional accessories, such as the Zapper light gun and the Robotic Operating Buddy (R.O.B.), to position the system as cutting-edge and sophisticated. While initial consumer interest in the console was limited, its peripherals drew significant attention.
The NES launched in a limited test market in New York City on October 18, 1985, followed by Los Angeles in February 1986, and finally a full North American release on September 27, 1986. The launch line-up included 17 games: 10-Yard Fight, Baseball, Clu Clu Land, Duck Hunt, Excitebike, Golf, Gyromite, Hogan's Alley, Ice Climber, Kung Fu, Pinball, Soccer, Stack-Up, Super Mario Bros., Tennis, Wild Gunman, and Wrecking Crew. Nintendo contracted with toy company Worlds of Wonder (WoW) to get the NES distributed in stores. WoW's aggressive sales tactics, which included requiring retailers to carry the NES in order to sell WoW's other popular toys, helped secure shelf space for the console. WoW salesman Jim Whims distinctly recalled delivering an ultimatum: "if you want to sell Teddy Ruxpin and you want to sell Lazer Tag, you're gonna sell Nintendo as well." WoW's efforts led to a successful first year for the NES; afterwards, Nintendo of America ended the distribution deal and hired WoW's sales team, taking over distribution directly.
With the launch of the NES, Nintendo redefined the home video game market in North America. The 1983 crash had been fueled by misleading marketing, lack of quality control, and hardware fragmentation. In contrast, Nintendo introduced strict standards for software approval, packaging, and quality. It used consistent branding with genre icons, box art that reflected in-game graphics, and the "Official Nintendo Seal of Quality". To enforce its standards, the company used the 10NES lock-out chip to deter production of unlicensed games.
=== Other markets ===
In Europe and Oceania, the NES was released in two separate marketing regions. The first consisted of mainland Europe (excluding Italy), where distribution was handled by several different companies, with Nintendo responsible for manufacturing. The NES saw an early launch in Europe in 1986, although most European countries received the console in 1987. In Scandinavia, it was released on September 1, 1986, and was distributed by Bergsala. In the Netherlands, it was released in the last quarter of 1987, and was distributed by Bandai BV. In France, it was released in October 1987, and in Spain most likely in 1988 through distributor Spaco. In 1987, Mattel handled distribution for the second region, consisting of the United Kingdom, Ireland, Italy, Australia and New Zealand. In other European countries, distribution was handled by smaller companies like Bienengräber in Germany, ASD in France, Concentra in Portugal, Itochu in Greece and Cyprus, and Stadlbauer in Austria, Switzerland, and the former Eastern Bloc. In Poland, the NES had its release on October 6, 1994, along with the SNES and the Game Boy. In November 1994, Nintendo signed an agreement with Steepler to permit the continued sale of the Dendy, an unauthorized hardware clone of the Famicom, in Russia in exchange for also distributing the SNES.
Nintendo anticipated that the NES would have a 25 percent market share in Europe, and saw particular potential in the United Kingdom. The console struggled to gain a foothold in the region, however, in part due to the widespread popularity of the ZX Spectrum, which had already established a strong home computing and gaming culture. The affordability, local software support, and versatility of the Spectrum also made it a dominant choice among British consumers, which severely limited the NES's market penetration. The console would see an increase in share in 1990 with the release of the Teenage Mutant Hero Turtles bundle, which was released against Nintendo of America's wishes but ultimately allowed the console's European sales to overtake those of the Master System.
In Brazil, the console was officially released in late 1993 by Playtronic. However, the Brazilian market had been dominated by unlicensed NES clones that were either locally made and smuggled from Taiwan. One of the most successful Brazilian NES clones was the Phantom System by Gradiente, which licensed Nintendo products in the country for the following decade. The sales of officially licensed products in the region were low due to the abundance of clones, the console's official launch coming after the SNES, and the high prices of Nintendo's licensed products.
Outside of Japan, regions of Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka and Thailand received an "Asian version" of the front-loader NES, although imported Famicom systems were still prevalent. Due to import restrictions, NES consoles in India and South Korea were rebranded and distributed by local licenses. The Korean version is known as the Hyundai Comboy, and the Indian version is known as the Samurai Electronic TV Game System. India was the third region outside of North America and Japan to officially receive the NES. It was produced locally by Samurai Electronics in North India, and was released to strong initial sales in the region, selling 3,000 units per month. However, in the early 1990s, when retailers began promoting bootleg consoles, the console saw a significant drop in sales, selling 300 units per month.
=== Bundles and redesigns ===
The NES was released in several retail bundles throughout its commercial life. For its 1985 American test launch, the initial offering was the Deluxe Set, which retailed for US$179.99 (equivalent to $540 in 2025) and included the Control Deck, two controllers, the NES Zapper light gun, the R.O.B. robotic accessory, and two Game Paks: Gyromite and Duck Hunt. Ahead of the console's nationwide launch in 1986, Nintendo introduced a basic Control Deck set with two controllers, bundled with Super Mario Bros. for US$99.99 (equivalent to $280 in 2025).
In 1988, the Deluxe Set was replaced by the Action Set, which retailed for US$99.99 (equivalent to $270 in 2025) and bundled the Control Deck with two controllers, the NES Zapper, and a dual Game Pak containing Super Mario Bros. and Duck Hunt. 1988 also saw the introduction of the Power Set, which added the Power Pad floor mat game controller and replaced the dual cartridge with a triple Game Pak featuring Super Mario Bros., Duck Hunt, and World Class Track Meet.
In 1990, Nintendo released the Sports Set, which included the Control Deck, four controllers, an NES Satellite infrared wireless multitap adapter, and a dual Game Pak containing Super Spike V'Ball and Nintendo World Cup. In 1992, the Challenge Set debuted at US$89.99 (equivalent to $210 in 2025), featuring the Control Deck and two controllers, bundled with Super Mario Bros. 3.
Finally, in October 1993, Nintendo released a redesigned version of the console, known as the New-Style NES or NES-101, in North America, Australia, and Japan. This version included a single redesigned "dogbone" shape controller, and retailed for US$49.99 (equivalent to $110 in 2025) in North America before its discontinuation in 1995. In Australia, the console was bundled with a triple Game Pak featuring Super Mario Bros., Tetris, and Nintendo World Cup, and sold for A$79.99, or A$69.99 without the bundled Game Pak.
=== Discontinuation ===
On August 14, 1995, Nintendo discontinued the Nintendo Entertainment System in both North America and Europe. In North America, replacements for the original front-loading NES were available for $25 in exchange for a broken system until at least December 1996, under Nintendo's Power Swap program.
In September 2003, Nintendo discontinued the Famicom in Japan, alongside the Super Famicom and disk rewriting services for the Famicom Disk System. The last Famicom model, serial number HN11033309, was manufactured on September 25, 2003; it was kept by Nintendo and subsequently loaned to the organizers of Level X, a video game exhibition held from December 4, 2003, to February 8, 2004, at the Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography, for a Famicom retrospective in commemoration of the console's 20th anniversary. Nintendo offered repair services for the Famicom in Japan until 2007, when it was discontinued due to a shortage of available parts.
== Hardware ==
=== Configurations ===
Although all versions of the Famicom and NES include essentially similar hardware, they vary in physical characteristics. The original Famicom's design is predominantly white plastic with a dark red trim; it featured a top-loading cartridge slot, grooves on both sides of the deck in which the hardwired game controllers could be placed when not in use, and a 15-pin expansion port located on the unit's front panel for accessories. In contrast, the design of the original NES features a more subdued gray, black, and red color scheme, with a front-loading cartridge slot covered by a small, hinged door that can be opened to insert or remove a cartridge and closed at other times, and an expansion port on the bottom of the unit. The NES also includes the 10NES lock-out chip, and incorporates a matching chip validation check in its cartridge connector.
In late 1993, Nintendo introduced a redesigned version of the Famicom and NES (known officially as the New Famicom in Japan and the New-Style NES in the US) to complement the Super Famicom and SNES, to prolong interest in the console, and to reduce costs. The redesigned NES features a top-loading cartridge slot and omits the 10NES lock-out chip to avoid reliability issues with the original console; the redesign also omits AV output. Conversely, the redesigned Famicom features AV output, and introduces detachable game controllers, which ultimately omitted microphone functionality as a result. The redesigned Famicom and NES models are cosmetically similar, aside from the presence of a cartridge "bump" on the NES model, which the Famicom model lacks to accommodate its shorter cartridges and the RAM Adapter for the Famicom Disk System.
Sharp Corporation produced three licensed variants of the Famicom in Japan, all of which prominently display the shortened moniker rather than the official name, Family Computer. One variant was a television set with an integrated Famicom; originally released in 1983 as the My Computer TV in 14-inch (36 cm) and 19-inch (48 cm) models, it was later released in the United States in 1989 as a 19-inch model named the Video Game Television. Another variant is the Twin Famicom console, which was released in 1986 and combines a Famicom with a Famicom Disk System. Sharp then produced the Famicom Titler in 1989; intended for video capture and production, it features internal RGB video generation and video output via S-Video, as well as inputs for adding subtitles and voice-overs.
==== Hardware clones ====
A thriving market of unlicensed NES hardware clones emerged during the climax of the console's popularity. Initially, such clones were popular in markets with weak copyright laws and countries in which Nintendo issued its systems after "famiclones" became well-known, making legal products difficult to market or create brand awareness for. In particular, the Dendy (Russian: Де́нди), an unlicensed hardware clone produced in Taiwan and sold in the former Soviet Union by Steepler, emerged as the most popular console of its time, eventually selling six million units. In Poland, the Pegasus clone, distributed by Bobmark International, sold more than a million units. In China, a reported 30 million units were sold until late 1995. A range of Famicom clones was marketed in Latin America during the late 1980s and 1990s under the name "Family Game", resembling the original hardware design. The Ending-Man Terminator clone enjoyed popularity in the Eastern Bloc, as well as in parts of Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
The unlicensed clone market flourished following Nintendo's discontinuation of the NES. Some of these surpass the functionality of the original hardware, such as PocketFami, a portable system with a color LCD screen. Others have been produced for certain specialized markets, such as a personal computer with a keyboard and basic word processing software. These unauthorised clones have been helped by the invention of the so-called NES-on-a-chip.
=== Design flaws ===
Nintendo's design styling for the NES's North American release was made deliberately different from that of other game consoles. The company wished to distinguish their product from those of competitors and avoid the generally poor reputation that game consoles had acquired following the video game crash of 1983. One result of this philosophy was to disguise the cartridge slot design as a front-loading zero-insertion force (ZIF) cartridge socket, designed to resemble the front-loading mechanism of a videocassette recorder. However, when a user inserts the cartridge, the force of pressing it into place bends the contact pins slightly and presses the cartridge's ROM board back into the cartridge. Frequent insertion and removal of cartridges can wear out the pins, and the ZIF design has proven to be more prone to interference by dirt and dust than an industry-standard card edge connector.
The design problems were exacerbated by Nintendo's choice of materials. The console slot nickel connector springs wear out due to their design, and the game cartridge's brass plated nickel connectors are also prone to tarnishing and oxidation. Nintendo sought to fix these problems by redesigning the next generation Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES) as a top loader similar to the Famicom. Many users reportedly tried to alleviate issues caused by corrosion by blowing into the cartridges and then reinserting them, which conversely sped up the tarnishing due to moisture.
=== Lockout ===
The Famicom as released in Japan contains no lock-out hardware, which led to unlicensed cartridges (both legitimate and bootleg) becoming extremely common in Japan and East Asia. To combat bootlegs, Nintendo attempted to promote its "Seal of Quality" in these regions to identify licensed games, but bootleg Famicom games continued to be produced even after Nintendo moved production onto the Super Famicom, effectively extending the lifetime of the original Famicom.
The original NES, released for western countries in 1985, contains the 10NES lock-out chip, which prevents the console from running cartridges unapproved by Nintendo. The inclusion of the 10NES chip was a result of the 1983 North American video game crash, which was partially caused by a market flooded with uncontrolled publishing of poor-quality home console games. Nintendo sought to use the lock-out chip to restrict games to only those they licensed for the system. This means of protection worked in combination with Nintendo's "Seal of Quality", which a developer had to acquire before they would be able to have access to the required 10NES information prior to publication of a game.
Original NES consoles sold in different regions have different lock-out chips, thereby enforcing regional lock-out regardless of TV signal compatibility. Such regions include North America; most of continental Europe (PAL-B); Asia; and the British Isles, Italy, and Australasia (PAL-A).
Problems with the 10NES lock-out chip frequently result in one of the console's most common issues: the blinking, red power light, in which the system appears to turn itself on and off repeatedly because the 10NES would reset the console once per second. The lock-out chip requires constant communication with the chip in the game to work.
=== Technical specifications ===
The console's main central processing unit (CPU) was produced by Ricoh, which manufactured different versions for NTSC and PAL regions; NTSC consoles have a 2A03 clocked at 1.79 MHzTooltip megahertz, and PAL consoles have a 2A07 clocked at 1.66 MHz. Both CPUs are unlicensed variants of the MOS Technology 6502, an 8-bit microprocessor prevalent in contemporary home computers and consoles. Nintendo ostensibly disabled the 6502's binary-coded decimal mode on them to avoid patent infringement against or licensing fees towards MOS Technology, which was owned by then-rival Commodore International. The CPU has access to 2 KBTooltip kilobyte of onboard work RAMTooltip random-access memory.
The console's graphics are handled by a Ricoh 2C02, a processor known as the Picture Processing Unit (PPU) that is clocked at 5.37 MHz. A derivative of the Texas Instruments TMS9918 (a tile based video display controller used in the ColecoVision), the PPU features 2 KB of video RAM, 256 bytes of on-die "object attribute memory" (OAM) to store sprite display information on up to 64 sprites, and 28 bytes of RAM to store information on the YIQ-based color palette; the console can display up to 25 colors simultaneously out of 54 usable colors. Each sprite tile can display up to 3 palette colors at a time, with the first entry of each palette representing transparency.
The console's standard display resolution is 256 × 240 pixels, though video output options vary between models. The original Famicom features only radio frequency (RF) modulator output, and the NES additionally supports composite video via RCA connectors. The redesigned Famicom omits the RF modulator entirely, only outputting composite video via a proprietary "multi-out" connector first introduced on the Super Famicom/SNES; conversely, the redesigned NES features RF modulator output only, though a version of the model including the "multi-out" connector was produced in rare quantities.
The console produces sound via an audio processing unit (APU) integrated into the processor. It supports a total of five sound channels: two pulse wave channels, one triangle wave channel, one white noise channel, and one DPCMTooltip differential pulse-code modulation channel for sample playback. Audio playback speed is dependent on the CPU clock rate, which is set by a crystal oscillator.
=== Accessories ===
==== Controllers ====
The game controller for both the NES and the Famicom has an oblong brick-like design with a simple four button layout: two round buttons labelled "A" and "B", a "START" button, and a "SELECT" button. Additionally, the controllers use the cross-shaped D-pad, designed by Nintendo employee Gunpei Yokoi for Game & Watch systems, to replace the bulkier joysticks of controllers used by earlier gaming consoles.
The original model Famicom features two game controllers, both of which are hardwired to the back of the console. The second controller lacks the Start and Select buttons, and instead features a small microphone; however, few games use this feature. The earliest produced Famicom units have square A and B buttons; issues with them getting stuck when pressed down led Nintendo to change their shape to a circular design in subsequent units following the console's recall.
In contrast to the Famicom's hardwired controllers, the NES has two proprietary seven-pin ports on the front of the console to support detachable controllers and third-party peripherals. The controllers bundled with the NES are identical and include the Start and Select buttons, lacking the microphone on the original Famicom's second controller. The cables for NES controllers are also generally three times longer than their Famicom counterparts.
Several special controllers are intended for use with specific games but not commonly used. Such peripherals include the NES Zapper (a light gun), R.O.B. (a toy robot), and the Power Pad (a dance pad). The original Famicom has a deepened DA-15 expansion port on the front of the unit to accommodate them.
Two official advanced controllers were produced for the NES: the NES Advantage, an arcade controller produced by Asciiware and licensed by Nintendo of America; and the NES Max, a controller with grip handles and a "cycloid" sliding-disc D-pad in place of the traditional one. Both controllers have a "Turbo" feature that simulates multiple rapid presses for the A and B buttons; the NES Max has manually pressed Turbo buttons, and the NES Advantage offers toggle buttons for Turbo functionality, along with knobs that adjust the firing rate of each button. The latter also includes a "Slow" button that rapidly pauses games; however, this function is not intended for games that invoke a pause menu or screen.
The standard controller was redesigned for the introduction of the New-Style NES in 1993. This version retained detachable controller ports and the original button layout, but the shape was changed to loosely resemble that of the Super Famicom/SNES controller; its shape has led to it being nicknamed the "dog bone" controller.
Nintendo created a knitting machine that interfaced with the NES and showed it at CES in 1987 for "business feedback", although the accessory was ultimately not released as a product. Nintendo spokesperson Howard Phillips demoed it for Toys "R" Us in the late 1980s, and an advertisement used the headline "Now you're knitting with power!" in reference to the slogan used by Nintendo at the time.
==== Japanese peripherals ====
Few of the numerous peripheral devices and software packages for the Famicom were released outside Japan.
The Famicom 3D System, an active shutter 3D headset peripheral released in 1987, enabled the ability to play stereoscopic video games. It was a commercial failure and never released outside Japan; users described the headset as bulky and uncomfortable. Seven games are compatible with the glasses, with three of them developed by Square; two titles received worldwide releases as Rad Racer and The 3-D Battles of WorldRunner.
Family BASIC is an implementation of BASIC for the Famicom, packaged with a keyboard. Similar in concept to the Atari 2600's BASIC Progamming cartridge, it allows the user to write programs, especially games, which can be saved on an included cassette recorder. Nintendo of America rejected releasing Famicom BASIC in the US, due to the NES's primary marketing demographic being children.
The Family Computer Network System connected a Famicom to a now-defunct proprietary network in Japan which provided content such as financial services. A dial-up modem was reportedly being produced for the NES in a partnership with Fidelity Investments, but was ultimately not released.
===== Famicom Disk System =====
By 1986, the cost and size limitations of ROM chips used in the Famicom's ROM cartridges were apparent, with no new advancements present to address them. With this in mind, Nintendo looked at the personal computer (PC) market, where the floppy disk was gaining wide adoption as a computer data storage medium. Partnering with Mitsumi to develop a floppy disk add-on for the Famicom based on the latter's Quick Disk format, Nintendo officially released it as the Family Computer Disk System (or Famicom Disk System) in Japan on February 21, 1986, at a retail price of ¥15,000.
The advantages of the format (called "Disk Card") were apparent on launch. It has more than triple the data storage capacity of the then-largest cartridge (used for Super Mario Bros.), introduced game save capability, and had lower production costs compared to cartridges, which resulted in lower retail prices. The add-on also has a new wavetable synthesis sound channel and more data storage for the Famicom's audio sample channel. Taking advantage of the disk's re-writability, Nintendo set up Disk Writer interactive kiosks at retail stores throughout Japan; at each kiosk, consumers could buy new games to rewrite onto their old disks or onto new disks. Disk Fax kiosks allowed players to submit their high scores on special blue disks for contests and rankings, predating online leaderboards by several years.
Although Nintendo committed to exclusively releasing games on the Disk System after its release, numerous external issues plagued its long-term viability. Just four months after launch, Capcom released a Famicom port of Makaimura (known as Ghosts 'n Goblins in the US) on a cartridge with more data storage capacity than what was possible on Disk Cards, nullifying one of the Disk System's major advantages by using discrete logic chips to perform bank switching. Nintendo also demanded half of the copyright ownership for each game it selected for release on the Disk System, resulting in developers electing to remain on cartridge instead as the latter gained functionality previously considered unique to the former. Developers disliked the lower profit margin of the Disk Writer kiosks, and retailers complained of their use of valuable space as demand for the format waned.
Usage of a floppy disk-based medium brought about further complications; Disk Cards were more fragile than cartridges and were prone to data corruption from magnetic exposure. Their unreliability was exacerbated by their lack of a shutter, which Nintendo substituted with a wax sleeve and clear keep case to reduce costs; blue disks and later Disk Cards included shutters. The rubber belt-based disk drives were also unreliable, with cryptic error codes complicating troubleshooting; even when fully functional, players accustomed to cartridges were annoyed with the introduction of loading times and disk flipping. Furthermore, the rewritable nature of the format resulted in rampant software piracy, with Nintendo's attempts at anti-piracy measures quickly defeated.
Despite selling close to two million Disk System units in 1986, Nintendo only managed to increase the total to 4.4 million units by 1990, falling well short of internal projections. By then, the Disk System was rendered obsolete due to advancements in ROM cartridge production, such as memory mapping chips for expanded data storage capacity, battery-backed SRAMTooltip static random-access memory for game saving, and declining overall production costs. Nintendo alluded to a western release for the Disk System, going so far as to successfully file a US patent for it and having the Famicom's cartridge pins used by its RAM Adapter for enhanced audio rerouted to the NES's seldom-used bottom expansion port. However, such a release never materialized due to the Disk System's lackluster reception in Japan. Most of its games were re-released with workarounds on cartridge for both the Famicom and NES, without the enhanced audio. Although the last game for the Disk System was released in December 1992, Nintendo continued offering repair and rewrite services for it until September 2003.
=== NES Test Station ===
The NES Test Station diagnostics machine, an NES-based unit designed for testing NES hardware, components, and games, was introduced in 1988. It was only provided for use in World of Nintendo boutiques as part of the Nintendo World Class Service program. Visitors were to bring items to test with the station, and could be assisted by a store technician or employee.
The NES Test Station's front has a Game Pak slot and connectors for testing various components (AC adapter, RF switch, Audio/Video cable, NES Control Deck, accessories and games), with a centrally located selector knob to choose which component to test. The unit itself weighs approximately 5.3 kilograms (11.7 lb) and connects to a television via a combined A/V and RF Switch cable. By actuating the green button, a user can toggle between an A/V Cable or RF Switch connection. The television it is connected to (typically 11" to 14") is meant to be placed atop it.
== Games ==
=== Game Pak ===
The NES uses a 72-pin design, compared to 60 pins on the Famicom. To reduce costs and inventory, some early games released in North America are simply Famicom cartridges attached to an adapter to fit inside the NES hardware. Early NES cartridges are held together with five small slotted screws.
The back of the cartridge bears a label with handling instructions. Production and software revision codes were imprinted as stamps on the back label to correspond with the software version and producer. All licensed NTSC and PAL cartridges are a standard shade of gray plastic, with the exceptions of The Legend of Zelda and Zelda II: The Adventure of Link, which were manufactured in gold plastic cartridges. Unlicensed cartridges were produced in black, robin egg blue, and gold, and are all slightly different shapes than standard NES cartridges. Nintendo also produced yellow plastic cartridges for internal use at Nintendo Service Centers, although these "test carts" were never made available for purchase. All licensed US cartridges were manufactured by Nintendo, Konami, and Acclaim.
Famicom cartridges are shaped slightly differently. Unlike NES games, official Famicom cartridges were produced in many colors of plastic. Adapters, similar in design to the popular accessory Game Genie, are available that allow Famicom games to be played on an NES. In Japan, several companies manufactured the cartridges for the Famicom. This allowed these companies to develop customized chips designed for specific purposes, such as superior sound and graphics.
=== Third-party licensing ===
Nintendo's near-monopoly on the home video game market left it with a dominant influence over the industry. Unlike Atari, which never actively pursued third-party developers (and even went to court in an attempt to force Activision to cease production of Atari 2600 games), Nintendo had anticipated and encouraged the involvement of third-party software developers, albeit strictly on its own terms.
To this end, a 10NES authentication chip is in every console and licensed cartridge. If the console's chip can not detect a counterpart chip inside the cartridge, the game does not load. Nintendo portrayed these measures as intended to protect consumers from what it saw as poor-quality games, and placed a golden seal of approval on all licensed games released for the system.
Nintendo was not as restrictive as Sega, which did not permit third-party publishers until Mediagenic in late summer 1988. Nintendo's intention was to reserve a large part of NES game revenue for itself. The company required that it be the sole manufacturer of all cartridges, and that the publisher had to pay in full before the cartridges for that game be produced. Cartridges could not be returned to Nintendo, so publishers assumed all the risk. As a result, some publishers lost more money due to distress sales of remaining inventory at the end of the NES era than they ever earned in profits from sales of the games. Because Nintendo controlled the production of all cartridges, it was able to enforce strict rules on its third-party developers, who were required to sign a contract that would obligate them to develop exclusively for the system, order at least 10,000 cartridges, and only make five games per year. The global 1988 shortage of DRAM and ROM chips reportedly caused Nintendo to only permit an average of 25% of publishers' requests for cartridges, with some receiving much higher amounts and others receiving almost none. GameSpy noted that Nintendo's "iron-clad terms" made the company many enemies during the 1980s. Some developers tried to circumvent the five game limit by creating additional company brands like Konami's Ultra Games label; others tried circumventing the 10NES chip.
Due to its strict licensing requirements, Nintendo was accused of antitrust violations. The United States Department of Justice and several states began probing the company's business practices, leading to the involvement of Congress and the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). The FTC conducted an extensive investigation which included interviewing hundreds of retailers. During the FTC probe, Nintendo changed the terms of its publisher licensing agreements to eliminate the two-year rule and other restrictive terms. Nintendo and the FTC settled the case in April 1991, with Nintendo being required to send vouchers giving a $5 discount off to a new game, to every person that had purchased an NES game between June 1988 and December 1990. GameSpy remarked that Nintendo's punishment was particularly weak given the case's findings, although it has been speculated that the FTC did not want to damage the video game industry in the United States.
With the NES near the end of its life, many third-party publishers such as Electronic Arts supported upstart competing consoles with less strict licensing terms, such as the Sega Genesis and the PlayStation, which respectively eroded and took over Nintendo's dominance in the home console market. Consoles from Nintendo's rivals in the post-SNES era had always enjoyed much stronger third-party support than Nintendo, which relied more heavily on first-party games.
==== Unlicensed games ====
Companies that refused to pay the licensing fee or were rejected by Nintendo found ways to circumvent the console's authentication system. Most of these companies created circuits that use a voltage spike to temporarily disable the 10NES chip. A few unlicensed games released in Europe and Australia are in the form of a dongle to connect to a licensed game and use its 10NES chip for authentication. To combat this, Nintendo of America threatened to revoke the supply of licensed games from retailers who sold unlicensed games, and multiple revisions were made to the NES PCBs to prevent unlicensed cartridges from working.
Atari Games took a different approach with its console game subsidiary Tengen, who attempted to reverse engineer the lock-out chip to develop its own "Rabbit" chip. Tengen also obtained a description of the lock-out chip from the United States Patent and Trademark Office by falsely claiming that it was required to defend against present infringement claims. Nintendo successfully sued Tengen for copyright infringement; however, Tengen's antitrust claims against Nintendo were never decided.
Color Dreams made Christian video games under the subsidiary name Wisdom Tree. Historian Steven Kent wrote that "Wisdom Tree presented Nintendo with a prickly situation. The general public did not seem to pay close attention to the court battle with Atari Games, and industry analysts were impressed with Nintendo's legal acumen; but going after a tiny company that published innocuous religious games was another story."
=== Game rentals ===
As the NES grew in popularity and entered millions of American homes, some small video rental shops began buying their own copies of NES games and renting them out to customers for around the same price as a video cassette rental for a few days. Nintendo received no profit from the practice, beyond the initial cost of their game; unlike movie rentals, a newly released game could circulate and be available for rent on the same day. Nintendo took steps to stop game rentals, but did not take any formal legal action until Blockbuster Video began to make game rentals a large-scale service. Nintendo claimed that allowing customers to rent games would significantly hurt sales and drive up the cost of games. Nintendo notably lost the lawsuit, but did win on a claim of copyright infringement. Blockbuster was banned from including photocopies of original, copyrighted instruction booklets with its rented games. In compliance with the ruling, Blockbuster printed its own short instructions, usually in the form of a small booklet, card, or label on the back of the rental box, which explained a game's basic premise and controls. Other video rental shops, however, continued the practice of renting video games.
== Reception ==
By 1988, industry observers stated that the NES's popularity had grown so quickly that the market for Nintendo cartridges was larger than all home computer software combined. Compute! reported in 1989 that Nintendo had sold seven million NES systems in 1988 alone, almost as many as the number of Commodore 64s sold in that system's first five years on the market. "Computer game makers [are] scared stiff", the magazine said, stating that Nintendo's popularity caused most competitors to have poor sales during the previous holiday season, and resulted in serious financial problems for some.
In June 1989, Peter Main, Nintendo of America's vice president of marketing, said that the Famicom was present in 37% of households in Japan. By 1990, the NES was present in 30% of households in the United States, compared to 23% for all personal computers. By 1990, the NES had outsold all previously released consoles worldwide.
In the early 1990s, some predicted that competition from technologically superior systems such as the 16-bit Mega Drive would mean the immediate end of the NES's dominance. Instead, during the first year of the Famicom's successor, the Super Famicom (named Super Nintendo Entertainment System outside Japan), the Famicom was the second highest-selling video game console in Japan, outselling the newer and more powerful PC Engine and Mega Drive by a wide margin. The console remained popular in Japan and North America until late 1993, when the demand for new NES software abruptly plummeted. The final licensed games for the console were Adventure Island IV in Japan (released on June 24, 1994), Wario's Woods in North America (December 10, 1994), and The Lion King in Europe (May 25, 1995). In the wake of ever decreasing sales and the lack of new games, Nintendo of America officially discontinued the NES in 1995. Nintendo produced new Famicom units in Japan until September 25, 2003, and continued to repair Famicom consoles until October 31, 2007, attributing the discontinuation of support to insufficient supplies of parts.
The NES was initially not as successful in Europe during the late 1980s, when it was outsold by the Master System and ZX Spectrum in the United Kingdom. By 1990, the Master System was the highest-selling console in Europe, even as the NES was beginning to have a fast-growing user base in the UK. During the early 1990s, NES sales caught up with and narrowly overtook the Master System overall in Western Europe; however, the Master System maintained its lead in several markets such as the UK, Belgium, and Spain.
== Legacy ==
The NES was released two years after the video game crash of 1983, when many retailers and adult consumers regarded electronic games as a passing fad, so many believed at first that the NES would soon fade. Before the NES and Famicom, Nintendo was known as a moderately successful Japanese toy and playing card manufacturer, but the console's popularity helped the company grow into an internationally recognized name almost synonymous with video games as Atari had been, and also set the stage for Japanese dominance of the video game industry in the 1980s and 1990s. With the NES, Nintendo also changed the relationship between console manufacturers and third-party software developers by restricting developers from publishing and distributing software without licensed approval. This led to higher-quality games, which helped change the attitude of a public that had grown weary from poorly produced games for earlier systems.
The hardware design of the NES is also very influential. Nintendo chose the name "Nintendo Entertainment System" for the US market and redesigned the system so it would not give the appearance of a child's toy. The front-loading cartridge input allowed it to be used more easily in a TV stand with other entertainment devices such as a videocassette recorder.
The system's hardware limitations led to design principles that still influence the development of modern video games. Many prominent game franchises originated on the NES, including Nintendo's own Super Mario Bros., The Legend of Zelda, and Metroid, as well as Capcom's Mega Man, Konami's Castlevania, Square's Final Fantasy, and Enix's Dragon Quest.
The imagery of the NES, especially its controller, has become a popular motif for a variety of products, including Nintendo's Game Boy Advance. The original NES controller has become one of the most recognizable symbols of the console. Nintendo has mimicked the look of the controller in several other products, from promotional merchandise to limited edition versions of the Game Boy Advance.
At the Tokyo Game Show in 2023, the Famicom was bestowed "The Minister of Economy, Trade and Industry Award" in honor of the console's influence and for laying down the foundations for the game industry.
In 2011, IGN named the NES the greatest video game console of all time.
=== Emulation ===
The NES can be emulated on many other systems. The earliest known NES emulator was known simply as the Family Computer Emulator. Developed by Haruhisa Udagawa, it was made available in 1990 for the FM Towns computer. The earliest emulator for IBM PC compatibles was the Japanese-only Pasofami. It was soon followed by iNES, which is available in English and is cross-platform, in 1996. It was described as being the first NES emulation software that could be used by a non-expert. The first version of NESticle, an unofficial MS-DOS-based emulator, was released on April 3, 1997. Nintendo offers licensed emulation of select NES games via its Virtual Console service for the Wii, Nintendo 3DS, and Wii U, and via its Nintendo Classics service for Nintendo Switch and Nintendo Switch 2.
=== Re-release ===
On July 14, 2016, Nintendo announced the November 2016 launch of a miniature replica of the NES, known as the Nintendo Entertainment System: NES Classic Edition in the United States and as the Nintendo Classic Mini: Nintendo Entertainment System in Europe and Australia. The emulation-based console, released on November 10, 2016, includes 30 pre-installed games from the NES library, including the Super Mario Bros. and The Legend of Zelda series. The system has HDMI display output and a new replica controller, which can also connect to the Wii Remote for use with Virtual Console games. It was discontinued in North America on April 13, 2017, followed by the rest of the world on April 15, 2017. However, Nintendo announced in September 2017 that the NES Classic Mini would return to production on June 29, 2018, only to be discontinued again permanently by December of that year. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_Winter_Olympics | 1972 Winter Olympics | The 1972 Winter Olympics, officially the XI Olympic Winter Games and commonly known as Sapporo 1972, were a winter multi-sport event held from February 3 to 13, 1972, in Sapporo, Hokkaido Prefecture, Japan. It was the first Winter Olympic Games to take place outside Europe and North America.
== Host city selection ==
Sapporo first won the rights to host the 1940 Winter Olympics, but Japan resigned as the Games' host after its 1937 invasion of China. The 1940 Games were later cancelled. All the cities awarded Games that were cancelled due to war have since hosted the Games (London, Tokyo, Helsinki, Sapporo and Cortina d'Ampezzo).
Sapporo competed with Banff, Lahti, and Salt Lake City. The Games were awarded at the 64th IOC Session in Rome, Italy, on April 26, 1966.
In preparation, the Japanese constructed new largescale facilities at Sapporo and conducted a trial run a full year in advance of the Games. An international sport week was held in February, 1971, to assess the city's preparations as well as "to test its civic mettle and hospitality", and this effort was acclaimed by Olympic observers as "a complete success". The development of new infrastructure proved to be a huge boon for the Sapporo economy: by the time of the Games, the national government had invested some US$500 million in upgrades, including a new subway. The Games' organizers themselves turned a healthy profit in part because they arranged a record $8.47 million for broadcasting rights with American companies.
== Highlights ==
Emperor Hirohito became the third dignitary to open the Olympic Games twice (first time in summer 1964), after Adolf Hitler had done in winter and summer 1936, and Giovanni Gronchi in winter 1956 and summer 1960.
Prior to these games, Japan had never won a gold medal, and had won only one medal (silver by Chiharu Igaya in 1956) overall, in the Winter Olympics. The host country's fans in Sapporo were boosted when three Japanese athletes, led by Yukio Kasaya, swept the ski jumping 70 m (current K-90 normal hill) event for gold (Kasaya), silver (Akitsugu Konno), and bronze (Seiji Aochi); those would also be the only medals Japan would earn in these Olympics.
Galina Kulakova of the USSR won all three cross-country skiing events for women.
Dutch skater Ard Schenk won three gold medals in speed skating.
In Women's Alpine skiing, American Barbara Cochran, one of three siblings on the U.S. Ski Team, became the first U.S. woman since Andrea Mead Lawrence to win a gold medal in skiing when she took first place in the slalom.
In Alpine skiing, virtual unknown Swiss Marie-Thérès Nadig won both the downhill and the giant slalom events.
Magnar Solberg from Norway was the first repeat winner in the individual 20 km biathlon event, having first won in Grenoble.
Spain scored its first Winter gold medal courtesy of slalom skier Francisco Fernández Ochoa. Poland did the same with Wojciech Fortuna winning the large hill ski jumping competition.
American female speedskaters Anne Henning (16-year-old) and Dianne Holum made the United States' best showing in the Winter Games, winning two gold, a silver, and a bronze.
Three days before the Games, controversy over amateur status arose when IOC president Avery Brundage threatened to disqualify 40 alpine skiers who received endorsement and other deals. Austrian skier Karl Schranz, who received over $50,000 per year from ski manufacturers, was banned as an example. Meanwhile, Canada refused to send an ice hockey team, maintaining that professional ice hockey players from Communist nations were allowed to compete with no restrictions.
On an historical note, these Games were the last where a skier won a gold medal using all-wooden skis. Since this time, top-level cross-country skiers have used skis made mostly of fibreglass synthetics.
In female Figure skating event, American skater Janet Lynn won not only a bronze medal, but also tremendous popularity among Japanese audiences because of her artistic free program, as to make appearance on the cover of "Olympic Winter Games, Sapporo 1972" photo books published in Japan, and even on Japanese TV commercials later.
Luge had its only tie in the history of the Winter Olympics in the men's doubles event.
== Venues ==
City venues
Makomanai Park
Makomanai Speed Skating Rink1 – opening ceremonies, speed skating
Makomanai Ice Arena1 – ice hockey finals, figure skating final rounds, closing ceremonies
Olympic village1
Press center1
Makomanai Cross-Country Events Site1 – cross-country skiing, Nordic combined (cross-country skiing)
Makomanai Biathlon Site1 – biathlon
Mikaho Indoor Skating Rink1 – figure skating
Tsukisamu Indoor Skating Rink1 – ice hockey
Mountain venues
Mt. Teine Alpine Skiing courses1 – alpine skiing (slalom, giant slalom)
Mt. Teine Bobsleigh Course – bobsleigh
Mt. Teine Luge Course – luge
Okurayama Jump Hill2 – ski jumping (large hill)
Miyanomori Jump Hill1 – Nordic combined (ski jumping), ski jumping (normal hill)
Mount Eniwa Downhill Course1 – alpine skiing (downhill)
1 New facilities constructed in preparation for the Olympic Games. 2 Existing facilities modified or refurbished in preparation for the Olympic Games.
== Sports ==
There were 35 events contested in 6 sports (10 disciplines).
== Participating nations ==
35 nations participated in the 1972 Winter Olympics. The Republic of China (commonly known as Taiwan) and the Philippines participated in their first Winter Olympic Games.
=== Number of athletes by National Olympic Committees ===
== Medal count ==
These are the top eleven nations that won medals at these Games. The host nation Japan finished 11th.
=== Podium sweeps === |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1985_UK_Athletics_Championships | 1985 UK Athletics Championships | The 1985 UK Athletics Championships sponsored by HFC Bank, was the national championship in outdoor track and field for the United Kingdom held at Antrim Stadium, Antrim. It was the second time that a national track and field championship was held in Northern Ireland, after hosting the 1981 event.
It was the ninth edition of the competition limited to British athletes only, launched as an alternative to the AAA Championships, which was open to foreign competitors. However, because the calibre of national competition remained greater at the AAA event, the UK Championships this year were not considered the principal national championship event by some statisticians, such as the National Union of Track Statisticians (NUTS). Many of the athletes below also competed at the 1985 AAA Championships.
== Summary ==
Fatima Whitbread won her fifth consecutive women's javelin throw UK title. Both the men's and women's champions defended in the 5000 metres (Eamonn Martin, Angela Tooby) and shot put (Billy Cole, Judy Oakes), as did men's hammer thrower Dave Smith. Linford Christie and John Regis recorded the same times in both the 100 metres and 200 metres finals. Christie was given the 100 m title while the two shared the 200 m title. Christie was the only athlete at the competition to win two titles.
The main international track and field competition for the United Kingdom that year was the 1985 European Cup. Three UK champions medalled at that event: Whitbread in the javelin, Angela Tooby in the 10,000 m and Tom McKean in the 800 metres. Derek Redmond was third in the 400 metres at the European competition, despite coming second at the UK race.
== Medals ==
=== Men ===
=== Women === |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1916 | 1916 | 1916 (MCMXVI) was a leap year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar, the 1916th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 916th year of the 2nd millennium, the 16th year of the 20th century, and the 7th year of the 1910s decade. As of the start of 1916, the Gregorian calendar was 13 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.
== Events ==
Below, the events of the First World War have the "WWI" prefix.
=== January ===
January 1 – The British Royal Army Medical Corps carries out the first successful blood transfusion, using blood that has been stored and cooled.
January 9 – WWI: Gallipoli Campaign – The last British troops are evacuated from Gallipoli, as the Ottoman Empire prevails over a joint British and French operation to capture Constantinople.
January 10 – WWI: Erzurum Offensive – Russia defeats the Ottoman Empire.
January 12 – The Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, part of the British Empire, is established in modern-day Tuvalu and Kiribati.
January 13 – WWI: Battle of Wadi – Ottoman Empire forces defeat the British, during the Mesopotamian campaign in modern-day Iraq.
January 29 – WWI: Paris is bombed by German zeppelins.
January 31 – WWI: An attack is planned on Verdun, France.
=== February ===
February 9 (6.00 p.m.) – Tristan Tzara "founds" the art movement Dadaism (according to Hans Arp).
February 11
Emma Goldman is arrested for lecturing on birth control in the United States.
The Baltimore Symphony Orchestra presents its first concert in the United States.
The Romanian Association football club Sportul Studențesc is founded in Bucharest.
February 12 – WWI: Battle of Salaita Hill (East African Campaign) – South African and other British Empire troops fail to take a German East African defensive position.
February 21 – WWI: The Battle of Verdun begins in France.
=== March ===
March 8–9 – Mexican Revolution: Pancho Villa leads about 500 Mexican raiders in an attack against Columbus, New Mexico, killing 12 U.S. soldiers. A garrison of the U.S. 13th Cavalry Regiment fights back and drives them away.
March 10 – The McMahon–Hussein Correspondence concludes with an understanding that the United Kingdom would recognise Arab independence in return for Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca, launching the Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire.
March 15 – United States President Woodrow Wilson sends 12,000 United States troops over the U.S.–Mexico border to pursue Pancho Villa; the 13th Cavalry regiment enters Mexican territory.
March 16 – Mexican Revolution: The U.S. 7th and 10th Cavalry regiments under John J. Pershing cross the border, to join the hunt for Villa.
March 22 – The temporary Emperor of China, Yuan Shikai, abdicates the throne, and the Republic of China is restored once again.
March 24 – French ferry SS Sussex is torpedoed by SM UB-29 in the English Channel, with at least 50 killed (including the composer Enrique Granados), resulting on May 4 in the Sussex Pledge by Germany to the United States.
=== April ===
April
The toggle light switch is invented, by William J. Newton and Morris Goldberg.
Korea Tungsten is founded in Daegu, predecessor of leading steel producer in Asia, POSCO (Pohang Steel Company).
April 11 – WWI: The Egyptian Expeditionary Force begins the occupation of the Sinai Peninsula.
April 22 – The Chinese troop transport SS Hsin-Yu capsizes off the Chinese coast; at least 1,000 are killed.
April 24–30 – The Easter Rising occurs in Ireland. Members of the Irish Republican Brotherhood proclaim an Irish Republic, and the Irish Volunteers and Irish Citizen Army occupy the General Post Office and other buildings in Dublin, before surrendering to the British Army. A total of 485 Irish Volunteers, British soldiers and Irish civilians were killed as well as 2,200 wounded and 16 rebel leaders would be executed.
April 24–May 10 – Voyage of the James Caird: An open boat journey from Elephant Island in the South Shetland Islands to South Georgia in the southern Atlantic Ocean (800 nautical miles (1,500 km; 920 mi)) is undertaken by Sir Ernest Shackleton and five companions, to obtain rescue for the main body of the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, following the loss of its ship Endurance.
April 27 – WWI: Gas attack at Hulluch in France: The 47th Brigade, 16th (Irish) Division is decimated, in one of the most heavily concentrated German gas attacks of the war.
April 29 – WWI: Mesopotamian campaign – The Siege of Kut ends with the surrender of British Indian Army forces to the Ottoman Empire at Kut-al-Amara on the Tigris in Basra Vilayet.
=== May ===
May 3-12 - 15 Irish rebel leaders who took part in the Easter Rising in Dublin in April are executed. Among them were Patrick Pearse, James Connolly, Thomas Clarke and William Pearse, brother of Patrick Pearse who had served as a captain rather than a leader.
May 16
United States Marines invade the Dominican Republic.
Britain and France conclude the secret Sykes–Picot Agreement, which is to divide Arab areas of the Ottoman Empire, following the conclusion of WWI and the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, into French and British spheres of influence.
May 31–June 1 – WWI: Battle of Jutland, between the British Royal Navy's Grand Fleet and the Imperial German Navy's High Seas Fleet in the North Sea, the war's only large-scale clash of battleships. The result is tactically inconclusive, but British dominance of the North Sea is maintained
=== June ===
June 4 – WWI: The Brusilov Offensive, the height of Russian operations in the war, begins with their breaking through Austro-Hungarian lines.
June 5 – WWI: HMS Hampshire sinks, having hit a mine off the Orkney Islands, Scotland, with Lord Kitchener aboard.
June 10 – The Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire, to create a single unified Arab state spanning from Aleppo to Aden, is formally declared by Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca.
June 15 – U.S. President Woodrow Wilson signs a bill incorporating the Boy Scouts of America.
June 24 – Mary Pickford becomes the first movie star to sign a million-dollar contract, making her one of the highest-paid people in the world.
=== July ===
July 1–November 18 – WWI: Battle of the Somme, opening with explosion of the British Y Sap and Lochnagar mines and the Battle of Albert: More than one million soldiers die, with 57,470 British Empire casualties on the first day, 19,240 of them killed, the British Army's bloodiest day. The immediate result is tactically inconclusive.
July 1–12 – Jersey Shore shark attacks of 1916: At least one shark attacks 5 swimmers along 80 miles (130 km) of New Jersey coastline, resulting in 4 deaths and the survival of one youth, who requires limb amputation. This event is the inspiration for author Peter Benchley, over half a century later, to write Jaws.
July 2 – WWI: Battle of Erzincan – Russian forces defeat troops of the Ottoman Empire in Armenia.
July 6 – WWI: The Battle of Kostiuchnówka concludes in Galicia (modern-day Ukraine) with Russian Imperial troops breaking through the line, forcing the Polish Legions and supporting Hungarian troops to retreat, with the Poles enduring 2,000 casualties.
July 15 – In Seattle, William Boeing incorporates Pacific Aero Products (later renamed Boeing).
July 15–19 – WWI: Battle of Delville Wood – 766 men from the South African Brigade are killed, in South Africa's biggest loss during the First World War.
July 16 – Max Reger's Hebbel Requiem is first performed in a memorial concert for the composer, conducted by Philipp Wolfrum.
July 19–20 – WWI: Battle of Fromelles – An attack by Australian and British troops is repulsed by the German army, with heavy casualties.
July 22 – Preparedness Day Bombing: In San Francisco, a bomb explodes on Market Street during a Preparedness Day parade, killing 10 and injuring 40; Warren Billings and Tom Mooney are later wrongly convicted of it.
July 26 – WWI: East African Campaign – The German armed ship SMS Graf von Goetzen scuttles herself on Lake Tanganyika.
July 29 – Matheson Fire: In Ontario, Canada, a lightning strike ignites a forest fire that destroys the towns of Cochrane and Matheson, killing 233.
July 30 – German agents cause the Black Tom explosion in Jersey City, New Jersey, an act of sabotage destroying an ammunition depot and killing at least 7 people.
=== August ===
August – Robert Baden-Powell publishes The Wolf Cub's Handbook in the U.K., establishing the basis of the junior section of the Scouting movement, the Wolf Cubs (modern-day Cub Scouts).
August 3–5 – WWI: Sinai and Palestine Campaign – Battle of Romani: British Imperial troops secure victory over a joint Ottoman-German force.
August 3 - Roger Casement is executed by hanging in Pentonville Gaol, London for his role in the Easter Rising in Dublin.
August 4–16 – WWI: Italian forces launch a successful offensive against Austro-Hungarian forces in Gorizia and Sabotin.
August 7 – WWI:
Portugal joins the Allies.
French and British forces make an unopposed entry into German-controlled Togoland; on December 27 the country is partitioned between the two allies.
August 9 – Lassen Volcanic National Park is established in California.
August 15 – Club Atlas is founded as an association football club in Guadalajara, Mexico, by English-educated players.
August 16 – The Migratory Bird Treaty between Canada and the United States is signed.
August 17 (August 4 O.S.) – WWI: The Treaty of Bucharest is signed secretly between Romania and the Entente Powers, stipulating the conditions under which Romania agrees to join the war on their side, particularly territorial promises in Austria-Hungary.
August 21 – WWI: Peru declares neutrality.
August 25 – U.S. President Woodrow Wilson signs legislation creating the National Park Service.
August 27 – WWI: The Kingdom of Romania declares war on the Central Powers, entering the war on the side of the Allies.
August 28 – WWI:
Germany declares war on Romania.
Italy declares war on Germany.
August 29 – The United States passes the Philippine Autonomy Act.
August 30 – The crew of the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition's Endurance is rescued from Elephant Island.
=== September ===
September 1 – Bulgaria declares war on Romania, going on to take Dobruja.
September 2 – WWI: British pilot Leefe Robinson becomes the first to shoot down a German airship over Britain.
September 4 – WWI: East African Campaign – Dar es Salaam surrenders to British Empire forces, securing them control of the Central Line of railway through German East Africa.
September 5 – D. W. Griffith's film Intolerance: Love's Struggle Through the Ages is released in the United States.
September 6 – The first true self-service grocery store, Piggly Wiggly, is founded in Memphis, Tennessee, by Clarence Saunders, opening 5 days later.
September 11 – A mechanical failure causes the central span of the Quebec Bridge, a cantilever-type structure, to crash into the Saint Lawrence River for the second time, killing 13 workers.
September 13 – Mary, a circus elephant, is hanged in the town of Erwin, Tennessee for killing her handler, Walter "Red" Eldridge.
September 15–22 – WWI: Battle of Flers–Courcelette, France – The battle is significant for the first use of the tank in warfare; also for the debut of the Canadian and New Zealand Divisions in the Battle of the Somme.
September 19 – WWI: East African Campaign – Belgian troops occupy Tabora in German East Africa.
September 27 – Iyasu V of Ethiopia is deposed in a palace coup, in favour of his aunt Zewditu.
September 29 – John D. Rockefeller becomes the first person to reach a nominal personal fortune of US$1 billion
=== October ===
October 7 – The Georgia Tech vs. Cumberland College American football game ends in a score of 222–0.
October 12 – Hipólito Yrigoyen is elected President of Argentina.
October 14 – Perm State University is founded in Russia.
October 16 – Margaret Sanger opens the first U.S. birth control clinic, a forerunner of Planned Parenthood.
October 20 – Black Friday (1916): A violent and deadly storm hits Lake Erie in the United States.
October 21 – Friedrich Adler shoots Count Karl von Stürgkh, Minister-President of Austria.
October 27 – Battle of Segale: Negus Mikael of Wollo, marching on the Ethiopian capital in support of his son Emperor Iyasu V, is defeated by Fitawrari Habte Giyorgis, securing the throne for Empress Zewditu.
October 28 – 1916 Pioneer Exhibition Game: game of Australian rules football contested at Queen's Club, West Kensington, London, by two teams of elite footballers selected from men serving in the First AIF at the time.
=== November ===
November 1
Pavel Milyukov delivers his "stupidity or treason" speech in the Russian State Duma, precipitating the downfall of the Boris Stürmer government.
The first 40-hour work week officially begins, in the Endicott-Johnson factories of Western New York.
November 5
The Kingdom of Poland (1916–18) is proclaimed by a joint act of the emperors of Germany and Austria.
Everett massacre: An armed confrontation in Everett, Washington, between local authorities and members of the Industrial Workers of the World results in seven deaths.
Honan Chapel, Cork, Ireland, a product of the Irish Arts and Crafts movement (1894–1925), is dedicated.
November 7
1916 United States presidential election: Democratic President Woodrow Wilson narrowly defeats Republican Charles Evans Hughes, when California is called a week after Election Day.
Republican Jeannette Rankin of Montana becomes the first woman elected to the United States House of Representatives.
Radio station 2XG, located in the Highbridge section of New York City, makes the first audio broadcast of presidential election returns.
November 13 – Prime Minister of Australia Billy Hughes is expelled from the Labor Party over his support for conscription.
November 18 – WWI – Battle of the Somme: In France, British Expeditionary Force commander Douglas Haig calls off the battle, which started on July 1.
November 21
Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria dies of pneumonia at the Schönbrunn Palace, Vienna, aged 86, after a reign of 68 years and is succeeded by his grandnephew Charles I.
WWI: Hospital ship HMHS Britannic, designed as the third Olympic-class ocean liner for White Star Line, sinks in the Kea Channel of the Aegean Sea after hitting a mine; 30 lives are lost. At 48,158 gross register tons, she is the largest ship lost during the war.
November 23 – WWI: Eastern Front – Bucharest, the capital of Romania, is occupied by troops of the Central Powers.
=== December ===
December 12 – "White Friday": In the Dolomites, 100 avalanches bury at least 2,000 Austrian and Italian soldiers.
December 16 – Robert Baden-Powell gives the first public display of the new Wolf Cub section of Scouting at Caxton Hall, Westminster.
December 18 – WWI: The Battle of Verdun ends in France with German troops defeated.
December 21 – WWI: El Arish occupied by the British Empire Desert Column during advance across the Sinai Peninsula.
December 22 – The British Sopwith Camel aircraft makes its maiden flight. It is designed to counter the German Fokker aircraft.
December 23 – WWI: The Desert Column captures the Ottoman garrison during the Battle of Magdhaba.
December 30
Emperor Charles IV of Hungary and his wife Zita of Bourbon-Parma are crowned emperor and empress of Austria-Hungary.
Humberto Gómez and his mercenaries seize Arauca in Colombia and declare the Republic of Arauca. He proceeds to pillage the region before fleeing to Venezuela.
(December 17 Old Style) – The mystic Grigori Rasputin is murdered in Saint Petersburg.
December 31 – The Hampton Terrace Hotel in North Augusta, South Carolina, one of the largest and most luxurious hotels in the United States at the time, burns to the ground.
=== Date unknown ===
The 1916 Summer Olympics are cancelled in Berlin, Germany.
Food is rationed in Germany.
Ferdinand de Saussure's Cours de linguistique générale is collected posthumously and published.
Oxycodone, a narcotic painkiller closely related to codeine, is first synthesized in Germany.
Ernst Rüdin publishes his initial results on the genetics of schizophrenia.
Louis Enricht claims he has a substitute for gasoline.
Rodeo's first side-delivery bucking chute is designed and made by the Bascom brothers (Raymond, Mel, and Earl) and their father, John W. Bascom, at Welling, Alberta, Canada.
Gustav Holst composes The Planets, Opus 32.
Bray Studios begins the Farmer Al Falfa series, the first of the Terrytoons.
The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers is founded in the United States as the Society of Motion Picture Engineers.
Ishikawajima Automobile Manufacturing, predecessor of Isuzu, a truck brand in Japan, is founded.
== Sport ==
March 30 – National Hockey Association's Montreal Canadiens win their First Stanley Cup by defeating the Pacific Coast Hockey Association's Portland Rosebuds 3 games to 2. All Games were played at Montreal's Montreal Arena.
Due to the outbreak of World War I, the 1916 Summer Olympics in Berlin, Germany, is cancelled.
== In fiction ==
In the 1941 film Citizen Kane, Charles Foster Kane runs for New York governor and loses. Also in 1916, Emily Monroe Norton divorces him and, in either this year or in 1917, he marries Susan Alexander.
== Births ==
=== January ===
January 1
Giuseppe Aquari, Italian film cinematographer (d. 1982)
Italo Viglianesi, Italian trade unionist politician and syndicalist (d. 1995)
January 2 – Joseph W. Schmitt, American aircraft mechanic and spacesuit technician (d. 2017)
January 3
Maxene Andrews, American singer (The Andrews Sisters) (d. 1995)
Betty Furness, American actress and consumer activist (d. 1994)
Bernard Greenhouse, American cellist (d. 2011)
Erik Ågren, Swedish boxer (d. 1985)
Warren King, American cartoonist (d. 1978)
January 4
Princess Niloufer (d. 1989)
Sidney Siegel, American psychologist (d. 1961)
January 5
Alfred Ryder, American film, radio and television actor (d. 1995)
Wilhelm Szewczyk, Polish writer, poet, literary critic and translator (d. 1991)
January 7
Elena Ceaușescu, Romanian politician, First Lady of Romania and Deputy Prime Minister of Romania (d. 1989)
Paul Keres, Estonian chess player (d. 1975)
January 9 – Peter Twinn, English mathematician and WWII code-breaker (d. 2004)
January 10
Sune Bergström, Swedish biochemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 2004)
Bernard Binlin Dadié, Ivorian novelist, playwright, poet, and Minister of Culture (d. 2019)
Richard Münch, German actor (d. 1987)
January 12
Ruth R. Benerito, American chemist (d. 2013)
P. W. Botha, 9th President of South Africa (d. 2006)
Mary Wilson, Lady Wilson of Rievaulx, English poet (d. 2018)
January 15 – Hugh Gibb, English drummer and bandleader (d. 1992)
January 17
Peter Frelinghuysen Jr., American politician (d. 2011)
Tatyana Karpova, Soviet and Russian actress (d. 2018)
January 18 – Silviu Brucan, Romanian author and politician (d. 2006)
January 19 – Harry Huskey, American computer designer (d. 2017)
January 22 – Henri Dutilleux, French composer (d. 2013)
January 23 – David Douglas Duncan, American photojournalist (d. 2018)
January 24
Rafael Caldera, 39th President of Venezuela (d. 2009)
Marvin Creamer, American sailor (d. 2020)
Arnoldo Foà, Italian actor (d. 2014)
Daphne Lorraine Gum, Australian educator (d. 2017)
January 27 – Stjepan Filipović, a People's Hero of Yugoslavia (d. 1942)
January 28 – Dottie Hunter, Canadian baseball player (d. 2005)
January 31 – Sangoulé Lamizana, 2nd President and Prime Minister of Burkina Faso (d. 2005)
=== February ===
February 10 – Julia Hawkins, American sprinter and cyclist (d. 2024)
February 11 – Ivan Hristov Bashev, Bulgarian Foreign Minister (d. 1971)
February 12 – Damián Iguacén Borau, Spanish Roman Catholic prelate (d. 2020)
February 13 – John Reed, British actor and opera singer (d. 2010)
February 14
Marcel Bigeard, French military officer (d. 2010)
Sally Gray, English actress (d. 2006)
Denham Harman, American gerontologist (d. 2014)
Edward Platt, American actor (d. 1974)
Charles Wycliffe Joiner, American judge (d. 2017)
Masaki Kobayashi, Japanese film director (d. 1996)
February 15
Ernest Millington, English politician (d. 2009)
Mary Jane Croft, American actress (d. 1999)
Dingiri Banda Wijetunga, 4th President and 9th Prime Minister of Sri Lanka (d. 2008)
February 16 – Karel Dufek, Czechoslovak diplomat (d. 2009)
February 18 – Maria Altmann, Austrian Holocaust survivor and heiress (d. 2011)
February 20 – Jean Erdman, American dancer (d. 2020)
February 23 – Retta Scott, first woman to receive screen credit as an animator at the Walt Disney Animation Studios (d. 1990)
February 26
Jackie Gleason, American comedian, actor and musician (d. 1987)
Preacher Roe, American baseball player (d. 2008)
February 28
Svend Asmussen, Danish jazz violinist (d. 2017)
Cesar Climaco, Filipino politician, Mayor of Zamboanga (d. 1984)
Frank Crean, Australian politician (d. 2008)
=== March ===
March 1 – Emelyn Whiton, American Olympic sailor (d. 1962)
March 2 – George E. Bria, Italian-American journalist (d. 2017)
March 3 – Paul Halmos, Hungarian-born mathematician (d. 2006)
March 4
William Alland, American actor, producer, writer and director (d. 1997)
Giorgio Bassani, Italian writer (d. 2000)
Hans Eysenck, German-born psychologist (d. 1997)
March 5 – Jack Hamm, American cartoonist (d. 1996)
March 6 – Rochelle Hudson, American actress (d. 1972)
March 7 – Marie-Thérèse Bourquin, Belgian lawyer (d. 2018)
March 10 – Ethel Bush, British police officer (d. 2016)
March 11 – Harold Wilson, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1995)
March 13
Lindy Boggs, American politician (d. 2013)
Jacque Fresco, American futurist and designer (d. 2017)
John Aspinwall Roosevelt, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1981)
Robert O. Peterson, American businessman and philanthropist (d. 1994)
March 14 – Horton Foote, American writer (d. 2009)
March 15
Frank Coghlan Jr., American actor (d. 2009)
Harry James, American musician and band leader (d. 1983)
March 16
Mercedes McCambridge, American actress (d. 2004)
Tsutomu Yamaguchi, Japanese survivor of Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombings (d. 2010)
March 17
Lyle Smith, American football coach (d. 2017)
Volodia Teitelboim, Chilean author and politician (d. 2008)
March 19 – Irving Wallace, American novelist (d. 1990)
March 20 – Pierre Messmer, French politician (d. 2007)
March 24
Donald Hamilton, Swedish writer (d. 2006)
Anna Maria Bottini, Italian actress (d. 2020)
March 26
Christian B. Anfinsen, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1995)
Dai Zijin, Chinese aviator (d. 2017)
Harry Rabinowitz, British film composer and conductor (d. 2016)
March 29
Sam Beazley, British actor (d. 2017)
Peter Geach, British philosopher (d. 2013)
Abu Sadat Mohammad Sayem, 6th President of Bangladesh (d. 1997)
Eugene McCarthy, U.S. Senator from Minnesota and Presidential candidate (d. 2005)
March 31 – Lucille Bliss, American voice actor (d. 2012)
=== April ===
April 1
John Holter, American toolmaker and inventor (d. 2003)
Balilla Lombardi, Italian football player (d. 1987)
April 2 – Menachem Porush, member of Israeli Knesset for Agudat Yisrael (d. 2010)
April 3
Herb Caen, American journalist (d. 1997)
Peter Gowland, American photographer (d. 2010)
Louiguy, Spanish-French musician of Italian extraction (d. 1991)
April 4
David White, American actor (d. 1990)
Nikola Ljubičić, 10th President of Serbia (d. 2005)
Mubarak Zarouk, Sudanese politician and minister (d. 1965)
April 5
Albert Henry Ottenweller, American bishop (d. 2012)
Gregory Peck, American actor (d. 2003)
Carmen Silva, Brazilian actress (d. 2008)
Jean Trescases, French soldier (d. 1951)
April 10 – Lee Jung-seob, Korean oil painter (d. 1956)
April 11
Alberto Ginastera, Argentine composer (d. 1983)
Armando León Bejarano, Mexican politician (d. 2016)
April 12
Beverly Cleary, American children's book author (d. 2021)
Benjamin Libet, American pioneering scientist in the field of human consciousness (d. 2007)
Movita Castaneda, American actress (d. 2015)
April 14 – Pehr Victor Edman, Swedish chemist (d.1977)
April 15
Alfred S. Bloomingdale, American department store heir (d. 1982)
Helene Hanff, American writer and critic (d. 1997)
Mikiel Fsadni, Maltese friar and historian (d. 2013)
April 16 – Hon Sui Sen, Malaysian-Singaporean politician (d. 1983)
April 17
Sirimavo Bandaranaike, Sri Lankan politician (d. 2000)
A. Thiagarajah, Sri Lankan Tamil teacher and politician (d. 1981)
Win Maung, 3rd President of Myanmar (d. 1989)
April 18
Carl Burgos, American comic book artist (d. 1984)
José Joaquín Trejos Fernández, President of Costa Rica (d. 2010)
April 19
Bruno Chizzo, Italian association footballer (d. 1969)
Delio Rodríguez, Spanish road racing cyclist and sprinter (d. 1994)
April 21
Walter Berg, German footballer (d. 1949)
April 22
Yehudi Menuhin, American-born violinist (d. 1999)
Yvette Lundy, French resistance fighter (d. 2019)
April 24
Stanley Kauffmann, American film critic (d. 2013)
Lou Thesz, American professional wrestler (d. 2002)
April 25 – R. J. Rushdoony, American founder of Christian Reconstructionism (d. 2001)
April 26
Dorothy Salisbury Davis, American writer (d. 2014)
Vic Perrin, American voice actor (d. 1989)
Paulette Coquatrix, French costume designer (d. 2018)
Ken Wallis, British aviator, engineer, and inventor (d. 2013)
Werner Bischof, Swiss photographer and photojournalist (d. 1954)
George Tuska, American comic strip artist (d. 2009)
April 27 – Enos Slaughter, American baseball player (d. 2002)
April 28 – Ferruccio Lamborghini, Italian automobile manufacturer (d. 1993)
April 29 – Ramón Amaya Amador, Honduran author (d. 1966)
April 30
Claude Elwood Shannon, American information theorist (d. 2001)
Robert Shaw, American conductor (d. 1999)
=== May ===
May 1 – Glenn Ford, Canadian actor (d. 2006)
May 4 – Jane Jacobs, née Butzner, American-born urban activist (d. 2006)
May 5 – Zail Singh, Indian politician and 7th President of India (d. 1994)
May 6
Adriana Caselotti, American actress (d. 1997)
Robert H. Dicke, American experimental physicist (d. 1997)
Sif Ruud, Swedish actress (d. 2011)
May 8
Chinmayananda, Indian spiritual leader (d. 1993)
Jens Risom, Danish American furniture designer (d. 2016)
João Havelange, Brazilian industrialist and football league president (d. 2016)
May 10 – Milton Babbitt, American composer (d. 2011)
May 11 – Camilo José Cela, Spanish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2002)
May 14 – Sammy Luftspring, Canadian boxer (d. 2000)
Del Moore, American actor, comedian and radio announcer (d. 1970)
May 15
Vera Gebuhr, Danish actress (d. 2014)
Abbott Pattison, American sculptor and abstract artist (d. 1999)
May 16
Adriana Caselotti, American Actress, Voice Actress and Singer (d. 1997)
Ephraim Katzir, 4th President of Israel (d. 2009)
Carlos Aldunate Lyon, Colombian lawyer, educator and activist (d. 2018)
May 17
Jenő Fock, 49th Prime Minister of Hungary (d. 2001)
Lenka Reinerová, Czech writer (d. 2008)
May 18 – Miriam Goldberg, American newspaper publisher (d. 2017)
May 20
Owen Chadwick, British author and historian (d. 2015)
Trebisonda Valla, Italian athlete (d. 2006)
May 21
Louis Crump, American politician (d. 2019)
Dennis Day, American singer and actor (d. 1988)
Leonard Manasseh, British architect (d. 2017)
Lydia Mendoza, American musician (d. 2007)
Tinus Osendarp, Dutch runner (d. 2002)
Harold Robbins, American novelist (d. 1997)
Tan Siew Sin, Malaysian minister of Commerce and Industry (d. 1988)
May 26
Halil İnalcık, Turkish historian (d. 2016)
Henriette Roosenburg, Dutch journalist (d. 1972)
May 31
Bert Haanstra, Dutch filmmaker (d. 1997)
Bernard Lewis, British-American historian (d. 2018)
=== June ===
June 3 – Jack Manning, American film, stage and television actor (d. 2009)
June 4 – Robert F. Furchgott, American chemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 2009)
June 5 – Eddie Joost, baseball player and manager (d. 2011)
June 6 – Hamani Diori, 1st President of Niger (d. 1989)
June 8 – Francis Crick, English molecular biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 2004)
June 9
Jurij Brězan, Sorbian writer (d. 2006)
Robert McNamara, 8th United States Secretary of Defense (d. 2009)
June 11 – Bob Berry, New Zealand dendrologist (d. 2018)
June 12 – Raúl Héctor Castro, American politician (d. 2015)
June 13 – Ronald Atkins, Welsh politician (d. 2020)
June 14 – Dorothy McGuire, American actress (d. 2001)
June 15
Olga Erteszek, American undergarment designer and lingerie company owner (d. 1989)
Horacio Salgán, Argentine tango musician (d. 2016)
Herbert A. Simon, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2001)
June 16 – Phil Chambers, American actor (d. 1993)
June 17 – Einar Englund, Finnish composer (d. 1999)
June 18
Julio César Turbay Ayala, 25th President of Colombia (d. 2005)
Roman Toi, Estonian composer, choir conductor, and organist (d. 2018)
June 21
Tchan Fou-li, Chinese photographer (d. 2018)
Herbert Friedman, American physicist (d. 2000)
June 22
Anne Olivier Bell, English literary editor and art scholar (d. 2018)
Richard Eastham, American actor (d. 2005)
Emil Fackenheim, noted Jewish philosopher and Reform rabbi (d. 2003)
June 23
Len Hutton, English cricketer (d. 1990)
Irene Worth, American actress (d. 2002)
Al G. Wright, American bandleader and conductor (d. 2020)
June 24
Saloua Raouda Choucair, Lebanese painter and sculptor (d. 2017)
Lidia Wysocka, American actress (d. 2006)
William B. Saxbe, American politician (d. 2010)
June 25 – Thomas Reddin, American police (d. 2004)
June 26
Dennis Filmer, Malaysian sports shooter (d. 1981)
Alvin Wistert, American football player (d. 2005)
June 27
Max Müller, Swiss cross-country skier (d. 2019)
Ivy Cooke, Jamaican educator (d. 2017)
June 28
Richard Best, British film editor (d. 2004)
John Evelyn Anderson, British Army officer (d. 2007)
June 29 – Ruth Warrick, American actress (d. 2005)
=== July ===
July 1
Olivia de Havilland, British-American film actress (d. 2020)
Lawrence Halprin, American architect (d. 2009)
Thomas Hamilton-Brown, South African boxer (d. 1981)
July 2
Reino Kangasmäki, Finnish wrestler (d. 2010)
Alec Hill, Australian military historian (d. 2008)
Zélia Gattai, Brazilian author and photographer (d. 2008)
Hans-Ulrich Rudel, German pilot (d. 1982)
Ken Curtis, American screen actor and singer (d. 1991)
July 3 – John Kundla, American basketball coach (d. 2017)
July 4
Iva Toguri D'Aquino ("Tokyo Rose"), American propaganda broadcaster (d. 2006)
Adam Curle, British academic and peace activist (d. 2006)
Naseem Banu, Indian actress (d. 2002)
Fernand Leduc, Canadian painter (d. 2014)
July 5
Lívia Rév, Hungarian classical pianist (d. 2018)
Ivor Powell, Welsh footballer (d. 2012)
July 6
Harold Norse, American writer (d. 2009)
Hugh Gibbons, Irish Fianna Fáil politician (d. 2007)
Don R. Christensen, American animator, cartoonist, illustrator, writer and inventor (d. 2006)
July 7 – Werner G. Scharff, American arts patron and fashion designer (d. 2006)
July 8
Marion Hartzog Smoak, American lawyer and politician (d. 2020)
Ronald R. Van Stockum, American writer (d. 2022)
Jean Rouverol, American actress, screenwriter and author (d. 2017)
Otto Luedeke, American cyclist (d. 2005)
July 9
Edward Heath, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 2005)
Teun Roosenburg, Dutch sculptor (d. 2004)
July 10 – Nicholas D'Antonio Salza, American bishop (d. 2009)
July 11
Mortimer Caplin, American lawyer and educator (d. 2019)
Hans Maier, Dutch water polo player (d. 2018)
Aleksandr Mikhailovich Prokhorov, Russian physicist, Nobel laureate (d. 2002)
Reg Varney, British actor (d. 2008)
Gough Whitlam, 21st Prime Minister of Australia (d. 2014)
July 14
Franco Montoro, Brazilian politician and lawyer (d. 1999)
Natalia Ginzburg, Italian author (d. 1991)
July 15
Sumner Gerard, American politician and diplomat (d. 2005)
Les Dye, American football player (d. 2000)
July 16
Victor Fontana, Brazilian engineer, businessman and politician (d. 2017)
Sudono Salim, Indonesian-Chinese businessman (d. 2012)
July 17
Eleanor Hadley, American economist and policymaker (d. 2007)
Henning Brandis, German physician and microbiologist (d. 2004)
July 18
Charles Kittel, American physicist (d. 2019)
L. Patrick Gray III, American Federal Bureau of Investigation director (d. 2005)
Ed Cifers, American football end (d. 2005)
Sid Kiel, South African doctor and cricketer (d. 2007)
July 19
Phil Cavarretta, baseball player (d. 2010)
François Mercier, French footballer (d. 1996)
July 20
Ersilio Tonini, Italian Cardinal of the Catholic Church (d. 2013)
Hans von Blixen-Finecke Jr., Swedish officer and horse rider (d. 2005)
July 21
Douglas Freeman, English cricketer (d. 2013)
Sergeant Stubby, World War I American hero war dog (d. 1926)
July 22
Irene Galitzine, Russian-Georgian fashion designer (d. 2006)
William A. Culpepper, American judge (d. 2015)
William Harper, Rhodesian politician (d. 2006)
Marcel Cerdan, French boxer (d. 1949)
July 23 – Sandra Gould, American actress (d. 1999)
July 25 – Fred Lasswell, American cartoonist (d. 2001)
July 27
Elizabeth Hardwick, American literary critic and novelist (d. 2007)
Keenan Wynn, American actor (d. 1986)
July 28 – David Brown, American producer (d. 2010)
July 29 – Rupert Hamer, Australian politician and Premier of Victoria (d. 2004)
July 30 – Dick Wilson, American actor (d. 2007)
July 31
Bill Todman, American game show producer (d. 1979)
Ignacio Trelles, Mexican football player and coach (d. 2020)
=== August ===
August 1
Fiorenzo Angelini, Italian Cardinal (d. 2014)
Olimpio Bizzi, Italian racing cyclist (d. 1976)
Edna Hughes, English competition swimmer (d. 1990)
August 2 – Zein Al-Sharaf Talal, Queen of Jordan (d. 1994)
August 3 – Hertha Feiler, Austrian actress (d. 1970)
August 5 – Kermit Love, American puppeteer (d. 2008)
August 6 – Dom Mintoff, 8th Prime Minister of Malta (d. 2012)
August 7
Lawrence Picachy, Indian Jesuit priest (d. 1992)
Rose Wolfe, Canadian social worker and philanthropist (d. 2016)
August 8 – Shigeo Arai, Japanese freestyle swimmer (d. 1944)
August 9 – Manea Mănescu, 50th Prime Minister of Romania (d. 2009)
August 10 – Lorna McDonald, Australian historian and author (d. 2017)
August 11
Johnny Claes, English racing driver (d. 1956)
William Coors, American executive (d. 2018)
August 12 – Ralph Nelson, American film and television director, producer, writer, and actor (d. 1987)
August 13 – Sybren Valkema, Dutch glass artist and teacher, and founder of the European Studio Glass Movement, also known as VRIJ GLAS. (d. 1996)
August 14
Heinrich Prinz zu Sayn-Wittgenstein, German night fighter pilot and flying ace (d. 1944)
Ralph de Toledano, American conservationist and author (d. 2007)
August 16
Edythe Wright, American singer (d. 1965)
Iggy Katona, American race car driver (d. 2003)
August 18 – Neagu Djuvara, Romanian historian, essayist, and diplomat (d. 2018)
August 19 – Dennis Poore, British entrepreneur, financier and racing driver (d. 1987)
August 20
George Rosenkranz, Mexican co-inventor of oral contraceptive pill (d. 2019)
Paul Felix Schmidt, Estonian chess player (d. 1984)
August 21
Frank O. Braynard, American maritime writer and historian (d. 2007)
Geoffrey Keen, English actor (d. 2005)
Bill Lee, American playback singer (d. 1980)
Consuelo Velázquez, Mexican songwriter (d. 2005)
August 22
Robert H. Krieble, American chemist (d. 1997)
Joe Martinelli, American soccer forward (d. 1991)
August 24
Hal Smith, American actor (d. 1994)
Léo Ferré, French-born Monégasque poet and composer (d. 1993)
August 25
Van Johnson, American actor (d. 2008)
Frederick Chapman Robbins, American pediatrician and virologist (d. 2003)
Saburō Sakai, Japanese fighter ace (d. 2000)
August 27
Martha Raye, American actress (d. 1994)
Larry Thor, Canadian actor (d. 1976)
Robert Van Eenaeme, Belgian cyclist (d. 1959)
August 28
C. Wright Mills, American sociologist (d. 1962)
Jack Vance, American writer (d. 2013)
August 29 – Luther Davis, American screenwriter (d. 2008)
August 30
Shag Crawford, American baseball umpire (d. 2007)
Kenneth Keith, Baron Keith of Castleacre, British life peer (d. 2004)
August 31
Daniel Schorr, American journalist (d. 2010)
John S. Wold, American politician (d. 2017)
=== September ===
September 1
Dorothy Cheney, American tennis player (d. 2014)
Joseph Minish, American politician (d. 2007)
September 3 – Tommy J. Smith, Australian trainer (d. 1998)
September 5
Allan Louisy, 2nd Prime Minister of Saint Lucia (d. 2011)
Frank Yerby, American writer (d. 1991)
September 7 – Shen Panwen, Chinese chemist (d. 2017)
September 12
Leoncio Afonso, Spanish scientist (d. 2017)
Edward Binns, American stage, film, and television actor (d. 1990)
September 13 – Roald Dahl, Welsh-born author (d. 1990)
September 14
Eric Bentley, English-born American critic and playwright (d. 2020)
John Heyer, Australian documentary filmmaker (d. 2001)
September 15
Margaret Lockwood, Indian-born English actress (d. 1990)
Frederick C. Weyand, U.S. Army General (d. 2010)
September 16 – Frank Leslie Walcott, Barbadian labour leader (d. 1999)
September 17 – Mary Stewart, born Mary Rainbow, English-born fantasy and mystery writer (d. 2014)
September 18 – John Jacob Rhodes, American politician and lawyer (d. 2003)
September 21 – Zinovy Gerdt, Russian actor (d. 1996)
September 23
Aldo Moro, 38th Prime Minister of Italy (d. 1978)
Haider Raza, 2nd Chief of Staff of the Pakistan Air Force (d. 1998)
September 24 – Ruth Leach Amonette, American businesswoman (d. 2004)
September 26 – Frank Handlen, American artist (d. 2023)
September 27
Trento Longaretti, Italian painter (d. 2017)
S. Yizhar (aka Yizhar Smilansky), Israeli author (d. 2006)
September 28 – Peter Finch, English-born Australian actor (d. 1977)
=== October ===
October 2 – Jim L. Gillis Jr., American politician (d. 2018)
October 3
Frank Pantridge, Irish physician and inventor (d. 2004)
James Herriot, English veterinarian and author (d. 1995)
Shelby Storck, American television producer (d. 1969)
October 4 – Vitaly Ginzburg, Russian physicist, Nobel laureate (d. 2009)
October 7 – Sir Hereward Wake, 14th Baronet, British army officer (d. 2017)
October 9 – Robert Brubaker, American actor (d. 2010)
October 10
Bernard Heuvelmans, Belgian-French cryptozoologist (d. 2001)
Sumiko Mizukubo, Japanese actress (d. 1994)
October 11 – Maurice Gaffney, Irish barrister (d. 2016)
October 12 – Alice Childress, American actress, playwright, and novelist (d. 1994)
October 14 – C. Everett Koop, United States Surgeon General (d. 2013)
October 15 – Hassan Gouled Aptidon, President of Djibouti (d. 2006)
October 19
Jean Dausset, French immunologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 2009)
Emil Gilels, Ukrainian pianist (d. 1985)
October 21 – Eddie Carnett, American baseball player (d. 2016)
October 25 – Thérèse Kleindienst, French librarian (d. 2018)
October 26 – François Mitterrand, President of France (d. 1996)
October 30 – Leon Day, American baseball player (d. 1995)
October 31
Phil Monroe, American animator and director (d. 1988)
Carl Johan Bernadotte, Prince of Sweden (d. 2012)
=== November ===
November 4 – Walter Cronkite, American television journalist (d. 2009)
November 5 – Jim Tabor, American baseball player (d. 1953)
November 6 – Harry Blamires, British Anglican theologian, literary critic and novelist (d. 2017)
November 8 – Lady Ursula d'Abo, English socialite (d. 2017)
November 10 – Louis le Brocquy, Irish painter (d. 2012)
November 11 – Robert Carr, English politician (d. 2012)
November 12 – Rogelio de la Rosa, Filipino actor and politician (d. 1986)
November 14 – Sherwood Schwartz, American television writer and producer (d. 2011)
November 15 – Bill Melendez, American animator (d. 2008)
November 16 – Daws Butler, American voice actor (d. 1988)
November 17 – Shelby Foote, American historian and novelist, author of The Civil War: A Narrative (d. 2005)
November 20
Hamida Habibullah, Indian politician (d. 2018)
Evelyn Keyes, American actress (d. 2008)
November 23
Michael Gough, Malayan-born English actor (d. 2011)
P. K. Page, Canadian poet (d. 2010)
November 24
Forrest J Ackerman, American writer (d. 2008)
Frankie Muse Freeman, American civil rights attorney (d. 2018)
November 25 – Cosmo Haskard, Irish-born British colonial administrator and British Army officer (d. 2017)
November 26 – Gerhard Unger, German tenor (d. 2011)
November 27 – Chick Hearn, American basketball announcer (d. 2002)
November 28
Lilian, Princess of Réthy, born Mary Lilian Baels, English-born Belgian queen consort of Leopold III (d. 2002)
Ramón José Velásquez, 44th President of Venezuela (d. 2014)
November 29
Evelyn Bonaci, Maltese politician (d. 2008)
Helen Clare, British singer (d. 2018)
Fran Ryan, American actress (d. 2000)
November 30
Andrée de Jongh, Belgian Resistance worker (d. 2007)
John C. Harkness, American architect (d. 2016)
=== December ===
December 1 – Wan Li, Chinese government official (d. 2015)
December 2 – Nancye Wynne Bolton, Australian tennis player (d. 2001)
December 5 – Hilary Koprowski, Polish virologist and immunologist (d. 2013)
December 6
Kristján Eldjárn, 3rd President of Iceland (d. 1982)
Pratap Chandra Lal, Indian military advisor (d. 1982)
Hugo Peretti, American songwriter and record producer (d. 1986)
December 7
George Russell Weller, American salesman known for the Santa Monica Farmer's Market incident (d. 2010)
John G. Morris, American picture editor (d. 2017)
December 8
Richard Fleischer, American film director (d. 2006)
T. K. Whitaker, Irish economist and public servant (d. 2017)
December 9
Jerome Beatty, Jr., American author of children's literature (d. 2002)
Kirk Douglas, American film actor (Spartacus) (d. 2020)
Esther Wilkins, American dentist (d. 2016)
December 11 – Dámaso Pérez Prado, Cuban musician (d. 1989)
December 12 – Maharaj Charan Singh, Fourth Satguru of Radha Soami Satsang Beas (d. 1990)
December 12 – Anne Vermeer, Dutch politician (d. 2018)
December 14 – Shirley Jackson, American writer (d. 1965)
December 15 – Maurice Wilkins, New Zealand-born physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 2004)
December 16 – Birgitta Valberg, Swedish actress (d. 2014)
December 18
Douglas Fraser, Scottish-born union leader (d. 2008)
Betty Grable, American actress (d. 1973)
Franciszek Kornicki, Polish fighter pilot (d. 2017)
December 19
Roy Baker, English film director (d. 2010)
Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, German political scientist (d. 2010)
John Crutcher, American politician (d. 2017)
December 20 – Morrie Schwartz, American professor (d. 1995)
December 21 – Arsène Tchakarian, Armenian-French resistance fighter (d. 2018)
December 22 – Dietrich Grunewald, Swedish-born, American Artist (d. 2003)
December 24
Ron G. Mason, English oceanographer (d. 2009)
Cecília Schelingová, Slovak Roman Catholic religious professed, martyr and blessed (d. 1955)
December 25
Ahmed Ben Bella, Algerian politician, 1st President of Algeria (d. 2012)
Graciela Naranjo, Venezuelan singer and actress (d. 2001)
December 26
Helga Sonck-Majewski, Finnish artist (d. 2015)
December 27 – Cathy Lewis, American actress (d. 1968)
=== Date unknown ===
Saad Jumaa, 17th Prime Minister of Jordan (d. 1979)
== Deaths ==
=== January ===
January 1
Max Bastelberger, German doctor and entomologist (b. 1851)
Adán Cárdenas, Nicaraguan doctor and politician, 16th President of Nicaragua (b. 1836)
January 2
Joseph Rucker Lamar, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States (b. 1857)
Félix Sardà y Salvany, Spanish Roman Catholic priest and writer (b. 1844)
January 5 – Ulpiano Checa, Spanish painter, sculptor and illustrator (b. 1860)
January 7 – Andrés Baquero, Spanish teacher and writer (b. 1853)
January 8
Rembrandt Bugatti, Italian sculptor (b. 1884)
Eugene W. Hilgard, German-born American soil scientist (b. 1833)
January 9 – Ada Rehan, Irish-born American Shakespearean actress (b. 1859)
January 10 – Guido Baccelli, Italian physician (b. 1830)
January 11
Cyril VIII Geha, Greek Catholic patriarch (b. 1840)
Takashima Tomonosuke, Japanese general (b. 1844)
January 12
Léon Autonne, French engineer and mathematician (b. 1859)
Georgios Theotokis, Greek politician, Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1844)
January 13
George Bengescu-Dabija, Wallachian-born Romanian poet, playwright, and general (b. 1844)
Vasile Hossu, Romanian Orthodox priest and bishop (b. 1866)
Victoriano Huerta, Mexican general and statesman, 35th President of Mexico (b. 1850)
January 14 – Otto Ammon, German anthropologist (b. 1842)
January 15 – Vojtech Alexander, Slovak radiologist (b. 1857)
January 16
Arnold Aletrino, Dutch physician (b. 1858)
William Montrose Graham Jr., American general (b. 1834)
Juana María Condesa Lluch, Spanish Roman Catholic religious professed and blessed (b. 1862)
January 17 – Arthur V. Johnson, American actor and director (b. 1876)
January 18 – Lorenzo Latorre, Uruguayan officer and politician, 11th President of Uruguay (b. 1844)
January 19
Dora Knowlton Ranous, American actress, author and translator (b. 1859)
Antoine Simon, French composer (b. 1850)
January 20 – Ephraim Francis Baldwin, American architect (b. 1837)
January 30 – Sir Clements Markham, British explorer and geographer (b. 1830)
=== February ===
February 3 – Metropolitan Ioan Mețianu, Romanian cleric (b. 1828)
February 6
Rubén Darío, Nicaraguan writer (b. 1867)
Isala Van Diest, Belgian physician (b. 1842)
February 7
Franklin E. Brooks, U.S. House of Representatives from Colorado (b. 1860)
Ludwika Szczęsna, Polish Roman Catholic nun and blessed (b. 1863)
February 9 – Anton Yegorovich von Saltza, Russian general (b. 1843)
February 12 – Richard Dedekind, German mathematician (b. 1831)
February 13
Vilhelm Hammershøi, Danish painter (b. 1864)
Carlos Antonio Mendoza, Panamanian politician, acting President of Panama (b. 1856)
February 18 – Hans Schmidt, German Roman Catholic priest (executed) (b. 1881)
February 19 – Ernst Mach, Austrian physicist and philosopher (b. 1838)
February 20 – Klas Pontus Arnoldson, Swedish writer and pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1844)
February 21 – Karl Begas, German sculptor (b. 1845)
February 23
Jabez Balfour, English businessman (b. 1843)
Domenico Lovisato, Italian geologist (b. 1842)
Hugo von Pohl, German admiral (b. 1855)
February 25 – David Bowman, Australian politician (b. 1860)
February 26 – Tomasa Ortiz Real, Spanish Roman Catholic religious professed and blessed (b. 1842)
February 27 – Ugo Balzani, Italian historian (b. 1847)
February 28 – Henry James, American writer (b. 1843)
=== March ===
March 2 – Elisabeth of Wied, Queen consort of Romania (b. 1843)
March 4
Franz Marc, German Expressionist painter (killed in action) (b. 1880)
William Sooy Smith, American Union general and engineer (b. 1830)
March 7 – Fred Donovan, American baseball player (b. 1844)
March 9 – Arnold Spencer-Smith, British explorer, clergyman, and amateur photographer (b. 1883)
March 11
Florence Baker, Hungarian-born British explorer (b. 1841)
Henry G. Davis, American politician (b. 1823)
March 12 – William M. O. Dawson, 12th Governor of West Virginia (b. 1853)
March 15 – John Beveridge, Australian businessman, Mayor of Redfern (b. 1848)
March 16 – Thomas King, New Zealand astronomer (b. 1858)
March 19
John J. Davis, American politician, U.S. Representatives from West Virginia (b. 1835)
Girolamo Maria Gotti, Italian Discalced Carmelite friar and Roman Catholic cardinal (b. 1834)
Vasily Surikov, Russian painter (b. 1848)
March 20 – Ota Benga, Congolese pygmy brought to America as part of an exhibition at the Bronx zoo (b. 1883)
March 24
Herman Gesellius, French architect (b. 1874)
Enrique Granados, Spanish composer (ship sinking) (b. 1867)
March 25 – Ishi, last known member of the Yana people (b. 1860)
March 28 – Paul von Plehwe, Russian general (b. 1850)
March 30 – Nakamuta Kuranosuke, Japanese admiral (b. 1837)
=== April ===
April 4
Alfred Cogniaux, Belgian botanist (b. 1841)
Max Lewandowsky, German neurologist (b. 1876)
April 7 – Shigeyoshi Matsuo, Japanese businessman (b. 1843)
April 11 – Richard Harding Davis, American journalist and author (b. 1864)
April 14 – Gina Krog, Norwegian suffragist, activist and editor (b. 1847)
April 16 – Alexander Meyrick Broadley, British barrister (b. 1846)
April 19
Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz, Prussian-born German field marshal and military writer (b. 1843)
Ephraim Shay, American inventor (b. 1839)
April 21
Ubaldo Pacchierotti, Italian composer (b. 1876)
John Surratt, suspected of involvement in the Abraham Lincoln assassination, son of Mary Surratt (b. 1844)
April 27 – Prince Leopold Clement of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (b. 1878)
April 28 – Edward Felix Baxter, English recipient of the Victorian Cross (b. 1885)
=== May ===
May 2 – Jules Blanchard, French sculptor (b. 1832)
May 3
Patrick Pearse, Irish teacher, barrister, poet, writer, political activist, and nationalist (executed) (b. 1879)
Thomas MacDonagh, Irish poet, playwright, educationalist and revolutionary leader (executed) (b. 1878)
Tom Clarke, Irish republican, leader of the Irish Republican Brotherhood (executed) (b. 1858)
May 4
Lord John Hay, British admiral and politician (b. 1827)
Joseph Plunkett, Irish nationalist, republican, poet, journalist, revolutionary (executed) (b. 1887)
Hector Sévin, Italian Roman Catholic cardinal (b. 1852)
May 6 – Hans Chiari, Austrian pathologist (b. 1851)
May 8
Mabel Beardsley, English actress (b. 1871)
William Burnyeat, British politician (b. 1837)
Éamonn Ceannt, Irish republican (executed) (b. 1881)
Seán Heuston, Irish republican (executed) (b. 1891)
Aeneas Mackintosh, British Merchant Navy officer and Antarctic explorer (b. 1879)
Victor Hayward, British explorer (b. 1887)
May 11
Max Reger, German modernist composer (b. 1873)
Karl Schwarzschild, German physicist (b. 1873)
Tirésias Simon Sam, 16th President of Haiti (b. 1835)
May 12
James Connolly, Irish socialist and political activist (executed) (b. 1868)
Seán Mac Diarmada, Irish republican (executed) (b. 1883)
May 13
Sholem Aleichem, Ukrainian Yiddish writer (b. 1859)
Ján Bahýľ, Slovak engineer and inventor (b. 1856)
Margaret Benson, English author (b. 1865)
Émile Petitot, French Roman Catholic missionary (b. 1838)
May 18 – Chen Qiemi, Chinese politician (b. 1878)
May 19 – Georges Boillot, French Grand Prix driver (killed in action) (b. 1884)
May 21 – Artúr Görgei, Hungarian military general and politician (b. 1818)
May 23 – Vladimír Jindřich Bufka, Czechoslovak photographer (b. 1887)
May 27 – Joseph Gallieni, French general (b. 1849)
May 28 – Ivan Franko, Ukrainian writer and political activist (b. 1856)
May 31
Robert Arbuthnot, British admiral (killed in action) (b. 1864)
Sir Horace Hood, British admiral (killed in action) (b. 1870)
=== June ===
June 2 – Paul von Bruns, German surgeon (b. 1846)
June 5 – Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener, British field marshal and statesman (drowned) (b. 1850)
June 6 – Yuan Shikai, Chinese military official and politician, Emperor of China and 1st President of the Republic of China (b. 1859)
June 7
Alberto Elmore Fernández de Córdoba, Peruvian diplomat and politician, 52nd Prime Minister of Peru (b. 1844)
Émile Faguet, French writer and critic (b. 1847)
June 12 – Silvanus P. Thompson, English professor of physics, electrical engineer, member of the Royal Society and author (b. 1851)
June 17 – Edwin Munroe Bacon, English writer (b. 1844)
June 18
Max Immelmann, German fighter ace (killed in action) (b. 1890)
Helmuth von Moltke the Younger, German general (b. 1848)
June 22 – Tanaka Yoshio, Japanese naturalist (b. 1838)
June 24 – Victor Chapman, French-born American fighter pilot (killed in action) (b. 1890)
June 25 – Thomas Eakins, American realist painter (b. 1844)
June 30
Russell Barton, British-born Australian politician (b. 1830)
Eunice Eloisae Gibbs Allyn, American correspondent, author, and songwriter (b. 1847)
=== July ===
July 1 – First Day on the Somme (killed in action)
Eugene Bourdon, French architect (b. 1870)
Gilbert Waterhouse, English architect and war poet (b. 1883)
July 2 – Mikhail Pomortsev, Russian meteorologist (b. 1851)
July 3
Hetty Green, American businesswoman (b. 1834)
Alfred Kleiner, Swiss physicist (b. 1849)
Jeremiah Lomnytskyj, Ukrainian Basilian priest, missionary and servant of God (b. 1860)
July 6 – Odilon Redon, French painter (b. 1840)
July 7 – Margarethe Hormuth-Kallmorgen, German painter (b. 1835)
July 12 – Cesare Battisti, Italian patriot, geographer and politician (b. 1875)
July 15 – Élie Metchnikoff, Russian microbiologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1845)
July 16
Regino Garcia, Filipino artist (b. 1840)
Sir Victor Horsley, English physician and surgeon (b. 1857)
July 20 – Reinhard Sorge, German dramatist and poet (killed in action) (b. 1892)
July 22 – James Whitcomb Riley, American poet (b. 1849)
July 23 – Sir William Ramsay, British chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1852)
July 26
Gustave Maria Blanche, French Roman Catholic priest and bishop (b. 1849)
Johannes Ranke, German physiologist (b. 1836)
July 27
Arthur Winton Brown, New Zealand politician, Mayor of Wellington (b. 1856)
Charles Fryatt, British mariner (executed) (b. 1872)
July 29 – Claude Castleton, Australian VC recipient (killed in action) (b. 1893)
=== August ===
August 3 – Roger Casement, Irish nationalist (executed) (b. 1864)
August 5 – George Butterworth, English composer (b. 1885)
August 7 – Kittredge Haskins, American lawyer and politician, U.S. House of Representatives from Vermont (b. 1836)
August 8
Lily Braun, German writer (b. 1865)
Kamimura Hikonojō, Japanese admiral (b. 1849)
Oscar Linkson, English football player (b. 1888)
August 9 – Guido Gozzano, Italian poet and writer (b. 1883)
August 10 – S. Isadore Miner, American columnist writing as "Pauline Periwinkle" (b. 1863)
August 13 – Pierre de Ségur, French historian (b. 1853)
August 17 – Umberto Boccioni, Italian painter and sculptor (b. 1882)
August 18 – Marcel Brindejonc des Moulinais, French aviator (b. 1892)
August 30 – Alexander Boarman, American judge, U.S. House of Representatives of Louisiana (b. 1839)
August 31
Martha McClellan Brown, American activist (b. 1838)
John St. John, American temperance leader and Governor of Kansas (b. 1833)
=== September ===
September 2
Gennady Ladyzhensky, Russian painter (b. 1852)
Felipe Trigo, Spanish writer (b. 1864)
September 7 – Annie Le Porte Diggs, Canadian-born American activist and librarian (b. 1853)
September 8
Friedrich Baumfelder, German composer, conductor, and pianist (b. 1836)
James Gray, American journalist, 19th Mayor of Minneapolis (b. 1862)
September 12 – Zygmunt Balicki, Polish sociologist (b. 1858)
September 14
Pierre Duhem, French physicist (b. 1861)
José Echegaray, Spanish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1832)
September 15
Raymond Asquith, English barrister (b. 1878)
Josiah Royce, American philosopher (b. 1855)
September 17 – Seth Low, American politician and educator, Mayor of New York City (b. 1850)
September 25
Gerald Arbuthnot, British soldier and politician (b. 1872)
Arthur Herbert Thompson, English soldier and football player (b. 1890)
Kurt Wintgens, German fighter pilot, air ace in World War I (b. 1894)
September 29 – Albert John Cook, American entomologist and zoologist (b. 1842)
=== October ===
October 3
James Burgess, British archaeologist (b. 1832)
Dmytro Yaremko, Ukrainian Eastern Catholic hierarch and bishop (b. 1879)
October 6 – Isidore De Loor, Belgian Roman Catholic religious professed and blessed (b. 1881)
October 10 – Antonio Sant'Elia, Italian architect (killed in action) (b. 1888)
October 11 – King Otto of Bavaria (b. 1848)
October 12 – Tony Jannus, American aviator and aircraft designer (b. 1889)
October 18 – Ignacio Pinazo Camarlench, Spanish painter (b. 1849)
October 21
Olindo Guerrini, Italian poet (b. 1845)
Karl von Stürgkh, Prime Minister of Austria (b. 1859)
October 25 – Gérard Encausse, Papus, French occultist (b. 1865)
October 28
Oswald Boelcke, German World War I fighter ace, (b. 1891)
Cleveland Abbe, American meteorologist (b. 1838)
October 29 – John Sebastian Little, American politician and congressman (b. 1851)
October 31
Tina Blau, Austrian painter (b. 1845)
Charles Taze Russell, Protestant evangelist, forerunner of Jehovah's Witnesses (b. 1852)
Huang Xing, Chinese revolutionary leader and politician, and the first commander-in-chief of the Republic of China (b. 1874)
=== November ===
November 1 – Franz, Prince of Thun and Hohenstein, Austrian noble and statesman, Prime Minister (b. 1847)
November 2 – Prince Mircea of Romania (b. 1913)
November 3 – August Lindberg, Swedish actor, director and manager (b. 1846)
November 4
John Bingham, 5th Baron Clanmorris, Irish peer (b. 1838)
Ella Loraine Dorsey, American author, journalist, and translator (b. 1853)
November 5 – Francesco Salesio Della Volpe, Italian Roman Catholic cardinal (b. 1844)
November 6 – Sultan Ali Dinar (b. 1856)
November 8 – Prince Heinrich of Bavaria (b. 1884)
November 9
Ludwig Bruns, German neurologist (b. 1856)
Ion Dragalina, Romanian general (died of wounds) (b. 1860)
November 10 – Walter Sutton, American geneticist and physician (b. 1877)
November 11
Frank Chesterton, British architect (b. 1877)
Francisco da Veiga Beirão, Portuguese politician, 53rd Prime Minister of Portugal (b. 1841)
November 12 – Percival Lowell, American astronomer (b. 1855)
November 14
Franklin Ware Mann, American inventor (b. 1856)
Saki, British writer (b. 1870)
November 15 – Henryk Sienkiewicz, Polish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1846)
November 18 – August Lindberg, Swedish actor, director and manager (b. 1846)
November 21 –
Chester Adgate Congdon, American mining magnate (b. 1853)
Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria (b. 1830)
November 22 – Jack London, American author (b. 1876)
November 23 – Lanoe Hawker VC, British World War I fighter ace, killed in action by Manfred von Richthofen (b. 1890)
November 24
Princess Adelheid-Marie of Anhalt-Dessau (b. 1833)
John Francis Barnett, English teacher (b. 1851)
Sir Hiram Maxim, American firearms inventor (b. 1840)
November 25 – Inez Milholland, American suffragist, labor lawyer, World War I correspondent and public speaker (b. 1886)
November 27 – Émile Verhaeren, Belgian poet (b. 1855)
November 28 – Martinus Theunis Steyn, Boer lawyer, politician, and statesman, sixth and last President of the Orange Free State (1896–1902) (b. 1857)
November 30 – Demetrio Alonso Castrillo, Spanish politician (b. 1841)
=== December ===
December 1 – Charles de Foucauld, French Roman Catholic religious professed, priest and blessed (b. 1858)
December 2
William Brownell, Australian politician (b. 1862)
Hughie Hughes, British racecar driver (b. 1885)
José Veríssimo, Brazilian writer (b. 1857)
December 4 – Paul Allard, French archaeologist and historian (b. 1841)
December 5
Princess Augusta of Cambridge (b. 1822)
Hans Richter, Austrian–Hungarian conductor (b. 1843)
December 6 – Signe Hornborg, Finnish architect (b. 1856)
December 8 – John Porter Merrell, American admiral (b. 1846)
December 9
Pierre Paul Leroy-Beaulieu, French economist (b. 1843)
Natsume Sōseki, Japanese writer (b. 1867)
Clara Ward, Princesse de Caraman-Chimay (b. 1873)
December 10 – Ōyama Iwao, Japanese field marshal and a founder of the Imperial Japanese Army (b. 1842)
December 11
Valentín Díaz, Filipino patriot, during the Philippine Revolution (b. 1845)
Zoilo H. Garcia, Dominican engineer and aviator (b. 1881)
December 12 – Edwin Atlee Barber, American archaeologist (b. 1851)
December 14 – Nicolai Soloviev, Russian composer (b. 1846)
December 15 – José Maria de Alpoim, Portuguese journalist (b. 1857)
December 16
Friedrich Ernst Dorn, German physicist (b. 1848)
Honorat da Biała, Polish Roman Catholic priest and blessed (b. 1829)
Hugo Münsterberg, German-born American psychologist (b. 1856)
Ognjeslav Stepanović, Serbian inventor (b. 1851)
December 18
George W. Cook, U.S. Representative from Colorado (b. 1851)
Giulia Valle, Italian Roman Catholic nun and blessed (b. 1847)
December 19
Doug Allison, American baseball player (b. 1846)
Thibaw Min, King of Burma (b. 1859)
December 22 – George A. Woodward, American general (b. 1835)
December 25
Albert Chmielowski, Polish Roman Catholic religious professed and saint (b. 1845)
John Dunne, Australian Roman Catholic bishop and reverend (b. 1846)
December 28 – Eduard Strauss, Austrian composer (b. 1835)
December 30
Grigori Rasputin, Russian mystic (assassinated) (b. 1869)
Leopold Sulerzhitsky, Russian painter (b. 1872)
== Nobel Prizes ==
Physics – not awarded
Chemistry – not awarded
Medicine – not awarded
Literature – Carl Gustaf Verner von Heidenstam
Peace – not awarded |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_Alone_2:_Lost_in_New_York#Cast | Home Alone 2: Lost in New York#Cast | Home Alone 2: Lost in New York is a 1992 American Christmas comedy film directed by Chris Columbus and written and produced by John Hughes. The sequel to Home Alone (1990) and the second installment in the Home Alone franchise, the film stars Macaulay Culkin, Joe Pesci, Daniel Stern, John Heard, Tim Curry, Brenda Fricker and Catherine O'Hara. The story follows Kevin McCallister as he is separated from his family on their vacation to Miami, Florida and ends up in New York City. While initially enjoying his newfound experiences, Kevin soon encounters the Wet Bandits again after their escape from prison.
Hughes finished writing the film by February 1991, after signing a six-picture deal with 20th Century Fox. Culkin's return was confirmed in May and the rest of the cast was finalized soon after. Principal photography took place between December 1991 and May 1992 on location in Illinois and New York, including at the Rockefeller Center and the original World Trade Center.
Home Alone 2 was theatrically released in the United States by 20th Century Fox on November 20, 1992. It received mixed reviews from critics. However, Home Alone 2 grossed over $359 million worldwide; it became the third-highest-grossing film of 1992. Home Alone 2 is the only Home Alone sequel to feature the majority of the cast from the first film. Home Alone 3 (1997) featured a new cast and characters, and the television film Home Alone 4 (2002) recast returning characters from the first two films to new actors.
== Plot ==
In Chicago, the McCallister family prepares to spend Christmas in Miami, Florida. Kate and Peter's 10-year-old son Kevin is unhappy, believing Miami lacks the traditional Christmas atmosphere of snow and trees. During a school Christmas pageant, Kevin's oldest brother Buzz humiliates him in front of the audience. Kevin retaliates by shoving Buzz, inadvertently knocking over the entire choir and ruining the event. At home, Kevin refuses to apologize and berates his family for accepting Buzz's insincere apology and for vacationing in Miami. He storms off to the attic, wishing he could spend the holiday alone.
During the night, Peter accidentally resets his alarm clock, causing the family to oversleep. In the ensuing chaotic rush through the airport, Kevin mistakenly boards a flight to New York City while carrying Peter's bag, which contains his wallet. Initially frightened upon arrival, Kevin soon realizes he has the freedom to celebrate Christmas on his own terms. He tricks a desk clerk at the Plaza Hotel into giving him a room using Peter's credit card and explores the city. During a walk in Central Park, he is frightened by a homeless woman surrounded by pigeons. Meanwhile, the McCallisters realize Kevin is missing and alert the police after arriving in Miami.
On Christmas Eve, Kevin visits a toy store and meets its kind-hearted owner, Mr. Duncan. He learns that the store's Christmas proceeds will be donated to a children's hospital. Mr. Duncan gifts Kevin a pair of ceramic turtledoves, symbolizing eternal friendship, and encourages him to give one to someone special. Outside the store, Kevin encounters Harry and Marv—criminals he thwarted the previous Christmas—who have recently escaped from prison. They threaten Kevin, who flees back to the Plaza. When hotel staff confront him about Peter's credit card, which has been reported stolen, Kevin escapes. He is recaptured by Harry and Marv, who reveal their plan to rob the toy store, but Kevin manages to slip away.
The McCallisters travel to New York and stay at the Plaza while Kate searches the city for Kevin. Kevin takes refuge in his uncle's vacant townhouse, which is under renovation. In Central Park, he befriends the pigeon lady, who explains that her life fell apart after being betrayed by someone she loved. Kevin encourages her to trust others again and takes her advice to perform a good deed, by stopping Harry and Marv's planned robbery.
After rigging the townhouse with a series of booby traps, Kevin interrupts the robbery by throwing a brick through the toy store's window, triggering the alarm. He lures Harry and Marv to the townhouse, where they are repeatedly injured by the traps. Kevin calls the police and leads Harry and Marv to Central Park, but slips on ice and is captured. As they prepare to kill him, the pigeon lady intervenes, pelting the pair with birdseed that causes a massive flock of pigeons to attack them, before the police arrive to arrest them. Mr. Duncan later finds Kevin's apology note attached to the brick, explaining his actions.
Remembering Kevin's love of Christmas trees, Kate goes to the Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree, where she reunites with him. They apologize to each other and reconcile. On Christmas morning, a truckload of gifts from a grateful Mr. Duncan is delivered to the McCallisters' hotel room. After celebrating with his family, Kevin visits the pigeon lady in Central Park and gives her one of the turtledoves as a token of friendship.
== Cast ==
Macaulay Culkin as Kevin, a 10-year-old boy
Joe Pesci as Harry, a thief and one of the Sticky Bandits duo
Daniel Stern as Marv, a thief and the other half of the Sticky Bandits
John Heard as Peter, Kevin's father
Catherine O'Hara as Kate, Kevin's mother
Eddie Bracken as Mr. Duncan, the proprietor of Duncan's Toy Chest
Devin Ratray as Buzz, Kevin's oldest brother
Kieran Culkin as Fuller, Kevin's youngest cousin and the son of Frank and Leslie
Gerry Bamman as Uncle Frank, Kevin's uncle and Peter's older brother
Rob Schneider as Cedric the bellhop at the Plaza Hotel
Dana Ivey as the desk clerk at the Plaza Hotel
Hillary Wolf as Megan, Kevin's oldest sister
Tim Curry as Concierge / Mr. Hector, the concierge at the Plaza Hotel who is suspicious of Kevin
Brenda Fricker as Pigeon Lady, a homeless woman in Central Park
The McCallister cast also includes: Maureen Elisabeth Shay as Linnie, Kevin's older sister; Michael C. Maronna as Jeff, Kevin's older brother; Terrie Snell as Aunt Leslie, Kevin's aunt; Jedidiah Cohen as Rod, Kevin's older cousin and the older son of Rob and Georgette; Senta Moses as Tracy, Kevin's older cousin and the oldest daughter of Frank and Leslie; Daiana Campeanu as Sondra, Kevin's older cousin and the middle daughter of Frank and Leslie; and Anna Slotky as Brooke, Kevin's younger cousin and the youngest daughter of Frank and Leslie.
Other cast includes Ralph Foody as Johnny (credited as "Gangster"), a gangster from the fictional film Angels with Even Filthier Souls (the sequel to Angels with Filthy Souls from the first film); Clare Hoak as Gangster – "Dame", Johnny's girlfriend from the fictional film Angels with Even Filthier Souls; and Donald Trump as himself, owner of the Plaza Hotel who directs Kevin to the lobby.
== Production ==
In February 1991, the Los Angeles Times reported that John Hughes was to sign a six-picture deal with 20th Century Fox; among the projects was a sequel to Home Alone. In May 1991, Macaulay Culkin was paid $4.5 million plus 5 percent of the film's gross to appear in the sequel, compared to $110,000 for the original. The production budget was $28 million.
Principal photography took place from December 9, 1991, to May 1, 1992, over the course of 144 days; the film was shot in Winnetka, Illinois; O'Hare International Airport in Chicago; Evanston, Illinois; Chicago; and New York City. According to director Chris Columbus, Donald Trump, the owner of the Plaza Hotel at the time, allowed the crew to shoot scenes in the hotel lobby and one of its suites in exchange for a cameo appearance in the film in addition to the standard fee for film productions. Joe Pesci suffered burns to his head while filming the scene in which Harry's hat is set on fire.
== Music ==
John Williams returned to score Home Alone 2, as well as other festive tracks. While the film featured the first film's theme song "Somewhere in My Memory", it also contained its own theme entitled "Christmas Star" (lyrics by Leslie Bricusse). Two soundtrack albums of the film were released on November 20, 1992, with one featuring Williams's score and the other featuring pop music featured in the film. Ten years later, a 2-disc Deluxe Edition of the film score soundtrack was released by Varèse Sarabande.
=== Score ===
Original Score
Home Alone 2: Lost in New York – Original Score is a 1992 soundtrack composed and conducted by John Williams, who also scored the first installment in the franchise, and performed by the Hollywood Studio Symphony. While the soundtrack is mostly a repeat of the first film's material, there are a few new prominent themes such as "Christmas Star" and "Plaza Hotel and Duncan's Toy Store". Ultimately, the soundtrack fell out of print.
=== Soundtrack ===
Original Soundtrack Album
Home Alone 2: Lost in New York – Original Soundtrack Album is a 1992 soundtrack album that contains music from or inspired by Home Alone and Home Alone 2: Lost in New York. The album eventually was discontinued and later re-released as Home Alone Christmas in 1993 with an alternative track listing. Both versions feature tracks of John Williams's score, though the tracks are of different songs between the original album and its re-release.
Original Soundtrack Album track listing
Home Alone Christmas track listing
The Deluxe Edition
On the film's tenth anniversary, Varèse Sarabande released a two-disc special edition soundtrack entitled Home Alone 2: Lost in New York – The Deluxe Edition. The soundtrack contains John Williams's cues found on the previous releases as well as additional compositions that were left out from the final film. This release is also known for resolving a mastering error that caused the music to be inaccurately pitched.
== Release ==
=== Marketing ===
Numerous video games based on Home Alone 2 were released by THQ for such systems as the Sega Genesis, the Nintendo Entertainment System, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Game Boy and personal computers, mostly in late 1992. A separate hand-held game was released by Tiger Electronics. Numerous board games were also released, some based around play cards, while another was a close emulation of the classic Mouse Trap.
The Talkboy cassette recorder was produced as a tie-in for the movie by Tiger Electronics based on specifications provided by John Hughes and the movie studio, and sold particularly well after the film was released on home video. Additional promotional partners included American Airlines through which the McCallisters make their trip via the airline's two Boeing 767s, the Coca-Cola Company, Jack in the Box, Hardee's, and Roy Rogers Restaurants.
=== Home media ===
The film was first released by Fox Video on VHS and LaserDisc on July 27, 1993. It was later released on DVD on October 5, 1999, as a basic package. The film was released on Blu-ray on October 6, 2009, with no special features, and was released alongside Home Alone in a collection pack on October 5, 2010. The film was reissued again on DVD and Blu-ray on October 6, 2015, alongside all five Home Alone franchise films, titled Home Alone: 25th Anniversary Ultimate Collector's Christmas Edition.
== Reception ==
=== Box office ===
Home Alone 2 opened with $31.1 million from 2,222 theaters, averaging $14,009 per site. It broke the short-lived record set one week earlier by Bram Stoker's Dracula for having the largest November opening weekend. The film went on to hold this record until 1994 when it was taken by Interview with the Vampire. Additionally, it achieved the highest opening weekend for a Chris Columbus film and would hold that record until it was surpassed by Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone in 2001. It started off better than Home Alone, grossing $100 million in 24 days compared to 33 days for the original. However, the final box office gross was lower with $173.6 million in the United States and Canada and a worldwide total of $359 million, compared to $476 million for the first film. The film was released in the United Kingdom on December 11, 1992, and topped the country's box office that weekend. The film is the third-highest-grossing film released in 1992 behind The Bodyguard and Aladdin. In the United States and Canada, it grossed more than The Bodyguard and ranked second.
=== Critical response ===
==== Initial ====
On Rotten Tomatoes Home Alone 2: Lost in New York has an approval rating of 35% based on 57 reviews, with an average rating of 4.5/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "A change of venue – and more sentimentality and violence – can't obscure the fact that Home Alone 2: Lost in New York is a less inspired facsimile of its predecessor." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 46 out of 100 based on 22 critics, indicating "mixed or average" reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale, a grade lower than the "A" earned by its predecessor.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film two out of four stars and stated that "cartoon violence is only funny in cartoons. Most of the live-action attempts to duplicate animation have failed, because when flesh-and-blood figures hit the pavement, we can almost hear the bones crunch, and it isn't funny." Kenneth Turan, reviewing for the Los Angeles Times, wrote: "Whatever was unforced and funny in the first film has become exaggerated here, whatever was slightly sentimental has been laid on with a trowel. The result, with some exceptions, plays like an over-elaborate parody of the first film, reminding us why we enjoyed it without being able to duplicate its appeal." Dave Kehr of the Chicago Tribune wrote the sequel "plays like a coarsened, self-parodying version of the original, in which the fantasy elements have become grubbier and more materialistic, the sentimentality more treacly and aggressive, and the slapstick violence—already astonishingly intense in the first film—even more graphic and sadistic." Brian Lowry of Variety noted the sequel's derivativeness when compared to the original film, but wrote the "action sequences are well-choreographed, if, perhaps, too mean-spirited even in light of their cartoonish nature".
Janet Maslin for The New York Times acknowledged that "Home Alone 2 may be lazily conceived, but it is staged with a sense of occasion and a lot of holiday cheer. The return of Mr. Culkin in this role is irresistible, even if this utterly natural comic actor has been given little new to do. Mr. Pesci and Mr. Stern bring great gusto to their characters' stupidity, to the point where they are far funnier just walking and talking than they are being hurt." Reviewing for Time magazine, Richard Schickel noted "Home Alone 2 precisely follows the formula that made its predecessor the biggest grossing comedy in human history. But no, it is not a drag, and it is not a rip-off. Look on it as a twice-told fairy tale." He praised Hughes and Chris Columbus and felt "the details of the situations are developed vividly and originally. And they are presented with an energy and a conviction that sequels usually lack." Duane Byrge of The Hollywood Reporter wrote that while the "sequel is merely a superimposition of the original, kids will be delighted" by it. He further praised Culkin as "breezily winning", felt Pesci and Stern deserved combat medals, and Curry served as "a terrific foil for Kevin's pranks".
Culkin explained that he preferred the sequel more than the first film, "I got paid more. I think I own five percent of the net. And also 15 percent of the merchandising. So, if you buy a Talkboy I'm like yeah, I'll take 15 percent of that. Thank you very much."
==== Retrospective ====
During the 21st century, online reviewers have looked more favorably on the film. John Nugent of Empire, in a 2022 article entitled 'Why Home Alone 2: Lost In New York Is Better Than Home Alone', argued that the film was "a sequel that effectively also functions as a remake, a film that recognises the greatness of what came before and wisely hews as close to that winning formula as possible." Nugent also opined that "by setting the final showdown in a house undergoing renovations, the filmmakers give themselves room to be more ambitious, wild, and far more brutal" and praised the work of stunt coordinator Freddie Hice since no CGI was used. Also writing in 2022, Reid Goldberg of Collider noted: "A significant part of the film's appeal... is that it's unapologetic in taking everything they loved about the first film to a higher level."
== Novelization ==
A novelization of Home Alone 2 was written by Todd Strasser and published by Scholastic in 1992 to coincide with the film. The "point" version, which has the same storyline, was also novelized by A.L. Singer. An audiobook version was also released read by Tim Curry (who played the concierge in the film).
== Sequels ==
A third film with a new cast, Home Alone 3, followed in 1997. Two television movies, Home Alone 4, which features returning characters but with a different cast, and Home Alone: The Holiday Heist, aired in 2002 and 2012, respectively. Home Sweet Home Alone, the sixth film in the series which has Devin Ratray reprise his role as Buzz, was released on the streaming service Disney+ in 2021. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Zimmer#Grammy_Awards | Hans Zimmer#Grammy Awards | Hans Florian Zimmer (German pronunciation: [ˈhans ˈfloːʁi̯aːn ˈtsɪmɐ] ; born 12 September 1957) is a German film composer and music producer. He has received numerous accolades, including two Academy Awards, a BAFTA Award, three Golden Globe Awards, and five Grammy Awards as well as nominations for seven Emmy Awards. Zimmer was also named on the list of Top 100 Living Geniuses, published by The Daily Telegraph in 2007.
His works are notable for integrating electronic music sounds with traditional orchestral arrangements. Since the 1980s, Zimmer has composed music for over 150 films. He has won two Academy Awards for Best Original Score for The Lion King (1994), and for Dune (2021). His works include Gladiator (2000), Black Hawk Down (2001), The Last Samurai (2003), the Pirates of the Caribbean series (2006–2011), The Dark Knight trilogy (2005–2012), Inception (2010), Man of Steel (2013), Interstellar (2014), Dunkirk (2017), No Time to Die (2021), the Dune series (2021–), and F1 (2025).
Zimmer spent the early part of his career in the United Kingdom before moving to the United States. He is the head of the film music division at DreamWorks Pictures and DreamWorks Animation studios and works with other composers through the company that he founded, Remote Control Productions, formerly known as Media Ventures. His studio in Santa Monica, California, has an extensive range of computer equipment and keyboards, allowing demo versions of film scores to be created quickly.
Zimmer has collaborated with Christopher Nolan on six films starting with Batman Begins (2005). He has also worked on multiple projects with directors including Ridley Scott, Ron Howard, Gore Verbinski, Michael Bay, Guy Ritchie, Denis Villeneuve, and Tony Scott.
== Early life and education ==
Zimmer was born in Frankfurt, West Germany. As a young child, he lived in Königstein-Falkenstein, where he played the piano at home but had piano lessons only briefly, as he disliked the discipline of formal lessons. Zimmer attended the Ecole d'Humanité, an international boarding school in the Canton of Bern, Switzerland. He moved to London as a teenager and attended Hurtwood House school. During his childhood, he was strongly influenced by the film scores of Ennio Morricone and has cited Once Upon a Time in the West as the score that inspired him to become a film composer.
In a speech at the 1999 Berlin Film Festival, Zimmer stated that he is Jewish, and talked about his mother surviving World War II thanks to her escape from Germany to the UK in 1939. In an interview in May 2014, Zimmer revealed that it was difficult growing up in post-War Germany being Jewish and said, "I think my parents were always wary of me telling the neighbors."
In an interview with Mashable in February 2013, he said of his parents: "My mother was very musical, basically a musician and my father was an engineer and an inventor. So I grew up modifying the piano, shall we say, which made my mother gasp in horror, and my father would think it was fantastic when I would attach chainsaws and stuff like that to the piano because he thought it was an evolution in technology." In an interview with the German television station ZDF in 2006, he said: "My father died when I was just a child, and I escaped somehow into the music and music has been my best friend."
== Career ==
=== 1970s and 1980s ===
Zimmer began his career playing keyboards and synthesizers in the 1970s, with the band Krakatoa. He worked with the Buggles, a new wave band formed in London in 1977 with Trevor Horn, Geoff Downes and Bruce Woolley. Zimmer can be seen briefly in the Buggles' music video for the 1979 song "Video Killed the Radio Star". After working with the Buggles, he started to work for the Italian group Krisma, a new wave band formed in 1976 with Maurizio Arcieri and Christina Moser. He was a featured synthesist for Krisma's third album, Cathode Mamma. He has also worked with the band Helden (with Warren Cann from Ultravox).
In 1984, both Zimmer (on keyboards) and Cann (on drums), were invited to be part of the Spanish group Mecano for a live performance in Segovia (Spain). Two songs from this concert were included in the Mecano: En Concierto album released in 1985 only in Spain. In 1985, he contributed to the Shriekback album Oil and Gold. In 1980, Zimmer co-produced a single, "History of the World, Part 1", with, and for, UK punk band The Damned, which was also included on their 1980 LP release, The Black Album, and carried the description of his efforts as "Over-Produced by Hans Zimmer."
While living in London, Zimmer wrote advertising jingles for Air-Edel Associates. In the 1980s, Zimmer partnered with Stanley Myers, a prolific film composer who wrote the scores for over sixty films. Zimmer and Myers co–founded the London–based Lillie Yard recording studio. Together, Myers and Zimmer worked on fusing the traditional orchestral sound with electronic instruments. Some of the films on which Zimmer and Myers worked are Moonlighting (1982), Success Is the Best Revenge (1984), Insignificance (1985), and My Beautiful Laundrette (1985). Zimmer's first solo score was Terminal Exposure for director Nico Mastorakis in 1987, for which he also wrote the songs. Zimmer acted as score producer for the 1987 film The Last Emperor, which won the Academy Award for Best Original Score.
One of Zimmer's most durable works from his time in the United Kingdom was the theme song for the television game show Going for Gold, which he composed with Sandy McClelland in 1987. In an interview with the BBC, Zimmer said: "Going for Gold was a lot of fun. It's the sort of stuff you do when you don't have a career yet. God, I just felt so lucky because this thing paid my rent for the longest time."
A turning point in Zimmer's career occurred with the 1988 film Rain Man. Hollywood director Barry Levinson was looking for someone to score Rain Man, and his wife heard the soundtrack CD of the anti-apartheid drama A World Apart, for which Zimmer had composed the music. Levinson was impressed by Zimmer's work and hired him to score Rain Man. In the score, Zimmer uses synthesizers, mostly a Fairlight CMI, mixed with steel drums. Zimmer explained that "It was a road movie, and road movies usually have jangly guitars or a bunch of strings. I kept thinking don't be bigger than the characters. Try to keep it contained. The Raymond character doesn't actually know where he is. The world is so different to him. He might as well be on Mars. So, why don't we just invent our own world music for a world that doesn't really exist?" Zimmer's score for Rain Man was nominated for an Academy Award in 1989, and the film won four Academy Awards including Best Picture.
A year after Rain Man, Zimmer was asked to compose the score for Bruce Beresford's Driving Miss Daisy which, like Rain Man, won an Academy Award for Best Picture. Driving Miss Daisy's instrumentation consisted entirely of synthesizers and samplers, played by Zimmer. According to an interview with Sound on Sound magazine in 2002, the piano sounds heard within the score come from the Roland MKS–20, a rackmount synthesizer. Zimmer joked: "It didn't sound anything like a piano, but it behaved like a piano."
=== 1990s and 2000s ===
The soundtrack to Ridley Scott's 1991 film Thelma & Louise by Zimmer featured the trademark slide guitar performance by Pete Haycock on the "Thunderbird" theme in the film. As a teenager, Zimmer was a fan of Haycock, and their collaboration on film scores includes K2 and Drop Zone. Zimmer wrote the theme for Tony Scott's 1993 film True Romance, which he based on Carl Orff's Gassenhauer. Gassenhauer had previously been used in the 1973 film Badlands, which had a similar story of a young man and a girl on the run following a violent crime. The catchy theme, played on nine marimbas, contrasts starkly with the violence of the film.
For the 1992 film The Power of One, Zimmer travelled to Africa in order to use African choirs and drums in the recording of the score. On the strength of this work, Walt Disney Animation Studios approached Zimmer to compose the score for the 1994 film The Lion King. This was to be his first score for an animated film. Zimmer said that he had wanted to go to South Africa to record parts of the soundtrack, but was unable to visit the country as he had a police record there "for doing 'subversive' movies" after his work on The Power of One. Disney studio bosses expressed fears that Zimmer would be killed if he went to South Africa, so the recording of the choirs was organised during a visit by Lebo M. Zimmer won numerous awards for his work on The Lion King, including an Academy Award for Best Original Score, a Golden Globe, and two Grammys. In 1997, the score was adapted into a Broadway musical version which won the Tony Award for Best Musical in 1998. As of April 2012, the musical version of The Lion King is the highest grossing Broadway show of all time, having grossed $853.8 million.
Zimmer's score for Tony Scott's 1995 film Crimson Tide won a Grammy Award for the main theme, which makes heavy use of synthesizers in place of traditional orchestral instruments. For The Thin Red Line (1998), Zimmer said that the director Terrence Malick wanted the music before he started filming, so he recorded six and a half hours of music. Zimmer's next project was The Prince of Egypt (1998), which was produced by DreamWorks Animation. He introduced Ofra Haza, an Israeli Yemenite singer, to the directors, and they thought she was so beautiful that they designed one of the characters in the film to look like her. Zimmer's score for the 1998 film The Thin Red Line is regarded as one of his most important works. The nine-minute cue at the climax of the film, "The Journey to the Line", uses a recurring theme based on four chords, combined with a "ticking clock" motif that has been featured in a range of subsequent scores composed by Zimmer. The piece has been used in numerous trailers and video games, and has earned the nickname "the forbidden cue" due to the tendency of film makers to use it as a temp track for dramatic scenes.
In the 2000s, Zimmer composed scores for Hollywood blockbuster films including three Ridley Scott films, Gladiator (2000), Black Hawk Down and Hannibal (2001), followed by The Last Samurai (2003), Madagascar (2005), The Da Vinci Code (2006), The Simpsons Movie (2007), Kung Fu Panda (2008), which he co-composed with John Powell, Angels & Demons (2009), and Sherlock Holmes (2009). Other work in the 2000s included the Spanish language film Casi Divas, and The Burning Plain (2009). He composed the theme for the television boxing series The Contender and worked with Lorne Balfe on the music for Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2, which was his first video game project. Zimmer also collaborated with composers Borislav Slavov and Tilman Sillescu to create the music score for the video game Crysis 2.
In October 2000, Zimmer performed live in concert for the first time with an orchestra and choir at the 27th Annual Flanders International Film Festival in Ghent. While writing the score for The Last Samurai, Zimmer felt that his knowledge of Japanese music was extremely limited. He began doing extensive research, but the more he studied, the less he felt he knew. Zimmer took what he had written to Japan for feedback and was shocked when he was asked how he knew so much about Japanese music.
During the scoring of The Last Samurai in early 2003, Zimmer was approached by the producer Jerry Bruckheimer, with whom he had worked previously on Crimson Tide, Days of Thunder, The Rock, and Pearl Harbor. Bruckheimer had finished shooting Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl but was unhappy with the music composed for the film by Alan Silvestri and wanted a replacement score. Bruckheimer wanted Zimmer to rescore the film, but due to his commitments on The Last Samurai, the task of composing and supervising music for Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl was given to Klaus Badelt, one of Zimmer's colleagues at Media Ventures. Zimmer provided some themes that were used in the film, although he is not credited on screen. Zimmer was hired as the composer for the three subsequent films in the series, Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest (2006), Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End (2007), and Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides (2011), collaborating with Rodrigo y Gabriela for the last.
Zimmer is noted for his work on the scores of Christopher Nolan's Batman Begins (2005) and The Dark Knight (2008), which he co-composed with James Newton Howard. For the soundtrack of The Dark Knight, Zimmer decided to represent the villain of the Joker by a single note played on the cello by his long-time colleague Martin Tillman. Zimmer said: "I wanted to write something people would truly hate." The scores for these films were disqualified from receiving Academy Award nominations for Best Original Score due to too many composers being listed on the cue sheet. Zimmer succeeded in reversing the decision not to nominate The Dark Knight in December 2008, arguing that the process of creating a modern film score was collaborative and that it was important to credit a range of people who had played a part in its production. Zimmer explained his approach to scoring with other musicians in an interview with Soundtrack.net in 2006:
Originally I had this idea that it should be possible to create some kind of community around this kind of work, and I think by muddying the titles – not having "you are the composer, you are the arranger, you are the orchestrator" – it just sort of helped us to work more collaboratively. It wasn't that important to me that I had "score by Hans Zimmer" and took sole credit on these things. It's like Gladiator: I gave Lisa Gerrard the co-credit because, even though she didn't write the main theme, her presence and contributions were very influential. She was more than just a soloist, and this is why I have such a problem with specific credits.
For the 2009 film Sherlock Holmes, Daily Variety reported that Zimmer purchased an out-of-tune piano for 200 dollars and used it throughout the scoring process because of its "quirkiness". For the 2011 sequel, Sherlock Holmes: A Game of Shadows, Zimmer and director Guy Ritchie incorporated authentic Romani music, which they researched by visiting Slovakia, Italy, and France. The music in the film is played by Romani musicians.
=== 2010s ===
For the 2010 film Inception, Zimmer used electronic manipulation of the song "Non, je ne regrette rien". The horn sound in the score, described by Zimmer as "like huge foghorns over a city" became a popular feature in film trailers. "It's funny how that sort of thing becomes part of the zeitgeist", he said. "But I suppose that's exactly what trailers are looking for: something iconic, lasts less than a second, and shakes the seats in the theater."
In 2012, Zimmer composed and produced the music for the 84th Academy Awards with Pharrell Williams of The Neptunes. He also composed a new version of the theme music for ABC World News. Zimmer composed the score for The Dark Knight Rises, the final instalment of Christopher Nolan's The Dark Knight Trilogy. The film was released in July 2012. Zimmer described himself as "devastated" in the aftermath of the 2012 Aurora, Colorado shooting, which occurred at a screening of The Dark Knight Rises: "I just feel so incredibly sad for these people." He recorded a track entitled "Aurora", a choral arrangement of a theme from the Dark Knight Rises soundtrack, to raise money for the victims of the shooting.
Zimmer co-composed the music for the television series The Bible, which was broadcast in March 2013, with Lorne Balfe and Lisa Gerrard, and the score for 12 Years a Slave, which won the Academy Award for Best Picture in March 2014. Zimmer composed the Tomorrowland Hymn for the Tomorrowland festival to celebrate its tenth anniversary in July 2014. Zimmer composed the music for the 2014 film The Amazing Spider-Man 2 alongside "The Magnificent Six", which consisted of Pharrell Williams, Johnny Marr, Michael Einziger, Junkie XL, Andrew Kawczynski, and Steve Mazzaro.
Zimmer composed the music for Christopher Nolan's 2014 film Interstellar, which earned him another Academy Award nomination for Best Original Score. He collaborated with Junkie XL to compose the music for the 2016 film Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. In an interview with BBC News in March 2016, Zimmer said that he was retiring from composing the music for superhero films, saying of Batman v Superman: "This one was very hard for me to do, to try to find new language".
Zimmer composed the main theme for the 2016 BBC nature documentary Planet Earth II, presented by David Attenborough. He later composed the score for the 2017 BBC nature documentary Blue Planet II alongside Jacob Shea and David Fleming, also presented by David Attenborough. In an interview with Kirsty Wark on BBC Radio, Zimmer said in October 2022: "I think the only work that I've done that's worth anything is working for Sir David Attenborough on those programmes, because it's the only thing that actually means something to this world and ultimately might have an impact on how we approach this world." Zimmer composed the main theme for the 2016 Netflix production The Crown. Also in 2016 Zimmer released an online course teaching the basics of film scoring. He next composed the score for Christopher Nolan's 2017 film Dunkirk, basing part of the score on a recording of a ticking watch that he had been given by Nolan. Zimmer also worked on the score for Denis Villeneuve's Blade Runner 2049. Hans Zimmer and co-composer Benjamin Wallfisch took over scoring duties after Jóhann Jóhannsson left the project.
In 2018, Zimmer composed the score for the new FIFA Anthem, called "Living Football" in reference to the new motto of FIFA, "Living Football" was also used as television intro theme for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia. Also in 2018, Zimmer remixed the UEFA Champions League Anthem with rapper Vince Staples for EA Sports' FIFA video game FIFA 19, with it also featuring in the game's reveal trailer. Zimmer composed the score for Dark Phoenix, directed by Simon Kinberg, contrary to his 2016 statements of not scoring another superhero film following his experience working on Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice. In 2019, he scored the photorealistic animated remake of Disney's The Lion King, directed by Jon Favreau. In August 2018, Zimmer was announced as the composer for Wonder Woman 1984. In March 2019, it was announced that Zimmer would be scoring Denis Villeneuve's Dune. In June 2019, Zimmer was hired to create sounds for BMW's concept vehicle, the Vision M Next. He produced and composed warning sounds for the electric car line. These sounds are both for those on the interior and on the exterior, and could help warn pedestrians that an electric car is approaching.
=== 2020s ===
On 6 January 2020, Zimmer took over as composer for the James Bond film No Time to Die after previous composer Dan Romer left the project. Speaking on scoring for No Time to Die, Zimmer told The Hindu, "Having done the three Batman movies—which are three movies to you but are 12 years of my life to me—I really understand where Daniel [Craig] was with this; he dedicated 16 years of his life to Bond... I wanted to not only do a good score but dig a little deeper and honour the man, the work and all the people who've been working on this for so long". On 26 February 2020, Major League Soccer released an anthem for its 25th season, which was composed by Zimmer. In March 2020, Zimmer composed the score for Hillbilly Elegy.
In 2022, he collaborated with Camila Cabello on the song "Take Me Back Home" for the documentary series Frozen Planet II. Aurora also worked with Zimmer, contributing vocals to the series' soundtrack and performing "Take Me Back Home" alongside Zimmer at the Royal Albert Hall during the BBC's Earth Proms. Zimmer worked on the 2022 film Top Gun: Maverick, contributing to the main title credits and other tracks.
Zimmer composed the score for the film Dune (2021), which earned him his second Academy Award for Best Original Score. The film's music was released in several different volumes. He composed the score for the sequel, released in 2024. Both films heavily featured the use of the Armenian duduk. As of 2024, Zimmer has begun writing music for a third Dune film while Villeneuve has started on the film's script. In 2025, Zimmer scored F1, a sports film starring Brad Pitt and directed by Joseph Kosinski.
In 2025, Zimmer was announced as one of three composers for Zack Snyder’s upcoming film The Last Photograph, collaborating with Omer Benyamin and Steven Doar on the project's score. Zimmer said that he had turned down multiple offers to compose for films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, explaining that he was "looking for other things" and that scheduling played a role in his decision.
== Personal life ==
Zimmer's first wife was model Vicki Carolin, with whom he has a daughter. The couple divorced in 1992. On 3 April 2020, Zimmer filed for divorce from his second wife, Suzanne Zimmer, whom he married in 1995 and with whom he had three children. On 15 June 2023, Zimmer proposed to his partner Dina De Luca on stage at London's O2 Arena during one of his shows.
== Awards and honours ==
Zimmer has received a range of honours and awards, including the Max Steiner Film Music Achievement Award at Hollywood in Vienna in 2018, the Career Achievement Award "for excellence in film music composition" from the National Board of Review in 2003, the Frederick Loewe Award for Film Composing at the Palm Springs International Film Festival in 2003, the ASCAP Henry Mancini Award in 2003, and the Richard Kirk Career Achievement Award from the BMI Film Music Awards in 1996.
In December 2010, Zimmer received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. He dedicated the award to his publicist and long-term friend Ronni Chasen, who had been shot and killed in Beverly Hills the previous month.
In June 2016, Zimmer was one of the inaugural winners of the Stephen Hawking Medal for Science Communication.
In November 2017, a main-belt asteroid—(495253) 2013 OC8—discovered by Polish astronomers Michał Kusiak and Michał Żołnowski, was named "Hanszimmer".
As of 2022, Zimmer has received twelve Academy Award nominations for his work, with two wins; the first being at the 67th Academy Awards for the 1994 film The Lion King and the second being for the 2021 film Dune at the 94th Academy Awards.
On 2 October 2018, Zimmer received the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany.
In 2019, Zimmer was inducted as a Disney Legend. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_NBA_draft | 2021 NBA draft | The 2021 NBA draft, the 75th edition of the National Basketball Association's annual draft, was held on July 29, 2021, at Barclays Center in Brooklyn, New York. The NBA draft returned to Brooklyn after the previous year's draft was held through videoconferencing at ESPN Studios in Bristol, Connecticut due to the COVID-19 pandemic. With the first overall pick, the Detroit Pistons selected Cade Cunningham. The NBA used a "ceremonial pick" for the late Terrence Clarke, between the 14th and 15th pick of the draft.
== Draft picks ==
== Notable undrafted players ==
These players were not selected in the 2021 NBA draft, but have played at least one game in the NBA.
== Trades involving draft picks ==
=== Pre-draft trades ===
Prior to the draft, the following trades were made and resulted in exchanges of draft picks between teams.
=== Draft-night trades ===
Draft-night trades were made after the draft began. These trades are usually not confirmed until the next day or after free agency officially begins.
== Combine ==
Prior to the NBA Draft Combine, the 2021 NBA G League Elite Camp, which took place on June 19–21 at the Wintrust Arena and Marriott Marquis in Chicago, provided another chance for players not originally invited to the combine to impress scouts. The best performers from this camp were given invites to the main combine.
The NBA Draft Combine was held on June 21–27 at the same site sponsored by Microsoft. A total of 69 players attended the NBA Draft Combine 2021, with these players undergoing a series of interviews, five-on-five games, drills, and measurements. Lottery-projected pick Keon Johnson broke the combine's vertical leap record of 45.5 in (1.16 m), set by Kenny Gregory in 2001, with a vertical leap of 48 in (1.2 m). The combine also featured some recent graduates of the inaugural NBA G League Ignite team, which is a developmental basketball program meant to provide prospects with a paid alternative to playing NCAA college basketball. The success of these players, Jalen Green, Jonathan Kuminga, Daishen Nix, and Isaiah Todd, may pave the way for more top prospects to participate in the G League system pre-draft.
Projected top picks who decided not to attend the NBA Draft Combine include potential No. 1 pick Cade Cunningham and likely top-four pick Jalen Suggs. Numerous other potential prospects, especially those playing overseas, also decided to skip the Combine.
== Draft lottery ==
The NBA draft lottery was held on June 22. It was also televised nationally on ESPN.
Notes:
== Eligibility and entrants ==
The draft is conducted under the eligibility rules established in the league's 2017 collective bargaining agreement (CBA) with its players' union, with special modifications agreed to by both parties due to disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. The previous CBA that ended the 2011 lockout instituted no immediate changes to the draft. but called for a committee of owners and players to discuss further charges.
All drafted players must be at least 19 years old during the calendar year of the draft. In term of dates, players who were eligible for the 2021 NBA draft must have been born on or before December 31, 2002.
This draft could have possibly been the last in which high school players of any nationality are ineligible for pick after graduation as the two associations sought at first to lower the minimum age back to 18 and end the need to wait one year after their high school class graduated, also called the "one and done" requirement, ahead of next year's edition, as discussed in 2019. If approved, the current CBA may have to be amended and the amendment ratified. However, the ineligibility for the draft shortly after high school remained in place, as reported in 2020, unless there were further discussions about its repeal.
Since the 2016 draft, the following rules are, as implemented by the NCAA Division I council for that division:
Declaration for the draft no longer results in automatic loss of college eligibility. As long as a player does not sign a contract with a professional team outside the NBA, or sign with an agent, he retains college eligibility as long as he makes a timely withdrawal from the draft.
NCAA players now have 10 days after the end of the NBA Draft Combine to withdraw from the draft. Since the combine is normally held in mid-May, the current deadline is about five weeks after the previous mid-April deadline.
NCAA players may participate in the draft combine, and are allowed to attend one tryout per year with each NBA team without losing college eligibility.
NCAA players may now enter and withdraw from the draft up to two times without loss of eligibility. Previously, the NCAA treated a second declaration of draft eligibility as a permanent loss of college eligibility.
The NBA announced on February 26, 2021, that for this draft only, all college players who wished to enter the draft, regardless of class, had to formally declare eligibility. In October 2020, COVID-19 led the NCAA to declare that the 2020–21 season would not be counted against the college eligibility of any basketball player. The exact language of the CBA with regard to automatic eligibility of college seniors is "The player has graduated from a four-year college or university in the United States, and has no remaining intercollegiate basketball eligibility." Due to the NCAA ruling, every college senior in the 2020–21 season had remaining eligibility. The league was required to consult with the players' union and the NCAA to determine whether it would require seniors to opt out of the draft (which was implemented by the NFL for its 2021 draft, affected by a similar NCAA ruling for football) or require opt-ins, with the latter option being chosen.
=== Early entrants ===
Players who were not automatically eligible had to declare their eligibility for the draft by notifying the NBA offices in writing no later than at least 60 days before the event. For the 2021 draft, the date fell on May 30. Under the CBA a player may withdraw his name from consideration from the draft at any time before the final declaration deadline, which usually falls 10 days before the draft at 5:00 pm EDT (2100 UTC). Under current NCAA rules, players usually have until 10 days after the draft combine to withdraw from the draft and retain college eligibility. They must have withdrawn on or before July 7, 22 days prior to this draft.
A player who has hired an agent retains his remaining college eligibility regardless of whether he is drafted after an evaluation from the NBA Undergraduate Advisory Committee. Players who declare for the NBA draft and are not selected have the opportunity to return to their school for at least another year only after terminating all agreements with their agents, who must have been certified no later than August 1, 2020.
The NBA released its official list of early entrants on June 2, 2021, consisting of 296 players from college and other educational institutions and 57 international players. The current version of the list found in this article omits players who withdrew from the draft after June 2.
==== College underclassmen ====
Terrence Clarke, a freshman guard from Kentucky, declared for the draft, but died on April 22, three months before it. At the draft, the NBA honored him with an honorary selection.
==== College seniors ====
"Redshirt" refers to players who were redshirt seniors in the 2020–21 season. "Graduate" refers to players who were graduate transfers in 2020–21.
==== International players ====
International players that declared for this draft and did not previously declare in another prior draft could drop out 10 days before the event, on July 19. A total of 51 international players withdrew their names from consideration for the draft, with only the following eight prospects remaining after the international deadline.
Juhann Begarin – G, Paris Basketball (France)
Vrenz Bleijenbergh – F, Antwerp Giants (Belgium)
Biram Faye – C, Bàsquet Girona (Spain)
Usman Garuba – F, Real Madrid (Spain)
Josh Giddey – G, Adelaide 36ers (Australia)
Rokas Jokubaitis – G, Žalgiris Kaunas (Lithuania)
Alperen Şengün – C, Beşiktaş Icrypex (Turkey)
Amar Sylla – C, Filou Oostende (Belgium)
=== Automatically eligible entrants ===
Players who do not meet the criteria for "international" players are automatically eligible if they meet any of the following criteria:
They have no remaining college eligibility.
If they graduated from high school in the U.S., but did not enroll in a U.S. college or university, four years have passed since their high school class graduated.
They have signed a contract with a professional basketball team not in the NBA, anywhere in the world, and have played under the contract.
As noted above, the NCAA's COVID-19 eligibility waiver for 2020–21 resulted in all college seniors having remaining eligibility, leading to the NBA and its players' union agreeing that seniors would have to declare for the 2021 draft.
Players who meet the criteria for "international" players are automatically eligible if they meet any of the following criteria:
They are at least 22 years old during the calendar year of the draft. In term of dates players born on or before December 31, 1999, were automatically eligible for the 2021 draft.
They have signed a contract with a professional basketball team not in the NBA within the United States, and have played under that contract.
== Invited attendees ==
After previously not having a proper "green room" invitation process for the 2020 NBA draft due to the COVID-19 pandemic (with players instead being conducted interviews and showings through videotelephony), the NBA allowed for invites to attend the NBA draft event once again this season. The NBA usually annually invites players to sit in the so-called "green room", a special room set aside at the draft site for the invited players plus their families and agents, with 2020 being considered an exception due to the unprecedented nature of COVID-19 impacting the world at the time. This year, a reported 20 players were invited (listed alphabetically). |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williams_sisters_rivalry | Williams sisters rivalry | The Williams sisters rivalry was a tennis rivalry between sisters Venus Williams (born June 17, 1980) and Serena Williams (born September 26, 1981). They were coached by their father, Richard Williams, whose tennis knowledge came from reading books and watching professional matches. Venus and Serena are regarded as two of the greatest tennis players of all time. They met 31 times in professional tournaments between 1998 and 2020, with Serena leading their overall head-to-head 19–12, as well as 9–3 in finals, 11–5 at the majors, and 7–2 in major finals.
Both sisters have been ranked world No. 1 in singles: Venus for a total of 11 weeks, between 25 February 2002 and 7 July 2002. The next day, 8 July 2002, Serena would replace her sister at No. 1 and remain there for 57 consecutive weeks, until 10 August 2003. In all, Serena held the No. 1 ranking for a total of 319 weeks, joining Steffi Graf (377) and Martina Navratilova (332) as the only women to hold it for over 300 weeks. Venus has won 49 singles titles from 83 finals, and Serena won 73 titles from 98 finals, throughout their respective careers which spanned three decades.
The Williams sisters became the first two players in the Open Era, female or male, to contest four consecutive major finals: from the 2002 French Open to the 2003 Australian Open. Serena won all four of these finals. Serena and Venus remain the only women's pair to accomplish the feat, and did so at only 20 and 21 years old, respectively.
While the Williams sisters excelled at all four majors, their successes on the grass courts of Wimbledon were the greatest. One of Venus and Serena was in all but one Wimbledon singles finals in the 2000s, and they won eight of those finals. From 2000 to 2019, a span of 20 years, a Williams sister was in the singles final in all but four years. In the end, they would each have four runner-up finishes, and Venus would claim five Wimbledon crowns, while Serena owned seven, combining for 20 Wimbledon finals and a dozen Wimbledon trophies.
The sisters are nonetheless personally very close. Playing doubles together, they won 22 titles, including 14 majors from 14 finals, and three Olympic gold medals.
== History ==
=== 1998–2000 ===
Serena and Venus Williams played their first professional match against each other in the second round of the 1998 Australian Open. Venus won 7–6(4), 6–1. The match was described as "subpar". They played again in the quarterfinals of the Italian Open, the first clay court tournament of Serena's career, which Venus won 6–4, 6–2. Together they won two doubles titles.
Their next match was almost a year later in the final of the 1999 Lipton International Players Championships in Key Biscayne, Florida. Serena was coming off her first two tournament titles, but Venus won the match 6–1, 4–6, 6–4. The match was the first singles final between sisters on the WTA tour and was described by their father as a "bullfight". Serena won her first professional singles match against Venus later that year in the final of the Grand Slam Cup. Serena was coming off her first Grand Slam championship at the US Open and defeated her elder sister, and defending champion, 6–1, 3–6, 6–3. Venus was the only top player up to this point that Serena had not yet defeated. Together, they won three doubles titles, two of them being majors: the French Open and the U.S. Open.
Entering their next match in the semifinals of Wimbledon in 2000 (their first match against each other on grass), Serena was the favorite. However, the victory went to Venus 6–2, 7–6(3), who would go on to win the Wimbledon trophy for her first Grand Slam singles title. They teamed up to win the Wimbledon doubles title and later the Olympic gold medal. Venus's career advantage now stood at 4–1.
=== 2001 ===
They started out the year by winning the Australian Open doubles title.
In the spring at the Tennis Masters Series in Indian Wells, California, amid controversy Venus withdrew before her scheduled semifinal match against Serena. The Williams family was accused of match-fixing, but the accusation was dismissed by most, including Andre Agassi who called it "ridiculous". Serena won the final against Kim Clijsters amid boos, during both the match and the subsequent trophy presentation.
The only match between the Williams sisters during 2001 occurred in the final of the US Open, where they had never met but where both had previously won singles titles. This was the first final involving sisters at a Grand Slam tournament during the open era and the first since the Watson sisters played in the 1884 Wimbledon final. This match has been described as arguably "the most-anticipated tennis final in years". However, nerves seem to have played a factor in the match, which was won easily by Venus 6–2, 6–4. With the victory, Venus now led their rivalry 5–1 and in Grand Slam singles titles 4–1.
=== 2002 ===
Venus and Serena would play each other four times in 2002. In addition to being the most times they had met in a single year, this would also mark the first time that Serena would end the season with a leading head-to-head, 4–0.
Their first meeting of the year occurred in the semifinals at the NASDAQ-100 Open. Serena won the match 6–2, 6–2, only the second victory over her sister in her career and the first since 1999. Venus's loss was described as "listless" and it ended her streak of 22 consecutive matches and three consecutive titles at the event.
Their next meeting was their second in a Grand Slam final, and their second on clay courts. At Roland Garros Serena beat Venus in a "tight" match 7–5, 6–3. The Grand Slam was the first for Serena in three years, and it was the first final at the French Open ever played by sisters. By reaching the final, Venus and Serena assured themselves of moving up to first and second in the world rankings, respectively.
One month later, the Williams sisters again met in a Grand Slam final, at Wimbledon. Again, Serena was the victor 7–6(4), 6–3 and the win moved Serena past her sister to the top of the rankings. Venus still led 5–4 in their head-to-head and 4–3 in Grand Slams, but it was now Serena who was seen as the player "now setting the agenda for women's tennis". They won the doubles title together.
Their fourth and last match of the year occurred in the final at the US Open, in a match where the victor would take not only the trophy but the No.1 ranking as well. Serena won the match 6–4, 6–3 with a "blistering" display of tennis.
=== 2003 ===
2003 would be a year of injuries and loss for Venus and Serena Williams, with the two highlights being the Australian Open and Wimbledon finals.
The first match of 2003 contested between the Williams sisters was the first final between the two players at the Australian Open but the fourth consecutive at the majors. Serena won the match 7–6(4), 3–6, 6–4, the closest contested match between them since 1999. The win completed what has become popularly known as the "Serena Slam"; Serena Williams became the first player since Steffi Graf to hold all four Grand Slams at the same time. In addition Venus Williams became the first player since Martina Hingis in 1997 to make four consecutive Grand Slam finals, and the sisters together became the first players in the open era to contest four consecutive finals at the majors. Together they won the doubles title.
This consistent play at recent Grand Slams led some to remark that the Williams sisters had a stranglehold on women's tennis.
The Williams sisters next met in the 2003 Wimbledon final, a repeat of the 2002 final in the same tournament. Again the match was close but Serena, aided by an abdominal injury that negatively impacted Venus's speed, won 4–6, 6–4, 6–2. The win was the second consecutive at Wimbledon for Serena and her fifth out the last six. Additionally, the Williams sisters collectively had now won the last four Wimbledon titles and seven of the last nine Grand Slams. Serena Williams had now won their last six consecutive meetings, and led the head-to-head 7–5.
The Wimbledon final was the last Grand Slam final contested between the two for five years. Both sisters would be knocked off the tour by injuries, and then have to contend with the death of Yetunde Price, their half sister.
=== 2004–2005 ===
Venus and Serena Williams did not meet in a professional tennis match during 2004, a year which saw neither sister win a Grand Slam for the first time since 1998. 2005 would be a return to Grand Slam victory for both of the Williams sisters, but in perhaps a sign of the increased competition neither of their championships were decided against each other.
Their first match of 2005 was due in the quarterfinals of the NASDAQ-100 Open, their third career meeting at the tournament. The match was won by Venus Williams 6–1, 7–6(8); it was the first meeting outside of a final between the two in three years and was the first win by the elder Williams sister in four years.
The Williams sisters next met on one of the largest stages in tennis, the US Open, though much earlier in the tournament than they were accustomed to. Venus, as the recent Wimbledon champion and after three "magnificent efforts" to reach this round was perhaps favored in a Williams head-to-head for the first time in a few years. In the fourth round (their earliest meeting in a Grand Slam since their very first at the 1998 Australian Open) Venus Williams won 7–6(5), 6–2. Venus would lose in the quarterfinals 4–6, 7–5, 6–1 to eventual champion Kim Clijsters, the first time since the 1998 Rome meeting that the winner of a Williams sisters match-up did not win the title.
At the close of the year, after the first year since 2000 in which Serena was unable to win a match against her older sister, Venus Williams had now tied the head-to-head 7–7.
=== 2008–2009 ===
The first meeting in 2008 between the sisters occurred at the Canara Bank Bangalore Open, their first meeting in a Tier II event. The only match between the sisters to end in a third-set tiebreak, both Venus and Serena were, according to commentator and former player Tracy Austin "busting a gut to win". The match end in a 6–3, 3–6, 7–6(4) victory for Serena.
Venus and Serena next met on a familiar stage, Wimbledon; the match was their fourth meeting on the grass courts and their third final. The match featured "big hitting and big serving" as well as "some wonderful defense and court coverage". Testament to the fact that this was arguably the best Williams sisters match to date, former player and commentator John McEnroe has called the match "borderline classic". Venus won the match 7–5, 6–4. They teamed up to win the doubles title and later a second Olympic Gold Medal together.
At the US Open, fourth seeded Serena defeated seventh seeded Venus in the quarterfinals 7–6(6), 7–6(7) and eventually won the tournament. Tennis Magazine proclaimed the match the best women's singles match of 2008. The final match-up of the year between the Williams sisters was during the round robin phase of the year-ending Sony Ericsson Championships, with Venus winning 5–7, 6–1, 6–0. This was the first 6–0 set in their matchups.
At the end of 2008, their career head-to-head record was tied 9–9.
The Williams' first match of year 2009 was at the Barclays Dubai Tennis Championships, where they met in the semifinals. In a match that was described as a "thriller" by CNN, Venus prevailed 6–1, 2–6, 7–6(3). Serena was dogged by a knee injury in the third set, but did not excuse herself because of this, and Venus said that the match had been worthy of a final. Simon Reed, writing for Eurosport, said that the rivalry had become "greater now than it ever has been" in the previous three or four matches, due to the increased emotional intensity that the matches appeared to stir up in the players, which he believed had been lacking in the earlier part of their careers. Venus and Serena next played in the semifinals of the Sony Ericsson Open in April. Serena won the match 6–4, 3–6, 6–3, temporarily secured her World No. 1 ranking, and tied their head-to-head record at ten wins apiece. The two reached the final of the 2009 Wimbledon Championships for both singles and doubles. Serena won the singles title for the first time in six years, beating Venus 7–6(3), 6–2. They met for the fourth time in the year during the round robin phase of the year-ending 2009 Sony Ericsson Championships, with Serena winning 5–7, 6–4, 7–6(4) saving match point. They met again in the final of the tournament with Serena winning again by a score of 6–2, 7–6(4). The head-to-head now stood at 13–10 in favor of Serena, who has also won the last four meetings.
=== 2013–2015 ===
Due to a mixture of injury and illness, the pair did not face each other again until the 2013 Family Circle Cup. It was their first matchup on clay since the 2002 French Open final. Serena won her fifth consecutive match against Venus. Venus and Serena's 25th encounter came in the semi-finals of the 2014 Rogers Cup. Serena went into the match with a five consecutive match winning streak against her older sister. However, Venus won the match 6(2)–7, 6–2, 6–3, making the sisters' head-to-head record at 14–11 in favor of Serena. Venus increased her Premier Mandatory/Premier 5 record against Serena to 5–2 and her semi-final record against her sister to 3–4.
After a period of six years, the pair met in the fourth round of Wimbledon in 2015 – their first meeting in a grand slam event since Wimbledon 2009. It was the pair's sixth meeting at Wimbledon. Serena won the match by a score of 6–4, 6–3, making the sisters' head-to-head record 15–11 in Serena's favor and 4–2 in Wimbledon again in favor of Serena. They met again in the quarterfinals of the US Open, where Serena won, taking the head-to-head to 16–11 in her favor.
=== 2017 ===
The sisters renewed their grand slam rivalry in the Australian Open final. Serena won her seventh Australian Open title, and 23rd Grand Slam title overall, defeating Venus 6–4, 6–4. The win also allowed Serena to pass Steffi Graf's 22 grand slam singles titles.
=== 2018 ===
Venus and Serena met twice during 2018. They met in the third round of the BNP Paribas Open (Indian Wells). Venus won the encounter 6–3, 6–4. They met for the second time in the year in the 3rd round of the US Open, with Serena winning 6–1, 6–2.
=== 2020 ===
Venus and Serena met in the second round of the 2020 Top Seed Open in Lexington, Kentucky. In their first tournament since the resumption of the WTA Tour during the COVID-19 pandemic, the sisters faced one another for the 31st and final time in their careers. The clash came more than 22 years after their first professional meeting. Serena entered the tournament as the top seed and defeated Venus 3–6, 6–3, 6–4.
== Analysis ==
=== Relationship and competitive dynamic ===
The professional relationship and dynamic between Venus and Serena Williams is deeply affected by their close personal relationship. The notion of two top professionals emerging from the same family to compete against one another is unprecedented, and is a scenario which has been described as being "as improbable as one set of parents raising Picasso and Monet." After Serena's big wins over Venus' only finals at the 2003 Australian Open and the 2002 French Open, journalists said "Clearly Venus has a 'big sister complex' towards Serena". Peter Bodo, further speaking to the unlikeliness of siblings contesting Grand Slam finals, states "It's a common occurrence that will cease to be possible, perhaps ever again, the moment they set the sticks aside."
=== Legacy ===
The all-Williams final at the 2001 US Open drew a larger television audience than the Notre Dame-Nebraska college football game being broadcast at the same time. In fact, part of the reason that the women's final at the US Open was moved to its "prime time" spot was because of the positive effect that the Williams sisters had on television ratings. CBS's four highest-rated US Open women's finals of the last decade all involved the Williams sisters.
The Williams legacy can also arguably be seen in the increased representation of African Americans among tennis professionals and new players, though their representation among professionals still remains small. A third of all new players at the grass-roots level are either African American or Hispanic, a fact to which the USTA's president Jane Brown Grimes says, "I can't help but think that Venus and Serena are drivers behind that".
== List of all matches ==
WTA, Grand Slam, and Grand Slam Cup main draw results included.
=== Singles ===
Serena Williams–Venus Williams (19–12)
=== Breakdown of the rivalry ===
Hard courts: Serena 12–9
Clay courts: Serena, 2–1
Grass courts: Serena, 4–2
Carpet: Serena, 1–0
Grand Slam matches: Serena, 11–5
Grand Slam finals: Serena, 7–2
Year-End Championships matches: Serena, 2–1
Year-End Championships finals: Serena, 1–0
All finals: Serena, 9–3
=== Mixed doubles ===
Serena Williams—Venus Williams (0–1)
== Exhibitions ==
=== Singles ===
Serena Williams–Venus Williams (5–12)
=== Doubles ===
Serena Williams–Venus Williams (2–2)
== Grand Slam performance timeline ==
=== Head-to-head ===
Final matches indicated in bold.
=== Combined singles performance timeline (best result) ===
== Year-end WTA ranking timeline == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Cardin | Ben Cardin | Benjamin Louis Cardin (born October 5, 1943) is an American lawyer and former politician who served as a United States senator from Maryland from 2007 to 2025. A member of the Democratic Party, he was the U.S. representative for Maryland's 3rd congressional district from 1987 to 2007. Cardin served in the Maryland House of Delegates from 1967 to 1987 and as its speaker from 1979 to 1987. In 58 years as an elected official, Cardin never lost an election.
Cardin was elected as U.S. senator to succeed Paul Sarbanes in 2006, defeating Republican Michael Steele, the lieutenant governor of Maryland. He became Maryland's senior U.S. senator on January 3, 2017, upon Barbara Mikulski's retirement. Cardin won reelection in 2012 and 2018, and retired from politics on January 3, 2025.
== Early life and career ==
Benjamin Louis Cardin was born in Baltimore, Maryland. The family name was originally "Kardonsky", before it was changed to "Cardin". Cardin's grandparents were Russian Jewish immigrants. His maternal grandfather, Benjamin Green, operated a neighborhood grocery store that later turned into a wholesale food distribution company. His mother Dora was a schoolteacher and his father, Meyer Cardin, served in the Maryland House of Delegates (1935–1937) and later sat on the Baltimore City Supreme Bench (1961–1977).
Cardin and his family attended the Modern Orthodox Beth Tfiloh Congregation near their home, with which the family had been affiliated for three generations. Cardin attended Baltimore City College, graduating in 1961. In 1964, he earned a Bachelor of Arts degree cum laude from the University of Pittsburgh, where he was a member of the Pi Lambda Phi fraternity. He earned a Juris Doctor from the University of Maryland School of Law in 1967, graduating first in his class. Cardin was admitted to the Maryland Bar that same year, and joined the private practice of Rosen and Esterson until 1978.
== Early political career ==
=== Maryland House of Delegates ===
While still in law school, Cardin was elected to the Maryland House of Delegates in November 1966. He held the seat once held by his uncle, Maurice Cardin, who had decided to not run for re-election so that his nephew could instead pursue the seat. He was chairman of the Ways & Means Committee from 1974 to 1979, then served as the 103rd Speaker of the House until he left office. At age 35, he was the youngest Speaker in Maryland history at the time. As Speaker, he was involved with reform efforts involving Maryland's property tax system, school financing formula, and ethical standards for elected officials.
== U.S. House of Representatives ==
In 1986, with Congresswoman Barbara Mikulski mounting what would be a successful bid for the U.S. Senate seat vacated by retiring Senator Charles Mathias, Cardin ran for Mikulski's seat in the 3rd congressional district, which covered a large slice of inner Baltimore, as well as several close-in suburbs. Cardin won the Democratic nomination with 82 percent of the vote—the real contest in this heavily Democratic district. He won the general election with 79 percent of the vote against a perennial candidate, Republican Ross Z. Pierpont. He would be reelected nine times, never dropping below 65 percent of the vote.
Cardin served as one of the House impeachment managers that successfully prosecuted the case in the 1989 impeachment trial of Judge Walter Nixon.
In the House, Cardin was involved with fiscal issues, pension reform, and health care. His legislation to increase the amount individuals can store in their 401k plans and IRAs was passed in 2001. His bill to expand Medicare to include preventive benefits such as colorectal, prostate, mammogram, and osteoporosis screening was also enacted. He also authored legislation to provide a Medicare prescription drug benefit for chronic illnesses; fund graduate medical education; and guarantee coverage for emergency services.
Cardin has also advocated, via proposed legislation, welfare reform. His bill to increase education and support services for foster children between ages 18 and 21 was signed into law in 1999. He authored bills to expand child support, improve the welfare-to-work program, and increase the child care tax credit.
Cardin has been commended for his work with fiscal policy. He has been honored by Worth magazine and by Treasury and Risk Management for his work protecting retirement plans and government-supported medical care for the elderly. He has also received scores of 100 percent from the League of Conservation Voters and the NAACP, indicating stances that are in favor of environmental protection and civil rights. Cardin was also one of 133 members of Congress to vote against the 2002 Iraq Resolution. In 2023, Cardin voted with a bipartisan majority to repeal the Authorization for Use of Military Force (AUMF) in Iraq.
=== House committee assignments ===
As of May 2006, Cardin served on the following House committees:
Member of the Ways and Means Committee.
Ranking member of the Trade Subcommittee.
Member of the Human Resources Subcommittee.
Chairman of the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe.
== U.S. Senate ==
=== Elections ===
==== 2006 ====
On April 26, 2005, Cardin announced that he would seek the U.S. Senate seat of long-standing senator Paul Sarbanes (D-MD), following the announcement by Sarbanes that he would not be running for re-election in 2006. On September 12, 2006, Cardin faced a challenging primary battle with other Maryland Democrats, including Allan Lichtman, Josh Rales, Dennis F. Rasmussen, and his former House colleague Kweisi Mfume. Cardin won, however, with 44 percent of the vote, compared to 40 percent for Mfume, five percent for Rales, and two percent for Rasmussen.
Cardin won election on November 7, 2006, defeating Republican challenger Michael Steele 54 percent to 44 percent.
==== 2012 ====
In the general election, he faced Republican Dan Bongino, a former United States Secret Service agent, Independent Rob Sobhani, an economist and businessman, and Libertarian Imad-ad-Dean Ahmad, President of the Minaret of Freedom Institute. Cardin easily won the election, taking 56% of the vote to Bongino's 26.3%, Sobhani's 16.4% and Ahmad's 1%.
==== 2018 ====
Cardin was re-elected for a third term in 2018.
==== 2024 ====
On May 1, 2023, Cardin announced that he would retire and not seek re-election in 2024.
=== Tenure ===
Cardin was participating in the certification of the 2021 United States Electoral College vote count when the January 6 United States Capitol attack happened. Cardin was on the Senate chamber floor when the rioters breached the Capitol. He was "ushered quickly — and I do mean quickly — away from the Capitol" after Vice President Mike Pence was removed from the chambers. During the attack, while Cardin hid with other senators in a safe location, he tweeted, blaming President Donald Trump for encouraging the rioters. He called for Trump to stop the protestors so the event would end "peacefully." Cardin also compared the police involvement during the attack to that seen during Black Lives Matter protests, calling it a "stark contrast." After the Capitol was secure, Cardin joined Congress to certify the count. After, he said that Trump should be held accountable for the insurrection and called for Republican leaders to tell Trump that he needs to resign. Two days later, on January 8, Cardin called for the invocation of the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution or impeachment to remove Trump.
In 2024, Cardin advocated for the federal government to fund the reconstruction of the Francis Scott Key Bridge in Baltimore after it collapsed when a ship crashed into it.
=== Senate committee assignments ===
Source:
Committee on Environment and Public Works
Subcommittee on Clean Air and Nuclear Safety
Subcommittee on Fisheries, Water, and Wildlife
Subcommittee on Transportation and Infrastructure
Committee on Finance
Subcommittee on Health Care (chair)
Subcommittee on International Trade, Customs, and Global Competitiveness
Subcommittee on Taxation and IRS Oversight
Committee on Foreign Relations (chair)
Subcommittee on Europe and Regional Security Cooperation
Subcommittee on Near East, South Asia, Central Asia, and Counterterrorism
Subcommittee on State Department and USAID Management, International Operations, and Bilateral International Development (chair)
Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere, Transnational Crime, Civilian Security, Democracy, Human Rights and Global Women's Issues
Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship
Cardin was selected by Majority Leader Chuck Schumer to fill in for Dianne Feinstein on the Judiciary Committee until she returned.
In 2015, Cardin became the ranking Democratic member on the Senate Foreign Relations Committee after the departure of Senator Robert Menendez as ranking Democrat and chairman. Two weeks after Menendez's departure, Cardin was credited with facilitating achievement of a unanimous committee vote in favor of the markup for the bill on the USA's involvement in the negotiations with Iran on nuclear technology.
=== Caucus membership ===
Senate Oceans Caucus
Senate Military Family Caucus
Congressional Coalition on Adoption
==== Legislation sponsored ====
The following is an incomplete list of legislation that Cardin has sponsored:
Affordable College Textbook Act (S. 1864; 115th Congress)
== International experience ==
Cardin has been a Commissioner on the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe (the U.S. Helsinki Commission) since 1993, serving as Ranking Member from 2003 to 2006. He subsequently served two terms as co-chair of the commission, from 2007 to 2008, and 2011 to 2012; and also two terms as chair, from 2009 to 2010, and 2013 to 2014. From 2015 to 2016 he was again ranking member. In 2006 he was elected vice president of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Parliamentary Assembly, and served through 2014.
== Post-senatorial career ==
In January 2026, Cardin joined Johns Hopkins University as a distinguished senior fellow.
== Honors ==
As of 2016 Cardin sits on the board of visitors of the University of Maryland School of Law, his law school alma mater.
Ben Cardin has also earned an Honorary Degree from University of Maryland, College Park in the Class of 2025 graduation ceremony held on May 22, 2025.
Cardin has been awarded the following foreign honor:
Commander of the Order of the Star of Romania, Romania (June 8, 2017)
== Political positions ==
On a list by Congressional Quarterly of the members of Congress who were most supportive of President Barack Obama's legislative agenda in 2009, Cardin was tied for fifth most supportive senator with five other senators. In 2013, National Journal rated him as tied with six other Democratic senators for fifth most liberal senator. The American Conservative Union gave him a 4% lifetime conservative rating in 2020.
=== Agriculture ===
In June 2019, Cardin and 18 other Democratic senators sent a letter to USDA Inspector General (IG) Phyllis Fong with the request that the IG investigate USDA instances of retaliation and political decision-making and asserted that not conducting an investigation would mean these "actions could be perceived as a part of this administration's broader pattern of not only discounting the value of federal employees, but suppressing, undermining, discounting, and wholesale ignoring scientific data produced by their own qualified scientists."
=== Death penalty ===
Senator Cardin is a supporter of the death penalty but says it should only be applied to the "worst of the worst".
=== Economy ===
In March 2019, Cardin was one of six senators to sign a letter to the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) requesting it "use its rulemaking authority, along with other tools, in order to combat the scourge of non-compete clauses rigging our economy against workers" and espousing the view that such provisions "harm employees by limiting their ability to find alternate work, which leaves them with little leverage to bargain for better wages or working conditions with their immediate employer." The senators furthered that the FTC had the responsibility of protecting both consumers and workers and needed to "act decisively" to address their concerns over "serious anti-competitive harms from the proliferation of non-competes in the economy."
Cardin was an architect of the Paycheck Protection Program for small businesses during the pandemic.
=== Education ===
In 2007, Cardin supported the United States Public Service Academy Act. The Act would serve to create "an undergraduate institution devoted to developing civilian leaders." Like the Military Academies, this would give students 4 years of tuition-free education in exchange for 5 years of public service upon graduation.
=== Environment ===
Liberal environmentalists criticized Cardin for compromising too much while working with conservative James Inhofe on an amendment to Cardin's Chesapeake Bay legislation. Josh Saks, senior legislative representative for water resources campaigns with the National Wildlife Federation, praised Cardin as "the lead voice for clean water and the restoration of America's great waters in Congress."
In November 2018, Cardin was one of 25 Democratic senators to cosponsor a resolution specifying key findings of the Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change report and National Climate Assessment. The resolution affirmed the senators' acceptance of the findings and their support for bold action toward addressing climate change.
In March 2019, Cardin was one of 11 senators to sponsor the Climate Security Act of 2019, legislation forming a new group within the State Department that would have the responsibility for developing strategies to integrate climate science and data into operations of national security as well as restoring the post of special envoy for the Arctic, which had been dismantled by President Trump in 2017. The proposed envoy would advise the president and the administration on the potential effects of climate on national security and be responsible for facilitating all interagency communication between federal science and security agencies.
=== Elections ===
In October 2018, Cardin, along with Senators Chris Van Hollen and Susan Collins, cosponsored a bipartisan bill that if passed would block "any persons from foreign adversaries from owning or having control over vendors administering U.S. elections." The Protect Our Elections Act would make companies involved in administering elections reveal foreign owners, and informing local, state and federal authorities if said ownership changes. Companies failing to comply would face fines of $100,000.
=== Equal Rights Amendment ===
Cardin has sponsored legislation in support of the Equal Rights Amendment.
=== Gun control ===
Cardin has an "F" grade from the NRA Political Victory Fund (NRA-PVF).
In 2013, he co-sponsored the Large Capacity Ammunition Feeding Device Act in an effort to ban large-capacity ammunition.
In response to the Orlando nightclub shooting, Cardin questioned the legality of military style assault weapons stating that "in my observations in Maryland, I don't know too many people who need to have that type of weapon in order to do hunting in my state or to keep themselves safe."
Cardin opposed the 2016 sale of approximately 26,000 assault rifles to the national police of the Philippines. His opposition led to the U.S. State Department halting the sale.
In the wake of the 2017 Las Vegas shooting, Cardin stated that thoughts and prayers were not going to save more people from dying in mass shootings. He also made a call for action to change gun laws, stating on Twitter that "Automatic weapons aren't needed to hunt deer or ducks; they're meant to kill people." In response to the shooting, Cardin sponsored Dianne Feinstein's proposal to ban bump stocks, which were used by the shooter to kill 58 individuals and injure over 500.
=== Journalism ===
In July 2019, Cardin and Rob Portman introduced the Fallen Journalists Memorial Act, a bill that would create a new memorial that would be privately funded and constructed on federal lands within Washington, D.C. in order to honor journalists, photographers, and broadcasters that have died in the line of duty.
=== Healthcare ===
In the 111th Congress, Cardin helped secure dental benefits in the State Children's Health Insurance Plan.
In August 2019, Cardin was one of 19 senators to sign a letter to Treasury Secretary Steve Mnuchin and Health and Human Services Secretary Alex Azar requesting data from the Trump administration in order to aid in the comprehension of states and Congress on potential consequences in the event that the Texas v. United States Affordable Care Act (ACA) lawsuit prevailed in courts, citing that an overhaul of the present health care system would form "an enormous hole in the pocketbooks of the people we serve as well as wreck state budgets".
In October 2019, Cardin was one of 27 senators to sign a letter to Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell and Senate Minority Leader Chuck Schumer advocating for the passage of the Community Health Investment, Modernization, and Excellence (CHIME) Act, which was set to expire the following month. The senators warned that if the funding for the Community Health Center Fund (CHCF) was allowed to expire, it "would cause an estimated 2,400 site closures, 47,000 lost jobs, and threaten the health care of approximately 9 million Americans."
=== Housing ===
In April 2019, Cardin was one of 41 senators to sign a bipartisan letter to the housing subcommittee praising the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development's Section 4 Capacity Building program as authorizing "HUD to partner with national nonprofit community development organizations to provide education, training, and financial support to local community development corporations (CDCs) across the country" and expressing disappointment that President Trump's budget "has slated this program for elimination after decades of successful economic and community development." The senators wrote of their hope that the subcommittee would support continued funding for Section 4 in Fiscal Year 2020.
=== International policy ===
On October 31, 2011, Cardin endorsed the proposal for the United Nations Parliamentary Assembly (UNPA). He is one of only six persons who served as members of the United States Congress ever to do so and is the only one who did so while in office.
Cardin has often supported positions that aim to strengthen America's relationship with Israel. In 2017, Cardin sponsored a bill, the Israel Anti-Boycott Act (S. 720), that would penalize commercial businesses that wanted to aid International NGOs and/or organizations in boycotting Israel. Cardin has argued that Israel's human rights record should not be considered in regard to sending U.S. military aid to Israel.
He supported civilian nuclear cooperation with India.
Weeks after the 2014 Hong Kong class boycott campaign and Umbrella Movement broke out which demands genuine universal suffrage among other goals, Cardin among bipartisan colleagues joined U.S. Senator Sherrod Brown and Representative Chris Smith's effort to introduce Hong Kong Human Rights and Democracy Act which would update the United States–Hong Kong Policy Act of 1992 and U.S. commitment to Hong Kong's freedom and democracy. "Civil society and democratic freedoms are under attack around the world and Hong Kong is on the front lines. The United States has a responsibility to protect human rights and defend against these threats," Cardin, chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations East Asian and Pacific Affairs Subcommittee said.
In July 2017, Cardin voted in favor of the Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act that placed sanctions on Iran together with Russia and North Korea. On October 11, 2017, in a joint statement, Cardin and Senator John McCain questioned the Trump administration's commitment to the sanctions bill.
In October 2017, Cardin condemned the genocide of the Rohingya Muslim minority in Myanmar and called for a stronger response to the crisis.
In August 2018, Cardin and 16 other lawmakers urged the Trump administration to impose sanctions under the Global Magnitsky Act against Chinese officials who are responsible for human rights abuses against the Uyghur Muslim minority in western China's Xinjiang region. They wrote: "The detention of as many as a million or more Uyghurs and other predominantly Muslim ethnic minorities in 'political reeducation' centers or camps requires a tough, targeted, and global response."
Cardin condemned President Erdoğan's wide-ranging crackdown on dissent following a failed July 2016 coup in America's NATO ally Turkey.
In April 2019, Cardin was one of 34 senators to sign a letter to President Trump encouraging him "to listen to members of your own Administration and reverse a decision that will damage our national security and aggravate conditions inside Central America", asserting that Trump had "consistently expressed a flawed understanding of U.S. foreign assistance" since becoming president and that he was "personally undermining efforts to promote U.S. national security and economic prosperity" through preventing the use of Fiscal Year 2018 national security funding. The senators argued that foreign assistance to Central American countries created less migration to the U.S., citing the funding's helping to improve conditions in those countries.
In 2023, Senator Cardin became the chair of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. According to Jewish Insider, Cardin's office communicated to some activists that it does not have a plan to move the Mahsa Amini Human rights and Security Accountability Act (MAHSA Act) forward through the committee, likely killing the bipartisan Iran sanctions bill.
=== LGBTQ+ rights ===
In 2022, Cardin voted for the Respect for Marriage Act, legislation intended to codify same-sex marriage rights into federal law.
=== Online privacy ===
Cardin supports Net Neutrality, as shown by his vote during the 109th Congress in favor of the Markey Amendment to H.R. 5252 which would add Net Neutrality provisions to the federal telecommunications code. Cardin also supports Combating Online Infringement and Counterfeits Act, which gives DOJ the tools to target those site owners who are engaged in illegal digital piracy.
=== Taxes ===
Cardin is opposed to eliminating the tax deduction for charitable donations and supports raising taxes on higher-income earners. During a December 20, 2012, interview with Maria Bartiromo on CNBC, Cardin stated, "We're now a few days away from Christmas. The easiest way to get the revenues is to get the rates from the higher income, uh, taxpayers." In response to the question, "Are you prepared to vote to limit the loophole of charitable deductions?" Cardin responded, "No."
Cardin has, on multiple occasions, introduced a bill to adopt a "Progressive Consumption Tax", which is a variation of Michael J. Graetz's Competitive Tax Plan.
Cardin spoke out after the Pandora Papers were revealed in 2021. Cardin said, "The Pandora Papers are a wake-up call to all who care about the future of democracy. Thirty years after the end of the Cold War, it is time for democracies to band together and demand an end to the unprecedented corruption that has come to be the defining feature of the global order. We must purge the dirty money from our systems and deny kleptocrats safe haven."
=== Whistleblowers ===
In November 2011, Cardin's intended update of the 1917 Espionage Act upset some public disclosure advocates. They complained that it "would make it harder for federal employees to expose government fraud and abuse."
=== Israel ===
Cardin is a co-sponsor of a Senate resolution expressing objection to the UN Security Council Resolution 2334, which condemned Israeli settlement building in the occupied Palestinian territories as a violation of international law. Cardin said that "Congress will take action against efforts at the UN, or beyond, that use Resolution 2334 to target Israel."
Cardin supported President Donald Trump's decision to recognize Jerusalem as Israel's capital. He stated: "Jerusalem is the capital of the State of Israel and the location of the US Embassy should reflect this fact."
Cardin and Senator Rob Portman (R-Ohio) proposed the Israel Anti-Boycott Act in late 2018 which would make it illegal for companies to engage in boycotts against Israel and Israeli settlements in the Israeli-occupied territories. The bill would expand the Export Administration Act (EAA) to foreign boycotts imposed by international organizations like the European Union, Arab League and the United Nations. Cardin and Portman were strongly in promotion of the bill, and worked to integrate it into larger spending legislation to be signed by then-President Trump.
In January 2024, Cardin rejected Bernie Sanders' resolution that would have required the State Department to report to Congress on any evidence of human rights violations by Israel in Gaza. In May 2024, Cardin stated that "Israel has not violated International Humanitarian Law" and "military assistance to support Israel's security remains in the U.S. interest and should continue."
== Personal life ==
Cardin married high school sweetheart Myrna Edelman, a teacher, on November 24, 1964. They have a daughter, Deborah. Their son Michael (born 1967 or 1968) died of suicide on March 24, 1998, at age 30.
In 2002, Cardin's 32-year-old nephew, Jon S. Cardin, was elected as a Delegate representing the 11th district of western Baltimore County. With the 11th legislative district overlapping the 3rd congressional district, there were two Cardins on the ticket in this area in 2002. Present at Jon's swearing in was the oldest living former member of the House of Delegates at 95 years of age, Meyer Cardin, Jon's grandfather and Ben's father. Also in attendance was Cardin, who remarked, "The next generation's taking over."
== Electoral history == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_Bowl_Most_Valuable_Player_Award | Super Bowl Most Valuable Player Award | |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyme_disease | Lyme disease | Lyme disease, also known as Lyme borreliosis, is a tick-borne disease caused by species of Borrelia bacteria, transmitted by blood-feeding ticks in the genus Ixodes. It is the most common disease spread by ticks in the Northern Hemisphere. Infections are most common in the spring and early summer. Infection is treatable with antibiotics. Most treated patients experience a full recovery. For some patients recovery may not be immediate or complete, resulting in long-term effects. Early detection and prompt treatment are associated with more favorable outcomes.
The most common sign of infection is an expanding red rash, known as erythema migrans (EM), which appears at the site of the tick bite about a week afterwards. The rash is typically neither itchy nor painful. Approximately 70–80% of infected people develop a rash. Other early symptoms may include fever, headaches and tiredness. If untreated, symptoms may include loss of the ability to move one or both sides of the face, joint pains, severe headaches with neck stiffness or heart palpitations. Months to years later, repeated episodes of joint pain and swelling may occur. Occasionally, shooting pains or tingling in the arms and legs may develop.
Diagnosis is based on a combination of symptoms, history of tick exposure, and possibly testing for specific antibodies in the blood. If an infection develops, several antibiotics are effective, including doxycycline, amoxicillin and cefuroxime. Standard treatment usually lasts for two or three weeks. People with persistent symptoms after appropriate treatments are said to have post-treatment Lyme disease syndrome (PTLDS).
Prevention includes efforts to prevent tick bites by wearing clothing to cover the arms and legs and using DEET or picaridin-based insect repellents. As of 2023, clinical trials of proposed human vaccines for Lyme disease were being carried out, but no vaccine was available. A vaccine, LYMERix, was produced but discontinued in 2002 due to insufficient demand. There are several vaccines for the prevention of Lyme disease in dogs.
== Signs and symptoms ==
Lyme disease can produce a broad range of symptoms.
The incubation period is usually one to two weeks, but can be much shorter (days) or much longer (months to years). Lyme symptoms most often occur from May to September in the Northern Hemisphere because the nymphal stage of the tick is responsible for most cases.
=== Early localized infection ===
Approximately 80% of Lyme infections begin with a rash of some sort at the site of a tick bite, often near skin folds such as the armpit, groin, back of the knee, or the trunk under clothing straps, or in children's hair, ears, or neck. Most people who get infected do not remember seeing a tick or a bite. The rash appears typically one or two weeks (range 3–32 days) after the bite and expands 2–3 cm (around 1 inch) per day up to a diameter of 5–70 cm (2 to 28 inches) (median is 16 cm; 6 inches).
The rash is usually circular or oval, red or bluish, and may have an elevated or darker center. This rash is termed an erythema migrans (EM), which translates as "migrating redness." In approximately 79% of cases in Europe, this rash gradually clears from the center toward the edges, possibly forming a "bull's eye" or "target-like" pattern. This clearing only happens in 19% of cases in endemic areas of the United States. The rash may feel warm, usually is not itchy, is rarely tender or painful, and takes up to four weeks to resolve if untreated.
The Lyme rash is often accompanied by symptoms of a flu-like illness, including fatigue, headache, body aches, fever, and chills [though usually neither nausea nor upper-respiratory problems]. These symptoms may also appear without a rash or linger after the rash has disappeared. Lyme can progress to later stages without a rash or these symptoms.
People with high fever for more than two days or whose other symptoms of viral-like illness do not improve despite antibiotic treatment for Lyme disease, or who have abnormally low levels of white or red cells or platelets in the blood, should be investigated for possible coinfection with other tick-borne diseases such as ehrlichiosis and babesiosis.
Not everyone with Lyme disease has all the symptoms. Many of these symptoms can also occur with other diseases. This can make obtaining a diagnosis particularly challenging, especially with the rise of co-infection.
Asymptomatic infection exists, but some studies suggest that this occurs in less than 7% of infected individuals in the United States as opposed to about 50–70% of cases in Europe.
=== Early disseminated infection ===
Within days to weeks after the onset of local infection, the Borrelia bacteria may spread through the lymphatic system or bloodstream. In 10–20% of untreated cases, EM rashes develop at sites across the body that bear no relation to the original tick bite. Transient muscle pains and joint pains are also common.
In about 10–15% of untreated people, Lyme causes neurological problems known as neuroborreliosis. Early neuroborreliosis typically appears 4–6 weeks (range 1–12 weeks) after the tick bite and involves some combination of lymphocytic meningitis, cranial neuritis, radiculopathy, and/or mononeuritis multiplex. Lymphocytic meningitis causes characteristic changes in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and may be accompanied for several weeks by variable headache and, less commonly, usually mild meningitis signs such as inability to flex the neck fully and intolerance to bright lights but typically no or only very low fever. After several months neuroborreliosis can also present otolaryngological symptoms. Up to 76.5% of them present as tinnitus, the most common symptom. Vertigo and dizziness (53.7%) and hearing loss (16.7%) were the next most common symptoms. In children, partial loss of vision may also occur. Cranial neuritis is an inflammation of cranial nerves. When due to Lyme, it most typically causes facial palsy, impairing blinking, smiling, and chewing on one or both sides of the face. It may also cause intermittent double vision. Lyme radiculopathy is an inflammation of spinal nerve roots that often causes pain and less often weakness, numbness, or altered sensation in the areas of the body served by nerves connected to the affected roots, e.g. limb(s) or part(s) of trunk. The pain is often described as unlike any other previously felt, excruciating, migrating, worse at night, rarely symmetrical, and often accompanied by extreme sleep disturbance. Mononeuritis multiplex is an inflammation causing similar symptoms in one or more unrelated peripheral nerves. Rarely, early neuroborreliosis may involve inflammation of the brain or spinal cord, with symptoms such as confusion, abnormal gait, ocular movements, or speech, impaired movement, impaired motor planning, or shaking.
In North America, facial palsy is the typical early neuroborreliosis presentation, occurring in 5–10% of untreated people, in about 75% of cases accompanied by lymphocytic meningitis. Lyme radiculopathy is reported half as frequently, but many cases may be unrecognized. In European adults, the most common presentation is a combination of lymphocytic meningitis and radiculopathy known as Bannwarth syndrome, accompanied in 36-89% of cases by facial palsy. In this syndrome, radicular pain tends to start in the same body region as the initial erythema migrans rash, if there was one, and precedes possible facial palsy and other impaired movement. In extreme cases, permanent impairment of motor or sensory function of the lower limbs may occur. In European children, the most common manifestations are facial palsy (in 55%), other cranial neuritis, and lymphocytic meningitis (in 27%).
In about 4–10% of untreated cases in the United States and 0.3–4% of untreated cases in Europe, typically between June and December, about one month (range 4 days to 7 months) after the tick bite, the infection may cause heart complications known as Lyme carditis. Symptoms may include heart palpitations (in 69% of people), dizziness, fainting, shortness of breath, and chest pain. Other symptoms of Lyme disease may also be present, such as EM rash, joint aches, facial palsy, headaches, or radicular pain. In some people, however, carditis may be the first manifestation of Lyme disease. Lyme carditis in 19–87% of people adversely impacts the heart's electrical conduction system, causing atrioventricular block that often manifests as heart rhythms that alternate within minutes between abnormally slow and abnormally fast. In 10–15% of people, Lyme causes myocardial complications such as cardiomegaly, left ventricular dysfunction, or congestive heart failure.
Another skin condition, found in Europe but not in North America, is borrelial lymphocytoma, a purplish lump that develops on the ear lobe, nipple, or scrotum.
=== Late disseminated infection ===
Lyme arthritis occurs in up to 60% of untreated people, typically starting about six months after infection. It usually affects only one or a few joints, often a knee or possibly the hip, other large joints, or the temporomandibular joint. Usually, large joint effusion and swelling occur, but only mild or moderate pain. Without treatment, swelling and pain typically resolve over time, but periodically return. Baker's cysts may form and rupture.
In early US studies of Lyme disease, a rare peripheral neuropathy was described that included numbness, tingling, or burning starting at the feet or hands and, over time, possibly moving up the limbs. In a later analysis that discovered poor documentation of this manifestation, experts wondered if it exists at all in the US or is merely very rare.
A neurologic syndrome called Lyme encephalopathy is associated with subtle memory and cognitive difficulties, insomnia, a general sense of feeling unwell, and changes in personality. Lyme encephalopathy is controversial in the US and has not been reported in Europe. Problems such as depression and fibromyalgia are as common in people with Lyme disease as in the general population. There is no compelling evidence that Lyme disease causes psychiatric disorders, or neurodevelopmental disorders (e.g. ADHD or autism).
Acrodermatitis chronica atrophicans is a chronic skin disorder observed primarily in Europe among the elderly. It begins as a reddish-blue patch of discolored skin, often on the backs of the hands or feet. The lesion slowly atrophies over several weeks or months, with the skin becoming first thin and wrinkled and then, if untreated, completely dry and hairless.
== Cause ==
Lyme disease is caused by spirochetes, gram-negative bacteria from the genus Borrelia. Spirochetes are surrounded by peptidoglycan and flagella. The Lyme-related Borrelia species are collectively known as Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, and show a great deal of genetic diversity.
B. burgdorferi sensu lato is a species complex made up of 20 accepted and three proposed genospecies. Eight species are known to cause Lyme disease: B. mayonii (found in North America), B. burgdorferi sensu stricto (found in North America and Europe), B. afzelii, B. garinii, B. spielmanii, and B. lusitaniae (all found in Eurasia). Some studies have also proposed that B. valaisiana may sometimes infect humans. This species does not appear to be an important cause of disease.
=== Ticks ===
==== Tick life cycle ====
Three stages occur in the life cycle of a tick: larva, nymph, and adult. During the nymph stage, ticks most frequently transmit Lyme disease and are typically most active in late spring and early summer in regions with a mild climate. During the adult stage, Lyme disease transmission is less common because adult ticks are less likely to bite humans and tend to be larger, so they can be easily seen and removed.
==== Tick appearance changes when feeding ====
Both nymph and female ticks increase in size (engorge) when feeding.
==== Types of ticks, and hosts ====
Lyme disease is transmitted to humans by the bites of infected ticks of the genus Ixodes. In the United States, Ixodes scapularis is the primary vector. In Europe, Ixodes ricinus ticks may spread the bacteria more quickly. In North America, the bacterial species Borrelia burgdorferi and B. mayonii cause Lyme disease. In Europe and Asia, Borrelia afzelii, Borrelia garinii, B. spielmanii and four other species also cause the disease.
While B. burgdorferi is most associated with ticks hosted by white-tailed deer and white-footed mice, Borrelia afzelii is most frequently detected in rodent-feeding vector ticks, and Borrelia garinii and Borrelia valaisiana appear to be associated with birds. Both rodents and birds are competent reservoir hosts for B. burgdorferi sensu stricto. The resistance of a genospecies of Lyme disease spirochetes to the bacteriolytic activities of the alternative complement pathway of various host species may determine its reservoir host association.
Budding research has suggested that B. burgdorferi sensu lato may also be able to form enzootic cycle among lizard populations; this was previously assumed not to be possible in major areas containing populations of lizards, such as California. Except for one study in Europe, much of the data implicating lizards is based on DNA detection of the spirochete and has not demonstrated that lizards can infect ticks feeding on them. As some experiments suggest lizards are refractory to infection with Borrelia, it appears likely their involvement in the enzootic cycle is more complex and species-specific.
In Europe, the main vector is Ixodes ricinus, which is also called the sheep tick or castor bean tick. In China, Ixodes persulcatus (the taiga tick) is probably the most important vector. In North America, the black-legged tick or deer tick (Ixodes scapularis) is the main vector on the East Coast.
The lone star tick (Amblyomma americanum), which is found throughout the Southeastern United States as far west as Texas, is unlikely to transmit the Lyme disease spirochetes, though it may be implicated in a related syndrome called southern tick-associated rash illness, which resembles a mild form of Lyme disease.
On the West Coast of the United States, the main vector is the western black-legged tick (Ixodes pacificus). The tendency of this tick species to feed predominantly on host species such as the western fence lizard that are resistant to Borrelia infection appears to diminish transmission of Lyme disease in the West.
=== Transmission ===
==== Mechanism ====
Lyme disease is classified as a zoonosis, as it is transmitted to humans from a natural reservoir among small mammals and birds by ticks that feed on both sets of hosts. Hard-bodied ticks of the genus Ixodes are the vectors of Lyme disease (also the vector for Babesia). Most infections are caused by ticks in the nymphal stage, because they are tiny, and may thus feed undetected for long periods of time. Nymphal ticks are generally the size of a poppy seed and sometimes with a dark head and a translucent body. Or, the nymphal ticks can be darker. The younger larval ticks are very rarely infected. Although deer are the preferred hosts of adult deer ticks, and tick populations are much lower in the absence of deer, ticks generally do not acquire Borrelia from deer; instead, they obtain them from infected small mammals such as the white-footed mouse, and occasionally birds. Areas where Lyme is common are expanding.
Within the tick midgut, the Borrelia's outer surface protein A (OspA) binds to the tick receptor for OspA, known as TROSPA. When the tick feeds, the Borrelia downregulates OspA and upregulates OspC, another surface protein. After the bacteria migrate from the midgut to the salivary glands, OspC binds to Salp15, a tick salivary protein that appears to have immunosuppressive effects that enhance infection. Successful infection of the mammalian host depends on bacterial expression of OspC.
==== Duration of attachment ====
Reviews have considered whether the length of time of attachment impacts transmission.
==== Prevalence ====
Tick bites often go unnoticed because of the small size of the tick in its nymphal stage, as well as tick secretions that prevent the host from feeling any itch or pain from the bite. However, transmission is quite rare, with only about 1.2 to 1.4 percent of recognized tick bites resulting in Lyme disease.
==== In pregnancy ====
Lyme disease spreading from mother to fetus is possible but extremely rare, and with antibiotic treatment, there is no increased risk of adverse birth outcomes. NICE guidance is that antibiotics appropriate for pregnancy be used. There are no studies on developmental outcomes of children whose mothers had Lyme.
==== Other human transmission ====
There is no scientific evidence to support Lyme disease transmission via blood transfusion, sexual contact, or breast milk.
=== Tick-borne co-infections ===
Ticks that transmit B. burgdorferi to humans can also carry and transmit several other microbes, such as Babesia microti and Anaplasma phagocytophilum, which cause the diseases babesiosis and human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA), respectively. Among people with early Lyme disease, depending on their location, 2–12% will also have HGA and 2–10% will have babesiosis. Ticks in certain regions also transmit viruses that cause tick-borne encephalitis and Powassan virus disease. Co-infections of Lyme disease may not require additional treatment, since they may resolve on their own or—as in the case of HGA—can be treated with the doxycycline prescribed for Lyme. Persistent fever or compatible anomalous laboratory findings may be indicative of a co-infection.
== Pathophysiology ==
B. burgdorferi can spread throughout the body during the course of the disease, and has been found in the skin, heart, joints, peripheral nervous system, and central nervous system. B. burgdorferi does not produce toxins. Therefore, many of the signs and symptoms of Lyme disease are a consequence of the immune response to the spirochete in those tissues.
B. burgdorferi is injected into the skin by the bite of an infected Ixodes tick. Tick saliva, which accompanies the spirochete into the skin during the feeding process, contains substances that disrupt the immune response at the site of the bite. This provides a protective environment where the spirochete can establish infection. The spirochetes multiply and migrate outward within the dermis. The host inflammatory response to the bacteria in the skin causes the characteristic circular EM lesion. Neutrophils, however, which are necessary to eliminate the spirochetes from the skin, fail to appear in necessary numbers in the developing EM lesion because tick saliva inhibits neutrophil function. This allows the bacteria to survive and eventually spread throughout the body.
Days to weeks following the tick bite, the spirochetes spread via the bloodstream to joints, heart, nervous system, and distant skin sites, where their presence gives rise to the variety of symptoms of the disseminated disease. The spread of B. burgdorferi is aided by the attachment of the host protease plasmin to the surface of the spirochete.
If untreated, the bacteria may persist in the body for months or even years, despite the production of B. burgdorferi antibodies by the immune system. The spirochetes may avoid the immune response by decreasing expression of surface proteins that are targeted by antibodies, antigenic variation of the VlsE surface protein, inactivating key immune components such as complement, and hiding in the extracellular matrix, which may interfere with the function of immune factors.
=== Immunological studies ===
Exposure to the Borrelia bacterium during Lyme disease possibly causes a long-lived and damaging inflammatory response, a form of pathogen-induced autoimmune disease. The production of this reaction might be due to a form of molecular mimicry, where Borrelia avoids being killed by the immune system by resembling normal parts of the body's tissues.
Chronic symptoms from an autoimmune reaction could explain why certain symptoms persist even after the spirochetes have been eliminated from the body. This hypothesis may explain why chronic arthritis persists after antibiotic therapy, similar to rheumatic fever, but its wider application is controversial.
== Diagnosis ==
Lyme disease is diagnosed based on symptoms, objective physical findings (such as erythema migrans (EM) rash, facial palsy, or arthritis), history of possible exposure to infected ticks, and possibly laboratory tests. People with symptoms of early Lyme disease should have a total body skin examination for EM rashes and be asked whether EM-type rashes had manifested within the last 1–2 months. Presence of an EM rash and recent tick exposure (i.e., being outdoors in a likely tick habitat where Lyme is common, within 30 days of the appearance of the rash) are sufficient for Lyme diagnosis; no laboratory confirmation is needed or recommended. Most people who get infected do not remember a tick or a bite, and the EM rash need not look like a bull's eye (most EM rashes in the U.S. do not) or be accompanied by any other symptoms. In the U.S., Lyme is most common in the New England and Mid-Atlantic states and parts of Wisconsin and Minnesota, but it is expanding into other areas. Several bordering areas of Canada also have high Lyme risk.
In the absence of an EM rash or history of tick exposure, Lyme diagnosis depends on laboratory confirmation. The bacteria that cause Lyme disease are difficult to observe directly in body tissues and also difficult and too time-consuming to grow in the laboratory. The most widely used tests look instead for presence of antibodies against those bacteria in the blood. A positive antibody test result does not by itself prove active infection, but can confirm an infection that is suspected because of symptoms, objective findings, and history of tick exposure in a person. Because as many as 5–20% of the normal population have antibodies against Lyme, people without a history and symptoms suggestive of Lyme disease should not be tested for Lyme antibodies: a positive result would likely be false, possibly causing unnecessary treatment.
In some cases, when history, signs, and symptoms are strongly suggestive of early disseminated Lyme disease, empiric treatment may be started and reevaluated as laboratory test results become available.
=== Laboratory testing ===
Tests for antibodies in the blood by ELISA and Western blot are the most widely used methods for Lyme diagnosis. A two-tiered protocol is recommended by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): the sensitive ELISA test is performed first, and if it is positive or equivocal, then the more specific Western blot is run. The immune system takes some time to produce antibodies in quantity. After Lyme infection onset, antibodies of types IgM and IgG usually can first be detected respectively at 2–4 weeks and 4–6 weeks, and peak at 6–8 weeks. When an EM rash first appears, detectable antibodies may not be present. Therefore, it is recommended that testing not be performed and diagnosis be based on the presence of the EM rash. Up to 30 days after suspected Lyme infection onset, infection can be confirmed by detection of IgM or IgG antibodies; after that, it is recommended that only IgG antibodies be considered. A positive IgM and negative IgG test result after the first month of infection is generally indicative of a false-positive result. The number of IgM antibodies usually collapses 4–6 months after infection, while IgG antibodies can remain detectable for years.
Other tests may be used in neuroborreliosis cases. In Europe, neuroborreliosis is usually caused by Borrelia garinii and almost always involves lymphocytic pleocytosis, i.e., the densities of lymphocytes (infection-fighting cells) and protein in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) typically rise to characteristically abnormal levels, while glucose level remains normal. Additionally, the immune system produces antibodies against Lyme inside the intrathecal space, which contains the CSF. Demonstration by lumbar puncture and CSF analysis of pleocytosis and intrathecal antibody production are required for definite diagnosis of neuroborreliosis in Europe (except in cases of peripheral neuropathy associated with acrodermatitis chronica atrophicans, which usually is caused by Borrelia afzelii and confirmed by blood antibody tests). In North America, neuroborreliosis is caused by Borrelia burgdorferi and may not be accompanied by the same CSF signs; they confirm a diagnosis of central nervous system (CNS) neuroborreliosis if positive, but do not exclude it if negative. American guidelines consider CSF analysis optional when symptoms appear to be confined to the peripheral nervous system (PNS), e.g., facial palsy without overt meningitis symptoms. Unlike blood and intrathecal antibody tests, CSF pleocytosis tests revert to normal after infection ends and therefore can be used as objective markers of treatment success and inform decisions on whether to retreat. In infection involving the PNS, electromyography and nerve conduction studies can be used to monitor objectively the response to treatment.
In Lyme carditis, electrocardiograms are used to evidence heart conduction abnormalities, while echocardiography may show myocardial dysfunction. Biopsy and confirmation of Borrelia cells in myocardial tissue may be used in specific cases, but are usually not done because of the risk of the procedure.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests for Lyme disease have also been developed to detect the genetic material (DNA) of the Lyme disease spirochete. Culture or PCR are the current means for detecting the presence of the organism, as serologic studies only test for antibodies of Borrelia. PCR has the advantage of being much faster than culture. However, PCR tests are susceptible to false positive results, e.g., by detection of debris of dead Borrelia cells or specimen contamination. Even when properly performed, PCR often shows false-negative results because few Borrelia cells can be found in blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) during infection. Hence, PCR tests are recommended only in special cases, e.g., diagnosis of Lyme arthritis, because it is a highly sensitive way of detecting ospA DNA in synovial fluid. Although the sensitivity of PCR in CSF is low, its use may be considered when intrathecal antibody production test results are suspected of being falsely negative, e.g., in very early (< 6 weeks) neuroborreliosis or in immunosuppressed people.
Several other forms of laboratory testing for Lyme disease are available, some of which have not been adequately validated. OspA antigens, shed by live Borrelia bacteria into urine, are a promising technique being studied. The use of nanotrap particles for their detection is being examined. The OspA protein has been linked to active symptoms of Lyme. High titers of either immunoglobulin G (IgG) or immunoglobulin M (IgM) antibodies to Borrelia antigens indicate disease, but lower titers can be misleading, because the IgM antibodies may remain after the initial infection, and IgG antibodies may remain for years.
The CDC does not recommend urine antigen tests, PCR tests on urine, immunofluorescent staining for cell-wall-deficient forms of B. burgdorferi, and lymphocyte transformation tests.
=== Imaging ===
Neuroimaging is controversial in whether it provides specific patterns unique to neuroborreliosis, but may aid in differential diagnosis and in understanding the pathophysiology of the disease. Though controversial, some evidence shows certain neuroimaging tests can provide data that are helpful in the diagnosis of a person. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) are two tests that can identify abnormalities in the brain of a person affected with this disease. Neuroimaging findings in an MRI include lesions in the periventricular white matter, as well as enlarged ventricles and cortical atrophy. The findings are considered somewhat unexceptional because the lesions have been found to be reversible following antibiotic treatment. Images produced using SPECT show numerous areas where an insufficient amount of blood is being delivered to the cortex and subcortical white matter. However, SPECT images are known to be nonspecific because they show a heterogeneous pattern in the imaging. The abnormalities seen in the SPECT images are very similar to those seen in people with cerebral vasculitis and Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, which makes them questionable.
=== Differential diagnosis ===
Community clinics have been reported to misdiagnose 23–28% of erythema migrans (EM) rashes and 83% of other objective manifestations of early Lyme disease. EM rashes are often misdiagnosed as spider bites, cellulitis, or shingles. Many misdiagnoses are credited to the widespread misconception that EM rashes should look like a bull's eye. Actually, the key distinguishing features of the EM rash are the speed and extent to which it expands, respectively up to 2–3 cm (around 1 inch) per day and a diameter of at least 5 cm (2 inches), and in 50% of cases more than 16 cm (6 inches). The rash expands away from its center, which may or may not look different or be separated by a ring-like clearing from the rest of the rash. Compared to EM rashes, spider bites are more common in the limbs, tend to be more painful and itchy or become swollen, and some may cause necrosis (sinking dark blue patch of dead skin). Cellulitis most commonly develops around a wound or ulcer, is rarely circular, and is more likely to become swollen and tender. EM rashes often appear at sites that are unusual for cellulitis, such as the armpit, groin, abdomen, or back of the knee. Like Lyme, shingles often begins with headache, fever, and fatigue, which are followed by pain or numbness. However, unlike Lyme, in shingles, these symptoms are usually followed by the appearance of rashes composed of multiple small blisters along with a nerve's dermatome, and shingles can also be confirmed by quick laboratory tests.
Facial palsy caused by Lyme disease (LDFP) is often misdiagnosed as Bell's palsy. Although Bell's palsy is the most common type of one-sided facial palsy (about 70% of cases), LDFP can account for about 25% of cases of facial palsy in areas where Lyme disease is common. Compared to LDFP, Bell's palsy much less frequently affects both sides of the face. Even though LDFP and Bell's palsy have similar symptoms and evolve similarly if untreated, corticosteroid treatment is beneficial for Bell's Palsy, while being detrimental for LDFP. Recent history of exposure to a likely tick habitat during warmer months, EM rash, viral-like symptoms such as headache and fever, and/or palsy in both sides of the face should be evaluated for the likelihood of LDFP; if it is more than minimal, empiric therapy with antibiotics should be initiated, without corticosteroids, and reevaluated upon completion of laboratory tests for Lyme disease.
Unlike viral meningitis, Lyme lymphocytic meningitis tends not to cause fever, last longer, or recur. Lymphocytic meningitis is also characterized by possibly co-occurring with EM rash, facial palsy, or partial vision obstruction and having much lower percentage of polymorphonuclear leukocytes in CSF.
Lyme radiculopathy affecting the limbs is often misdiagnosed as a radiculopathy caused by nerve root compression, such as sciatica. Although most cases of radiculopathy are compressive and resolve with conservative treatment (e.g., rest) within 4–6 weeks, guidelines for managing radiculopathy recommend first evaluating risks of other possible causes that, although less frequent, require immediate diagnosis and treatment, including infections such as Lyme and shingles. A history of outdoor activities in likely tick habitats in the last 3 months possibly followed by a rash or viral-like symptoms, and current headache, other symptoms of lymphocytic meningitis, or facial palsy would lead to suspicion of Lyme disease and recommendation of serological and lumbar puncture tests for confirmation.
Lyme radiculopathy affecting the trunk can be misdiagnosed as myriad other conditions, such as diverticulitis and acute coronary syndrome. Diagnosis of late-stage Lyme disease is often complicated by a multifaceted appearance and nonspecific symptoms, prompting one reviewer to call Lyme the new "great imitator". As all people with later-stage infection will have a positive antibody test, simple blood tests can exclude Lyme disease as a possible cause of a person's symptoms.
== Treatment ==
Antibiotics are the primary treatment. The specific approach to their use is dependent on the individual affected and the stage of the disease. For most people with early localized infection, oral administration of doxycycline is widely recommended as the first choice, as it is effective against not only Borrelia bacteria but also a variety of other illnesses carried by ticks. People taking doxycycline should avoid sun exposure because of higher risk of sunburns. Doxycycline is contraindicated in children younger than eight years of age and women who are pregnant or breastfeeding; alternatives to doxycycline are amoxicillin, cefuroxime axetil, and azithromycin. Azithromycin is recommended only in case of intolerance to the other antibiotics. The standard treatment for cellulitis, cephalexin, is not useful for Lyme disease. When it is unclear if a rash is caused by Lyme or cellulitis, the IDSA recommends treatment with cefuroxime or amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, as these are effective against both infections. Individuals with early disseminated or late Lyme infection may have symptomatic cardiac disease, Lyme arthritis, or neurologic symptoms like facial palsy, radiculopathy, meningitis, or peripheral neuropathy. Intravenous administration of ceftriaxone is recommended as the first choice in these cases; cefotaxime and doxycycline are available as alternatives.
Treatment regimens for Lyme disease range from 7–14 days in early localized disease, to 14–21 days in early disseminated disease, to 14–28 days in late disseminated disease. Neurologic complications of Lyme disease may be treated with doxycycline as it can be taken by mouth and has a lower cost, although in North America evidence of efficacy is only indirect. In case of failure, guidelines recommend retreatment with injectable ceftriaxone. Several months after treatment for Lyme arthritis, if joint swelling persists or returns, a second round of antibiotics may be considered; intravenous antibiotics are preferred for retreatment in case of poor response to oral antibiotics. Outside of that, a prolonged antibiotic regimen lasting more than 28 days is not recommended, as no evidence shows it to be effective. IgM and IgG antibody levels may be elevated for years even after successful treatment with antibiotics. As antibody levels are not indicative of treatment success, testing for them is not recommended.
Facial palsy may resolve without treatment; however, antibiotic treatment is recommended to stop other Lyme complications. Corticosteroids are not recommended when facial palsy is caused by Lyme disease. In those with facial palsy, frequent use of artificial tears while awake is recommended, along with ointment and a patch or taping the eye closed when sleeping.
About a third of people with Lyme carditis need a temporary pacemaker until their heart conduction abnormality resolves, and 21% need to be hospitalized. Lyme carditis should not be treated with corticosteroids.
People with Lyme arthritis should limit their level of physical activity to avoid damaging affected joints, and in case of limping, should use crutches. Pain associated with Lyme disease may be treated with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Corticosteroid joint injections are not recommended for Lyme arthritis that is being treated with antibiotics. People with Lyme arthritis treated with intravenous antibiotics or two months of oral antibiotics who continue to have joint swelling two months after treatment and have negative PCR test for Borrelia DNA in the synovial fluid are said to have post-antibiotic Lyme arthritis; this is more common after infection by certain Borrelia strains in people with certain genetic and immunologic characteristics. Post-antibiotic Lyme arthritis may be symptomatically treated with NSAIDs, disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), arthroscopic synovectomy, or physical therapy.
People receiving treatment should be advised that reinfection is possible and how to prevent it.
== Prognosis ==
Lyme disease's typical first sign, the erythema migrans (EM) rash, resolves within several weeks even without treatment. However, in untreated people, the infection often disseminates to the nervous system, heart or joints, possibly causing permanent damage to body tissues.
People who receive recommended antibiotic treatment within several days of the appearance of an initial EM rash have the best prospects. Recovery may not be total or immediate. The percentage of people achieving full recovery in the United States increases from about 64–71% at the end of treatment for EM rash to about 84–90% after 30 months; higher percentages are reported in Europe. Treatment failure, i.e. persistence of original or appearance of new signs of the disease, occurs only in a few people. Remaining people are considered cured but continue to experience subjective symptoms, e.g., joint or muscle pains or fatigue. These symptoms are usually mild and nondisabling.
People treated only after nervous system manifestations of the disease may end up with objective neurological deficits, in addition to subjective symptoms. In Europe, an average of 32–33 months after initial Lyme symptoms in people treated mostly with doxycycline 200 mg for 14–21 days, the percentage of people with lingering symptoms was much higher among those diagnosed with neuroborreliosis (50%) than among those with only an EM rash (16%). In another European study, 5 years after treatment for neuroborreliosis lingering symptoms were less common among children (15%) than adults (30%), and in the latter were less common among those treated within 30 days of the first symptom (16%) than among those treated later (39%); among those with lingering symptoms, 54% had daily activities restricted and 19% were on sick leave or incapacitated.
Some data suggest that about 90% of Lyme facial palsies treated with antibiotics recover fully a median of 24 days after appearing and most of the rest recover with only mild abnormality. However, in Europe 41% of people treated for facial palsy had other lingering symptoms at followup up to 6 months later, including 28% with numbness or altered sensation and 14% with fatigue or concentration problems. Palsies in both sides of the face are associated with worse and longer time to recovery. Historical data suggests that untreated people with facial palsies recover at nearly the same rate, but 88% subsequently have Lyme arthritis. Other research shows that synkinesis (involuntary movement of a facial muscle when another one is voluntarily moved) can become evident only 6–12 months after facial palsy appears to be resolved, as damaged nerves regrow and sometimes connect to incorrect muscles. Synkinesis is associated with corticosteroid use. In longer-term follow-up, 16–23% of Lyme facial palsies do not fully recover.
In Europe, about a quarter of people with Bannwarth syndrome (Lyme radiculopathy and lymphocytic meningitis) treated with intravenous ceftriaxone for 14 days an average of 30 days after first symptoms had to be retreated 3–6 months later because of unsatisfactory clinical response or continued objective markers of infection in cerebrospinal fluid; after 12 months, 64% recovered fully, 31% had nondisabling mild or infrequent symptoms that did not require regular use of analgesics, and 5% had symptoms that were disabling or required substantial use of analgesics. The most common lingering nondisabling symptoms were headache, fatigue, altered sensation, joint pains, memory disturbances, malaise, radicular pain, sleep disturbances, muscle pains, and concentration disturbances. Lingering disabling symptoms included facial palsy and other impaired movement.
Recovery from late neuroborreliosis tends to take longer and be less complete than from early neuroborreliosis, probably because of irreversible neurologic damage.
About half the people with Lyme carditis progress to complete heart block, but it usually resolves in a week. Other Lyme heart conduction abnormalities resolve typically within 6 weeks. About 94% of people have full recovery, but 5% need a permanent pacemaker and 1% end up with persistent heart block (the actual percentage may be higher because of unrecognized cases). Lyme myocardial complications usually are mild and self-limiting. However, in some cases Lyme carditis can be fatal.
Recommended antibiotic treatments are effective in about 90% of Lyme arthritis cases, although it can take several months for inflammation to resolve and a second round of antibiotics is often necessary. Antibiotic-refractory Lyme arthritis also eventually resolves, typically within 9–14 months (range 4 months – 4 years); DMARDs or synovectomy can accelerate recovery.
Reinfection is not uncommon. In a U.S. study, 6–11% of people treated for an EM rash had another EM rash within 30 months. The second rash typically is due to infection by a different Borrelia strain.
=== Post-treatment Lyme disease syndrome ===
==== Symptoms and prevalence ====
Chronic symptoms like pain, fatigue, or cognitive impairment are experienced by 5–20% of people who contract Lyme disease, even after completing treatment. This is called Post-treatment Lyme disease syndrome, or PTLDS.
==== Causes ====
The cause is unknown. Hypotheses include;
that a persistent, difficult-to-detect infection remains. However, human and animal trials have not provided compelling evidence to support this hypothesis.
that the infection triggered autoimmunity. Autoimmune responses are known to occur following other infections, including Campylobacter (Guillain–Barré syndrome), Chlamydia (reactive arthritis), and strep throat (rheumatic heart disease).
that debris from a previous infection could remain.
that symptoms are unrelated to a Lyme infection. In studies of people who presented to clinics with concerns about Lyme disease, 47 to 80% had no evidence of Lyme infection while 15 to 55% (median 34%) were able to obtain other diagnoses.
==== Risk factors ====
Risk factors for PTLDS include delayed diagnosis and treatment, incomplete or short-course treatment, and higher severity of initial disease.
==== Treatment and management ====
There is no proven treatment for Post-treatment Lyme disease syndrome. While short-term antibiotics are effective in early Lyme disease, prolonged antibiotics are not. They have been shown to be ineffective in placebo-controlled trials and carry the risk of serious, sometimes deadly complications. Generally, treatment is symptomatic and is similar to the management of fibromyalgia or ME/CFS. A 2023 review found that PTLDS and ME/CFS had similar pathogenesis despite different infectious origins.
==== Prognosis ====
Patients typically improve over time without additional antibiotics, but this may take several months. There is a lack of long-term data, with few studies of symptoms more than 12 months from initial infection.
== Epidemiology and prevalence ==
=== Overview ===
Lyme disease occurs regularly in Northern Hemisphere temperate regions.
Lyme disease effects are comparable among males and females. A wide range of age groups is affected, though the number of cases is highest among 10- to 19-year-olds.
An estimated 476,000 people a year are diagnosed and treated for the disease in the United States. This number is probably an overestimate due to overdiagnosis and overtreatment. This number has grown over time. Over 200,000 people a year are diagnosed and treated in Europe.
=== Climate change ===
Climate change is seen as potentially supportive for ticks. There is a suggestion that tick populations and Lyme disease occurrence are increasing and spreading into new areas, owing in part to the warming temperatures of climate change. However, tick-borne disease systems are complex, and determining whether changes are due to climate change or other drivers can be difficult.
=== North America ===
Many studies in North America have examined ecological and environmental correlates of the number of people affected by Lyme disease. A 2005 study using climate suitability modelling of I. scapularis projected that climate change would cause an overall 213% increase in suitable vector habitat by 2080, with northward expansions in Canada, increased suitability in the central U.S., and decreased suitable habitat and vector retraction in the southern U.S. A 2008 review of published studies concluded that the presence of forests or forested areas was the only variable that consistently elevated the risk of Lyme disease whereas other environmental variables showed little or no concordance between studies. The authors argued that the factors influencing tick density and human risk between sites are still poorly understood, and that future studies should be conducted over longer periods, become more standardized across regions, and incorporate existing knowledge of regional Lyme disease ecology.
==== United States ====
Lyme disease is the most common tick-borne disease in North America and Europe, and one of the fastest-growing infectious diseases in the United States. Of cases reported to the United States CDC, the ratio of Lyme disease infection is 7.9 cases for every 100,000 persons. In the ten states where Lyme disease is most common, the average was 31.6 cases for every 100,000 persons for the year 2005.
Although Lyme disease has been reported in all states due to travel-associated infections, about 99% of all reported cases are confined to just five geographic areas (New England, Mid-Atlantic, East-North Central, South Atlantic, and West North-Central). CDC implemented national surveillance of Lyme disease cases in 1991. Since then, reporting criteria have been modified multiple times. The 2022 surveillance case definition classifies cases as confirmed, probable, and suspect. The number of reported cases of the disease has been increasing, as are endemic regions in North America.
The CDC emphasizes that, while surveillance data have limitations, they are useful due to "uniformity, simplicity, and timeliness." While cases are under-reported in high-incidence areas, over-reporting is likely in low-incidence areas. Additionally, surveillance cases are reported by the county of residence and not where an infection was necessarily contracted.
Several similar but distinct conditions may exist, caused by various species or subspecies of Borrelia in North America. A regionally restricted condition that may be related to Borrelia infection is southern tick-associated rash illness (STARI), also known as Masters disease. Amblyomma americanum, known commonly as the lone-star tick, is recognized as the primary vector for STARI. In some parts of the geographical distribution of STARI, Lyme disease is quite rare (e.g., Arkansas), so people in these regions experiencing Lyme-like symptoms—especially if they follow a bite from a lone-star tick—should consider STARI as a possibility. It is generally a milder condition than Lyme and typically responds well to antibiotic treatment.
In recent years, five to ten cases a year of a disease similar to Lyme have been occurring in Montana. It occurs primarily in pockets along the Yellowstone River in central Montana. Symptons have bee a red bull's-eye rash around a tick bite, followed by weeks of fatigue and a fever.
==== Canada ====
The range of ticks capable of carrying Lyme disease has expanded from a limited area of Ontario to include areas of southern Quebec, Manitoba, northern Ontario, southern New Brunswick, southwest Nova Scotia and limited parts of Saskatchewan and Alberta, as well as British Columbia. Cases have been reported as far east as the island of Newfoundland. A model-based prediction by Leighton et al. (2012) suggests that the range of the I. scapularis tick will expand into Canada by 46 km/year over the next decade, with warming climatic temperatures as the main driver of increased speed of spread.
==== Mexico ====
A 2007 study suggests Borrelia burgdorferi infections are endemic to Mexico, with four cases reported between 1999 and 2000.
=== Europe ===
In Europe, Lyme disease is caused by infection with one or more pathogenic European genospecies of the spirochaete B. burgdorferi sensu lato, mainly transmitted by the tick Ixodes ricinus. Cases of B. burgdorferi sensu lato-infected ticks are found predominantly in central Europe, particularly in Slovenia and Austria, but have been isolated in almost every country on the continent. The number of cases in southern Europe, such as Italy and Portugal, is much lower. Diagnosed cases in some Western countries, such as Iceland, are rising. Lyme disease is rare in Iceland. On average, around 6 to 7 cases are diagnosed every year, primarily localised infections presenting as erythema migrans. None of the cases had a definitive Icelandic origin and the yearly number of cases has not been increasing.
==== United Kingdom ====
In the United Kingdom, Lyme disease is the primary human tick-borne disease of concern, with a 1-year Lyme disease incidence of 12/100,000 reported in 2019. The number of laboratory-confirmed cases of Lyme disease has been rising steadily since voluntary reporting was introduced in 1986 when 68 cases were recorded in the UK and Ireland combined. In the UK there were 23 confirmed cases in 1988 and 19 in 1990, but 973 in 2009 and 953 in 2010. Provisional figures for the first 3 quarters of 2011 show a 26% increase on the same period in 2010.
It is thought, however, that the actual number of cases is significantly higher than suggested by the above figures, with England's Health Protection Agency estimating that there are between 2,000 and 3,000 cases in England and Wales per year (with an average of around 15% of the infections acquired overseas), while Dr Darrel Ho-Yen, Director of the Scottish Toxoplasma Reference Laboratory and National Lyme Disease Testing Service, believes that the number of confirmed cases should be multiplied by 10 "to take account of wrongly diagnosed cases, tests giving false results, sufferers who weren't tested, people who are infected but not showing symptoms, failures to notify and infected individuals who don't consult a doctor."
Lyme disease is a notifiable disease in Scotland. Mandatory reporting, limited to laboratory test results only, is required in the UK under the provisions of the Health Protection (Notification) Regulations 2010.
Although there is a greater number of cases of Lyme disease in the New Forest, Salisbury Plain, Exmoor, the South Downs, parts of Wiltshire and Berkshire, Thetford Forest and the West coast and islands of Scotland, infected ticks are widespread and can even be found in the parks of London. A 1989 report found that 25% of forestry workers in the New Forest were seropositive, as were between 2% and 4–5% of the general local population of the area.
Tests on pet dogs carried out throughout the country in 2009 indicated that around 2.5% of ticks in the UK may be infected, considerably higher than previously thought. It is speculated that global warming may lead to an increase in tick activity in the future, as well as an increase in the amount of time that people spend in public parks, thus increasing the risk of infection. However, no published research has proven this to be so.
=== South America ===
In Brazil, Lyme disease is not considered endemic. A Lyme-like disease known as Baggio–Yoshinari syndrome has been described, attributed to microorganisms that do not belong to the B. burgdorferi sensu lato complex and transmitted by ticks of the Amblyomma and Rhipicephalus genera. The first reported case of BYS in Brazil was made in 1992 in Cotia, São Paulo. A 2024 analysis concluded that evidence to connect BYS to Borrelia bacteria was lacking.
=== Africa ===
In northern Africa, B. burgdorferi sensu lato has been identified in Morocco, Algeria, Egypt and Tunisia.
Lyme disease in sub-Saharan Africa is presently unknown, but evidence indicates it may occur in humans in this region. The abundance of hosts and tick vectors would favor the establishment of Lyme infection in Africa. In East Africa, two cases of Lyme disease have been reported in Kenya. According The Federation of Infectious Diseases Societies of Southern Africa, Lyme disease is not known to be endemic in either South Africa or Mozambique.
=== Asia ===
B. burgdorferi sensu lato-infested ticks are being found more frequently in Japan, as well as in northwest China, Nepal, Thailand and far eastern Russia. Borrelia has also been isolated in Mongolia.
=== Australia ===
Lyme disease is not considered endemic to Australia. While there have been reports of people acquiring Lyme disease in Australia, and even evidence of closely related Borrelia species in ticks, the evidence linking these cases to local transmission is limited. Ongoing research on resolving potential Borrelia species to Debilitating Symptom Complexes Attributed to Ticks (DSCATT) in Australia is ongoing.
== Prevention ==
Tick bites can be prevented by avoiding or reducing time in likely tick habitats and taking precautions while in and when getting out of one.
Most Lyme human infections are caused by Ixodes nymph bites between April and September. Ticks prefer moist, shaded locations in woodlands, shrubs, tall grasses and leaf litter or wood piles. Tick densities tend to be highest in woodlands, followed by unmaintained edges between woods and lawns (about half as high), ornamental plants and perennial groundcover (about a quarter), and lawns (about 30 times less). Ixodes larvae and nymphs tend to be abundant also where mice nest, such as stone walls and wood logs. Ixodes larvae and nymphs typically wait for potential hosts ("quest") on leaves or grasses close to the ground with forelegs outstretched; when a host brushes against its limbs, the tick rapidly clings and climbs on the host looking for a skin location to bite. In Northeastern United States, 69% of tick bites are estimated to happen in residences, 11% in schools or camps, 9% in parks or recreational areas, 4% at work, 3% while hunting, and 4% in other areas. Activities associated with tick bites around residences include yard work, brush clearing, gardening, playing in the yard, and letting dogs or cats that roam outside in woody or grassy areas into the house. In parks, tick bites often happen while hiking or camping. Walking on a mown lawn or center of a trail without touching adjacent vegetation is less risky than crawling or sitting on a log or stone wall. Pets should not be allowed to roam freely in likely tick habitats.
As a precaution, CDC recommends soaking or spraying clothes, shoes, and camping gear such as tents, backpacks and sleeping bags with 0.5% permethrin solution and hanging them to dry before use. Permethrin is odorless and safe for humans but highly toxic to ticks. After crawling on permethrin-treated fabric for as few as 10–20 seconds, tick nymphs become irritated and fall off or die. Permethrin-treated closed-toed shoes and socks reduce by 74 times the number of bites from nymphs that make first contact with a shoe of a person also wearing treated shorts (because nymphs usually quest near the ground, this is a typical contact scenario). Better protection can be achieved by tucking permethrin-treated trousers (pants) into treated socks and a treated long-sleeve shirt into the trousers so as to minimize gaps through which a tick might reach the wearer's skin. Light-colored clothing may make it easier to see ticks and remove them before they bite. Military and outdoor workers' uniforms treated with permethrin have been found to reduce the number of bite cases by 80–95%. Permethrin protection lasts several weeks of wear and washings in customer-treated items and up to 70 washings for factory-treated items. Permethrin should not be used on human skin, underwear or cats.
The EPA recommends several tick repellents for use on exposed skin, including DEET, picaridin, IR3535 (a derivative of amino acid beta-alanine), oil of lemon eucalyptus (OLE, a natural compound) and OLE's active ingredient para-menthane-diol (PMD). Unlike permethrin, repellents repel but do not kill ticks, protect for only several hours after application, and may be washed off by sweat or water. The most popular repellent is DEET in the U.S. and picaridin in Europe. Unlike DEET, picaridin is odorless and is less likely to irritate the skin or harm fabric or plastics. Repellents with higher concentration may last longer but are not more effective; against ticks, 20% picaridin may work for 8 hours vs. 55–98.11% DEET for 5–6 hours or 30–40% OLE for 6 hours. Repellents should not be used under clothes, on eyes, mouth, wounds or cuts, or on babies younger than 2 months (3 years for OLE or PMD). If sunscreen is used, repellent should be applied on top of it. Repellents should not be sprayed directly on a face, but should instead be sprayed on a hand and then rubbed on the face.
After coming indoors, clothes, gear and pets should be checked for ticks. Clothes can be put into a hot dryer for 10 minutes to kill ticks (just washing or a warm dryer is not enough). Showering as soon as possible, looking for ticks over the entire body, and removing them reduces the risk of infection. Unfed tick nymphs are the size of a poppy seed, but a day or two after biting and attaching themselves to a person, they look like a small blood blister. The following areas should be checked especially carefully: armpits, between legs, back of knee, bellybutton, trunk, and in children ears, neck and hair.
=== Tick removal ===
Attached ticks should be removed promptly. The risk of infection increases with the time of attachment. In North America, the risk of Lyme disease is small if the tick is removed within 36 hours. CDC recommends inserting a fine-tipped tweezer between the skin and the tick, grasping very firmly, and pulling the closed tweezer straight away from the skin without twisting, jerking, squeezing or crushing the tick. After tick removal, any tick parts remaining in the skin should be removed with a clean tweezer, if possible. The wound and hands should then be cleaned with alcohol or soap and water. The tick may be disposed of by placing it in a container with alcohol, a sealed bag, tape, or flushing it down the toilet. The bitten person should write down where and when the bite happened so that this information can be provided to a doctor if the person gets a rash or flu-like symptoms in the following several weeks. CDC recommends not using fingers, nail polish, petroleum jelly or heat on the tick to try to remove it.
In Australia, where the Australian paralysis tick is prevalent, the Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy recommends not using tweezers to remove ticks, because if the person is allergic, anaphylaxis could result. Instead, a product should be sprayed on the tick to cause it to freeze and then drop off. Another method consists in using about 20 cm (8 inches) of dental floss or fishing line for slowly tying an overhand knot between the skin and the tick and then pulling it away from the skin.
=== Preventive antibiotics ===
The risk of infectious transmission increases with the duration of tick attachment. It requires between 36 and 48 hours of attachment for the bacteria that cause Lyme to travel from within the tick into its saliva. If a deer tick that is sufficiently likely to be carrying Borrelia is found attached to a person and removed, and if the tick has been attached for 36 hours or is engorged, a single dose of doxycycline administered within the 72 hours after removal may reduce the risk of Lyme disease. It is not generally recommended for all people bitten, as development of infection is rare: about 50 bitten people would have to be treated this way to prevent one case of erythema migrans (i.e., the typical rash found in about 70–80% of people infected).
=== Garden landscaping ===
Several landscaping practices may reduce the risk of tick bites in residential yards. These include keeping lawns mown, removing leaf litter and weeds and avoiding the use of ground cover. A 3-ft-wide rock or woodchip barrier is recommended to separate lawns from wood piles, woodlands, stone walls and shrubs. Without vegetation on the barrier, ticks will tend not to cross it; acaricides may also be sprayed on it to kill ticks. A sun-exposed tick-safe zone at least 9 ft from the barrier should concentrate human activity on the yard, including any patios, playgrounds and gardening. Materials such as wood decking, concrete, bricks, gravel or woodchips used on the ground under patios and playgrounds would discourage ticks there. An 8-ft-high fence may be added to keep deer away from the tick-safe zone.
=== Occupational exposure ===
Outdoor workers are at risk of Lyme disease if they work at sites with infected ticks. This includes construction, landscaping, forestry, brush clearing, land surveying, farming, railroad work, oil field work, utility line work, park or wildlife management. U.S. workers in the northeastern and north-central states are at highest risk of exposure to infected ticks. Ticks may also transmit other tick-borne diseases to workers in these and other regions of the country. Worksites with woods, bushes, high grass or leaf litter are likely to have more ticks. Outdoor workers should be most careful to protect themselves in the late spring and summer when young ticks are most active.
=== Host animals ===
Ticks can feed upon the blood of a wide array of possible host species, including lizards, birds, mice, cats, dogs, deer, cattle and humans. The extent to which a tick can feed, reproduce, and spread will depend on the type and availability of its hosts. Whether it will spread disease is also affected by its available hosts. Some species, such as lizards, are referred to as "dilution hosts" because they don't tend to support Lyme disease pathogens and decrease the likelihood that the disease will be passed on by ticks feeding on them. White-tailed deer are both a food source and a "reproductive host", where ticks tend to mate. The white-footed mouse is a reservoir host in which the pathogen for Lyme disease can survive. The availability of hosts can have significant impacts on the transmission of Lyme disease. A greater diversity of hosts, or of those that don't support the pathogen, tends to decrease the likelihood that the disease will be transmitted.
In the United States, one approach to reducing the incidence of Lyme and other deer tick-borne diseases has been to greatly reduce the deer population on which the adult ticks depend for feeding and reproduction. Lyme disease cases fell following deer eradication on an island, Monhegan, Maine, and following deer control in Mumford Cove, Connecticut. Advocates have suggested reducing the deer population to levels of 8 to 10 deer per square mile, compared to levels of 60 or more deer per square mile in the areas of the country with the highest Lyme disease rates. While these studies have found these effects, other studies have found opposite effects. A study done in Massachusetts removed deer and did not see a significant decrease in tick abundance afterwards. Another study done in New Jersey removed deer and also did not see a reduction in the number of questing ticks and determined that deer culling is an unlikely way to control tick populations effectively. One study summarized the results of multiple studies all looking at deer reduction controlling tick populations and determined that deer control can't be used as a standalone reduction for Lyme disease. It also claims that most studies examining this are not representative of areas with high human Lyme disease risk. There is varying information on whether or not the removal of deer is actually a way to control the Lyme disease epidemic. Removal of smaller mammals that are fed on by juveniles who are more actively acquiring and spreading the pathogen would decrease Lyme disease risk the most.
Others have noted that while deer are reproductive hosts, they are not Borrelia burgdorferi reservoirs. This is because it was found that white-tailed deer blood actually kills the Borrelia burgdorferi bacteria. Researchers have suggested that smaller, less obviously visible Lyme reservoirs, like white-footed mice and Eastern chipmunks, may more strongly impact Lyme disease occurrence. Ecosystem studies in New York state suggest that white-footed mice thrive when forests are broken into smaller, isolated chunks of woodland with fewer rodent predators. With more rodents harboring the disease, the odds increase that a tick will feed on a disease-harboring rodent and that someone will pick up a disease-carrying tick in their garden or while walking in the woods. Data indicates that the smaller the wooded area, the more ticks it will contain and the likely they are to carry Lyme disease, supporting the idea that deforestation and habitat fragmentation affect ticks, hosts and disease transmission.
Tick-borne diseases are estimated to affect ~80 % of cattle worldwide. They also affect cats, dogs, and other pets. Routine veterinary control of ticks of domestic animals through the use of acaricides has been suggested as a way to reduce exposure of humans to ticks. However, chemical control with acaricides is now criticized on several grounds. Ticks appear to develop resistance to acaricides; acaricides are costly; and there are concerns over their toxicity and the potential for chemical residues to affect food and the environment.
In Europe, known reservoirs of Borrelia burgdorferi were 9 small mammals, 7 medium-sized mammals and 16 species of birds (including passerines, sea-birds and pheasants). These animals seem to transmit spirochetes to ticks and thus participate in the natural circulation of B. burgdorferi in Europe. The house mouse is also suspected as well as other species of small rodents, particularly in Eastern Europe and Russia. "The reservoir species that contain the most pathogens are the European roe deer Capreolus capreolus; "it does not appear to serve as a major reservoir of B. burgdorferi" thought Jaenson & al. (1992) (incompetent host for B. burgdorferi and TBE virus) but it is important for feeding the ticks, as red deer and wild boars (Sus scrofa), in which one Rickettsia and three Borrelia species were identified", with high risks of coinfection in roe deer. Nevertheless, in the 2000s, in roe deer in Europe "two species of Rickettsia and two species of Borrelia were identified".
== Vaccination ==
As of 2023, no human vaccines for Lyme disease were available. The only human vaccine to advance to market was LYMErix, which was available from 1998, but discontinued in 2002. The vaccine candidate VLA15 was scheduled to start a phase 3 trial in the third quarter of 2022, with other research ongoing. Multiple vaccines are available for the prevention of Lyme disease in dogs.
=== LYMErix ===
The vaccine LYMErix was available from 1998 to 2002. The recombinant vaccine against Lyme disease, based on the outer surface protein A (OspA) of B. burgdorferi with aluminum hydroxide as adjuvant, was developed by SmithKline Beecham. In clinical trials involving more than 10,000 people, the vaccine was found to confer protective immunity to Lyme disease in 76% of adults after three doses with only mild or moderate and transient adverse effects. On 21 December 1998, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved LYMErix based on these trials for persons of ages 15 through 70.
Following approval of the vaccine, its entry into clinical practice was slow for a variety of reasons, including its cost, which was often not reimbursed by insurance companies. Subsequently, hundreds of vaccine recipients reported they had developed autoimmune and other side effects. Supported by some advocacy groups, a number of class-action lawsuits were filed against GlaxoSmithKline, alleging the vaccine had caused these health problems. These claims were investigated by the FDA and the Centers for Disease Control, which found no connection between the vaccine and the autoimmune complaints.
Despite the lack of evidence that the complaints were caused by the vaccine, sales plummeted and LYMErix was withdrawn from the U.S. market by GlaxoSmithKline in February 2002, in the setting of negative media coverage and fears of vaccine side effects. The fate of LYMErix was described in the medical literature as a "cautionary tale"; an editorial in Nature cited the withdrawal of LYMErix as an instance in which "unfounded public fears place pressures on vaccine developers that go beyond reasonable safety considerations." The original developer of the OspA vaccine at the Max Planck Institute told Nature: "This just shows how irrational the world can be ... There was no scientific justification for the first OspA vaccine LYMErix being pulled."
=== VLA15 ===
The hexavalent (OspA) protein subunit-based vaccine candidate VLA15 was developed by Valneva. It was granted fast track designation by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in July 2017. In April 2020 Pfizer paid $130 million for the rights to the vaccine, and the companies are developing it together, performing multiple phase 2 trials.
A phase 3 trial of VLA15 was scheduled for late 2022, recruiting volunteers at test sites located across the northeastern United States and in Europe. Participants were scheduled to receive an initial three-dose series of vaccines over the course of five to nine months, followed by a booster dose after twelve months, with both the initial series and the booster dose scheduled to be complete before the year's peak Lyme disease season.
=== Other research ===
An mRNA vaccine designed to cause a strong, fast immune response to tick saliva allowed the immune system to detect and remove the ticks from test animals before they were able to transmit the infectious bacteria. The vaccine contains mRNAs for the body to build 19 proteins in tick saliva which, by enabling quick development of erythema (itchy redness) at the bite site, protects guinea pigs against Lyme disease. It also protects the test animals if the tick is not removed, if only one tick, but not three, remains attached.
Sanofi, in cooperation with the Choumet Group and the Pardi lab, also developed and evaluated new mRNA vaccine candidates targeting the bacterium's outer surface protein A (OspA), delivered via lipid nanoparticles. In mouse models, the mRNA-OspA vaccine elicited robust immune responses and offered complete protection against infection—outperforming traditional protein-based vaccines. The findings suggest that mRNA-OspA vaccines hold promise for preventing Lyme disease in humans.
=== Canine vaccines ===
Canine vaccines have been formulated and approved for the prevention of Lyme disease in dogs. Currently, three Lyme disease vaccines are available. LymeVax, formulated by Fort Dodge Laboratories, contains intact dead spirochetes, which expose the host to the organism. Galaxy Lyme, Intervet-Schering-Plough's vaccine, targets proteins OspC and OspA. The OspC antibodies kill any of the bacteria that the OspA antibodies did not kill. Canine Recombinant Lyme, formulated by Merial, generates antibodies against the OspA protein, so a tick feeding on a vaccinated dog draws in blood full of anti-OspA antibodies, which kill the spirochetes in the tick's gut before they are transmitted to the dog.
== Etymology ==
Lyme disease was diagnosed as a separate condition for the first time in 1975 in Lyme, Connecticut.
== History ==
=== Early evidence ===
The earliest known evidence of Lyme disease was found in Oetzi, a 5300 year old mummy in the Eastern Alps near the Italian border.
The evolutionary history of Borrelia burgdorferi genetics has been examined by scientists. One study has found that before the reforestation that accompanied post-colonial farm abandonment in New England and the wholesale migration into the Midwest that occurred during the early 19th century, Lyme disease had been present for thousands of years in America and had spread along with its tick hosts from the Northeast to the Midwest.
John Josselyn, who visited New England in 1638 and again from 1663 to 1670, wrote, "There be infinite numbers of ticks hanging upon the bushes in summertime that will cleave to man's garments and creep into his breeches, eating themselves in a short time into the very flesh of a man. I have seen the stockings of those that have gone through the woods covered with them."
This is also confirmed by the writings of Peter Kalm, a Swedish botanist who was sent to America by Linnaeus, and who found the forests of New York "abound" with ticks when he visited in 1749. When Kalm's journey was retraced 100 years later, the forests were gone and the Lyme bacterium had probably become isolated to a few pockets along the northeast coast, Wisconsin, and Minnesota.
Perhaps the first detailed description of what is now known as Lyme disease appeared in the writings of John Walker after a visit to the island of Jura (Deer Island) off the west coast of Scotland in 1764. He gives a good description both of the symptoms of Lyme disease (with "exquisite pain [in] the interior parts of the limbs") and of the tick vector itself, which he describes as a "worm" with a body which is "of a reddish color and of a compressed shape with a row of feet on each side" that "penetrates the skin". Many people from this area of Great Britain emigrated to North America between 1717 and the end of the 18th century.
The examination of preserved museum specimens has found Borrelia DNA in an infected Ixodes ricinus tick from Germany dating back to 1884, and an infected mouse from Cape Cod that died in 1894. The 2010 autopsy of Ötzi the Iceman, a 5,300-year-old mummy, revealed the presence of ~60% of the DNA sequence of Borrelia burgdorferi.
The early European studies of what is now known as Lyme disease described its skin manifestations. The first study dates to 1883 in Breslau, Germany (now Wrocław, Poland), where physician Alfred Buchwald described a man who for 16 years had had a degenerative skin disorder now known as acrodermatitis chronica atrophicans.
At a 1909 research conference, Swedish dermatologist Arvid Afzelius presented a study about an expanding, ring-like lesion he had observed in an older woman following the bite of a sheep tick. He named the lesion erythema migrans. The skin condition now known as borrelial lymphocytoma was first described in 1911.
=== 1930–1970 ===
Neurological problems following tick bites have been recognized since the 1920s. French physicians Garin and Bujadoux described a farmer with a painful sensory radiculitis accompanied by mild meningitis following a tick bite. A large, ring-shaped rash was also noted, although the doctors did not relate it to the meningoradiculitis. In 1930, the Swedish dermatologist Sven Hellerström was the first to propose that EM and neurological symptoms following a tick bite were related. In the 1940s, German neurologist Alfred Bannwarth described several cases of chronic lymphocytic meningitis and polyradiculoneuritis, some of which were accompanied by erythematous skin lesions.
Carl Lennhoff, who worked at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden, believed spirochetes caused many skin conditions. In 1948, he published on his use of a special stain to microscopically observe what he believed were spirochetes in various types of skin lesions, including EM. Starting in 1946, facilities in Sweden experimented with treating EM rashes with substances known to kill spirochetes. Einar Hollström reported that "penicillin was found to be the most effective." In 1949, Nils Thyresson, who also worked at the Karolinska Institute, was the first to treat ACA with penicillin. In the 1950s, the relationship among tick bite, lymphocytoma, EM and Bannwarth's syndrome was recognized throughout Europe, leading to the widespread use of penicillin for treatment in Europe.
In 1970, a dermatologist in Wisconsin named Rudolph Scrimenti recognized an EM lesion in a person after recalling a paper by Hellerström that had been reprinted in an American science journal in 1950. This was the first documented case of EM in the United States. Based on the European literature, he treated the person with penicillin.
=== From 1970 ===
Before 1976, the elements of B. burgdorferi sensu lato infection were called or known as tick-borne meningopolyneuritis, Garin-Bujadoux syndrome, Bannwarth syndrome, Afzelius's disease, Montauk Knee or sheep tick fever. Since 1976, the disease has been most often referred to as Lyme disease, Lyme borreliosis, or simply borreliosis.
The full syndrome now known as Lyme disease was not recognized until a cluster of cases originally thought to be juvenile rheumatoid arthritis was identified in three towns in southeastern Connecticut in 1975, including the towns Lyme and Old Lyme, which gave the disease its popular name. This was investigated by physicians David Snydman and Allen Steere of the Epidemic Intelligence Service, and by others from Yale University, including Stephen Malawista, who is credited as a co-discover of the disease. The recognition that the people in the United States had EM led to the recognition that "Lyme arthritis" was one manifestation of the same tick-borne condition known in Europe.
Ecological factors contributed to the emergence of Lyme disease in the 20th century of northeastern United States. These factors include large-scale reforestation, the increase of white-tailed deer populations, and suburban development into formerly rural woodlands.
In 1980, Steere, et al., began to test antibiotic regimens in adults with Lyme disease. In the same year, New York State Health Dept. epidemiologist Jorge Benach provided Willy Burgdorfer, a researcher at the Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory, with collections of I. dammini [scapularis] from Shelter Island, New York, a known Lyme-endemic area as part of an ongoing investigation of Rocky Mountain spotted fever. In examining the ticks for rickettsiae, Burgdorfer noticed "poorly stained, rather long, irregularly coiled spirochetes." Further examination revealed spirochetes in 60% of the ticks. Burgdorfer credited his familiarity with the European literature for his realization that the spirochetes might be the "long-sought cause of ECM and Lyme disease." Benach supplied him with more ticks from Shelter Island and sera from people diagnosed with Lyme disease. University of Texas Health Science Center researcher Alan Barbour "offered his expertise to culture and immunochemically characterize the organism." Burgdorfer subsequently confirmed his discovery by isolating spirochetes identical to those found in ticks from people with Lyme disease. In June 1982, he published his findings in Science, and the spirochete was named Borrelia burgdorferi in his honor.
After the identification of B. burgdorferi as the causative agent of Lyme disease, antibiotics were selected for testing, guided by in vitro antibiotic sensitivities, including tetracycline antibiotics, amoxicillin, cefuroxime axetil, intravenous and intramuscular penicillin and intravenous ceftriaxone. The mechanism of tick transmission was also the subject of much discussion. B. burgdorferi spirochetes were identified in tick saliva in 1987, confirming the hypothesis that transmission occurred via tick salivary glands.
== Society, culture, and controversy ==
=== Landscape changes and urbanization ===
Urbanization and other anthropogenic factors can be implicated in the spread of Lyme disease to humans. In many areas, the expansion of suburban neighborhoods has led to the gradual deforestation of surrounding wooded areas and increased border contact between humans and tick-dense areas. Human expansion has also resulted in a reduction of predators that hunt deer as well as mice, chipmunks and other small rodents—the primary reservoirs for Lyme disease. As a consequence of increased human contact with host and vector, the likelihood of transmission of the disease has greatly increased. Researchers are investigating possible links between global warming and the spread of vector-borne diseases, including Lyme disease.
=== The dilution effect ===
Given these habitat-host dynamics, in 2003, some researchers began to postulate whether the so-called dilution effect could mitigate the spread of Lyme disease. The dilution effect is a hypothesis that predicts that an increase in host biodiversity will result in a decrease in the number of vectors infected with B. burgdorferi. Scientific research has shown that nymphal infection prevalence (NIP) decreases as the number of host species increases, supporting the dilution effect. That said, there is no direct relationship between decreased NIP and decreased epidemiological risk, as this has yet to be proven. Additionally, as of 2018, the dilution effect is only supported in the Northeastern United States, and has been disproved in other parts of the world that also experience high Lyme disease incidence rates
=== Chronic Lyme disease ===
The term "chronic Lyme disease" (CLD) is controversially applied to people suffering a range of signs and symptoms attributed to Lyme disease or its treatment. CLD is controversial and not recognized in the medical literature, and most medical authorities advise against long-term antibiotic treatment for Lyme disease. Studies have shown most people diagnosed with CLD have no objective evidence of previous or current infection with B. burgdorferi, or are people who should be classified as having post-treatment Lyme disease syndrome (PTLDS), which is defined as continuing or relapsing non-specific symptoms (such as fatigue, musculoskeletal pain, and cognitive complaints) in a person previously treated for Lyme disease.
The 2008 documentary Under Our Skin promoted controversial and unrecognized theories about CDL.
=== Conspiracy theories about origins ===
Prolific but unfounded conspiracy theories have alleged that Lyme disease was a biological weapon that originated in the Plum Island laboratory, which is near Old Lyme, Connecticut. A 2004 book entitled Lab 257: The Disturbing Story of the Government's Secret Plum Island Germ Laboratory fueled the conspiracy theories. Archived specimens show that Lyme disease was endemic well before the establishment of Plum Island laboratory. Additionally, Lyme disease was never a topic of research at Plum Island, according to the US Department of Homeland Security and Department of Agriculture.
In 2024 and 2025, conspiracy theories about the origins of Lyme disease were further spread due to attention from Robert F. Kennedy Jr.
== Other animals ==
=== Dogs ===
Prevention of Lyme disease is an important step in keeping dogs safe in endemic areas. Prevention education and a number of preventive measures are available. First, for dog owners who live near or visit tick-infested areas, routine vaccinations of their dogs are an important step.
Another crucial preventive measure is the use of persistent acaricides, such as topical repellents or pesticides that contain triazapentadienes (Amitraz), phenylpyrazoles (Fipronil), or permethrin (pyrethroids). These acaricides target primarily the adult stages of Lyme-carrying ticks and reduce the number of reproductively active ticks in the environment. Formulations of these ingredients are available in a variety of topical forms, including spot-ons, sprays, powders, impregnated collars, solutions, and shampoos.
Examining a dog for ticks after visiting a tick-infested area is an important precautionary measure to prevent Lyme disease. Key spots to examine include the head, neck, and ears.
In dogs, a serious long-term prognosis may result in glomerular disease, a category of kidney damage that may cause chronic kidney disease. Dogs may also experience chronic joint disease if the disease is left untreated. However, the majority of cases of Lyme disease in dogs result in complete recovery with, and sometimes without, treatment with antibiotics. In rare cases, Lyme disease can be fatal to both humans and dogs.
=== Cats ===
Unlike dogs, it is unusual for a cat to be infected with Lyme disease. However, cats are nevertheless capable of being infected with B. burgdorferi , following a bite from an infected tick. Cats infected with Lyme Disease may show symptoms including, but not limited to, lameness, fatigue, or loss of appetite. In two cases, the infected cats experienced cardiac irregularities similar to symptoms of Lyme in both dogs and humans. However, cats who are infected with Lyme disease are likely to be asymptomatic, and show no noticeable signs of the disease. Cats with Lyme are often treated with antibiotics, much like other animals. In some cases, additional treatment or therapy may be required.
=== Horses ===
Lyme disease in horses is challenging to diagnose due to variable symptoms. Common acute symptoms include weight loss, fever, lameness, ataxia, and other muscle and joint-related issues. Additional symptoms include muscle tenderness, swollen joints, arthritis, and neck stiffness. Chronic symptoms of the disease typically include neurological manifestations, such as meningitis, cranial neuritis, radiculoneuritis, and encephalitis. Furthermore, some horses do not slow clinical signs of Lyme disease.
There are three main testing strategies used to diagnose horses with Lyme disease. They include clinical evaluation, serological testing, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing. Detection of specific antibodies against B. burgdorferi alone is not sufficient for a diagnosis of equine Lyme disease, and unspecific testing for antibodies is not recommended.
Typical treatment involves antibiotics such as oxytetracycline, doxycycline, ceftriaxone, or minocycline. In some cases, a combination of antibiotics may be administered. Doxycycline and minocycline are taken orally, while oxytetracycline and ceftriaxone are usually administered intravenously. The duration and dosage of treatment vary widely among cases. In most cases, the infected horse is euthanized. Death of horses as a result of Borrelia burgdorferi infection remains unknown.
Currently, there is no approved Lyme disease vaccine for horses. However, a study demonstrated that ponies could be protected using an aluminum adjuvanted recombinant outer-surface protein A (rOspA) vaccine. While horses have been administered a Lyme disease vaccine designed for dogs, it elicits only a short-lasting antibody response. Another study supports the use of commercial Lyme disease vaccines, showing that they do elicit an antibody response, which can be significantly enhanced when horses receive an additional booster vaccine. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gods_Must_Be_Crazy | The Gods Must Be Crazy | The Gods Must Be Crazy is a 1980 black comedy film written, produced, edited and directed by Jamie Uys. An international co-production of South Africa and Botswana, it is the first film in The Gods Must Be Crazy series. Set in Southern Africa, the film stars South West African San farmer Nǃxau ǂToma as Xi, a hunter-gatherer of the Kalahari Desert whose tribe discovers a glass Coca-Cola bottle dropped from an aeroplane, and believes it to be a gift from their gods. When Xi sets out to return the bottle to the gods, his journey becomes intertwined with that of a biologist (Marius Weyers), a newly hired village school teacher (Sandra Prinsloo), and a band of guerrilla terrorists.
The Gods Must Be Crazy was released in South Africa on September 10, 1980, by Ster-Kinekor Films, and broke several box office records in the country, becoming the most financially successful South African film ever produced at the time. The film was a commercial and critical success in most other countries, but took longer to find success in the United States, where it was eventually re-released in 1984 by 20th Century Fox, with its original Afrikaans dialogue dubbed into English. Despite its success, the film attracted controversy for its depiction of race and perceived ignorance of discrimination and segregation (apartheid) in South Africa.
In 1989, it was followed by a sequel The Gods Must Be Crazy II. Three unofficial sequels were produced in Hong Kong, where Nǃxau reprised his role.
== Plot ==
Xi and his San tribe live happily in the Kalahari Desert, away from industrial civilisation. One day, a glass Coca-Cola bottle, thrown out of an airplane by a pilot, falls to the soft ground unbroken. Xi's people assume the bottle to be a gift from the gods, just like plants and animals, finding countless new uses for it, such as curing animal hides, carrying water, grinding roots, rolling dough, and tracing decorative circular shapes. Only one glass bottle exists, however, and members of the tribe are constantly demanding its use while conflict arises in the erstwhile peaceful tribe. As a result, Xi decides to make a pilgrimage to the edge of the world to dispose of the divisive object.
Meanwhile, biologist Andrew Steyn, who is studying the local wildlife in Botswana, is tasked by the local minister with bringing to the village Kate Thompson, a woman who quit her job as a journalist in Johannesburg, South Africa to become a village school teacher in Botswana. Normally competent and efficient, Andrew becomes awkward and clumsy in Kate's presence. His transport task is made difficult by an ancient Land Rover without brakes that requires him to jump out of the car to place a stone wedge under a wheel, upsetting Kate. The car stalls while fording a deep river, requiring them to camp out for the night 30 miles from their destination, which Kate finds opportunistic. While Andrew is undressing for bed with his pants down, a wild boar attacks him. As he runs through the bushes, he trips and falls onto a scantily clad Kate. Not witnessing a rhinoceros stamp out their campfire, Kate thinks Andrew put out the fire himself to scare her into seeking his protection. The next morning Kate gets stuck in a wait-a-bit tree; Andrew tries to rescue her and they both end up stuck together in their undergarments. Kate increasingly suspects that Andrew's bouts of clumsiness are calculated advances. Since their arrival at the village has been long delayed, a swaggering safari tour guide, Jack Hind, arrives to take Kate the rest of the way to the village. Andrew's assistant and mechanic, M'pudi, who has been married to seven women, counsels Andrew to explain himself to Kate.
In the fictitious neighboring state of Biryani, a band of fugitive guerrillas, led by Sam Boga, have killed three cabinet members and injured two others in an attempt on the president's life, sending the military in hot pursuit.
On his trek to dispose of the cursed Coke bottle, Xi finds a herd of goats and shoots one with a tranquilizer arrow, planning to eat it. The goatherd has him arrested, and he is sentenced to 3 months in jail. M'pudi, who once lived with the San and can speak their language, considers the verdict harsh. He and Andrew arrange to hire Xi as a tracker for the remainder of his sentence in lieu of prison time.
Meanwhile, the guerrillas invade Kate's school, taking her and the students hostages as they make their escape to a neighbouring country. Andrew, M'pudi and Xi, immersed in their fieldwork, find that they are along the terrorists' and children's path and concoct a plan. Xi, who is small in stature, slips among the children with a brief note for Kate. Xi uses makeshift tranquilizer darts to immobilize six of the eight guerrillas, allowing Kate and the children to confiscate the guerillas' firearms. Andrew and M'pudi apprehend the remaining two guerrillas. Hind arrives and takes Kate and the children away, taking credit for the rescue that Andrew, M'pudi and Xi had planned and executed.
Later, with Xi's prison term over, Andrew pays his wages and sends him on his way. Having no use for money, Xi discards it. At M'pudi's counseling, Andrew visits Kate to explain his “interesting psychological phenomenon” of awkwardness around women, but in the process repeatedly knocks over the table and utensils that Kate is setting. Kate finds his efforts endearing and kisses Andrew.
Xi eventually arrives at the top of a cliff with a solid layer of low-lying clouds obscuring the landscape below. Convinced that he has reached the edge of the world, he throws the bottle off the cliff and returns to his family.
== Cast ==
Director Jamie Uys appears in an uncredited role as the Reverend.
== Production ==
=== Development and casting ===
Jamie Uys conceived the premise of The Gods Must Be Crazy while making the 1974 documentary Animals Are Beautiful People. The documentary was filmed partially on the Kalahari Desert, where Uys first encountered the San people and "fell in love with them". Uys chose a Coca-Cola bottle as the object that the San people would discover and covet in The Gods Must Be Crazy because he felt that the bottle was representative of "our plastic society", and because it "is a beautiful thing, if you've never seen glass before".
Uys noted that he modelled the character of Andrew Steyn after himself: "I used to be awkward like that, especially with women. But then, I think most young guys knock things over with their first girl".
After writing the script for The Gods Must Be Crazy, Uys reportedly spent three months traversing the Kalahari Desert with an interpreter, searching for a San person to play the role of Xi in the film. Visiting areas of the desert inhabited by the San, Uys took photographs of individuals he felt he might cast, and then "marked the longitude and latitude, so we could find them again".
Uys decided to cast South West African San farmer Nǃxau ǂToma as Xi, and later recalled that "At first [Nǃxau] didn't understand, because they have no word for work. Then the interpreter asked, 'Would you like to come with us for some days?'" N!xau agreed and flew with Uys by aeroplane to Windhoek, South West Africa (now Namibia), which served as a base for the film's production. Uys stated that "the airplane didn't impress him at all. He thinks we are magicians, so he believes we can do anything. Nothing impressed him". In his hotel room, N!xau agreed to use the toilet, but slept on the floor rather than on the provided bed.
However, according to author Josef Gugler, Uys "[fictionalized] the production of the film. The stories he told reviewers varied". Unlike what was presented in The Gods Must Be Crazy, N!xau did not lead a hunter-gatherer lifestyle; he grew up as a herder on a farm in Botswana, before moving to South West Africa to work as a cook. In the 1980 documentary film Nǃai, the Story of a ǃKung Woman, directed by John Marshall, footage of the filming of The Gods Must Be Crazy is used. The documentary shows San restricted to living in a reservation established by South African authorities in Tsumkwe, South West Africa. The San there are shown to not be hunter-gatherers; they are instead dependent on the government for food and other aid, with some suffering from tuberculosis.
=== Filming ===
The Gods Must Be Crazy was shot in Tsumkwe, South West Africa (today Namibia), as well as in Botswana.
According to Uys, N!xau would be flown back to his home in the Kalahari Desert every three or four weeks to prevent him from suffering from culture shock. During his time in urban areas, N!xau learned to smoke and acquired an affinity for liquor and sake. Uys said that he paid N!xau $300 for his first 10 days of work, but that the money was reportedly blown away by wind. N!xau was then compensated with 12 head of cattle. In 1985, Uys said that he had sent N!xau $100 a month since filming, which N!xau used at a trading store 100 km (60 miles) from his hunting ground; Uys also stated that a $20,000 trust account in N!xau's name had been established.
A scene in which a rhinoceros stomps out a fire is based in a Burmese legend about fire-eating rhinos, which is not widely known in sub-Saharan Africa and appears not to be based in fact.
== Soundtrack ==
== Release ==
=== Box office ===
The Gods Must Be Crazy was initially released in South Africa on 10 September 1980 by Ster-Kinekor Pictures. Within its first four days of its release, the film broke box office records in every city in South Africa. It became the highest-grossing film of 1982 in Japan, where it was released under the title Bushman. Executive producer Boet Troskie sold the distribution rights to the film to 45 countries.
For its release in the United States, the original Afrikaans dialogue was dubbed into English, and voiceover work was provided for !Kung and Tswana lines. The film initially received a limited American release through Jensen Farley Pictures in 1982, but performed poorly in at least half a dozen test cities. However, the film would eventually find critical and commercial success when it was re-released by 20th Century Fox on 9 July 1984, becoming the highest-grossing foreign film released in the United States at the time. The film also played at the Music Hall Theater in Beverly Hills, California for at least eight months.
Within its first four years of release, The Gods Must Be Crazy had grossed $90 million worldwide. As of 2014, the film has grossed R 1.8 billion (approx. $200 million) worldwide, including over $60 million in the United States.
=== Critical reception ===
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three stars out of four, concluding that "it might be easy to make a farce about screwball happenings in the desert, but it's a lot harder to create a funny interaction between nature and human nature. This movie's a nice little treasure". Variety stated that the film's "main virtues are its striking, widescreen visuals of unusual locations, and the sheer educational value of its narration".
In his review of the film for The New York Times, critic Vincent Canby wrote that "watching Jamie Uys's Gods Must Be Crazy, [...] one might suspect that there were no such things as apartheid or the Immorality Act or even South Africa". Though he called the film "often genuinely, nonpolitically funny", he noted that "there's also something disturbing about the film", in that "we tend to feel that any South African work that doesn't actively condemn apartheid has the secondary effect of condoning it, if only through silence".
On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, The Gods Must Be Crazy has an approval rating of 86% based on 28 reviews, with an average rating of 7.4/10. On Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, the film has a score of 73 out of 100 based on six reviews, indicating "generally favourable reviews".
=== Home media ===
In mid-November 1986, The Gods Must Be Crazy was released on VHS in the U.S. by CBS/Fox on its Playhouse Video label.
In 2004, The Gods Must Be Crazy was released on DVD by Sony Pictures Entertainment. It was also released on DVD as a double feature with The Gods Must Be Crazy II.
== Controversies ==
The Gods Must Be Crazy attracted criticism for its perpetuation of racial stereotypes and ignorance of discrimination and segregation (apartheid) in South Africa. In the U.S., the film was reportedly picketed by the National Conference of Black Lawyers and other anti-apartheid groups when it screened at the 68th Street Playhouse in New York City.
=== Accusations of patronisation ===
Both New York Times critic Vincent Canby and author Josef Gugler called the film "patronising" towards the San people. Canby wrote that the San in the film "are seen to be frightfully quaint if not downright cute", and compared the film's narrator's statement that the San "must be the most contented people in the world" to "exactly the sort of thing that Mussolini might have said when he got those trains running on time". Gugler considered both the film's narrator and the character of Mpudi condescending, writing that "even if Mpudi feels for the San people, he is just as patronising as the narrator: 'They are the sweetest little buggers'". In response to accusations of patronisation, Uys said that "I don't think the film is patronising. When the Bushman is with us in the city, I do patronise him, because he's stupid. But in the desert, he patronises me, because I'm stupid and he's brilliant".
=== Criticisms related to apartheid ===
In 1985, cultural anthropologist Toby Alice Volkman wrote that money was "a pressing concern" for the San when The Gods Must Be Crazy was filmed, with many of them dependent on government aid and purchased food; she noted that many San enlisted in the South African Army due to the high wages it paid. She wrote: "Because the myth of Bushman innocence and bliss underlies the popularity of The Gods Must Be Crazy, it is no surprise that Mr. Uys would like us to believe in it. There is, however, little to laugh about in Bushmanland: 1,000 demoralized, formerly independent foragers crowd into a squalid, tubercular homeland, getting by on handouts of cornmeal and sugar, drinking Johnny Walker or home brew, fighting with one another and joining the South African Army".
The following year, Canadian anthropologist Richard Borshay Lee called the film "an amusing but thinly disguised piece of South African propaganda in which a peculiar element of South African white mythology receives prominent attention". Lee wrote that "the notion that some San in the 1980s remain untouched by 'civilization' is a cruel joke. The San have been the subject of a century of rapid social change and especially in the last twenty years have been forced to endure all the 'benefits' of South Africa's apartheid policies in Namibia".
Gugler wrote that the guerrillas in the film are depicted as "bad Africans [...] dangerous and destructive all right, but they are also indolent and inept. In the end, even Kate Thompson gets to disarm one of them. Their leader, Sam Boga, articulates what the film is showing us about African guerrillas: 'Why do I have to work with amateurs?' He, in turn, serves to confirm the apartheid credo that Africans would be happy with the White dispensation were it not for foreigners fomenting discontent and making trouble". Gugler goes on to state that Uys "[perpetuates] the myths of apartheid: an ordered world with Whites on top, a world where Africans are content but for the interference of outsiders".
When asked about his thoughts on apartheid, Uys commented that "I think it's a mess. We've done some silly, naughty things that we're ashamed of. We're trying to dismantle it, but it's a very complicated thing. If you go too slow, it's bad, and if you go too fast, it will ruin the economy and everyone will starve. I hope I'm not a racist, but everybody likes to think of himself as not racist, and I don't think that any of us can swear we're not racist. If it means you hate the coloured man, I'm not racist. If it means you choose to marry a girl of your own colour, is that racist, too? If the two are in love, it doesn't matter. But I chose a white girl as my wife".
== Sequel and related films ==
The Gods Must Be Crazy was followed by an official sequel, The Gods Must Be Crazy II, released by Columbia Pictures in 1989. It was written and directed by Uys, and again stars N!xau.
An unofficial sequel, Crazy Safari (also titled The Gods Must Be Crazy III), followed, a Hong Kong film starring N!xau. Other unofficial sequels include Crazy Hong Kong (The Gods Must Be Crazy IV) and The Gods Must Be Funny in China (The Gods Must Be Crazy V). Another unrelated film, Jewel of the Gods was marketed in some territories as sequels to The Gods Must Be Crazy.
== Legacy ==
Irish Spring soap had a 1989 commercial parodying the film.
The video for the song "Take Me to Your Leader" by American rock band Incubus pays homage to the film. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_W._Curris | Constantine W. Curris | Constantine William "Deno" Curris (born November 13, 1940) is an American academic administrator who was president of Murray State University, the University of Northern Iowa, and Clemson University. Curris also served as president of the American Association of State Colleges and Universities, an organization of more than 400 colleges and universities.
== Early life and education ==
Curris was born in Lexington, Kentucky, on November 13, 1940, and graduated from the University of Kentucky in 1962 with a B.A. in political science. He obtained an M.A. in political science and public administration from the University of Illinois in 1965, and an Ed.D. in higher education from the University of Kentucky in 1967.
== Career ==
Curris began his work in higher education in 1965 as vice president and dean of the faculty at Midway College in Kentucky. In 1968 he became director of academic programs for the West Virginia Board of Education. From 1969 through 1971 he was dean of student personnel programs at Marshall University in West Virginia, and for the following two years was the vice president and dean of the faculty at the West Virginia Institute of Technology.
=== Murray State ===
In 1973, the 32-year-old Curris was selected as the president of Murray State University, a position he held until 1983. After Curris's contract was not continued at Murray State in 1983, he was hired as president of University of Northern Iowa. That same year, the Murray State University Board of Regents named the school's new student center after Curris.
=== Northern Iowa ===
Curris was president and professor of public policy at the University of Northern Iowa from 1983 to 1995. One of the buildings constructed at UNI during Curris's tenure was subsequently named the Curris Business Building by the Iowa State Board of Regents.
=== Clemson ===
From 1995 to 1999, he served as president and professor of public policy of Clemson University. He oversaw an ongoing reorganization of the university into five colleges and streamlining of administrative processes. He also increased funding for scholarships for high-performing students, and opened a new student center. Curris resigned from Clemson in 1999 after undergoing radiation therapy and surgery as treatment for cancer.
=== American Association of State Colleges and Universities ===
Curris' involvement with the American Association of State Colleges and Universities began during his presidency of Northern Iowa. He was named president of the American Association of State Colleges and Universities in 1999 and served until 2008. He has also been an occasional contributor to The Chronicle of Higher Education, including articles about the public purposes of public colleges, in support of a unit-record system of collecting student data, and about getting college students to the polls.
=== Boards and commissions ===
Other professional experiences for Curris include appointments to the 1998 Commission on the Future of the South, the Kellogg Commission on the Future of State and Land-Grant Universities, the Education Commission of the States, the Iowa Board of Economic Development, the South Carolina Research Authority, The Sigma Chi Foundation, and the chairmanships of American Humanics and the Iowa Task Force on Teacher Education and Certification.
== Retirement ==
Since his retirement from AASCU in 2008 Curris has been a consultant in academic searches. From 2009 to 2015 he was appointed to the Murray State University Board of Regents and served as chairman from 2010 to 2014.
Curris is married to Jo Hern Curris, a tax attorney. They live in Lexington, Kentucky, and are the parents of two adult children: Robert Alexander and Elena Diane.
== Awards and honors ==
Curris received the Alumni Achievement Award from the College of Arts and Science at the University of Illinois. He is a member of the University of Kentucky Arts & Sciences Hall of Fame, the University of Kentucky College of Education Hall of Fame, and he was inducted into the University of Kentucky Hall of Distinguished Alumni on May 19, 2000. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_L._Jones_(botanist) | David L. Jones (botanist) | David Lloyd Jones (born 1944) is an Australian horticultural botanist and the author of many books and papers, especially on Australian orchids.
Jones was born in Victoria and in his youth was a student at Burnley Horticultural College, then the University of Melbourne, graduating with the degree of Bachelor of Science in Agriculture. He was employed for 14 years by the Victorian Department of Agriculture where he helped develop programs involving the nutrient requirements of Australian native plants. He later owned several commercial nurseries. In 1972 his first description of an orchid, Pterostylis aestiva, was published, then in 1978, his first book, Australian Ferns and Fern Allies, written with Stephen Clemesha, was published. In 1987 Jones worked first as a horticultural research officer at the Australian National Botanic Gardens in Canberra and a year later began an intensive study of the taxonomy of Australian plant groups, especially orchids. From 1994 he worked as a research scientist in the Orchid Research Group at the Centre for Plant Biodiversity Research until his retirement in 2007.
Jones facilitated a cooperation with groups of both professional and amateur botanists which has led to the description of many new species. Jones has travelled extensively and visited many remote areas of Australia in the search for new orchid species. He is the author of more than 350 papers describing new species of orchids, 18 of cycads, as well as of other groups including the fern genus Revwattsia, and has published many books on Australian plants. He is described by fellow botanist, Mark Alwin Clements as "without doubt one of the outstanding botanists of our time" and by Rob Cross and Roger Spencer, horticultural botanists at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne, as "probably the most prolific horticultural botanist that Australia has produced".
The standard author abbreviation D.L.Jones is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_Peach | Wedding Peach | Wedding Peach (Japanese: 愛天使伝説ウェディングピーチ, Hepburn: Ai Tenshi Densetsu Wedingu Pīchi; literally "Legend of the Angel of Love: Wedding Peach") is a Japanese shōjo manga written by Sukehiro Tomita and illustrated by Nao Yazawa that was originally serialized in Shogakukan's Ciao magazine. In North America, it was translated and published by VIZ Media in its entirety, consisting of six volumes.
The manga was later adapted into an anime television series directed by Kunihiko Yuyama that ran for 51 episodes on TV Tokyo, from April 5, 1995, to March 27, 1996, as well as 2 omakes Ai Tenshi Robot Wedding Peach and Ai Tenshi Sentai and a 4-episode OVA sequel (Wedding Peach DX) in 1996.
In 2004, Wedding Peach Young Love was released, a compilation of Wedding Peach stories made specifically for the monthly magazine Shogaku Sannensei ("Elementary School Third-Grader"). To better fit the magazine's target audience, the "Young Love" version of Wedding Peach features younger-looking characters, less complex storylines, and simpler dialogue.
== Plot ==
Momoko Hanasaki, along with her friends Yuri Tanima and Hinagiku Tamano, are members of the newspaper club where they mostly cover the school's soccer team. They all have a crush on the star player Kazuya Yanagiba.
On their way home from school one day, the trio are attacked by a devil by the name of Pluie who is a servant to the high ruler of the devil world, Raindevila. When her friends are hypnotized into attacking Momoko, a beautiful man comes down from the sky named Limone. He is from the angel world and gives Momoko a compact case. Opening the compact, she is told by the goddess Aphrodite, the ruler of the angel world, that she is one of the legendary Love Angels, Wedding Peach.
Momoko transforms into Wedding Peach and manages to snap her friends out of Pluie's control. Over the course of the story, Yuri and Hinagiku and later Scarlet O'Hara also find out that they are also love angels and the three (later four) must protect the humans from the devils and defeat Raindevila.
== Media ==
=== Manga ===
The manga was written and illustrated by Nao Yazawa. It was serialized the Shogakukan's Ciao magazine from March 1994 to April 1996. Shogakukan released the manga in six volumes from September 1994 to April 1996. Viz Media licensed the manga in North America and released the manga from July 10, 2003, to May 26, 2004. The series is now out-of-print.
=== Anime ===
An anime television series premiered on TV Tokyo on April 5, 1995, to March 27, 1996, and ran for 51 episodes. The anime was directed by Kunihiko Yuyama and was co-produced by KSS and OLM, Inc. A four-episode OVA series, titled Wedding Peach DX (Deluxe) was released from November 1996 to March 1997. ADV Films licensed the anime in 2003 and released the anime in ten DVDs.
==== Theme Songs ====
===== Opening Themes =====
"Dreaming Angels" (Eps. 1-27)
Lyrics: Miho Matsuba / Composer: Ritsuko Okazaki / Arrangement: Masaki Iwamoto / Vocals: FURIL (Kyōko Hikami, Yūko Miyamura, Yukana Nogami) (Star Child Records)
"Wedding Wars-Love Is A Flame" (Eps. 28–51)
Lyrics: Arisu Sato / Composer: Kanji Saito, Akira Yamato / Arrangement: Anri Sekine / Vocals: Erina Nakajima (KSS Music)
"Merry Angel" (DX Eps. 1–4)
Lyrics: Arisu Sato / Composer: Kanji Saito / Arrangement: Kanji Saito / Vocals: FURIL' (Kyōko Hikami, Yūko Miyamura, Yukana Nogami, Yuka Imai) (KSS Music)
===== Ending Themes =====
"21st Century Juliet" (Eps. 1-27)
Lyrics: Yuriko Oda / Composer: Taka Kudou / Arrangement: Masaki Iwamoto / Vocals: FURIL (Star Child Records)
"Virgin Love" (Eps. 28–51)
Lyrics: Arisu Sato / Composer: Kanji Saito, Akira Yamato / Arrangement: Anri Sekine / Vocals: FURIL (KSS Music)
"Sweet Little Love" (DX Eps. 1–4)
Lyrics: Arisu Sato / Composer: Harukichi Yamamoto / Arrangement: Harukichi Yamamoto / Vocals: FURIL' (KSS Music)
==== Episodes ====
===== Wedding Peach =====
===== Wedding Peach DX =====
===== Omake =====
=== Games ===
A Super Famicom game was released only in Japan in 1995. In the game, the player plays as one of the three main girls (either Momoko, Yuri or Hinagiku) to compete with the others in a series of mini games. The ultimate goal is to win the right to ask the guy that all three girls are in love with (Yanagiba) to the school dance. The game has a three player option as well, where two other people can play the other two girls.
Wedding Peach games have also been released for the Game Boy (Jama-P Panic! - 1995), PC-98 (Wedding Peach - 1996), and PlayStation (Wedding Peach - Doki Doki Oiro-naoshi Fashion Dai-sakusen - 1996). |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vangelis_Pavlidis | Vangelis Pavlidis | Vangelis Pavlidis (Greek: Βαγγέλης Παυλίδης; [vaɲˈɟelis paˈvliðis]; born 21 November 1998) is a Greek professional footballer who plays as a centre forward for Primeira Liga club Benfica and the Greece national team.
Born and raised in Thessaloniki, Greece, Pavlidis started his professional career with VfL Bochum in 2016 and then represented Willem II before signing with AZ Alkmaar in 2021, being crowned the Eredivisie top scorer in 2024. In July 2024, he signed with Benfica for a fee of €18 million.
Pavlidis represented Greece at various youth levels and made his senior debut for Greece in 2019.
== Club career ==
=== VfL Bochum ===
On 9 April 2016, Pavlidis signed a professional contract until the summer of 2019. On 15 May 2016, he made his debut with the club as a substitute in a 2. Bundesliga 4–2 away win against 1. FC Heidenheim.
==== Loan to Borussia Dortmund II ====
On 26 January 2018, Pavlidis joined Borussia Dortmund II on loan for the second half of the season. On 22 June 2018, Pavlidis loan spell was extended until summer 2019.
=== Willem II ===
On 17 January 2019, Willem II confirmed the signing Pavlidis on loan from Bochum until the end of the 2018–19 season. On 23 January, he scored his first goal with the club after Marios Vrousai's assist in a 3–2 away KNVB Beker win against FC Twente. On 16 February, he scored his first goal in Eredivisie. Over six months, Pavlidis recorded six goals and five assists in seventeen matches.
On 29 April, Pavlidis signed a permanent deal with the club. Subsequently that year, on 2 August, in the opening game of the 2019–20 Eredivisie, Pavlidis scored twice as Willem II won 3–1 against PEC Zwolle. He started the following season by scoring four goals in his first two Eredivisie matches, before adding seven goals the rest of the campaign. With the season being abandoned due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the Netherlands, Willem II finished fifth place in the Eredivisie, earning a spot in the Europa League second qualifying round.
On 16 September 2020, Pavlidis scored twice in the Europa League qualifying match against Progrès Niederkorn, which ended in a 5–0 win. Willem II were eliminated in the next round by Scottish side Rangers, following a 4–0 loss. On the final matchday, Pavlidis scored a stunning solo goal in a 2–1 win against Fortuna Sittard, that kept Willem II in the Eredivisie.
=== AZ Alkmaar ===
On 9 July 2021, Pavlidis signed a contract until 2025 at Dutch club AZ Alkmaar. He made his debut for AZ on 14 August as a substitute against RKC Waalwijk and started his first match four days later in a UEFA Europa League qualifier against Celtic. On 29 August, he scored his first goal for AZ against Heerenveen. Later that year, on 1 December, Pavlidis was one of the eleven nominees for the 2021 Puskás Award. He finished the season with 25 goals in 51 matches. He also scored in the final of the European play-offs against Vitesse, helping AZ qualify for the Europa League second qualifying round. In the Eredivisie, he scored sixteen goals, ranking third on the top scorers list behind Sébastien Haller and Loïs Openda.
In the 2022–23 season, Pavlidis was sidelined for two months with an ankle injury, but still managed to score eight goals in the thirteen matches he played before the winter break. On 28 January 2023, he netted a hat-trick in a thrilling 5–5 draw against Utrecht, where his compatriot Anastasios Douvikas also scored a hat-trick. On 21 May, he provided an hat-trick of assists in a 3–0 victory against NEC Nijmegen. That season, AZ reached the semi-finals of the UEFA Europa Conference League, where they were eliminated by West Ham United and finished the season with 22 goals and 14 assists in 40 matches.
The following season, Pavlidis became the first player in Eredivisie history to score in each of the first nine matchdays. He ended that streak with a hat-trick in a 3–0 victory against Heerenveen, bringing his total to thirteen goals in those nine games. He finished the Eredivisie season with 29 goals, making him the joint top scorer alongside Luuk de Jong.
=== Benfica ===
On 1 July 2024, Pavlidis joined Primeira Liga side Benfica on a permanent deal, signing a five-year contract with the club; the transfer reportedly commanded an €18 million fee, plus €2 million in possible add-ons, and a 10% sell-on clause in favor of AZ Alkmaar.
==== 2024–25 season ====
He made his competitive debut for his new club in a 2–0 loss to Famalicão on 11 August 2024, and scored his first goal in a 3–0 win against Casa Pia three days later. On 27 November, he scored his maiden Champions League goal in a 3–2 away win over Monaco. On 11 January 2025, Pavlidis won his first trophy with Benfica, as they defeated crosstown rivals Sporting CP in the Taça da Liga final on penalties following a 1–1 draw in normal time.
On 21 January, he netted his first Champions League hat-trick against Barcelona. All his goals came inside the opening 30 minutes, making it the third-fastest treble from the start of a match in the competition's history. Despite his performance, the match ended in a 5–4 loss. After a slow start to the season, Pavlidis scored nine goals in eight matches, including the first goal in the 2–0 win over Juventus in the Champions League, on 29 January, securing his team's progression to the knockout phase play-offs qualification. In February, he scored in both legs against Monaco in the Champions League knockout phase play-offs as Benfica secured a 4–3 aggregate victory to advance to the Champions League round of 16. His seventh goal of the European campaign made him Benfica's top scorer in the Champions League, surpassing João Mário's record of six goals set in the 2023–24 season.
Later that month, Pavlidis earned the league's Player of the Month and Forward of the Month awards. On 7 April, he scored an hat-trick in a 4–1 away win over rivals Porto in O Clássico. His first goal was the fastest goal scored away in the history of O Clássico and Pavlidis also became the first Benfica player to score three goals in the Estádio do Dragão.
== International career ==
Pavlidis represented Greece at under-17, taking part in the 2015 UEFA European Under-17 Championship, where Greece were eliminated in the group stage. He also played at under-19, under-20 and under-21 levels, for a total of 28 caps, scoring 10 goals.
On 29 August 2019, he was called up to the Greek senior team by coach John van 't Schip for the forthcoming Euro 2020 qualifiers against Finland and Liechtenstein. On 10 October 2024, he scored two goals against England in a 2–1 away Nations League victory, marking the first time Greece had beaten their opponents. In his celebration, he paid an emotional tribute to his recently deceased national teammate George Baldock, who had died the day prior. He held aloft a shirt with Baldock's name on it.
== Personal life ==
Pavlidis was born in Thessaloniki to a Pontic Greek family from the village of Katachas in Pieria. His mother hails from the village Alistrati.
== Career statistics ==
=== Club ===
As of match played 21 March 2026
=== International ===
As of match played 15 November 2025
Scores and results list Greece's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Pavlidis goal.
== Honours ==
Benfica
Taça da Liga: 2024–25
Supertaça Cândido de Oliveira: 2025
Individual
Eredivisie Player of the Month: August 2023, October 2023
Eredivisie top scorer: 2023–24 (shared with Luuk de Jong)
Best Greek Player playing Abroad: 2023–24, 2024–25
Primeira Liga Player of the Month: February 2025, December 2025
Primeira Liga Forward of the Month: February 2025, December 2025
Primeira Liga Team of the Year: 2024–25 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BomBora_(Lagoon) | BomBora (Lagoon) | BomBora is a family steel roller coaster currently operating at Lagoon in Farmington, Utah. It is located just outside Lagoon-A-Beach, Lagoon's water park. The name of the coaster comes from an indigenous Australian term for "a submerged reef" or "a turbulent area of sea over such a reef."
== History ==
Construction started in 2010, after lockers for Lagoon-A-Beach were demolished. The roller coaster opened in 2011.
== Ride experience ==
The ride starts with a left turn out of the station and into the lift hill. At the top of the lift hill, riders fall down the highest drop in the ride and enter a series of drops and twists, while surf rock music plays, before reaching the final brake run and returning to the station. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheyenne,_Wyoming | Cheyenne, Wyoming | Cheyenne ( shy-AN or shy-EN) is the capital and most populous city of the U.S. state of Wyoming. The population was 65,132 at the 2020 census, while the Cheyenne metropolitan area encompassing all of Laramie County has an estimated 102,000 residents. Cheyenne is situated on Crow Creek and Dry Creek. It is the county seat of Laramie County.
Cheyenne was established within the Dakota Territory in 1867 as a junction along the Union Pacific Railroad. Local residents named the town for the Cheyenne people. Its economy is anchored by government services, transportation, and military operations, notably Francis E. Warren Air Force Base, with emerging growth in data centers and renewable energy. Cheyenne hosts cultural institutions such as the Wyoming State Museum and Cheyenne Frontier Days Old West Museum, and is known for the annual Cheyenne Frontier Days, a longstanding rodeo and cultural event. Cheyenne is the northern terminus of the extensive Southern Rocky Mountain Front.
== History ==
At a celebration on July 4, 1867, Grenville M. Dodge of the Union Pacific Railroad announced the selection of a townsite for its mountain region headquarters adjacent to the bridge the railroad planned to build across Crow Creek in the Territory of Dakota. At the same celebration, Major General Christopher C. Augur announced the selection of a site three miles (5 km) west of Crow Creek Crossing for a U.S. Army fort to protect the railroad.
The Union Pacific Railroad platted its Crow Creek Crossing townsite on July 5, 1867. Residents named the town Cheyenne for the Cheyenne Native American people. On August 8, 1867, the Town of Cheyenne, Dakota Territory was incorporated, and on August 10, 1867, H. M. Hook was elected as Cheyenne's first mayor. The tracks of the Union Pacific Railroad reached Cheyenne on November 13, 1867, and the first train arrived the following day. Cheyenne grew so quickly it gained the nickname of "Magic City of the Plains".
On September 8, 1867, the United States Army established Fort D. A. Russell in honor of Brigadier General David Allen Russell. Initially a cavalry encampment, construction of the fort began the following month. The fort was renamed Fort Francis E. Warren in 1930 in honor of the first Governor of the State of Wyoming, Francis E. Warren. The fort was transferred to the new United States Air Force and was renamed Francis E. Warren Air Force Base in October 1949.
On July 25, 1868, the United States organized the Territory of Wyoming. Territorial Governor John Allen Campbell arrived in Cheyenne on May 7, 1869, and named Cheyenne the temporary territorial capital. Cheyenne has remained the only capital of Wyoming. On December 10, 1869, the first session of the Wyoming Territorial Legislature met in Cheyenne. That day, the legislature passed and Territorial Governor Campbell signed an act to re-incorporate the Town of Cheyenne, Wyoming Territory, and an act granting women the right to vote, the first U.S. state or territory to grant suffrage to women.
On July 10, 1890, the Territory of Wyoming was admitted to the Union as the State of Wyoming. The Wyoming State Capitol was constructed between 1886 and 1890, with further improvements being completed in 1917.
The Cheyenne Regional Airport was opened in 1920, initially serving as a stop for airmail. It soon developed into a civil-military airport, serving DC-3s and various military craft. During World War II, hundreds of B-17s, B-24s, and PBYs were outfitted and upgraded at the airfield. Today, it serves a number of military functions, and as a high-altitude testbed for civilian craft.
== Geography ==
Lying near the southeast corner of the state, Cheyenne is one of the least centrally located state capitals in the nation (together with cities such as Carson City, Nevada; Juneau, Alaska; Tallahassee, Florida; Topeka, Kansas; and Trenton, New Jersey).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 24.63 square miles (63.79 km2), of which 24.52 square miles (63.51 km2) is land and 0.11 square miles (0.28 km2) is water.
=== Climate ===
Cheyenne, like much of Wyoming, has a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen BSk) and is part of USDA Hardiness zone 5b, with the suburbs falling in zone 5a. Winters are cold and moderately long, but relatively dry with highs often above freezing, having a normal mean temperature of 27.7 °F (−2.4 °C), highs that fail to breach freezing for 35 days per year, and lows that dip to the 0 °F (−18 °C) mark on 9.2 mornings. However, the cold is often interrupted, with chinook winds blowing downslope from the Rockies that can bring warm conditions, bringing the high above 50 °F (10 °C) on twenty days from December to February.
While December is the coldest month, snowfall is greatest in March and April, seasonally averaging 60 inches (1,500 mm), historically ranging from 13.1 inches (330 mm) between July 1965 and June 1966 up to 121.5 inches (3,090 mm) between July 1979 and June 1980, yet thick snow cover rarely stays. Summers are warm, with a high diurnal temperature range; July averages 69.4 °F (20.8 °C), and highs reach 90 °F (32 °C) on average for twelve afternoons annually. Spring and autumn are quick transitions, with the average window for freezing temperatures being September 29 thru May 14, allowing a growing season of 106 days. Official record temperatures range from −38 °F (−39 °C) on January 9, 1875, up to 100 °F (38 °C) on June 23, 1954, the last of four occurrences; the record cold daily maximum is −21 °F (−29 °C) on January 11, 1963, while, conversely, the record warm daily minimum is 68 °F (20 °C) on July 31, 1960. The annual precipitation of 15.9 inches (400 mm) tends to be concentrated from May to August and is low during fall and winter; it has historically ranged from 5.04 inches (128.0 mm) in 1876 to 23.69 inches (602 mm) in 1942.
The city averages below 60% daily relative humidity in each month and receives an average 2,980 hours (~67% of the possible total) of sunshine annually. On July 16, 1979, an F3 tornado struck Cheyenne, causing one death and 40 injuries. It was the most destructive tornado in Wyoming history.
See or edit raw graph data.
== Demographics ==
=== Racial and ethnic composition ===
=== 2020 census ===
As of the 2020 census, Cheyenne had a population of 65,132. The median age was 37.6 years. 22.7% of residents were under the age of 18 and 17.4% of residents were 65 years of age or older. For every 100 females there were 98.7 males, and for every 100 females age 18 and over there were 97.1 males age 18 and over.
99.8% of residents lived in urban areas, while 0.2% lived in rural areas.
There were 28,184 households in Cheyenne, of which 27.4% had children under the age of 18 living in them. Of all households, 42.7% were married-couple households, 22.4% were households with a male householder and no spouse or partner present, and 27.7% were households with a female householder and no spouse or partner present. About 35.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.
There were 29,986 housing units, of which 6.0% were vacant. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.2% and the rental vacancy rate was 6.5%.
The U.S. Census Bureau estimated the racial and ethnic makeup of the city was 77.1% non-Hispanic white, 1.7% Black or African American, 0.6% American Indian or Alaska Native, 1.5% Asian, 0.2% Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, 6.7% two or more races, and 15.9% Hispanic or Latin American of any race, in 2020.
The most reported detailed racial/ethnic groups in 2020 were:
German (22.8%)
English (19.9%)
Irish (16.3%)
Mexican (10.8%)
Scottish (4.4%)
Italian (3.7%)
French (2.9%)
Spanish (2.4%)
Norwegian (2.3%)
African American (2.3%)
=== 2015–2019 American Community Survey ===
At the 2019 American Community Survey, the city had an owner-occupied housing rate of 65.9% with a median value at $214,300. Households averaged 2.20 persons from 2015 to 2019. Residents of Cheyenne had a median household income of $64,598 and per capita of $35,637. An estimated 10.4% lived at or below the poverty line.
=== 2010 census ===
As of the census of 2010, there were 59,467 people, 25,558 households, and 15,270 families living in the city. The population density was 2,425.2 inhabitants per square mile (936.4/km2). There were 27,284 housing units at an average density of 1,112.7 per square mile (429.6/km2).
Of these households, 30.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.1% were married couples living together, 12.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 40.3% were non-families. 33.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.29 and the average family size was 2.92.
The median age in the city was 36.5 years at the 2010 census. Twenty-four percent of residents were under the age of 18; 9.5% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.9% were from 25 to 44; 26.2% were from 45 to 64; and 13.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.3% male and 50.7% female.
In 2010, the racial makeup of the city was 87.44% White, 2.88% African American, 0.96% Native American, 1.24% Asian, 0.20% Pacific Islander, 4.0% from other races, and 3.28% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 14.45% of the population. At the 2005–2007 American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates, the city's population was 87.2% White (79.3% non-Hispanic White alone), 12.7% Hispanic or Latino (of any race), 4.5% Black or African American, 2.5% American Indian and Alaska Native, 2.1% Asian and 6.4% from some other race.
=== 2000 census ===
As of the census of 2000, there were 53,011 people, 22,324 households, 14,175 families living in the city, and 81,607 people living in the metropolitan statistical area, making it the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Wyoming. The population density was 2,511.4 inhabitants per square mile (969.6/km2). There were 23,782 housing units at an average density of 1,126.7 per square mile (435.0/km2).
Of these households, 30.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.2% were married couples living together, 10.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.5% were non-families. 31.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.93.
In 2000, 24.9% were under the age of 18, 8.8% were from 18 to 24, 29.7% were from 25 to 44, 22.8% were from 45 to 64, and 13.8% were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.7 males.
In 2000, the racial makeup of the city was 88.1% White, 2.8% Black or African American, 0.8% Native American, 1.1% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 4.4% from other races, and 2.7% from two or more races. 12.5% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
The median income for a household in the city was $38,856, and the median income for a family was $46,771. Males had a median income of $32,286 versus $24,529 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,809. About 6.3% of families and 8.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.1% of those under age 18 and 5.8% of those age 65 or over.
== Arts and culture ==
Cheyenne Frontier Days, which is held over ten days centered around the last full week in July, is known as the largest outdoor rodeo and western festival in the world. The events include professional bull riding, calf roping, barrel racing, steer wrestling, team roping, bronc riding, steer roping, bareback riding, and many others. During this week there are many parades and other events. Additionally there is a carnival with numerous rides, games, and shops. The festival has been held since 1897.
=== Landmarks ===
Tivoli Building
William Sturgis House
Wyoming State Capitol
F. E. Warren Air Force Base, one of the United States's oldest, continuously active installations (originally U.S. Army Fort D. A. Russell).
Nagle Warren Mansion
Frontier Mall
=== National Register of Historic Places ===
Over fifty different locations in Cheyenne are listed on the National Register of Historic Places, including:
The Historic Plains Hotel (added 1978)
Atlas Theatre (added 1973)
Union Pacific Depot (Cheyenne Depot Museum) (1973)
the Governor's Mansion (1969)
Nagle-Warren Mansion (1976)
First Presbyterian Church (1869)
First United Methodist Church (1975)
St. Mark's Episcopal Church (1970)
St. Mary's Catholic Cathedral (1974)
Cheyenne High School (2005)
High Plains Horticulture Research Station (also known as High Plains Arboretum) (1930–1974)
Storey Gymnasium (2005)
Park Addition School (1970)
Big Boy Steam Engine (1956)
Botanic Gardens Rotary Century Plaza and Steam Locomotive (1921)
Several districts in the city are also listed, including:
Downtown Cheyenne Historic District (1978, with boundary increase in 1980, 1988, 1996. Encompasses 205 acres (0.83 km2) and 67 buildings)
Lakeview Historic District (1996, 350 acres and 109 buildings)
Rainsford Historic District (1984, 1980 acres and 288 buildings)
Capitol North Historic District (1980, 204 acres and 112 buildings)
Fort David A. Russell (1969, 6,300 acres and 19 buildings)
Union Pacific Roundhouse, Turntable and Machine Shop (1992, 113 acres and 2 buildings)
South Side Historic District (2006)
== Sports ==
Sports venues in Cheyenne include the Cheyenne Ice and Events Center, Pioneer Park, Powers Field, Bison Stadium, and Okie-Blanchard Stadium.
In 2012, the Cheyenne Warriors were founded as an American Professional Football League team. After playing a season in the APFL, they announced a move to the Indoor Football League. Shortly after the owner of the team died in December, the Warriors announced that they were forming the new Developmental Football League. In May 2013, after playing several games in this new league, the team folded.
In 2020, the city of Cheyenne was chosen to host the historical match between Canadian Dave Leduc who was defending his Lethwei world title against American challenger Cyrus Washington. The event marked the first time in the history of the ancient Burmese combat sport of Lethwei to be held in North America. The event was held at the Outlaw Saloon and was sanctioned by the World Lethwei Federation in partnership with the Wyoming Combat Sports Commission. As of 2024, Wyoming is the first and only US state to have legalized Lethwei in its territory.
== Parks and recreation ==
The Cheyenne Community Recreation and Events Department operates an Ice and Events center, swimming pool, spray park, skateboard park, two golf courses, Cheyenne Botanic Gardens (including the Paul Smith Children's Village at the Gardens), paddle boat rentals in Lions Park (summers only), cemeteries, forestry operations, community house, Youth Activity Center and a miniature golf park.
The Cheyenne Parks and Recreation Department also operates over 47 miles (76 kilometers) of greenway on the Greater Cheyenne Greenway system. The greenway connects parks and neighborhoods of greater Cheyenne. It includes many bridges and underpasses where travelers can avoid high traffic roads and travel above waterways and drainages. It is known that the famous bicycler, Cheyenne Otero, spent many weekends there training for marathons. In 1996, as a result of the greenway, Cheyenne was named a "Trail Town USA" by the National Park service and the American Hiking Society.
== Government ==
Cheyenne's government consists of a mayor and a city council, elected on a non-partisan basis. The mayor is elected in a citywide vote. The current Mayor, Patrick Collins, a bicycle shop owner, took office on January 4, 2021. He was elected for a second term in the November 2024 mayoral election. The city council has nine members each of whom are elected from one of three wards. Each ward elects three members. The mayor's office is responsible for managing the various city departments, which consist of Police, Fire Rescue, Planning and Development, Engineering, Public Works, Treasury, Attorney's Office, Human Resources, and Municipal Court. The Planning and Development Department manages the Downtown Development Authority. The Cheyenne Board of Public Utilities is owned by the city but is semi-autonomous.
In March 2025, Cheyenne Police Chief Mark Francisco announced a nearly full sworn officer staff with 111 of 115 positions filled.
== Education ==
Public education in all of the city of Cheyenne is provided by Laramie County School District #1. The district is served by four high schools, Central High on the northwest side, East High on the east side, South High on the south side, and Triumph High, also on the south side.
Cheyenne is home to the Laramie County Community College (LCCC), one of seven constituent campuses managed by the Wyoming Community College Commission.
Cheyenne has a public library, a branch of the Laramie County Library System.
== Media ==
Wyoming Tribune Eagle newspaper
KGWN
== Infrastructure ==
=== Transportation ===
==== Major highways ====
I-25 – North–South Interstate running from New Mexico to Wyoming intersects I-80 southwest of Cheyenne.
I-80 – East-West Interstate running from California to New Jersey. Intersects I-25 southwest of Cheyenne.
I-180 – Bypass Interstate that runs concurrent with US 85 from I-80 to US 30.
US 30 (Lincoln Highway) – East–west route through Cheyenne
US 85 (South Greeley Highway, Central Avenue (Southbound), Warren Avenue (Northbound)) – North–South route through Cheyenne
US 87 – North–South through Cheyenne that runs concurrent with I-25 through Cheyenne
WYO 210 (Happy Jack Road) – East–west route from I-25/US 87 (Exit 10) west out of Cheyenne towards Laramie
WYO 211 (Horsecreek Road) – Runs northwest out of Cheyenne to Horse Creek.
WYO 212 (College Drive, Four Mile Road) – North–South route that forms a beltway around Cheyenne. From I-25 (Exit 7) to WYO 219
WYO 219 (Yellowstone Road) – North–South route from US 85 in Cheyenne near the Cheyenne Airport north out of the city
WYO 221 (Fox Farm Road) – East–west route from US 85 east to WYO 212 in Cheyenne
WYO 222 (Fort Access Road) – North–South route from WYO 225 just southeast of Cheyenne and travels north to F.E. Warren Air Force Base and continues on its north route east of the city to WYO 221
WYO 225 (Otto Road) – East–west route from I-80/US 30 southwest of Cheyenne west
==== Public transit ====
Cheyenne Transit Program provides bus service to the Cheyenne area.
Intercity bus service to the city is provided by Express Arrow and Greyhound Lines.
==== Airports ====
Cheyenne Regional Airport features daily, nonstop airline service on United Express to Denver International Airport.
==== Railroads ====
The Union Pacific and BNSF railroads intersect in Cheyenne. The city is home to both a BNSF railyard and Union Pacific railyard, the latter of which houses the Union Pacific roundhouse that hosts their steam program. UP's operational steam locomotives 844 and 4014 reside in the steam shop. By November 2022, Challenger 3985 was moved to its new home at Silvis, Illinois, along with Centennial unit 6936, & 2-10-2 number 5511.
== Notable people ==
== Sister cities ==
Cheyenne's sister cities are:
Bismarck, North Dakota, United States
Waimea, Hawaii County, Hawaii, United States
Lompoc, California, United States
Hammam Sousse, Tunisia
Lourdes, France
Taichung, Taiwan
Voghera, Italy
Accra, Ghana |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Perkins_(businessman) | Thomas Perkins (businessman) | Thomas James Perkins (January 7, 1932 – June 7, 2016) was an American businessman and venture capitalist who was one of the founders of the venture capital firm Kleiner Perkins.
== Biography ==
Perkins received a B.S. in electrical engineering from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1953. He earned an MBA from Harvard University in 1957. While attending MIT, Perkins joined the Delta Upsilon fraternity. Perkins was mentored by Georges Doriot.
=== Career ===
In 1963, he was invited by Bill Hewlett and David Packard to become the administrative head of the research department at Hewlett-Packard. He was the first general manager of HP's computer divisions, credited with helping shepherd HP's entry into the minicomputer business. During the 1960s, he also started University Laboratories, which was later merged into Spectra-Physics. At University Laboratories he was the co-developer of the first low-cost He-Ne laser, having had the idea of how to directly integrate the laser cavity mirrors inside the plasma tube.
In 1973, with Eugene Kleiner, he founded Kleiner Perkins, one of the first Sand Hill Road venture capital firms. Later, Frank J. Caufield and Brook Byers joined the firm, eventually becoming named partners. Perkins was a director at Applied Materials, Compaq, Corning Glass, Genentech, Hewlett-Packard, and Philips Electronics. He was chairman of Tandem Computers, from its founding in 1974 until its 1997 merger with Compaq. Perkins was also chairman of Genentech from 1976 until 1990, when it merged with Roche Holding Ltd.
During the HP/Compaq merger fight in 2001, Perkins was a member of the Compaq board and an outspoken supporter of the merger. He joined the HP board of directors in the merger, retired, and officially rejoined the HP board days before Carly Fiorina was forced to resign from her posts as chairman and chief executive officer of HP. Perkins led efforts to force Fiorina out.
==== Resignation from HP Board ====
Perkins resigned from HP's board on May 18, 2006, over the actions taken by the board's chair, Patricia C. Dunn, to ferret out the board-level source of media leaks using methods Perkins considered unethical and possibly illegal. HP gave no cause in the SEC-required 8-K filing, and according to Perkins refused to amend the filing to indicate his reasons for resigning. In response, Perkins disclosed his reasons publicly, triggering an SEC investigation and significant media interest into HP's leak-finding activities.
Perkins's residential phone records were obtained through a method known as pretexting. AT&T confirmed that someone pretended to be Perkins, using his phone number and his Social Security Number. HP confirmed that the investigative firm they hired used pretexting to obtain information on the call records of the directors. HP's investigation found that Dr. George Keyworth was the source of several leaks. At the May 18, 2006 board meeting, Keyworth admitted to leaking information but refused to resign after the board passed a resolution calling for his resignation. HP's board decided on August 31, 2006, to not renominate Keyworth for another term as director.
The Securities and Exchange Commission and the State of California began inquiries into the methods used by HP to investigate its directors.
==== News Corp. board ====
Perkins sat on the board of directors of Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation along with Viet D. Dinh. Dinh represented Perkins in the HP board affair. In July, 2011, Dinh and fellow News Corp. board member Joel Klein took over the investigation of the News of the World phone hacking affair and related Corporation issues. One business commentator, noting Perkins' prior experience with phone-hacking in the HP scandal, speculated that Perkins "may be [was the] best hope" as News Corp. sought to work out of its phone-hacking scandal. Perkins did not stand for reelection to the News Corp board for the fiscal year of 2012.
== Personal life ==
As of 2014, Perkins was worth an estimated $8 billion. He had two children, with his first wife, the late Gerd Thune-Ellefsen. After she died in 1994, he married romance novelist Danielle Steel in March 1998; her book The Klone and I (ISBN 0-385-32392-1) was about their friendship. They separated in August 1999 and were later amicably divorced.
In 1996, Perkins was convicted in France of involuntary manslaughter arising from a yacht-racing collision and was fined $10,000.
Perkins was the subject of a 2007 60 Minutes special titled "Captain of Capitalism", which focused on his memoir and featured a tour of his yacht. He was also featured in the documentary film Something Ventured, which premiered in 2011.
=== Criticism for "Kristallnacht" comment ===
In January 2014, the Wall Street Journal published a letter from Perkins that compared the "progressive war on the American one percent" of wealthiest Americans and the Occupy movement's "demonization of the rich" to the Kristallnacht and anti-semitism in Nazi Germany:
Writing from the epicenter of progressive thought, San Francisco, I would call attention to the parallels of fascist Nazi Germany to its war on the "one percent", namely its Jews, to the progressive war on the American one percent, namely the "rich."
The letter was widely criticized and condemned in The Atlantic, The Independent, among bloggers, Twitter users, and "his own colleagues in Silicon Valley". Perkins subsequently apologized for making the comparisons with Nazi Germany, but otherwise stood by his letter, saying, "In the Nazi era it was racial demonization, now it's class demonization."
A month after publication of the letter in the Wall Street Journal, Perkins stated in a Commonwealth Club interview (which can be seen on YouTube) when asked at the ending for his 60-minute "Plan to Save the World" he said that he believed elections should be set up such that the number of votes a person can cast would be proportional to the amount of taxes that the person pays. Both Perkins, the moderator and the audience were laughing. In an interview afterwards, Perkins said "I intended to be outrageous, and it was."
=== Homes and yachts ===
Perkins had houses in Belvedere, Marin County, California, and spent about two months a year at Plumpton Place, his Elizabethan mansion in East Sussex, England, which once belonged to Led Zeppelin guitarist Jimmy Page. In 2010, he purchased the penthouse atop the Millennium Tower on Mission Street in San Francisco's financial district.
In July 2006, he formally launched his 289-foot (88 m) sailing yacht named The Maltese Falcon, at the time the world's largest privately owned sailing yacht. The yacht was listed for sale in 2006 on Yachtworld.com, the asking price being €99m with engine hours listed at 1,890 hours. Perkins sold the yacht for £60 million in July 2009.
In 2011, Perkins acquired a Japanese fisheries training vessel, and had it converted into an "adventure" yacht named Dr. No which is used to carry a "Deep Flight" submarine, manufactured by Hawkes Ocean Technologies, of Richmond California. The boat has a website which carries a link to a video documenting encounters with Humpback whales at depth in Tonga.
=== Death ===
Perkins died June 7, 2016, after a prolonged illness at his home in Marin County, California, aged 84.
== Books ==
Classic Supercharged Sports Cars (ISBN 0-9612268-0-3) Published in 1984, this is Perkins's account of pre-World War II classic car collection.
Sex and the Single Zillionaire, (ISBN 0-06-085167-8) published In January 2006, this is Perkins first romance novel, which he dedicated to Steel. The plot of the book is based on a reality TV idea which was pitched to Perkins, where he would date a series of women and choose one to marry. He claims that "no 'ghost' did the writing." Proceeds from the book will be donated to Harvard University.
Valley Boy: The Education of Tom Perkins. (ISBN 1-59-240313-1) published in November 2007, this is Perkins's memoir. Perkins discussed the book, his time at HP, and his sailboat with Lesley Stahl on 60 Minutes in September 2007.
Mine's Bigger: The Extraordinary Tale of the World's Greatest Sailboat and the Silicon Valley Tycoon Who Built It. An account of Perkins' building of The Maltese Falcon – by Newsweek's David A. Kaplan – was published in 2007. The book in 2008 won the Gerald Loeb Award for best business book of the year. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Xena:_Warrior_Princess_episodes | List of Xena: Warrior Princess episodes | Xena: Warrior Princess is an American television series that was created by Robert Tapert and John Schulian. Xena is a historical fantasy set primarily in ancient Greece, although it has a flexible time setting and occasionally features Oriental, Egyptian and Medieval elements. The flexible fantasy framework of the show accommodates a considerable range of theatrical styles, from high melodrama to slapstick comedy, from whimsical and musical to all-out action and adventure. While the show is typically set in ancient times, its themes are essentially modern and it investigates the ideas of taking responsibility for past misdeeds, the value of human life, personal liberty and sacrifice, and friendship. The show often addresses ethical dilemmas, such as the morality of pacifism; however, the storylines rarely seek to provide unequivocal solutions.
The character of Xena debuted on March 13, 1995, on the TV series Hercules: The Legendary Journeys. Three episodes featuring Xena, collectively called The Xena Trilogy, initially aired as part of the first season of Hercules: The Legendary Journeys. Xena's own series began on September 4, 1995. The series ran for six seasons and 134 episodes until its final episode aired on June 23, 2001. The series won an Emmy Award in 2001, and was ranked in #10 in TV Guide's Top 25 Cult TV Shows of All Time.
== Series overview ==
== Episodes ==
=== Introductory episodes (1995) ===
The program and its namesake character are introduced during the first season of Hercules: The Legendary Journeys. The Hercules: The Legendary Journeys episodes, "The Warrior Princess", "The Gauntlet" and "Unchained Heart", served as pilot episodes for the show. A director's cut of the episodes were later released as a separate VHS set and DVD as Hercules: The Xena Trilogy
=== Season 1 (1995–96) ===
=== Season 2 (1996–97) ===
=== Season 3 (1997–98) ===
=== Season 4 (1998–99) ===
=== Season 5 (1999–2000) ===
=== Season 6 (2000–01) ===
== Home media release == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stevie_Nicks | Stevie Nicks | Stephanie Lynn Nicks (born May 26, 1948) is an American singer-songwriter, known for her work with the band Fleetwood Mac and as a solo artist.
After starting her career as a duo with her then-boyfriend Lindsey Buckingham, releasing the album Buckingham Nicks to little success, the pair joined Fleetwood Mac in 1975, helping the band to become one of the best-selling music acts of all time with over 120 million records sold worldwide. Rumours, the band's second album with Nicks, became one of the best-selling albums worldwide, being certified 21× platinum in the US. In 1981, while remaining a member of Fleetwood Mac, Nicks began her solo career, releasing the studio album Bella Donna, which topped the Billboard 200 and has reached multiplatinum status. She has released eight studio albums as a solo artist and seven with Fleetwood Mac, selling a certified total of 65 million copies in the US alone.
After the release of her first solo album, Rolling Stone named her the "Reigning Queen of Rock and Roll". Nicks was named one of the 100 Greatest Songwriters of All Time and one of the 100 Greatest Singers of All Time by Rolling Stone. Her Fleetwood Mac songs "Landslide", "Rhiannon", and "Dreams", with the last being the band's only number one hit in the U.S., together with her solo hit "Edge of Seventeen", have all been included in Rolling Stone's list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. Nicks is the first woman to have been inducted twice into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame; she was inducted as a member of Fleetwood Mac in 1998 and was inducted as a solo artist in 2019.
Nicks has garnered eight Grammy Award nominations and two American Music Award nominations as a solo artist. She has won numerous awards with Fleetwood Mac, including a Grammy Award for Album of the Year in 1978 for Rumours. The albums Fleetwood Mac, Rumours, and Bella Donna have been included in the "Greatest of All Time Billboard 200 Albums" chart by Billboard. Rumours was also rated the seventh-greatest album of all time in Rolling Stone's list of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time", as well as the fourth-greatest album by female acts.
== Life and career ==
=== 1948–1971: Early life and career beginnings ===
Stephanie Lynn "Stevie" Nicks was born at Good Samaritan Hospital in Phoenix, Arizona to Jess and Barbara Nicks. Nicks is of German, English, Welsh, and Irish ancestry.
Nicks's grandfather, Aaron Jess "A.J." Nicks Sr., taught Nicks to sing duets with him by the time she was four years old. Nicks's mother was protective, keeping her at home "more than most people" and fostered in her daughter a love of fairy tales.
As a toddler, Stephanie could only pronounce her name as "tee-dee", which led to her nickname of "Stevie".
I listened to lots of Top 40 R&B radio. I loved the Shirelles and Martha Reeves and the Vandellas; stuff like "Remember (Walking in the Sand)" by The Shangri-Las... [My grandfather] bought me a truckload of records when I was in the fifth grade. There must have been 150 singles: country, rockabilly, some Everly Brothers, a song called "Party Doll" that went, "Come along and be my party doll/And I'll make love to you."
Her father's frequent relocation as a vice president of Greyhound had the family living in Phoenix, Albuquerque, El Paso, Salt Lake City, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. With the Goya guitar that she received for her 16th birthday, Nicks wrote her first song, titled "I've Loved and I've Lost, and I'm Sad but Not Blue". She spent her adolescence playing records constantly and lived in her "own little musical world".
While attending Arcadia High School in Arcadia, California, she joined her first band, the Changing Times, a folk rock band focused on vocal harmonies.
Nicks met her future musical and romantic partner, Lindsey Buckingham, during her senior year at Menlo-Atherton High School in Atherton, California. When she saw Buckingham playing "California Dreamin'" at the Young Life club, she joined him in harmony. She recalled, "I thought he was darling." Buckingham was in psychedelic rock band Fritz, but two of its musicians were leaving for college. He asked Nicks, in mid-1967, to replace the lead singer. Fritz later opened for Jimi Hendrix and Janis Joplin from 1968 until 1970. Nicks credits both acts as inspiring her stage intensity and performance.
Nicks and Buckingham attended San José State University, where Nicks majored in speech communication and planned to become an English teacher. With her father's blessing, she dropped out of college to pursue a musical career with Buckingham.
=== 1972–1978: Buckingham Nicks and Fleetwood Mac ===
After Fritz disbanded in 1972, Nicks and Buckingham continued to write as a duo, recording demo tapes at night in Daly City, California, on a one-inch, four-track Ampex tape machine Buckingham kept at the coffee-roasting plant belonging to his father. They secured a deal with Polydor Records, and the eponymous Buckingham Nicks was released in 1973. The album was not a commercial success and Polydor dropped the pair.
With no money coming in from their album, and Buckingham contracting mononucleosis shortly thereafter, Nicks began working multiple jobs. She waited tables and cleaned producer Keith Olsen's house, where Nicks and Buckingham lived for a time before moving in with producer Richard Dashut. She soon started using cocaine. "We were told that it was recreational and that it was not dangerous," Nicks told Chris Isaak in 2009.
While living with Dashut, Buckingham landed a guitar role with the Everly Brothers 1972 tour. Nicks stayed behind working on songwriting herself. During this time, Nicks wrote "Rhiannon" after seeing the name in the novel Triad by Mary Leader. (Five years later, a fan sent her the Mabinogion novels of Evangeline Walton that featured the legendary character Rhiannon, and Nicks later bought the film rights to Walton's work in the hopes of bringing the epic to the screen.) She also wrote "Landslide", inspired by the scenery of Aspen and her slowly deteriorating relationship with Buckingham.
In late 1974, Keith Olsen played the Buckingham Nicks track "Frozen Love" for drummer Mick Fleetwood, who had come to Sound City in California in search of a recording studio. Fleetwood remembered Buckingham's guitar work when guitarist Bob Welch departed to pursue a solo career. On December 31, 1974, Fleetwood called Buckingham, inviting him to join the band. Buckingham refused, insisting that Nicks and he were "a package deal" and that he would not join without her. The group decided that incorporating the pair would improve Fleetwood Mac. The first rehearsals confirmed this feeling, with the harmonies of the newcomers adding a pop accessibility to the band's former style of blues-based rock.
In 1975, Fleetwood Mac achieved worldwide success with the album Fleetwood Mac. Nicks's "Rhiannon" was voted one of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time by Rolling Stone. Her live performances of the song throughout the decade began to take on a theatrical intensity which differs from how the song plays on the album. The song built to a climax in which Nicks's vocals were so impassioned that Mick Fleetwood declared, "her 'Rhiannon' in those days was like an exorcism." "Landslide" became another hit from the album, with three million airplays.
Becoming aware of her image as a performer, Nicks worked with clothing designer Margi Kent to develop a unique onstage look. Her costumes had a bohemian style that featured flowing skirts, shawls, and platform boots.
While Nicks and Buckingham achieved professional success with Fleetwood Mac, their personal relationship was eroding. Nicks ended the relationship. Fleetwood Mac began recording their follow-up album, Rumours, in early 1976 and continued until late in the year. Also, Nicks and Buckingham sang back-up on Warren Zevon's eponymous second album.
Among Nicks's contributions to Rumours was "Dreams", which became the band's only Billboard Hot 100 number-one hit single. Nicks had also written and recorded the song "Silver Springs", but it was not included on the album because the early versions of the song ran too long, and the band did not want too many slow songs on the album. Studio engineer and co-producer Ken Caillat said that Nicks was very unhappy to find that the band had decided against her song "Silver Springs", which he said was beautifully crafted, and carried some of the band's best guitar work. "Silver Springs", written about her tumultuous relationship with Buckingham, was released as a B-side of the "Go Your Own Way" single—Buckingham's equally critical song about Nicks. Copies of the single eventually became collector's items among fans of Fleetwood Mac. "Silver Springs" was included on the four-disc Fleetwood Mac retrospective 25 Years – The Chain in 1992.
Rumours, Fleetwood Mac's second album after the incorporation of Nicks and Buckingham, was the best-selling album of 1977, and as of 2017, had sold over 45 million copies worldwide, making it one of the best-selling albums of all time. The album remained at number one on the American albums chart for 31 weeks and reached number one in other countries. The album won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year in 1978. It produced four U.S. Billboard Hot 100 top ten singles, including Nicks's "Dreams".
In November 1977, after a New Zealand concert on the Rumours tour, Nicks and Fleetwood secretly began an affair. Fleetwood was married to Jenny Boyd. "Never in a million years could you have told me that would happen," Nicks has stated. "Everybody was angry because Mick was married to a wonderful girl and had two wonderful children. I was horrified. I loved these people. I loved his family. So, it couldn't possibly work out. And it didn't. I just couldn't." Nicks ended the affair soon after it began. She has stated that had the affair progressed, it "would have been the end of Fleetwood Mac". By October 1978, Mick Fleetwood left Boyd for Nicks's friend Sara Recor.
=== 1979–1982: Tusk and Mirage ===
After the success of the Rumours album and tour in 1977 to 1978, Fleetwood Mac began recording their third album with Nicks and Buckingham, Tusk, in the spring of 1978. By this time, Nicks had amassed a large backlog of songs that she had been unable to record with Fleetwood Mac because of the constraint of having to accommodate three songwriters on each album. Tusk was released on October 19, 1979. Mirage was recorded in late 1981 and early 1982.
=== Backup vocals and duets ===
While working on Tusk, Nicks sang backup on virtually every track of Not Shy, recorded by musician Walter Egan, a friend of both Nicks and Buckingham's. "Magnet and Steel", inspired by Nicks, prominently featured her backup vocals and became a hit single on the Billboard Hot 100 chart during the summer of 1978. Lindsey Buckingham also produced the album, playing guitar and providing backing vocals on some of the tracks. Nicks recorded the hit duets "Whenever I Call You Friend" with Kenny Loggins in 1978, and "Gold" with John Stewart in 1979. During 1981, Nicks made occasional guest appearances with Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers on their Hard Promises tour.
=== Solo career ===
Nicks wrote and recorded demonstrations for a solo project during Tusk sessions in 1979 and the Tusk world tour of 1979–80. Nicks, Danny Goldberg, and Paul Fishkin founded Modern Records to record and release Nicks's material.
Nicks's first solo album, Bella Donna, was released on July 27, 1981, to critical and commercial acclaim, reaching number one on the Billboard 200 chart, with four singles making the Billboard Hot 100, and Rolling Stone deeming her "the Reigning Queen of Rock and Roll".
The day that Bella Donna reached number one on the Billboard 200, Nicks was told that her friend Robin Anderson had leukemia. Anderson was pregnant at the time and given only three months to live. She gave birth to a son, appointing Nicks as the child's godmother. "I never got to enjoy Bella Donna at all because my friend was dying. Something went out that day; something left." Following Robin's death in 1982, Nicks married Robin's widower, Kim Anderson, believing that Robin would want her to care for the baby. "We were all in such insane grief, just completely deranged," she told the Telegraph in 2007. They divorced three months later.
Bella Donna introduced Nicks's permanent back-up singers, Sharon Celani and Lori Perry (now Nicks after marrying Stevie's brother Christopher), who have contributed vocals to all of Nicks's solo albums since then. In November 1981, Nicks embarked on her White Winged Dove tour, which she had to cut short to record Mirage.
Nicks released her second solo album, The Wild Heart, on June 10, 1983. The album went double platinum, reached number five on the Billboard 200 albums chart, and featured three hit singles. It also introduced songwriter and performer Sandy Stewart as co-writer and vocalist.
Nicks performed at the second US Festival at Glen Helen Regional Park in San Bernardino, California, and later toured the U.S. from June 1983 to November 1983. Nicks appeared on Saturday Night Live in December 1983, performing "Stand Back" and "Nightbird".
Following the tour for The Wild Heart, Nicks commenced work on her third solo album. Originally titled Mirror Mirror, Nicks recorded songs for the album during 1984. However, Nicks was unhappy with the album, and opted to record a new batch of songs in 1985. Rock a Little, as it was retitled, was released November 18, 1985, to commercial success, supported by three successful singles. Nicks toured for Rock a Little until October 1986, and performed with Bob Dylan and Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers during their tour in Australia.
The tour marked a turning point in Nicks's life. The January before the tour was to begin, a plastic surgeon warned her of severe health problems if she did not stop using cocaine. "I said, 'What do you think about my nose?'", she recalled on The Chris Isaak Hour in 2009. "And he said, 'Well, I think the next time you do a hit of cocaine, you could drop dead.'" At the end of the Australian tour, Nicks checked herself into the Betty Ford Center for 30 days to overcome her cocaine addiction. Recalling the strong influence of Janis Joplin and Jimi Hendrix on her music and life, she told a UK interviewer, "I saw how they went down, and a part of me wanted to go down with them ... but then another part of me thought, I would be very sad if some 25-year-old lady rock and roll singer 10 years from now said, 'I wish Stevie Nicks would have thought about it a little more.' That's kind of what stopped me and made me really look at the world through clear eyes."
Later that year, on the advice of friends concerned that she might relapse, she visited a psychiatrist, who prescribed the sedative Klonopin to help her remain free from cocaine.
=== 1987–1990: Tango in the Night, The Other Side of the Mirror, and Behind the Mask ===
In late 1985, Fleetwood Mac began work on Tango in the Night, but due to her promotional schedule for the Rock a Little album and subsequent tour, Nicks was mostly unavailable to work on the album with the band except for a few weeks following her stay at the Betty Ford Center in 1986 (which was the inspiration for the song "Welcome to the Room...Sara"). She sent the band demonstrations of her songs to work on in her absence. The album was released in April 1987 and became the band's second-highest selling album, behind Rumours.
Creative differences and unresolved personal issues within the band led Buckingham to quit the group right before their world tour. According to bassist John McVie, a "physically ugly" confrontation between Nicks and Buckingham ensued when Nicks angrily challenged Buckingham's decision to leave the band.
The band embarked on the Shake the Cage tour in September 1987, with Buckingham replaced by Rick Vito and Billy Burnette. The tour was suspended while Nicks suffered from myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome and developed an addiction to Klonopin, though it resumed in 1988. Tango in the Night met with commercial success and was followed by Fleetwood Mac's Greatest Hits album in November 1988.
Also in 1988, Nicks began work on a fourth solo album with English record producer Rupert Hine. The Other Side of the Mirror was released on May 11, 1989, to commercial success. Nicks became romantically involved with Hine.
Nicks toured the U.S. and Europe from August to November 1989. She later said she had "no memory of this tour" because of her increasing dependency on Klonopin, prescribed in ever increasing amounts by a psychiatrist between 1987 and 1994, in an attempt to keep Nicks from regressing to her former abuse of cocaine.
In 1989, Nicks set to work with Fleetwood Mac on Behind the Mask, released in 1990 to moderate commercial success in the U.S. In the UK, however, the album entered the chart at number one and was certified platinum. The band went on a world tour to promote the album, on the last night of which Buckingham and Nicks reunited on stage to perform "Landslide". After the tour concluded, Nicks left the group over a dispute with Mick Fleetwood, who would not allow her to release the 1977 track "Silver Springs" on her album Timespace: The Best of Stevie Nicks, because of his plans to save it for release on a forthcoming Fleetwood Mac box set. Fleetwood knew that the song would be valuable as a selling point for the box set, since over the years, it had gained interest among the band's fans.
=== 1991–1996: Timespace and Street Angel ===
On the 10th anniversary of her solo career debut, Nicks released Timespace: The Best of Stevie Nicks on September 3, 1991. The following year, Fleetwood Mac also released a four-disc box set, 25 Years – The Chain, which included "Silver Springs".
During the 1992 U.S. presidential campaign, Bill Clinton used the Fleetwood Mac hit "Don't Stop" as his campaign theme song, and Nicks rejoined the classic Rumours lineup of the band (including Buckingham) to perform the song at Clinton's 1993 inaugural gala. No plans for an official reunion were made at that time. Nicks was criticized for her weight gain. Nicks, who is 5 feet 1 inch (1.55 m), had gained weight, peaking at 175 lb (79.4 kg). "Klonopin was worse than the cocaine," she has said. "I lost those 8 years of my life. I didn't write, and I had gained so much weight."
In late 1993, while Nicks held a baby shower at her house, she tripped over a box, passed out, and cut her forehead near a fireplace. "I'm one of those people who doesn't injure themselves. I was horrified to see that blood. I hadn't had enough wine. I knew it was the Klonopin," she said. Realizing that she needed help, Nicks endured a painful 47-day detoxification in a hospital.
Following her successful detox, Nicks released her fifth solo album, Street Angel, recorded during 1992 and 1993 using material written mostly in previous years. Released on May 23, 1994, Street Angel was poorly received, reaching number 45 on the Billboard Top 200. Nicks has since expressed major disappointment with the album, claiming that a lot of its production work took place during her second stint in rehabilitation, meaning she had little or no say over the final product.
Despite a three-month tour in support of the album, Nicks was crushed by the focus on her weight and the poor reception of the album. Disgusted by the criticism she received during the tour for being overweight, she vowed to never set foot on a stage again unless she slimmed down.
In 1996, Nicks reunited with Lindsey Buckingham and contributed the duet "Twisted" to the Twister movie soundtrack, while in 1996, the Sheryl Crow-penned "Somebody Stand by Me" featured on the Boys on the Side soundtrack, and Nicks also remade Tom Petty's "Free Fallin'" for Fox's TV hit Party of Five.
=== 1997–2001: The Dance, Enchanted, and Trouble in Shangri-La ===
In 1996, Lindsey Buckingham, working on a planned solo album, enlisted the help of Mick Fleetwood and John McVie, which eventually led to a reunion of the entire band. A newly invigorated Nicks joined Fleetwood Mac for The Dance, a highly successful 1997 tour that coincided with the 20th anniversary of the release of Rumours. Prior to the tour, Nicks started work with a voice coach, to lend her voice more control and protect it from the stress of lengthy touring schedules. She also went on a diet and started jogging to lose weight.
The band's live CD The Dance was released to commercial and critical acclaim. The Dance earned the group several Grammy nominations, including a nomination for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals for their live performance of "Silver Springs". In 1998, Nicks joined the group for its induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. That same year, Fleetwood Mac was awarded the Outstanding Contribution at the BRIT Awards.
Nicks put work on a new solo album on hold when she was approached by Warner Music to release a solo career-spanning box set, to finish her contract with Atlantic Records in the U.S. After the culmination of the Fleetwood Mac reunion tour, Nicks settled down in Los Angeles and Phoenix with close friends and colleagues to devise a track list for this three-disc collection.
The box set Enchanted was released to acclaim on April 28, 1998, with liner notes from Nicks, as well as exclusive rare photographs, and pages from her journals. Nicks supported the box set with a successful U.S. tour. In 1998, Nicks contributed to the Practical Magic soundtrack and performed in Don Henley's benefit concert for the Walden Woods Project.
Nicks had begun writing actively for Trouble in Shangri-La in 1994 and 1995, as she came out of her Klonopin dependency. According to her, friend and former musical partner Tom Petty was responsible for convincing her to write music again when he rebuffed her request that he write a song with her. She resumed recording songs for the Trouble in Shangri-La album with Sheryl Crow, who produced and performed on several tracks. When a scheduling conflict forced Crow to drop out of the project, Nicks first approached R&B producer Dallas Austin, but these sessions have never surfaced. Nicks finally called on John Shanks to produce the remainder of the album, with additional contributions from David Kahne, Rick Nowels, Pierre Marchand, and Jeff Trott. Artists Natalie Maines, Sarah McLachlan, and Macy Gray contributed to some of the tracks.
Released May 1, 2001, Trouble in Shangri-La restored Nicks's solo career to critical and commercial success. "Planets of the Universe" was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance, and Nicks was named VH1's "Artist of the Month" for May 2001. Nicks was named one of People magazine's 50 Most Beautiful People, was featured in a well-received Behind the Music episode, and performed an episode of the VH1 Storytellers Concert Program. Nicks made several television appearances in support of the album and performed at the 2001 Radio Music Awards.
Nicks supported the album with a successful tour, although some shows were canceled or postponed because of her bout with acute bronchitis. Shows were also canceled because of the September 11 attacks in the U.S.
=== 2002–2009: Say You Will, Crystal Visions, and Soundstage Sessions ===
In 2001, Fleetwood Mac began work on a new studio album, though this time without Christine McVie, leaving Nicks as the sole woman in the band for the first time. After the end of her solo tour, Nicks convened with the other members of the band for recording a new album, Say You Will, which was released in April 2003 and met with commercial success, but mixed reviews. Nicks joined the group to support the album with the Say You Will Tour, which lasted until September 2004.
She subsequently stated in interviews that she was not happy with the album or world tour that followed, citing production disputes with Buckingham as a core factor, as well as the absence of fellow female band member Christine McVie. A documentary of the making of the album, Destiny Rules, was released on DVD in 2004 and chronicles the sometimes-turbulent relationships between band members, especially Buckingham and Nicks, during that time in the studio.
After a few months' respite from the Say You Will tour, Nicks did a four-night stint in May 2005 at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, and then did 10 shows with Don Henley dubbed the Two Voices tour. During the summer of 2005, Nicks continued doing solo shows (Gold Dust tour) with pop singer Vanessa Carlton as the opening act, playing over 20 dates nationwide.
On March 27, 2007, Reprise Records released Crystal Visions – The Very Best of Stevie Nicks in the U.S. The album debuted at number 21 on the Billboard 200 albums chart.
The compilation includes her hit singles, a dance remix, and one new track, a live version of Led Zeppelin's "Rock and Roll". Two versions of this album were made, one with just the audio CD and a deluxe version that includes a DVD featuring all of Nicks's music videos with audio commentary from Nicks herself, as well as rare footage from the Bella Donna recording sessions.
A tour with Chris Isaak, opening in Concord, California, on May 17, 2007, supported the release.
Reprise Records initially released two radio-only promotions, the live version of "Landslide" with the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra and "Rock and Roll". Both tracks failed to garner much airplay and made no impact on the charts. Reprise Records released "Stand Back" (issued with club mixes) on May 29, 2007. "Stand Back", which peaked at number five on the pop singles chart in 1983 and number two on the Billboard Club chart. Nicks previously reached number one on this chart, with "Planets of the Universe" (from Trouble in Shangri-La) in 2001. The remix single of "Stand Back" debuted on the Billboard Hot Singles Sales chart on September 15, 2007, at number 10, peaking at number four the following week. It also debuted on the Billboard Hot Dance Singles Sales chart at number three, later peaking at number one.
On March 31, 2009, Nicks released the album, The Soundstage Sessions, via Reprise Records. The album debuted at number 47 on the Billboard 200 albums chart. The first single from the album, "Crash into Me", was released as a digital download, along with "Landslide" (orchestra version) as a B-side, on March 17, 2009.
In late 2008, Fleetwood Mac announced that the band would tour in 2009, beginning in March. As per the 2003–2004 tour, Christine McVie would not be featured in the lineup. The tour was branded as a 'greatest hits' show titled "Unleashed", although they played album tracks such as "Storms" and "I Know I'm Not Wrong".
=== 2010–2013: In Your Dreams and Extended Play tour ===
After completing the Unleashed tour with Fleetwood Mac, Nicks began work on her first solo album in a decade with David A. Stewart, a musician and record producer best known for being one half of the duo Eurythmics.
Nicks performed in a series of shows in August 2010 ("it's not really a tour", she said). They did not contain any of her new music, because she did not want it to end up on YouTube. The Santa Barbara show benefited a young girl she had met through the Make-a-Wish Foundation in Los Angeles with rhabdomyosarcoma, a rare cancer.
On January 13, 2011, Reprise announced Nicks's upcoming album In Your Dreams would be released on May 3, and the lead single, "Secret Love", would be released on February 8. Reprise provided a free download of the single to fans who ordered the album via certain websites. Nicks originally wrote "Secret Love" in 1976 and recorded a demo of it for Fleetwood Mac's 1977 album, Rumours. It did not make the final cut for the album. The demo version had been circulating among fans for many years prior to its inclusion on In Your Dreams. Nicks promoted the song with a video directed by Dave Stewart. Nicks's goddaughter Kelly appears in the video wearing a vintage dress that Nicks wore on stage in 1976. According to Nicks, Kelly portrays the young Nicks blending with the soul of Nicks's 62-year-old self. On the U.S. Billboard charts, "Secret Love" was a modest hit on the Adult Contemporary Singles chart, peaking at number 20, and at number 25 on the Triple-A Singles chart. Another song on the album, "For What It's Worth", features Nicks's niece in the video. The song reached number 25 on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart in September 2011. A documentary film was made for the album, directed by Stewart. The documentary was critically acclaimed, and Nicks appeared at many film festivals to support the documentary.
Nicks promoted the album with appearances on various television shows, including The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, The X Factor, The Talk, Good Morning America, The Ellen DeGeneres Show, The Oprah Winfrey Show, and Dancing with the Stars.
In Your Dreams was well received by music critics. Rolling Stone commented, "It's not just her first album in 10 years, it's her finest collection of songs since the Eighties". The album debuted at number six on the Billboard 200, giving Nicks her fifth top-10 album on that chart, with 52,000 copies sold in the first week. Elsewhere, the album has made numerous top-50 debuts, including number 24 on the Australian ARIA chart, number 22 in Canada, and number 14 in the UK.
The same day that Nicks's new album was released, Fox Network broadcast the Glee episode (Season 2, Episode 19) "Rumours" that featured six songs from Fleetwood Mac's 1977 album, including Nicks's song "Dreams" (the band's only number-one song on the U.S. charts). The show sparked renewed interest in the band and its most commercially successful album, and Rumours re-entered the Billboard 200 chart at number 11, the same week that In Your Dreams debuted at number six. Nicks was quoted by Billboard saying that her new album was "my own little Rumours".
Nicks contributed a cover of Buddy Holly's "Not Fade Away" for the tribute album Listen to Me: Buddy Holly, released in September 2011.
On March 29, 2012, Nicks made a guest appearance as herself on the NBC sitcom Up All Night. The show featured an excerpt of the 1981 track "Sleeping Angel", as well as new duets with both Maya Rudolph and Christina Applegate of "Whenever I Call You Friend" and "Edge of Seventeen".
On December 14, 2012, Nicks was announced to be featured on an original track done in collaboration with Dave Grohl for his Sound City soundtrack, alongside other artists.
In 2013, Fleetwood Mac toured again as a four-piece band throughout North America and Europe. On April 30, the band released their first new studio material since 2003's Say You Will via digital download on iTunes with the four-track EP, Extended Play containing three new songs and one new song from the Buckingham Nicks sessions ("Without You").
On December 3, 2013, Nicks released the In Your Dreams documentary film on DVD. The DVD debuted at number seven on the Billboard Top Music Video sales chart and number 29 on the UK Music Video Top 40 chart.
=== 2014–present: 24 Karat Gold: Songs from the Vault and future endeavors ===
In 2014, Nicks appeared on the third season of television series American Horror Story, Coven, in a role she reprised in the eighth season, American Horror Story: Apocalypse. She played a fictional version of herself, portraying a "white witch" with supernatural powers in three episodes. On the show, she performed the songs "Rhiannon", "Has Anyone Ever Written Anything for You?", "Seven Wonders", and "Gypsy".
"I said 'That's perfect,'" she told Us magazine in response to the show's music request. "Because that's exactly how I like to affect people. I want people to put my songs on because they are unhappy and need a boost to dance around their apartment a little and feel good. That's why I write. 'Of course, you can use my music. Take it!'" In May 2014, Nicks was honored with a BMI Icon Award. In July 2014, it was announced that Nicks would join The Voice as the adviser for Adam Levine's team.
In September 2014, Nicks released her eighth studio album, 24 Karat Gold: Songs from the Vault, which reached number seven on the Billboard 200. She also began a North American tour with Fleetwood Mac, now reunited with Christine McVie, the On with the Show tour. The tour began in September 2014 and concluded in November 2015.
In May 2015, Nicks reissued Crystal Visions – The Very Best of Stevie Nicks on "crystal clear" transparent double vinyl. The vinyl came with a vinyl messenger bag and a limited-edition lithograph. Throughout 2016 and 2017, Nicks toured with The Pretenders on the 24 Karat Gold Tour.
On April 26, 2017, Pitchfork revealed that Nicks would be featured on a track from American singer Lana Del Rey's fifth studio album, Lust for Life, which was released on July 21, 2017. The song is titled "Beautiful People Beautiful Problems".
On July 9, 2017, Nicks performed at the British Summer Time festival in Hyde Park in London, supporting Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers. She later performed "Stop Draggin' My Heart Around" with Petty as part of the Heartbreakers' set, in what would turn out to be their final performance of the song together before Tom Petty's death in October 2017.
In April 2018, Lindsey Buckingham was fired from Fleetwood Mac, following disagreements with Nicks and Mick Fleetwood. Nicks helped recruit his replacements, Mike Campbell of Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers and Neil Finn of Crowded House. This reworked lineup embarked on a world tour entitled An Evening with Fleetwood Mac in 2018–2019.
In April 2019, Nicks was elected to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. She became the first woman to be inducted twice, once as a member of Fleetwood Mac and once as a solo artist.
In September 2020, Nicks released a live album and concert film, with recordings from the 24 Karat Gold Tour (2016–2017), directed by Joe Thomas. On October 9, 2020, Nicks released her first new music in six years. The official video accompanying the track "Show Them the Way" was directed by Cameron Crowe.
In December 2020, music publishing company Primary Wave bought an 80% stake of Nicks's song catalog. The Wall Street Journal valued the deal at US$100 million.
On May 27, 2021, Stevie Nicks was one of the headliners of the 2021 Shaky Knees Music Festival in Atlanta, Georgia. In August 2021, Nicks canceled her five planned 2021 solo appearances due to concern about catching COVID-19.
Nicks appeared on the track "Oil" on the 2023 Gorillaz album Cracker Island.
Nicks sang "What Has Rock and Roll Ever Done for You" with Dolly Parton on her Rockstar album in 2023.
On September 27, 2024, Nicks released a new song called "The Lighthouse". Nicks wrote the song with Magnus Birgersson and Vincent Villuis to promote women's rights. Nicks appeared as a featured vocalist on a cover of Ron Sexsmith's "Maybe This Christmas" on the charity Christmas album A Philly Special Christmas Party, released on November 22, 2024.
Nicks announced her new album, titled The Ghost Record, to be released on May 26, 2026. She said it's autonomous in autobiographical fashion, "I've written about a lot of men, this album will be unlike the resting previous it's not neatly and nicely it's darker and suggestive with themes". She said it's inspired from the Pasadena California, Wild Fires to brainstorm, from each song that's new is original material since her 2014 "24 Karat Gold: Songs From The Vault". She implied Prince gave her a gold chain that she says treated her finely, it was a delicate necklace she remembers, she said it's raw and details story's and determinants of her story in her lives lessons from events, lovers, and a lot of men. She's released her duo, with Lindsey Buckingham, "Buckingham Nicks" on streaming and music services for the first time since 1973 too. She said she and Lindsey have gotten older and prone to age, she said they're taking it easily and slow "we've mainly forgiven each-other, each lasting attraction is put behind us we're in our elderly primes and we've forgiven the rest of each others flawed relationships mainly and secured closures. They messaged and followed eachother on social media, mending true dues of a long feud embroiled when they fought for years of the aftermath. She said the possibility of being the sole one to do another record with the full lineup band Fleetwood Mac, is possibly in the works for 2027-2028, she said They're steady wounds they've healed and she's ready to take the next steps to obviously insure herself and him success and life to engage together. In celebrations she's released a new Barbie doll that's sold out within 24 hours to dedicate her career span "she's back and not pulling punches".
== Artistry ==
At 5 feet 1 inch (1.55 m) tall, Nicks has stated she felt "a little ridiculous" standing next to Mick Fleetwood, who is 6 feet 6 inches (1.98 m). For this reason, she developed a penchant for 6-inch (15 cm) platform boots. "Even when platforms went completely out of style, I kept wearing them because I didn't want to go back to being 5 feet 3 inches (1.60 m) in heels", she told Allure in 1995. Over the years, Nicks has developed a style which she calls her "uniform", consisting of flowing diaphanous clothing, boots and shawls.
Nicks's music encompasses the pop and blues sounds of Fleetwood Mac, while her debut solo album Bella Donna (1981) cemented her status as one of the biggest stars in rock music. Nicks has said that her vocal style and performance antics evolved from female singers such as Grace Slick and Janis Joplin. She admitted inspiration when she saw Joplin perform live (and opened for her with her first band Fritz) shortly before Joplin's death. Nicks owns a strand of Joplin's stage beads. She also commented that she once saw a woman in her audience dressed in dripping chiffon with a Gibson Girl hairstyle and big boots, and Nicks knew she wanted something similar. She took the look and made it her own. Nicks possesses a contralto vocal range, and her voice has been described as "gruff" and "feathery". Over the years, she has decorated her microphone stand with roses, ribbons, chiffon, crystal beads, scarves, and small stuffed toys.
=== Philanthropy ===
Nicks has started a charity foundation titled Stevie Nicks's Band of Soldiers, which is used for the benefit of wounded military personnel.
In late 2004, Nicks began visiting Army and Navy medical centers in Washington, DC. While visiting wounded service men and women, she became determined to find an object she could leave with the soldiers that would raise their spirits, motivate, and give them something to look forward to each day. She eventually decided to purchase hundreds of iPod Nanos, load them with music, artists, and playlists, which she would hand select, and autograph them:
I call it a soldier's iPod. It has all the crazy stuff that I listen to, and my collections I've been making since the 1970s for going on the road, when I'm sick ... or the couple of times in my life that I have really been down, music is what always dances me out of bed.
She now regularly delivers these tokens of her appreciation, bringing her closest friends, such as Mick Fleetwood, along to share the experience:
So, as Mick [Fleetwood] and I went from room to room delivering their tiny iPod, they told us their stories. Mick became his tall, loving, father figure, English self, taking in every word they said, remaining calm (at least on the outside) inspiring them. We floated from room to room down through the halls of the two hospitals over a three-day period. We gave out all our iPods. Right before I left for DC, Steven Tyler and Joe Perry dug into their pockets and came up with $10,000 for me. In my eyes they went from the coolest rock stars to generous great men; as my press agent Liz Rosenberg said, every returning wounded soldier should be given an iPod. It will be an integral part of their recovery.
=== Style ===
Nicks's style has remained the same throughout her years in the spotlight and even "at 60 she is still working the gossamer tunics and shawls that have influenced two generations of Stevie acolytes and given her performances the feel of a Wiccan ritual," writes New York Times reporter Ruth La Ferla.
In the late '70s, Nicks began receiving threatening mail accusing her of witchcraft. Nicks told the Los Angeles Times in 2013, "In the beginning of my career, the whole idea that some wacky, creepy people were writing, 'You're a witch, you're a witch!' was so arresting. And there I am like, 'No, I'm not! I just wear black because it makes me look thinner, you idiots.'" The witch rumors frightened Nicks so much that she gave up black for a period of time (roughly 1978 to 1982), instead opting to wear colors such as apricot and seafoam green. Nicks later stated that she felt ugly in the new colors, ultimately gave up, and went back to black in 1983. That same year, when asked what she thought about people who still believed the rumor, Nicks said, "I don't like it all and I wish people would stop thinking about that, because I spent thousands of dollars on beautiful black clothes and had to stop wearing them for a long time, because a lot of people scared me."
== Legacy ==
Many artists have cited Nicks as a source of influence and musical inspiration. These include Beyoncé and Destiny's Child, Courtney Love, Michelle Branch, Belinda Carlisle, The Chicks (formerly known as Dixie Chicks), Mary J. Blige, Sheryl Crow, Nadia Ali, Florence Welch, Taylor Swift, Vanessa Carlton, Delta Goodrem, and Lorde. Australian singer Darren Hayes cited Nicks as one his favorite musicians during his teenage years, while Eminem's mother Debbie Nelson mentioned in her book My Son Marshall, My Son Eminem that her son loved the song "Rhiannon".
The Dixie Chicks covered "Landslide", which became a top-10 hit (number one on the Adult Contemporary chart) and a number one hit on the Country chart. This cover also earned her a BMI Songwriters Award in 2003 when it won Song of the Year (the award is given to the songwriter of the track, regardless of the performer). According to BMI, "Landslide" also earned Nicks the 35th Robert J. Burton Award as "Most Performed Country Song of the Year". This distinction is given to the song tallying the most feature U.S. broadcast performances during the eligibility period. Included on the Dixie Chicks' platinum Monument album Home, "Landslide" was a Country, Adult Top 40, Hot 100 and AC Billboard charts smash. Alternative rock band the Smashing Pumpkins made an acoustic cover of the song that was featured on their 1994 B-side collection Pisces Iscariot.
Other successful covers have included the Corrs' "Dreams" and Courtney Love's band Hole with "Gold Dust Woman". "Edge of Seventeen" was sampled on Destiny's Child's 2001 number one single "Bootylicious". Nicks appeared in the video for "Bootylicious" and in an episode of MTV's Making the Video that featured it, in which she expressed her admiration for both the song and the group. American actress and singer Lindsay Lohan covered "Edge of Seventeen" on her second studio album A Little More Personal (Raw) (2005). Deep Dish fulfilled their "Dreams" of working with Nicks in 2005 when Nicks offered to re-record vocals on a remix of her number-one penned song, "Dreams". The Deep Dish version went on to reach number two on the Billboard Hot Dance Airplay chart, as well as providing Nicks with her third UK top-40 hit. Nicks provided additional vocals on Vanessa Carlton's 2007 album, Heroes and Thieves.
On January 31, 2010, Nicks performed with Taylor Swift at the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards. Swift, who describes Nicks as one of her childhood heroes, introduced her to the audience by saying, "It's a fairy tale and an honor to share the stage with Stevie Nicks."
In October 2018, Nicks was one of fifteen artists to be nominated for induction to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. On December 13, 2018, she was announced as one of seven inductees to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame class of 2019, making her the first woman to be inducted twice to the hall.
On April 19, 2024, Taylor Swift referenced Nicks in the song "Clara Bow" from her eleventh studio album The Tortured Poets Department (2024). In the song, she wrote "You look like Stevie Nicks / In '75, the hair and lips". Nicks also wrote a poem in the liner notes.
== Personal life ==
=== Relationships and family ===
Nicks was romantically linked to Lindsey Buckingham from 1972 to 1976. She was linked to Mick Fleetwood in 1978, Eagles drummer/vocalist Don Henley during the late 1970s, and briefly to Eagles songwriter JD Souther. In 1979, Nicks had an abortion after becoming pregnant by Henley. She was involved with Jimmy Iovine, who produced Bella Donna, during 1980–81, and with Eagles and James Gang guitarist Joe Walsh during 1983–1986, to whom she referred in 2007 as one of her greatest loves, but the couple could not sustain the relationship because of mutual drug abuse. Nicks toured with Walsh in 1984 and wrote "Has Anyone Ever Written Anything for You?" about Walsh's deceased daughter.
Nicks's only marriage was to Kim Anderson, the widower of her best friend Robin Anderson. They married in 1983 soon after Robin Anderson died of leukemia while the Bella Donna album was on the top of the charts. Nicks later explained of the marriage, "I was determined to take care of [Robin's] baby, so I said to Kim, 'I don't know, I guess we should just get married.'" Nicks and Anderson divorced after only three months: "And so we got married three months after she died, and it was a terrible, terrible mistake. We didn't get married because we were in love, we got married because we were grieving and it was the only way that we could feel like we were doing anything."
Years after the divorce, she reunited with her stepson when he was a teenager, putting him through college, and has maintained contact with him ever since. In 2020, Nicks said in an interview for The Guardian that his daughter, named Robin after his late mother, calls Nicks "Grandma Stevie".
Nicks has said that she consciously chose not to have children of her own, due to her demanding career and desire to follow her art wherever it should take her: "My mission maybe wasn't to be a mom and a wife; maybe my particular mission was to write songs to make moms and wives feel better."
Of her niece, godchildren, former stepson, and extended family she says: "I have lots of kids. It's much more fun to be the crazy auntie than it is to be the mom, anyway."
Nicks has maintained a journal nearly every day since her tenure in Fleetwood Mac began. She has said, "I like to tell all my fairy goddaughters and my niece that when I'm gone they can sit on the floor and go through all these journals, and they can walk through my life, and they can smell the gardenia perfume on the pages. They can have it in their hands, who I was."
Regarding a book based on her life, she has said, "I wouldn't write a book unless I could really tell the truth, and say all the people are in it are represented right ... If I'm gonna talk about all the people in my life, I need to be old enough and so do they, that nobody's gonna care ... I would never write a book about the bad parts. I would mostly revel in the fantastic parts, of which there were so many."
=== Residences ===
Until July 2007, Nicks lived in Paradise Valley, Arizona, a suburb of Phoenix, in a home she had built in 1981 and shared with her brother, his wife and their daughter. She announced in mid-2007 that her Paradise Valley home would be put up for sale, citing her aspirations to "downsize" and focus more on her charity work, and that in the previous year she had only "spent about two weeks there". The house was put on the market for a reported $3.8 million and later sold for $3 million. She owns an oceanside home in Santa Monica, California.
=== Religion ===
Nicks became an ordained minister with the Universal Life Church and officiated at the wedding of Deer Tick singer John McCauley and singer-songwriter Vanessa Carlton on December 27, 2013.
== Discography ==
=== Studio albums ===
Bella Donna (1981)
The Wild Heart (1983)
Rock a Little (1985)
The Other Side of the Mirror (1989)
Street Angel (1994)
Trouble in Shangri-La (2001)
In Your Dreams (2011)
24 Karat Gold: Songs from the Vault (2014)
=== With Buckingham Nicks ===
Buckingham Nicks (1973)
=== With Fleetwood Mac ===
Fleetwood Mac (1975)
Rumours (1977)
Tusk (1979)
Mirage (1982)
Tango in the Night (1987)
Behind the Mask (1990)
The Dance (1997)
Say You Will (2003)
== Filmography ==
== Tours ==
Solo tours
White Winged Dove (Bella Donna) Tour: 1981
The Wild Heart Tour: 1983
Rock a Little Tour: 1986
The Other Side of the Mirror Tour: 1989
Whole Lotta Trouble (Timespace) Tour: 1991
Street Angel Tour: 1994
Enchanted Tour: 1998
Holiday Millennium Tour: 1999–2000
Trouble in Shangri-La Tour: 2001
Two Voices Tour (with Don Henley): 2005
Gold Dust Tour (on select dates with Vanessa Carlton or John Farnham): 2005–06
Highway Companion Tour (with Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers): 2006
Crystal Visions Tour: 2007–08
Soundstage Sessions Tour: 2008
Heart & Soul Tour (with Rod Stewart): 2011–12
In Your Dreams Tour: 2011–12
24 Karat Gold Tour: 2016–17
Live in Concert: 2022–25
In October 2005, Nicks attended the Melbourne Cup Week in Australia, and one of the horse-racing stakes was named after her: The Stevie Nicks Plate. She used this opportunity to launch her promotion of an Australian/New Zealand extension to her Gold Dust tour in February and March 2006. Nicks toured in Australia and New Zealand with popular Australian performer John Farnham. She also appeared in concert with Tom Petty in June near Manassas, Virginia, and at the Bonnaroo Music Festival that same month.
In 2006, Nicks performed with Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers for the first leg of their tour in the summer, and later in the year returned as a guest performer for a number of songs on the tour celebrating Petty's 30th anniversary since his debut album. Tom Petty's Homecoming Concert in Gainesville, Florida, which contained performances with Stevie Nicks, was filmed for PBS Soundstage as well as DVD release for March 2007. Nicks was also the featured performer for Bette Midler's benefit function, Hulaween, in October 2006.
In 2008, Nicks embarked on the Soundstage Sessions tour in the U.S. A video recording of one concert date was released in 2009: Live in Chicago. Vanessa Carlton performed as a guest artist.
Rod Stewart and Nicks co-headlined the Heart & Soul Tour. Launched March 20, 2011, in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, the tour united the two singers for a series of arena concerts throughout North America – with performances in New York, Toronto, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Chicago, Detroit, Tampa, Montreal, and more.
A solo tour for In Your Dreams began on August 9, 2011, in Denver, Colorado. Nicks announced on her July 27 appearance on America's Got Talent that Michael Grimm would be going on tour with her. She then continued on an Australian and New Zealand leg of the tour accompanied by Dave Stewart until December 2011.
Nicks joined Rod Stewart in the summer of 2012 for another leg of the Heart & Soul Tour, and resumed the In Your Dreams tour in June 2012. In 2023, she and Billy Joel performed a series of concerts across the United States, beginning with SoFi Stadium outside Los Angeles on March 10. This was in conjunction with a solo tour. In early 2024, she announced a European leg to the tour, starting in Dublin, Ireland on July 3.
Touring band 2012
Sharon Celani – backing vocals (1981–present)
Waddy Wachtel – lead guitar, musical direction (1981–86, 2001–present)
Lori Nicks – backing vocals (1981–89, 1996, 2007–present)
Carlos Rios – rhythm guitar (1989–present)
Al Ortiz – bass (2001–present)
Jimmy Paxson – drums (2005–present)
Darrell Smith – keyboards (2005–present)
Brett Tuggle – keyboards, rhythm guitar (1998–2006, 2012)
== Awards and nominations ==
=== Grammy Awards ===
Solo
Nicks has been nominated for eight Grammy Awards as a solo artist, holding the record for most nominations for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance without a win.
With Fleetwood Mac
Nicks has been nominated for six Grammy Awards as a member of Fleetwood Mac, winning the 1978 Grammy Award for Album of the Year for Rumours, and received the 2003 Grammy Hall of Fame Award. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Harvey_(arachnologist)#Achievements,_awards_and_recognition | Mark Harvey (arachnologist)#Achievements, awards and recognition | Mark Stephen Harvey (born 17 September 1958) is a museum scientist and biologist specializing in Australian arachnids. Since 1989 he has been based at the Western Australian Museum as Curator of Arachnids and Myriapods. He has described over 1,000 species, being one of the few biologists to do so.
== Career ==
Mark Harvey collected his first pseudoscorpion on 16 August 1977 in western Victoria. In 1983, Harvey graduated from Monash University, with a thesis titled: Contributions to the systematics of the Pseudoscorpionida (Arachnida) : the genus Synsphyronus Chamberlin (Garypidae) and the family Sternophoridae. In 1991, due to his contributions to taxonomy, Harvey was presented with the Edgeworth David Medal by the Royal Society of New South Wales. In 2013, he was then awarded the Bonnet Award, named after Pierre Bonnet, for his contributions to arachnology, by the International Society of Arachnology. In 2017, he was awarded the Distinguished Career Award by the Society of Australian Systematic Biologists.
As of 2025, Harvey has described 1,015 new species, making him one of the few biologists to have described over 1,000 species. The first species he described being the pseudoscorpion Geogarypus rhantus, which he described in 1981. Most of the species he has described are pseudoscorpions, and he developed a catalog of them called the Pseudoscorpions of the world. He has also described other arachnids such as spiders and scorpions, as well as some other invertebrates such as millipedes and velvet worms.
As part of the Australian Biological Resources Study 50th Anniversary Awards, Harvey was presented with the Distinguished Career in Taxonomy & Systematics Award. He is a member of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature and served as Vice-President from 2016–2022. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downton_Abbey | Downton Abbey | Downton Abbey is a British historical drama television series set in the early 20th century, created and co-written by Julian Fellowes. It first aired in the United Kingdom on ITV on 26 September 2010 and in the United States on PBS, which supported its production as part of its Masterpiece Classic anthology, on 9 January 2011. The show ran for fifty-two episodes across six series, including five Christmas specials.
Set on the fictional Yorkshire country estate of Downton Abbey between 16 April 1912 and New Year's Eve 1925, the series depicts the lives of the aristocratic Crawley family and their domestic servants in the post-Edwardian era, navigating their lives amidst the British social hierarchy. Plot events include news of the sinking of the Titanic (first series); the outbreak of the First World War, the Spanish influenza pandemic and the Marconi scandal (second series); the Irish War of Independence leading to the formation of the Irish Free State (third series); the Teapot Dome scandal (fourth series); the British general election of 1923 and the Beer Hall Putsch (fifth series). The sixth and final series introduces the rise of the working class during the interwar period and hints at the eventual decline of the British aristocracy.
Downton Abbey has been praised by television critics and received numerous accolades, including a Golden Globe Award for Best Miniseries or Television Film and a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Miniseries or Movie. It was recognised by Guinness World Records as the most critically acclaimed English-language television series of 2011. It earned 27 Primetime Emmy Award nominations after its first two series, the most for any international television series in the awards' history. It was the most watched television series on both ITV and PBS, and became the most successful British costume drama since the 1981 television serial of Brideshead Revisited.
After Carnival Films and ITV announced the television series end in 2015, the historical drama continued in a trilogy of films: an eponymous film in 2019, followed by A New Era in 2022, and The Grand Finale in 2025.
== Plot overview ==
=== Series 1 (2010) ===
The first series, comprising seven episodes, explores the lives of the fictional Crawley family, the hereditary Earl of Grantham, and their domestic servants at the family estate in Yorkshire region. The storyline centres on the fee tail, or "entail", governing the titled elite, which endows title and estate exclusively to male heirs. Common recovery had been developed in the fifteenth century as a means of ending an entail. This did not stop the practice and in the seventeenth century lawyers developed strict settlement as a means of enforcing entail. The Settled Land Acts 1882 to 1890 finally allowed strict settlements to be broken by agreement with the next heir, except where he was a minor.
As part of the backstory, the main character, Robert Crawley, Earl of Grantham, had resolved his father's past financial difficulties by marrying Cora Levinson, an American heiress. Her considerable dowry is now contractually incorporated into the committal entail in perpetuity; however, Robert and Cora have three daughters and no son.
As the eldest daughter, Lady Mary Crawley had agreed to marry her second cousin Patrick, the son of the then-heir presumptive James Crawley. The series begins the day after the sinking of RMS Titanic on 15 April 1912. The first episode starts as news reaches Downton Abbey that both James and Patrick have perished in the sinking of the ocean liner. The family then learns that a more distant and unknown male cousin, solicitor Matthew Crawley, the son of an upper-middle-class doctor, has become the next heir presumptive. The story initially centres on the relationship between Lady Mary and Matthew, who resists embracing an aristocratic lifestyle, while Lady Mary resists her own attraction to the new heir presumptive.
Of several subplots, one involves John Bates, Lord Grantham's new valet and former Boer War batman, and Thomas Barrow, an ambitious young footman, who resents the former for taking a position he had desired for himself. Bates and Thomas remain at odds as Barrow works to sabotage Bates's every move. After learning Bates had recently been released from prison, Thomas and Miss O'Brien (Lady Grantham's lady's maid) begin a relentless pursuit that nearly ruins the Crawley family in scandal. Barrow – a closeted homosexual man – and O'Brien create havoc for most of the staff and family. When Barrow is caught stealing, he hands in his notice to join the Royal Army Medical Corps. Matthew eventually does propose to Lady Mary, but she puts him off when Lady Grantham becomes pregnant, understanding that Matthew would no longer be heir if the baby is a boy. Cora loses the baby after O'Brien, believing she is soon to be fired, retaliates by leaving a bar of soap on the floor next to the bathtub, causing Cora to slip while getting out of the tub, and the fall resulting in a miscarriage. It is later revealed that the miscarried foetus was a male. Although Lady Mary intends to accept Matthew, Matthew believes her reluctance is due to the earlier uncertainty of his heirship and emotionally rescinds his proposal, leaving Lady Mary devastated. The series ends just after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914.
=== Series 2 (2011) ===
The second series comprises eight episodes and runs from the Battle of the Somme in 1916 to the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic. During the war, Downton Abbey is temporarily converted into an officers' convalescent hospital.
Matthew, having left Downton, is now a British Army officer and has become engaged. His fiancée is Lavinia Swire, the niece of a Liberal minister. William Mason, the second footman, is drafted, even after attempts by the Dowager Countess of Grantham to save him from conscription. William is taken under Matthew's protection as his personal orderly. Enduring trench warfare and charging against machine guns and artillery, both are injured by an exploding shell. William dies from his wounds, but only after a deathbed marriage to Daisy, the scullery maid. While Daisy does not believe she loves William, she marries him in his last hours as his dying wish and is widowed within half an hour of her marriage. It is not until a brief encounter with the Dowager Countess that she begins to realise that her love was real, but she could not admit it to herself.
Matthew is now paralysed from the waist down by his battle injury, and seemingly unable to father children. Lavinia remains true to him despite his attempts to set her free, and he finally accepts her devotion. Mary, while acknowledging her feelings for Matthew, becomes engaged to Sir Richard Carlisle, a powerful and overbearing newspaper mogul who was instrumental in uncovering the Marconi scandal, but their relationship is rocky. Bates's estranged wife, Vera, repeatedly causes trouble for John and Anna, who are now engaged. Vera threatens to expose Mary's past scandalous indiscretion, but Carlisle agrees to purchase and kill her story. Embittered, Mrs Bates mysteriously commits suicide with an arsenic pie after a visit by Bates, and he is arrested on suspicion of her murder. Matthew regains the use of his legs, and he and Mary realise they are still in love, but Matthew remains honourably committed to Lavinia after she stood by him during his misfortune. Unknown to them both, Lavinia, ill with Spanish flu, sees and overhears Matthew and Mary admit their love for one another while dancing to a song playing on the phonograph given as a wedding present to Matthew and Lavinia.
The Spanish influenza epidemic hits Downton Abbey further with Cora taken seriously ill, as well as Carson, the butler. During the outbreak, Thomas attempts to make up for his inability to find other employment after the war by making himself as useful as possible and is made Lord Grantham's valet after Bates is arrested. Lavinia dies abruptly, which causes great guilt to both Matthew and Mary. Bates is found guilty of murder and sentenced to death but the sentence is commuted to life in prison due to Lord Grantham's influence. After a talk with Robert, Mary realises that she must break off her engagement to Carlisle; he and Matthew fight in the drawing room, but in the end Carlisle goes quietly and is never heard from again. The annual Servants' Ball is held at Downton, and Mary and Matthew finally find their way to a marriage proposal on a snowy evening outside the Abbey.
Lady Sybil, the youngest Crawley daughter, beginning to find her aristocratic life stifling, falls in love with Tom Branson, the new chauffeur of Irish descent with strong socialist leanings. She is talked out of elopement by her sisters, but her wayward marriage eventually receives Lord Grantham's reluctant blessing.
Ethel Parks, a new housemaid, is seduced by a wounded officer, Major Bryant. Mrs Hughes, the housekeeper, finds them together in bed and dismisses Ethel, but takes pity on her and helps her when Ethel tells her she is pregnant. She has a baby boy and names him Charlie after his father, but Major Bryant refuses to acknowledge his paternity.
The filming location, Highclere Castle, in reality served as a convalescent home during World War I.
=== Series 3 (2012) ===
In episode one of the third series, covering 1920 to 1921, preparations are underway for Mary and Matthew's wedding. Tom and Sybil Branson arrive from Ireland, where they now live, to attend the wedding. Also arriving to attend the wedding of her granddaughter is Cora's mother, Martha Levinson, from America. Robert learns that the bulk of the family's fortune (including Cora's dowry) has been lost due to his impetuous investment in the Grand Trunk Railway. Meanwhile Edith has fallen for Sir Anthony Strallan, whom Robert discourages from marrying Edith due to his age and crippled arm. At Edith's insistence, Robert gives in and welcomes Sir Anthony, but even though he loves her, Strallan cannot accept that the Grantham family disapproves of the match, and at the altar announces that he cannot go through with the wedding, devastating Edith. Strallan flees the church and is never heard from again.
Meanwhile, Bates's cellmate plants a small surgical knife in his bedding, but Bates is informed by a fellow prisoner allowing him time to find and hide it (this same small knife is later used by Bates to threaten his cellmate when he had been using his connections through corrupt prison guards to keep a witness from testifying to Bates's innocence of the crime for which he is incarcerated). At Downton, Mrs Hughes finds out she may have breast cancer, which only some of the household hear about, causing deep concern, but the tumour turns out to be benign. Tom Branson and Lady Sybil, now pregnant, return to Downton after Tom is implicated in the burning of an Anglo-Irish aristocrat's house during the Irish War of Independence. After Matthew's reluctance to accept an inheritance from Lavinia's recently deceased father and then Robert's reluctance to accept that inheritance as a gift, Matthew and Robert reach a compromise in which Matthew accepts that the inheritance will be used as an investment in the estate, giving Matthew an equal say in how it is run. However, as time goes on Robert repeatedly resists Matthew and Tom's efforts to modernise the running of the estate to make it profitable.
Tragedy strikes when Sybil dies from eclampsia shortly after giving birth. Tom, devastated, names his daughter Sybil after his late wife. Bates is released from prison after Anna uncovers evidence clearing him of his wife's murder. Tom becomes the new land agent at the suggestion of Violet, the Dowager Countess. Barrow and O'Brien have a falling out, after which O'Brien leads Barrow to believe that Jimmy, the new footman, is sexually attracted to him. Barrow enters Jimmy's room and kisses him while he is sleeping, which wakes him up shocked, confused, and very angry. In the end, Lord Grantham (familiar with homosexuality from Eton) defuses the situation. The family, except Branson, visits Violet's niece Susan, her husband "Shrimpie", the Marquess of Flintshire; and their daughter Rose, in Scotland, accompanied by Matthew and a very pregnant Mary. The Marquess confides to Robert that his estate is bankrupt and will be sold, making Robert recognise that Downton has been saved through Matthew and Tom's efforts to modernise. At Downton, Edna Braithwaite, the new maid, enters Tom's room and kisses him, whereupon he asks her to leave, and she is eventually fired. Mary returns to Downton with Anna and gives birth to the new heir, but Matthew dies in a car crash while driving home from the hospital after seeing his newborn son.
=== Series 4 (2013) ===
In series four, covering 1922 to 1923, O'Brien leaves to serve Lady Flintshire in Bombay. Cora hires Edna Braithwaite, who had previously been fired for her interest in Tom. Eventually the situation blows up, and Edna is replaced by Phyllis Baxter.
Mary deeply mourns Matthew's death. Matthew's newly-found letter states Mary is to be his sole heir and thus gives her management over his share of the estate until their son, George, comes of age. With Tom's encouragement, Mary assumes a more active role in running Downton. Two new suitors—Anthony Foyle and Charles Blake—arrive at Downton, though Mary, still grieving, is not interested. Edith has begun writing a weekly newspaper column, and Michael Gregson, a magazine editor, falls in love with her. Due to British law, he is unable to divorce his wife, who is mentally ill and in an asylum. Gregson travels to Germany to seek citizenship there, enabling him to divorce, but suddenly disappears after an altercation with Hitler's Brownshirts. Edith is left pregnant and decides to have an illegal abortion, but changes her mind at the last minute. With the help from her paternal aunt, Lady Rosamund, Edith secretly gives birth to a daughter while abroad, and places the baby with adoptive parents in Switzerland, but reclaims her after arranging a new adoptive family on the estate. Mr and Mrs Drewe of Yew Tree Farm take the baby in and raise her as their own.
Anna is raped by Lord Gillingham's valet Mr Green, which Mr Bates later discovers. Subsequently, Green is killed in a London street accident. A local school teacher, Sarah Bunting, and Tom begin a friendship on grounds of their socialist leanings, which puts him at odds with the Crawleys. The downstairs story also involves a love square between Daisy (now promoted to assistant cook), Ivy (the new kitchen maid) and the two footmen Jimmy and Alfred, which ends up in all parties recognising that they were pursuing the wrong person. At the end, Alfred leaves service at Downton to pursue his desire of becoming a chef at the Ritz and Jimmy is sacked for being found in bed with a guest. In the Christmas special set mainly in London, Sampson, a card sharp, steals a letter written by the future Edward VIII, then Prince of Wales, to his mistress, Rose's friend Freda Dudley Ward, which if made public would create a scandal; the entire Crawley family connives to retrieve it, although it is Bates who extracts the letter from Sampson's overcoat, and it is returned to Mrs Dudley Ward. The family hold a debutante ball for Lady Rose following her presentation at the royal court, and the grateful Prince makes an appearance at the ball. At the same time, Cora's mother Martha Levinson comes to London with her son Harold, who has been implicated in the Teapot Dome scandal to visit the Crawleys. At Martha's insistence, Robert travels to the US and testifies on behalf of his brother-in-law before the US Congress. Ivy leaves Downton to serve Harold as his cook in New York.
=== Series 5 (2014) ===
In series five, covering the year 1924, a Russian exile, Prince Kuragin, wishes to renew his past affections for the Dowager Countess (Violet). Violet instead locates his wife in British Hong Kong and reunites the Prince and his estranged wife. Scotland Yard and the local police investigate Green's death. Violet learns that Marigold is Edith's daughter. Meanwhile, Mrs Drewe, not knowing Marigold's true parentage, resents Edith's constant visits. To increase his chances with Mary, Charles Blake plots to reunite Gillingham and his ex-fiancée, Mabel. News of Gregson's death in the Beer Hall Putsch reaches Downton. After Edith inherits Michael Gregson's publishing company, she removes Marigold from the Drewes and relocates to London. Simon Bricker, an art expert interested in one of Downton's paintings, shows his true intentions toward Cora and is thrown out by Robert, causing a temporary rift between the couple.
Mrs Patmore's decision to invest her inheritance in real estate inspires Mr Carson, Downton's butler, to do likewise. He suggests that the housekeeper Mrs Hughes invest with him; she confesses she has no money because she is supporting a mentally incapacitated sister. The Crawleys' cousin, Lady Rose, daughter of Lord and Lady Flintshire, becomes engaged to Atticus Aldridge, son of Lord and Lady Sinderby. Lord Sinderby strongly objects to Atticus's marrying outside the Jewish faith. Lord Merton proposes to Isobel Crawley (Matthew's mother). She accepts, but later ends the engagement as a result of Lord Merton's sons' disparaging comments over her status as a commoner. Lady Flintshire employs underhanded schemes to derail Rose and Atticus's engagement, including announcing to everyone at the wedding that she and her husband are divorcing, intending to cause a scandal to stop Rose's marriage to Atticus; they are married anyway.
When Anna is arrested on suspicion of Green's murder, Bates writes a false confession before fleeing to Ireland. Baxter and Molesley, a footman and Matthew's former valet, are able to prove that Bates was in York at the time of the murder. This new information allows Anna to be released. Cora eventually learns the truth about Marigold, and wants her raised at Downton; Marigold is presented as Edith's ward, but Robert and Tom eventually discern the truth. Only Mary is unaware. When a war memorial is unveiled in the town, Robert arranges for a separate plaque to honour the cook Mrs Patmore's late nephew, who was shot for desertion and excluded from his own village's memorial.
The Crawleys are invited to Brancaster Castle, which Lord and Lady Sinderby have rented for a shooting party. While there, Lady Rose, with help from the Crawleys, defuses a personal near-disaster for Lord Sinderby, earning his gratitude and securing his approval of Rose. In the aftermath of the results of the 1923 general election, the Crawleys auction off a della Francesca painting. From that money, a second footman, Andy, is hired on Barrow's recommendation. During the annual Downton Abbey Christmas celebration, Tom announces he is moving to Boston to work for his cousin, taking daughter Sybil with him. Mr Carson proposes marriage to Mrs Hughes and she accepts.
=== Series 6 (2015) ===
In series six, changes are once again afoot at Downton Abbey as the middle class rises and more bankrupted aristocrats are forced to sell off their large estates. Downton must do more to ensure its future survival; reductions in staff are considered, forcing Barrow to look for a job elsewhere. Having formed a close bond with young George, Barrow realises that Downton has become the first real home he has ever had, but feels unwanted. Mary defies a blackmailer, who is thwarted by Robert. With Tom's departure to Boston, Mary becomes the estate agent. Edith is more hands-on in running her magazine and hires a female editor. Violet and Isobel once again draw battle lines as a government take-over of the local cottage hospital is considered. Mary begins seeing Henry Talbot, a racing driver, and Edith begins seeing Bertie Pelham, a cousin of the owner of Brancaster Castle.
Meanwhile, Anna suffers repeated miscarriages. Mary takes her to a specialist, who diagnoses a treatable condition, and she becomes pregnant again. Mr Carson and Mrs Hughes disagree on where to hold their wedding reception, but eventually choose to have it at the schoolhouse, during which Tom reappears with Sybil, having returned to Downton for good. Coyle, who tricked Baxter into stealing a previous employer's jewellery, is convicted after she and other witnesses are persuaded to testify. After Mrs Drewe kidnaps Marigold when Edith is not looking, the Drewes vacate Yew Tree Farm; Daisy convinces Tom to ask Robert to give her father-in-law, Mr Mason, the tenancy. Andy offers to help Mr Mason so he can learn about farming, but Andy is held back by his illiteracy. Barrow offers to teach him to read, but Andy soon trades his help for that of a teacher at the local school.
Robert suffers a near-fatal health crisis. Previous episodes alluded to health problems for Robert; his ulcer bursts and he is rushed to the hospital for emergency surgery. The operation is successful, but Mary and Tom must take over Downton's operations. Larry Merton's fiancée, Amelia, encourages Lord Merton and Isobel to renew their engagement, but Violet rightly becomes suspicious. Violet discovers that Amelia wants Isobel, and not her, to be Lord Merton's caretaker in his old age. Daisy and Molesley score high marks on their academic exams; Molesley's are so exceptional that he is offered a teaching position at the local school. Mary breaks up with Henry, unable to live with the constant fear he could be killed in an accident like Matthew was. Bertie proposes to Edith, but she hesitates to accept because of Marigold. Violet, upset over Cora replacing her as hospital president, abruptly departs for a long cruise to restore her equanimity.
Bertie unexpectedly succeeds his late second cousin as 7th Marquess of Hexham and moves into Brancaster Castle; Edith accepts him. Mary spitefully exposes Marigold's parentage, causing Bertie to walk out. Tom confronts Mary over her malicious behaviour and her true feelings for Henry. Despondent over his inability to find another job and his sense of being unloved, Barrow attempts suicide, and is saved by Baxter and Andy. Realising the extent of Barrow's pain for the first time, Robert and Carson allow Barrow to stay at Downton while he recovers and searches for new employment. Mary and Henry reunite and are married. Edith returns to Downton for the wedding; she and Mary agree to work on improving their relationship. Mrs Patmore's new bed and breakfast business is tainted by scandal, but saved when Robert, Cora and Rosamund appear there publicly to support her. Mary arranges a surprise meeting for Edith and Bertie with Bertie proposing again. Edith accepts. Edith tells Bertie's moralistic mother Mirada about Marigold; initially appalled, she is won over by Edith's honesty. Barrow, having decided to turn over a new leaf and become a kinder person, finds a position as butler and leaves Downton on good terms, but he is unhappy at his new post; the family and other servants also find themselves missing him.
Lord Merton is diagnosed with terminal pernicious anaemia and Amelia blocks Isobel from seeing him. Goaded by Violet, Isobel pushes into the Merton house and announces she will take Lord Merton to her house to care for and marry him, to his delight. Later, Lord Merton is correctly diagnosed with a non-fatal form of anaemia. Robert resents Cora's frequent absences as the hospital president, but comes to admire her ability after watching her chair a hospital meeting. Henry and Tom go into business together selling used cars, while Mary announces her pregnancy. Molesley accepts a permanent teaching position and he and Baxter promise to continue seeing each other. Daisy and Andy finally acknowledge their feelings; Daisy decides to move to the farm with Mr Mason, her father-in-law. Carson develops palsy and must retire. Following Robert and Mary's suggestion, Barrow happily returns to Downton as butler, with Carson in an overseeing role. Edith and Bertie are finally married in the series finale, set on New Year's Eve 1925. Anna goes into labour during the reception, and she and Bates become parents to a healthy son.
== Cast and characters ==
The main cast of the Crawley family is led by Hugh Bonneville as Robert Crawley, the Earl of Grantham, and Elizabeth McGovern as his wife Cora Crawley, the Countess of Grantham. Their three daughters are depicted by Michelle Dockery as Lady Mary Crawley (Talbot), Laura Carmichael as Lady Edith Crawley (Pelham) and Jessica Brown Findlay as Lady Sybil Crawley (Branson). Maggie Smith is Robert Crawley's mother Violet, Dowager Countess of Grantham. Samantha Bond portrays Lady Rosamund Painswick, Robert's sister who resides in Belgrave Square, London. Dan Stevens portrays Matthew Crawley, the new heir, along with Penelope Wilton as his mother, Isobel Crawley, who are brought to Downton. Allen Leech as Tom Branson begins the series as the family chauffeur, but falls in love with Lady Sybil, marries her and later becomes the agent for the estate. David Robb portrays Dr Richard Clarkson, the local town doctor.
Joining the cast in series three is Lily James as Lady Rose MacClare, a cousin whose mother is Violet's niece Susan, the Marchioness of Flintshire, and who is sent to live with the Crawleys because her parents are serving the empire in India and, later, remains there because of family problems. In series three and four, Shirley MacLaine portrays the mother of Cora Crawley, Martha Levinson. Suitors for Lady Mary's affections during the series include Tom Cullen as Lord Gillingham, Julian Ovenden as Charles Blake, and Matthew Goode as Henry Talbot. Edith's fiancé and eventual husband Bertie Pelham, 7th Marquess of Hexham, is played by Harry Hadden-Paton.
Downton Abbey's senior household staff are portrayed by Jim Carter as Mr Carson, the butler, and Phyllis Logan as Mrs Hughes, the housekeeper. Tensions rise when Rob James-Collier, portraying Thomas Barrow, a footman and later a valet and under-butler, along with Siobhan Finneran as Miss O'Brien, the lady's maid to the Countess of Grantham (up to series three), plot against Brendan Coyle as Mr Bates, the valet to the Earl of Grantham, and his love interest and eventual wife, Anna (Joanne Froggatt), lady's maid to Lady Mary. Kevin Doyle plays the unlucky Mr Molesley, valet to Matthew Crawley. Thomas Howes portrays William Mason, the second footman.
Other household staff are Rose Leslie as Gwen Dawson, a housemaid studying to be a secretary in series one. Amy Nuttall plays Ethel Parks, a maid, beginning in series two and three. Matt Milne joined the cast as Alfred Nugent, O'Brien's nephew, the awkward new footman for series three and four, and Raquel Cassidy plays Baxter, Cora's new lady's maid, who was hired to replace Edna Braithwaithe, who was sacked. Ed Speleers plays the dashing James (Jimmy) Kent, the second footman, from series three to five. In series five and six Michael Fox plays Andy Parker, a replacement footman for Jimmy. In series four, five, and six Andrew Scarborough plays Tim Drewe, a farmer of the estate, who helps Lady Edith conceal a big secret.
The kitchen staff include Lesley Nicol as Mrs Patmore the cook, and Sophie McShera as Daisy, the scullery maid who works her way up to assistant cook having earlier married William Mason. Cara Theobold portrays Ivy Stuart, a kitchen maid, joining the cast for series three and four.
=== Crawley family ===
The series is set in Downton Abbey, a Yorkshire country house, which is the home and seat of the Earl and Countess of Grantham, along with their three daughters and other family members. Each series follows the lives of the aristocratic Crawley family, their friends, and their servants during the reign of King George V.
== Production ==
Gareth Neame of Carnival Films conceived the idea of an Edwardian-era TV drama set in a country house and approached Fellowes, who had won an Academy Award for Best Writing (Original Screenplay) for Gosford Park. The TV series Downton Abbey – written and created by Fellowes – was originally planned as a spin-off of Gosford Park, but instead was developed as a stand-alone property inspired by the film, set decades earlier. Although Fellowes was reluctant to work on another project resembling Gosford Park, within a few weeks he returned to Neame with an outline of the first series. Influenced by Edith Wharton's The Custom of the Country, Fellowes wrote the scripts; and his wife, Emma, acted as an informal story editor.
=== Filming locations ===
Highclere Castle in north Hampshire is used for exterior shots of Downton Abbey and most of the interior filming. The kitchen, servants' quarters and working areas, and some of the "upstairs" bedrooms were constructed and filmed at Ealing Studios.
Outdoor scenes are filmed in the village of Bampton in Oxfordshire. Notable locations include the Church of St Mary the Virgin and the library, which served as the entrance to the cottage hospital. The old rectory in Bampton is used for exterior shots of Isobel Crawley's house, with interior scenes filmed at Hall Barn in Beaconsfield at Buckinghamshire.
The fictional village of Downton is said to be located in Yorkshire. The towns of Easingwold, Kirkby Malzeard, Kirkbymoorside, Malton, Middlesbrough, Ripon, Richmond and Thirsk, each mentioned by characters in the series, lie in North Yorkshire, as does the city of York, while Leeds—similarly mentioned—lies in West Yorkshire. Yorkshire media speculated the general location of the fictional Downton Abbey to be somewhere in the triangulated area between the towns of Easingwold, Ripon and Thirsk.
First World War trench warfare scenes in France were filmed in a specially constructed replica battlefield for period war scenes near the village of Akenham in rural Suffolk.
Many historical locations and aristocratic mansions have been used to film various scenes:
The fictional Haxby Park, the estate Sir Richard Carlisle intends to buy in series two, is part of Waddesdon Manor in Buckinghamshire.
Byfleet Manor in Surrey is used as the location for the Dower house, home to Violet, Dowager Countess of Grantham, while West Wycombe Park in Buckinghamshire is used for the interior scenes of Lady Rosamund's London residence in 35, Belgrave Square. A house in Belgrave Square is used for exterior shots.
Inveraray Castle in Argyll, Scotland, doubled as "Duneagle Castle" in the 2012 Christmas special.
Greys Court near Henley-on-Thames in Oxfordshire was used as the family's secondary property, which they proposed moving into and calling "Downton Place" due to financial difficulties in series three. Also in the third series, Bates's prison scenes were filmed at Lincoln Castle in Lincolnshire.
Horsted Keynes railway station in Sussex is used as Downton station. The station is part of the heritage Bluebell Railway.
Bridgewater House in the St James area of London served as the exterior facade of Grantham House, the family's London home, while the interior scenes were shot in Basildon Park in West Berkshire.
Hall Barn in Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire featured as Loxley House, the home of Sir Anthony Strallan.
In the 2013 Christmas special, Lancaster House in London stood in for Buckingham Palace.
Alnwick Castle, in Northumberland, was the filming location used for Brancaster Castle in the 2014 and 2015 Christmas specials, which included filming in Alnwick Castle's State Rooms, as well as on the castle's grounds, and at the nearby semi-ruined Hulne Abbey on the Duke of Northumberland's parklands in Alnwick.
The 2019 film of Downton Abbey uses many of the television locations such as Highclere Castle and Bampton, as well as exterior shots filmed at Beamish Museum. The North York Moors Railway was used for railway scenes.
==== International locations ====
Internationally, scenes were also shot in:
New York, United States
Chicago, United States
Perth, Australia
Port of Spain, Trinidad
Nassau, Bahamas
Kyoto, Japan
=== Opening theme music ===
The opening music of Downton Abbey, titled "Did I Make the Most of Loving You?", was composed by John Lunn.
A suite version was released on the soundtrack for the show on 19 September 2011 in the UK and later in the US on 13 December 2011. The soundtrack also included the song performed by singer Mary-Jess Leaverland, with lyrics written by Don Black.
== Broadcasts ==
The rights to broadcast Downton Abbey have been acquired in over 220 countries and territories, and the series has been viewed by a global audience of an estimated 120 million people.
=== United Kingdom ===
The series first aired on the ITV network in the United Kingdom beginning on 26 September 2010, and received its first Britain-wide broadcast when shown on ITV3 beginning in February 2011.
STV, the ITV franchisee in central and northern Scotland (including the Orkney and Shetland islands), originally opted out of showing Downton Abbey, choosing instead to screen a brand-new six-part series of Taggart, following a long practice of opting out of networked United Kingdom-wide programming on the ITV network. This led to backlash from Scottish viewers, who were frustrated at not being able to watch the programme. Many viewers with satellite or cable television tuned into other regional stations of the ITV network, for example ITV London, with viewing figures showing this is also commonplace for other ITV programmes.
STV announced in July 2011 that it would show the first and second series of Downton Abbey as part of its autumn schedule. Scottish cast members Phyllis Logan and Iain Glen were both quoted as being pleased with the decision.
=== United States ===
In the United States, Downton Abbey was first broadcast in January 2011 on PBS, as part of the 40th season of Masterpiece. The programme was aired in four 90-minute episodes, controversially requiring PBS to alter the beginning and endpoints of each episode and make other small changes, slightly altering each episode's structure to fit the programme precisely into the allotted running-time. As part of Masterpiece, episodes shown on PBS also featured Masterpiece host (Laura Linney), who introduced each episode, explaining matters such as "the entail" and "Buccaneers" for the benefit of American viewers; this was perceived as condescending by some American critics. PBS editing for broadcasts in the United States continued in the subsequent seasons. The final and sixth season aired in 2016. PBS continued to repeat episodes until 2020, when NBCUniversal took over the US broadcasting rights for its streaming service Peacock. The series became available on Netflix in 2021. The series also aired on the E! network in 2022. On 3 February 2026, PBS announced that the show will return on 1 March 2026 for PBS Passport members, with broadcasting rights beginning 17 May 2026.
=== Canada ===
In Canada, VisionTV began airing the programme on 7 September 2011; CBC Television repeated the whole series in 2021; Downton Abbey was aired in French on Ici Radio-Canada Télé.
=== Australia and New Zealand ===
In Australia, the first series was broadcast on the Seven Network beginning on 29 May 2011; the second series was broadcast beginning on 20 May 2012; and the third series beginning on 10 February 2013. In New Zealand, Prime began airing the first series on 10 May 2011, the second series on 18 October 2011 and the third series on 18 October 2012.
=== Ireland ===
In Ireland, independent television channel TV3 aired the first series in January and February 2011.
=== France ===
Downton Abbey was broadcast on TMC in France beginning on 11 December 2011.
== Reception ==
=== Critical response ===
At Metacritic, which assigns a rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the first series received an average score of 91, based on 16 reviews, which Metacritic suggests indicates "universal acclaim". This result earned the show a Guinness World Record in 2011 for "Highest critical review ratings for a TV show", making Downton Abbey the critically best received TV show in the world. Season 4 of Breaking Bad surpassed Downton Abbey's record later in the year, with a score of 96, making the first series of Downton Abbey the second highest rated show of 2011.
The series has been noted for its relatively sympathetic portrayal of the aristocratic family and the class-based society of early 20th-century Britain. This has led to criticism from the political left and praise from the right. James Fenton wrote in The New York Review of Books, "it is noticeable that the aristocrats in the series, even the ones who are supposed to be the most ridiculous, never lapse into the most offensive kind of upper-class drawl one would expect of them. Great care has been taken to keep them pleasant and approachable, even when the things they say are sometimes shown to be class-bound and unfeeling." Jerry Bowyer argued in Forbes that the sympathy for aristocracy is over-stated, and that the show is simply more balanced than most period dramas, which he believes have had a tendency to demonise or ridicule upper class characters. He wrote that Downton Abbey shows "there is no inherent need for good TV to be left of center. Stories sympathetic to virtue, preservation of property and admiration of nobility and of wealth can be told beautifully and to wide audiences."
Downton Abbey has been a commercial success and received general acclaim from critics, although some criticise it as superficial, melodramatic or unrealistic. Others defend these qualities as the reason for the show's appeal. David Kamp wrote in Vanity Fair that "melodrama is an uncool thing to trade in these days, but then, that's precisely why Downton Abbey is so pleasurable. In its clear delineation between the goodies and the baddies, in its regulated dosages of highs and lows, the show is welcome counter-programming to the slow-burning despair and moral ambiguity of most quality drama on television right now." In September 2019, The Guardian, which ranked the show 50th on its list of the 100 best TV shows of the 21st century, stated that the show "was TV drama as comfort blanket: at a time of austerity, Julian Fellowes's country house epic offered elegantly realised solace in the homilies of the past". Mary McNamara of Los Angeles Times wrote, "Possibly the best series of the year." Jill Serjeant of Reuters wrote, "There's a new darling in U.S. pop culture." The staff of Entertainment Weekly wrote, "It's the biggest PBS phenomenon since Sesame Street." David Hinckley of New York Daily News wrote, "Maintains its magic touch."
James Parker, writing in The Atlantic, said, "Preposterous as history, preposterous as drama, the show succeeds magnificently as bad television. The dialogue spins light-operatically along in the service of multiplying plotlets, not too hard on the ear, although now and again a line lands like a tray of dropped spoons. The acting is superb—it has to be." Ben W. Heineman Jr. compared the series unfavourably to Brideshead Revisited, writing "Downton Abbey is entertainment. Its illustrious predecessor in television mega-success about the English upper class, Brideshead Revisited, is art." He noted the lack of character development in Downton. Writing in The Sunday Times, A. A. Gill said that the show is "everything I despise and despair of on British television: National Trust sentimentality, costumed comfort drama that flogs an embarrassing, demeaning, and bogus vision of the place I live in."
Sam Wollaston of The Guardian wrote,
It's beautifully made—handsome, artfully crafted and acted. Smith, who plays the formidable and disdainful Dowager Countess, has a lovely way of delivering words, always spaced to perfection. This is going to be a treat if you like a lavish period drama of a Sunday evening.
While rumoured due to the departure of actor Dan Stevens, the death of Matthew Crawley in the 2012 Christmas special drew criticism. Fellowes defended the decision stating that they 'didn't really have an option' once Stevens decided to leave. Stevens later said that he had no say in the manner of his character's departure but that he was 'sorry' his character had died on Christmas Day.
The third episode of the fourth series, which aired on 6 October 2013, included a warning at the beginning: "This episode contains violent scenes that some viewers may find upsetting." The episode content, in which Anna Bates was raped, led to more than 200 complaints by viewers to UK television regulator Ofcom, while ITV received 60 complaints directly. On 4 November 2013, Ofcom announced it would not be taking action over the controversy citing the warning given, that the episode was screened after 9 pm, and, that the rape took place 'off-screen'. Series four also introduced a recurring character, black jazz musician Jack Ross, who had a brief romantic affair with Lady Rose. The casting of Gary Carr drew critical accusations of political correctness in the media. The character of Ross was partially based on Leslie Hutchinson ("Hutch"), a real-life 1920s jazz singer who had an affair with a number of women in high society, among them Edwina Mountbatten.
=== Ratings ===
The first episode of Downton Abbey had a consolidated British audience of 9.2 million viewers, a 32% audience share—making it the most successful new drama on any channel since Whitechapel was launched on ITV in February 2009. The total audience for the first episode, including repeats and ITV Player viewings, exceeded 11.6 million viewers. This was beaten by the next episode, with a total audience of 11.8 million viewers—including repeats and ITV Player views. Downton Abbey broke the record for a single episode viewing on ITV Player.
The second series premiered in Britain on 18 September 2011 in the same 9 pm slot as the first series, with the first episode attracting an average audience of 9 million viewers on ITV1, a 34.6% share. The second episode attracted a similar following with an average of 9.3 million viewers. In January 2012, the PBS premiere attracted 4.2 million viewers, over double the network's average primetime audience of 2 million. The premiere audience was 18% higher than the first series premiere.
The second series of Downton Abbey gave PBS its highest ratings since 2009. The second series averaged 5.4 million viewers, excluding station replays, DVR viewings and online streaming. The 5.4 million average improved on PBS first series numbers by 25%. Additionally, episodes of series two have been viewed 4.8 million times on PBS's digital portal, surpassing the online viewing numbers of series one by more than 400 per cent. Overall, Downton Abbey-related content has racked up more than 9 million streams across all platforms, with 1.5 million unique visitors, since series 2's 8 January premiere. In 2013, Downton Abbey was ranked the 43rd most well-written TV show of all time by the Writers Guild of America.
The third series premiered in the UK on 16 September 2012 with an average of 9 million viewers (or a 36% audience share).
For the first time in the UK, episode three received an average of more than 10 million viewers (or a 38.2% audience share). Premiering in the US in January 2013, the third series had an average audience of 11.5 million viewers and the finale on 17 February 2013, drew 12.3 million viewers making it the night's highest rating show. Overall, during its seven-week run, the series had an audience of 24 million viewers making it PBS's highest-rated drama of all time.
The fourth series premiered in the UK on 22 September 2013 with an average audience of 9.5 million viewers—the highest ever for one of the drama's debut episodes. It premiered in the US on 5 January 2014, to an audience of at least 10.2 million viewers, outperforming every other drama on that night; it was the largest audience for PBS since the 1990 premiere of the Ken Burns documentary The Civil War. The second episode attracted an average of 9.6 million UK viewers.
== Awards and nominations ==
=== Cultural reaction ===
Although Julian Fellowes supports a united Ireland, there has been criticism of the stereotypical Irish characters used in the show, specifically the character of Tom Branson's brother, Kieran, portrayed as a rude and boorish drunk. Allen Leech, who plays Tom Branson, defended the series, stating that the show did not portray Irish characters in a pejorative fashion. Branson's character took some criticism in Ireland from The Irish Times, which described the character as "an Irish republican turned Downtonian toff."
The character of the Earl of Grantham occasionally expresses negative views about Catholics and is described, by The Washington Post, as "xenophobic" but "at least historically accurate". Episodes in Season 3 featured Lord Grantham using offensive derogatory terms against Catholics such as the phrase "left-footer" and mocking the Catholic Mass by calling it a "gymnastics display". A dinner scene also features a Protestant minister calling Catholic practices "pagan". Fellowes, himself a Roman Catholic, explained that he chose to address this in terms of "that casual, almost unconscious anti-Catholicism that was found among the upper classes, which lasted well into my growing up years", adding that he "thought it might be interesting" to explore this in the series and described his own experiences where the aristocracy "were happy for you to come to their dances or shoot their pheasants, but there were plenty who did not want you to marry their daughters and risk Catholic grandchildren."
=== Authenticity ===
Fellowes has said he tries to be as authentic in his depiction of the period as he can. Despite this, the show features many linguistic anachronisms. The accents of characters have also been questioned, with the Received Pronunciation of the actors who play the wealthy characters described as "slightly more contemporary" than would be expected among early-20th-century aristocrats; however, this "elicited more natural and unaffected performances from the cast".
In 2010, Fellowes hired Alastair Bruce, an expert on state and court ritual, as historical adviser. Bruce explains his role as being "here to guide the production and particularly the director as they bring Julian's words to life. That also involves getting the social conduct right, and giving actors a sense of surety in the way they deliver a performance." Actor Jim Carter, who plays butler Carson, describes Bruce as the series "etiquette watchdog", and the UK's Daily Telegraph finished its 2011 profile of Bruce's role stating "Downton's authenticity, it seems, is in safe hands." However, historian Simon Schama criticised the show for historical inaccuracies and "pandering to clichés". Producer Gareth Neame defended the show, saying, "Downton is a fictional drama. It is not a history programme, but a drama of social satire about a time when relationships, behaviour and hierarchy were very different from those we enjoy today."
A "tremendous amount of research" went into recreating the servants' quarters at Ealing Studios because Highclere Castle, where many of the upstairs scenes are filmed, was not adequate for representing the "downstairs" life at the fictional manor house. Researchers visited nearly 40 English country houses to help inform what the kitchen should look like, and production designer Donal Woods said of the kitchen equipment that "probably about 60 to 70 per cent of the stuff in there is from that period". Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management is an important guide to the food served in the series, but Highclere owner, and author of Lady Almina and the Real Downton Abbey: The Lost Legacy of Highclere Castle, Lady Carnarvon, states that dinner parties in the era "would have been even more over the top" than those shown. Lady Pamela Hicks agreed, stating that "it is ridiculous to think that a weekend party would consist of only fourteen house guests, it would have consisted of at least 40!" However, Carnarvon understood the compromises that must be made for television, and adds, "It's a fun costume drama. It's not a social documentary. Because it's so popular, I think some people take it as historical fact."
== Home media ==
=== Streaming ===
The series was made available in its entirety on Netflix in June 2021. It has also been made available on Amazon Prime Video, Peacock, Disney+, the PBS app and PBS.org with a PBS Passport subscription.
=== Blu-ray and DVD ===
On 16 September 2011, two days before the UK premiere of the second series, it was reported by Amazon.com that the first series of Downton Abbey had become the highest selling DVD boxset of all time on the online retailer's website, surpassing popular American programmes such as The Sopranos, Friends and The Wire.
=== Books ===
The World of Downton Abbey, a book featuring a behind-the-scenes look at Downton Abbey and the era in which it is set, was released on 15 September 2011. It was written by Jessica Fellowes (the niece of Julian Fellowes) and published by HarperCollins.
A second book, also written by Jessica Fellowes and published by HarperCollins, The Chronicles of Downton Abbey, was released on 13 September 2012. It is a guide to the show's characters through the early part of the third series.
Four spin-off cookbooks have been published – The Official Downton Abbey Cookbook (2019), which features dishes from the Edwardian period researched by food historian Dr Annie Gray, The Official Downton Abbey Christmas Cookbook (2020) by Regula Ysewijn, The Official Downton Abbey Cocktail Book (2019) and The Official Downton Abbey Afternoon Tea Cookbook (2020).
== Soundtracks ==
A soundtrack, featuring music from the series and also new songs, was released by Decca in September 2011. Music by John Lunn and Don Black features, with vocals from Mary-Jess Leaverland and Alfie Boe. A second soundtrack was released on 19 November 2012 entitled Downton Abbey: The Essential Collection and a third and final soundtrack, containing two discs, was released on 15 January 2016 entitled Downton Abbey: The Ultimate Collection and featured music spanning from all six seasons of the series including some from the first soundtrack.
== Cultural impact ==
Some of the fashion items worn by characters on the show have seen a strong revival of interest in the UK and elsewhere during the show's run, including starched collars, midi skirts, beaded gowns, and hunting plaids.
The Equality (Titles) Bill was an unsuccessful piece of legislation introduced in the UK Parliament in 2013 that would have allowed equal succession of female heirs to hereditary titles and peerages. It was nicknamed the "Downton Abbey law" because it addressed the same issue that affects Lady Mary Crawley, who cannot inherit the estate because it must pass to a male heir.
The decor used on Downton Abbey inspired US Representative Aaron Schock to redecorate his congressional offices in a more luxurious style. He repaid the $40,000 cost of redecoration following scrutiny of his expenses and questions about his use of public money for personal benefit, and subsequently resigned in March 2015.
== Other media ==
Due to the show's popularity, there have been a number of references and spoofs on it, such as Family Guy episode "Chap Stewie", which has Stewie Griffin reborn in a household similar to Downton Abbey, and How I Met Your Mother episode "The Fortress", where the gang watch a television show called Woodworthy Manor, which is remarkably similar to Downton Abbey.
A short scene featuring the characters of Sybil and Tom Branson made a screen-in-screen appearance in the movie Iron Man 3.
=== The Gilded Age ===
Julian Fellowes's The Gilded Age, which debuted on HBO in 2022, portrays New York in the 1880s and how its old New York society coped with the influx of newly wealthy families. While a separate series, Fellowes hinted in interviews that some members of Downton's Crawley family, as well as Martha Levinson, Cora's mother, could appear in the new show.
== Film sequels ==
On 13 July 2018, a feature-length film was confirmed, with production commencing mid-2018. The film was written by Julian Fellowes and is a continuation of the TV series, with direction by Michael Engler. It was distributed by Focus Features and Universal Pictures International. The film was released in the United Kingdom on 13 September 2019, with the United States following one week later on 20 September 2019. Filming of a sequel began in April 2021. The film was finally released in the UK on 29 April 2022, and in the US on 20 May. The final film was released in cinemas on 12 September 2025. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Marathon#Rosie_Ruiz,_the_impostor | Boston Marathon#Rosie Ruiz, the impostor | The Boston Marathon is an annual marathon race hosted by eight cities and towns in greater Boston in eastern Massachusetts, United States. It is traditionally held on Patriots' Day, the third Monday of April. Begun in 1897, the event was inspired by the success of the first marathon competition in the 1896 Summer Olympics. The Boston Marathon is the world's oldest annual marathon and ranks as one of the world's best-known road racing events. It is one of seven World Marathon Majors. Its course runs from Hopkinton in southern Middlesex County to Boylston Street, near Copley Square, in Boston. The World Marathon Majors is a series including Tokyo, Boston, London, Berlin, Chicago, and New York City marathons. Points from these races determine annual series champions among elite competitors, enhancing international competition and prestige.
The Boston Athletic Association (B.A.A.) has organized this event annually since 1897, including a "virtual alternative" after the 2020 road race was canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The race has been managed by DMSE Sports since 1988. Amateur and professional runners from all over the world compete in the Boston Marathon each year, braving the hilly Massachusetts terrain and varying weather to take part in the race.
The event attracts 500,000 spectators along the route, making it New England's most viewed sporting event. Recent editions have seen strong participation; for example, in the 1996 the largest fielding of the Boston Marathon hosted 38,708 runners, 36,748 specators, and 35,868 finishers. The Centennial Boston Marathon in 1996 established a record as the world's largest marathon with 38,708 entrants, 36,748 starters, and 35,868 finishers.
== History ==
Men have competed in the event since its inaugural edition in 1897. Women were officially allowed to enter the event starting in 1972, although organizers now recognize 1966 as the first edition officially completed by a woman. Wheelchair divisions were added in 1975 for men and in 1977 for women. The first person to officially race in Boston in a wheelchair was Bob Hall. Handcycle divisions were added in 2017 for both men and women.
The Boston Marathon was first run in April 1897, having been inspired by the revival of the marathon for the 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece. Until 2020 it was the second oldest continuously running marathon, and the third longest continuously running footrace in North America, having debuted five months after the five mile Buffalo Turkey Trot race.
On April 19, 1897, ten years after the establishment of the B.A.A., the race was inspired by the marathon event at the 1896 Summer Olympics. Organizers evaluated several possible routes before selecting a 24.5 mile course from Metcalf’s Mill in Ashland to the Irvington Oval in Boston. The inaugural race fielded any competitor over 18 and John J. McDermott won in 2:55:10, leading a field of 15. The event was scheduled for the recently established holiday of Patriots' Day, with the race linking the Athenian and American struggles for liberty. The race, which became known as the Boston Marathon, has been held in some form every year since then, even during the World War years and the Great Depression, making it the world's oldest annual marathon. In 1924, the starting line was moved from Metcalf's Mill in Ashland to the neighboring town of Hopkinton. The course was adjusted gradually after the 1908 Olympic standards established 26 miles 385 yards as the official distance. Boston’s course requirements was changed with this as runners were required to complete a standard International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF) certified marathon. The first 1.9 miles (3.1 km) are run in Hopkinton before the runners enter Ashland.
The Boston Marathon was originally a local event, but its fame and status have attracted runners from all over the world. For most of its history, the Boston Marathon was a free event, and the only prize awarded for winning the race was a wreath woven from olive branches. However, corporate-sponsored cash prizes began to be awarded in the 1980s, when professional athletes refused to run the race unless a cash award was available. The first cash prize for winning the marathon was awarded in 1986.
Walter A. Brown was the President of the Boston Athletic Association from 1941 to 1964. During the height of the Korean War in 1951, Brown denied Koreans entry into the Boston Marathon. He stated: "While American soldiers are fighting and dying in Korea, every Korean should be fighting to protect his country instead of training for marathons. As long as the war continues there, we positively will not accept Korean entries for our race on April 19."
Following the 2013 bombing, the Boston Marathon instituted enhanced security screening, expanded medical response capabilities, and revised marathon day traffic and crowd management plans.
=== Bobbi Gibb, Kathrine Switzer, and Nina Kuscik ===
The Boston Marathon rule book made no mention of gender until after the 1967 race. Nor did the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) exclude women from races that included men until after the 1967 Boston Marathon. Roberta "Bobbi" Gibb's attempt to register for the 1966 race was refused by race director Will Cloney in a letter in which he claimed women were physiologically incapable of running 26 miles.
Gibb nevertheless ran unregistered and finished the 1966 race in three hours, twenty-one minutes and forty seconds, ahead of two-thirds of the runners. Much later, she would be recognized by the race organizers as the first woman to run the entire Boston Marathon.
In 1967, Kathrine Switzer, who registered for the race using her official AAU registration number, paying the entry fee, providing a properly acquired fitness certificate, and signing her entry form with her usual signature 'K. V. Switzer', was the first woman to run and finish with a valid official race registration. As a result of Switzer's completion of the race as the first officially registered woman runner, the AAU changed its rules to ban women from competing in races against men. Switzer finished the race despite race official Jock Semple repeatedly assaulting her in an attempt to rip off her race numbers and eject her from the race. Afterwards, Semple and Switzer became friends.
Nina Kuscsik was instrumental in influencing the Amateur Athletic Union, in late 1971, to increase its maximum distance for sanctioned women's races, leading to official participation by women in marathons, beginning at Boston in 1972. Kuscsik was the first woman to officially win the Boston Marathon, which occurred in 1972.
In 1996, the B.A.A. retroactively recognized as champions the unofficial women's leaders of 1966 through 1971. In 2022, about 43 percent of the entrants were women.
=== Rosie Ruiz, the impostor ===
In 1980, Rosie Ruiz crossed the finish line first in the women's race. However, marathon officials became suspicious, and it was discovered that she did not appear in race videotapes until near the end of the race, with a subsequent investigation concluding that she had skipped most of the race and blended into the crowd about a half-mile (800 m) from the finish line, where she then ran to her false victory. She was disqualified eight days later, and Canadian Jacqueline Gareau was proclaimed the winner.
=== Participant deaths ===
In 1905, James Edward Brooks of North Adams, Massachusetts, died of pneumonia shortly after running the marathon. In 1996, a 61-year-old Swedish man, Humphrey Siesage, died of a heart attack during the 100th running. In 2002, Cynthia Lucero, 28, died of hyponatremia.
=== 2011: Geoffrey Mutai and the IAAF ===
On April 18, 2011, Geoffrey Mutai of Kenya won the 2011 Boston Marathon in a time of 2:03:02:00. Although this was the fastest marathon ever run at the time, the International Association of Athletics Federations noted that the performance was not eligible for world record status given that the course did not satisfy rules that regarded elevation drop and start/finish separation (the latter requirement being intended to prevent advantages gained from a strong tailwind, as was the case in 2011). The Associated Press (AP) reported that Mutai had the support of other runners who describe the IAAF's rules as "flawed". According to the Boston Herald, race director Dave McGillivray said he was sending paperwork to the IAAF in an attempt to have Mutai's mark ratified as a world record. Although this was not successful, the AP indicated that the attempt to have the mark certified as a world record "would force the governing bodies to reject an unprecedented performance on the world's most prestigious marathon course".
=== 2013: Bombing ===
On April 15, 2013, the Boston Marathon was still in progress at 2:49 p.m. EDT (nearly three hours after the winner crossed the finish line), when two homemade bombs were set off about 200 yards (180 m) apart on Boylston Street, in approximately the last 225 yards (200 m) of the course. The race was halted, preventing many from finishing. Three spectators were killed and an estimated 264 people were injured. Entrants who completed at least half the course and did not finish due to the bombing were given automatic entry in 2014. In 2015, Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, one of the perpetrators of the bombing, was found guilty of 30 federal offenses in connection with the attack and was sentenced to death. His older brother Tamerlan died after a gunfight with police and after Dzhokhar ran him over with a stolen vehicle.
=== 2014: Women's race disqualification ===
Bizunesh Deba of Ethiopia was eventually named women's winner of the 2014 Boston Marathon, following the disqualification of Kenyan Rita Jeptoo from the event due to confirmed doping. Deba finished in a time of 2:19:59, and became the course record holder. Her performance bested that of Margaret Okayo, who ran a time of 2:20:43 in 2002.
=== 2016: Bobbi Gibb as grand marshal ===
In the 2016 Boston Marathon, Jami Marseilles, an American, became the first female double amputee to finish the Boston Marathon. Bobbi Gibb, the first woman to have run the entire Boston Marathon (1966), was the grand marshal of the race. The Women's Open division winner, Atsede Baysa, gave Gibb her trophy; Gibb said that she would go to Baysa's native Ethiopia in 2017 and return it to her.
=== 2020: Cancellation ===
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2020 Boston Marathon was initially rescheduled from April 20 to September 14. It was the first postponement in the more than 100 year uninterrupted history of the event.
On May 28, 2020, it was announced that the rescheduled marathon set for September 14 was canceled. Boston Mayor Marty Walsh said of the decision to cancel the race, "There's no way to hold this usual race format without bringing large numbers of people into close proximity. While our goal and our hope was to make progress in containing the virus and recovering our economy, this kind of event would not be responsible or realistic on September 14 or any time this year."
Runners were issued full refunds of entry fees. Organizers later staged a "virtual alternative" in September 2020 as the 124th running of the marathon. This was the second time that the format of the marathon was modified, the first having been in 1918, when the race was changed from a marathon to a military relay race (ekiden) because of World War I.
=== 2021: Rescheduled to October ===
On October 28, 2020, the B.A.A. announced that the 2021 edition of the marathon would not be held in April; organizers stated that they hoped to stage the event later in the year, possibly in the autumn. In late January 2021, organizers announced October 11 as the date for the marathon, contingent upon road races being allowed in Massachusetts at that time. In March, organizers announced that the field would be limited to 20,000 runners. The race was the fourth of the five World Marathon Majors held in 2021; all the events in the series were run in the space of six weeks between late September and early November. In 2021, the B.A.A. also offered a virtual alternative to the in-person race to be completed anytime between 8–10 October.
== Race ==
=== Qualifying ===
The Boston Marathon is open to runners 18 or older from any nation, but they must meet certain qualifying standards. To qualify, a runner must first complete a standard marathon course certified by a national governing body affiliated with the World Athletics within a certain period of time before the date of the desired Boston Marathon (usually within approximately 18 months prior).
In the 1980s and 1990s, membership in USA Track & Field was required of all runners, but this requirement has been eliminated.
Qualifying standards for the 2013 race were tightened on February 15, 2011, by five minutes in each age-gender group for marathons run after September 23, 2011. Prospective runners in the age range of 18–34 must run a time of no more than 3:00:00 (3 hours) if male, or 3:30:00 (3 hours 30 minutes) if female; the qualifying time is adjusted upward as age increases. In addition, the 59-second grace period on qualifying times has been eliminated; for example, a 40- to 44-year-old male will no longer qualify with a time of 3:10:01. For many marathoners, to qualify for Boston (to "BQ") is a goal and achievement in itself. This leads many runners to find intrinsic motivation in qualifying for the elusive marathon by setting the specific, time-based, and difficult goals associated with the age-based time standard.
An exception to the qualification times is for runners who receive entries from partners. About one-fifth of the marathon's spots are reserved each year for charities, sponsors, vendors, licensees, consultants, municipal officials, local running clubs, and marketers. In 2010, about 5,470 additional runners received entries through partners, including 2,515 charity runners. The marathon currently allocates spots to two dozen charities who in turn are expected to raise more than $10 million a year. In 2017, charity runners raised $34.2 million for more than 200 non-profit organizations. The Boston Athletic Association's Official Charity Program raised $17.96 million, John Hancock's Non-Profit Program raised $12.3 million, and the last $3.97 million was raised by other qualified and invitational runners.
On October 18, 2010, the 20,000 spots reserved for qualifiers were filled in a record-setting eight hours and three minutes. The speed of registration prompted the B.A.A. to change its qualifying standards for the 2013 marathon onward. In addition to lowering qualifying times, the change includes a rolling application process, which gives faster runners priority. Organizers decided not to significantly adjust the number of non-qualifiers.
On September 27, 2018, the B.A.A. announced that they were lowering the qualifying times for the 2020 marathon by another five minutes, with male runners in the 18-34 age group required to run a time of 3:00:00 (3 hours) or less and female runners in the 18-34 age group required to run a time of 3:30:00 (3 hours, 30 minutes) or less in order to qualify.
In September 2024, the B.A.A. announced new qualifying times for the 2026 race, lowering the former qualifying times by five minutes for most age groups. The 18-34 age group needs to run a time of 2:55 (two hours, 55 minutes) for males, and 3:25 (3 hours, 25 minutes) for female and non-binary runners to qualify for the 2026 race.
=== Race day ===
The race has traditionally been held on Patriots' Day, a state holiday in Massachusetts. Through 1968, the holiday was observed on April 19, with the event held that day, unless it fell on a Sunday, in which case the race was held on Monday. Since 1969, the holiday has been observed on the third Monday in April, with the event held then, often referred to locally as "Marathon Monday".
=== Starting times ===
Through 2005, the race began at noon (wheelchair race at 11:25 a.m., and elite women at 11:31 a.m.), at the official starting point in Hopkinton, Massachusetts. In 2006, the race used a staggered "wave start", where top-seeded runners (the elite men's group) and a first batch of up to 10,000 runners started at noon, with a second group starting at 12:30. The next year the starting times for the race were moved up, allowing runners to take advantage of cooler temperatures and enabling the roads to be reopened earlier. The marathon later added third and fourth waves to help further stagger the runners and reduce congestion.
The starting times for 2019 were:
Men's Push Rim Wheelchair: 9:02 a.m.
Women's Push Rim Wheelchair: 9:04 a.m.
Handcycles and Duos: 9:25 a.m.
Elite Women: 9:32 a.m.
Elite Men: 10 a.m.
Wave One: 10:02 a.m.
Wave Two: 10:25 a.m.
Wave Three: 10:50 a.m.
Wave Four: 11:15 a.m.
=== Course ===
The course runs through 26 miles 385 yards (42.195 km) of winding roads, following Route 135, Route 16, Route 30 and city streets into the center of Boston, where the official finish line is located at Copley Square, alongside the Boston Public Library. The race runs through eight Massachusetts cities and towns: Hopkinton, Ashland, Framingham, Natick, Wellesley, Newton, Brookline, and Boston. The first six miles of the course descend through Ashland and Framingham. Runners encounter a series of four Newton hills, culminating in Heartbreak Hill just after mile 20, before the final downhill and flat approach into Boston.
The Boston Marathon is considered to be one of the more difficult marathon courses because of the Newton hills, which culminate in Heartbreak Hill near Boston College. While the three hills on Commonwealth Avenue (Route 30) are better known, a preceding hill on Washington Street (Route 16), climbing from the Charles River crossing at 16 miles (26 km), is regarded by Dave McGillivray, the long-term race director, as the course's most difficult challenge. This hill, which follows a 150-foot (46 m) rise over a 1⁄2 mile (800 m) stretch, forces many lesser-trained runners to a walking pace.
==== Heartbreak Hill ====
Heartbreak Hill is an ascent over 0.4 miles (600 m) between the 20- and 21-mile (32- and 34-km) marks, near Boston College. It is the last of four "Newton hills", which begin at the 16-mile (26 km) mark and challenge contestants with late (if modest) climbs after the course's general downhill trend to that point. Though Heartbreak Hill itself rises only 88 feet (27 m) vertically (from an elevation of 148 to 236 feet (45 to 72 m)), it comes in the portion of a marathon distance where muscle glycogen stores are most likely to be depleted—a phenomenon referred to by marathoners as "hitting the wall".
It was on this hill that, in 1936, defending champion John A. "Johnny" Kelley overtook Ellison "Tarzan" Brown, giving him a consolatory pat on the shoulder as he passed. This gesture renewed the competitive drive in Brown, who rallied, pulled ahead of Kelley, and went on to win—thereby, it was said, breaking Kelley's heart.
=== Records ===
Because the course drops 459 feet (140 m) from start to finish and the start is quite far west of the finish, allowing a helpful tailwind, the Boston Marathon does not satisfy two of the criteria necessary for the ratification of world or American records.
At the 2011 Boston Marathon on April 18, 2011, Geoffrey Mutai of Kenya ran a time of 2:03:02, which was the fastest ever marathon at the time (since surpassed by Eliud Kipchoge's 2:01:39 in Berlin 2018). However, due to the reasons listed above, Mutai's performance was not ratified as an official world record. Bezunesh Deba from Ethiopia set the women's course record with a 2:19:59 performance on April 21, 2014. This was declared after Rita Jeptoo from Kenya was disqualified following a confirmed doping violation.
Other course records include:
Men's Masters: John Campbell (New Zealand), 2:11:04 (set in 1990)
Women's Masters: Firiya Sultanova-Zhdanova (Russia), 2:27:58 (set in 2002)
Men's Push Rim Wheelchair: Marcel Hug (Switzerland), 1:17:06 (set in 2023)
Women's Push Rim Wheelchair: Manuela Schär (Switzerland), 1:28:17 (set in 2017)
Men's Handcycle: Tom Davis (United States), 0:58:36 (set in 2017)
Women's Handcycle: Alicia Dana (United States), 1:18:15 (set in 2023)
On only four occasions have world record times for marathon running been set in Boston. In 1947, the men's record time set was 2:25:39, by Suh Yun-Bok of South Korea. In 1975, a women's world record of 2:42:24 was set by Liane Winter of West Germany, and in 1983, Joan Benoit Samuelson of the United States ran a women's world record time of 2:22:43. In 2012 Joshua Cassidy of Canada set a men's wheelchair marathon world-record time of 1:18:25. In the 2025 Boston Marathon, Sharon Lokedi set a new women’s course record of 2:17:22, reducing the previous record of 2:19:59 set in 2014. On the men’s side, John Korir won in 2:04:45, the fastest winning time since 2011. Korir also became the first winner whose brother had previously won the race (Wesley Korir, 2012)
In 2007, astronaut Sunita Williams was an official entrant of the race, running a marathon distance while on the International Space Station, becoming the first person to run a marathon in space. She was sent a specialty bib and medal by the B.A.A. on the STS-117 flight of the Space Shuttle Atlantis.
The race's organizers keep a standard time clock for all entries, though official timekeeping ceases after the six-hour mark.
== The B.A.A. ==
The Boston Athletic Association is a non-profit, organized sports association that organizes the Boston Marathon and other events.
== Divisions ==
The 1975 Boston Marathon became the first major marathon to include a wheelchair division competition. Bob Hall wrote race director Will Cloney to ask if he could compete in the race in his wheelchair. Cloney wrote back that he could not give Hall a race number, but would recognize Hall as an official finisher if he completed the race in under 3 hours and 30 minutes. Hall finished in 2 hours and 58 minutes, paving the way for the wheelchair division. Ernst Van Dyk, in 2004, set a course record at 1:18.29, almost 50 minutes faster than the fastest runner.
Also in 1975, the Boston Marathon first included a women's masters division, which Sylvia Weiner won, at age 44 with a time of 3:21:38.
Handcyclists have competed in the race since at least 2014. Starting in 2017, handcyclists are honored the same way runners and wheelchair racers are: with wreaths, prize money, and the playing of the men's and women's winners' national anthems.
In addition to the push rim wheelchair division, the Boston Marathon also hosts a blind/visually impaired division, and a mobility impaired program. Similar to the running divisions, a set of qualifying times has been developed for these divisions to motivate aspiring athletes and ensure competitive excellence. In 1986, the introduction of prize money at the Boston Marathon gave the push rim wheelchair division the richest prize purse in the sport. More than 1,000 people with disabilities and impairments have participated in the wheelchair division, while the other divisions have gained popularity each year. In 2013, 40 blind runners participated.
The nonbinary division of the Boston Marathon was first included in 2023; it was won by Kae Ravichandran with a time of 2:38:57.
== Memorial ==
The Boston Marathon Memorial in Copley Square, which is near the finish line, was installed to mark the one-hundredth running of the race. A circle of granite blocks set in the ground surrounds a central medallion that traces the race course and other segments that show an elevation map of the course and the names of the winners.
== Notable features ==
=== Spectators ===
With approximately 500,000 spectators, the Boston Marathon is New England's most widely viewed sporting event. About 1,000 media members from more than 100 outlets received media credentials in 2011.
For the entire distance of the race, thousands line the sides of the course to cheer the runners on, encourage them, and provide free water and snacks to the runners.
=== Scream Tunnel ===
At Wellesley College, a historically women's college, it is traditional for the students to cheer on the runners in what is referred to as the Scream Tunnel. For about a quarter of a mile (400 m), the students line the course, scream, and offer kisses.
The Scream Tunnel is so loud runners claim it can be heard from a mile away. The tunnel is roughly half a mile (0.8 km) prior to the halfway mark of the course.
=== Boston Red Sox ===
Every year, the Boston Red Sox play a home game at Fenway Park, starting at 11:05 a.m. When the game ends, the crowd empties into Kenmore Square to cheer as the runners enter the final mile. This tradition started in 1903. In the 1940s, the Red Sox from the American League and the Boston Braves from the National League (who moved to Milwaukee after the 1953 season) alternated yearly as to which would play the morning game. In 2007, the game between the Red Sox and the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim was delayed until 12:18 p.m. due to heavy rain. The marathon, which had previously been run in a wide variety of weather conditions, was not delayed. The 2018 game hosting the Baltimore Orioles was postponed into May due to rain, while 2020 saw the game not played resulting from the pandemic.
In 2021, when City Connect uniforms were introduced, the Red Sox chose a design inspired by the marathon. The colors were yellow and blue, and a number "617" - the area code for Boston - was added to the left sleeve in a way reminiscent of a racing bib. They were worn on the weekend leading up to Patriots' Day; on the holiday itself, the Boston Strong uniforms commemorating the 2013 bombing were worn. A new City Connect uniform was chosen in 2025, with the marathon-themed one remaining as an alternate.
=== Dick and Rick Hoyt ===
Dick and Rick Hoyt entered the Boston Marathon 32 times. Dick was the father of Rick, who had cerebral palsy. While doctors said that Rick would never have a normal life and thought that institutionalizing him was the best option, Dick and his wife disagreed and raised him at home. Eventually, a computer device was developed that helped Rick communicate with his family, and they learned that one of his biggest passions was sports. "Team Hoyt" (Dick and Rick) started competing in charity runs, with Dick pushing Rick in a wheelchair. Through August 2008, Dick and Rick had competed in 66 marathons and 229 triathlons. Their fastest marathon finish was 2:40:47. The team completed their 30th Boston Marathon in 2012, when Dick was 72 and Rick was 50. They had intended the 2013 marathon to be their final one, but due to the Boston Marathon bombing, they were stopped a mile short of completing their run, and decided to run one more marathon the following year. They completed the 2014 marathon on April 21, 2014, having previously announced that it would be their last. In tribute to his connection with the race, Dick was named the Grand Marshal of the 2015 marathon. He died in 2021, aged 80. Rick died in May 2023.
=== Bandits ===
Unlike many other races, the Boston Marathon tolerated "bandits" (runners who do not register and obtain a bib number). They used to be held back until after all the registered runners had left the starting line, and then were released in an unofficial fourth wave. They were generally not pulled off the course and mostly allowed to cross the finish line. For decades, these unofficial runners were treated like local folk heroes, celebrated for their endurance and spunk for entering a contest with the world's most accomplished athletes. Boston Marathon race director Dave McGillivray was once a teenage bandit.
Given the increased field that was expected for the 2014 Marathon, however, organizers planned "more than ever" to discourage bandits from running. As of September 2015 the B.A.A. website states:
Q: Can I run in the Boston Marathon as an unofficial or "bandit" runner?
A: No, please do NOT run if you have not been officially entered in the race. Race amenities along the course and at the finish, such as fluids, medical care, and traffic safety, are provided based on the number of expected official entrants. Any addition to this by way of unofficial participants, adversely affects our ability to ensure a safe race for everyone.
=== Costumes ===
A number of people choose to run the course in a variety of costumes each year. During the 100th running in 1996, one runner wore a scale model of the Old North Church steeple on his back. Old North Church is where the signal was lit that set Paul Revere off on his midnight ride, which is commemorated each year on the same day as the Marathon. During the 2014 marathon, runners and spectators were discouraged from wearing "costumes covering the face or any non-form fitting, bulky outfits extending beyond the perimeter of the body," for security reasons following the 2013 bombing. However, state authorities and the Boston Athletic Association did not outright ban such costumes.
=== Ondekoza taiko drummers ===
Starting in 1975, members of Ondekoza, a group from Japan, would run the marathon and right after finishing the race would start playing their taiko drums at the finish line. They repeated the tradition several times in the 1970s and 1990s. The 700-pound (320 kg) drum would be set up at the finish line to encourage runners finishing the marathon. Bill Rodgers, who inspired member's running, was a guest on Sado Island and ran marathons in Japan with Ondekoza members. The group also ran the New York City Marathon and Los Angeles Marathon, and ran 10,000 miles (16,000 km) of the perimeter of the United States from 1990 to 1993.
=== Historical Trends in Winners and Nationalities ===
Kenyan and Ethiopian athletes have historically dominated elite Boston Marathon results, reflecting broader East African success in distance running. With accolades such as marathon world records and gold medals.
=== Controversies and Criticisms ===
In 2024, a Black-led running group called TrailblazHers Run Co. filed a lawsuit against the Boston Athletic Association (B.A.A.), the city of Newton, and the Newton police chief over an incident that occurred during the 2023 Boston Marathon. The group alleged that police officers targeted their cheering section at mile 21 of the race and formed a barricade that separated them from the course while allowing mostly white spectators in other areas to remain closer to runners. According to the lawsuit, more than 100 spectators, many of whom were people of color, had gathered to cheer and support runners when police intervened. The plaintiffs claim the actions amounted to racial profiling and harassment. The lawsuit seeks damages and policy changes to prevent similar treatment at future events. The B.A.A. stated that it was aware of the complaint but had not yet reviewed it at the time of the report.
=== See also ===
List of winners of the Boston Marathon
List of marathon races in North America
The Sports Museum (at TD Garden)
Boston Athletic Association
Newton, Massachusetts
Marathon |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idina_Menzel | Idina Menzel | Idina Kim Menzel ( ih-DEE-nə men-ZEL; née Mentzel; born May 30, 1971) is an American actress, singer and songwriter. Regarded as the "Queen of Broadway", Menzel is known for her commanding stage presence, powerful mezzo-soprano voice, and reputation as one of the most influential stage actors of her generation. Having achieved mainstream success across stage, screen, and music, her accolades include a Tony Award and a Daytime Emmy Award.
Menzel rose to prominence as a stage actress in 1996, making her Broadway debut as performance artist Maureen Johnson in the rock musical Rent, which earned her a Tony Award nomination for Best Featured Actress in a Musical. In 2003, she originated the role of Elphaba in the musical Wicked on Broadway, for which she won the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical. After leaving the show in 2005, she reprised the role in the musical's original West End production in 2006, becoming the highest-paid actress in West End theatre history. In 2014, Menzel returned to Broadway in the musical If/Then, for which she received a third Tony Award nomination.
Menzel began working in film and television in the early 2000s. After reprising her Rent role in the musical's 2005 film adaptation, she had a supporting role in Disney's musical fantasy film Enchanted (2007). She played recurring character Shelby Corcoran on the musical television series Glee from 2010 to 2013. Since 2013, Menzel has voiced Elsa in Disney's Frozen franchise; "Let It Go", a song she recorded for the first film, peaked at number five on the Billboard Hot 100. Menzel has since played supporting roles in the films Uncut Gems (2019), Cinderella (2021), and You Are So Not Invited to My Bat Mitzvah (2023).
As a recording artist and songwriter, Menzel has released seven studio albums, including I Stand (2008) and Holiday Wishes (2014); the latter peaked at number six on the Billboard 200, becoming her highest-charting studio album to-date.
== Early life and education ==
Idina Kim Mentzel was born on May 30, 1971, in Manhattan. She grew up in New Jersey until about age three; her family moved to Syosset, New York, on Long Island. Her parents are Stuart Mentzel, a pajama salesman, and Helene Goldberg, a therapist. She has a younger sister named Cara. Menzel is Jewish and her grandparents emigrated from Russia and Eastern Europe. She attended J. Irving Baylis Elementary School in Plainview, New York; H. B. Thompson Middle School in Syosset; and Syosset High School.
When Menzel was 15 years old, her parents divorced and she began working as a wedding and bar/bat mitzvah singer, a job that she held while a student at New York University's Tisch School of the Arts; she earned a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in drama there in 1992. Idina changed the spelling of her surname to "Menzel" to better reflect the pronunciation that the Mentzel family had adopted in the United States. She was friends with actor Adam Pascal before they worked together in Rent.
In 2017, Irish songwriter Jimmy Walsh who was based in New York City said that in 1992, Menzel had recorded a demo for him of the song "In Your Eyes", which went on to win the Eurovision Song Contest 1993 for Irish singer Niamh Kavanagh. Menzel was paid $75 for the recording.
== Career ==
=== Theater career ===
==== Rent to The Wild Party (1996–2000) ====
In 1995, Menzel auditioned for Rent, which became her first professional theatre job and her Broadway debut. Rent opened Off-Broadway at the New York Theatre Workshop on January 26, 1996, but it moved to Broadway's Nederlander Theatre due to its popularity. For her performance as Maureen Johnson in the original cast of the musical, Menzel received a Tony nomination as Best Featured Actress in a Musical, losing to Ann Duquesnay for Bring in 'da Noise, Bring in 'da Funk. Her final performance in the musical was on July 1, 1997. Despite the Tony nod, Menzel said, she faded into "obscurity" for eight years.
After the success of Rent, Menzel released her first solo album entitled Still I Can't Be Still on Hollywood Records. Menzel also originated the role of Dorothy in Summer of '42 at Goodspeed Opera House in Connecticut, starred as Sheila in the New York City Center Encores! production of Hair and appeared on Broadway as Amneris in Aida. Menzel earned a Drama Desk Award nomination for her performance as Kate in the Manhattan Theatre Club's 2000 Off-Broadway production of Andrew Lippa's The Wild Party. Her other Off-Broadway credits include the pre-Broadway run of Rent and The Vagina Monologues.
==== Wicked, If/Then, Skintight, to WILD (2003–2021) ====
In 2003, Menzel was cast to star alongside Kristin Chenoweth in Wicked, a musical by Stephen Schwartz and Winnie Holzman based upon Gregory Maguire's 1995 novel Wicked: The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West. Shortly after a San Francisco tryout, Wicked began previews at Broadway's Gershwin Theatre on October 8, 2003, with an official opening night on October 30. Menzel's performance as Elphaba, the misunderstood Wicked Witch of the West, garnered critical acclaim, for which she won the 2004 Tony Award for Best Leading Actress in a Musical. Menzel's character also earned her a devoted fanbase, particularly among young girls who empathized with her misunderstood character, as well as a gay following. She can be heard on the show's Original Broadway Cast (OBC) recording. During her penultimate performance on January 8, 2005, she fell through a trap door during the melting scene and cracked a lower rib. This injury prevented her from performing in her scheduled final show on January 9; her standby, Shoshana Bean, played Elphaba at that performance. Menzel did, however, make a special appearance, in a red tracksuit, at that performance, performed her last song, and received a five-minute standing ovation. Five years later, Broadway.com readers would vote Menzel their favorite Elphaba performer out of the eleven actresses who had by then played the character on Broadway.
After Wicked, Menzel appeared Off-Broadway in the Public Theater's production of See What I Wanna See, a Michael John LaChiusa-penned musical whose run ended in December 2005, for which she received Drama Desk Award and Drama League Award nominations. She reprised her Tony Award-winning role as Elphaba in the West End production of Wicked when it opened at London's Apollo Victoria Theatre on September 27, 2006. She starred alongside Helen Dallimore as Glinda and Adam Garcia as Fiyero. During her run, she was the highest-paid female performer in the West End at $30,000 per week. Menzel finished her West End run on December 30, 2006. She was succeeded by Elphaba standby Kerry Ellis.
Menzel played the role of Florence in the 21st-anniversary concert of the musical Chess at London's Royal Albert Hall, from May 12 to 13, 2008, alongside Kerry Ellis, Adam Pascal, and Josh Groban. In 2008, she headlined the Powerhouse Theatre's reading of Steven Sater and Duncan Sheik's musical Nero from July 11 to 13, performing the role of Nero's mistress, Poppea. She was joined by Glee costar Lea Michele as Claudia Octavia, Jeffrey Carleson as Nero, and Michael Arden as Octavia's brother, Brittanicus.
By February 28, 2013, Menzel was cast to star as Elizabeth in the new Tom Kitt and Brian Yorkey Broadway musical If/Then. Directed by Michael Greif (with whom Menzel previously worked on the original production of Rent), it had its world premiere at the National Theatre in Washington, D.C., starting with previews on November 5, 2013, until November 24, 2013. Following the out-of-town tryout, the show moved to the Richard Rodgers Theatre on Broadway and began previews on March 4, 2014. It officially opened on March 30, 2014. For her performance, Menzel received her second Tony Award nomination for Best Leading Actress in a Musical and performed Always Starting Over, but lost to Jessie Mueller for Beautiful: The Carole King Musical. If/Then closed on Broadway on March 22, 2015, after 29 previews and 401 regular performances.
Menzel reprised the role of Elizabeth (along with original Broadway cast members Lachanze, James Snyder, and Anthony Rapp) on the first seven stops of the show's national tour from October 2015 to January 2016. She departed the show (along with LaChanze and Snyder) on the last day of the Costa Mesa, California engagement, on January 24, 2016. Her replacement was Jackie Burns (who previously served as Menzel's standby in the Broadway production) starting January 27, 2016, in Dallas, Texas.
Later, in 2018, Menzel was cast as Jodi in Roundabout Theatre Company's World Premiere production of Joshua Harmon's new play Skintight. The show premiered Off Broadway at the Laura Pels Theatre at the Harold and Miriam Steinberg Center for Theatre. It began previews on May 31, 2018, opened on June 21, 2018, and ran for strictly limited engagement till August 26, 2018. The play earned Menzel rave reviews and marking it her first major New York Theater non-musical role. A year later, she reprised her performance in Skintight marking its debut on the West Coast. The production played the Geffen Playhouse in Los Angeles, California running from September 3 – October 6, 2019.
While appearing in Skintight, Menzel read for the role of Mary Jane in a workshop for the Broadway rock musical Jagged Little Pill.
In late 2019, Menzel revealed on Twitter that she was working on "a mystery project" with Justin Tranter, Caroline Pennell and Eve Ensler (later known as V). In mid-2021, it was announced that this project is Wild: A Musical Becoming, set to perform at American Repertory Theater in Cambridge, MA from December 3, 2021, to January 21, 2022 (she was only scheduled to perform through December 23). It was later announced that she would star as Bea, with contributions to the lyrics. On December 17, due to COVID, it was announced that the show on that day was cancelled; it was later announced that the performance on the following two days and eventually all the following productions were cancelled, making December 16 her last performance.
==== Redwood (2025) ====
Menzel plays the main role of Jesse in Redwood, a musical that premiered at La Jolla Playhouse in San Diego, California on February 25, 2024. The musical opened on Broadway at the Nederlander Theatre, the same theater where Menzel made her Broadway debut in Rent, on February 13, 2025.[1] Menzel and Tina Landau created the musical along with composer/co-lyricist Kate Diaz.
Redwood was met with mixed reviews. Following not receiving any Tony nominations and low ticket sales, it closed on Broadway on May 18, 2025, after 17 previews and 127 regular performances. The show has been nominated for a GLAAD Media Award in the Outstanding Broadway Production category. The ceremony will be held on March 5, 2026 in Los Angeles.
=== Music career ===
Menzel initially struggled to crossover into a solo music career beyond stage musicals, claiming the industry did not take her seriously as a pop or rock singer due to her Broadway origins. Menzel performed at the 1998 Lilith Fair summer concert festival and continues to write and perform original music. She has toured extensively and frequently performs in various venues throughout New York City. She produced and released her debut album, Still I Can't Be Still, for Hollywood Records in 1998. One single from the album, "Minuet", made the Radio & Records CHR/Pop Tracks chart at number 48 in October 1998. Following the album release, she embarked on a promotional tour, but after selling fewer than 10,000 copies in the US and missing the Billboard 200, Menzel's label put the album out of print, and she was dropped from the label. However, the album was re-released once she began to rise to greater fame with her Tony-winning performance in Wicked.
Her second album, Here, was released independently by Zel Records in 2004. Menzel contributed to the soundtrack of Desperate Housewives in 2005. She also appears on Ray Charles's album Genius and Friends, which was also released in 2005, on the track "I Will Be There". In 2007, she appeared on the Beowulf soundtrack singing the end credits song, "A Hero Comes Home". Also, in 2007, Menzel's powerful singing voice led her to be asked to accompany the baritone British X Factor runner-up, Rhydian Roberts, on his debut album, duetting on the song "What If".
Her third solo album, I Stand, was released on January 29, 2008. Produced by Menzel's "top choice" collaborator Glen Ballard, the album features soaring pop ballads and includes many new songs, including the lead single, "Brave", the title track "I Stand", and a song released on EP, "Gorgeous". The album debuted at number 58 on the Billboard 200, making it the first solo album by Menzel to make the charts. There are five versions of this album: the original version, the special limited edition, the iTunes version, the Barnes & Noble edition, and the Borders edition. Menzel wrote 9 of the 10 songs on her album, and was the sole writer on the song "Forever."
On April 1, 2008, Menzel kicked off her 2008–2009 I Stand tour in support of her new album performing four sold-out legs. The concert at Rose Hall at Lincoln Center in New York City was filmed for the PBS television series Soundstage. Menzel was joined by special guests, superstar Josh Groban and saxophonist Ravi Coltrane.
On November 11, 2008, Menzel released "Hope," written by Paul Hampton, benefiting Stand Up to Cancer. On November 27, 2008, she performed "I Stand" on the M&M's Chocolate float as part of the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade.
On July 19, 2010, Menzel performed "Defying Gravity" and "What I Did For Love" in front of President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama at A Broadway Celebration: In Performance at the White House. The concert aired on PBS on October 20, 2010.
In April 2010, Menzel returned to the concert stage embarking on her "Barefoot at the Symphony Tour" in which she was accompanied by major symphony orchestras. Her performances included collaborations with the New York Philharmonic, the Boston Pops Orchestra, and the North Carolina Symphony, and featured symphonic arrangements by New York composer and producer Rob Mounsey. In October 2011, Menzel returned to London to perform a one-night-only concert in the United Kingdom at the Royal Albert Hall with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra with Marvin Hamlisch conducting. Menzel's concert stop in Toronto was filmed at The Royal Conservatory of Music on November 17 and 18, 2011, for her second PBS special. She was accompanied by the Kitchener-Waterloo Symphony with Marvin Hamlisch conducting and special guest Taye Diggs, Menzel's then-husband. Idina Menzel Live: Barefoot at the Symphony was released as a live CD and DVD and aired on PBS in March 2012, with Musical Director Rob Mounsey producing.
Menzel announced she would continue live performances in 2012. The first date she announced was July 8, 2012, at Ravinia Festival near Chicago, Illinois. She made her Carnegie Hall solo debut (originally on October 29, 2012). However, due to Hurricane Sandy's impact on New York City, it was postponed until January 13, 2013.
Menzel toured Australia in June 2013 with shows in South Australia, Melbourne, Brisbane, and two at the Sydney Opera House.
On June 17, 2014, during a concert at New York City's Radio City Music Hall, Menzel confirmed that she was working on a Christmas album that would contain original material to be released later that same year. In that concert, she performed one of the original tunes from the album, "December Prayer". The album, Holiday Wishes, was released on October 14, 2014. The album has so far peaked at number 10 on the Billboard 200, becoming her highest-charting album as a solo lead artist. Holiday Wishes also marked the first that a woman had three different albums (along with the cast recording to Frozen and If/Then) peak within the top 20 within ten months of the release date. Holiday Wishes also become the second-ever Christmas album to chart before Halloween during the SoundScan Era after Garth Brooks's 1992 album Beyond the Season. On November 26, 2014, Menzel announced through her Facebook page that she would be touring during the summer of 2015, making it her first global tour and first time playing shows in Europe and Asia.
Menzel was honored with the Breakthrough Artist award at the 2014 Billboard Women in Music awards ceremony.
Menzel sang "The Star-Spangled Banner" a cappella at Super Bowl XLIX on February 1, 2015. Menzel's rendition earned mixed reviews from critics, who praised the quality of her voice but questioned some of her stylistic choices, namely tempo and volume. In a complementary review, Markos Papadatos of The Digital Journal felt Menzel redeemed her reputation as a strong vocalist after pundits had criticized her live performance of "Let it Go" at Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve the previous year.
On August 5, 2016, Menzel announced she would release her eponymous fifth album, on September 23. Of the release, Menzel stated: "I poured my heart out and used my music as a place to kind of figure some things out. It's a really personal album." Marking it as her first original Pop studio album in 8 years since I Stand, the album debuted at # 29 on the US Billboard 200. With the success of the album, Menzel embarked on a World Tour in 2017 that traveled to Asia, Europe, and North America. Menzel's concert stop in Las Vegas was recorded for her second live album entitled idina Live and released on October 12, 2018.
On March 12, 2018, it was announced that Menzel would join Josh Groban for his Bridges Tour. For this tour, she served as Groban's Opening act before joining him later during his set for two duets of Lullaby and Falling Slowly. Menzel only performed with Groban on the first leg of North America in various cities, including Atlanta, Nashville, Dallas, Phoenix, Chicago, Boston, Pittsburgh, and a sold-out performance at Madison Square Garden in New York City. The New York City show (entitled Bridges Live From Madison Square Garden) was also filmed and released in Movie Theaters & later a Live CD & DVD release with an airing on PBS.
On May 11, 2019, it was revealed that she had signed to Scooter Braun and SB Projects for music management. Four years later, on August 22, 2023, The Hollywood Reporter revealed that Menzel was no longer being represented by Braun, having left his management that January.
On October 18, 2019, Menzel released her second holiday album entitled Christmas: A Season of Love from School Boy and Decca Records on October 18, 2019. It debuted at #2 on Billboard's US Top Holiday Albums. In support of it, Menzel embarked on a three-city concert tour in the east coast including a sold-out return to New York's Carnegie Hall.
On October 11, 2022, Menzel announced on her Instagram page that she would be releasing a concert special on Disney+ on December 9 titled Idina Menzel: Which Way to the Stage?. The special will consist of concert footage from Madison Square Garden in New York. The title is a nod to Menzel's first line as Maureen in Rent.
On August 18, 2023, Menzel released Drama Queen, a dance-themed pop album, via BMG Showcase. The album was developed during the COVID-19 pandemic. She collaborated with singer-songwriters such as Jake Shears, Nile Rodgers, and more. Singles from the album included, "Move", "Dramatic", and Beast. She intended this album as a love letter to her friends in the LGBTQ+ community and to inspire people to release their inner drama queen. As promotion for the album, Menzel performed a set of concerts with a group of backup dancers at various Pride events across North America and London. In the summer of 2024, she embarked on her 20-city Take Me Or Leave Me Tour across North America.
=== Film and television career ===
==== Early screen appearances (2001–2010) ====
Menzel's feature film debut was the 2001 romantic comedy Kissing Jessica Stein in which she had a minor role as a bridesmaid, followed by an uncredited appearance as Linda in the dark comedy Just a Kiss (2002). While starring in Wicked, she appeared in the coming-of-age dramedy The Tollbooth (2004), playing main character Sarabeth's (Marla Sokoloff) pregnant sister, Raquel Cohen-Flaxman.
Menzel starred in her first major film venture in 2005 when she reprised the role of Maureen Johnson in the film adaptation of Rent, directed by Chris Columbus. Menzel was one of six original Broadway cast members who returned for the film, including then-husband Taye Diggs. Although rumors of a Rent movie had persisted for several years before it was green-lit, Menzel did not consider herself eligible because she assumed A-list Hollywood actors would be preferred if a film version ever materialized, until Columbus approached her directly. However, Menzel was the musical's only main female cast member not replaced by a younger actress, despite all actors being several years older than their characters by the time the film was released. Menzel felt the film's chemistry benefited from retaining most of the show's original cast. Rent was released to mixed reviews and underperformed at the box office, but critics complimented Menzel's performance. Entertainment Weekly film critic Owen Gleiberman called Menzel's duet with actress Tracie Thoms (as girlfriend Joanne Jefferson) a highlight. IGN's Eric Goldman described Menzel as "incredibly charismatic and fun", although her performance failed to interest him in performance art. The following year, Menzel and her castmates were nominated for Best Acting Ensemble at the 11th Critics' Choice Awards.
In 2006, she played Vera Rivkin in Robert Towne's Ask the Dust, a romantic drama starring Colin Farrell and Salma Hayek. Menzel's character, a mysterious Jewish woman, harbors unrequited feelings for struggling writer Arturo, played by Farrell. Despite her limited screen time, she considers Vera one of her favorite film roles, citing her character's lack of singing and difficulty overcoming difficult situations as essential to demonstrating her versatility. Ask the Dust was poorly received by film critics. However, Kim Newman of Empire cautioned audiences to remember Menzel's name, writing, "the film comes to life when she barges in and finds it hard to keep it together after she's gone". The San Francisco Chronicle's Ruthe Stein said Menzel enlivens the material by sharing more chemistry with Farrell during their brief scenes together than Hayek does throughout the entire film.
In 2007, Menzel appeared in the musical fantasy film Enchanted as Nancy Tremaine, the fiancée of Patrick Dempsey's character Robert and Giselle's (Amy Adams) romantic rival. Despite being a musical, Menzel famously does not sing in the film; several songs composer Alan Menken and lyricist Stephen Schwartz had written for her character were ultimately omitted from the final version. Menzel was offered the role without auditioning, and was flattered that Disney would cast her solely based on her acting. Menzel explained that singing would have been out of character for Nancy, who is a New York native unlike the film's more fantastical characters. She opted to portray Nancy with vulnerability as opposed to "a typical mean girlfriend that everyone's going to hate". Enchanted was a critical and commercial success, but The Hollywood Reporter's Kirk Honeycutt and Jim Lane of the Sacramento News & Review felt the film underused Menzel's talents. Some critics and fans also expressed disappointment over Menzel's lack of musical numbers.
From 2010 to 2013, Menzel had a recurring role on the musical comedy television series Glee as Shelby Corcoran: the coach of rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline, and the biological mother of series lead Rachel Berry (Lea Michele). Fans of the show had long observed a strong physical resemblance between Menzel and Michele, and lobbied for the former to be cast as Michele's onscreen mother. Menzel appeared in 12 episodes across the series, and covered songs such as "I Dreamed a Dream" from Les Misérables and "Poker Face" by Lady Gaga.
==== Frozen and worldwide recognition (2013–2016) ====
In 2013, Menzel voiced Elsa – a reclusive young queen struggling with her magical ability to control ice and snow – in Disney's animated film Frozen. After failing to secure the lead role in Disney's animated film Tangled (2010), the studio re-discovered Menzel's audition reel while casting Frozen. Loosely based on the titular villain in Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale "The Snow Queen", Menzel's character was re-written into a misunderstood anti-heroine for Disney's adaptation, inspired by songwriters Kristen Anderson-Lopez and Robert Lopez's creation of her anthem "Let It Go", which they wrote specifically for Menzel due to its demanding vocal range. Released to critical acclaim, Frozen became the highest-grossing animated film upon release, earning over $1.2 billion worldwide. Meanwhile, "Let It Go" became a global phenomenon, with countless fans and artists releasing their own Internet covers and parodies. A crossover radio hit, the song peaked at number five on the Billboard Hot 100, making Menzel the first Tony Award–winning actor to achieve a top-10 placement on the chart. Despite its non-commercial sound, "Let it Go" ultimately became one of the best-selling singles of 2014, selling over 10.9 million copies. Menzel has since reprised her role as Elsa in most tie-in media, including the Disney Infinity and Kingdom Hearts video games, the short films Frozen Fever (2015) and Olaf's Frozen Adventure (2017), the film Ralph Breaks the Internet (2018), and the sequel Frozen 2 (2019).
Menzel sang "Let it Go" at the 86th Academy Awards in March 2014, where the song eventually won the Academy Award for Best Original Song. While introducing her performance, actor John Travolta mispronounced her name as "Adele Dazeem"; the mispronunciation was widely ridiculed by fans and the media, and subsequently became a viral Internet meme. Although initially thrown off by the incident, Menzel was not upset about the mishap, and credits it with introducing her to a wider audience. To promote her then-current role in Broadway's If/Then, the production printed satirical playbills that credited Menzel as Adele Dazeem, and referenced her previous credits in Nert (Rent), Wicked-ly (Wicked), and Farfignugen (Frozen). Shortly after the ceremony, Travolta publicly apologized to Menzel. At the 87th Academy Awards the following year, Menzel presented Best Original Song with Travolta and jokingly introduced him as "Glom Gazingo", who finally pronounced her name correctly upon joining her on stage.
Although Menzel had already been well known within the Broadway community prior to working with Disney, she was not as recognized outside of her stage credits. The success of Frozen, "Let it Go", and the Oscars incident are credited with establishing Menzel as an international superstar, helping bolster her film and music careers beyond musical theatre. She considers Travolta mispronouncing her name to be "one of the best things that happened for my career".
In 2015, Menzel was slated to star on the Ellen DeGeneres–produced sitcom Happy Time, which would have been her first television role since Glee. However, the project never came to fruition.
==== Film actress (2017–present) ====
Following the success of Frozen, Menzel continued to pursue more prominent roles in film and television projects. She starred as CC Bloom, a role originated by one of her idols Bette Midler, in Lifetime's 2017 remake of the 1988 film Beaches. The melodrama follows the decades-long friendship and rivalry between a brassy singer (Menzel) and a reserved lawyer, played by Nia Long. Due to her typical avoidance of revivals and fondness for the original film, Menzel was initially hesitant to star in the project, but ultimately embraced the remake as an opportunity to introduce a classic story about female friendship to a younger generation. The remake was conceived around Menzel's singing career in a similar manner to how the original incorporated Midler's, whose songs she covered for the film's soundtrack. Premiering to mixed reviews, several critics found the remake inferior to the original, but praised Menzel's musical contributions. CNN's Brian Lowry said "the lure of providing Menzel an opportunity to let loose on these familiar tunes is more than enough to qualify as a win for Lifetime, even if the movie itself ... never achieves liftoff". Katie Rife of The A.V. Club, Linda Holmes of NPR, and MaryAnn Sleasman of TV Guide each found Menzel's acting adequate but lacking the conviction and humor Midler brought to the role, resulting in a less compelling version of the same character.
In 2019, she starred opposite Adam Sandler in the crime thriller Uncut Gems, playing his character's estranged and frustrated wife Dinah Ratner. The role was considered a stark departure for Menzel, who longed to be involved in a project that differed from the family-friendly material she had become synonymous with. Directors Josh and Benny Safdie cast her based on her performance as a similar character in Skintight, and Menzel drew upon personal experience for the role, having grown up around confident women like Dinah in New York. She described Dinah as "the voice for how the audience feels as they're going through this roller-coaster ride" and avoided devolving her into merely a stereotype. The film and Menzel's performance drew critical acclaim. Writing for The Post and Courier, Jocelyn Noveck found Menzel "compelling in the rare role that doesn't make use of her famous singing voice", while Johnny Oleksinski of the New York Post called her "delightfully abrasive".
In 2021, Menzel co-starred alongside Camila Cabello, Billy Porter, and James Corden in Kay Cannon's jukebox musical adaptation of the Cinderella fairy tale, playing Cinderella's (Cabello) unkind stepmother Vivian. Despite admiring actresses who had played the villainous role prior, Menzel wanted to eschew "the archetypal kind of idea of the straight-ahead evil nemesis" in order to uncover the trauma behind the character's cruel nature. In addition to performing several covers for the film, Menzel wrote and recorded an original song for her character entitled "Dream Girl", which was shortlisted for the Academy Award for Best Original Song. Cinderella received mixed reviews, but Menzel's performance was praised: IndieWire's Kristen Lopez said she played the character "deliciously", while Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun-Times described Menzel as "her usual spectacular self" and "arguably the most nuanced and empathetic 'evil' stepmother in 'Cinderella' history". Michael Calleri of the Niagara Gazette said Menzel delivers the film's best performance.
In 2022, Menzel reprised her role as Nancy in the Enchanted sequel Disenchanted. Now the Queen of Anadalasia as Edward's (James Marsden) wife, Menzel's character sings for the first time, in addition to serving as the film's "voice of reason". A pop version of Menzel's song, "Love Power", was released as the soundtrack's lead single in November 2022. Disenchanted received mixed reviews; most critics appreciated hearing Menzel sing, while others found her role brief and her song unmemorable. Marya E. Gates of RogerEbert.com called Menzel's performance "one of the few that manages to transcend beyond the subpar trappings of" the film, lamenting that she is "relegated to only a handful of scenes". She also starred in an episode of the HGTV show Celebrity I.O.U. with the Property Brothers Drew and Jonathan Scott. In this episode, she helped the brothers renovate a garage for her friend James.
In 2023, Menzel played Bree Friedman in the coming-of-age comedy You Are So Not Invited to My Bat Mitzvah, reuniting with Sandler. Directed by Sammi Cohen, the film co-stars Menzel and Sandler as Jewish parents raising an adolescent girl as they prepare for her bat mitzvah. Menzel had previously played Sandler's wife in Uncut Gems, while Sandler's real-life wife and children also co-star in You Are So Not Invited to My Bat Mitzvah. Writing for the Los Angeles Times, Gary Goldstein said Menzel fits in well among Sandler's own family, while Matthew Jackson of The A. V. Club said the duo make "a wonderful (and wonderfully grumpy) couple". Abhishek Srivastava of The Times of India said Menzel "comes across as extremely authentic and hits all the right notes".
She also starred in American Murderer directed by Matthew Gentile. During the ongoing time of the COVID-19 pandemic, Menzel created and launched a brand new YouTube web series for children entitled Idina's Treehouse. The series featured Menzel from her treehouse out in her Los Angeles home that originally was built for her son Walker Nathaniel Diggs. It features a full set of songs, stories, and appearances from Menzel's family and friends. In 2024, alongside Chenoweth, Menzel made a cameo appearance during the "One Short Day" sequence in the first of the two-part film adaptation of Wicked.
Menzel is slated to star alongside Millie Bobbie Brown, Amrit Kaur, Julian Dennison, Ben Jackson Walker, Brec Bassinger, and Margo Martindale in Netflix's forthcoming romantic comedy, Just Picture It.
== Artistry ==
=== Voice and influences ===
Menzel possesses a mezzo-soprano vocal range that spans approximately three octaves. For the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, Sharon Eberson wrote that Menzel's voice "could be categorized as coquettish to flat-out belter and everything in between—and with a stage presence to match—she usually is labeled a mezzo-soprano. But why pigeonhole someone so intriguingly offbeat?" Eberson observed that she "interprets songs as much as an actress as a singer," believing, "therein lies her connection to the music and her fans." Describing Menzel as a loud soprano similar to Broadway actress Ethel Merman, Stephen Holden of The New York Times wrote "The sound she creates when she belts ... is a primal cry embedded in her being that insists that we listen and pay attention." Holden observed that her voice can alternate between "babyish and demanding, or it can sound grand and imperial" depending on the song choice. According to Andrew Gans of Playbill, Menzel has "one of the most unique voices of her generation, a pliable alto that can be sweet and girlish in its middle register and then easily soar to pop-influenced top notes way above high C." Frozen songwriter Kristen Anderson-Lopez described Menzel's voice as "a warm hug" with "this warmth and this vulnerability down low. And then, as you bring her higher and higher, she gets stronger and stronger, and more powerful. She just reaches into your soul when she's singing these big, giant songs."
Menzel is known for her signature high belting style; the Kennedy Center website cites Menzel as a prime example of a "Broadway Belter" who uses the technique to her advantage. Theater critic Charles Isherwood said the singer "has a voice that is very much her own," describing it as "totally distinctive" with "a great belt and a great range." Describing Menzel's voice as "husky ... which sometimes veers toward shrieking until she effortlessly reins herself in or, amazingly, kicks it up another notch," Melissa Ruggieri of The Atlanta Journal-Constitution believes she possesses "a superior instrument" both live and in-studio. Explaining her own technique, Menzel said she avoids moving her shoulders while singing and prefers "to take a smaller breath for a bigger, longer note because there's less air that will come pummeling out." She also maintains her voice by constantly steaming and practicing vocal warm ups, describing her routine as "very ritualistic" and "disciplined". Despite her live vocals earning consistent acclaim, some critics have criticized Menzel's belting for sounding "screechy". Schuyler Velasco of The Christian Science Monitor observed that the singer "made a career out of belting notes that would fry the vocal chords of mere mortals", but felt the emotion of her performances sometimes suffers at the hands of her vocal proficiency. Velasco cited her rendition of "The Star-Spangled Banner" at Super Bowl XLIX as an example of Menzel sacrificing excitement and inspiration for technique, yet delivering an adequate performance nonetheless. Menzel addressed such criticisms during a 2014 concert, explaining that she wishes to sing loud, proud and "from the heart" like her idols Merman and Aretha Franklin. Tim Smith of The Baltimore Sun wrote that Menzel's "high-wattage vocal cords and intense phrasing ... [make] a mark whenever she sings." Menzel admits that she finds some of her most famous songs challenging, namely songs from the Frozen films, which "push her to vocal extremes" and require constant warming up and sometimes lowering the key for live performances. The term "powerhouse" has often been used in the media to describe Menzel's vocal ability.
Menzel's vocal style has drawn comparisons to singer Barbra Streisand, whose song "Don't Rain on My Parade" she often covers, including in tribute to her at the 2008 Kennedy Center Honors. Menzel said she had long aspired to have a career as successful as Streisand to whose Jewish upbringing Menzel has also been compared, with fans deeming her "the next big Jewish icon in music". Menzel was particularly inspired by Streisand's performance in the film A Star is Born (1976), and cites singers Franklin, Billie Holiday, Etta James, Chaka Khan and Sarah Vaughan among her vocal idols. Despite emulating her inspirations, Menzel claims she maintains the importance of "finding [her] own voice." Some critics have dubbed Menzel "the Streisand of her generation". Similar comparisons have been drawn between Menzel and singer Bette Midler.
=== Musical style ===
Professionally trained as a classical singer from age eight, Menzel decided to pursue different genres such as R&B and jazz once she began high school. Upon becoming a wedding singer, Menzel was eventually exposed to a wide variety of musical genres, ranging from jazz to rock and Motown, and would often experiment with new arrangements of traditional songs. She credits her wedding singer background with training her to improvise new vocal arrangements, which in turn helps her ad-lib alternative versions of songs when she is feeling unwell or her voice is tired. Her set lists tend to incorporate an eclectic combination of original material and covers of popular pop, rock, musical theatre and film songs, selecting an assortment of songs she expects fans want to hear and feels inspired to attempt new interpretations of. Jay Handelman of the Sarasota Herald-Tribune opined that Menzel's song choices "reinforce her own offbeat personality." According to Menzel, her song selections usually indicate a milestone, choosing to convey a stories and memories about her life using music. Menzel often opts to perform barefoot in concert, which has become a trademark of her live performances. She also enjoys conversing with audience members in-between musical performances. In addition to her vocal prowess, Menzel has been noted for her charming and witty banter; Smith described her as "a pro at delivering stage banter and as quick on the draw with one-liners as seasoned stand-up comedians." On her stage presence, The Denver Post critic Ray Mark Rinaldi wrote that Menzel delivers "the kind of self-assurance that can only come from beating out Kristin Chenoweth for a Tony. She comes out on stage, dressed like she doesn't care, acting a little dizzy, but knowing all along she's gonna hit the right notes."
Menzel has become closely associated with songs about self-empowerment, specifically her Signature Songs "Defying Gravity" and "Let it Go". Discussing Disney author Amy M. Davis believes Menzel's voice "has become associated with rebellion for Broadway fans." However, the artist claims such themes have made her feel fraudulent at times because she herself does not always feel empowered. Subsequently, she began incorporating more emotional material into her sets, such as Radiohead's "Creep". Although Menzel co-writes most of her own material as a singer-songwriter, she considers herself a collaborator rather than a songwriter, explaining that she prefers working with professional songwriters or producers: "They start playing some music, and I like to sing… I can sing melodies, I come up with titles and lyrical ideas, but I'm really not good at making decisions." She has frequently collaborated with songwriter and producer Glen Ballard, and tends to draw upon lyrics from her personal diary and melodies from a tape recorder. Menzel claims she has never completed writing a song entirely on her own, finding the process to be too stressful: "I never had a good song that I wrote, so to ... act like I'm this great songwriter, I would be just a fraud. But, I'm good at bringing myself to it—being a good collaborator in the room." She cites Joni Mitchell and Annie Lennox among her musical influences, describing them as "singer-songwriters who had these amazing voices but also were incredible storytellers and lyricists", while expressing admiration for musicians Bono, Sting and Seal. The Ithacan's Preston Arment observed that "what Menzel may lack in songwriting ability, she makes up for with stunning vocals that remind us why listeners will never stop loving her." AllMusic biographer Marcy Donelson described Menzel's studio albums as a combination of Adult Alternative, vocal, and contemporary pop music. Menzel's fifth studio album, which she considers to be her most personal to-date, contains a combination of ballads and upbeat tracks that explore themes about home, personal loss, empowerment, relationships and starting over, much of which was inspired by her divorce from Taye Diggs. Bailey Flynn of The Heights believes the album demonstrates several trademarks for which Menzel has become known: "power ballads that give her huge vocal range and mind-blowing control all the chance they need to show off."
Menzel described performing her own songs live as "scarier" than singing covers or songs from established shows because "You're a little bit more transparent. There's no costume or character I'm hiding behind ... yet sometimes it's more rewarding because of that", describing the feeling of hearing fans sing songs she has written herself as "incredible".
== Legacy and public image ==
Menzel has been called one of Broadway's greatest performers. Tim Beedle of DC.com declared her "arguably the most widely recognized Broadway star in the country". Several media publications have nicknamed her the "Queen of Broadway" due to her success and impact on the genre. Often described as one of the defining singing voices of her generation, Apple Music referred to her as "one of the 21st century's premier vocalists". Jenny Singer of Glamour declared Menzel one of history's greatest musical theatre vocalists, while Valerie Complex of Deadline Hollywood called her an influential performer who has "left an indelible mark on the industry". The Toronto Sun's Jim Slotek dubbed her "this generation's Broadway icon". In a 2020 retrospective, Cleveland.com's Troy L. Smith named Menzel the best vocalist of 2013, claiming the success of that year's "Let it Go" only cemented her legacy as "one of Broadway's greatest stars of all time". The previous year, BroadwayWorld recognized Menzel as one of the decade's 10 most influential Broadway stars. Time Out ranked Menzel the 19th greatest female Broadway actress of all time, observing that she established a "stratospheric reputation" largely based on the popularity of only two roles: Rent and Wicked. Vulture's Jackson McHenry attributed the popularity and endurance of "Defying Gravity" to Menzel, believing few singers can service the song as successfully as she has. In 2018, NPR named "Let it Go" one of the 200 greatest female-performed songs of the 21st century, at number 182.
Menzel's successful crossover from stage actor to television, film, and music star have been discussed at length, with Redbook dubbing her "One of [Broadway's] biggest crossover success stories". Menzel's biography on Starz described her as the kind of stage-to-screen star Broadway seldom produces anymore. Marty Hughley of The Oregonian shared a similar sentiment, writing in 2012 that although Broadway does not guarantee global superstardom as often as it used to, Menzel is "a notable exception to the rule of Broadway’s declining clout". Original Broadway cast recordings of Rent and If/Then, both albums prominently featuring Menzel as a soloist, debuted within the top-20 of the Billboard 200. In a 2014 article, Billboard theorized that Menzel's crossover success "bodes well for Broadway's would-be stars", believing "Let it Go" "kicked open the door for future composers of stage and screen". When Menzel returned to Broadway in 2014 shortly after the success of Frozen, Suzy Evans of Billboard observed that audience reception was more akin to that of a "rock star" than a musical theatre performer. Menzel's fanbase has nicknamed themselves "Fanzels". In addition to her perceived authenticity, Isherwood attributes the artist's large following to the successes of Rent and Wicked: "two era-defying, hugely successful Broadway musicals". Toronto Star theatre critic Richard Ouzounian credits the same two shows with solidifying her reputation as one of the industry's "most dynamic musical theatre stars". She has been described as "Broadway royalty", due to a combination of her successful stage career and playing royalty in several Disney projects.
According to Akiva Gottlieb of the Los Angeles Times, Menzel's public persona is largely defined by her performances in Frozen and Wicked, and recording Christmas albums. As an actress, Menzel has earned a reputation for playing misunderstood characters both on stage and in film, admitting she gravitates towards complex roles. She cited power and vulnerability as common traits among characters she has played. According to the Irish Independent, Menzel has become "a go-to actress for producers looking for a feisty female lead", while The Globe and Mail's Courtney Shea said she "forged her career playing strong and sensational females". Menzel believes Broadway has always offered compelling roles for women of all ages, whereas she considers Hollywood to be more susceptible to ageism and sexism. Menzel is revered as a role model for young women, particularly due to her role as Elsa which has contributed her a large following among predominantly female Frozen fans. Although she takes her responsibility as a role model seriously, she has stated that she does not always feel like a role model in her personal life and feels uncomfortable bearing the responsibility at times. Menzel has a prominent gay following, dating back to the 1990s when she starred in Rent. Rent was also one of the first Broadway shows to show a lesbian relationship. The performer attributes this to playing several repressed characters who are "hiding something within them that they’re afraid to let people see, and then finally they embrace it". Michael Heaton, a critic for The Plain Dealer, noted that some parents have expressed concerns about the "blue humor" Menzel uses in her typical concerts in an attempt to appeal to both her adult gay and young fans.
Diana Bunici of Evoke.ie dubbed Menzel "the voice of the new generation". In 2014, Menzel was awarded "Breakthrough Artist" by Billboard. In 2019, Menzel and actress Kristen Bell, who plays her sister in Frozen, received neighboring stars—Menzel's was the 2682nd and Bell's was the 2681st—on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Menzel was inducted into the live theatre category. Menzel is also among the wealthiest Broadway performers, due in part to her television, film and music careers. In 2022, Menzel was announced as a recipient of a Disney Legends Award for her outstanding contributions to the Walt Disney Company, with her D23 entry reading "Whether on stage or screen, Idina Menzel’s unequivocal signature talents have shone through countless projects across her almost 30-year career". In October 2024, President Joe Biden awarded Menzel with the National Medal of Arts.
Menzel received an honorary doctorate from University of Pennsylvania in 2023.
== Personal life ==
Menzel married Taye Diggs on January 11, 2003. They met in 1995 during the original production of Rent, in which Diggs portrayed Benjamin Coffin III, the landlord. They would appear in several films together. On September 2, 2009, she gave birth to their son. In late 2013, it was reported that Menzel and Diggs had separated after 10 years of marriage. Menzel cited negative public reaction to the "interracial aspect" of their marriage as a factor in the divorce, as well as other unnamed "complicated reasons." The two continued to co-parent their son.
Menzel began dating actor Aaron Lohr, and in August 2015, they bought a home together in Encino, Los Angeles. On September 23, 2016, Menzel announced that she and Lohr were engaged. They were married September 22, 2017, in a backyard ceremony at their home.
Menzel identifies as a feminist, saying, "I love that I play all of these strong women. But they're not just strong—they're women who have a really deep vulnerability and need to go through a journey in order to harness their power."
== Philanthropy and other ventures ==
Menzel was an honorary chair of the Imperial Court of New York's Annual Charity Coronation Ball, Night of A Thousand Gowns, on March 21, 2009, sharing the title with Elton John, Patti LuPone, John Cameron Mitchell, Joan Rivers, and Robin Strasser.
On May 17, 2009, Menzel performed at a special benefit concert in Atlanta, Georgia, to raise money for the Pace Academy Diversity Program in coordination with the Ron Clark Academy. The event resulted in the funding of two scholarships for Ron Clark Academy students to attend Pace Academy. The event was organized and hosted by Philip McAdoo, a former Rent cast member and current Diversity Program Director at Pace Academy.
In 2010, Menzel founded the A BroaderWay Foundation with then-husband Taye Diggs as a means of supporting young people in the arts. A BroaderWay sponsors camp programs, theater workshops, and innovative educational programming, and offers scholarships and opportunities to experience professional performances. In Summer 2011, Camp BroaderWay welcomed girls from under-served metro New York communities to a 10-day performing arts camp, run by Menzel and a team of acclaimed professional Broadway artists including Taye Diggs. During this camp, the girls collaborated with Broadway artists to write an original musical that was performed at a theatre in New York. The camp was held at Belvoir Terrace Summer Camp in Lenox, Massachusetts.
Menzel has long-championed LGBT rights by partnering with organizations like The Trevor Project, the Give A Damn Campaign (filming a public service announcement and designing a T-shirt) and the NOH8 Campaign, posing for one of their trademark duct-taped silence photos.
In April 2014, Menzel presented at Broadway Cares/Equity Fights AIDS Easter Bonnet Competition with Bryan Cranston, Fran Drescher, and Denzel Washington, after raising donations at her Broadway show If/Then.
In 2022, Menzel had launched a clothing line with QVC called Encore by Idina Menzel. Also in 2022, Menzel co-wrote a children's book with her sister, Cara Mentzel, called Loud Mouse with illustrations by Jaclyn Sinquett. The book is semi-autobiographical about a mouse named Dee who loves to sing loudly. The book was published by Disney-Hyperion on September 27, 2022. In promotion of the book, Menzel released "The Loud Mouse Song", which she co-wrote with Laura Veltz, on September 23, 2022. In 2023, Menzel and her sister Cara Mentzel released a sequel to Loud Mouse, called Proud Mouse, with Jaclyn Sinquett returning for illustrations.
Following the October 7 attacks, on November 20, 2023, Menzel performed at AMIT's Evening of Solidarity with the Children of Israel in Sony Hall in Manhattan, recognizing donors who supported AMIT's network of religious Jewish educational institutions in Israel.
== Filmography ==
== Discography ==
Still I Can't Be Still (1998)
Here (2004)
I Stand (2008)
Holiday Wishes (2014)
Idina (2016)
Christmas: A Season of Love (2019)
Drama Queen (2023)
== Concerts ==
=== Other ===
== Awards and nominations ==
=== Theatre ===
=== Film ===
=== Television === |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Parent_Trap_(1961_film) | The Parent Trap (1961 film) | The Parent Trap is a 1961 American romantic comedy film written and directed by David Swift. It stars Hayley Mills in a dual role as a pair of teenage twins who switch places with each other in order to reunite their divorced parents, played by Maureen O'Hara and Brian Keith. Although the plot is very close to that of the 1945 film Twice Blessed, The Parent Trap is based on the 1949 children's novel Das doppelte Lottchen by German author Erich Kästner.
Produced by Walt Disney Productions, The Parent Trap was released on June 21, 1961, by Buena Vista Distribution. It grossed $25.1 million at the box office and was nominated for two Academy Awards. It was broadcast on television, and three television sequels followed the later adventures of the twins. The film was remade in 1998 with Lindsay Lohan in the lead role as the twins. It was released on VHS, in digital stereo LaserDisc format (1986), and on DVD (2002). The Parent Trap was the second of six films Mills made for Disney.
== Plot ==
Teenagers Sharon McKendrick and Susan Evers meet at a girls summer camp. Their identical appearance causes jealousy, resentment, and a rivalry in which they continually get each other into trouble and disrupt camp activities. As punishment, they must spend the remainder of the camp season rooming and dining together in isolation. They overcome their mutual dislike when they realize that they are identical twin sisters, whom their parents, Mitch and Maggie, separated upon divorcing shortly after their birth. Eager to meet the parents from whom they were separated, they decide to cut their hair identically, coach each other on their lives, and switch places.
In Boston with their mother and grandparents, Susan poses as Sharon, while Sharon goes to Mitch's California ranch as Susan. Sharon learns that Mitch is engaged to a much younger woman, Vicky Robinson, who is interested only in Mitch's money and intends to send Susan to boarding school after the wedding. The girls communicate by phone at night. Susan tells Sharon to break up the couple, but when that fails, Susan decides to end the charade. After a happy reunion, Maggie brings her to California. Mitch is upset by Maggie's unexpected arrival, until he learns the truth and is reunited with both daughters. Vicky is jealous of Maggie, who is staying at the ranch.
The girls scheme to reunite their parents by recreating Maggie and Mitch's first date. At first, the ex-spouses are drawn together, but then they argue over why they divorced. They make up before Maggie and Sharon are to leave the next morning, and Maggie wishes Mitch well with Vicky. To delay the return to Boston, the twins dress and act alike, so their parents cannot tell them apart. They refuse to reveal their identities unless the family takes a camping trip. Mitch and Maggie reluctantly agree, and Vicky, who loathes the outdoors, is furious. Maggie cajoles Vicky into taking her place, wanting to give Vicky a chance to become better acquainted with each twin.
The twins take every opportunity to exploit Vicky's hatred of camping, pulling a series of pranks on her. That night, both sneak into her tent and pour honey over Vicky's feet and leave a small honey trail outside the tent. Vicki awakens the following morning to find two bear cubs licking the honey off her feet to which she has a tantrum over her hatred of the outdoors and the twins. She further says all the trouble she has been through does not make marrying Mitch for his money worth it and storms off.
Back at the house, the twins apologize for their actions; Mitch accepts their apology and says they do not have to discuss the situation anymore. Maggie and Sharon prepare to return to Boston the next day, with the twins now resigned to seeing each other only during visits and shuttling back and forth between parents. Later, Mitch tells Maggie everything he misses about her and their marriage. They realize that they still love each other. The film ends with their second wedding, with Susan and Sharon as their bridesmaids.
== Cast ==
Hayley Mills as Susan Evers and Sharon McKendrick
Susan Henning (uncredited) as Mills's body double
Brian Keith as Mitchell "Mitch" Evers
Maureen O'Hara as Margaret "Maggie" McKendrick
Joanna Barnes as Vicky Robinson
Charlie Ruggles as Charles McKendrick, Susan and Sharon's maternal grandfather
Cathleen Nesbitt as Louise McKendrick, Susan and Sharon's maternal grandmother
Una Merkel as Verbena, the Evers family's housekeeper
Leo G. Carroll as Reverend Dr. Mosby
Linda Watkins as Edna Robinson, Vicky's mother
Ruth McDevitt as Miss Abbey Inch
Crahan Denton as Hecky, the Evers family's ranch foreman
Nancy Kulp as Miss Grunecker
Frank De Vol as Mr. Eaglewood.
== Production ==
The source material, Das doppelte Lottchen, was discovered by Disney's story editor Bill Dover, who recommended the studio buy it.
In March 1960, Disney announced that Hayley Mills would star in His and Hers to be written and directed by David Swift. Swift and Mills had just made Pollyanna for Disney. It was also known as Petticoats and Blue Jeans and was the first in a five-film contract Mills signed with Disney, to make one each summer.
Maureen O'Hara signed in June. She wrote in her memoirs that Disney offered her a third of her normal fee of $75,000 but that she held out for her quote and got it. O'Hara said her contract gave her top billing but that Disney decided to give that to Mills; she says this caused tension with the studio and was why she never worked with Disney again.
Production started in July under the title of We Belong Together and went until September.
The production used split screen technology to create the effect of Mills playing both girls, with Susan Henning acting as a body double as part of the filming process.
The film was shot mostly at various locales in California. The summer camp scenes were filmed at Bluff Lake Camp (then owned by the Pasadena YMCA, now by Habonim Dror's Camp Gilboa) and the family camping scenes later in the movie at Cedar Lake Camp, both in the San Bernardino Mountains near the city of Big Bear Lake in Southern California. The Monterey scenes were filmed in various California locations, including millionaire Stuyvesant Fish's 5,200 acres (21 km2) ranch in Carmel and Monterey's Pebble Beach golf course. The scenes at the Monterey house were shot at the studio's Golden Oak Ranch in Placerita Canyon, where Mitch's ranch was built. It was the design of this set that proved the most popular, and to this day the Walt Disney Archives receives requests for plans of the home's interior design. In fact, there never was such a house; the set was simply various rooms built on a sound stage. Camp Inch was based on a real girls' camp called Camp Crestridge for Girls at the Ridgecrest Baptist Conference Center near Asheville, North Carolina.
In 1962, a year after Disney adapted Das doppelte Lottchen into The Parent Trap, Cyrus Brooks translated the German book into English as Lisa and Lottie, an edition still published in the United States and Canada.
In 2014, Das doppelte Lottchen was faithfully retranslated into English by Anthea Bell and republished in the United Kingdom and Australia by Pushkin Press as The Parent Trap, after the hit Disney film. Then in 2020, Australian actress Ruby Rees recorded an unabridged narration of Bell's translation for Bolinda.
== Musical numbers ==
Richard and Robert Sherman provided the songs, which, besides the title song "The Parent Trap", includes "For Now, For Always", and "Let's Get Together". "Let's Get Together" (sung by Annette Funicello) is heard playing from a record player at the summer camp; the tune is reprised by the twins when they restage their parents' first date and that version is sung double-tracked by Hayley Mills (Hayley's own single of the song, credited to "Hayley Mills and Hayley Mills", reached #8 on the US charts). The film's title song was performed by Tommy Sands and Annette Funicello, who were both on the studio lot shooting Babes in Toyland at the time. The campers whistle the 1914 marching song, "Colonel Bogey March", as they march through camp, mirroring the scene from The Bridge on the River Kwai.
== Reception ==
=== Box office ===
The Parent Trap was a huge success at the box office. It grossed an estimated $9.3 million in the United States.
=== Critical response ===
Bosley Crowther of The New York Times wrote that "it should be most appealing to adults, as well as to children, because of the cheerfully persuasive dual performance of Hayley Mills". Variety stated that the film was "absolutely predictable from the outset", but was still "a winner" thanks to the performance of Mills, who "seems to have an instinctive sense of comedy and an uncanny ability to react in just the right manner. Her contribution to the picture is virtually infinite". Charles Stinson of the Los Angeles Times declared it "a comedy unusually well designed for the entire family — enough sight gags to keep the children screaming and enough clever dialogue to amuse their parents". Harrison's Reports graded the film as "Very Good" and Richard L. Coe of The Washington Post called it "charmingly lively" even though "the terrain is familiar".
On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 89% based on 19 reviews, with an average rating of 6.8/10.
=== Accolades ===
The film was nominated for two Academy Awards: one for Sound by Robert O. Cook, and the other for Film Editing by Philip W. Anderson. The film and its editor, Philip W. Anderson, won the inaugural 1962 Eddie Award of the American Cinema Editors.
== Subsequent developments ==
In 1961, a comic book version of the film was published, adapted, and illustrated by Dan Spiegle.
The film was theatrically re-released in 1968 and earned $1.8 million in rentals.
The Disney Studios produced three television sequels The Parent Trap II (1986), Parent Trap III (1989) and Parent Trap: Hawaiian Honeymoon (1989). The original was remade in 1998 starring Lindsay Lohan, Dennis Quaid, and Natasha Richardson. Joanna Barnes also made an appearance as Vicki Blake, the mother of Dennis Quaid's character's fiancée, Meredith.
In 2018, a potential remake of The Parent Trap was considered for Walt Disney Studios' streaming service Disney+.
In India, there have been several films inspired by The Parent Trap. In 1965, a Tamil language version of the story called Kuzhandaiyum Deivamum, starring Kutty Padmini was released. The following year, it was remade into Telugu as Leta Manasulu also starring Kutty Padmini. A Hindi version Do Kaliyaan starring Neetu Singh in the double role was made in 1968. The 1987 film Pyar Ke Kabil also has a similar storyline, as does the 2001 film Kuch Khatti Kuch Meethi which has Kajol playing the double role of 23-year-old twins.
== Home media ==
The Parent Trap was initially released by Walt Disney Home Video through VHS on April 7, 1984, and on May 28, 1986, as part of Disney's "Wonderland Campaign".
The film was released on a 2-disc special edition DVD in May 2002, as part of the Vault Disney collection, with a new digital remaster by THX.
In 2005, the film was once again released in a 2-Movie Collection, which also contained the made-for-television sequel, The Parent Trap II (1986), plus the original film trailer and other bonus features.
The film was released for the first time on Blu-ray, but as a Disney Movie Club exclusive on April 24, 2018. The 1998 remake was also released on Blu-ray the same day. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Pie_(film_series) | American Pie (film series) | American Pie is a film series consisting of four sex comedy films. American Pie, the first film in the series, was released by Universal Pictures in 1999. The film became a worldwide pop culture phenomenon and gained a cult following among young people. Following American Pie, the second and third films in the series, American Pie 2 (2001) and American Wedding (2003), were released. The fourth, American Reunion, was released in 2012. A spin-off film series titled American Pie Presents consists of five direct-to-video films that were released from 2005 to 2020.
Throughout the first film in the original series, Jim Levenstein (Jason Biggs) tries to develop a relationship with his school classmate Nadia (Shannon Elizabeth). Jim and three of his best friends, Kevin Myers (Thomas Ian Nicholas), Paul Finch (Eddie Kaye Thomas), and Chris Ostreicher (Chris Klein), make a pact to lose their virginity before their high school graduation. Steve Stifler (Seann William Scott), the obnoxious jock of the group, provides them with unorthodox advice while hosting wild parties in the meantime. In the second film, the five boys host a summer party and Jim becomes interested in his friend, Michelle Flaherty (Alyson Hannigan). In the third film, Jim and Michelle plan to marry, although the forced invitation of Stifler could ruin everything. In the fourth film, the group gets back together in anticipation of their 13th year since graduating from high school. The spin-off series revolves around relatives of Stifler, including his brother Matt (Tad Hilgenbrink), his cousins Erik (John White), Dwight (Steve Talley), Scott (John Patrick Jordan), and Stephanie (Lizze Broadway), and their respective friends.
The original films were produced on a total budget of US$145 million, has grossed nearly a billion worldwide. The spin-off films were released direct-to-video. The original series has received mixed reviews from critics, while the spin-off series has received negative reviews.
== Cast ==
=== Principal cast ===
=== Additional crew ===
== Production ==
=== Development ===
In the original American Pie (1999), Jim Levenstein and his friends Kevin Myers, Paul Finch, and Chris Ostreicher attempt to lose their virginity before their high school graduation. Jim pursues Czech exchange student Nadia, but his attempts fail after he ejaculates prematurely twice during foreplay, and instead pursues band geek Michelle, asking her to the prom. At Stifler's prom after-party, Jim has a one-night stand with Michelle, and the rest of the friends lose their virginity as well.
In American Pie 2 (2001), Jim and his friends organize a party at a summer beach house in Grand Harbor reuniting the high school gang. Nadia returns, and Jim asks Michelle to help him finally have sex with her. Jim ends up realizing he is in love with Michelle (whose feelings are mutual), and goes to a recital where she is performing to reveal this to her.
American Wedding (2003) begins with Jim proposing to Michelle. Finch, Kevin, and Stifler help the arranging of his marriage.
In the years that have passed since American Wedding, the most recent installment American Reunion (2012) shows Jim and Michelle married with a child, and Kevin has gotten married himself, whereas Oz and Heather grew apart, Finch still has not found love (not counting Stifler's mom), and Stifler has not come to terms with the fact that his teenage years are long gone. Now these lifelong friends have come home as adults for their thirteenth high school class reunion, to reminisce about – and get inspired by – the hormonal teens they once were.
The film series began with American Pie, released on July 9, 1999. This was followed by three sequels: American Pie 2, released on August 10, 2001, American Wedding, released on August 1, 2003, and American Reunion, released on April 6, 2012.
=== Future ===
A fifth theatrical film, under the working title American Pie 5, was in consideration in 2012, as the fourth film had done well internationally and Universal had secured a production deal with Hurwitz and Schlossberg. In August 2017, Seann William Scott said in an interview that the fourth film probably had not made enough at the domestic box office to warrant another film. In August 2018, Tara Reid said she met with the directors, with them saying that the fifth film will happen, and that filming could begin soon. In March 2021, Reid further elaborated that both the script is written, and that "it’s one of the best ones" in the series. A few months later, Jason Biggs denied the fact regarding script developments, but said that there were always ideas for a sequel, albeit having many obstacles.
On September 29, 2022, The Hollywood Reporter informed, that another American Pie Presents movie is in the works at Universal 1440. The film is developed and written by Sujata Day.
== Spin-off series ==
=== Additional crew ===
=== Production ===
==== Development ====
American Pie Presents: Band Camp (2005) follows Stifler's younger brother Matt Stifler (Tad Hilgenbrink), who is forced to attend band camp for the summer. While there, he realizes he must change his arrogant ways in order to win over Elyse.
American Pie Presents: The Naked Mile (2006) follows Erik Stifler (John White), the only Stifler to possibly graduate from high school a virgin. After a failed attempt at sex with his girlfriend Tracy (Jessy Schram), she gives Erik a free pass to go to the University of Michigan, where his cousin Dwight (Steve Talley) attends, to lose his virginity. In the process, Erik's loyalty is put to the test.
American Pie Presents: Beta House (2007) continues a year after The Naked Mile. Erik has now graduated from high school, has lost his girlfriend to her previous boyfriend, and is starting college. He must complete a series of tasks before he can join Dwight's fraternity and also begins a new relationship with Ashley Thomas (Meghan Heffern), a girl he met in the co-ed bathrooms in their dorm.
American Pie Presents: The Book of Love (2009) takes place ten years after American Pie. Set in East Great Falls, a fire in the school's library results in the destruction of the Book of Love (the "Bible" from the first film). With the help of the book's creator, Mr. Levenstein, the people who started the fire set out to restore the book and lose their virginity.
American Pie Presents: Girls' Rules (2020) follows a group of four teenage girls who make a pact to get what they want before their prom and end up falling in love with the same guy.
More than six years after the release of the original American Pie, the franchise continued with a direct-to-video spin-off Presents series; consisting of Band Camp, released on December 26, 2005, The Naked Mile, released on December 12, 2006, Beta House, released on December 26, 2007, The Book of Love, released on December 22, 2009, and Girls' Rules, released on October 6, 2020. All five spin-offs center around relatives of Steve Stifler, who include his brother Matt and his cousins Erik, Dwight, Scott and Stephanie Stifler.
While set in the American Pie continuity, these spin-off films featured mostly new characters. Aside from the raunchy humor, the common elements among the American Pie Presents films are the continued presence of Jim's Dad and members of the Stifler clan. Other than Jim's Dad, the only other returning characters are Matt Stifler, who takes center stage for the first spin-off, albeit played by a new actor, and Chuck Sherman, who is the guidance counselor for East Great Falls High School in the first spin-off.
== Reception ==
=== Box office performance ===
=== Critical and public response ===
== Home media ==
=== DVD release ===
Blu-ray |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelee,_Ontario | Pelee, Ontario | Pelee Island PEE-lee is an island in
the Canadian province of Ontario. It is located in the western basin of Lake Erie. At 42 km2 (16 sq mi), Pelee Island is the largest island in Lake Erie and the southernmost populated point in Canada. An Ontario Historical Plaque was erected by the province to commemorate the development of Pelee Island's role in Ontario's heritage. Nearby Middle Island is the southernmost point of land in Canada.
Due to its southerly location and the moderating effect of Lake Erie, it has a slightly milder climate than inland areas. Its climate is one of the mildest in Canada, and the island has been used for vineyards and wine making since 1860, though local wine making died out in the early twentieth century and was restarted in the 1980s by the Pelee Island Winery. The island is an agricultural-based community, which grows about 2,000 hectares (5,000 acres) of soybeans, about 400 hectares (1,000 acres) of wheat, 200 hectares (500 acres) of grapes, and a few hectares of specialty corn.
The island is connected to the Canadian mainland and the United States by ferry service. It is a part of an important flyway for migrating birds between Ohio, the Lake Erie islands and Point Pelee. For many years, the island has hosted a fall pheasant hunt which attracts hunters from Canada, the United States and many other countries. The pheasant hunt brings tourist dollars to Pelee at a time of year when virtually no other activities are available, thus generating important revenue in the offseason.
== History ==
Evidence of occupation by indigenous peoples can be dated back 10,000 years through archaeological evidence of projectiles and ceremonial objects. European settlement of the island began in 1788 when the land was leased to Thomas McKee by the Ojibwa and Odawa tribes for 999 years, at a time when leases of 99 years were customary, raising doubt about the validity of the "999 year" lease. McKee's son sold it to William McCormick in 1823. McCormick and his family settled permanently on the island in 1834.
Questions of the legality of leasing or ownership of the island have persisted. After William McCormick's death in 1840, "speculation arose over the legality of McCormick's title to the island", with a court ruling in 1859 that his title was invalid, since the 999-year lease from the Caldwell First Nation, nor the length of possession constituted a sufficient legal title: "It was not shown that the possession held had been other than trespassers, nor that the Crown had ever taken charge of or received any rents from the island nor that it had been surveyed nor the title of the Indians extinguished". In 1865, McCormick's widow and children petitioned the government to issue a free grant of the island, noting that "they had been the first white owners of the island and had occupied it continuously since 1823". The legal proceedings raised questions about the validity and lawfulness of the 999 year McKee lease. The McCormick family petition was eventually granted, but this ruling failed to convince government authorities that the matter was resolved. An Order-in-Council passed on June 9, 1866, by both the Superintendent-General of Indian Affairs and the Solicitor General, included the condition that: "should any of the Indian tribes be in existence of those who originally owned the island, it would be necessary to obtain a surrender of their reversion". Even as late as 1923 Department of Indian Affairs official correspondence has noted that although the McCormick's continue to reside on Pelee Island, "no formal patent" had been issued, given to a lack of compliance with certain conditions.
In addition to subsistence agriculture, the island's lumber, stone quarries, and fishing supported inhabitants. Wine making on Pelee Island began in the 1860s.
Pelee Island features an original 1833 lighthouse that was once used to guide sailors through the rocky Pelee Passage. Pelee Passage contains the remains of at least 15 shipwrecks, with one wreck, JJ Carroll, 100 feet (30 m) off the eastern shore of Fish Point.
Pelee was the site of a battle during the Patriot War. The Battle of Pelee Island took place along what is now the Michigan-Ontario border in 1838 involving small groups of men on each side of the border seeking to "liberate" Upper Canada from the British. On February 26, 1838, 300 men captured the island, and on March 3 they were repulsed and either fled the island or were captured.
== Geography ==
=== Climate ===
Due to its southerly location and the moderating effect of Lake Erie, it has a slightly milder climate than inland areas. Its climate is one of the mildest in Canada outside of British Columbia, and the island has long been used for vineyards and wine making. It has the longest frost free season in Ontario. It lies within the Carolinian forest region. The island has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfa) and falls into the USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 7a. Winters are cold with a January average of −5.0 °C (23.0 °F) and the average annual snowfall is 76 centimetres (29.9 in), which falls mainly from November to April. Summers are warm and humid with a July high of 27.5 °C (81.5 °F) and a low of 18.9 °C (66.0 °F). Temperatures rarely go over 32 °C (89.6 °F), averaging 4 days per year.
Pelee island and Point Pelee receive the fewest days with precipitation in Ontario, averaging 75 days with measurable precipitation, and drought-like conditions occur every 4–5 years. The average annual precipitation is 891 millimetres (35 in) which is evenly distributed throughout the year with January and February being the driest months. The record low was −31.5 °C (−24.7 °F) on January 20, 1985, and the record high was 41.1 °C (106.0 °F) on July 24, 1934.
== Demographics ==
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Pelee had a population of 230 living in 122 of its 374 total private dwellings, a change of -2.1% from its 2016 population of 235. With a land area of 41.03 km2 (15.84 sq mi), it had a population density of 5.6/km2 (14.5/sq mi) in 2021.
The island was "settled by a mixed group of Canadians and Americans" and many Americans still inhabit the island.
== Economy ==
=== Tourism ===
Pelee Island is a popular tourist destination, with thousands of visitors each year. There are several key events such as the Annual Springsong Weekend, a celebration of birds and books, traditionally held on Mother's day weekend, and hosted by famed Canadian author Margaret Atwood. Pelee Island Stone & Sky Music & Art Series feature spoken word, live performance and visual arts weekly for the duration of the summer. The Stone & Sky Farmer's Market is held every Saturday in the Quarry throughout the summer. The southernmost Chili Cook Off takes place at the Pelee Island Winery Pavilion. The season wraps with the Heritage Weekend, hosted by the Pelee Island Heritage Centre.
Canada Day is celebrated on the island with a fireworks display and a parade along the West Shore Road.
The Pelee Island Half Marathon attracts runners from both the United States and Canada to participate in what is billed as Canada's southernmost and most exclusive half-marathon. Only about 350 runners are allowed to register for the race which is held the first weekend in June.
The Pelee Island Heritage Centre offers information about Pelee Island's physical features, archaeology, non-Indigenous history and Island residents.
==== Ecotourism ====
Pelee Island has features that make it an ecotourist destination. Pelee is the southernmost inhabited part of Canada and is situated on two major migratory bird routes, the Atlantic Flyway and the Mississippi flyway. The island has been designated as a globally Important Bird Area (IBA) by the Canadian partners of BirdLife International: the Canadian Nature Federation (CNF) and Bird Studies Canada (BSC). IBAs are described as “truly outstanding sites of significance nationally or internationally and sites that are exceptionally important for birds”. Every year the return of the migratory birds is celebrated on Pelee with the Annual Springsong Weekend, usually taking place on Mother's Day weekend. Pelee Island Bird Observatory located on the island work to conserve and study birds on the island, and offers visitors the opportunity to take part in tracking, tagging and photographing the wide variety of species present.
Pelee Island is one of Ontario's most botanically significant sites, and features several Nature Conservancy of Canada areas, and two Provincial Nature Reserves, Lighthouse Point Nature Reserve and Fish Point Nature Reserve. Glaciation left a variety of habitats for wildlife, such as wetlands, sand dunes, alvars (areas of limestone with a shallow overburden), and deep soils suitable to the trees of the Eastern Deciduous Forest zone. Pelee Island is home to numerous species at risk including both flora and fauna as well as insects, snails, mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians.
== Government ==
Pelee Island constitute most of the Township of Pelee which has its own mayor, deputy mayor, and three councillors. It is a separated township, not administratively part of any county (for census purposes, it is treated as part of Essex County). The township comprises nine islands, the largest and only inhabited one being Pelee Island. The other islands are Middle Island, Middle Sister Island, Hen Island, Big Chicken Island, Little Chicken Island, Chick Island, East Sister Island, and North Harbour Island. The total land area of all islands in the township is 41.84 km2 (16.15 sq mi).
== Infrastructure ==
=== Transportation ===
The island is serviced by two ferries, MV Pelee Islander and MV Pelee Islander II (owned by Pelee Island Transportation Company, a subsidiary of Owen Sound Transportation Company). MV Pelee Islander II is the largest passenger ferry along the Lake Erie route to Pelee Island. The leisurely cruise to Pelee Island can range from one-and-a-half to just over two hours depending on departure routes. The ferry service splits the season between Leamington and Kingsville on the Ontario mainland. Leaving from Leamington from early spring until August, the ferry then finishes the season (mid December) in nearby Kingsville. The ferry from Pelee Island to Sandusky, Ohio runs only from late spring until early fall, while MV Pelee Islander II runs from the Canadian ports of Leamington and/or Kingsville from early spring until early December. When the ferries are not operating, the only practical way to get to the mainland or to Pelee Island is via an airplane to the Pelee Island Airport. In January 2004, a Cessna 208 Caravan crashed on takeoff from Pelee, killing eight pheasant hunters, the pilot and his girlfriend. The plane crashed into the shallow waters of Lake Erie. It is believed the plane was overloaded and potentially ice-laden according to the Transportation Safety Board of Canada report.
The MV Pelee Islander, which continues to operate, carries 196 passengers and 14 vehicles. MV Upper Canada, which serviced Pelee prior to MV Jiimaan, was sent to Lake Huron (the people of Christian Island received her for transport to and from the mainland) when MV Jiimaan began service to Pelee. MV Pelee Islander was built at Erieau, Ontario in 1960.
In June 2015, the Ontario Government announced that it would invest $40 million in a new ferry, to replace MV Pelee Islander. A tender was awarded to Asenav of Chile to build the replacement ferry, MV Pelee Islander II, which carries 399 passengers and 34 vehicles.
During the winter season (starting December 11 until the start of the ferry the next year) Pelee Island Transportation Company operates an air service to the Pelee Island Airport from Windsor.
=== Emergency services ===
There is a medical clinic on the island operated by the Victorian Order of Nurses. This Nursing Station has regular hours of operation during the summer but does not respond to emergencies. In the event of an emergency, visitors or residents of the island are instructed to call 911. Essex-Windsor EMS are on the Island 365 days a year to provide emergency paramedic services. Air Ambulance services are also available to airlift patients to the nearest hospital if necessary.
The Pelee Island Volunteer Fire Department is present on the Island 365 days a year and responds to 911 calls on the Island; the department is made up of a fire chief, a deputy fire chief, and volunteers.
Police services on the island are provided by the Ontario Provincial Police. Officers are present on the island four days a week during the summer, during the annual pheasant hunt in the fall, and on the long weekend in May. During the winter, police will fly to the island to respond to emergency calls only. There are typically two officers on the island at a time. The OPP detachment is located on the second floor of the municipal building.
== Education ==
Pelee Island has one school which is part of the Greater Essex County District School Board and serves students from Junior Kindergarten through grade 8. Children on the island can choose to attend high school on the mainland or they can complete high school courses online with the assistance of the teachers at Pelee Island Public School. The school has a student population of about 10 to 20 pupils at any given time and a staff of two to three teachers. Classes are held in a traditional three room school house that was built in 1927 and is located at the north west corner of the island. Every year the children of the school raise money for an annual field trip by holding a raffle during the island's fall pheasant hunt. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebua_at_State_Tower | Lebua at State Tower | lebua Bangkok is a luxury hotel located in at State Tower adjacent to the Chao Phraya River on Silom Road in the Bang Rak District of Bangkok, Thailand. The hotel is managed by lebua Hotels & Resorts, a Thai hospitality company that operates hotels, restaurants, and bars in Thailand, India, and New Zealand. The hotel is known for its high-rise location, large suites, and its collection of restaurants and bars under The Dome by lebua, several of which have received international recognition and Michelin stars.
The brand is founded by its current President & CEO, Narawadee Bualert.
lebua State Tower's rooftop restaurant, Sirocco, hosts the highest New Year's Eve ball drop in the world. Since New Year's Eve 2015, Sirocco has hosted the highest ball drop in the world.
== Overview ==
The property comprises three main components:
lebua at State Tower – Located on the lower floors, this section offers large suites with separate bedrooms, living areas, and balconies.
Tower Club at lebua – Situated on the 53rd to 59th floors, it features suites with additional privileges and direct access to the hotel’s dining and bar venues.
The Dome by lebua – A cluster of restaurants and bars at the top of the State Tower, introduced in the early 2000s and recognized as part of Bangkok’s dining and nightlife scene.
== Bars and restaurants ==
The Dome by lebua is a cluster of restaurants and bars located at the top of the State Tower. Since its introduction in the early 2000s, it has become a prominent part of Bangkok’s dining and nightlife scene.
Sirocco – An outdoor Mediterranean restaurant on the 64th floor, recognized as one of the world’s highest alfresco restaurants. It is accompanied by a live jazz band and panoramic views of Bangkok.
Sky Bar – one of the world’s highest rooftop bars on 64th floor, known for its illuminated counter and panoramic views.
Distil is a cocktail bar located on the 64th floor, offering oysters, caviar, lobster, cigars and a collection of single malt whiskey.
Mezzaluna – A two-Michelin-star restaurant on 65th floor led by Chef Ryuki Kawasaki, offering French cuisine with Japanese influences. The restaurant has consistently held two Michelin stars since 2018.
Breeze – A Chinese restaurant on the 52nd floor, designed with a neon-lit sky bridge. It is known for modern interpretations of Chinese cuisine under Chef Sam Lee. Breeze was recognized by USA Today as one of the “Top 10 most cutting-edge restaurants” worldwide and won “Thailand’s Best Restaurant” at the World Culinary Awards in 2022.
Chef’s Table – Opened in 2019, this restaurant under Chef Vincent Thierry holds two Michelin stars and emphasizes contemporary French cuisine on 61st floor.
Alfresco 64 – The highest outdoor whisky bar in the world, launched in partnership with Chivas Regal, featuring a yacht-inspired interior design.
lebua No. 3 – A multi-level gin, caviar, and vodka bar featuring a spiral staircase design and advanced distillation techniques through the venue’s “lebua Laboratory”
Flûte by lebua, a Champagne Bollinger Bar – Opened in 2015, this venue is the world’s highest open-air Champagne bar, offering exclusive Bollinger cuvées and caviar service.
Pink Bar – Opened in 2019, Pink Bar is a boutique champagne lounge decorated in rose and blush tones, offering prestige cuvées and champagne cocktails
Café Mozu – Poolside restaurant serving an international buffet with a mix of Thai, Indian, Middle Eastern, and Western dishes. The venue is also known for its tandoor oven and Lebanese grill offerings. Positioned next to the outdoor swimming pool, Café Mozu provides both indoor and alfresco seating. In addition to its breakfast and lunch buffets, it offers à la carte dining throughout the day.
== Awards ==
=== lebua at State Tower ===
Travel + Leisure World’s Best Awards 2025: Top 100 Favorite Hotels in the World (#72); Top 15 Favorite City Hotels in Asia (#14); Top 5 Favorite Hotels in Bangkok (#3).
Condé Nast Traveler Readers' Choice Awards 2021: #4 Best Hotels in Bangkok.
Travel + Leisure World’s Best Awards 2020: Top 5 Hotels in Bangkok (#2); Top 15 Asia City Hotels (#14).
Departures (2020): “The World’s Best Hotel Views.”
Travel + Leisure World’s Best Awards 2019: Top 5 Hotels in Bangkok (#1); Top 10 City Hotels in Asia (#5); Top 100 Hotels in the World (#90).
Condé Nast Traveler Readers’ Choice Awards 2019: Top three hotels in Bangkok.
Additional recognitions: World Travel Awards (2009), World Luxury Hotel Awards (2008, 2009), Expedia Best of +VIP (2016), Agoda Gold Circle (2015), Hotels.com Loved by Guests (2015–16), TripAdvisor Certificate of Excellence (2014).
=== Tower Club at lebua ===
World Travel Awards 2024: Asia’s Leading Luxury All Suite Hotel; Thailand's Leading Lifestyle Hotel.
World Travel Awards 2023: World’s Leading Luxury Suites Hotel; Asia’s Leading Luxury All Suite Hotel; Thailand's Leading Lifestyle Hotel.
World Travel Awards 2022: World’s Leading Luxury Suites Hotel; Asia’s Leading Luxury All Suites Hotel; Thailand's Leading Hotel Suite; Thailand's Leading Lifestyle Hotel.
World Travel Awards 2021: World’s Leading Luxury Suites Hotel; Asia’s Leading Luxury All Suite Hotel; Thailand’s Leading Hotel Suite; Thailand’s Leading Lifestyle Hotel.
World Travel Awards 2020: Asia’s Leading Luxury All Suite Hotel; Thailand’s Leading Hotel Suite; Thailand’s Leading Lifestyle Hotel.
=== Sirocco ===
Top Italian Restaurants 2025 by Gambero Rosso: 2 Forks.
World Culinary Awards 2024: World’s Best Rooftop Restauran t; Asia’s Best Rooftop Restaurant.
World Culinary Awards 2023: World’s Best Rooftop Restaurant; Asia’s Best Rooftop Restaurant.
World Travel Awards 2020: Asia’s Leading Hotel Rooftop Restaurant & Bar.
Thailand Tatler – Thailand’s Best Restaurants: multiple years (2011, 2013–2018).
The Telegraph (UK) 2013: “World’s Most Expensive Desserts” feature.
Hospitality Asia Platinum Awards 2011–2013: Restaurant of the Year; Most Cosmopolitan Bar & Restaurant.
Earlier recognitions: American Express “My Favorite International Restaurant” (2006–07); Condé Nast Traveler US “Hot Nights & Hot Tables” (2005).
=== Mezzaluna ===
Tatler Thailand 2025: Best 20 Restaurants.
MICHELIN Guide Thailand: Two Michelin Stars (2017–2025, consecutive).
World Culinary Awards 2024: World’s Best Restaurant; Asia’s Best Restaurant; Asia’s Best Fine Dining Hotel Restaurant; Thailand’s Best Restaurant.
World Culinary Awards 2023: World’s Best Fine Dining Hotel Restaurant; Asia’s Best Fine Dining Hotel Restaurant; Thailand’s Best Restaurant.
Koktail Magazine: Thailand’s Best Restaurants (2022–25), Restaurant of the Year (2025).
Thailand Tatler – Best Restaurants Guide: #1 in 2019; #2 in 2018; Five Mango rating in 2016.
La Liste: ranked in 2017 and 2018.
Additional awards: Seven Star Global Luxury Award (2013–14), Hospitality Asia Platinum Awards (2011–13).
=== Chef’s Table ===
Tatler Thailand 2025: Best Service; Best 20 Restaurants.
Wine Spectator’s Best of Award of Excellence 2025.
MICHELIN Guide Thailand: Two Michelin Stars (2020–2025); One Michelin Star (2019).
MICHELIN Guide Thailand: Service Award (2021, 2024).
World Culinary Awards 2024: Asia’s Best Landmark Restaurant; Thailand’s Best Hotel Restaurant.
World Culinary Awards 2023: Asia’s Best Landmark Restaurant; Thailand’s Best Hotel Restaurant.
Koktail Magazine: Thailand’s Best Restaurants (2022–25), Sommelier of the Year (2025).
Departures Legend Awards 2019: “The Best Meal We’ve Had This Year.”
=== Breeze ===
World Culinary Awards 2022: Thailand's Best Restaurant.
La Liste 2017.
Thailand Tatler – Thailand’s Best Restaurants: multiple years (2011, 2012, 2013, 2014).
USA Today 2014: “Top 10 Most Cutting-Edge Restaurants in the World.”
Hospitality Asia Platinum Awards 2011–2013: Restaurant of the Year (Platinum Winner); Most Authentic Asian Cuisine Restaurant.
Condé Nast Traveler US 2007: “Hot Tables.”
Art of Travel Guide (2007, Netherlands): Best New Seafood Al Fresco Restaurant in Asia.
== In popular culture ==
The hotel, Sirocco, Sky Bar, Tower Club and the State Tower were sites of several key scenes in the 2011 film The Hangover Part II.
The hotel features a three-bedroom "Hangover" suite where the cast of the film created havoc. Sky Bar created the "Hangovertini", a cocktail to commemorate the film. The cocktail was first served to director Todd Phillips. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Harrison#Discography | George Harrison#Discography | George Harrison (25 February 1943 – 29 November 2001) was an English musician who achieved international fame as the lead guitarist of the Beatles. Known as "the quiet Beatle", Harrison played a significant role in shaping the band's musical direction and established a successful solo career, particularly through his interest in non-Western musical influences.
Although most of the band's songs were written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney, most Beatles albums from 1965 onwards contained at least two Harrison compositions, including "Taxman", "Within You Without You", "While My Guitar Gently Weeps", "Something" and "Here Comes the Sun". Harrison's earliest musical influences included George Formby and Django Reinhardt; subsequent influences were Carl Perkins, Chet Atkins and Chuck Berry. By 1965, he had begun to lead the Beatles into folk rock through his interest in Bob Dylan and the Byrds, and towards Indian classical music through his use of Indian instruments, such as the sitar, which he had become acquainted with on the set of the film Help!. He played sitar on numerous Beatles songs, starting with "Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)". Having initiated the band's embrace of Transcendental Meditation in 1967, he subsequently developed an association with the Hare Krishna movement. Harrison's first marriage, to model Pattie Boyd in 1966, ended in divorce in 1977. In the following year he married Olivia Arias, with whom he had a son, Dhani.
After the Beatles disbanded, Harrison released the triple album All Things Must Pass, a critically acclaimed work that produced his most successful hit single, "My Sweet Lord", and introduced the signature sound of his solo efforts: the slide guitar. He also organised the 1971 Concert for Bangladesh with Indian musician Ravi Shankar, a precursor to benefit concerts such as Live Aid. In his role as a music and film producer, Harrison produced acts signed to the Beatles' Apple record label before founding Dark Horse Records in 1974. He co-founded HandMade Films in 1978, initially to produce the Monty Python troupe's comedy film The Life of Brian (1979).
Harrison released several best-selling singles and albums as a solo performer. In 1988, he co-founded the platinum-selling supergroup the Traveling Wilburys. A prolific recording artist, he was featured as a guest guitarist on tracks by Badfinger, Ronnie Wood, and Billy Preston, and collaborated on songs and music with Dylan, Eric Clapton, Ringo Starr, and Tom Petty. Rolling Stone magazine ranked him number 31 in their 2023 list of greatest guitarists of all time. He is a two-time Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductee – as a member of the Beatles in 1988, and posthumously for his solo career in 2004. A lifelong smoker, Harrison died of cancer in 2001 at the age of 58.
== Early years: 1943–1958 ==
George Harrison was born at 12 Arnold Grove in Wavertree, Liverpool, on 25 February 1943. He was the youngest of four children of Harold Hargreaves (or Hargrove) Harrison and Louise (née French). Harold was a bus conductor who had worked as a ship's steward on the White Star Line, and Louise was a shop assistant of Irish Catholic descent. He had one sister, Louise, and two brothers, Harold and Peter.
According to Boyd, Harrison's mother was particularly supportive: "All she wanted for her children is that they should be happy, and she recognised that nothing made George quite as happy as making music." Louise was an enthusiastic music fan, and she was known among friends for her loud singing voice, which at times startled visitors by rattling the Harrisons' windows. When Louise was pregnant with George, she often listened to the weekly broadcast Radio India. Harrison's biographer Joshua Greene wrote, "Every Sunday she tuned in to mystical sounds evoked by sitars and tablas, hoping that the exotic music would bring peace and calm to the baby in the womb."
Harrison lived at 12 Arnold Grove until 1 January 1950. A terraced house on a cul-de-sac, it had an outdoor toilet, and its only heat came from a single coal fire. In the autumn of 1949, the family was offered a council house and moved to 25 Upton Green, Speke. In 1948, Harrison enrolled at Dovedale Primary School. He passed the eleven-plus exam and attended Liverpool Institute High School for Boys from 1954 to 1959. Though the institute did offer a music course, Harrison was disappointed with the absence of guitars, and felt that the school "moulded [students] into being frightened".
Harrison's earliest musical influences included George Formby, Cab Calloway, Django Reinhardt and Hoagy Carmichael; by the 1950s, Carl Perkins and Lonnie Donegan were significant influences. In early 1956, he had an epiphany: while riding his bicycle, he heard Elvis Presley's "Heartbreak Hotel" playing from a nearby house, and the song piqued his interest in rock and roll. He often sat at the back of the class drawing guitars in his schoolbooks, and later commented, "I was totally into guitars." Harrison cited Slim Whitman as another early influence: "The first person I ever saw playing a guitar was Slim Whitman, either a photo of him in a magazine or live on television. Guitars were definitely coming in."
When George Harrison was about 14, a friend of Harrison, Raymond Hughes, offered to sell a guitar. Harrison's mother then paid for the guitar, which cost £3.10s.– (equivalent to £70 in 2023). One of his father's friends taught Harrison how to play "Whispering", "Sweet Sue" and "Dinah". Inspired by Donegan's music, Harrison formed a skiffle group, the Rebels, with his brother Peter and a friend, Arthur Kelly. On the bus to school, Harrison met Paul McCartney, who also attended the Liverpool Institute, and the pair bonded over their shared love of music.
== The Beatles: 1958–1970 ==
McCartney and his friend John Lennon were in a skiffle group called the Quarrymen. In March 1958, at McCartney's urging, Harrison auditioned for the Quarrymen at Rory Storm's Morgue Skiffle Club, playing Arthur "Guitar Boogie" Smith's "Guitar Boogie Shuffle", but Lennon felt that Harrison, having just turned 15, was too young to join the band. McCartney arranged a second meeting, on the upper deck of a Liverpool bus, during which Harrison impressed Lennon by performing the lead guitar part for the instrumental "Raunchy". He began socialising with the group, filling in on guitar as needed, and then became accepted as a member. Although his father wanted him to continue his education, Harrison left school at 16 and worked for several months as an apprentice electrician at Blacklers, a local department store. During the group's first tour of Scotland, in 1960, Harrison used the pseudonym "Carl Harrison", in reference to Carl Perkins.
In 1960, promoter Allan Williams arranged for the band, now calling themselves the Beatles, to play at the Indra and Kaiserkeller clubs in Hamburg, both owned by Bruno Koschmider. Their first residency in Hamburg ended prematurely when Harrison was deported for being too young to work in nightclubs. When Brian Epstein became their manager in December 1961, he polished up their image and later secured them a recording contract with EMI. The group's first single, "Love Me Do", peaked at number 17 on the Record Retailer chart, and by the time their debut album, Please Please Me, was released in early 1963, Beatlemania had arrived. Often serious and focused while on stage with the band, Harrison was known as "the quiet Beatle". That moniker arose when the Beatles arrived in the United States in early 1964, and Harrison was ill with a case of Strep throat and a fever and was medically advised to limit speaking as much as possible until he performed on The Ed Sullivan Show as scheduled. As such, the press noticed Harrison's apparent laconic nature in public appearances on that tour and the subsequent nickname stuck, much to Harrison's amusement. He had two lead vocal credits on the LP, including the Lennon–McCartney song "Do You Want to Know a Secret?", and three on their second album, With the Beatles (1963). The latter included "Don't Bother Me", Harrison's first solo writing credit.
Harrison served as the Beatles' scout for new American releases, being especially knowledgeable about soul music. By 1965's Rubber Soul, he had begun to lead the other Beatles into folk rock through his interest in the Byrds and Bob Dylan, and towards Indian classical music through his use of the sitar on "Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)". He later called Rubber Soul his favourite Beatles album. Revolver (1966) included three of his compositions: "Taxman", selected as the album's opening track, "Love You To" and "I Want to Tell You". His drone-like tambura part on Lennon's "Tomorrow Never Knows" exemplified the band's ongoing exploration of non-Western instruments, while the sitar- and tabla-based "Love You To" represented the Beatles' first genuine foray into Indian music. According to the ethnomusicologist David Reck, the latter song set a precedent in popular music as an example of Asian culture being represented by Westerners respectfully and without parody. Author Nicholas Schaffner wrote in 1978 that following Harrison's increased association with the sitar after "Norwegian Wood", he became known as "the maharaja of raga-rock". Harrison continued to develop his interest in non-Western instrumentation, playing swarmandal on "Strawberry Fields Forever".
By late 1966, Harrison's interests had moved away from the Beatles. This was reflected in his choice of Eastern gurus and religious leaders for inclusion on the album cover for Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band in 1967. His sole composition on the album was the Indian-inspired "Within You Without You", to which no other Beatle contributed. He played sitar and tambura on the track, backed by musicians from the London Asian Music Circle on dilruba, swarmandal and tabla. He later commented on the Sgt. Pepper album: "It was a millstone and a milestone in the music industry ... There's about half the songs I like and the other half I can't stand."
In January 1968, he recorded the basic track for his song "The Inner Light" at EMI's studio in Bombay, using a group of local musicians playing traditional Indian instruments. Released as the B-side to McCartney's "Lady Madonna", it was the first Harrison composition to appear on a Beatles single. Derived from a quotation from the Tao Te Ching, the song's lyric reflected Harrison's deepening interest in Hinduism and meditation. During the recording of The Beatles that same year, tensions within the group ran high, and drummer Ringo Starr quit briefly. Harrison's four songwriting contributions to the double album included "While My Guitar Gently Weeps", which featured Eric Clapton on lead guitar, and the horn-driven "Savoy Truffle".
Dylan and the Band were a major musical influence on Harrison at the end of his career with the Beatles. While on a visit to Woodstock in late 1968, he established a friendship with Dylan and found himself drawn to the Band's sense of communal music-making and to the creative equality among the band members, which contrasted with Lennon and McCartney's domination of the Beatles' songwriting and creative direction. This coincided with a prolific period in his songwriting and a growing desire to assert his independence from the Beatles. Tensions among the group surfaced again in January 1969, at Twickenham Studios, during the filmed rehearsals that became the 1970 documentary Let It Be. Frustrated by the cold and sterile film studio, by Lennon's creative disengagement from the Beatles, and by what he perceived as a domineering attitude from McCartney, Harrison quit the group on 10 January. He returned 12 days later, after his bandmates had agreed to move the film project to their own Apple Studio and to abandon McCartney's plan for making a return to public performance.
Relations among the Beatles were more cordial, though still strained, when the band recorded their 1969 album Abbey Road. The LP included what Lavezzoli describes as "two classic contributions" from Harrison – "Here Comes the Sun" and "Something" – that saw him "finally achieve equal songwriting status" with Lennon and McCartney. During the album's recording, Harrison asserted more creative control than before, rejecting suggestions for changes to his music, particularly from McCartney. "Something" became his first A-side when issued on a double A-side single with "Come Together"; the song was number one in Canada, Australia, New Zealand and West Germany, and the combined sides topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the United States. In the 1970s Frank Sinatra recorded "Something" twice (1970 and 1979) and later dubbed it "the greatest love song of the past fifty years". Lennon considered it the best song on Abbey Road, and it became the Beatles' second most covered song after "Yesterday".
In May 1970, Harrison's song "For You Blue" was coupled on a US single with McCartney's "The Long and Winding Road" and became Harrison's second chart-topper when the sides were listed together at number one on the Hot 100. His increased productivity meant that by the time of their break-up he had amassed a stockpile of unreleased compositions. While Harrison grew as a songwriter, his compositional presence on Beatles albums remained limited to two or three songs, increasing his frustration, and significantly contributing to the band's break-up. Harrison's last recording session with the Beatles was on 4 January 1970, when he, McCartney and Starr recorded overdubs to the song "Let It Be" for the soundtrack album of the same name.
== Solo career: 1968–1987 ==
=== Early solo work: 1968–1969 ===
Before the Beatles' break-up, Harrison had already recorded and released two solo albums: Wonderwall Music and Electronic Sound, both of which contain mainly instrumental compositions. Wonderwall Music, a soundtrack to the 1968 film Wonderwall, blends Indian and Western instrumentation, while Electronic Sound is an experimental album that prominently features a Moog synthesizer. Released in November 1968, Wonderwall Music was the first solo album by a Beatle and the first LP released by Apple Records. Indian musicians Aashish Khan and Shivkumar Sharma performed on the album, which contains the experimental sound collage "Dream Scene", recorded several months before Lennon's "Revolution 9".
In December 1969, Harrison participated in a brief tour of Europe with the American group Delaney & Bonnie and Friends. During the tour, which included Clapton, Bobby Whitlock, drummer Jim Gordon and band leaders Delaney and Bonnie Bramlett, Harrison began to play slide guitar, and also began to write "My Sweet Lord", which became his first single as a solo artist.
=== All Things Must Pass: 1970 ===
For many years, Harrison was restricted in his songwriting contributions to the Beatles' albums, but he released All Things Must Pass, a triple album with two discs of his songs and the third of recordings of Harrison jamming with friends. The album was regarded by many as his best work, and it topped the charts on both sides of the Atlantic. The number-one hit single "My Sweet Lord" and the top-ten single "What Is Life" were taken from the album, which was co-produced by Phil Spector using his "Wall of Sound" approach; the musicians included Starr, Clapton, Gary Wright, Billy Preston, Klaus Voormann, the whole of Delaney and Bonnie's Friends band, and the Apple group Badfinger. On its release, All Things Must Pass was received with critical acclaim; Ben Gerson of Rolling Stone described it as being "of classic Spectorian proportions, Wagnerian, Brucknerian, the music of mountain tops and vast horizons". Author and musicologist Ian Inglis considers the lyrics of the album's title track "a recognition of the impermanence of human existence ... a simple and poignant conclusion" to Harrison's former band. In 1971, Bright Tunes sued Harrison for copyright infringement over "My Sweet Lord", owing to its similarity to the 1963 Chiffons hit "He's So Fine". When the case was heard in the United States district court in 1976, he denied deliberately plagiarising the song, but lost the case, as the judge ruled that he had done so subconsciously.
In 2000, Apple Records released a thirtieth-anniversary edition of the album, and Harrison actively participated in its promotion. In an interview, he reflected on the work: "It's just something that was like my continuation from the Beatles, really. It was me sort of getting out of the Beatles and just going my own way ... it was a very happy occasion." He commented on the production: "Well, in those days it was like the reverb was kind of used a bit more than what I would do now. In fact, I don't use reverb at all. I can't stand it ... You know, it's hard to go back to anything thirty years later and expect it to be how you would want it now."
=== The Concert for Bangladesh: 1971 ===
Harrison responded to a request from Ravi Shankar by organising a charity event, the Concert for Bangladesh, which took place on 1 August 1971. The event drew over 40,000 people to two shows in New York's Madison Square Garden. The goal of the event was to raise money to aid starving refugees during the Bangladesh Liberation War. Shankar opened the show, which featured popular musicians such as Dylan, Clapton, Leon Russell, Badfinger, Preston and Starr.
A triple album, The Concert for Bangladesh, was released by Apple in December, followed by a concert film in 1972. Credited to "George Harrison and Friends", the album topped the UK chart and peaked at number 2 in the US, and went on to win the Grammy Award for Album of the Year. Tax troubles and questionable expenses later tied up many of the proceeds, but Harrison commented: "Mainly the concert was to attract attention to the situation ... The money we raised was secondary, and although we had some money problems ... they still got plenty ... even though it was a drop in the ocean. The main thing was, we spread the word and helped get the war ended."
=== Living in the Material World to George Harrison: 1973–1979 ===
Harrison's 1973 album Living in the Material World held the number one spot on the Billboard albums chart for five weeks, and the album's single, "Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)", also reached number one in the US. In the UK, the LP peaked at number two and the single reached number 8. The album was lavishly produced and packaged, and its dominant message was Harrison's Hindu beliefs. In Greene's opinion it "contained many of the strongest compositions of his career". Stephen Holden, writing in Rolling Stone, felt the album was "vastly appealing" and "profoundly seductive", and that it stood "alone as an article of faith, miraculous in its radiance". Other reviewers were less enthusiastic, describing the release as awkward, sanctimonious and overly sentimental.
In November 1974, Harrison became the first ex-Beatle to tour North America when he began his 45-date Dark Horse Tour. The shows included guest spots by his band members Billy Preston and Tom Scott, and traditional and contemporary Indian music performed by "Ravi Shankar, Family and Friends". Despite numerous positive reviews, the consensus reaction to the tour was negative. Some fans found Shankar's significant presence to be a bizarre disappointment, and many were affronted by what Inglis described as Harrison's "sermonizing". Further, he reworked the lyrics to several Beatles songs, and his laryngitis-affected vocals led to some critics calling the tour "dark hoarse". The author Robert Rodriguez commented: "While the Dark Horse tour might be considered a noble failure, there were a number of fans who were tuned-in to what was being attempted. They went away ecstatic, conscious that they had just witnessed something so uplifting that it could never be repeated." Simon Leng called the tour "groundbreaking" and "revolutionary in its presentation of Indian Music".
On 16 November 1974, Harrison and several others involved in the tour visited the White House. They were invited by President Gerald Ford's son, Jack.
In December, Harrison released Dark Horse, which was an album that earned him the least favourable reviews of his career. Rolling Stone called it "the chronicle of a performer out of his element, working to a deadline, enfeebling his overtaxed talents by a rush to deliver a new 'LP product', rehearse a band, and assemble a cross-country tour, all within three weeks". The album reached number 4 on the Billboard chart and the single "Dark Horse" reached number 15, but they failed to make an impact in the UK. The music critic Mikal Gilmore described Dark Horse as "one of Harrison's most fascinating works – a record about change and loss".
Harrison's final studio album for EMI and Apple Records, the soul music-inspired Extra Texture (Read All About It) (1975), peaked at number 8 on the Billboard chart and number 16 in the UK. Harrison considered it the least satisfactory of the three albums he had recorded since All Things Must Pass. Leng identified "bitterness and dismay" in many of the tracks; his long-time friend Klaus Voormann commented: "He wasn't up for it ... It was a terrible time because I think there was a lot of cocaine going around, and that's when I got out of the picture ... I didn't like his frame of mind". He released two singles from the LP: "You", which reached the Billboard top 20, and "This Guitar (Can't Keep from Crying)", Apple's final original single release.
Thirty Three & 1/3 (1976), Harrison's first album release on his own Dark Horse Records label, produced the hit singles "This Song" and "Crackerbox Palace", both of which reached the top 25 in the US. The surreal humour of "Crackerbox Palace" reflected Harrison's association with Monty Python's Eric Idle, who directed a comical music video for the song. With an emphasis on melody and musicianship, and a more subtle subject matter than the pious message of his earlier works, Thirty Three & 1/3 earned Harrison his most favourable critical notices in the US since All Things Must Pass. The album peaked just outside the top ten there, but outsold his previous two LPs. As part of his promotion for the release, Harrison performed on Saturday Night Live with Paul Simon.
In 1979, Harrison released George Harrison, which followed his second marriage and the birth of his son Dhani. Co-produced by Russ Titelman, the album and the single "Blow Away" both made the Billboard top 20. The album marked the beginning of Harrison's gradual retreat from the music business, with several of the songs having been written in the tranquil setting of Maui in the Hawaiian archipelago. Leng described George Harrison as "melodic and lush ... peaceful ... the work of a man who had lived the rock and roll dream twice over and was now embracing domestic as well as spiritual bliss".
=== Somewhere in England to Cloud Nine: 1980–1987 ===
The murder of John Lennon on 8 December 1980 disturbed Harrison and reinforced his decades-long concern about stalkers. The tragedy was also a deep personal loss, although Harrison and Lennon had little contact in the years before Lennon was killed. Following the murder, Harrison commented: "After all we went through together I had and still have great love and respect for John Lennon. I am shocked and stunned." Harrison modified the lyrics of a song he had written for Starr to make the song a tribute to Lennon. "All Those Years Ago", which included vocal contributions from Paul and Linda McCartney, as well as Starr's original drum part, peaked at number two in the US charts. The single was included on the album Somewhere in England in 1981.
Harrison did not release any new albums for five years after 1982's Gone Troppo received little notice from critics or the public. During this period he made several guest appearances, including a 1985 performance at a tribute to Carl Perkins titled Blue Suede Shoes: A Rockabilly Session. In March 1986 he made a surprise appearance during the finale of the Birmingham Heart Beat Charity Concert, an event organised to raise money for the Birmingham Children's Hospital. The following year, he appeared at The Prince's Trust concert at London's Wembley Arena, performing "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" and "Here Comes the Sun".
Prior, in February 1987, he joined Dylan, John Fogerty and Jesse Ed Davis on stage for a two-hour performance with the blues musician Taj Mahal. Harrison recalled: "Bob rang me up and asked if I wanted to come out for the evening and see Taj Mahal ... So we went there and had a few of these Mexican beers – and had a few more ... Bob says, 'Hey, why don't we all get up and play, and you can sing?' But every time I got near the microphone, Dylan comes up and just starts singing this rubbish in my ear, trying to throw me."
In November 1987, Harrison released the platinum album Cloud Nine. Co-produced with Jeff Lynne of Electric Light Orchestra (ELO), the album included Harrison's rendition of James Ray's "Got My Mind Set on You", which went to number one in the US and number two in the UK. The accompanying music video received substantial airplay, and another single, "When We Was Fab", a retrospective of the Beatles' career, earned two MTV Music Video Awards nominations in 1988. Recorded at his estate in Friar Park, Harrison's slide guitar playing featured prominently on the album, which included several of his long-time musical collaborators, including Clapton, Jim Keltner and Jim Horn. Cloud Nine reached number eight and number ten on the US and UK charts respectively, and several tracks from the album achieved placement on Billboard's Mainstream Rock chart – "Devil's Radio", "This Is Love" and "Cloud 9".
== Later career: 1988–1996 ==
=== The Traveling Wilburys and return to touring: 1988–1992 ===
In 1988, Harrison formed the Traveling Wilburys with Jeff Lynne, Roy Orbison, Bob Dylan and Tom Petty. The band had gathered in Dylan's garage to record a song for a Harrison European single release. Harrison's record company decided the track, "Handle with Care", was too good for its original purpose as a B-side and asked for a full album. The LP, Traveling Wilburys Vol. 1, was released in October 1988 and recorded under pseudonyms as half-brothers, supposed sons of Charles Truscott Wilbury Sr. It reached number 16 in the UK and number 3 in the US, where it was certified triple platinum. Harrison's pseudonym on the album was "Nelson Wilbury"; he used the name "Spike Wilbury" for their second album.
In 1989, Harrison and Starr appeared in the music video for Petty's song "I Won't Back Down". In October that year, Harrison assembled and released Best of Dark Horse 1976–1989, a compilation of his later solo work. The album included three new songs, including "Cheer Down", which Harrison had recently contributed to the Lethal Weapon 2 film soundtrack.
Following Orbison's death in December 1988, the Wilburys recorded as a four-piece. Their second album, issued in October 1990, was mischievously titled Traveling Wilburys Vol. 3. According to Lynne, "That was George's idea. He said, 'Let's confuse the buggers.'" It peaked at number 14 in the UK and number 11 in the US, where it was certified platinum. The Wilburys never performed live, and the group did not record together again following the release of their second album.
In December 1991, Harrison joined Clapton for a tour of Japan. It was Harrison's first since 1974 and no others followed. On 6 April 1992, Harrison held a benefit concert for the Natural Law Party at the Royal Albert Hall, his first London performance since the Beatles' 1969 rooftop concert. In October 1992, he performed at a Bob Dylan tribute concert at Madison Square Garden in New York City, playing alongside Dylan, Clapton, McGuinn, Petty and Neil Young.
=== The Beatles Anthology: 1994–1996 ===
In 1994, Harrison began a collaboration with McCartney, Starr and producer Jeff Lynne for the Beatles Anthology project. This included the recording of two new Beatles songs built around solo vocal and piano tapes recorded by Lennon as well as lengthy interviews about the Beatles' career. Released in December 1995, "Free as a Bird" was the first new Beatles single since 1970. In March 1996, they released a second single, "Real Love". They also attempted to finish a third single, "Now and Then", but did not finish it because the audio quality of the cassette was, according to Harrison, "fucking rubbish". The song was later finished by McCartney and Starr and released in 2023. He later commented on the project: "I hope somebody does this to all my crap demos when I'm dead, make them into hit songs."
== Later life and death: 1997–2001 ==
After the Anthology project, Harrison collaborated with Ravi Shankar on the latter's Chants of India. Harrison's final television appearance was a VH-1 special to promote the album, taped in May 1997. Soon afterwards, Harrison was diagnosed with throat cancer; he was treated with radiotherapy, which was thought at the time to be successful. He publicly blamed years of smoking for the illness.
In January 1998, Harrison attended Carl Perkins' funeral in Jackson, Tennessee, where he performed a brief rendition of Perkins' song "Your True Love". In May, he represented the Beatles at London's High Court in their successful bid to gain control of unauthorised recordings made of a 1962 performance by the band at the Star-Club in Hamburg. The following year, he was the most active of the former Beatles in promoting the reissue of their 1968 animated film Yellow Submarine.
=== Attack at Friar Park: 1999 ===
On 30 December 1999, Harrison and his wife Olivia were attacked at their home, Friar Park. The perpetrator was 34-year-old paranoid schizophrenic man Michael Abram, who broke in and attacked Harrison with a kitchen knife, puncturing a lung and causing head injuries before he was incapacitated by Harrison's wife, who struck him repeatedly with a fireplace poker and a lamp. Harrison later commented, "I felt exhausted and could feel the strength draining from me. I vividly remember a deliberate thrust to my chest. I could hear my lung exhaling and had blood in my mouth. I believed I had been fatally stabbed".
Following the attack, Harrison was hospitalised with more than 40 stab wounds, and part of his punctured lung was removed. He released a statement soon afterwards regarding his assailant: "He wasn't a burglar, and he certainly wasn't auditioning for the Traveling Wilburys. Adi Shankara, an Indian historical, spiritual and groovy-type person, once said, 'Life is fragile like a raindrop on a lotus leaf.' And you'd better believe it."
Upon being released from a psychiatric institution in 2002, Abram said: "If I could turn back the clock, I would give anything not to have done what I did in attacking George Harrison, but looking back on it now, I have come to understand that I was at the time not in control of my actions. I can only hope the Harrison family might somehow find it in their hearts to accept my apologies."
The injuries inflicted on Harrison during the home invasion were downplayed by his family in their comments to the press. Having seen Harrison looking so healthy beforehand, those in his social circle believed that the attack brought about a change in him and was the cause for his cancer's return.
=== Death: 2001 ===
In May 2001, it was announced that Harrison had undergone an operation to remove a cancerous growth from one lung. In July 2001, it was reported that he was being treated for a brain tumour at a clinic in Switzerland. Starr visited him but had to cut short his stay to travel to Boston, where his daughter was undergoing emergency brain surgery. Harrison, who was very weak, quipped: "Do you want me to come with you?" In November 2001, he began radiotherapy at Staten Island University Hospital in New York City for non–small cell lung cancer that had spread to his brain. When the news was made public, Harrison bemoaned his physician's breach of privacy, and his estate later claimed damages.
On 29 November 2001, Harrison died at a property belonging to McCartney, on Heather Road in Los Angeles, California. He was 58 years old. He died in the company of Olivia, Dhani, Shankar, Shankar's wife Sukanya and daughter Anoushka, and Hare Krishna devotees Shyamasundar Das and Mukunda Goswami, who chanted verses from the Bhagavad Gita. His final message to the world, as relayed in a statement by Olivia and Dhani, was: "Everything else can wait, but the search for God cannot wait, and love one another." Eric Idle, who was close to Harrison, was present at his deathbed and said that Harrison was not frightened of death, and thought he would escape rebirth.
Harrison's body was cremated at Hollywood Forever Cemetery, and his funeral was held at the Self-Realization Fellowship Lake Shrine in Pacific Palisades, California. Idle, considering that "a lot of being funny is the lack of a censor mechanism", said at Harrison's funeral: "I'd like to thank Marlboro, without whom you wouldn't be here this morning", to a huge laugh. Idle said "it's really not the right thing to say, but also, let's name the names of people responsible". Harrison's close family scattered his ashes according to Hindu tradition in a private ceremony in the Ganges and Yamuna rivers near Varanasi, India. He left almost £100 million in his will.
=== Final studio album and singles: 2002–2004 ===
Harrison's final studio album, Brainwashed (2002), was released posthumously after it was completed by his son Dhani and Jeff Lynne. A quotation from the Bhagavad Gita is included in the liner notes: "There never was a time when you or I did not exist. Nor will there be any future when we shall cease to be." A media-only single, "Stuck Inside a Cloud", which Leng describes as "a uniquely candid reaction to illness and mortality", reached number 27 on Billboard's Adult Contemporary chart. The single "Any Road", released in May 2003, reached number 37 on the UK singles chart. "Marwa Blues" received the 2004 Grammy Award for Best Pop Instrumental Performance, while "Any Road" was nominated for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance.
== Musicianship ==
=== Guitar work ===
Harrison's guitar work with the Beatles was varied and flexible. Although not fast or flashy, his lead guitar playing was solid and typified the more subdued lead guitar style of the early 1960s. His rhythm guitar playing was innovative; for example, he used a capo to shorten the strings on an acoustic guitar, as on the Rubber Soul (1965) album and "Here Comes the Sun", to create a bright, sweet sound. Eric Clapton felt that Harrison was "clearly an innovator" as he was "taking certain elements of R&B and rock and rockabilly and creating something unique". Rolling Stone founder Jann Wenner described Harrison as "a guitarist who was never showy but who had an innate, eloquent melodic sense. He played exquisitely in the service of the song". The guitar picking style of Chet Atkins and Carl Perkins influenced Harrison, giving a country music feel to many Beatles recordings. Chuck Berry was another early influence.
In 1961, the Beatles recorded "Cry for a Shadow", a blues-inspired instrumental co-written by Lennon and Harrison, who is credited with composing the song's lead guitar part, building on unusual chord voicings and imitating the style of other English groups such as the Shadows. Harrison's liberal use of the diatonic scale in his guitar playing reveals the influence of Buddy Holly, and his interest in Berry inspired him to compose songs based on the blues scale while incorporating a rockabilly feel in the style of Perkins. Another of Harrison's musical techniques was the use of guitar lines written in octaves, as on "I'll Be on My Way".
By 1964, he had begun to develop a distinctive personal style as a guitarist, writing parts that featured the use of nonresolving tones, as with the ending chord arpeggios on "A Hard Day's Night". On this and other songs from the period, he used a Rickenbacker 360/12 – an electric guitar with twelve strings, the low eight of which are tuned in pairs, one octave apart, with the higher four being pairs tuned in unison. His use of the Rickenbacker on A Hard Day's Night helped to popularise the model, and the jangly sound became so prominent that Melody Maker termed it the Beatles' "secret weapon". In 1965, Harrison used an expression pedal to control his guitar's volume on "I Need You", creating a syncopated flautando effect with the melody resolving its dissonance through tonal displacements. He used the same volume-swell technique on "Yes It Is", applying what Everett described as "ghostly articulation" to the song's natural harmonics.
In 1966, Harrison contributed innovative musical ideas to Revolver. He played backwards guitar on Lennon's composition "I'm Only Sleeping" and a guitar counter-melody on "And Your Bird Can Sing" that moved in parallel octaves above McCartney's bass downbeats. His guitar playing on "I Want to Tell You" exemplified the pairing of altered chordal colours with descending chromatic lines and his guitar part for Sgt Pepper's "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" mirrors Lennon's vocal line in much the same way that a sarangi player accompanies a khyal singer in a Hindu devotional song.
Everett described Harrison's guitar solo from "Old Brown Shoe" as "stinging [and] highly Claptonesque". He identified two of the composition's significant motifs: a bluesy trichord and a diminished triad with roots in A and E. Huntley called the song "a sizzling rocker with a ferocious ... solo". In Greene's opinion, Harrison's demo for "Old Brown Shoe" contains "one of the most complex lead guitar solos on any Beatles song".
Harrison's playing on Abbey Road, and in particular on "Something", marked a significant moment in his development as a guitarist. The song's guitar solo shows a varied range of influences, incorporating the blues guitar style of Clapton and the styles of Indian gamakas. According to author and musicologist Kenneth Womack: "'Something' meanders toward the most unforgettable of Harrison's guitar solos ... A masterpiece in simplicity, [it] reaches toward the sublime".
After Delaney Bramlett inspired him to learn slide guitar, Harrison began to incorporate it into his solo work, which allowed him to mimic many traditional Indian instruments, including the sarangi and the dilruba. Leng described Harrison's slide guitar solo on Lennon's "How Do You Sleep?" as a departure for "the sweet soloist of 'Something'", calling his playing "rightly famed ... one of Harrison's greatest guitar statements". Lennon commented: "That's the best he's ever fucking played in his life."
A Hawaiian influence is notable in much of Harrison's music, ranging from his slide guitar work on Gone Troppo (1982) to his televised performance of the Cab Calloway standard "Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea" on ukulele in 1992. Lavezzoli described Harrison's slide playing on the Grammy-winning instrumental "Marwa Blues" (2002) as demonstrating Hawaiian influences while comparing the melody to an Indian sarod or veena, calling it "yet another demonstration of Harrison's unique slide approach". Harrison was an admirer of George Formby and a member of the Ukulele Society of Great Britain, and played a ukulele solo in the style of Formby at the end of "Free as a Bird". He performed at a Formby convention in 1991, and served as the honorary president of the George Formby Appreciation Society. Harrison played bass guitar on a few tracks, including the Beatles songs "She Said She Said", "Golden Slumbers", "Birthday" and "Honey Pie". He also played bass on several solo recordings, including "Faster", "Wake Up My Love" and "Bye Bye Love".
=== Sitar and Indian music ===
During the Beatles' American tour in August 1965, Harrison's friend David Crosby of the Byrds introduced him to Indian classical music and the work of sitar maestro Ravi Shankar. Harrison described Shankar as "the first person who ever impressed me in my life ... and he was the only person who didn't try to impress me." Harrison became fascinated with the sitar and immersed himself in Indian music. According to Lavezzoli, Harrison's introduction of the instrument on the Beatles' song "Norwegian Wood" "opened the floodgates for Indian instrumentation in rock music, triggering what Shankar called 'The Great Sitar Explosion' of 1966–67". Lavezzoli recognises Harrison as "the man most responsible for this phenomenon".
In June 1966, Harrison met Shankar at the home of Mrs Angadi of the Asian Music Circle, asked to be his student, and was accepted. Before this meeting, Harrison had recorded his Revolver track "Love You To", contributing a sitar part that Lavezzoli describes as an "astonishing improvement" over "Norwegian Wood" and "the most accomplished performance on sitar by any rock musician". On 6 July, Harrison travelled to India to buy a sitar from Rikhi Ram & Sons in New Delhi. In September, following the Beatles' final tour, he returned to India to study sitar for six weeks with Shankar. He initially stayed in Bombay until fans learned of his arrival, then moved to a houseboat on a remote lake in Kashmir. During this visit, he also received tutelage from Shambhu Das, Shankar's protégé.
Harrison studied the instrument until 1968, when, following a discussion with Shankar about the need to find his "roots", an encounter with Clapton and Jimi Hendrix at a hotel in New York convinced him to return to guitar playing. Harrison commented: "I decided ... I'm not going to be a great sitar player ... because I should have started at least fifteen years earlier." Harrison continued to use Indian instrumentation occasionally on his solo albums and remained strongly associated with the genre. Lavezzoli groups him with Paul Simon and Peter Gabriel as the three rock musicians who have given the most "mainstream exposure to non-Western musics, or the concept of 'world music'".
=== Songwriting ===
Harrison wrote his first song, "Don't Bother Me", while sick in a hotel bed in Bournemouth during August 1963, as "an exercise to see if I could write a song", as he remembered. His songwriting ability improved throughout the Beatles' career, but his material did not earn full respect from Lennon, McCartney and producer George Martin until near the group's break-up. In 1969, McCartney told Lennon: "Until this year, our songs have been better than George's. Now this year his songs are at least as good as ours". Harrison often had difficulty getting the band to record his songs. Most Beatles albums from 1965 onwards contain at least two Harrison compositions; three of his songs appear on Revolver, "the album on which Harrison came of age as a songwriter", according to Inglis.
Harrison wrote the chord progression of "Don't Bother Me" almost exclusively in the Dorian mode, demonstrating an interest in exotic tones that eventually culminated in his embrace of Indian music. The latter proved a strong influence on his songwriting and contributed to his innovation within the Beatles. According to Mikal Gilmore of Rolling Stone, "Harrison's openness to new sounds and textures cleared new paths for his rock and roll compositions. His use of dissonance on ... 'Taxman' and 'I Want to Tell You' was revolutionary in popular music – and perhaps more originally creative than the avant-garde mannerisms that Lennon and McCartney borrowed from the music of Karlheinz Stockhausen, Luciano Berio, Edgard Varèse and Igor Stravinsky ...".
Of the 1967 Harrison song "Within You Without You", author Gerry Farrell said that Harrison had created a "new form", calling the composition "a quintessential fusion of pop and Indian music". Lennon called the song one of Harrison's best: "His mind and his music are clear. There is his innate talent, he brought that sound together." In his next fully Indian-styled song, "The Inner Light", Harrison embraced the Karnatak discipline of Indian music, rather than the Hindustani style he had used in "Love You To" and "Within You Without You". Writing in 1997, Farrell commented: "It is a mark of Harrison's sincere involvement with Indian music that, nearly thirty years on, the Beatles' 'Indian' songs remain the most imaginative and successful examples of this type of fusion – for example, 'Blue Jay Way' and 'The Inner Light'."
Beatles biographer Bob Spitz described "Something" as a masterpiece, and "an intensely stirring romantic ballad that would challenge 'Yesterday' and 'Michelle' as one of the most recognizable songs they ever produced". Inglis considered Abbey Road a turning point in Harrison's development as a songwriter and musician. He described Harrison's two contributions to the LP, "Here Comes the Sun" and "Something", as "exquisite", declaring them equal to any previous Beatles songs.
=== Collaborations ===
From 1968 onwards, Harrison collaborated with other musicians; he brought in Eric Clapton to play lead guitar on "While My Guitar Gently Weeps" for the 1968 Beatles' White Album, and collaborated with John Barham on his 1968 debut solo album, Wonderwall Music, which included contributions from Clapton again, as well as Peter Tork from the Monkees. He played on tracks by Dave Mason, Nicky Hopkins, Alvin Lee, Ronnie Wood, Billy Preston and Tom Scott. Harrison co-wrote songs and music with Dylan, Clapton, Preston, Doris Troy, David Bromberg, Gary Wright, Wood, Jeff Lynne and Tom Petty, among others. Harrison's music projects during the final years of the Beatles included producing Apple Records artists Doris Troy, Jackie Lomax and Billy Preston.
Harrison co-wrote the song "Badge" with Clapton, which was included on Cream's 1969 album, Goodbye. Harrison played rhythm guitar on the track, using the pseudonym "L'Angelo Misterioso" for contractual reasons. In May 1970, he played guitar on several songs during a recording session for Dylan's album New Morning. Between 1971 and 1973, he co-wrote or produced three top ten hits for Starr: "It Don't Come Easy", "Back Off Boogaloo" and "Photograph". Aside from "How Do You Sleep?", his contributions to Lennon's 1971 album Imagine included a slide guitar solo on "Gimme Some Truth" and dobro on "Crippled Inside". Also that year, he produced and played slide guitar on Badfinger's top ten hit "Day After Day", and a dobro on Preston's "I Wrote a Simple Song". He worked with Harry Nilsson on "You're Breakin' My Heart" (1972) and with Cheech & Chong on "Basketball Jones" (1973).
In 1974, Harrison founded Dark Horse Records as an avenue for collaboration with other musicians. He wanted Dark Horse to serve as a creative outlet for artists, as Apple Records had for the Beatles. Eric Idle commented: "He's extremely generous, and he backs and supports all sorts of people that you'll never, ever hear of." The first acts signed to the new label were Ravi Shankar and the duo Splinter. Harrison produced and made multiple musical contributions to Splinter's debut album, The Place I Love, which provided Dark Horse with its first hit, "Costafine Town". He also produced and played guitar and autoharp on Shankar's Shankar Family & Friends, the label's other inaugural release. Other artists signed by Dark Horse include Attitudes, Henry McCullough, Jiva and Stairsteps.
Harrison collaborated with Tom Scott on Scott's 1975 album New York Connection, and in 1981 he played guitar on "Walk a Thin Line", from Mick Fleetwood's The Visitor. His contributions to Starr's solo career continued with "Wrack My Brain", a 1981 US top 40 hit written and produced by Harrison, and guitar overdubs to two tracks on Vertical Man (1998). In 1996, Harrison recorded "Distance Makes No Difference With Love" with Carl Perkins for the latter's album Go Cat Go!, and, in 1990, he played slide guitar on the title track of Dylan's Under the Red Sky album. In 2001, he performed as a guest musician on Jeff Lynne and Electric Light Orchestra's comeback album Zoom, and on the song "Love Letters" for Bill Wyman's Rhythm Kings. He also co-wrote a new song with his son Dhani, "Horse to the Water", which was recorded on 2 October, eight weeks before his death. It appeared on Jools Holland's album Small World, Big Band.
=== Guitars ===
When Harrison joined the Quarrymen in 1958, his main guitar was a Höfner President Acoustic, which he soon traded for a Höfner Club 40 model. His first solid-body electric guitar was a Czech-built Jolana Futurama/Grazioso. The guitars he used on early recordings were mainly Gretsch models, played through a Vox amplifier, including a Gretsch Duo Jet that he bought secondhand in 1961 and posed with on the album cover for Cloud Nine (1987). He also bought a Gretsch Tennessean and a Gretsch Country Gentleman, which he played on "She Loves You", and during the Beatles' 1964 appearance on The Ed Sullivan Show. In 1963, he bought a Rickenbacker 425 Fireglo, and in 1964 he acquired a Rickenbacker 360/12 guitar, which was the second of its kind to be manufactured. Harrison obtained his first Fender Stratocaster in 1965 and first used it during the recording of the Help! album that February; he also used it when recording Rubber Soul later that year, most notably on the song "Nowhere Man".
In early 1966, Harrison and Lennon each purchased Epiphone Casinos, which they used on Revolver. Harrison also used a Gibson J-160E and a Gibson SG Standard while recording the album. He later painted his Stratocaster in a psychedelic design that included the word "Bebopalula" above the pickguard and the guitar's nickname, "Rocky", on the headstock. He can be seen playing the psychedelic Stratocaster on the Our World performance of "All You Need Is Love" and in the Magical Mystery Tour film, both from 1967, and he continued to use it throughout his solo career. In July 1968, Clapton gave him a Gibson Les Paul that had been stripped of its original finish and stained cherry red, which Harrison nicknamed "Lucy". Around this time, he obtained a Gibson Jumbo J-200 acoustic guitar, which he subsequently gave to Dylan to use at the 1969 Isle of Wight Festival. In late 1968, Fender Musical Instruments Corporation gave Harrison a custom-made Fender Telecaster Rosewood prototype, made especially for him by Philip Kubicki. In August 2017, Fender released a "Limited Edition George Harrison Rosewood Telecaster" modelled after a Telecaster that Roger Rossmeisl originally created for Harrison.
== Film production and HandMade films ==
Harrison helped finance Ravi Shankar's documentary Raga and released it through Apple Films in 1971. He also produced, with Apple manager Allen Klein, the Concert for Bangladesh film. In 1973, he produced the feature film Little Malcolm, but the project was lost amid the litigation surrounding the former Beatles ending their business ties with Klein.
In 1973, Peter Sellers introduced Harrison to Denis O'Brien. Soon after, the two went into business together. In 1978, to produce Monty Python's Life of Brian, they formed the film production and distribution company HandMade Films. Their opportunity for investment came after EMI Films withdrew funding at the demand of their chief executive, Bernard Delfont. Harrison financed the production of Life of Brian in part by mortgaging his home, which Idle later called "the most anybody's ever paid for a cinema ticket in history". The film grossed $21 million at the box office in the US. The first film distributed by HandMade Films was The Long Good Friday (1980), and the first they produced was Time Bandits (1981), a co-scripted project by Monty Python's Terry Gilliam and Michael Palin. The film featured a new song by Harrison, "Dream Away", in the closing credits. Time Bandits became one of HandMade's most successful and acclaimed efforts; with a budget of $5 million, it earned $35 million in the US within ten weeks of its release.
Harrison served as executive producer for 23 films with HandMade, including A Private Function (1984), Mona Lisa (1986), Shanghai Surprise (1986), Withnail and I (1987) and How to Get Ahead in Advertising (1989). He made cameo appearances in several of these films, including a role as a nightclub singer in Shanghai Surprise, for which he recorded five new songs. According to Ian Inglis, "[Harrison's] executive role in HandMade Films helped to sustain British cinema at a time of crisis, producing some of the country's most memorable movies of the 1980s." Following a series of box office bombs in the late 1980s, and excessive debt incurred by O'Brien which was guaranteed by Harrison, HandMade's financial situation became precarious. The company ceased operations in 1991 and was sold three years later to Paragon Entertainment, a Canadian corporation. Afterwards, Harrison sued O'Brien for $25 million for fraud and negligence, resulting in an $11.6 million judgement in 1996.
== Humanitarian work ==
Harrison was involved in humanitarian and political activism throughout his life. In the 1960s, the Beatles supported the civil rights movement and protested against the Vietnam War. In early 1971, Ravi Shankar consulted Harrison about how to provide aid to the people of Bangladesh after the 1970 Bhola cyclone and the Bangladesh Liberation War. Harrison hastily wrote and recorded the song "Bangla Desh", which became pop music's first charity single when issued by Apple Records in late July. He also pushed Apple to release Shankar's Joi Bangla EP in an effort to raise further awareness for the cause. Shankar asked for Harrison's advice about planning a small charity event in the US. Harrison responded by organising the Concert for Bangladesh, which raised more than $240,000. Around $13.5 million was generated through the album and film releases, although most of the funds were frozen in an Internal Revenue Service audit for ten years, due to Klein's failure to register the event as a UNICEF benefit beforehand. In June 1972, UNICEF honoured Harrison, Shankar, and Klein, with the "Child Is the Father of Man" award at an annual ceremony in recognition of their fundraising efforts for Bangladesh.
From 1980, Harrison became a vocal supporter of Greenpeace and CND. He also protested against the use of nuclear energy with Friends of the Earth, and helped finance Vole, a green magazine launched by Monty Python member Terry Jones. In 1990, he helped promote his wife Olivia's Romanian Angel Appeal on behalf of the thousands of Romanian orphans left abandoned by the state following the fall of Communism in Eastern Europe. Harrison recorded a benefit single, "Nobody's Child", with the Traveling Wilburys, and assembled a fundraising album with contributions from other artists including Clapton, Starr, Elton John, Stevie Wonder, Donovan and Van Morrison.
The Concert for Bangladesh has been described as an innovative precursor for the large-scale charity rock shows that followed, including Live Aid. The George Harrison Humanitarian Fund for UNICEF, a joint effort between the Harrison family and the US Fund for UNICEF, aims to support programmes that help children caught in humanitarian emergencies. In December 2007, they donated $450,000 to help the victims of Cyclone Sidr in Bangladesh. On 13 October 2009, the first George Harrison Humanitarian Award went to Ravi Shankar for his efforts in saving the lives of children, and his involvement with the Concert for Bangladesh.
== Personal life ==
=== Hinduism ===
By the mid-1960s, Harrison had become an admirer of Indian culture and mysticism, introducing it to the other Beatles. During the filming of Help! in the Bahamas, they met the founder of Sivananda Yoga, Swami Vishnu-devananda, who gave each of them a signed copy of his book, The Complete Illustrated Book of Yoga (1960). Between the end of the last Beatles tour in 1966 and the beginning of the Sgt Pepper recording sessions, he made a pilgrimage to India with his first wife, Pattie Boyd; there, he studied sitar with Ravi Shankar, met several gurus, and visited various holy places. In 1968, he travelled with the other Beatles to Rishikesh in northern India to study meditation with Maharishi Mahesh Yogi.
Harrison's experiences with LSD in the mid-1960s served as a catalyst for his early pursuance of Hinduism. In a 1977 interview, George recalled:
For me, it was like a flash. The first time I had acid, it just opened up something in my head that was inside of me, and I realized a lot of things. I didn't learn them because I already knew them, but that happened to be the key that opened the door to reveal them. From the moment I had that, I wanted to have it all the time – these thoughts about the yogis and the Himalayas, and Ravi's music.
However, Harrison stopped using LSD after a disenchanting experience in San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury neighborhood. He recounted in The Beatles Anthology:
That was the turning point for me – that's when I went right off the whole drug cult and stopped taking the dreaded lysergic acid. I had some in a little bottle – it was liquid. I put it under a microscope, and it looked like bits of old rope. I thought that I couldn't put that into my brain any more.
After being given various religious texts by Shankar in 1966, he remained a lifelong advocate of the teachings of Swami Vivekananda and Paramahansa Yogananda – yogis and authors, respectively, of Raja Yoga (1896) and Autobiography of a Yogi (1946). In mid-1969, he produced the single "Hare Krishna Mantra", performed by members of the London Radha Krishna Temple. Having also helped the Temple devotees become established in Britain, Harrison then met their leader, A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, whom he described as "my friend ... my master" and "a perfect example of everything he preached". Harrison embraced the Hare Krishna tradition, particularly japa-yoga chanting with beads, and became a lifelong devotee. In 1972 he donated his Letchmore Heath mansion north of London to the devotees. It was later converted to a temple and renamed Bhaktivedanta Manor.
Regarding other faiths, he once remarked: "All religions are branches of one big tree. It doesn't matter what you call Him just as long as you call." He commented on his beliefs:
Krishna actually was in a body as a person ... What makes it complicated is, if he's God, what's he doing fighting on a battlefield? It took me ages to try to figure that out, and again it was Yogananda's spiritual interpretation of the Bhagavad Gita that made me realise what it was. Our idea of Krishna and Arjuna on the battlefield in the chariot. So this is the point – that we're in these bodies, which is like a kind of chariot, and we're going through this incarnation, this life, which is kind of a battlefield. The senses of the body ... are the horses pulling the chariot, and we have to get control over the chariot by getting control over the reins. And Arjuna in the end says, "Please Krishna, you drive the chariot" because unless we bring Christ or Krishna or Buddha or whichever of our spiritual guides ... we're going to crash our chariot, and we're going to turn over, and we're going to get killed in the battlefield. That's why we say "Hare Krishna, Hare Krishna", asking Krishna to come and take over the chariot.
Inglis comments that, in contrast to Cliff Richard's conversion to Christianity in 1966: "Harrison's spiritual journey was seen as a serious and important development that reflected popular music's increasing maturity ... what he, and the Beatles, had managed to overturn was the paternalistic assumption that popular musicians had no role other than to stand on stage and sing their hit songs."
==== Vegetarianism ====
In line with the Hindu yoga tradition, Harrison became a vegetarian in the late 1960s. He remained a vegetarian on religious grounds from 1968 until his death, and spent the second half of his life as an advocate for the benefits of vegetarian diet.
=== Family and interests ===
Harrison married model Pattie Boyd on 21 January 1966, with McCartney serving as best man. Harrison and Boyd had met on set in 1964 during the production of the film A Hard Day's Night, in which the 19-year-old Boyd had been cast as a schoolgirl. During a lunch break, George 'playfully' proposed to her. They separated in 1974 and their divorce was finalised in 1977. Boyd said her decision to end the marriage was due largely to George's repeated infidelities. The last infidelity culminated in an affair with Ringo's wife Maureen, which Boyd called "the final straw". She characterised the last year of their marriage as "fuelled by alcohol and cocaine", and she stated: "George used coke excessively, and I think it changed him ... it froze his emotions and hardened his heart." She subsequently moved in with Eric Clapton, and they married in 1979.
On 2 September 1978, Harrison married Olivia Trinidad Arias, who was a marketing executive for A&M Records, and later Dark Horse Records. As Dark Horse was a subsidiary of A&M, the couple had first met over the phone working on record company business, and then in person at the A&M Records offices in Los Angeles in 1974. Together they had one son, Dhani Harrison, born on 1 August 1978.
Harrison restored the English manor house and grounds of Friar Park, his home in Henley-on-Thames, where several of his music videos, including "Crackerbox Palace", were filmed; the grounds also served as the background for the cover of All Things Must Pass. He employed ten workers to maintain the 36-acre (15 ha) garden. Harrison commented on gardening as a form of escapism: "Sometimes I feel like I'm actually on the wrong planet, and it's great when I'm in my garden, but the minute I go out the gate I think: 'What the hell am I doing here?'" His autobiography, I, Me, Mine, is dedicated "to gardeners everywhere". The former Beatles publicist Derek Taylor helped Harrison write the book, which said little about the Beatles, focusing instead on Harrison's hobbies, music and lyrics. Taylor commented: "George is not disowning the Beatles ... but it was a long time ago and actually a short part of his life."
Harrison had an interest in sports cars and motor racing; he was one of the 100 people who purchased the McLaren F1 road car. He had collected photos of racing drivers and their cars since he was young; at 12, he had attended his first race, the 1955 British Grand Prix at Aintree. He wrote "Faster" as a tribute to the Formula One racing drivers Jackie Stewart and Ronnie Peterson. Proceeds from its release went to the Gunnar Nilsson cancer charity, set up after the Swedish driver's death from the disease in 1978. Harrison's first extravagant car, a 1964 Aston Martin DB5, was sold at auction on 7 December 2011 in London. An anonymous Beatles collector paid £350,000 for the vehicle that Harrison had bought new in January 1965.
=== Relationships with the other Beatles ===
For most of the Beatles' career, the relationships in the group were close. According to Hunter Davies, "the Beatles spent their lives not living a communal life, but communally living the same life. They were each other's greatest friends." Harrison's ex-wife Pattie Boyd described how the Beatles "all belonged to each other" and admitted, "George has a lot with the others that I can never know about. Nobody, not even the wives, can break through or even comprehend it." Starr said, "We really looked out for each other and we had so many laughs together. In the old days we'd have the biggest hotel suites, the whole floor of the hotel, and the four of us would end up in the bathroom, just to be with each other." He added, "there were some really loving, caring moments between four people: a hotel room here and there – a really amazing closeness. Just four guys who loved each other. It was pretty sensational."
Lennon stated that his relationship with Harrison was "one of young follower and older guy ... [he] was like a disciple of mine when we started." The two later bonded over their LSD experiences, finding common ground as seekers of spirituality. They took radically different paths thereafter, with, according to biographer Gary Tillery, Harrison finding God and Lennon coming to the conclusion that people are the creators of their own lives. In 1974, Harrison said of his former bandmate: "John Lennon is a saint and he's heavy-duty, and he's great and I love him. But at the same time, he's such a bastard – but that's the great thing about him, you see?"
Harrison and McCartney were the first of the Beatles to meet, having shared a school bus, and often learned and rehearsed new guitar chords together. McCartney said that he and Harrison usually shared a bedroom while touring. McCartney has referred to Harrison as his "baby brother". In a 1974 BBC radio interview with Alan Freeman, Harrison stated: "[McCartney] ruined me as a guitar player". In the same interview, however, Harrison stated that "I just know that whatever we've been through, there's always been something that's tied us together." Perhaps the most significant obstacle to a Beatles reunion after the death of Lennon was Harrison and McCartney's personal relationship, as both men admitted that they often got on each other's nerves. Rodriguez commented: "Even to the end of George's days, theirs was a volatile relationship". When, in a Yahoo online chat in February 2001, he was asked if Paul "[pisses] you off", Harrison replied "Scan not a friend with a microscopic glass – You know his faults – Then let his foibles pass. Old Victorian Proverb. I'm sure there's enough about me that pisses him off, but I think we have now grown old enough to realize that we're both pretty damn cute!"
== Legacy ==
In June 1965, Harrison and the other Beatles were appointed Members of the Order of the British Empire (MBE). They received their insignia from the Queen at an investiture at Buckingham Palace on 26 October. In 1971, the Beatles received an Academy Award for the best Original Song Score for the film Let It Be. The minor planet 4149 Harrison, discovered in 1984, was named after him, as was a variety of Dahlia flower. In December 1992, he became the first recipient of the Billboard Century Award, an honour presented to music artists for significant bodies of work. The award recognised Harrison's "critical role in laying the groundwork for the modern concept of world music" and for his having "advanced society's comprehension of the spiritual and altruistic power of popular music". Rolling Stone magazine ranked him number 11 in their list of the "100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time". He is also in number 65 in the list of "100 greatest songwriters of all time" by the same magazine.
In 2002, on the first anniversary of his death, the Concert for George was held at the Royal Albert Hall. Eric Clapton organised the event, which included performances by many of Harrison's friends and musical collaborators, including McCartney and Starr. Eric Idle, who described Harrison as "one of the few morally good people that rock and roll has produced", was among the performers of Monty Python's "Lumberjack Song". The profits from the concert went to Harrison's charity, the Material World Charitable Foundation.
In 2004, Harrison was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a solo artist by his former bandmates Lynne and Petty, and into the Madison Square Garden Walk of Fame in 2006 for the Concert for Bangladesh. On 14 April 2009, the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce awarded Harrison a star on the Walk of Fame in front of the Capitol Records Building. McCartney, Lynne and Petty were present when the star was unveiled. Harrison's widow Olivia, the actor Tom Hanks and Idle made speeches at the ceremony, and Harrison's son Dhani spoke the Hare Krishna mantra.
A documentary film titled George Harrison: Living in the Material World, directed by Martin Scorsese, was released in October 2011. The film features interviews with Olivia and Dhani Harrison, Klaus Voormann, Terry Gilliam, Starr, Clapton, McCartney, Keltner and Astrid Kirchherr.
Harrison was posthumously honoured with The Recording Academy's Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award at the Grammy Awards in February 2015.
An Illinois State Historical Society marker in Benton, Illinois, commemorates Harrison's visit in the town in 1963 to see his sister, making him the first Beatle to visit the United States. In 2017, a mural installation was unveiled in the town of Harrison painted by artist John Cerney. Statues of Harrison can be found around the world, including several across his native Liverpool and a bust in the Shadhinotar Shagram Triangle Sculpture Garden in Dhaka, Bangladesh, commemorating Harrison's contributions to Bangladeshi culture.
On 24 May 2024 a Historic England blue plaque was unveiled at Harrison's childhood home at 12 Arnold Grove in Wavertree by his wife Olivia.
== Discography ==
=== Studio albums ===
Wonderwall Music (1968)
Electronic Sound (1969)
All Things Must Pass (1970)
Living in the Material World (1973)
Dark Horse (1974)
Extra Texture (Read All About It) (1975)
Thirty Three & 1/3 (1976)
George Harrison (1979)
Somewhere in England (1981)
Gone Troppo (1982)
Cloud Nine (1987)
Brainwashed (2002) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrestling_at_the_1960_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_Greco-Roman_bantamweight | Wrestling at the 1960 Summer Olympics – Men's Greco-Roman bantamweight | The men's Greco-Roman bantamweight competition at the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome took place from 26 to 31 August at the Basilica of Maxentius. Nations were limited to one competitor. Bantamweight was the second-lightest category, including wrestlers weighing 52 to 57 kilograms (114.6 to 125.7 lb).
== Competition format ==
This Greco-Roman wrestling competition continued to use the "bad points" elimination system introduced at the 1928 Summer Olympics for Greco-Roman and at the 1932 Summer Olympics for freestyle wrestling, though adjusted the point values slightly. Wins by fall continued to be worth 0 points and wins by decision continued to be worth 1 point. Losses by fall, however, were now worth 4 points (up from 3). Losses by decision were worth 3 points (consistent with most prior years, though in some losses by split decision had been worth only 2 points). Ties were now allowed, worth 2 points for each wrestler. The elimination threshold was also increased from 5 points to 6 points. The medal round concept, used in 1952 and 1956 requiring a round-robin amongst the medalists even if one or more finished a round with enough points for elimination, was used only if exactly three wrestlers remained after a round—if two competitors remained, they faced off head-to-head; if only one, he was the gold medalist.
== Results ==
=== Round 1 ===
Cañete withdrew after his bout. Schlechter was injured and could not continue.
Bouts
Points
=== Round 2 ===
Bouts
Points
=== Round 3 ===
Bouts
Points
=== Round 4 ===
The Official Report shows Vesterby (correctly) at 5 points after round 3, following 2 wins by decision and a loss by decision. After round 4, however, Vesterby is shown at 4 points even though his win by fall should have kept him at 5. There is no explanation for a wrestler receiving a reduction in bad points.
Bouts
Points
=== Round 5 ===
Vesterby's inexplicably reduced point total put him in a tie with Petrov for the bronze medal at 6 points. This tie was broken on head-to-head results; Petrov had defeated Vesterby in round 3. Vesterby would have finished in 4th place even were it not for the point reduction. Švec and Yılmaz were the ones ultimately affected by it, as they would have finished tied with Vesterby for 4th rather than tied only with each other for 5th.
Bouts
Points
=== Round 6 ===
Bouts
Points |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escape_from_New_York | Escape from New York | Escape from New York is a 1981 American independent science fiction action film co-written, co-scored, and directed by John Carpenter. It stars Kurt Russell, Lee Van Cleef, Ernest Borgnine, Donald Pleasence, Isaac Hayes, Harry Dean Stanton, and Adrienne Barbeau.
The film is set in 1997 and concerns a crime-ridden dystopian United States, which has converted Manhattan Island in New York City into the country's sole maximum security prison. Air Force One is hijacked by anti-government insurgents who deliberately crash it into the walled-off borough. Former Special Forces and current federal prisoner Snake Plissken (Russell) is given just 24 hours to go in and rescue the President of the United States, after which, if successful, he will be pardoned.
Carpenter wrote the film in the mid-1970s in reaction to the Watergate scandal. After the success of Halloween (1978), he had enough influence to begin production and filmed it mainly in St. Louis, Missouri, on an estimated budget of $6 million. Debra Hill and Larry J. Franco served as the producers. The film was co-written by Nick Castle, who played Michael Myers in Halloween.
Released in the United States on July 10, 1981, the film received positive reviews from critics and was a commercial success, grossing more than $50 million at the box office. The film was nominated for four Saturn Awards, including Best Science Fiction Film and Best Direction. The film became a cult classic and was followed by a sequel, Escape from L.A. (1996), which was also directed and written by Carpenter and starred Russell.
== Plot ==
In 1988, amidst war between the United States and an alliance of China and the USSR, Manhattan has been converted into a maximum security prison to address a 400% increase in crime.
In 1997, while flying President John Harker to a peace summit in Hartford, Air Force One is hijacked by a terrorist group. The President is handcuffed with a briefcase and put into an escape pod that drops into Manhattan as the aircraft crashes.
Police, led by Commissioner Bob Hauk, are dispatched to rescue the President. Romero, a subordinate of the Duke of New York, warns Hauk that the President has been captured and will be killed if further rescue attempts are made. Meanwhile, decorated war hero and former Special Forces soldier Snake Plissken is about to be imprisoned in Manhattan after being convicted of robbing a Federal Reserve Depository. Snake accepts a deal from Hauk in which he will be pardoned in exchange for rescuing the President in time for the summit. To ensure his cooperation, Hauk has Snake injected with micro-explosives that will sever his carotid arteries in 23 hours. If Snake is successful, Hauk will neutralize the explosives.
Snake uses a stealth glider to land atop the World Trade Center, then follows the President's tracking device to a vaudeville theater, only to find the tracker on the arm of a vagrant. Inspecting the escape pod, Snake is ambushed by starving underground raiders, and his radio is destroyed. He is rescued by "Cabbie," a fan of Snake's who drives a taxi.
Cabbie takes Snake to Harold "Brain" Hellman, an adviser to the Duke and a former associate of Snake. An engineer, Brain has established a gasoline refinery fueling the city's remaining cars; he tells Snake that the Duke plans to lead a mass escape across the 69th Street Bridge, using the President as a human shield. Snake forces Brain and his girlfriend Maggie to lead him to the Duke's hideout at Grand Central Terminal. Snake finds the President but gets shot in the leg with a crossbow bolt and is overpowered by the Duke's men.
While Snake is forced to fight Duke's champion, Slag, in a match to the death, Brain and Maggie kill Romero and flee with the President. Snake kills Slag and finds the trio trying to escape in the glider. Inmates drop the glider off the roof, forcing the group to street level, where the Duke and his followers confront them. Cabbie arrives and offers to take them across the bridge. He reveals that he bartered with Romero for a cassette tape that contains information about nuclear fusion, intended to be an international peace offering. The President demands the cassette, but Snake refuses to hand it over.
The Duke gives chase, setting off mines as he tries to catch up. Brain guides Snake, but they hit a mine, and Cabbie is killed. As they continue on foot, Brain accidentally stumbles onto another mine. A distraught Maggie sacrifices herself to slow the Duke. Snake and the President reach the containment wall, and guards hoist the President up. The Duke opens fire, killing the guards before Snake subdues him. As the rope is lifting Snake, the Duke attempts to shoot him, but the President takes up a dead guard's rifle and kills the Duke. Snake is hoisted to safety, and Hauk's doctor neutralizes the explosives in his neck.
As the President prepares for a televised speech to the leaders at the summit meeting, he off-handedly thanks Snake for saving him and offers only half-hearted regret for the deaths of Cabbie, Brain and Maggie; Snake walks away in disgust. Hauk offers Snake a job as his deputy, but he keeps walking. The President's speech commences, and he plays the cassette. To his embarrassment, it only plays Cabbie's favorite song, "Bandstand Boogie". As Snake walks away free, he pulls the real cassette from his pocket and destroys it.
== Cast ==
== Production ==
=== Development and writing ===
Carpenter originally wrote the screenplay for Escape from New York in 1976, in the aftermath of Richard Nixon's Watergate scandal. Carpenter said, "The whole feeling of the nation was one of real cynicism about the president." He wrote the screenplay, but no studio wanted to make it because, according to Carpenter, "[i]t was too violent, too scary, [and] too weird". He had been inspired by the film Death Wish, which was very popular at the time. He did not agree with this film's philosophy, but liked how it conveyed "the sense of New York as a kind of jungle, and I wanted to make a science-fiction film along these lines".
International Film Investors agreed to provide 50% of the budget, and Goldcrest Films signed a co-financing deal with them. They ended up providing £720,000 of the budget and making a profit of £672,000 from their investment after earning £1,392,000.
=== Casting ===
AVCO Embassy Pictures, the film's financial backer, preferred Charles Bronson, Tommy Lee Jones or Chuck Norris to play the role of Snake Plissken to Carpenter's choice of Kurt Russell, who was trying to overcome the "lightweight" screen image conveyed by his roles in several Disney comedies. Carpenter refused to cast Bronson on the grounds that he was too old, and because he worried that he could lose directorial control over the film with an experienced actor. At the time, Russell described his character as "a mercenary, and his style of fighting is a combination of Bruce Lee, The Exterminator, and Darth Vader, with Eastwood's vocal-ness." Russell suggested that the character should wear an eyepatch. All that matters to Snake, according to the actor, is "the next 60 seconds. Living for exactly that next minute is all there is." Russell used a rigorous diet and exercise program to develop a lean and muscular build. He also endeavored to stay in character between takes and throughout the shooting, as he welcomed the opportunity to get away from the Disney comedies he had done previously. He did find it necessary to remove the eyepatch between takes, as wearing it constantly seriously affected his depth perception.
=== Pre-production ===
Carpenter had just made Dark Star, but no one wanted to hire him as a director, so he assumed he would make it in Hollywood as a screenwriter. The filmmaker went on to do other films with the intention of making Escape later. After the success of Halloween, Avco-Embassy signed producer Debra Hill and him to a two-picture deal. The first film from this contract was The Fog. Initially, the second film he was going to make to finish the contract was The Philadelphia Experiment, but because of script-writing problems, Carpenter rejected it in favor of this project. However, Carpenter felt something was missing and recalls, "This was basically a straight action film. And at one point, I realized it really doesn't have this kind of crazy humor that people from New York would expect to see." He brought in Nick Castle, a friend from his film-school days at University of Southern California, who played "The Shape" in Halloween. Castle invented the Cabbie character and came up with the film's ending.
The film's setting proved to be a potential problem for Carpenter, who needed to create a decaying, semi-destroyed version of New York City on a shoestring budget. The film's production designer Joe Alves and he rejected shooting on location in New York City because it would be too hard to make it look like a destroyed city. Carpenter suggested shooting on a movie back lot, but Alves nixed that idea "because the texture of a real street is not like a back lot." They sent Barry Bernardi, their location manager (and associate producer), "on a sort of all-expense-paid trip across the country looking for the worst city in America," producer Debra Hill remembers.
Bernardi suggested East St. Louis, Illinois, because it was filled with old buildings "that exist in New York now, and [that] have that seedy run-down quality" that the team was looking for. East St. Louis, sitting across the Mississippi River from the more prosperous St. Louis, Missouri, had entire neighborhoods burned out in 1976 during a massive urban fire. Hill said in an interview, "block after block was burnt-out rubble. In some places, there was absolutely nothing, so that you could see three and four blocks away." Also, Alves found an old bridge to serve as the "69th St. Bridge". The filmmaker purchased the Old Chain of Rocks Bridge for one dollar from the government and then gave it back to them, for the same amount, once production was completed, "so that they wouldn't have any liability," Hill remembers. Locations across the river in St. Louis were used, including Union Station and the Fox Theatre, both of which have since been renovated, as well as the building that would eventually become the Schlafly Tap Room microbrewery.
=== Filming ===
Carpenter and his crew persuaded the city to shut off the electricity to 10 blocks at a time at night. The film was shot from August to November 1980. It was a tough and demanding shoot for the filmmaker as he recalls. "We'd finish shooting at about 6 am and I'd just be going to sleep at 7 when the sun would be coming up. I'd wake up around 5 or 6 pm, depending on whether or not we had dailies, and by the time I got going, the sun would be setting. So for about two and a half months I never saw daylight, which was really strange." The gladiatorial fight to the death scene between Snake and Slag (played by professional wrestler Ox Baker) was filmed in the Grand Hall at St. Louis Union Station. Russell has stated, "That day was a nightmare. All I did was swing a [spiked] bat at that guy and get swung at in return. He threw a trash can in my face about five times ... I could have wound up in pretty bad shape." In addition to shooting on location in St. Louis, Carpenter shot parts of the film in Los Angeles. Various interior scenes were shot on a sound stage; the final scenes were shot at the Sepulveda Dam in Sherman Oaks. New York served as a location, as did Atlanta, to use their futuristic-looking rapid-transit system (the latter scenes were cut from the final film). In New York City, Carpenter persuaded federal officials to grant access to Liberty Island. "We were the first film company in history allowed to shoot on Liberty Island at the Statue of Liberty at night. They let us have the whole island to ourselves. We were lucky. It wasn't easy to get that initial permission. They'd had a bombing three months earlier and were worried about trouble".
Carpenter was interested in creating two distinct looks for the movie. "One is the police state, high tech, lots of neon, a United States dominated by underground computers. That was easy to shoot compared to the Manhattan Island prison sequences, which had few lights, mainly torch lights, like feudal England". Certain matte paintings were rendered by James Cameron, who was at the time a special-effects artist with Roger Corman's New World Pictures. Cameron was also one of the directors of photography on the film. As Snake pilots the glider into the city, three screens on his control panel display wireframe animations of the landing target on the World Trade Center and surrounding buildings. Carpenter initially wanted high-tech computer graphics, which were very expensive, even for such a simple animation. The effects crew filmed the miniature model set of New York City they used for other scenes under black light, with reflective tape placed along every edge of the model buildings. Only the tape is visible and appears to be a three-dimensional wireframe animation.
== Music ==
=== Soundtrack ===
== Release ==
=== Home media ===
==== LaserDisc releases ====
Escape from New York was released on LaserDisc 10 times between 1983 and 1998. A 1994 Collector's Edition includes a commentary track by John Carpenter and Kurt Russell that is still included on more recent DVD releases of the film.
==== DVD releases ====
Escape from New York was released on DVD twice by MGM (USA), and once by Momentum Pictures (UK). One MGM release is a barebones edition containing just the theatrical trailer. Another version is the Collector's Edition, a two-disc set featuring a high definition remastered transfer with a 5.1 stereo audio track, two commentaries (one by John Carpenter and Kurt Russell, another by producer Debra Hill and Joe Alves), a making-of featurette, the first issue of a comic book series titled John Carpenter's Snake Plissken Chronicles, and the 10-minute Colorado bank robbery deleted opening sequence.
MGM's special edition of the 1981 film was not released until 2003 because the original negative had gone missing. The workprint containing deleted scenes finally turned up in a salt-mine film depository in Hutchinson, Kansas. The excised scenes feature Snake Plissken robbing a bank, introducing the character of Plissken and establishing a backstory. Director John Carpenter decided to add the original scenes into the special edition release as an extra only: "After we screened the rough cut, we realized that the movie didn't really start until Snake got to New York. It wasn't necessary to show what sent him there." The film has been released on the UMD format for Sony's PlayStation Portable.
==== Blu-ray release ====
On August 3, 2010, MGM Home Entertainment released Escape From New York as a bare-bones Blu-ray. Scream Factory, in association with Shout! Factory, released the film on a special edition Blu-ray on April 21, 2015.
== Reception ==
=== Box office ===
Escape from New York opened in New York and Los Angeles July 10, 1981. The film grossed $26 million in American theaters in summer 1981. Worldwide it grossed over $50 million.
=== Critical response ===
The film received generally positive reviews. Newsweek magazine wrote of Carpenter: "[He has a] deeply ingrained B-movie sensibility – which is both his strength and limitation. He does clean work, but settles for too little. He uses Russell well, however". In Time magazine, Richard Corliss wrote, "John Carpenter is offering this summer's moviegoers a rare opportunity: to escape from the air-conditioned torpor of ordinary entertainment into the hothouse humidity of their own paranoia. It's a trip worth taking". Vincent Canby, in his review for The New York Times, wrote, "[The film] is not to be analyzed too solemnly, though. It's a toughly told, very tall tale, one of the best escape (and escapist) movies of the season". On the other hand, in his negative review for the Chicago Reader, critic Dave Kehr, wrote "it fails to satisfy – it gives us too little of too much". Roger Ebert of The Chicago Sun-Times gave the film a mixed review, saying it suffered by competing with the superior Raiders of the Lost Ark for summer action films. Russell was trying too hard to shake off his image from Disney films, Ebert thought, and while Plesance was a good actor in other films he was not convincing as the U.S. President. In summary: “Everything is here, and it all works fairly well, but it never quite comes together as an involving story or overpowering adventure.”
Christopher John reviewed Escape from New York in Ares Magazine #10 and commented that "It is solid summer entertainment of unusually high caliber. By not pretending to be more than it is, but by also not settling for any less than it could be, Escape becomes an exciting, fast-moving drama, the likes of which we haven't seen in years."
C. J. Henderson reviewed Escape from New York for Pegasus magazine and stated that "Word got out that the film was bad. The people who wanted sex and violence stopped going, and the people who would have enjoyed the film said, 'Well, if those kinds of people aren't going to see it, it must really be bad,' and stayed home as well."
On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 86% of 72 critics' reviews are positive, with an average rating of 7.3/10. The website's consensus reads: "Featuring an atmospherically grimy futuristic metropolis, Escape from New York is a strange, entertaining jumble of thrilling action and oddball weirdness." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the film a score of 76 out of 100, based on 12 critics, indicating "generally favorable" reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.
=== Legacy ===
Cyberpunk pioneer William Gibson credits the film as an influence on his 1984 science fiction novel Neuromancer. "I was intrigued by the exchange in one of the opening scenes where the Warden says to Snake 'You flew the Gullfire over Leningrad, didn't you?' It turns out to be just a throwaway line, but for a moment it worked like the best SF where a casual reference can imply a lot". Popular video game director Hideo Kojima copied aspects of the film for his Metal Gear series. Solid Snake heavily resembles the character Snake Plissken. In Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty, Snake even uses the alias "Pliskin" to hide his real identity during most of the game. J. J. Abrams, producer of the 2008 film Cloverfield, mentioned that a scene in his film, which shows the head of the Statue of Liberty crashing into a New York street, was inspired by the poster for Escape from New York. Empire magazine ranked Snake Plissken number 29 in their "The 100 Greatest Movie Characters" poll.
== Sequel ==
A sequel, Escape from L.A., was released in 1996, with Carpenter returning along with Russell, now also a producer and co-writer.
A remake for Escape from New York began development in 2007, when New Line Cinema won the rights to remake in a bidding war. Gerard Butler was attached to play Snake Plissken, Neal H. Moritz would produce through his Original Film company, and Ken Nolan would be in charge of the screenplay. Len Wiseman was announced to direct, but was later replaced by Brett Ratner, who also stepped down from the project. In April 2010, Variety reported that Breck Eisner was being looked at to direct a remake of Escape from New York, with David Kajganich and Allan Loeb providing revisions to the script. It was later announced in 2011 that New Line had dropped the remake completely. In January 2015, 20th Century Fox purchased the remake rights, with The Picture Company producing. In March 2017, it was announced that Robert Rodriguez would direct a remake of the film with Carpenter producing it. In February 2019, it was reported that Leigh Whannell would be writing the script after Luther creator Neil Cross completed a recent iteration of the project. Wyatt Russell, son of Kurt, was considered to portray Snake Plissken, but he expressed no interest in playing the role, considering it "career suicide." In November 2022, it was revealed that Radio Silence would be directing the film, with Andrew Rona, Alex Heineman, and Radio Silence producing, and Carpenter serving as an executive producer. They are currently searching for a writer. The next month, the film was confirmed to be a sequel, rather than a remake.
== Other media ==
=== Novelization ===
In 1981, Bantam Books published a movie tie-in novelization written by Mike McQuay that adopts a lean, humorous style reminiscent of the film. The novel includes significant scenes that were cut from the film, such as the Federal Reserve Depository robbery that results in Snake's incarceration. The novel provides background on the relationship between Snake and Hauk—presenting the characters as disillusioned war veterans, and deepening the relationship that was only hinted in the film. The novel also explains how Snake lost his eye during the Battle for Leningrad in World War III, how Hauk became warden of New York, and Hauk's quest to find his crazed son, who lives somewhere in the prison. The novel gives greater detail on the world in which these characters live, at times presenting a future even bleaker than the one depicted in the film. It explains that the West Coast is a no-man's land, and the nation's population is gradually being driven insane by nerve gas as a result of World War III. The novel also clarifies that the president's plan for the cassette tape is not benevolent. Rather than presenting to the world a new energy source in the form of nuclear fusion (as claimed in the film), the tape actually reveals the successful development of a "fallout-free thermonuclear weapon, which would grant the US supremacy in the global conflict.
=== Comic books ===
Marvel Comics released the one-shot The Adventures of Snake Plissken in January 1997. The story takes place sometime between Escape from New York and before his famous Cleveland escape mentioned in Escape from L.A. Snake has robbed Atlanta's Centers for Disease Control of some engineered metaviruses and is looking for buyers in Chicago. Finding himself in a deal that is really a set-up, he makes his getaway and exacts revenge on the buyer for ratting him out to the United States Police Force. In the meantime, a government lab has built a robot called ATACS (Autonomous Tracking And Combat System) that can catch criminals by imprinting their personalities upon its program to predict and anticipate a specific criminal's every move. The robot's first test subject is America's public enemy number one, Snake Plissken. After a brief battle, the tide turns when ATACS copies Snake to the point of fully becoming his personality. Now recognizing the government as the enemy, ATACS sides with Snake. Unamused, Snake sucker punches the machine and destroys it. As ATACS shuts down, it can only ask him, "Why?" Snake just walks off, answering, "I don't need the competition".
In 2003, CrossGen and Hurricane Entertainment published John Carpenter's Snake Plissken Chronicles, a four-part comic book miniseries. The story takes place a day or so after the events of Escape from New York. Snake has been given a military Humvee after his presidential pardon and makes his way to Atlantic City. Although the director's cut of Escape from New York shows Snake was caught after a bank job, this story has Snake finishing up a second heist that was planned before his capture. The job entails stealing the car in which John F. Kennedy was assassinated from a casino before delivering it to a buyer in the Gulf of Mexico. Snake partners with a man named Marrs who ends up double-crossing him. Left for dead in a sinking crab cage, Snake escapes and is saved by a passing fisherman named Captain Ron (an in-joke referring to Kurt Russell's 1992 comedy, Captain Ron). When Ron denies Snake's request to use his boat to beat Marrs to the robbery, Snake decides to kill him. When Snake ends up saving Ron from the Russian mob, who wants money, Ron changes his mind and helps Snake. Once at the casino, Snake comes face-to-face with Marrs and his men, who arrive at the same time, ending in a high-speed shootout. Snake gets away with the car and its actress portraying Jackie Kennedy, leaving Marrs to be caught by the casino owner, who cuts him a deal to bring his car back and live. After some trouble, Snake manages to finally get the car to the buyer's yacht, using Ron's boat, and is then attacked by Marrs. Following the firefight, the yacht and car are destroyed, Marrs and Captain Ron are dead, and Snake makes his escape in a helicopter with the 30 million credits owed to him for the job. The series was written by William O'Neill and penciled by Tone Rodriguez with Jan Utstein as editor.
In 2014, BOOM! Studios began publishing an Escape from New York comic book by writer, Christopher Sebela. The first issue of the series was released on December 3, 2014, and the story picks up moments after the end of the film.
BOOM! released a crossover comics miniseries between Snake and Jack Burton titled Big Trouble in Little China/Escape from New York in October 2016.
=== Board games ===
An Escape from New York board game was released in 1981 by TSR, Inc. Another board game was crowd-funded in 2022.
=== Cancelled anime ===
In 2003, Carpenter was planning an anime spin-off of Escape from New York, with Outlaw Star's Mitsuru Hongo slated to direct.
=== Cancelled video game ===
A video game adaptation was in development in 2004–2005.
== Unauthorized remake ==
A 2015 ruling by the French Tribunal de Paris found that the French film Lockout (2012) had plagiarized both Escape from New York and its sequel Escape from L.A. John Carpenter was awarded €20,000, with co-writer Nick Castle getting €10,000, and €50,000 given to rights holder StudioCanal. Lockout's writer and producer Luc Besson appealed the ruling, which was rejected in July 2016. The claimant's total damages were increased to €450,000. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartlett_Independent_School_District | Bartlett Independent School District | Bartlett Independent School District is a public school district based in Bartlett, Texas. Predominantly located in Bell County, portions of the district extend into Williamson and Milam counties.
== Finances ==
As of the 2010–2011 school year, the appraised valuation of property in the district was $86,161,000. The maintenance tax rate was $0.104 and the bond tax rate was $0.011 per $100 of appraised valuation.
== Academic achievement ==
In 2011, the school district was rated "academically acceptable" by the Texas Education Agency.
== Schools ==
As of 2011–2012, the district had three schools.
=== Regular instructional ===
Bartlett School (Grades PK-12)
=== JJAEP instructional ===
Williamson County JJAEP
Bell County JJAEP
=== Closed schools ===
Bartlett Elementary School.
The elementary school was last given separate accountability ratings in 2007. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Press | Associated Press | The Associated Press (AP) is an American not-for-profit news agency headquartered in New York City.
Founded in 1846, it operates as a cooperative, unincorporated association, and produces news reports that are distributed to its members, major U.S. daily newspapers and radio and television broadcasters. Since the Pulitzer Prize was established in 1917, the AP has earned 59 of them, including 36 for photography. The AP distributes its widely used AP Stylebook, its AP polls tracking NCAA sports, and its election polls and results during U.S. elections. It sponsors the National Football League's annual awards.
By 2016, news collected by the AP was published and republished by more than 1,300 newspapers and broadcasters. The AP operates 235 news bureaus in 94 countries, and publishes in English, Spanish, and Arabic. It also operates the AP Radio Network, which provides twice hourly newscasts and daily sportscasts for broadcast and satellite radio and television stations. Many newspapers and broadcasters outside the United States are AP subscribers, paying a fee to use AP material without being contributing members of the cooperative. As part of their cooperative agreement with the AP, most member news organizations grant automatic permission for the AP to distribute their local news reports. As of 2025, the AP attracts more than 128 million monthly website visits, making it one of the top 10 news websites in the U.S.
== History ==
The Associated Press was formed in May 1846 by five daily newspapers in New York City to share the cost of transmitting news of the Mexican–American War. The venture was organized by Moses Yale Beach (1800–68), second publisher of The Sun, joined by the New York Herald, the New York Courier and Enquirer, The Journal of Commerce, and the New York Evening Express. Some historians believe that the New-York Tribune joined at this time; documents show it was a member in 1849. The New York Times became a member in September 1851.
Initially known as the New York Associated Press (NYAP), the organization faced competition from the Western Associated Press (1862), which criticized its monopolistic news gathering and price setting practices. An investigation completed in 1892 by Victor Lawson, editor and publisher of the Chicago Daily News, revealed that several principals of the NYAP entered into a secret agreement with United Press, a rival organization, to share NYAP news and the profits of reselling it. The findings led to the dissolving of the NYAP. That December, the Western Associated Press was incorporated in Illinois as the Associated Press. A 1900 Illinois Supreme Court decision (Inter Ocean Publishing Co. v. Associated Press) holding that the AP was a public utility and operating in restraint of trade resulted in the AP's move from Chicago to New York City, where corporation laws were more favorable to cooperatives.
Chicago Daily News founder, Melville Stone, served as AP general manager from 1893 to 1921. The AP adopted teletype for its New York service in 1914. The cooperative grew rapidly under the leadership of Kent Cooper, who served from 1925 to 1948 and who built up bureau staff in South America, Europe and (after World War II), the Middle East. Under Kent Cooper, the AP became a more prevalent member of a press agency cartel made up of Reuters and Havas (now Agence France-Presse). He lobbied for the renegotiation of the tripartite contract binding the agencies and their respective news markets at the League of Nations in 1927, attempting to give the AP a more important place in competition with Reuters. The first female AP member, Zell Hart Deming, joined the AP in 1928.
In 1935, the AP launched the Wirephoto network, which allowed transmission of news photographs over leased private telephone lines on the day they were taken. This gave the AP a major advantage over other news media outlets. While the first network was only between New York, Chicago, and San Francisco, eventually the AP had its network across the whole United States.
In 1945, the Supreme Court of the United States held in Associated Press v. United States that the AP had been violating the Sherman Antitrust Act by prohibiting member newspapers from selling or providing news to nonmember organizations as well as making it very difficult for nonmember newspapers to join the AP.
The AP entered the broadcast field in 1941 when it began distributing news to radio stations; it created its own radio network in 1974. In 1994, it established APTV, a global video newsgathering agency. APTV merged with Worldwide Television News in 1998 to form APTN, which provides video to international broadcasters and websites. In 2004, the AP moved its headquarters from its long-time home at 50 Rockefeller Plaza to 450 West 33rd Street in Manhattan. In 2019, AP had more than 240 bureaus globally. Its mission has not changed since its founding, but digital technology has made the distribution of the AP news report an interactive endeavor between the AP and its hundreds of U.S. newspaper members, as well as broadcasters, international subscribers, and online customers.
The AP began diversifying its news gathering capabilities. By 2007, the AP was generating only about 30% of its revenue from United States newspapers, and by 2024, this had declined to 10%. 37% came from the global broadcast customers, 15% from online ventures and 18% came from international newspapers and from photography.
In March 2024, Gannett, the largest U.S. newspaper publisher as measured by total daily circulation, announced that effective March 25, 2024, it would no longer use content from the AP. A spokesperson for AP said that they were "shocked and disappointed" by this development. Newspaper chain McClatchy announced that it would also stop using some AP services. Gannett and McClatchy will both continue to use AP's election results data.
=== Web resources ===
The AP's multi-topic structure has resulted in web portals such as Yahoo! and MSN posting its articles, often relying on the AP as their first source for news coverage of breaking news items. This and the constant updating evolving stories require has had a major impact on the AP's public image and role, giving new credence to the AP's ongoing mission of having staff for covering every area of news fully and promptly. In 2007, Google announced that it was paying to receive AP content, to be displayed in Google News, interrupted from late 2009 to mid-2010 due to a licensing dispute.
A 2017 study by NewsWhip revealed that AP content was more engaged with on Facebook than content from any individual English-language publisher.
=== Nonprofit ===
In June 2024, Axios reported that the AP would be launching a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization with the goal of expanding state and local news, hoping to raise at least $100 million in philanthropic funds to address the "crisis in local news."
=== Timeline ===
1849: The Harbor News Association opened the first news bureau outside the United States in Halifax, Nova Scotia, to meet ships sailing from Europe before they reached dock in New York.
1876: Mark Kellogg, a stringer, was the first AP news correspondent to be killed while reporting the news, at the Battle of the Little Bighorn.
1893: Melville E. Stone became the general manager of the reorganized the AP, a post he held until 1921. Under his leadership, the AP grew to be one of the world's most prominent news agencies.
1899: The AP used Guglielmo Marconi's wireless telegraph to cover the America's Cup yacht race off Sandy Hook, New Jersey, the first news test of the new technology.
1914: The AP introduced the teleprinter, which transmitted directly to printers over telegraph wires. Eventually a worldwide network of 60-word-per-minute teleprinter machines is built.
1935: The AP initiated WirePhoto, the world's first wire service for photographs. The first photograph to transfer over the network depicted an airplane crash in Morehouse, New York, on New Year's Day, 1935.
1938: The AP expanded new offices at 50 Rockefeller Plaza (known as "50 Rock") under an agreement made as part of the construction of Rockefeller Center in New York City. The building would remain its headquarters for 66 years.
1941: The AP expanded from print to radio broadcast news.
1941: Wide World News Photo Service purchased from The New York Times.
1943: The AP sends Ruth Cowan Nash to cover the deployment of the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps to Algeria. Nash is the first American woman war correspondent.
1945: AP war correspondent Joseph Morton was executed along with nine OSS men and four British SOE agents by the Germans at Mauthausen concentration camp. Morton was the only Allied correspondent to be executed by the Axis during World War II. That same year, AP Paris bureau chief Edward Kennedy defied an Allied headquarters news blackout to report Nazi Germany's surrender, touching off a bitter episode that led to his eventual dismissal by the AP. Kennedy maintains that he reported only what German radio already had broadcast.
1951: AP Prague bureau chief William N. Oatis was convicted of espionage by the Communist government of Czechoslovakia. He was released in 1953 after his sentence was reduced by 10 years.
1974: The AP launches the Associated Press Radio Network headquartered in Washington, D.C.
1987: The AP switches to color photography completely after the public suicide of American politician R. Budd Dwyer.
1994: The AP launches APTV, a global video news gathering agency, headquartered in London.
2004: The AP moves its headquarters from 50 Rock to 450 West 33rd Street, New York City.
2006: The AP joins YouTube.
2008: The AP launched AP Mobile (initially known as the AP Mobile News Network), a multimedia news portal that gives users news they can choose and provides anytime access to international, national and local news. The AP was the first to debut a dedicated iPhone application in June 2008 on stage at Apple's WWDC event. The app offered AP's own worldwide coverage of breaking news, sports, entertainment, politics and business as well as content from more than 1,000 AP members and third-party sources.
2010: AP earnings fall 65% from 2008 to just $8.8 million. The AP also announced that it would have posted a loss of $4.4 million had it not liquidated its German-language news service for $13.2 million.
2011: AP revenue dropped $14.7 million in 2010. 2010 revenue totaled $631 million, a decline of 7% from the previous year. The AP rolled out price cuts designed to help newspapers and broadcasters cope with declining revenue.
2012: The AP opens its Pyongyang bureau.
2012: Gary B. Pruitt succeeded Tom Curley to become president and CEO. Pruitt is the 13th leader of the AP in its 166-year history.
2016: The AP reported that income dropped to $1.6 million from $183.6 million in 2015. The 2015 profit figure was bolstered by a one-time, $165 million tax benefit.
2017: The AP moved its headquarters to 200 Liberty Street, New York City.
2018: The AP unveiled AP Votecast to replace exit polls for the 2018 US midterm elections.
== Governance ==
The AP is governed by an elected board of directors. Since 2022, the board's chairperson is Gracia C. Martore, former president and CEO of Tegna, Inc.
== Conditions of reporting ==
AP reports from countries where press freedom is restricted, sometimes under adverse circumstances, and operates out of more than 100 regional offices.
=== United States First Amendment lawsuit ===
In 2025, restrictions preventing AP reporting in the U.S. were imposed by the second Trump administration. In February 2025, two AP reporters were barred from covering several events at the White House, because of the AP refusal to refer to the Gulf of Mexico as the "Gulf of America", as directed by the White House. The restrictions against AP were extended to other reporting opportunities such as in Air Force One. On February 21, 2025, the AP sued the Trump administration in Associated Press v. Budowich for blocking their attendance.
On February 24, 2025, a federal judge declined to issue an immediate order compelling the White House to reinstate access to presidential events to AP, although he encouraged the White House to do so. Following the decision, the White House released a statement asserting that "the ability to pose questions to the President of the United States in the Oval Office and aboard Air Force One constitutes a privilege extended to journalists, rather than a legally enshrined right."
On April 8, 2025, Judge Trevor McFadden ruled that the White House must lift the access restrictions they placed on the AP while the AP v. Budowich lawsuit moves forward. On June 6, 2025, the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit imposed a stay upon the lower court's order, allowing the White House to resume barring access to some media events.
== Election polls ==
The AP is one of two organizations that collect and verify election results in every city and county across the United States, including races for the U.S. president, the Senate and House of Representatives, and governors as well as other statewide offices. Known for accuracy, the organization has collected and published presidential election data since 1848. Major news outlets rely on the polling data and results provided by the Associated Press before declaring a winner in major political races, particularly the presidential election.
In declaring the winners, the AP has historically relied on a robust network of local reporters with first-hand knowledge of assigned territories who also have long-standing relationships with county clerks as well as other local officials. Moreover, the AP monitors and gathers data from county websites and electronic feeds provided by states. The research team further verifies the results by considering demographics, number of absentee ballots, and other political issues that may have an effect on the final results. In 2018, the AP introduced a new system called AP VoteCast, which was developed together with NORC at the University of Chicago in order to further improve the reliability of its data and overcome biases of its legacy exit poll.
== Sports polls ==
The AP conducts polls for numerous college sports in the United States. The AP college football rankings were created in 1936, and began including the top 25 teams in 1989. Since 1969, the final poll of each season has been released after all bowl games have been played. The AP released its all-time Top 25 in 2016. As of 2017, 22 different programs had finished in the number one spot of the poll since its inception. In the pre-bowl game determination era, the AP poll was often used as the distinction for a national champion in football.
The AP college basketball poll has been used as a guide for which teams deserve national attention. The AP first began its poll of college basketball teams in 1949, and has since conducted over 1,100 polls. The college basketball poll started with 20 teams and was reduced to 10 during the 1960–61 college basketball season. It returned to 20 teams in 1968–69 and expanded to 25 beginning in 1989–90. The final poll for each season is released prior to the conclusion of the NCAA tournament, so all data includes regular season games only. In 2017, The AP released a list of the Top 100 teams of all time. The poll counted poll appearances (one point) and No. 1 rankings (two points) to rank each team.
== Sports awards ==
=== Baseball ===
The AP began its Major League Baseball Manager of the Year Award in 1959, for a manager in each league. From 1984 to 2000, the award was given to one manager in all of MLB. The winners were chosen by a national panel of AP baseball writers and radio men. The award was discontinued in 2001.
=== Basketball ===
Every year, the AP releases the names of the winners of its AP College Basketball Player of the Year and AP College Basketball Coach of the Year awards. It also honors a group of All-American players.
=== Football ===
AP NFL Most Valuable Player
AP NFL Offensive Player of the Year
AP NFL Defensive Player of the Year
AP NFL Offensive Rookie of the Year
AP NFL Defensive Rookie of the Year
AP NFL Coach of the Year
AP NFL Comeback Player of the Year
AP College Football Player of the Year
== Associated Press Television News ==
In 1994, London-based Associated Press Television (APTV) was founded to provide agency news material to television broadcasters. In 1998, the AP purchased Worldwide Television News (WTN) from the ABC News division of The Walt Disney Company, Nine Network Australia and ITN London. The AP publishes 70,000 videos and 6,000 hours of live video per year, as of 2016. The agency also provides seven simultaneous live video channels, AP Direct for broadcasters, and six live channels on AP Live Choice for broadcasters and digital publishers. The AP was the first news agency to launch a live video news service in 2003.
== AP Stylebook ==
== Litigation and controversies ==
=== AP collaboration with Nazi Germany ===
The AP collaborated with Nazi Germany and gave it access to its photographic archives for its antisemitic Nazi propaganda. AP also cooperated with the Nazi regime through censorship.
In 2017, the German historian Norman Domeier of the University of Vienna brought to wider attention the deal between the AP and the Nazi government related to the interchange of press photos during the period in which the United States was at war with Nazi Germany. This relationship involved the Bureau Laux, run by the Waffen-SS photographer Helmut Laux.
The mechanism for this interchange involved a courier flying to Lisbon and back each day transporting photos from and for Nazi Germany's wartime enemy, the United States, via diplomatic pouch. The transactions were initially conducted at the AP bureau under Luiz Lupi in Lisbon, and from 1944, when the exchange via Lisbon took too long, also at the AP bureau in Stockholm under Eddie Shanke. Here, as a cover, the Swedish agency, Pressens Bild, was involved as an intermediary. An estimated 40,000 photos were exchanged between the enemies in this way. The AP was kicked out of Nazi Germany when the United States entered World War II in December 1941.
=== Israeli–Palestinian conflict ===
In his book Broken Spring: An American-Israeli Reporter's Close-up View of How Egyptians Lost Their Struggle for Freedom, former AP correspondent, Mark Lavie, who is an American-Israeli Orthodox Jew, claimed that the editorial line of the Cairo bureau was that the conflict was Israel's fault and the Arabs and Palestinians were blameless. Israeli journalist Matti Friedman accused the AP of killing a story he wrote about the "war of words", "between Israel and its critics in human rights organizations", in the aftermath of the Israel/Gaza conflict of 2008–09.
==== Tuvia Grossman photograph ====
On September 29, 2000, the first day of the Second Intifada, the AP published a photograph of a badly-bloodied young man behind whom a police officer could be seen with a baton raised in a menacing fashion; a gas station with Hebrew lettering could also be seen in the background. The AP labelled it with the caption "An Israeli policeman and a Palestinian on the Temple Mount", and the picture and caption were subsequently published in several major American newspapers, including the New York Times. In reality, the injured man in the photograph was a Jewish yeshiva student from Chicago named Tuvia Grossman, and the police officer, a Druze named Gidon Tzefadi, was protecting Grossman from a Palestinian mob who had clubbed, stoned, and stabbed Grossman. There are also no gas stations with Hebrew lettering on the Temple Mount.
The episode is often cited by those who accuse the media of having an anti-Israel bias, and was the impetus for the founding of HonestReporting. After a letter from Grossman's father noted the error, the AP, the New York Times, and other papers published corrections; despite these corrections, the photograph continues to be used by critics of Israel as a symbol of Israeli aggression and violence.
==== Israeli airstrike on AP office building ====
During the 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis, the Israeli army destroyed the al-Jalaa Highrise, a building housing the AP's Gaza offices and Al Jazeera offices. Israel stated that the building housed Hamas military intelligence and had given advanced warning of the strike, and no civilians were harmed. AP CEO Gary Pruitt released a statement on May 16, stating that he "had no indication Hamas was in the building" and called on the Israeli government to provide the evidence. He said that "the world will know less about what is happening in Gaza because of what happened today."
On May 17, US secretary of state Antony Blinken said he had not seen any evidence that Hamas operated from the building housing the AP and Al Jazeera, but it is the job of others to handle intelligence matters. Israel reportedly shared intelligence with American officials and U.S. president Joe Biden showing Hamas offices inside the building.
Reporters Without Borders asked the International Criminal Court to investigate the bombing as a possible war crime.
On June 8, the Israeli ambassador to the US, Gilad Erdan, met with AP CEO Gary Pruitt and vice president for foreign news, Ian Phillips, to discuss the operation. In coordination with the IDF, Erdan said the site was used by Hamas intelligence officials to develop and carry out electronic warfare operations, and that IDF did not suspect the AP was aware of the alleged covert Hamas presence. After the meeting the AP stated "We have yet to receive evidence to support these claims". Erdan later tweeted "Israel is willing to assist AP in rebuilding its offices and operations in Gaza."
==== Removal of Israel-Palestine livestream ====
In May 2024, Israeli officials seized equipment broadcasting a live stream of Northern Gaza from the town of Sderot as part of a ban on Al Jazeera Media in Israel which had received footage from the broadcast. The move was condemned by multiple journalism organizations, Israeli opposition politicians, and US government officials. In a press briefing, the spokesperson for the National Security Council commented on the seizure, saying "The White House and the State Department immediately engaged with the government of Israel at high levels to express our serious concern and ask them to reverse this action." Later that day, Israeli Communication Minister Shlomo Karhi announced via Twitter that the equipment would be returned to the AP and the Israeli Government would review the positioning of the AP broadcast to determine if it posed a security risk.
=== Kidnapping of Tina Susman ===
In 1994, Tina Susman was on her fourth trip to Somalia, reporting for the AP. She was reporting on U.S. peacekeeping troops leaving the country. Somali rebels outnumbered her bodyguards in Mogadishu, dragged her from her car in broad daylight, and held her for 20 days. She told The Quill that she believes being a woman was an advantage in her experience there. The AP had requested news organizations including The New York Times, the Chicago Tribune, and The Washington Post to suppress the story to discourage the emboldening of the kidnappers.
=== Christopher Newton ===
In September 2002, Washington, D.C. bureau reporter Christopher Newton, an AP reporter since 1994, was fired after he was accused of fabricating sources since 2000, including at least 40 people and organizations. Prior to his firing, Newton had been focused on writing about federal law enforcement while based at the Justice Department. Some of the nonexistent agencies quoted in his stories included "Education Alliance", the "Institute for Crime and Punishment in Chicago", "Voice for the Disabled", and "People for Civil Rights".
=== FBI impersonation case ===
In 2007, an FBI agent working in Seattle impersonated an AP journalist and infected the computer of a 15-year-old suspect with malicious surveillance software. The incident sparked a strongly worded statement from the AP demanding that the bureau never impersonate a member of the news media again. In September 2016, the incident resulted in a report by the Justice Department, which the AP said "effectively condone[d] the FBI's impersonation". In December 2017, following a US court appearance, a judge ruled in favor of the AP in a lawsuit against the FBI for fraudulently impersonating a member of the news media in conjunction with the 2007 case.
=== Fair-use controversy ===
In June 2008, the AP sent numerous DMCA take-down demands and threatened legal action against several blogs. The AP contended that the internet blogs were violating the AP's copyright by linking to AP material and using headlines and short summaries in those links. Many bloggers and experts noted that the use of the AP news fell squarely under commonly accepted internet practices and within fair-use standards. Others noted and demonstrated that the AP routinely takes similar excerpts from other sources, often without attribution or licenses. The AP responded that it was defining standards regarding citations of AP news.
=== Shepard Fairey ===
In March 2009, the AP counter-sued artist Shepard Fairey over his famous image of Barack Obama, saying the uncredited, uncompensated use of an AP photo violated copyright laws and signaled a threat to journalism. Fairey had sued the AP the previous month over his artwork, titled "Obama Hope" and "Obama Progress", arguing that he did not violate copyright law because he dramatically changed the image. The artwork, based on an April 2006 picture taken for the AP by Mannie Garcia, was a popular image during the 2008 presidential election and now hangs in the National Portrait Gallery in Washington, D.C. According to the AP's lawsuit filed in federal court in Manhattan, Fairey knowingly "misappropriated The AP's rights in that image". The suit asked the court to award the AP profits made off the image and damages. Fairey said he looked forward to "upholding the free expression rights at stake here" and disproving the AP's accusations. In January 2011, the suit was settled with neither side declaring their position to be wrong but agreeing to share reproduction rights and profits from Fairey's work.
=== All Headline News ===
In January 2008, the AP sued competitor All Headline News (AHN) claiming that AHN allegedly infringed on its copyrights and a contentious "quasi-property" right to facts. The AP complaint asserted that AHN reporters had copied facts from AP news reports without permission and without paying a syndication fee. After AHN moved to dismiss all but the copyright claims set forth by the AP, a majority of the lawsuit was dismissed. The case has been dismissed and both parties settled.
=== Hoax tweet and flash crash ===
On April 23, 2013, hackers posted a tweet to AP's Twitter account about fictional attacks on the White House, falsely claiming that President Obama had been injured. The hoax caused a flash crash on the American stock markets, with the Dow Jones Industrial Average briefly falling by 143 points.
=== Justice Department subpoena of phone records ===
On May 13, 2013, the AP announced that telephone records for 20 of their reporters during a two-month period in 2012 had been subpoenaed by the U.S. Justice Department and described these acts as a "massive and unprecedented intrusion" into news-gathering operations. The AP reported that the Justice Department would not say why it sought the records, but sources stated that the United States Attorney for the District of Columbia's office was conducting a criminal investigation into a May 7, 2012 AP story about a CIA operation that prevented a terrorist plot to detonate an explosive device on a commercial flight. The DOJ did not direct subpoenas to the AP, instead going to their phone providers, including Verizon Wireless. U.S. Attorney General Eric Holder testified under oath in front of the House Judiciary Committee that he recused himself from the leak investigations to avoid any appearance of a conflict of interest. Holder said his Deputy Attorney General, James M. Cole, was in charge of the AP investigation and would have ordered the subpoenas.
=== Migrant boat NFT ===
On January 10, 2022, AP announced it would start selling non-fungible tokens (NFTs) of their photographs in partnership with a company named Xooa, with the proceeds being used to fund their operations. One of the NFTs they promoted on Twitter on 24 February was an aerial shot depicting an overcrowded migrant boat in the Mediterranean Sea by Brazilian photojournalist Felipe Dana. The sale received negative backlash from users and other journalists, with AP being accused of profiting off of human suffering and the picture choice being "dystopian" and "in extremely poor taste". The tweet was subsequently deleted and the NFT, which was to be sold the next day, was pulled from market. Global director of media relations Lauren Easton apologized, saying "This was a poor choice of imagery for an NFT. It has not and will not be put up for auction ... AP's NFT marketplace is a very early pilot program, and we are immediately reviewing our efforts". No further NFTs were announced or sold.
== Awards ==
The AP has earned 59 Pulitzer Prizes, including 36 for photography, since the award was established in 1917. In May 2020, Dar Yasin, Mukhtar Khan, and Channi Anand of the AP were honored with the 2020 Pulitzer Prize for Feature Photography. The choice caused controversy, because it was taken by some as questioning "India's legitimacy over Kashmir" as it had used the word "independence" in regard to revocation of Article 370.
The AP won an Oscar in 2024 for the documentary film 20 Days in Mariupol, a first-person account of the early days of Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2022. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube | YouTube | YouTube is an American online video sharing platform owned by Google. YouTube was founded on February 14, 2005, by Chad Hurley, Jawed Karim, and Steve Chen, who were former employees of PayPal. Headquartered in San Bruno, California, it is the second-most-visited website in the world, after Google itself. In January 2024, YouTube had more than 2.7 billion monthly active users, who collectively consumed more than one billion hours of video content every day. As of May 2019, videos were being uploaded to the platform at a rate of more than 500 hours of content per minute, and as of mid-2024, there were approximately 14.8 billion videos in total.
On November 13, 2006, YouTube was purchased by Google for US$1.65 billion (equivalent to $2.44 billion in 2025). Google expanded YouTube's business model from generating revenue through advertisements alone to offering paid content such as movies and exclusive content explicitly produced for YouTube. It also offers YouTube Premium, a paid subscription option for watching content without ads. YouTube incorporated the Google AdSense program, generating more revenue for both YouTube and approved content creators. In 2023, YouTube's advertising revenue totaled $31.7 billion, a 2% increase from the $31.1 billion reported in 2022. From Q4 2023 to Q3 2024, YouTube's combined revenue from advertising and subscriptions exceeded $50 billion.
Since its purchase by Google, YouTube has expanded beyond the core website, creating mobile apps, network television, games, and the ability to link with other platforms. Video categories on YouTube include music videos, video clips, news, short and feature films, songs, documentaries, movie trailers, teasers, TV spots, live streams, vlogs, and more. Most content is generated by individuals, including collaborations between YouTubers and corporate sponsors. Established media, news, and entertainment corporations have also created and expanded their visibility on YouTube channels to reach bigger audiences.
YouTube has had unprecedented social impact, influencing popular culture, internet trends, and creating multimillionaire celebrities. Despite its growth and success, the platform has been criticized for its facilitation of the spread of misinformation and copyrighted content, routinely violating its users' privacy, excessive censorship, endangering the safety of children and their well-being, and for its inconsistent implementation of platform guidelines.
== History ==
=== Founding and initial growth (2005–2006) ===
YouTube was founded by Chad Hurley, Jawed Karim, and Steve Chen. The three were early employees at PayPal and had become wealthy after eBay's acquisition of the company. Hurley had studied design at the Indiana University of Pennsylvania, and Chen and Karim studied computer science together at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign.
According to a story that has often been repeated in the media, Hurley and Chen developed the idea for YouTube during the early months of 2005, after they had experienced difficulty sharing videos that had been shot at a dinner party at Chen's apartment in San Francisco. Karim did not attend the party and denied that it had occurred, but Chen remarked that the idea that YouTube was founded after a dinner party "was probably very strengthened by marketing ideas around creating a story that was very digestible".
Karim said the inspiration for YouTube came from the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy when Janet Jackson's breast was briefly exposed by Justin Timberlake during the halftime show. Karim could not easily find video clips of the incident and the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami online, which led to the idea of a video-sharing site. Hurley and Chen said that the original idea for YouTube was a video version of an online dating service and had been influenced by the website Hot or Not. They created posts on Craigslist asking attractive women to upload videos of themselves to YouTube in exchange for a $100 reward. Difficulty in finding enough dating videos led to a change of plans, with the site's founders deciding to accept uploads of any video.
YouTube began as a venture capital–funded technology startup. Between November 2005 and April 2006, the company raised money from various investors, with Sequoia Capital and Artis Capital Management being the largest two. YouTube's early headquarters were situated above a pizzeria and a Japanese restaurant in San Mateo, California. In February 2005, the company registered www.youtube.com. The first video was uploaded on April 23, 2005. Titled "Me at the zoo", it shows co-founder Jawed Karim at the San Diego Zoo and can still be viewed on the site. The same day, the company launched a public beta and by November, a Nike ad featuring Ronaldinho became the first video to reach one million total views. The site exited beta in December 2005, by which time the site was receiving 8 million views a day. Clips at the time were limited to 100 megabytes, as little as 30 seconds of footage.
YouTube was not the first video-sharing site on the Internet; Vimeo was founded in November 2004, though that site remained a side project of its developers from CollegeHumor. On December 17, 2005, the same week YouTube exited beta, NBCUniversal Saturday Night Live ran a sketch "Lazy Sunday" by The Lonely Island. Besides helping to bolster ratings and long-term viewership for Saturday Night Live, "Lazy Sunday"'s status as an early viral video helped establish YouTube as an important website. Unofficial uploads of the skit to YouTube drew in more than five million collective views by February 2006 before they were removed when NBCUniversal requested it two months later based on copyright concerns. Despite eventually being taken down, these duplicate uploads of the skit helped popularize YouTube's reach and led to the upload of more third-party content. The site grew rapidly; in July 2006, the company announced that more than 65,000 new videos were being uploaded every day and that the site was receiving 100 million video views per day.
The choice of the name youtube.com led to problems for a similarly named website, utube.com. That site's owner, Universal Tube & Rollform Equipment (Universal Tube), filed a lawsuit against YouTube in November 2006, after being regularly overloaded by people looking for YouTube. Universal Tube subsequently changed its website to www.utubeonline.com.
=== "Broadcast Yourself" era (2006–2013) ===
On October 9, 2006, Google announced that they had acquired YouTube for $1.65 billion in Google stock. The deal was finalized on November 13, 2006. Google's acquisition launched newfound interest in video-sharing sites; IAC, which now owned Vimeo, focused on supporting the content creators to distinguish itself from YouTube. It was at this time that YouTube adopted the slogan "Broadcast Yourself".
The company experienced rapid growth. The Daily Telegraph wrote that in 2007, YouTube consumed as much bandwidth as the entire Internet in 2000. By 2010, the company had reached a market share of around 43% and more than 14 billion views of videos, according to comScore. That year, the company simplified its interface to increase the time users would spend on the site.
In 2011, more than three billion videos were being watched each day with 48 hours of new videos uploaded every minute. Most of these views came from a relatively small number of videos; according to a software engineer at that time, 30% of videos accounted for 99% of views on the site. That year, the company again changed its interface and at the same time, introduced a new logo with a darker shade of red. A subsequent interface change, designed to unify the experience across desktop, TV, and mobile, was rolled out in 2013. By that point, more than 100 hours were being uploaded every minute, increasing to 300 hours by November 2014.
During that time, the company also went through some organizational changes. In October 2006, YouTube moved to a new office in San Bruno, California. Hurley announced that he would be stepping down as chief executive officer of YouTube to take an advisory role and that Salar Kamangar would take over as head of the company in October 2010. In April 2009, YouTube partnered with Vevo. In April 2010, Lady Gaga's "Bad Romance" became the most-viewed video, becoming the first video to reach 200 million views on May 9, 2010.
YouTube faced a major lawsuit by Viacom International in 2011 that nearly resulted in the discontinuation of the website. The lawsuit was filed due to alleged copyright infringement of Viacom's material by YouTube. However, the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit ruled that YouTube was not liable, and thus, YouTube won the case in 2012.
=== Susan Wojcicki's leadership (2014–2023) ===
Susan Wojcicki was appointed CEO of YouTube in February 2014. In January 2016, YouTube expanded its headquarters in San Bruno by purchasing an office park for $215 million. The complex has 51,468 square metres (554,000 square feet) of space and can house up to 2,800 employees. YouTube officially launched the "polymer" redesign of its user interfaces based on Material Design language as its default, as well as a redesigned logo that is built around the service's play button emblem in August 2017.
Through this period, YouTube tried several new ways to generate revenue beyond advertisements. In 2013, YouTube launched a pilot program for content providers to offer premium, subscription-based channels. This effort was discontinued in January 2018 and relaunched in June, with US$4.99 channel subscriptions. These channel subscriptions complemented the existing Super Chat ability, launched in 2017, which allows viewers to donate between $1 and $500 to have their comment highlighted. In 2014, YouTube announced a subscription service known as "Music Key", which bundled ad-free streaming of music content on YouTube with the existing Google Play Music service. The service continued to evolve in 2015 when YouTube announced YouTube Red, a new premium service that would offer ad-free access to all content on the platform (succeeding the Music Key service released the previous year), premium original series, and films produced by YouTube personalities, as well as background playback of content on mobile devices. YouTube also released YouTube Music, a third app oriented towards streaming and discovering the music content hosted on the YouTube platform.
The company also attempted to create products appealing to specific viewers. YouTube released a mobile app known as YouTube Kids in 2015, which was designed to provide an experience optimized for children. It features a simplified user interface, curated selections of channels featuring age-appropriate content, and parental control features. Also in 2015, YouTube launched YouTube Gaming—a video gaming-oriented vertical and app for videos and live streaming, intended to compete with the Amazon.com-owned Twitch. In April 2018, a shooting occurred at YouTube's headquarters in San Bruno, California, which wounded four and resulted in the death of the shooter.
By February 2017, one billion hours of YouTube videos were being watched every day, and 400 hours worth of videos were uploaded every minute. Two years later, the uploads had risen to more than 500 hours per minute. During the COVID-19 pandemic, when most of the world was under stay-at-home orders, usage of services like YouTube significantly increased. Forbes estimated that YouTube accounted for 16% of all internet traffic, as of 2024, up from 11% in 2018, before the pandemic. In response to EU officials requesting that such services reduce bandwidth to make sure medical entities had sufficient bandwidth to share information, YouTube and Netflix said they would reduce streaming quality for at least thirty days as to cut bandwidth use of their services by 25% to comply with the EU's request. YouTube later announced that they would continue with this move worldwide: "We continue to work closely with governments and network operators around the globe to do our part to minimize stress on the system during this unprecedented situation."
After a 2018 complaint alleging violations of the Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA), the company was fined $170 million by the FTC for collecting personal information from minors under the age of 13. YouTube was also ordered to create systems to increase children's privacy. Following criticisms of its implementation of those systems, YouTube started treating all videos designated as "made for kids" as liable under COPPA on January 6, 2020. Joining the YouTube Kids app, the company created a supervised mode, designed more for tweens, in 2021. Additionally, to compete with TikTok and Instagram Reels, YouTube released YouTube Shorts, a short-form video platform. During that period, YouTube entered disputes with other tech companies. For over a year, in 2018–19, no YouTube app was available for Amazon Fire products. In 2020, Roku removed the YouTube TV app from its streaming store after the two companies were unable to reach an agreement.
After testing earlier in 2021, YouTube removed public display of dislike counts on videos in November 2021, claiming the reason for the removal was, based on its internal research, that users often used the dislike feature as a form of cyberbullying and brigading. While some users praised the move as a way to discourage trolls, others felt that hiding dislikes would make it harder for viewers to recognize clickbait or unhelpful videos and that other features already existed for creators to limit bullying. YouTube co-founder Jawed Karim referred to the update as "a stupid idea" and said that the real reason behind the change was "not a good one, and not one that will be publicly disclosed." He felt that users' ability on a social platform to identify harmful content was essential, saying, "The process works, and there's a name for it: the wisdom of the crowds. The process breaks when the platform interferes with it. Then, the platform invariably declines." Shortly after the announcement, software developer Dmitry Selivanov created Return YouTube Dislike, an open-source, third-party browser extension for Chrome and Firefox that allows users to see a video's number of dislikes. In a letter published on January 25, 2022, by then YouTube CEO Susan Wojcicki, acknowledged that removing public dislike counts was a controversial decision, but reiterated that she stands by this decision, claiming that "it reduced dislike attacks."
In 2022, YouTube launched an experiment where the company would show users who watched longer videos on TVs a long chain of short unskippable adverts, intending to consolidate all ads into the beginning of a video. Following public outrage over the unprecedented amount of unskippable ads, YouTube "ended" the experiment on September 19 of the same year. In October, YouTube announced that they would be rolling out customizable user handles in addition to channel names, which would also become channel URLs.
=== Neal Mohan leadership (2023–present) ===
On February 16, 2023, Wojcicki announced that she would step down as CEO, with Neal Mohan named as her successor. Wojcicki took on an advisory role for Google and parent company Alphabet. Wojcicki died a year and a half later from non-small-cell lung cancer, on August 9, 2024. In late October 2023, YouTube began cracking down on the use of ad blockers on the platform. Users of ad blockers may be given a pop-up warning saying "Video player will be blocked after 3 videos". Users of ad blockers are shown a message asking them to allow ads or inviting them to subscribe to the ad-free YouTube Premium subscription plan. YouTube says that the use of ad blockers violates its terms of service. In April 2024, YouTube announced it would be "strengthening our enforcement on third-party apps that violate YouTube's Terms of Service, specifically ad-blocking apps". Starting in June 2024, Google Chrome announced that it would be replacing Manifest V2 in favor of Manifest V3, effectively killing support for most ad-blockers. Around the same time, YouTube started using server-side ad injection, which allows the platform to inject the ads directly into the video, instead of having the ad as a separate file which can be blocked.
In September 2023, YouTube announced an in-app gaming platform called Playables. It was made accessible to all users in May 2024, expanding from an initial offering limited to premium subscribers. In December 2024, YouTube began testing a new multiplayer feature for that service, supporting multiplayer functionality across desktop and mobile devices. As of December 2024 the Playables catalog has over 130 games in various genres, including trivia, action, and sports. In December 2024, YouTube introduced new guidelines prohibiting videos with clickbait titles to enhance content quality and combat misinformation. The platform aims to penalize creators using misleading or sensationalized titles, with potential actions including video removal or channel suspension. According to YouTube, this guideline will gradually roll out in India first, but will expand to more countries in the coming months.
On February 14, 2025, YouTube celebrated 20 years since its founding. On July 30, 2025, amid the implementation of the Online Safety Act 2023 in the United Kingdom, Google announced that it would begin to enforce "age assurance" policies for selected users in the United States as a trial. Machine learning will be used to determine the age of the user (regardless of any account information indicating their age) and restrict access to certain content and features across all Google properties, including YouTube (including, in particular, disabling personalized advertising and enabling certain digital wellbeing limits), if they are assumed to be under 18. On YouTube, this will be based on factors such as searches and video history, and the age of the account. The user must go through age verification via payment, scanned ID, or selfie to access all features if they are detected to be a minor. On April 9, 2025, YouTube expressed support for the NO FAKES Act of 2025, introduced by Senator Chris Coons (D-DE) and Senator Marsha Blackburn (R-TN), and announced an expansion of its pilot program that is designed to identify content generated by AI.
On September 23, 2025, YouTube parent company Alphabet announced that it would reinstate creators who were banned for spreading misinformation about COVID-19 and the 2020 U.S. presidential election. Within the context of the suspension of Jimmy Kimmel and debates about free speech in the United States, Vice President JD Vance defended Kimmel's suspension and instead cited a letter sent by Alphabet legal counsel Daniel F. Donovan to U.S. House Judiciary Committee chairman Jim Jordan, claiming the Biden administration pressured YouTube to remove "non-violative user-generated content" containing misinformation about the COVID-19 pandemic and the 2020 election, and announced that it would reinstate content creators previously banned due to the cited content; however, such claims have not formally been proven, and the U.S. Supreme Court dismissed in 2024 the First Amendment case Murthy v. Missouri (which claimed the Biden administration had pressured social media companies to censor conservative views, government criticism, and COVID-19 misinformation), ruling 6–3 that neither the attorneys general of Missouri and Louisiana nor other respondents had standing to bring the case. The decision of Alphabet to bring back YouTube creators who engaged in misinformation was criticized for prioritizing "free expression" over "facts".
== Senior leadership ==
YouTube has been led by a CEO since its founding in 2005, beginning with Chad Hurley, who led the company until 2010. After Google acquired YouTube, the CEO role was retained. Salar Kamangar took over Hurley's position and kept the job until 2014. He was replaced by Susan Wojcicki, who later resigned in 2023. On February 16, 2023, Neal Mohan was appointed as the new CEO.
== Features ==
YouTube offers different features based on user verification, such as standard or basic features like uploading videos, creating playlists, and using YouTube Music, with limits based on daily activity (verification via phone number or channel history increases feature availability and daily usage limits); intermediate or additional features like longer videos (over 15 minutes), live streaming, custom thumbnails, and creating podcasts; advanced features like content ID appeals, embedding live streams, applying for monetization, clickable links, adding chapters, and pinning comments on videos or posts.
== Videos ==
In January 2012, it was estimated that visitors to YouTube spent an average of 15 minutes a day on the site, in contrast to the four or five hours a day spent by a typical US citizen watching television. In 2017, viewers on average watched YouTube on mobile devices for more than an hour every day. In December 2012, two billion views were removed from the view counts of Universal and Sony music videos on YouTube, prompting a claim by The Daily Dot that the views had been deleted due to a violation of the site's terms of service, which ban the use of automated processes to inflate view counts. That was disputed by Billboard, which said that the two billion views had been moved to Vevo, since the videos were no longer active on YouTube.
On August 5, 2015, YouTube patched the formerly notorious behavior, which caused a video's view count to freeze at "301" (later "301+") until the actual count was verified to prevent view count fraud. YouTube view counts again began updating in real time. Since September 2019, subscriber counts are abbreviated. Only three leading digits of channels' subscriber counts are indicated publicly, compromising the function of third-party real-time indicators such as Social Blade. Exact counts remain available to channel operators inside YouTube Studio.
On November 11, 2021, after testing out this change in March of the same year, YouTube announced it would start hiding dislike counts on videos, making them invisible to viewers. The company stated the decision was in response to experiments which confirmed that smaller YouTube creators were more likely to be targeted in dislike brigading and harassment. Creators will still be able to see the number of likes and dislikes in the YouTube Studio dashboard tool, according to YouTube. YouTube has an estimated 14.8 billion videos with about 4% of those never having a view. Just over 85% have fewer than 1,000 views.
=== Copyright issues ===
YouTube has faced numerous challenges and criticisms in its attempts to deal with copyright, including the site's first viral video, Lazy Sunday, which had to be taken down due to copyright concerns. At the time of uploading a video, YouTube users are shown a message asking them not to violate copyright laws. Despite this advice, many unauthorized clips of copyrighted material remain on YouTube. YouTube does not view videos before they are posted online, and it is left to copyright holders to issue a DMCA takedown notice pursuant to the terms of the Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act. Any successful complaint about copyright infringement results in a YouTube copyright strike. Three successful complaints for copyright infringement against a user account will result in the account and all of its uploaded videos being deleted. From 2007 to 2009 organizations including Viacom, Mediaset, and the English Premier League have filed lawsuits against YouTube, claiming that it has done too little to prevent the uploading of copyrighted material.
In August 2008, a US court ruled in Lenz v. Universal Music Corp. that copyright holders cannot order the removal of an online file without first determining whether the posting reflected fair use of the material. YouTube's owner Google announced in November 2015 that they would help cover the legal cost in select cases where they believe fair use defenses apply. In the 2011 case of Smith v. Summit Entertainment LLC, professional singer Matt Smith sued Summit Entertainment for the wrongful use of copyright takedown notices on YouTube. He asserted seven causes of action, and four were ruled in Smith's favor. In April 2012, a court in Hamburg ruled that YouTube could be held responsible for copyrighted material posted by its users. On November 1, 2016, the dispute with GEMA was resolved, with Google content ID being used to allow advertisements to be added to videos with content protected by GEMA.
In April 2013, it was reported that Universal Music Group and YouTube have a contractual agreement that prevents content blocked on YouTube by a request from UMG from being restored, even if the uploader of the video files a DMCA counter-notice. As part of YouTube Music, Universal and YouTube signed an agreement in 2017, which was followed by separate agreements other major labels, which gave the company the right to advertising revenue when its music was played on YouTube. By 2019, creators were having videos taken down or demonetized when Content ID identified even short segments of copyrighted music within a much longer video, with different levels of enforcement depending on the record label. Experts noted that some of these clips said qualified for fair use.
==== Content ID ====
In June 2007, YouTube began trials of a system for automatic detection of uploaded videos that infringe copyright. Google CEO Eric Schmidt regarded this system as necessary for resolving lawsuits such as the one from Viacom, which alleged that YouTube profited from content that it did not have the right to distribute. The system, which was initially called "Video Identification" and later became known as Content ID, creates an ID File for copyrighted audio and video material, and stores it in a database. When a video is uploaded, it is checked against the database, and flags the video as a copyright violation if a match is found. When this occurs, the content owner has the choice of blocking the video to make it unviewable, tracking the viewing statistics of the video, or adding advertisements to the video.
An independent test in 2009 uploaded multiple versions of the same song to YouTube and concluded that while the system was "surprisingly resilient" in finding copyright violations in the audio tracks of videos, it was not infallible. The use of Content ID to remove material automatically has led to controversy in some cases, as the videos have not been checked by a human for fair use. If a YouTube user disagrees with a decision by Content ID, it is possible to fill in a form disputing the decision. Before 2016, videos were not monetized until the dispute was resolved. Since April 2016, videos continue to be monetized while the dispute is in progress, and the money goes to whoever won the dispute. Should the uploader want to monetize the video again, they may remove the disputed audio in the "Video Manager". YouTube has cited the effectiveness of Content ID as one of the reasons why the site's rules were modified in December 2010 to allow some users to upload videos of unlimited length.
=== Russia ===
In 2021, two accounts linked to RT DE, the German channel of the Russian state-owned RT network, were removed for breaching YouTube's policies relating to COVID-19. Russia threatened to ban YouTube after the platform deleted two German RT channels in September 2021. Shortly after the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, YouTube removed all channels funded by the Russian state. YouTube expanded the removal of Russian content from its site to include channels described as 'pro-Russian'. In June 2022, the War Gonzo channel run by Russian military blogger and journalist Semyon Pegov was deleted.
In July 2023, YouTube removed the channel of British journalist Graham Phillips, active in covering the war in Donbas from 2014. In August 2023, a Moscow court fined Google 3 million rubles, around $35,000, for not deleting what it said was "fake news about the war in Ukraine". In October 2024, a Russian court fined Google 2 undecillion rubles (equivalent to US$20 decillion) for restricting Russian state media channels on YouTube. State news agency TASS reported that Google is allowed to return to the Russian market only if it complies with the court's decision. Kremlin spokesperson Dmitry Peskov labeled the court decision as "symbolic" and warned Google that it "should not be restricting the actions of our broadcasters on its platform."
=== April Fools gags ===
YouTube featured an April Fools prank on the site on April 1 of every year from 2008 to 2016. In 2008, all links to videos on the main page were redirected to Rick Astley's music video "Never Gonna Give You Up", a prank known as "rickrolling". The next year, when clicking on a video on the main page, the whole page turned upside down, which YouTube claimed was a "new layout". In 2010, YouTube temporarily released a "TEXTp" mode which rendered video imagery into ASCII art letters "in order to reduce bandwidth costs by $1 per second."
The next year, the site celebrated its "100th anniversary" with a range of sepia-toned silent, early 1900s-style films, including a parody of Keyboard Cat. In 2012, clicking on the image of a DVD next to the site logo led to a video about a purported option to order every YouTube video for home delivery on DVD. In 2013, YouTube teamed up with satirical newspaper company The Onion to claim in an uploaded video that the video-sharing website was launched as a contest which had finally come to an end, and would shut down for ten years before being re-launched in 2023, featuring only the winning video. The video starred several YouTube celebrities, including Antoine Dodson. A video of two presenters announcing the nominated videos streamed live for 12 hours.
In 2014, YouTube announced that it was responsible for the creation of all viral video trends, and revealed previews of upcoming trends, such as "Clocking", "Kissing Dad", and "Glub Glub Water Dance". The next year, YouTube added a music button to the video bar that played samples from "Sandstorm" by Darude. In 2016, YouTube introduced an option to watch every video on the platform in 360-degree mode with Snoop Dogg.
== Services ==
=== YouTube Premium ===
YouTube Premium (formerly Music Key and YouTube Red) is YouTube's premium subscription service. It offers advertising-free streaming, access to original programming, and background and offline video playback on mobile devices. YouTube Premium was originally announced on November 12, 2014, as "Music Key", a subscription music streaming service, and was intended to integrate with and replace the existing Google Play Music "All Access" service. On October 28, 2015, the service was relaunched as YouTube Red, offering ad-free streaming of all videos and access to exclusive original content. As of November 2016, the service has 1.5 million subscribers, with a further million on a free-trial basis. As of June 2017, the first season of YouTube Originals had received 250 million views in total.
=== YouTube Kids ===
YouTube Kids is an American children's video app developed by YouTube, a subsidiary of Google. The app was developed in response to parental and government scrutiny on the content available to children. The app provides a version of the service oriented towards children, with curated selections of content, parental control features, and filtering of videos deemed inappropriate viewing for children aged under 13, 8 or 5, depending on the age grouping chosen. First released on February 15, 2015, as an Android and iOS mobile app, the app has since been released for LG, Samsung, and Sony smart TVs, as well as for Android TV. On May 27, 2020, it became available on Apple TV. As of September 2019, the app is available in 69 countries, including Hong Kong and Macau, and one province. YouTube launched a web-based version of YouTube Kids on August 30, 2019.
=== YouTube Music ===
On September 28, 2016, YouTube named Lyor Cohen, the co-founder of 300 Entertainment and former Warner Music Group executive, the Global Head of Music. In early 2018, Cohen began hinting at the possible launch of YouTube's new subscription music streaming service, a platform that would compete with other services such as Spotify and Apple Music. On May 22, 2018, the music streaming platform named "YouTube Music" was launched for people who mostly listen to music on YouTube.
=== YouTube Movies & TV ===
YouTube Movies & TV is a video on demand (VOD) service that offers movies and television shows for purchase or rental, depending on availability, along with a selection of movies (encompassing between 100 and 500 titles overall) that are free to stream, with interspersed ad breaks. YouTube began offering free-to-view movie titles to its users in November 2018; selections of new movies are added and others removed, unannounced each month. In March 2021, Google announced plans to gradually deprecate the Google Play Movies & TV app, and eventually migrate all users to the YouTube app's Movies & TV store to view, rent and purchase movies and TV shows (first affecting Roku, Samsung, LG, and Vizio smart TV users on July 15). Google Play Movies & TV formally shut down on January 17, 2024, with the web version of that platform migrated to YouTube as an expansion of the Movies & TV store to desktop users. Other functions of Google Play Movies & TV were integrated into the Google TV service.
==== YouTube Primetime Channels ====
On November 1, 2022, YouTube launched Primetime Channels, a channel store platform offering third-party subscription streaming add-ons sold a la carte through the YouTube website and app, competing with similar subscription add-on stores operated by Apple, Prime Video and Roku. The add-ons can be purchased through the YouTube Movies & TV hub or through the official YouTube channels of the available services; subscribers of YouTube TV add-ons that are sold through Primetime Channels can also access their content via the YouTube app and website. A total of 34 streaming services (including Paramount+, Showtime, Starz, MGM+, AMC+ and ViX+) were initially available for purchase.
NFL Sunday Ticket, as part of a broader residential distribution deal with Google signed in December 2022 that also made it available to YouTube TV subscribers, was added to Primetime Channels as a standalone add-on on August 16, 2023. The ad-free tier of Max was added to Primetime Channels on December 12, 2023, coinciding with YouTube TV converting its separate HBO (for base plan subscribers) and HBO Max (for all subscribers) linear/VOD add-ons into a single combined Max offering.
=== YouTube TV ===
On February 28, 2017, in a press announcement held at YouTube Space Los Angeles, YouTube announced YouTube TV, an over-the-top MVPD-style subscription service that would be available for United States customers for US$65 per month. Initially launching in five major markets (New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Philadelphia and San Francisco) on April 5, 2017, the service offers live streams of programming from the five major broadcast networks (ABC, CBS, The CW, Fox and NBC, along with selected MyNetworkTV affiliates and independent stations in certain markets), as well as approximately 60 cable channels owned by companies such as The Walt Disney Company, Paramount Global, Fox Corporation, NBCUniversal, Allen Media Group and Warner Bros. Discovery (including among others Bravo, USA Network, Syfy, Disney Channel, CNN, Cartoon Network, E!, Fox Sports 1, Freeform, FX and ESPN).
Subscribers can receive premium cable channels (including HBO (via a combined Max add-on that includes in-app and log-in access to the service), Cinemax, Showtime, Starz and MGM+) and other subscription services (such as NFL Sunday Ticket, MLB.tv, NBA League Pass, Curiosity Stream and Fox Nation) as optional add-ons for an extra fee, and can access YouTube Premium original content. In September 2022, YouTube TV began allowing customers to purchase most of its premium add-ons (excluding certain services such as NBA League Pass and AMC+) without an existing subscription to its base package.
=== YouTube Go ===
In September 2016, YouTube Go was announced, as an Android app created for making YouTube easier to access on mobile devices in emerging markets. It was distinct from the company's main Android app and allowed videos to be downloaded and shared with other users. It also allowed users to preview videos, share downloaded videos through Bluetooth, and offered more options for mobile data control and video resolution.
In February 2017, YouTube Go was launched in India, and expanded in November 2017 to 14 other countries, including Nigeria, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Vietnam, the Philippines, Kenya, and South Africa. On February 1, 2018, it was rolled out in 130 countries worldwide, including Brazil, Mexico, Turkey, and Iraq. Before it shut down, the app was available to around 60% of the world's population. In May 2022, Google announced that they would be shutting down YouTube Go in August 2022.
=== YouTube Shorts ===
In September 2020, YouTube announced that it would be launching a beta version of a new platform of 15-second videos, similar to TikTok, called YouTube Shorts. The platform was tested in India and later expanded to other countries, including the United States in March 2021, with videos allowed up to 1 minute long. The platform is not a standalone app, but is integrated into the main YouTube app. Like TikTok, it gives users access to built-in creative tools, including the possibility of adding licensed music to their videos. The platform had its global beta launch on July 13, 2021. On October 15, 2024, the platform officially extended the length of shorts to 3 minutes.
=== YouTube Stories ===
In 2018, YouTube started testing a new feature initially called "YouTube Reels". The feature was nearly identical to Instagram Stories and Snapchat Stories. YouTube later renamed the feature "YouTube Stories". It was only available to creators who had more than 10,000 subscribers and could only be posted/seen in the YouTube mobile app. On May 25, 2023, YouTube announced that they would be shutting down this feature on June 26, 2023.
=== YouTube VR ===
In November 2016, YouTube released YouTube VR, a dedicated version with an interface for VR devices, for Google's Daydream mobile VR platform on Android. In November 2018, YouTube VR was released on the Oculus Store for the Oculus Go headset. YouTube VR was updated since for compatibility with successive Quest devices, and was ported to Pico 4.
YouTube VR allows for access to all YouTube-hosted videos, but particularly supports headset access for 360° and 180°-degree video (both in 2D and stereoscopic 3D). Starting with the Oculus Quest, the app was updated for compatibility with mixed-reality passthrough modes on VR headsets. In April 2024, YouTube VR was updated to support 8K SDR video on Meta Quest 3.
=== Playables ===
In 2010, YouTube added Snake as a hidden game inside their video player. In May 2024, YouTube introduced Playables, a set of around 75 free-to-play games that can be played on the platform.
=== Automatic language dubbing ===
In December 2024, YouTube added the functionality of automatic language dubbing, which uses AI to produce translations of videos into different languages. However, the feature has initially been criticized for providing robotic-sounding dubs, mistranslations, and lack of an option for the user to disable auto-dubbed voices.
== Criticism and controversies ==
=== Privacy concerns ===
=== Censorship and bans ===
==== State censorship of YouTube content ====
YouTube has been censored, filtered, or banned for a variety of reasons, including:
Limiting public access and exposure to content that may ignite social or political unrest.
Preventing criticism of a ruler (e.g. in North Korea), government (e.g. in China) or its actions (e.g. in Morocco), government officials (e.g. in Turkey and Libya), or religion (e.g. in Pakistan).
Morality-based laws, e.g. in Iran.
Access to specific videos is sometimes prevented due to copyright and intellectual property protection laws (e.g. in Germany), violations of hate speech, and preventing access to videos judged inappropriate for youth, which is also done by YouTube with the YouTube Kids app and with "restricted mode". Businesses, schools, government agencies, and other private institutions often block social media sites, including YouTube, due to its bandwidth limitations and the site's potential for distraction.
As of 2018, public access to YouTube is blocked by China, North Korea, Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Eritrea, Sudan and South Sudan mostly due to freedom of speech laws. In some countries, YouTube is blocked for more limited periods of time, such as during periods of unrest, the run-up to an election, or in response to upcoming political anniversaries. In cases where the entire site is banned due to one particular video, YouTube will often agree to remove or limit access to that video to restore service.
Reports emerged that since October 2019, comments posted with Chinese characters insulting the Chinese Communist Party (共匪 "communist bandit" or 五毛 "50 Cent Party", referring to state-sponsored commentators) were being automatically deleted within 15 seconds. Specific incidents where YouTube has been blocked include:
Thailand blocked access in April 2007 over a video said to be insulting the Thai king.
Morocco blocked access in May 2007, possibly as a result of videos critical of Morocco's occupation of Western Sahara. YouTube became accessible again on May 30, 2007, after Maroc Telecom unofficially announced that the denied access to the website was a mere "technical glitch".
Turkey blocked access between 2008 and 2010 after controversy over videos deemed insulting to Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. In November 2010, a video of the Turkish politician Deniz Baykal caused the site to be blocked again briefly, and the site was threatened with a new shutdown if it did not remove the video. During the two and a half-year block of YouTube, the video-sharing website remained the eighth-most-accessed site in Turkey. In 2014, Turkey blocked the access for the second time, after "a high-level intelligence leak".
Pakistan blocked access on February 23, 2008, because of "offensive material" towards the Islamic faith, including display of the Danish cartoons of Muhammad. This led to a near global blackout of the YouTube site for around two hours, as the Pakistani block was inadvertently transferred to other countries. On February 26, 2008, the ban was lifted after the website had removed the objectionable content from its servers at the request of the government. Many Pakistanis circumvented the three-day block by using virtual private network software. In May 2010, following the Everybody Draw Mohammed Day, Pakistan again blocked access to YouTube, citing "growing sacrilegious content". The ban was lifted on May 27, 2010, after the website removed the objectionable content from its servers at the request of the government. However, individual videos deemed offensive to Muslims posted on YouTube will continue to be blocked. Pakistan again placed a ban on YouTube in September 2012, after the site refused to remove the film Innocence of Muslims. The ban was lifted in January 2016 after YouTube launched a Pakistan-specific version.
Libya blocked access on January 24, 2010, because of videos that featured demonstrations in the city of Benghazi by families of detainees who were killed in Abu Salim prison in 1996, and videos of family members of Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi at parties. The blocking was criticized by Human Rights Watch. In November 2011, after the Libyan Civil War, YouTube was once again allowed in Libya.
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Sudan blocked access in September 2012 following controversy over a 14-minute trailer for the film Innocence of Muslims which had been posted on the site. A court in the southern Russian Republic of Chechnya ruled that Innocence of Muslims should be banned. In Libya and Egypt, it was blamed for violent protests. YouTube stated: "This video—which is widely available on the Web—is clearly within our guidelines and so will stay on YouTube. However, given the very difficult situation in Libya and Egypt, we have temporarily restricted access in both countries."
==== Bans by YouTube ====
Following U.S. government foreign policy decisions, YouTube has censored content posted by several organizations:
Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, YouTube announced on March 1 the immediate removal of RT (and other Russian government-funded outlets) from its platform in Europe. The removal was soon expanded globally. From late 2024, users across Russia started experiencing sharp declines in YouTube loading speeds.
YouTube removed the videos and deleted the accounts of three Human Rights Organizations that document the human toll of the Gaza War. In early October 2025, complying with Trump Administration sanctions against three of the leading Palestinian human rights groups, Al-Haq based in the West Bank, the Al Mezan Center for Human Rights based in Gaza, and the Palestinian Centre for Human Rights also based in Gaza, YouTube removed 700 videos and the accounts of these organizations. The videos included an investigation uncovering Israel's role in the killing of a Palestinian American journalist Shireen Abu Akleh, a video documenting Israel's destruction of Palestinian homes in the West Bank, a video of mothers in Gaza who survived Israel's attacks, and testimonies of Palestinian detainees tortured in Israel. The Trump Administration has also sanctioned the International Criminal Court (ICC), which has indicted senior Israeli officials for war crimes in Gaza, ICC court officials, and anyone accused of aiding their efforts. Earlier in 2025, YouTube shuttered the account and removed the videos of the Addameer Prisoner Support and Human Rights Association, a Palestinian Non-Government Organization (NGO) that monitors the treatment of Palestinian detainees arrested in the West Bank.
== Social impact ==
Private individuals, as well as large production corporations, have used YouTube to grow their audiences. Indie creators have built grassroots followings numbering in the thousands at very little cost or effort, while mass retail and radio promotion proved problematic. Concurrently, old media celebrities moved into the website at the invitation of a YouTube management that witnessed early content creators accruing substantial followings and perceived audience sizes potentially larger than that attainable by television. While YouTube's revenue-sharing "Partner Program" made it possible to earn a substantial living as a video producer—its top five hundred partners each earning more than $100,000 annually and its ten highest-earning channels grossing from $2.5 million to $12 million—in 2012 CMU business editor characterized YouTube as "a free-to-use ... promotional platform for the music labels." In 2013, Katheryn Thayer of Forbes asserted that digital-era artists' work must not only be of high quality, but must elicit reactions on the YouTube platform and social media. Videos of the 2.5% of artists categorized as "mega", "mainstream" and "mid-sized" received 90.3% of the relevant views on YouTube and Vevo in that year. By early 2013, Billboard had announced that it was factoring YouTube streaming data into calculation of the Billboard Hot 100 and related genre charts.
Observing that face-to-face communication of the type that online videos convey has been "fine-tuned by millions of years of evolution", TED curator Chris Anderson referred to several YouTube contributors and asserted that "what Gutenberg did for writing, online video can now do for face-to-face communication." Anderson asserted that it is not far-fetched to say that online video will dramatically accelerate scientific advance, and that video contributors may be about to launch "the biggest learning cycle in human history." In education, for example, the Khan Academy grew from YouTube video tutoring sessions for founder Salman Khan's cousin into what Forbes' Michael Noer called "the largest school in the world", with technology poised to disrupt how people learn. YouTube was awarded a 2008 George Foster Peabody Award, the website being described as a Speakers' Corner that "both embodies and promotes democracy". The Washington Post reported that a disproportionate share of YouTube's most-subscribed channels feature minorities, contrasting with mainstream television in which the stars are largely white. A Pew Research Center study reported the development of "visual journalism", in which citizen eyewitnesses and established news organizations share in content creation. The study also concluded that YouTube was becoming an important platform by which people acquire news.
YouTube has enabled people to more directly engage with government, such as in the CNN/YouTube presidential debates (2007) in which ordinary people submitted questions to U.S. presidential candidates via YouTube video, with a techPresident co-founder saying that Internet video was changing the political landscape. Describing the Arab Spring (2010–2012), sociologist Philip N. Howard quoted an activist's succinct description that organizing the political unrest involved using "Facebook to schedule the protests, Twitter to coordinate, and YouTube to tell the world." In 2012, more than a third of the U.S. Senate introduced a resolution condemning Joseph Kony 16 days after the "Kony 2012" video was posted to YouTube, with resolution co-sponsor Senator Lindsey Graham remarking that the video "will do more to lead to (Kony's) demise than all other action combined."
Conversely, YouTube has also allowed government to more easily engage with citizens, the White House's official YouTube channel being the seventh top news organization producer on YouTube in 2012 and in 2013 a healthcare exchange commissioned Obama impersonator Iman Crosson's YouTube music video spoof to encourage young Americans to enroll in the Affordable Care Act (Obamacare)-compliant health insurance. In February 2014, U.S. President Obama held a meeting at the White House with leading YouTube content creators not only to promote awareness of Obamacare but more generally to develop ways for government to better connect with the "YouTube Generation". Whereas YouTube's inherent ability to allow presidents to directly connect with average citizens was noted, the YouTube content creators' new media savvy was perceived necessary to better cope with the website's distracting content and fickle audience.
Some YouTube videos have themselves had a direct effect on world events, such as Innocence of Muslims (2012) which spurred protests and related anti-American violence internationally. TED curator Chris Anderson described a phenomenon by which geographically distributed individuals in a certain field share their independently developed skills in YouTube videos, thus challenging others to improve their own skills, and spurring invention and evolution in that field. Journalist Virginia Heffernan stated in The New York Times that such videos have "surprising implications" for the dissemination of culture and even the future of classical music.
A 2017 article in The New York Times Magazine posited that YouTube had become "the new talk radio" for the far right. Almost a year before YouTube's January 2019 announcement that it would begin a "gradual change" of "reducing recommendations of borderline content and content that could misinform users in harmful ways", Zeynep Tufekci had written in The New York Times that, "(g)iven its billion or so users, YouTube may be one of the most powerful radicalizing instruments of the 21st century". Under YouTube's changes to its recommendation engine, the most-recommended channel evolved from conspiracy theorist Alex Jones (2016) to Fox News (2019). According to a 2020 study, viewership of far-right videos on YouTube peaked in 2017 and "a growing body of journalistic evidence" suggested that YouTube was radicalizing young men through its recommendation engine, but that such evidence was "fraught with a bias towards sensationalism". It also found more "mainstream-adjacent Conservative creators" gaining over alt-right and extremist videos by 2020. A 2022 study found that "despite widespread concerns that YouTube's algorithms send people down 'rabbit holes' with recommendations to extremist videos, little systematic evidence exists to support this conjecture", and that such exposure was "heavily concentrated among a small group of people with high prior levels of gender and racial resentment." A 2024 study by the Institute for Strategic Dialogue found that YouTube frequently recommended Christian videos and right-leaning and culturally conservative "culture war" videos by Fox News and male lifestyle influencers to accounts that did not show an interest in such topics.
The Legion of Extraordinary Dancers and the YouTube Symphony Orchestra selected their membership based on individual video performances. Further, the cyber-collaboration charity video "We Are the World 25 for Haiti (YouTube edition)" was formed by mixing performances of 57 globally distributed singers into a single musical work, with The Tokyo Times noting the "We Pray for You" YouTube cyber-collaboration video as an example of a trend to use crowdsourcing for charitable purposes.
The anti-bullying It Gets Better Project expanded from a single YouTube video directed to discouraged or suicidal LGBT teens, that within two months drew video responses from hundreds including U.S. President Barack Obama, Vice President Biden, White House staff, and several cabinet secretaries. Similarly, in response to fifteen-year-old Amanda Todd's video "My story: Struggling, bullying, suicide, self-harm", legislative action was undertaken almost immediately after her suicide to study the prevalence of bullying and form a national anti-bullying strategy. In May 2018, after London Metropolitan Police claimed that drill music videos glamorizing violence gave rise to gang violence, YouTube deleted 30 videos.
== Finances ==
Prior to 2020, Google did not provide detailed figures for YouTube's running costs, and YouTube's revenues in 2007 were noted as "not material" in a regulatory filing. In June 2008, a Forbes magazine article projected the 2008 revenue at $200 million, noting progress in advertising sales. In 2012, YouTube's revenue from its ads program was estimated at $3.7 billion. In 2013, it nearly doubled and estimated to hit $5.6 billion according to e-Marketer, while others estimated $4.7 billion. The vast majority of videos on YouTube are free to view and supported by advertising. In May 2013, YouTube introduced a trial scheme of 53 subscription channels with prices ranging from $0.99 to $6.99 a month. The move was seen as an attempt to compete with other providers of online subscription services such as Netflix, Amazon Prime, and Hulu.
Google first published exact revenue numbers for YouTube in February 2020 as part of Alphabet's 2019 financial report. According to Google, YouTube had made US$15.1 billion in ad revenue in 2019, in contrast to US$8.1 billion in 2017 and US$11.1 billion in 2018. YouTube's revenues made up nearly 10% of the total Alphabet revenue in 2019. These revenues accounted for approximately 20 million subscribers combined between YouTube Premium and YouTube Music subscriptions, and 2 million subscribers to YouTube TV. YouTube had $29.2 billion ads revenue in 2022, up by $398 million from the prior year. In Q2 2024, ad revenue rose to $8.66 billion, up 13% on Q1.
=== Partnership with corporations ===
YouTube entered into a marketing and advertising partnership with NBC in June 2006. In March 2007, it struck a deal with the BBC for three channels with BBC content, one for news and two for entertainment. In November 2008, YouTube reached an agreement with MGM, Lions Gate Entertainment, and CBS, allowing the companies to post full-length films and television episodes on the site, accompanied by advertisements in a section for U.S. viewers called "Shows". The move was intended to create competition with websites such as Hulu, which features material from NBC, Fox, and Disney. In November 2009, YouTube launched a version of "Shows" available to UK viewers, offering around 4,000 full-length shows from more than 60 partners. In January 2010, YouTube introduced a film rentals service, available in many countries, and TV shows can be bought in several countries. The service offers over 6,000 films.
==== 2017 advertiser boycott ====
In March 2017, the government of the United Kingdom pulled its advertising campaigns from YouTube, after reports that its ads had appeared on videos containing extremist content. The government demanded assurances that its advertising would "be delivered safely and appropriately". The Guardian newspaper, as well as other major British and U.S. brands, similarly suspended their advertising on YouTube in response to their advertising appearing near offensive content. Google stated that it had "begun an extensive review of our advertising policies and have made a public commitment to put in place changes that give brands more control over where their ads appear".
In early April 2017, the YouTube channel h3h3Productions presented evidence claiming that a Wall Street Journal article had fabricated screenshots showing major brand advertising on an offensive video containing Johnny Rebel music overlaid on a Chief Keef music video, citing that the video itself had not earned any ad revenue for the uploader. The video was retracted after it was found that the ads had been triggered by the use of copyrighted content in the video. On April 6, 2017, YouTube announced that to "ensure revenue only flows to creators who are playing by the rules", it would change its practices to require that a channel undergo a policy compliance review, and have at least 10,000-lifetime views, before they may join the YouTube Partner Program.
=== YouTuber earnings ===
In May 2007, YouTube launched its Partner Program (YPP), a system based on AdSense which allows the uploader of the video to share the revenue produced by advertising on the site. YouTube typically takes 45 percent of the advertising revenue from videos in the Partner Program, with 55 percent going to the uploader. There are over two million members of the YouTube Partner Program. According to TubeMogul, in 2013 a pre-roll advertisement on YouTube (one that is shown before the video starts) cost advertisers on average $7.60 per 1000 views. Usually, no more than half of the eligible videos have a pre-roll advertisement, due to a lack of interested advertisers.
YouTube's policies restrict certain forms of content from being included in videos being monetized with advertising, including videos containing violence, strong language, sexual content, "controversial or sensitive subjects and events, including subjects related to war, political conflicts, natural disasters and tragedies, even if graphic imagery is not shown" (unless the content is "usually newsworthy or comedic and the creator intends to inform or entertain"), and videos whose user comments contain "inappropriate" content.
In 2013, YouTube introduced an option for channels with at least a thousand subscribers to require a paid subscription for viewers to watch videos. In April 2017, YouTube set an eligibility requirement of 10,000 lifetime views for a paid subscription. On January 16, 2018, the eligibility requirement for monetization was changed to 4,000 hours of watch-time within the past 12 months and 1,000 subscribers. The move was seen as an attempt to ensure that videos being monetized did not lead to controversy, but was criticized for penalizing smaller YouTube channels. YouTube Play Buttons, a part of the YouTube Creator Rewards, are a recognition by YouTube of its most popular channels. The trophies are made of nickel-plated copper-nickel alloy, golden-plated brass, silver-plated metal, ruby, and red-tinted crystal glass. They are given to channels with at least one hundred thousand, a million, ten million, fifty million, and one hundred million subscribers, respectively.
YouTube's policies on "advertiser-friendly content" restrict what may be incorporated into videos being monetized; this includes strong violence, language, sexual content, and "controversial or sensitive subjects and events, including subjects related to war, political conflicts, natural disasters and tragedies, even if graphic imagery is not shown", unless the content is "usually newsworthy or comedic and the creator's intent is to inform or entertain". In September 2016, after introducing an enhanced notification system to inform users of these violations, YouTube's policies were criticized by prominent users, including Philip DeFranco and Vlogbrothers. DeFranco argued that not being able to earn advertising revenue on such videos was "censorship by a different name". A YouTube spokesperson stated that while the policy itself was not new, the service had "improved the notification and appeal process to ensure better communication to our creators". Boing Boing reported in 2019 that LGBT keywords resulted in demonetization. In the United States as of November 2020, and June 2021 worldwide, YouTube reserves the right to monetize any video on the platform, even if their uploader is not a member of the YouTube Partner Program. This will occur on channels whose content is deemed "advertiser-friendly", and all revenue will go directly to Google without any share given to the uploader.
=== Revenue to copyright holders ===
The majority of YouTube's advertising revenue goes to the publishers and video producers who hold the rights to their videos; the company retains 45% of the ad revenue. In 2010, it was reported that nearly a third of the videos with advertisements were uploaded without permission from the copyright holders. YouTube gives an option for copyright holders to locate and remove their videos or to have them continue running for revenue. In May 2013, Nintendo began enforcing its copyright ownership and claiming the advertising revenue from video creators who posted screenshots of its games. In February 2015, Nintendo agreed to share the revenue with the video creators through the Nintendo Creators Program. On March 20, 2019, Nintendo announced on Twitter that the company will end the Creators program. Operations for the program ceased on March 20, 2019. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southampton_F.C. | Southampton F.C. | Southampton Football Club is a professional football club based in Southampton, Hampshire, England. The club competes in the Championship, the second tier of English football. Their home ground since 2001 has been St Mary's Stadium, before which it was based at The Dell. The team play in red and white shirts. Their nickname is "The Saints" because of the club's beginnings as a church football team at St Mary's Church. Southampton shares a long-standing South Coast derby rivalry with Portsmouth, in part due to geographic proximity and both cities' respective maritime histories.
Founded in 1885, the club joined the Southern League as Southampton St. Mary's in 1894, dropping the St. Mary's from their name three years later. Southampton won the Southern League on six occasions and were beaten FA Cup finalists in 1900 and 1902, before being invited to become founder members of the Football League Third Division in 1920. They won promotion as Third Division South champions in 1921–22, remaining in the Second Division for 31 years until they were relegated in 1953. Crowned Third Division champions under the stewardship of Ted Bates in 1959–60, they were promoted into the First Division at the end of the 1965–66 campaign. They played top-flight football for eight seasons, but won the FA Cup as a Second Division team in 1976 with a 1–0 victory over Manchester United. Manager Lawrie McMenemy then took the club back into the top-flight with promotion in 1977–78.
Southampton were beaten finalists in the League Cup in 1979 and finished as runners-up in the First Division in 1983–84, three points behind Liverpool. The club were founder members of the Premier League in 1992 and reached another FA Cup final in 2003. Relegation ended their 27-year stay in the top-flight in 2005, and they were relegated down to the third tier in 2009. Southampton won the Football League Trophy in 2010 and won successive promotion from League One and the EFL Championship in 2010–11 and 2011–12. After an 11-year stint in the top flight, during which they were EFL Cup runners-up in 2017, they were relegated in 2023. The club won the 2024 Championship play-off final and returned to the Premier League at the first attempt, but were relegated back to the Championship in April 2025 with seven games remaining.
== History ==
=== Foundation and Southern League (1885–1920) ===
Southampton were originally founded at St. Mary's Church, on 21 November 1885 by members of the St. Mary's Church of England Young Men's Association.
St. Mary's Y.M.A., as they were usually referred to in the local press, played most of their early games on The Common where games were frequently interrupted by pedestrians insistent on exercising their right to roam. More important matches, such as cup games, were played either at the County Cricket Ground in Northlands Road or the Antelope Cricket Ground in St Mary's Road.
The club was originally known as St. Mary's Young Men's Association F.C. (usually abbreviated to "St. Mary's Y.M.A.") and then became simply St. Mary's F.C. in 1887–88, before adopting the name Southampton St. Mary's when the club joined the Southern League in 1894.
For the start of their League career, Saints signed several new players on professional contracts, including Charles Baker, Alf Littlehales and Lachie Thomson from Stoke and Fred Hollands from Millwall. After winning the Southern League title in 1896–97, the club became a limited company and was renamed Southampton F.C.
Southampton won the Southern League championship for three years running between 1897 and 1899 and again in 1901, 1903 and 1904. During this time, they moved to a newly built £10,000 stadium called The Dell, to the northwest of the city centre in 1898. Although they would spend the next 103 years there, the future was far from certain in those early days and the club had to rent the premises first before they could afford to buy the stadium in the early part of the 20th century. The club reached the first of their four FA Cup Finals in 1900. On that day, they went down 4–0 to Bury and two years later they would suffer a similar fate at the hands of Sheffield United as they were beaten 2–1 in a replay of the 1902 final. Reaching those finals gave Southampton recognition, even internationally: in 1909, an Athletic Bilbao representative who played for affiliated team Atlético Madrid purchased 50 Saints shirts during a trip to England, which were shared between the two squads. This early Southampton connection is the reason why the colours of both Spanish clubs became red and white, as they are nowadays.
=== Joining the Football League (1920–1966) ===
After World War I, Southampton joined the newly formed Football League Third Division, which split into South and North sections a year later. Southampton finished as runner-up in that season. The 1921–22 season ended in triumph with promotion and marked the beginning of a 31-year stay in the Second Division.
The 1922–23 season was a unique "Even Season" – 14 wins, 14 draws and 14 defeats for 42 points, or one point per game. Goals for and against statistics were also equal and the team finished in mid-table.
In 1925 and 1927, they reached the semi-finals of the FA Cup, losing 2–0 and 2–1 to Sheffield United and Arsenal respectively.
Southampton were briefly forced to switch home matches to the ground of their local rivals Portsmouth at Fratton Park during World War II when a bomb landed on The Dell pitch in November 1940, leaving an 18-foot crater which damaged an underground culvert and flooded the pitch.
Promotion was narrowly missed in 1947–48 when they finished in third place, a feat repeated the following season (despite having an eight-point lead with eight games to play) whilst in 1949–50 they narrowly missed out on promotion to second placed Sheffield Wednesday. In the 1948–49 and 1949–50 seasons, Charlie Wayman scored 56 goals, but relegation in 1953 sent Southampton sliding back into Division 3 (South).
It took until 1960 for Southampton to regain Second Division status with Derek Reeves plundering 39 of the champions' 106 league goals. On 27 April 1963, a crowd of 68,000 at Villa Park saw them lose 1–0 to Manchester United in the FA Cup semi-final.
=== Reaching the First Division and cup win (1966–1977) ===
In 1966, Ted Bates' team were promoted to the First Division as runners-up, with Martin Chivers scoring 30 of Saints' 85 league goals.
For the following campaign Ron Davies arrived to score 43 goals in his first season. Saints stayed among the elite for eight years, with the highest finishing position being seventh place in 1968–69 and again in 1970–71. These finishes were high enough for them to qualify for the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup in 1969–70 (going out in Round 3 to Newcastle United) and its successor, the UEFA Cup in 1971–72, when they went out in the first round to Athletic Bilbao.
In December 1973, Bates stood down to be replaced by his assistant Lawrie McMenemy. The Saints were one of the first victims of the new three-down relegation system in 1974.
Under McMenemy's management, Saints started to rebuild in the Second Division, capturing players such as Peter Osgood, Jim McCalliog, Jim Steele and Peter Rodrigues (captain) and in 1976, Southampton reached the FA Cup final, playing Manchester United at Wembley, and beat much-fancied United 1–0 with a goal from Bobby Stokes. The following season, they played in Europe again in the Cup Winners' Cup, reaching Round 3 where they lost 2–3 on aggregate to Anderlecht.
=== Return to First Division (1977–1992) ===
In 1977–78, captained by Alan Ball, Saints finished runners-up in the Second Division (behind Bolton Wanderers) and returned to the First Division. They finished comfortably in 14th place in their first season back in the top flight. The following season they returned to Wembley in the final of the League Cup where they acquitted themselves well, losing 3–2 to Nottingham Forest.
In 1980, McMenemy made his biggest signing, capturing the European Footballer of the Year Kevin Keegan. Although Keegan's Southampton career only lasted two years, Saints fielded an attractive side also containing Alan Ball, prolific goal-scorer Ted MacDougall, (who still holds the record for the largest number of goals in an FA Cup game – nine – for Bournemouth against Margate in an 11–0 win), MacDougall's strike partner at Bournemouth and Norwich City, Phil Boyer, club stalwart Mick Channon and Charlie George and in 1980–81 they scored 76 goals, finishing in sixth place, then their highest league finish. The following season, Kevin Keegan helped lift the club to the top of the First Division. Southampton led the league for over two months, taking top spot on 30 January 1982 and staying there (apart from one week) until 3 April 1982. But in a disappointing end to the season, in which Keegan was hampered by a back injury, Southampton won only two of their last nine games and finished seventh. The winners of a wide-open title race were Keegan's old club Liverpool, who were crowned champions on the final day of the season. Keegan scored 26 of Southampton's 72 goals that season, but was then sold to Newcastle.
Southampton continued to progress under McMenemy's stewardship, and with a team containing Peter Shilton (the England goalkeeper), Nick Holmes, David Armstrong, striker Steve Moran and quick winger Danny Wallace reached their highest ever league finish as runners-up in 1983–84 (three points behind the champions Liverpool) as well as reaching the semi-final of the FA Cup losing 1–0 to Everton at Highbury. McMenemy then added experienced midfielder Jimmy Case to his ranks.
They finished fifth the following year, but as a result of the Heysel Disaster all English clubs were banned from European competition: had it not been for this, then Southampton would have again qualified for the UEFA Cup.
McMenemy left at the end of the 1984–85 season to be succeeded by Chris Nicholl, who was sacked after six years in charge despite preserving the club's top flight status. He was replaced by Ian Branfoot, who until the end of the 1990–91 season had been assistant manager to Steve Coppell at Crystal Palace. By this stage, a key player in the Southampton line-up was Guernsey-born attacking midfielder/striker Matthew Le Tissier, who broke into the first team in the 1986–87 season. He was voted PFA Young Player of the Year in 1990 and later made eight appearances for the England team – he finally retired in 2002 at the age of 33. Another exciting young player to break into the Southampton team just after Le Tissier was Alan Shearer, who at the age of 17 scored a hat-trick against Arsenal in a league match in April 1988. Shearer was a first team regular by 1990, and stayed with Southampton until July 1992, when he was sold to Blackburn Rovers for a national record of more than £3 million. He then became the most expensive footballer in the world when Blackburn sold him to Newcastle for £15 million in 1996. He also scored 30 times for England internationally.
=== Southampton in the Premier League (1992–2005) ===
Southampton were founding members of the Premier League in 1992–93, but spent most of the next ten seasons struggling against relegation. In 1995–96, Southampton finished 17th with 38 league points, avoiding relegation on goal difference. Two important wins during the final weeks of the season did much to ensure that Saints and not Manchester City would achieve Premiership survival. First came a 3–1 home win over eventual double winners Manchester United, then came a 1–0 away win over relegated Bolton Wanderers. Former Liverpool and Rangers manager Graeme Souness, was brought in, signing foreign players such as Egil Østenstad and Eyal Berkovic. The highlight of the season was a 6–3 win over Manchester United at The Dell in October, when both his signings scored twice. Souness resigned after just one season in charge, being replaced by Dave Jones who had won promotion to Division One with Stockport County as well as reaching the League Cup semi-finals.
In 1998–99, they were rooted to the bottom of the table for much of the first half of the season but again avoided relegation on the last day of the season after a late run of good results, helped by the intervention of Latvian Marian Pahars and old hero Le Tissier (The so-called "Great Escape"). In 1999, Southampton were given the go-ahead to build a new 32,000-seat stadium in the St Mary's area of the city, having been playing in the Dell since 1898. The stadium had been converted to an all-seater format earlier in the decade, but had a capacity of less than 16,000 and was unsuitable for further expansion.
During the 1999–2000 season, Dave Jones quit as Southampton manager to concentrate on a court case after he was accused of abusing children at the children's home where he had worked during the 1980s. The accusations were later proved to be groundless, but it was too late to save Jones' career as Southampton manager and he was succeeded by ex-England manager Glenn Hoddle. Hoddle helped keep Southampton well clear of the Premier League drop zone but having received an offer he moved to Tottenham Hotspur just before the end of the 2000–01 season. He was replaced by first-team coach Stuart Gray, who oversaw the relocation to the St Mary's Stadium for the 2001–02 season. At the end of the 2000–01 season, in the last competitive match at The Dell, Matthew Le Tissier came on late to score the last ever league goal at the old stadium with a half volley on the turn in a 3–2 win against Arsenal. Gray was sacked after a poor start to the following season, and he was replaced by ex-Coventry City manager Gordon Strachan, who steered Southampton to safety and a secure 11th-place finish.
In 2002–03, Southampton finished eighth in the league and finished runners-up in the FA Cup to Arsenal (after losing 1–0 at the Millennium Stadium), thanks in no small part to the metamorphosis of James Beattie, who fired home 24 goals, 23 in the league. Strachan resigned in March 2004 and within eight months, two managers – Paul Sturrock and Steve Wigley – had come and gone. Chairman Rupert Lowe risked the ire of Saints fans when he appointed Harry Redknapp as manager on 8 December 2004, just after his resignation at South Coast rivals Portsmouth. He brought in a number of new signings, including his son Jamie in the attempt to survive relegation. Southampton were relegated from the Premier League on the last day of the season, ending 27 successive seasons of top flight football for the club. Their relegation was confirmed by a 2–1 home defeat to Manchester United.
Lowe and Southampton continued to make headlines after former England Rugby World Cup-winning coach Sir Clive Woodward joined the club—eventually being appointed technical director in June 2005.
=== Outside the top flight (2005–2012) ===
In November 2005, manager Harry Redknapp resigned to rejoin Portsmouth, and was replaced by George Burley. Rupert Lowe resigned as chairman in June 2006, and Jersey-based businessman Michael Wilde, who had become the club's major shareholder assumed the post. Following a club record £6 million being spent on transfers, Polish strikers Grzegorz Rasiak and Marek Saganowski performed well and the season saw the introduction of 17-year-old left-back Gareth Bale. Southampton finished in sixth place and lost the play-off semi-final to Derby County on penalties.
The board sought new investment in the club, and in February 2007, Wilde stepped down as chairman to be replaced by local businessman Leon Crouch as "Acting chairman", a role Crouch retained until 21 July 2007. In the 2007–08 season, George Burley said that players such as Bale and Kenwyne Jones had to be sold to stop the club going into administration and that failing to achieve promotion had put the club in serious financial difficulty. Burley left the club in January 2008 to take over as Scotland manager and was replaced by Nigel Pearson who saved the club from relegation on the final day.
In July 2008, all the board members except one resigned, allowing Lowe and Wilde to return: Wilde as chairman of Southampton FC and Rupert Lowe as chairman of Southampton Leisure Holdings plc. Although Pearson kept the team up, the board did not renew his contract due to financial constraints, and the relatively unknown Dutchman Jan Poortvliet was appointed manager. Financial troubles continued to mount, resulting in more players being sold or loaned out and parts of St Mary's were closed off to reduce costs. In January 2009, Poortvliet resigned with the club one place from bottom of the Championship, with Mark Wotte taking over managerial duties.
In April 2009, Southampton's parent company was placed in administration. A 10-point penalty was imposed, but as the team was already being relegated due to finishing second from bottom of the Football League Championship this points deduction had to apply to the 2009–10 season. By the end of May, the club was unable to meet its staff wages and asked employees to work unpaid as a gesture of goodwill. The administrator warned that the club faced imminent bankruptcy unless a buyer was found. In June, administrator Mark Fry confirmed negotiations with two groups of investors, followed by confirmation that the club had been sold to an overseas buyer "owned and controlled by Markus Liebherr". Italian businessman Nicola Cortese was brought in by Liebherr to look after the club's business interests on his behalf. In July 2009, with the club in the control of the new owner, Wotte was sacked as head coach and Alan Pardew was appointed as the new first team manager. The Saints made their first big signing under Liebherr, striker Rickie Lambert, who was purchased on 10 August from League One side Bristol Rovers.
Southampton started the 2009–10 season in League One, in the third tier of English football for the first time in 50 years and with −10 points. In March 2010, Southampton won their first trophy since 1976 when they defeated Carlisle United 4–1 at Wembley to claim the Football League Trophy. Southampton finished the season in seventh place, seven points from the last play-off position.
A new home shirt was unveiled on 10 June 2010, in celebration of the club's 125th anniversary. The design was based on the original St. Mary's Y.M.A. kit used in 1885; it featured the new anniversary crest and was without a sponsor's logo. On 11 August, it was announced that Liebherr had died; however, the club's future had been assured and planned for before his death. Pardew was dismissed in August and Nigel Adkins joined from Scunthorpe United as his replacement. The club was promoted to the Championship in May 2011 as runners-up to Brighton & Hove Albion.
Returning to the Championship for the 2011–12 season, Southampton made their best start to a season for 75 years with a winning run at St. Mary's of 13 league games, setting a new club record and going top of the league. In April 2012, Southampton achieved promotion to the Premier League as runners-up to Reading. The final game of the season set a record attendance at St Mary's Stadium of 32,363. Lambert finished the season as the Championship's top goalscorer with 27 league goals, his third "Golden Boot" in four seasons. He also won the Championship Player of the Year award. As a result, they became the second team within a year to achieve back-to-back promotions, a feat that Norwich City had achieved one year before.
=== Return to the Premier League and relegation (2012–2023) ===
Southampton returned to the Premier League for season 2012–13 initially under Nigel Adkins. Substantial sums were spent to strengthen the playing squad, but early in the season, Adkins was replaced by Argentine coach Mauricio Pochettino. Southampton finished the season in 14th place, and next season in eighth.
At the end of the 2013–14 season, Pochettino departed the club for Tottenham. The club subsequently appointed Ronald Koeman as his replacement on a three-year contract, and made several high-profile sales over the summer. In the final game of the 2014–15 season, a 6–1 victory against Aston Villa, Sadio Mané scored three goals in the space of 176 seconds, the fastest hat-trick in the history of the Premier League. The club finished seventh, then their highest ever Premier League rank, therefore qualifying for the 2015–16 UEFA Europa League. After defeating Vitesse, the Saints were eliminated in the play-off by Midtjylland. The following season, Southampton once again set new records for the club at the end of the season, finishing in sixth place. They once again qualified for the Europa League, although this time immediately entered the group stages, as opposed to the play-off rounds.
In June 2016, Koeman left Southampton to join Everton and Claude Puel replaced him on a three-year contract. The club were eliminated in the group stage of the Europa League by away goals to Hapoel Be'er Sheva F.C., despite having a superior goal difference. However, they were more successful in the EFL Cup, where they lost 3–2 in the final to Manchester United, where Manolo Gabbiadini was denied a hat-trick, courtesy of an incorrect offside decision. The club ended the 2016–17 season in eighth. During the summer, Puel was replaced as manager by Argentine coach Mauricio Pellegrino, previously of Alavés.
Southampton became involved in the United Kingdom football sexual abuse scandal in December 2016 when several former Southampton teenage trainees told the BBC about inappropriate incidents in the 1980s involving a former football coach who was later revealed to be Bob Higgins. Higgins was dismissed by Southampton in 1989 after the allegations were made against him, and in 1991 he was charged with six counts of indecent assault against young boys he had been coaching; at the trial at Southampton Crown Court he was acquitted on the direction of the judge when the prosecution offered no evidence. Higgins then worked as a youth coach at Peterborough United in the mid-1990s, and was investigated as part of a 1997 Channel 4 Dispatches investigation. After two further court cases, Higgins was found guilty in 2019 of indecent assault, at Bournemouth Crown Court, and sentenced to 24 years in prison.
In mid-season, the club sold Dutch defender Virgil van Dijk to Liverpool for an estimated £75 million, Southampton's record sale and a world record for his position. Pellegrino was sacked in March 2018 with the team one point above the relegation zone, and his replacement, former player, Mark Hughes, guided the club to a 17th-place finish, avoiding relegation on the last day of the season. Hughes signed a new contract at the end of the season but a poor start to the following season led to him being sacked in December with the team in 18th place. He was replaced with former RB Leipzig boss Ralph Hasenhüttl, who steered the club away from relegation to finish 16th.
In August 2017, Southampton Football Club confirmed that the Chinese businessman Gao Jisheng had completed a multimillion-pound takeover of the club, acquiring an 80% stake for around £210m after successfully passing the relevant checks, including the Premier League's owners and directors test. The deal followed more than 12 months of talks between the Gao family and the south coast club. The investment was made personally by Gao and his daughter Nelly as opposed to being sanctioned through Lander Sports, as originally mooted. Hangzhou-based Lander is the family's business arm, which develops, constructs and manages sports sites.
Southampton suffered their worst ever defeat on 25 October 2019, losing 9–0 to Leicester City at home, this would later be replicated on 2 February 2021 against Manchester United at Old Trafford in the following campaign, albeit under different circumstances. It is tied with Ipswich Town's defeat by Manchester United in 1995 as the biggest defeat since the Premier League's inception. Following universal backlash toward the team's performance, the players and coaching staff refused their wages from the match and instead donated them to the Saints Foundation. On 9 April 2020, Southampton became the first Premier League club to defer players' salaries, during the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite a poor start that saw them in the relegation zone as late as November, Southampton improved greatly as the season went on, ending the year with a seven-game unbeaten streak to finish 11th in the league. Their final tally of 52 points was the team's highest total since 2015–16.
The club's good run continued in the 2020–21 season with the Saints sitting in third after 13 games. The team also had a successful run in the FA Cup where they reached the semi-finals, losing to eventual winners Leicester City. In November, Southampton briefly led the Premier League table. However, despite the outstanding start to the season, a mid-season loss of form and an accumulation of injuries which decimated the senior squad ranks, due in part to the unavailability of much of the club's training facilities resulting from the restrictions imposed during the second lockdown in England. As a consequence of this, Hasenhüttl was forced to field many of the club's youth players in an attempt to fill in the gaps in his senior squad. After an impressive run during the first half of the season, Southampton would eventually finish in 15th place. In January 2022, Gao sold his 80% stake to Sport Republic, a group financed by Serbian Dragan Šolak for £100m. Despite most pundits predicting them to be relegated at the start of the season, Southampton finished the 2021–22 season in 15th place for the second consecutive year.
In November 2022, it was announced Southampton had parted company with manager Ralph Hasenhüttl after four years, to be replaced by Nathan Jones. On 12 February 2023, Jones was sacked following a disappointing run of results during which the Saints lost seven out of eight league matches, leaving them bottom of the Premier League table. After having served as caretaker manager in a 1–0 victory over Chelsea, Rubén Sellés, who had joined Southampton as first-team lead coach in June 2022, was announced as Jones's replacement on 24 February on a contract until the end of the 2022–23 season. Sellés was unable to save the Saints' season, and the team were effectively relegated on 13 May, following a 2–0 home loss to Fulham. On 24 May 2023, Southampton confirmed that they would not renew the contract of Sellés when it expired at the end of the season.
=== Subsequent promotion and relegation (2023–present) ===
On 21 June 2023, the club appointed Russell Martin as manager on a three-year contract. After losing four of their first eight games back in the Championship, the Saints went on a club-record 25-game unbeaten run in all competitions. Following an eventual fourth place finish, Southampton returned to the Premier League at the first attempt via the play-offs, defeating Leeds United 1–0 in the final at Wembley.
On 15 December 2024, Martin was dismissed after a 5–0 defeat at home to Tottenham Hotspur, as Southampton sat 20th in the Premier League table with only five points after 16 games. Six days later, Ivan Jurić was appointed as manager on an 18-month deal. The club were relegated from the Premier League on 6 April 2025 with seven games remaining, becoming the earliest team to suffer relegation in Premier League history. Jurić left Southampton by mutual consent the following day, with under-21s manager Simon Rusk appointed as his replacement on an interim basis for the remainder of the season.
In May 2025, Will Still was announced as the incoming manager for the upcoming season on a three-year contract. Still was dismissed on 2 November 2025, with Southampton sat 21st in the Championship and having won just twice in their first 13 league games.
== Club identity ==
=== Crest ===
Originally, the club used the same crest as the one used by the city itself. However, in 1974 a competition was run for fans to design a new one.
The winning design, designed by Rolland Parris, was used for around 20 years, before being modified slightly in the 1990s.
From top-to-bottom, the halo is a reference to the nickname "Saints", the ball to the nature of the club, the scarf to the fans and the team colours. The tree represents the nearby New Forest and Southampton Common, with the water representing Southampton's connections with the rivers, seas and oceans. Below that is a white rose – the symbol of the city which is also present on the city coat of arms. In the mid-1990s the ball was changed from a vintage style ball (such as those used in the 1960s) to the current ball with black and white panels, for copyright reasons.
On 13 May 2010, the official crest for the 125th anniversary was released: "The black outline and halo feature will now appear in gold, whilst the all important years 1885 and 2010 are scripted either side of the shield, with the figure 125 replacing the ball". The badge was used on Southampton's shirts for the 2010–11 season.
=== Anthem ===
The Saints' anthem is the popular sports tune "When the Saints Go Marching In", and since the club's official nickname is "the Saints", they are one of only a few teams who do not change the original lyric.
=== Kit manufacturers and sponsors ===
Since 2024, Southampton's kits have been manufactured by Puma. Previous manufacturers have included Umbro (1974–76, 2008–13), Admiral (1976–80, 1991–93), Patrick (1980–87), Hummel (1987–91, 2021–24), Pony (1993–99), Adidas (2013–14, 2015–16) and Under Armour (2016–21). From 1999 to 2008, and in 2014–15, the club used its own brand, Saints.
Various companies have sponsored the players' shirts since shirt advertising was permitted in English football. The first company to do so was photocopier manufacturer Rank Xerox which sponsored the club for three years from 1980. Other sponsors have been Air Florida (1983), Draper Tools (1984–93), Dimplex (1993–95), Sanderson (1995–99), Friends Provident (1999–2006), Flybe (2006–10), aap3 (2011–14), Veho (2014–16), Virgin Media (2016–19), LD Sports (2019–20), Sportsbet.io (2020–24) and Rollbit (2024–25). Since 2025, the main shirt sponsor is P&O Cruises. Since 2025, the sleeve sponsor is Garmin. Previous sleeve sponsors have been Virgin Media (2017–2022), JD Sports (2022–23), Mairon Freight UK (2023–24) and P&O Cruises (2024–25).
== Stadium and training facilities ==
The club's first home ground was the Antelope Ground from 1887 to 1896. Followed by the County Cricket Ground from 1896 to 1898.
From 1898 to 2001, Southampton played their home games at The Dell. The purpose-built stadium was redeveloped a number of times through its 103-year history, with two of the stands being completely rebuilt after fires and in 1950 it became the first ground in England to have permanent floodlighting installed. Following the Taylor report, The Dell was converted to an all-seater stadium and, with a capacity of approximately 15,000, became the smallest ground in England's top-flight, precipitating a move to a new home.
St Mary's Stadium has been home to the Saints since August 2001. It has a capacity of 32,689 and is one of only a handful of stadia in Europe to meet UEFA's Four Star criteria. The stadium has also been host to a number of international games. The ground's record attendance is 32,363, set in a game between Southampton and Coventry City in April 2012.
The club's training facilities, Staplewood Campus, are located in Marchwood on the edge of the New Forest. The current facilities were opened in November 2014, at a cost of circa £40m. The main building was named after the club's late owner, Markus Liebherr.
For the 2012–13 season, until the end of the 2013–14 season, the club agreed a deal with Eastleigh, then of the Conference South, for the use of their stadium, Ten Acres, for The Saints' U21 team fixtures. This continued a partnership with Eastleigh that had lasted for nearly a decade. This partnership, though, ended and Southampton's youth teams continued to play at Staplewood and St. Mary's until the 2019–20 season when some U23 cup games were to be played at Totton's Testwood Stadium, where Southampton Women had played their league home matches.
== Rivalries ==
The South Coast Derby is the name given to matches between the Saints and their fierce nearby rivals, Portsmouth, from the city of the same name, 19 miles (31 km) from Southampton. The south coast derbies are also referred to as the Hampshire derby. Including Southern League games, there have been 71 games between the two clubs, with Southampton winning 35 and Portsmouth 21.
== Records and statistics ==
Longest winning run
10 matches, 16 April 2011 – 20 August 2011 (League)
11 matches, 16 April 2011 – 20 August 2011 (All competitions)
Longest unbeaten run
22 matches, 30 September 2023 – 10 February 2024 (League)
25 matches, 30 September 2023 – 10 February 2024 (All competitions)
Longest home winning streak
19 matches, 12 February 2011 – 29 November 2011 (League)
21 matches, 12 February 2011 – 29 November 2011 (All competitions)
Biggest wins
Home
11–0 against Northampton Town, 28 December 1901 (Southern League)
11–0 against Watford, 13 December 1902 (Southern League)
8–0 against Northampton Town, 24 December 1921 (Football League Third Division South)
8–0 against Sunderland, 18 October 2014 (Premier League)
Away
8–0 against Newport County, 25 August 2021 (EFL Cup)
6–0 against Carlisle United, 22 January 1977 (Football League Second Division)
6–0 against Wolverhampton Wanderers, 31 March 2007 (Football League Championship)
6–0 against Oldham Athletic, 11 January 2011 (Football League One)
Biggest losses
Home
0–9 against Leicester City, 25 October 2019 (Premier League)
0–6 against Plymouth Argyle, 5 December 1931 (Football League Second Division)
0–6 against Brentford, 9 March 1959 (Football League Third Division)
Away
0–9 against Manchester United, 2 February 2021 (Premier League)
0–8 against Crystal Palace, 16 November 1913 (Southern League)
0–8 against Tottenham Hotspur, 28 March 1936 (Football League Second Division)
0–8 against Everton, 20 November 1971 (Football League First Division)
Highest scoring Football League game
9–3 (at home) against Wolverhampton Wanderers, 18 September 1965 (Football League Second Division)
Record home attendance
32,363 against Coventry City, 28 April 2012
=== Player records ===
Most appearances
Terry Paine – 815: 1956–1974
Most goals
Mick Channon – 228: 1966–1977, 1979–1982
Most goals in one season
Derek Reeves – 44: 1959–60
Most goals in one match
Albert Brown – 7: against Northampton Town, 28 December 1901
Youngest player
Theo Walcott – 16 years 143 days. Against Wolverhampton Wanderers, 6 August 2005
Oldest player
Willy Caballero – 41 years 122 days. Against Blackpool, 28 January 2023
Highest transfer fees
Spent: Kamaldeen Sulemana – £22 million fee paid to Rennes.
Received: Virgil van Dijk – £75 million fee received from Liverpool.
== Players ==
=== Current squad ===
As of 21 February 2026
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules; some limited exceptions apply. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
=== Out on loan ===
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules; some limited exceptions apply. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
=== The Saints U21s and Academy ===
Southampton runs a highly successful youth academy, with a number of teams from ages eight to 21 years. Recent products of the club's youth system include England internationals Adam Lallana, Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain, James Ward-Prowse, Calum Chambers, Luke Shaw and Theo Walcott; Wales international winger Gareth Bale; and Ireland international striker Michael Obafemi.
=== Former players ===
== Club management ==
=== Managerial history ===
== Honours ==
Source:
League
First Division (level 1)
Runners-up: 1983–84
Second Division / Championship (level 2)
Runners-up: 1965–66, 1977–78, 2011–12
Play-off winners: 2024
Third Division South / Third Division / League One (level 3)
Champions: 1921–22, 1959–60
Runners-up: 2010–11
Southern League
Champions (6): 1896–97, 1897–98, 1898–99, 1900–01, 1902–03, 1903–04
Cup
FA Cup
Winners: 1975–76
Runners-up: 1899–1900, 1901–02, 2002–03
Football League Cup / EFL Cup
Runners-up: 1978–79, 2016–17
Football League Trophy
Winners: 2009–10
Full Members' Cup
Runners-up: 1991–92
Hampshire Senior Cup
Winners: 1891, 1892, 1895, 1899, 1901, 1902, 1905, 1907, 1908, 1910, 1914, 1920, 1921, 1935, 1940, 1950, 1976 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_Miami_Dolphins_season | 2008 Miami Dolphins season | The 2008 Miami Dolphins season was the franchise's 39th season in the National Football League (NFL), the 43rd overall and the first under new head coach Tony Sparano. During the regular season the Dolphins completed the greatest single-season turnaround in NFL history, going from a 1–15 regular season record in 2007 to an 11–5 record in 2008. The previous record for most improved team one year after a 1–15 season belonged to the 1997 New York Jets, who went 9–7. The 2008 Dolphins became the second team to accomplish a 10-game turnaround, first done by the 1999 Indianapolis Colts and then later matched by the 2025 New England Patriots. Additionally, Miami won the AFC East, becoming the first team in NFL history to win their division after only having one win the previous season. The division title also snapped the Patriots' 5-year streak of winning the AFC East. The Dolphins' season came to an end in the Wild Card round when they were defeated by the Baltimore Ravens which, coincidentally, was also the only team that the Dolphins had beaten the prior season, saving the Dolphins from suffering a winless season. With their rebound 11–5 record and division title, the Dolphins had hopes of achieving their first playoff victory since 2000, or to possibly become the first team ever to make the Super Bowl after winning only one game the previous season, similar to how the Carolina Panthers went 1–15 in 2001 and made Super Bowl XXXVIII just two seasons later.
The 2008 season was the first with Bill Parcells as executive vice president of football operations, Jeff Ireland as general manager, and Tony Sparano as head coach.
With a league-worst 1–15 record in 2007, the Dolphins held the first pick in the 2008 NFL draft and selected Michigan offensive tackle Jake Long. The offseason also saw the departure of two Pro Bowlers and long-time Dolphins with the release of linebacker Zach Thomas and trade of defensive end Jason Taylor.
The 2008 season was the last season in which the Miami Dolphins had a winning record and qualified for the playoffs before the 2016 team accomplished the feat. This also currently remains the latest season where the Dolphins won a division title.
This season was also notable for the Dolphins wide-spread use of the Wildcat offense. Though previously used by other teams in several other seasons, this package was fully installed by the Dolphins by week 3, and led to an upset win over the defending AFC Champion New England Patriots. Until 2019, this was the Dolphins' last road win over the Patriots. Additionally, this was the last season that the AFC East was won by a team other than the Patriots until the 2020 Buffalo Bills snapped the Patriots' streak of 11 straight AFC East championships.
== Offseason personnel moves ==
=== Front office ===
On December 27, 2007, Dolphins owner Wayne Huizenga hired former NFL head coach and ESPN analyst Bill Parcells as executive vice president of football operations. Parcells signed a four-year deal with the Dolphins less than a day after turning down a similar offer from the Atlanta Falcons.
Just a few days after Parcells' hiring, three men were dismissed from the Dolphins' front office. The most notable of the three was general manager Randy Mueller, who had been hired by the team in 2005. Also dismissed were assistant director of player personnel Mike Baugh and college scouting coordinator Rick Thompson.
Three days after Mueller's dismissal, Parcells hired Jeff Ireland as the team's new general manager. Ireland had worked for the Dallas Cowboys the past seven years, including the last three as vice president of college and pro scouting. Ireland had worked with Parcells previously, when the latter was head coach of the Cowboys from 2003 to 2006. Although Ireland was officially given final say on personnel decisions, it was speculated that Parcells was actually in control, and did not hold the title of general manager so that the team could hire a front office executive from another team.
On January 15, the Dolphins reeled in another former Cowboys executive when they hired Brian Gaine as assistant director of player personnel. Gaine had previously spent the past three seasons as the Cowboys' assistant director of pro scouting, working with both Parcells and Ireland during that time.
Following the 2008 NFL draft, it was reported on May 1 that the Dolphins had fired scouts Ellis Rainsberger, Jack Glowik and Roger Pollard. The team's vice president of media relations, Harvey Greene, said Rainsberger had retired, and did not comment on the other two reported firings.
=== Coaches ===
==== Head coach ====
One day after hiring of Jeff Ireland as general manager, the Dolphins fired head coach Cam Cameron after just one season on the job. Cameron led the Dolphins to an NFL worst 1–15 record in 2007, which was also the worst in franchise history. Additionally, all but two members of the coaching staff were dismissed. The only coaches retained were assistant special teams coach Steve Hoffman and linebackers coach George Edwards. Both Hoffman and Edwards were coaches for the Dallas Cowboys during Ireland's tenure with the team.
A search for Cameron's replacement began almost immediately after his firing. Various candidates were rumored, many of which had some connection to Parcells and/or Ireland. Rumored candidates included Cleveland Browns head coach Romeo Crennel, Dallas Cowboys assistant Tony Sparano, Cowboys secondary coach Todd Bowles, Arizona Cardinals running backs coach Maurice Carthon and Cardinals offensive coordinator Todd Haley. Additionally, Baltimore Ravens defensive coordinator Rex Ryan and Minnesota Vikings defensive coordinator Leslie Frazier were contacted. The Washington Post suggested that Washington Redskins defensive coordinator Gregg Williams could be a candidate as well.
The first interview scheduled was Sparano, who met with the Dolphins on Saturday, January 11. Sparano had previously met with the Atlanta Falcons and Baltimore Ravens regarding their head coaching vacancies. On January 6, it was reported that Sparano would be offered the Dolphins' head coaching job, and that he would accept. The Dolphins denied the report later that day, saying it was an initial interview only and that the team had interviews with others planned over the next few days. However, the addition of quarterbacks coach David Lee, a former Cowboys assistant, fueled speculation that Sparano was indeed going to the next head coach of the Miami Dolphins.
The team then proceeded to interview Frazier, Ryan and Tennessee Titans defensive coordinator Jim Schwartz. After the Dallas Cowboys lost to the New York Giants in the divisional round of the 2007 NFL playoffs on January 13, speculation grew that Sparano's hiring was imminent. On January 16, the Dolphins ended their search by naming Sparano the eighth head coach in franchise history. He received a four-year contract believed to be worth between $2.5 and $2.7 million per season.
==== Assistants ====
Parcells and Ireland made their first coaching staff addition on January 7, luring Ole Miss offensive coordinator David Lee to be quarterbacks coach. Lee, who briefly followed Houston Nutt to Ole Miss after serving as his offensive coordinator at Arkansas in 2007, worked with Parcells and Ireland as the Cowboys' quarterbacks coach from 2003 to 2006. The addition fueled speculation that Sparano was indeed going to the next head coach of the Miami Dolphins.
Two days after hiring Sparano as their head coach, the Dolphins made their second assistant coach hiring. On January 18, Mike Maser was named the team's new offensive line coach. Maser had previously served in the same capacity for the Carolina Panthers from 2003 to 2006, and worked with Sparano when both were assistants for the Jacksonville Jaguars in 2002.
Over the next week, the Dolphins filled various positions on Sparano's staff. On January 22, former Kansas City Chiefs running backs coach James Saxon was hired in the same capacity for the Dolphins. Also hired that day was former Atlanta Falcons strength and conditioning coach Evan Marcus, who took the same job with Miami.
On January 23, the Dolphins added four more assistant coaches to their staff when they named Paul Pasqualoni as their defensive coordinator, Todd Bowles as assistant head coach/secondary, Kacy Rodgers as defensive line coach and David Corrao as defensive quality control coach. Pasqualoni, Bowles and Rodgers all came from the Dallas Cowboys' staff, while Corrao was most recently linebackers coach at the University of Mississippi.
A day later, former UCLA head coach Karl Dorrell was named the team's new wide receivers coach. Five more coaches were added to the staff on January 28 when the Dolphins named John Bonamego as their special teams coordinator, George DeLeone as their tight ends coach, David Puloka as assistant strength and conditioning coach, Jim Reid as outside linebackers coach and Steve Bush as offensive quality control coach.
The Dolphins made their final addition to the staff on February 4, hiring Dan Henning as offensive coordinator. Henning, who had most recently served as offensive coordinator for the Carolina Panthers from 2002 to 2006, had previous worked for the Dolphins under Don Shula as quarterbacks and wide receivers coach in 1979–1980.
== Staff ==
When the Dolphins' coaching staff was completed with the hiring of offensive coordinator Dan Henning on February 14, only two of the 17 assistant coaches under Sparano (Edwards and Hoffman) were holdovers from the previous season's staff. Three of the new coaches (Bowles, Pasqualoni and Rodgers) had experience with Parcells, Ireland and Sparano in Dallas. The completed staff was as follows:
== Roster Moves ==
=== Departures ===
February 11 – Terminated the contracts of quarterback Trent Green, wide receiver Marty Booker, offensive tackle L. J. Shelton and defensive tackle Keith Traylor.
February 11 – Waived offensive tackle Anthony Alabi, offensive tackle Marion Dukes, guard Marquay Love, offensive lineman Joe Toledo and defensive tackle Anthony Bryant.
February 14 – Released linebacker Zach Thomas.
April 24 – Released the following seven players: quarterback Casey Bramlet, linebacker Marcello Church, safety Tuff Harris, cornerback Jereme Perry, wide receiver Kerry Reed, linebacker Mark Washington and wide receiver Chandler Williams. The team also waived safety Cameron Worrell, who tore his ACL in 2007, after he failed a physical.
April 29 – Released quarterback Matt Baker and defensive tackle Steve Fifita.
May 5 – Waived wide receiver Marcel Reece, defensive end Derreck Robinson, linebacker Abraham Wright and cornerback Aaron Lane. Reece and Lane were signed as undrafted free agents the previous week, while Robinson and Wright were with the Dolphins in 2007.
May 16 – Waived offensive lineman Drew Mormino after he failed a physical. Mormino spent the 2007 season on injured reserve with a shoulder injury.
June 6 – Released placekicker Dave Rayner.
=== Re-signings ===
January 7 – Re-signed wide receivers Kerry Reed and Chandler Williams, guard Marquay Love and linebacker Marcello Church. All finished the 2007 season on the Dolphins' practice squad.
March 3 – Re-signed safety Yeremiah Bell to a one-year, $1.4 million contract.
March 5 – Re-signed cornerback Michael Lehan to a three-year, $4.95 million contract.
=== Signings ===
January 30 – Signed quarterback Matt Baker, offensive lineman Trey Darilek and linebacker Junior Glymph. Baker was with the Dallas Cowboys in 2006, while Darilek and Glymph were both in training camp with Dallas in 2007.
February 8 – Signed cornerback Joey Thomas. He was originally drafted by the Green Bay Packers in the third round of the 2004 NFL draft and had most recently spent training camp with the Cowboys in 2007.
February 28 – Signed wide receiver David Kircus, formerly of the Denver Broncos and Detroit Lions.
February 29 – Signed tight end Sean Ryan (Jets) to a one-year deal.
February 29 – Signed wide receiver Ernest Wilford (Jaguars) to a four-year, $13 million contract with $6 million guaranteed.
March 1 – Signed linebacker Charlie Anderson (Texans) to a three-year contract.
March 1 – Signed quarterback Josh McCown (Raiders) to a two-year, $6.25 million contract.
March 1 – Signed guard Justin Smiley (49ers) to a five-year, $25 million contract with $9 million guaranteed.
March 1 – Signed defensive end Randy Starks (Titans) to a five-year, $21 million contract with $7 million guaranteed.
March 1 – Signed linebacker Reggie Torbor (Giants) to a four-contract.
March 5 – Signed fullback Boomer Grigsby (Chiefs) to a one-year contract.
March 11 – Signed safety Keith Davis (Cowboys) to a two-year contract.
March 12 – Signed placekicker Dave Rayner (Chargers) to a one-year contract.
March 14 – Signed cornerback Nathan Jones (Cowboys) to a two-year contract.
March 16 – Signed wide receiver Tab Perry (Bengals) to a one-year contract.
March 28 – Signed safety Chris Crocker (Falcons) to a one-year, $1.15 million contract with a $300,000 signing bonus.
April 14 – Signed safety Will Billingsley (North Carolina A&T) as a street free agent. Billingsley was eligible for the 2007 NFL draft but was not drafted and remained unsigned throughout the year.
May 19 – Signed offensive lineman Steve McKinney (Texans) to a one-year contract.
=== Trades ===
February 29 – Acquired defensive tackle Jason Ferguson from the Dallas Cowboys for a sixth-round pick in the 2009 NFL draft. The teams also swapped sixth-round picks in the 2008 NFL draft.
April 26 – Acquired linebacker Akin Ayodele and tight end Anthony Fasano from the Dallas Cowboys in exchange for the team's fourth-round pick (100th overall) in the 2008 NFL draft. The pick was later traded to the Oakland Raiders and used to select cornerback Tyvon Branch.
July 21 – Traded defensive end Jason Taylor to the Washington Redskins in exchange for a second-round pick in 2009 and a sixth-round pick in 2010.
=== Free agency ===
The Dolphins entered free agency $44 million under that year's $116 million salary cap – the highest in the league at the time. The team cleared between $13–15 million by cutting players leading up to free agency.
=== Free agents ===
UFA: Unrestricted free agent, RFA: Restricted free agent, ERFA: Exclusive-rights free agent
=== 2008 NFL draft ===
Due to their league-worst 1–15 record in 2007, the Dolphins secured the first overall pick in the 2008 NFL draft on April 26. The Dolphins used it to draft Michigan offensive tackle Jake Long.
Including Long, the Dolphins selected the following nine players in the 2008 NFL Draft:
Notes
The Dolphins own second-round pick, the first of the round, was the 32nd overall in the draft rather than the 33rd because the New England Patriots forfeited their first-round pick (31st overall) after the Spygate incident.
The Dolphins acquired a second-round pick from the San Diego Chargers in a trade that sent wide receiver Chris Chambers to San Diego on October 16, 2007.
The Dolphins sent their fifth-round pick to the Kansas City Chiefs in exchange for quarterback Trent Green on June 5, 2007.
The Dolphins and Dallas Cowboys swapped sixth-round draft picks in trade that brought defensive tackle Jason Ferguson to Miami.
The last of the Dolphins' picks in the sixth and seventh rounds were awarded by NFL due to free agents lost the previous offseason.
==== Draft day trades ====
On the first day of the draft, the Dolphins traded second-year running back Lorenzo Booker to the Philadelphia Eagles in exchange for a fourth-round pick (115th overall) in the 2008 NFL draft.
On the second day of the draft, the Dolphins acquired the Detroit Lions' third-round pick (66th overall) as well as their sixth-round pick (176th overall) in exchange for the Dolphins' third-round pick (64th overall). The Lions used the pick to select running back Kevin Smith, while the Dolphins took defensive end Kendall Langford with the third-round pick and running back Jalen Parmele with the sixth-rounder.
Later on Day 2, the Dolphins traded the fourth-round pick acquired from the Eagles, along with a seventh-round pick (208th overall), to the Chicago Bears in exchange for the 110th overall selection. The Dolphins used this pick to select guard Shawn Murphy. The 115th overall pick was eventually dealt by the Bears the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, who used it to select defensive tackle Dre Moore. The Bears used the seventh-round pick to select defensive end Ervin Baldwin.
==== Draft pick signings ====
In the weeks leading up to the draft, the Dolphins began contract negotiations with Jake Long. On April 14, Peter King of Sports Illustrated reported that the Dolphins had given Long a deadline to accept their contract offer (believed to be worth less than 2007 No. 1 pick JaMarcus Russell received from the Oakland Raiders); otherwise, they would move on to another prospect. On April 22, the Dolphins officially signed Long to a five-year, $57.75 million contract with $30 million guaranteed, assuring they would take him first overall. On May 19, the Dolphins signed sixth-rounders Jalen Parmele and Lex Hilliard and seventh-rounder Lionel Dotson to contacts. On May 23, sixth-round pick Donald Thomas was signed to a multi-year deal. On July 11, the Dolphins signed third-round pick Kendall Langford to a multi-year deal.
=== Undrafted free agents ===
Following the 2008 NFL draft, the Dolphins signed 18 undrafted free agents. They were:
Two failed to survive a week with the team, as the Dolphins released Lane and Reece on May 5. Less than a month after being signed, Robertson decided to retire. On June 9, the Dolphins signed wide receiver John Dunlap (NC State) after he attended a minicamp on a tryout basis.
=== Reserve lists ===
May 27 – Placed defensive tackle Kory Robertson on the reserve/retired list.
May 29 – Placed wide receiver Tab Perry on injured reserve with a torn Achilles tendon.
== Roster ==
=== Opening camp roster ===
=== Final preseason roster ===
=== Roster moves ===
==== July ====
25 – Signed second-round pick defensive end Phillip Merling.
25 – Waived wide receiver Justin Wynn.
25 – Signed wide receiver Anthony Armstrong (Desperados).
26 – Placed linebacker Joey Porter on the Active/non-football injury list and cornerback Michael Lehan on the Active/PUP list.
26 – Waived offensive tackles Dan Gore and Julius Wilson.
28 – Activated linebacker Joey Porter (NFI).
28 – Signed second-round pick quarterback Chad Henne.
28 – Signed guard Rueben Riley (Panthers).
30 – Waived cornerback Scorpio Babers.
30 – Signed cornerback Chris Roberson (Jaguars).
==== August ====
2 – Waived/injured tight end Aaron Halterman and waived guard Rueben Riley.
4 – Placed tight end Aaron Halterman on injured reserve.
11 – Waived/injured linebacker Kelvin Smith.
11 – Signed quarterback Chad Pennington (Jets) and linebacker Maurice Fountain (Blaze)
August 12 – Released placekicker Jay Feely.
August 12 – Placed linebacker Kelvin Smith on injured reserve.
August 15 – Waived linebacker Keith Saunders and wide receivers John Dunlap and Selwyn Lymon.
August 18 – Released offensive lineman Steve McKinney.
August 18 – Activated cornerback Michael Lehan (PUP).
August 20 – Traded cornerback Travis Daniels to the Cleveland Browns in exchange for a seventh-round draft pick in the 2009 NFL draft.
August 22 – Waived wide receiver David Kircus and cornerback Chris Roberson.
August 25 – Signed undrafted free agent offensive tackle Pedro Sosa (Rutgers).
August 27 – Released safety Keith Davis.
August 30 – Traded quarterback Josh McCown to the Carolina Panthers in exchange for a seventh-round pick in the 2009 NFL draft.
==== Final cuts ====
On August 30, the Dolphins made 17 roster moves to reach the NFL's 53-player limit. The players released were:
=== Preseason schedule ===
The Dolphins' 2008 preseason schedule was announced on April 3.
=== Preseason recap ===
After losing their preseason opener to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, the Dolphins won their final three contests to finish the preseason 3–1.
Quarterback Chad Pennington was the Dolphins' most efficient passer of the preseason, leading the team in completion percentage (72.0) and passer rating (104.8). Rookie quarterback Chad Henne led the team in passing yards (351) but also in interceptions (2) while matching Pennington in passing touchdowns (1).
Running backs Ricky Williams and Jalen Parmele tied for the team lead in rushing yards at 123. Williams, Parmele and Ronnie Brown were the only Dolphins to rush for a touchdown during the preseason, scoring one each. Lex Hilliard and Patrick Cobbs finished fourth and fifth, respectively, on the team in rushing yards.
No Dolphins player surpassed 100 receiving yards during the preseason, though wide receiver Ted Ginn Jr. came closest at 97. He also tied rookie Davone Bess for the team lead in receptions with eight. Tight ends Anthony Fasano and Sean Ryan were the only Dolphins to catch a touchdown pass.
On special teams, rookie placekicker Dan Carpenter converted 7-of-8 field-goal attempts and all six extra-point attempts. Punter Brandon Fields punted 21 times for a 44.1-yard average and two touchbacks. Meanwhile, Davone Bess led the team in punt returns (6) but Ted Ginn Jr. was the only Dolphins player to return a kick or punt for a touchdown. Patrick Cobbs led the team in kick return yards with 106.
On defense, Linebackers Akin Ayodele and Reggie Torbor tied for the team lead with 17 tackles, while Ayodele led the team in solo stops with 12. Five others – Yeremiah Bell, Channing Crowder, Renaldo Hill, Nathan Jones, Edmond Miles – also reached double-digits in tackles.
Four players – Jason Allen, Renaldo Hill, Michael Lehan, Joey Thomas – recorded an interception during the preseason. The Dolphins also totaled 14 quarterbacks sacks during the preseason. Linebacker Rob Ninkovich and defensive end Randy Starks each record a team-high two sacks, while ten other players each recorded a sack apiece. Channing Crowder, Junior Glymph and Paul Soliai each forced a fumble during the preseason.
== Regular season ==
=== Schedule ===
The Dolphins' 2008 regular season schedule was released on April 15, 2008.
Note: Intra-division opponents are in bold text.
=== Standings ===
=== Opening day roster ===
=== Final roster ===
=== Game summaries ===
==== Week 1: vs. New York Jets ====
With the loss, the Dolphins began their season 0–1.
==== Week 2: at Arizona Cardinals ====
With the loss, the Dolphins fell to 0–2 and lost their 5th straight game to NFC Opponents.
==== Week 3: at New England Patriots ====
The Dolphins headed to Foxboro to face the Division rival New England Patriots. Little did New England know that they would be a test for an offensive formation concocted as the Dolphins coaching staff wanted to put running backs Ricky Williams and Ronnie Brown onto the field at the same time. David Lee thus revealed the Wildcat to the NFL. Ronnie Brown would take direct snaps and keep it himself or hand it of to another back. The Patriots came in with a 21 game regular season winning streak, and had the home field advantage against a Dolphins team which sported a 1-17 record since the start of the previous season. As such, the Pats were 12.5 point favorites. In an absolute shocker, the Dolphins decimated the Patriots all day with the Wildcat offense for a 38–13 victory as they put a dent in the Patriots' 21-game regular season winning streak and went on their bye week at 1–2. This was the last time the Dolphins beat the Patriots on the road until 2019.
==== Week 5: vs. San Diego Chargers ====
With the win, the Dolphins improved to 2–2.
==== Week 6: at Houston Texans ====
With the loss, the Dolphins fell to 2–3.
==== Week 7: vs. Baltimore Ravens ====
With the loss, the Dolphins fell to 2–4.
==== Week 8: vs. Buffalo Bills ====
With the win, the Dolphins improved to 3–4.
==== Week 9: at Denver Broncos ====
With the win, the Dolphins improved to 4–4.
==== Week 10: vs. Seattle Seahawks ====
With the win, the Dolphins improved to 5–4 and snapped their 5-game losing streak to NFC Opponents. They also posted a record above .500 for the first time since the end of the 2005 season.
==== Week 11: vs. Oakland Raiders ====
With the win, the Dolphins improved to 6–4.
==== Week 12: vs. New England Patriots ====
A week after a 400-yard passing game against the Jets, Matt Cassel threw for 415 yards and three touchdowns for New England, while Chad Pennington threw for 345 yards and two scores; both quarterbacks also ran in a touchdown. The Dolphins Wildcat offense was limited to 27 yards as the Patriots broke open a tight game in the fourth quarter, winning 48–28.
With the loss, the Dolphins dropped to 6–5.
==== Week 13: at St. Louis Rams ====
With the win, the Dolphins improved to 7–5.
==== Week 14: at Buffalo Bills ====
With the win, the Dolphins sweep the Bills for the season and improve their record to 8–5.
==== Week 15: vs. San Francisco 49ers ====
With the win, the Dolphins improved to 9–5 and finished 3–1 against the NFC West.
==== Week 16: at Kansas City Chiefs ====
With the win, the Dolphins improved to 10–5.
==== Week 17: at New York Jets ====
The Dolphins clinched the AFC East title as they intercepted Jets quarterback Brett Favre three times (Philip Merling ran in a 25-yard touchdown on a Favre pick) while Charlie Anderson and Patrick Cobbs blocked a Jets punt. The win put the Dolphins into the playoffs for the first time since 2001 as they finished the season with an 11–5 record and locked up the AFC's No. 3 seed. As of 2025, this remains the last time the Dolphins had clinched the AFC East.
=== Transactions ===
==== August ====
31 – Signed running back Ricky Williams to a one-year contract extension through the 2009 season.
31 – Waived wide receiver Anthony Armstrong, offensive lineman Trey Darilek and linebacker Rob Ninkovich.
31 – Claimed offensive lineman Andy Alleman (Saints), offensive tackle Nate Garner (Jets) and wide receiver Brandon London (Giants) off waivers.
==== September ====
1 – Signed cornerback Will Billingsley, wide receiver Jayson Foster, offensive tackle Daren Heerspink, running back Lex Hilliard, tight end Matthew Mulligan and linebacker Tyson Smith (Cowboys) to the practice squad.
2 – Released cornerback Joey Thomas.
2 – Signed safety Tyrone Culver (Packer).
2 – Released wide receiver Jayson Foster from the practice squad.
2 – Re-signed wide receiver Anthony Armstrong, linebacker Rob Ninkovich and defensive tackle Anthony Toribio to the practice squad.
9 – Released fullback Boomer Grigsby.
9 – Signed fullback Casey Cramer (Titans).
9 – Placed guard Donald Thomas on injured reserve.
9 – Signed guard Evan Mathis (Panther).
11 – Released tight end Sean Ryan.
11 – Claimed offensive tackle Kirk Barton (Bears) off waivers.
12 – Released offensive tackle Daren Heerspink from the practice squad.
12 – Signed tight end Drew Atchison (Cowboys) to the practice squad.
23 – Waived running back Jalen Parmele.
23 – Released tight end Drew Atchison from the practice squad.
23 – Signed guard Matt McChesney (Jets) to the practice squad.
24 – Signed tight end Joey Haynos off the practice squad of the Green Bay Packers.
25 – Released cornerback Will Billingsley from the practice squad.
25 – Re-signed running back Jalen Parmele to the practice squad.
==== October ====
4 – Released defensive tackle Anthony Toribio from the practice squad.
4 – Re-signed cornerback Will Billingsley to the practice squad.
6 – Released linebacker Tyson Smith from the practice squad.
6 – Signed linebacker Marc Magro (Rams) to the practice squad.
8 – Released cornerback Will Billingsley from the practice squad.
8 – Re-signed defensive tackle Anthony Toribio to the practice squad.
11 – Released defensive tackle Anthony Toribio from the practice squad.
11 – Re-signed cornerback Will Billingsley to the practice squad.
14 – Released safety Tyrone Culver.
14 – Released linebacker Marc Magro from the practice squad.
14 – Signed linebacker William Kershaw (Saints) to the practice squad.
15 – Waived offensive tackle Kirk Barton.
15 – Signed safety Brannon Condren (Rams).
15 – Signed fullback Lousaka Polite (Bears).
18 – Suspended defensive tackle Paul Soliai for one game.
18 – Released cornerback Will Billingsley from the practice squad.
18 – Re-signed defensive tackle Anthony Toribio to the practice squad.
20 – Lifted suspension of defensive tackle Paul Soliai.
21 – Released safety Chris Crocker.
21 – Re-signed safety Tyrone Culver.
24 – Placed cornerback Michael Lehan on injured reserve.
24 – Re-signed cornerback Joey Thomas.
==== November ====
4 – Waived wide receiver Derek Hagan.
4 – Released tight end Matthew Mulligan from the practice squad.
4 – Re-signed cornerback Will Billingsley to the practice squad.
5 – Signed offensive tackle Brandon Frye off the practice squad of the Houston Texans.
7 – Waived guard Evan Mathis.
7 – Signed guard Matt McChesney from the practice squad to the active roster.
10 – Waived safety Brannon Condren.
10 – Re-signed safety Courtney Bryan.
10 – Signed wide receiver Todd Lowber (Cowboys) to the practice squad.
11 – Released defensive tackle Anthony Toribio from the practice squad.
11 – Signed offensive tackle Kirk Barton (49ers) to the practice squad.
15 – Placed guard Matt McChesney on injured reserve.
15 – Signed linebacker Rob Ninkovich from the practice squad to the active roster.
18 – Signed defensive tackle Joe Cohen (49ers) to the practice squad.
19 – Waived linebacker Rob Ninkovich.
19 – Claimed linebacker Erik Walden (Chiefs) off waivers.
21 – Released cornerback Will Billingsley from the practice squad.
21 – Re-signed linebacker Rob Ninkovich to the practice squad.
24 – Placed wide receiver Greg Camarillo on injured reserve.
28 – Practice squad offensive tackle Kirk Barton signed by the Cincinnati Bengals.
29 – Signed center Al Johnson (Cardinals).
29 – Re-signed cornerback Will Billingsley to the practice squad.
==== December ====
2 – Placed guard Justin Smiley on injured reserve.
3 – Claimed wide receiver Chris Hannon off waivers from the San Francisco 49ers.
3 – Practice squad linebacker Rob Ninkovich signed by the New Orleans Saints.
9 – Re-signed offensive tackle Daren Heerspink to the practice squad.
10 – Practice Squad running back Jalen Parmele signed by the Baltimore Ravens.
10 – Signed fullback Chris Brown to the practice squad.
10 – Waived cornerback Michael Lehan from injured reserve.
20 – Waived fullback Casey Cramer.
20 – Signed linebacker William Kershaw from the practice squad to the active roster.
22 – Waived wide receiver Chris Hannon.
22 – Signed linebacker Derek Smith (Chargers).
24 – Re-signed cornerback Scorpio Babers to the practice squad.
=== Awards and honors ===
==== Coaches ====
After leading the Dolphins to an 11–5 record and an AFC East title in his first year as head coach, Tony Sparano was selected as the NFL Alumni's 2008 Coach of the Year. Sparano was also one of six nominees for the 2008 Motorola NFL Coach of the Year Award.
==== Players ====
The Dolphins landed two players – running back Ronnie Brown and linebacker Joey Porter – on the AFC's Pro Bowl team. Porter recorded 17.5 sacks during the 2008 season and was named as a starter on the AFC's squad. In his first career Pro Bowl season, Brown led the Dolphins with 214 carries, 916 rushing yards and 10 rushing touchdowns. He also ranked fourth on the team with 33 catches and sixth with 254 receiving yards.
Additionally, Porter was nominated for the GMC Sierra Defensive Player of the Year Award and was a second-team AP All-Pro selection. Quarterback Chad Pennington, guard Justin Smiley and cornerback Will Allen also received votes for the All-Pro team but were not selected.
However, Pennington did earn the NFL Comeback Player of the Year Award for the second time in his career. Pennington led the NFL with a 67.4 completion percentage and was second in the NFL with a 97.4 passer rating. He threw for a career-high 3,653 yards, 19 touchdowns and just seven interceptions.
In January 2009, three Dolphins rookies were selected to the Pro Football Writers Association's All-Rookie Team. Earning selections were offensive tackle Jake Long, defensive end Kendall Langford and placekicker Dan Carpenter.
The first overall pick in the 2008 NFL draft, Long started all 16 games for the Dolphins at left tackle. A third-round pick out of Hampton, Langford started 14 of the 16 games in which he played as a rookie and recorded 31 tackles and two sacks. Undrafted out of Montana, Carpenter went 21-for-25 (84 percent) on field goals and made all 40 extra-point attempts.
== Playoffs ==
=== Game summaries ===
==== AFC Wild Card: vs. Baltimore Ravens ====
Entering the postseason as the AFC's No. 3 seed, the Dolphins began their playoff run at home in the AFC Wild Card Round, with a Week 7 rematch against the No. 6 Baltimore Ravens. Miami would deliver the game's first points with rookie kicker Dan Carpenter's 19-yard field goal. The Ravens would later respond with a 23-yard field goal from kicker Matt Stover. Baltimore would take the lead with safety Ed Reed returning a Chad Pennington interception 64 yards for a touchdown. The Ravens would then close out the half with Stover's 31-yard field goal.
Baltimore would increase their lead in the third quarter with running back Le'Ron McClain's 8-yard touchdown run. The Dolphins tried to come back in the fourth quarter as Pennington completed a 2-yard touchdown pass to running back Ronnie Brown (with a failed PAT), but the Ravens would pull away as quarterback Joe Flacco got a 5-yard touchdown run.
With the loss, Miami's impressive turnaround season ended with an overall record of 11–6.
Despite having only 16 turnovers throughout the entire regular season, the Dolphins committed 5 turnovers (4 interceptions and a lost fumble). |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Talbot,_6th_Earl_of_Shrewsbury | George Talbot, 6th Earl of Shrewsbury | George Talbot, 6th Earl of Shrewsbury, 6th Earl of Waterford, 12th Baron Talbot, KG, Earl Marshal
(c. 1522/1528 – 18 November 1590) was an English magnate and military commander. He also held the subsidiary titles of 15th Baron Strange of Blackmere and 11th Baron Furnivall. He was best known for his tenure as keeper of Mary, Queen of Scots between 1568 and 1585, his marriage to his second wife Elizabeth Talbot (Bess of Hardwick), as well as his surviving collection of written work.
== Life and career ==
Talbot was the only son of Francis Talbot, 5th Earl of Shrewsbury and Mary Dacre. In early life he saw active military service, when he took part in the invasion of Scotland under the Protector Somerset. He was sent by his father in October 1557 to the relief of Thomas Percy, 7th Earl of Northumberland pent up in Alnwick Castle. He then remained for some months in service on the border, with five hundred horsemen under his command.
In 1560, he inherited the Earldom of Shrewsbury, the Barony of Furnivall and the position of Justice in Eyre, which had been his father's. He also took over his father's position of Chamberlain of the Exchequer. One year later, he was created a Knight of the Garter.
Shrewsbury was selected as the keeper of Mary, Queen of Scots, who was imprisoned by Queen Elizabeth I in 1568 after she had escaped to England from Scotland following the disastrous Battle of Langside. Shrewsbury received his ward at Tutbury Castle on 2 February 1569, but in June he removed to Wingfield Manor, whereupon a rescue was attempted by Leonard Dacre. The Earl had several houses and castles in the interior of the kingdom, in any of which Mary might be kept with little danger. In September the household was back again at Tutbury, where an additional guard or spy, temporarily joined the family in the person of Henry Hastings, 3rd Earl of Huntingdon. In November took place the Northern Rebellion, with the revolt of the Earls of Northumberland and Westmorland, who planned to march on Tutbury. Mary was for the time being moved to Coventry, and did not return until the following January.
In May 1570 Shrewsbury conducted her to Chatsworth, where he foiled another cabal aiming for her release. Cecil and Mildmay visited Chatsworth in October, and agreed on Mary's removal to Sheffield Castle (Shrewsbury's principal seat), which took place shortly afterwards. At Sheffield, apart from occasional visits to the baths at Buxton, to Chatsworth, or to the old Hardwick Hall, she remained under Shrewsbury's guardianship for the next fourteen years. During the winter of 1571–72 the earl was in London, the queen during his absence being left in charge of Sir Ralph Sadler. Meanwhile, in 1571, Lord Shrewsbury was appointed Lord High Steward (the premier Great Office of State) for the trial of Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk (regarding the Ridolfi plot). Finally, in 1572, Lord Shrewsbury was appointed Earl Marshal, a position that he held (along with the aforementioned position of Justice in Eyre) until his death in 1590.
After the conviction of Mary for her role in the Babington Plot, Shrewsbury participated in her trial and was one of the official witnesses to her execution at Fotheringhay Castle on 8 February 1587.
== Personal life, illness and death ==
Upon the death of his first wife, Gertrude Manners, Shrewsbury was immediately taken by Bess of Hardwick. In early 1568 he married her in a double wedding with their two eldest children from previous marriages. Elizabeth Shrewsbury, "Bess," commemorated her new initials in magnificent style: her house at Hardwick is topped with a balustrade within which the scrolling letters ES appear four times.
He sent a servant, Ralph Barber, on a shopping trip to Rouen in 1575. Barber bought wine, vinegar, damask and diaper linen for napkins, silk, canvas, caged live quails, and sugar confitures, which he delivered to the earl in London. Shrewsbury built a new house in London, raising speculation that Mary, Queen of Scots, might be brought there.
Queen Elizabeth had imposed the responsible task of guarding Mary on Shrewsbury, and did not allow him to resign the charge for over 15 years. For this and other reasons (such as disputes over property distribution) his marriage with Bess of Hardwick, while initially successful, became rocky, and began to deteriorate around 1583, as detailed by surviving letters between the two. Slowly but increasingly declining health (rheumatism) caused chronic pain, and money issues that inevitably came about during his time as keeper of the Queen of Scots, made him additionally caustic. Elizabeth attempted to reconcile Shrewsbury and Hardwick between 1586 and 1589; however, while the latter was in support of this, Shrewsbury seems to have remained indignant and spent his final years without her, instead seeking the comfort of Eleanor Britton, one of his servants.
George Talbot, 6th Earl of Shrewsbury died on 18 November 1590, survived by his wife Bess of Hardwick. He was buried in the Shrewsbury chapel at Sheffield Parish Church (now Sheffield Cathedral), where a large monument erected to him remains.
== Marriages and children ==
He married twice:
Firstly to Gertrude Manners, a daughter of Thomas Manners, 1st Earl of Rutland. Their children included:
Francis, Lord Talbot, eldest son and heir apparent, who predeceased his father, having married, in 1563, Lady Anne Herbert, the only daughter of William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke and Anne Parr, sister to the late Queen Catherine Parr. He was known as "Lord Talbot", a courtesy title, being one of his father's lesser titles.
Gilbert Talbot, 7th Earl of Shrewsbury, second but eldest surviving son and heir.
Henry Talbot (1562–1596), who married Elizabeth Rayner (1556–1612). Amongst his daughters were Gertrude Talbot, wife of Robert Pierrepont, 1st Earl of Kingston-upon-Hull, and Mary Talbot (1594–1676), who married firstly her step-brother Thomas Holcroft (1596 – c. 1626) of Vale Royale, and secondly (in 1628) Sir William Airmine (or Armyne), 1st Baronet (1593–1651) of Osgodby, Lincolnshire. Elizabeth Rayner survived her husband and in 1595 remarried to Thomas Holcroft, son of another Thomas Holcroft.
Edward Talbot, 8th Earl of Shrewsbury (1552–1616), who succeeded his elder brother in the earldom.
Catherine Talbot, who in 1563 married Henry, Lord Herbert, afterwards 2nd Earl of Pembroke. Queen Elizabeth gave her many tokens of friendship.
Mary Talbot, who married Sir George Savile, 1st Baronet of Barrowby, Lincolnshire;
Grace Talbot, who married her step-brother Henry Cavendish (1550–1616), son and heir of Sir William Cavendish of Chatsworth in Derbyshire by his wife Elizabeth Hardwick.
Secondly he married Elizabeth Hardwick (c. 1527 – 1608), (Bess of Hardwick), of Hardwick Hall in Derbyshire, widow of Sir William Cavendish of Chatsworth in Derbyshire; without progeny.
== Letters and papers ==
Shrewsbury left behind much written documentation including letters and papers. Generally, these cover the time between his succession to the earlship in 1560 and his death. Many of Shrewsbury's surviving papers found their way in the College of Arms and were re-united with others in the Lambeth Palace library in 1983 as the "Shrewsbury-Talbot papers". This historical resource was first published in 1791 by Edmund Lodge, and all the letters were more recently summarized in calendar form.
Lodge, Edmund, ed., Illustrations of British History, 3 vols., London (1791)
Lodge, Edmund, ed., Illustrations of British History, 3 vols., Oxford, (1838)
Bill, E. G. W., ed., Calendar of Shrewsbury papers in the Lambeth Palace Library, Derbyshire Record Society (1966)
Batho, G. R., ed., Calendar of the Shrewsbury and Talbot manuscripts in the College of Arms, HMC (1971)
In addition to these, letters by Talbot to and from his second wife Bess of Hardwick survive in the University of Glasgow's collection and have been digitized by them online.
Despite the wealth of surviving written material Shrewsbury's handwriting is notorious among scholars for its illegibility. For example, an 1875 article in the Sheffield Independent Press declared his handwriting "the despair of all transcribers" (a view still held by scholars and paleographers), which is worsened by the non-standard spelling of the time. It is accepted that Shrewsbury suffered from rheumatism ("gout") in his hand. Shrewsbury himself once referred to his pen-hand as "my evil favoured writing".
== In fiction ==
George Talbot is a primary character in the historical fiction novels The Captive Queen of Scots by Jean Plaidy and The Other Queen by Philippa Gregory. He is also a recurring character in Friedrich Schiller's play Mary Stuart (as Lord Shrewsbury) and in the tragic opera inspired by it, Gaetano Donizetti's Maria Stuarda (as Giorgo Talbot). |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_David | Larry David | Lawrence Gene David (born July 2, 1947) is an American comedian, writer, actor, and television producer. He is known for his dry wit, portrayals of awkward social situations, and brutally honest takes on everyday life. He has received two Primetime Emmy Awards as well as nominations for three Golden Globe Awards and six Screen Actors Guild Awards. He received the Writers Guild of America's Laurel Award in 2010.
David started his career as a stand-up comedian before transitioning into television comedy, where he wrote and starred in ABC's Fridays (1980–1982) and wrote briefly for Saturday Night Live (1984–1985). He gained prominence and acclaim when he and Jerry Seinfeld created the NBC sitcom Seinfeld (1989–1998). He won two Primetime Emmy Awards in 1993, for Outstanding Comedy Series and Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series. He gained further recognition for creating, writing, and starring in the HBO series Curb Your Enthusiasm (2000–2024).
Since 2015, David has made guest appearances on Saturday Night Live impersonating 2016 and 2020 U.S. presidential candidate Bernie Sanders. He has acted in three films directed by Woody Allen, including Radio Days (1987) and Whatever Works (2009). He also wrote and starred in the HBO movie Clear History (2013). On stage, he made his Broadway debut writing and starring in the comedic play Fish in the Dark (2015). He has written several comedic pieces for The New Yorker and The New York Times.
== Early life and education ==
David was born on July 2, 1947, in the Sheepshead Bay neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York City. His parents are Rose (née Regina Brandes) and Mortimer Julius "Morty" David, a men's clothing manufacturer, and he has an older brother, Ken. David's family is Jewish. His American Jewish father's family moved from Germany to the U.S. during the 19th century. David's mother was born into a Polish-Jewish family in Ternopil, now in Ukraine; her mother's family name was Superfein.
David graduated from Sheepshead Bay High School, now defunct and operating as Frank J. Macchiarola Educational Complex, in 1965. A sign with his photo is displayed in one of the complex's hallways. He then attended the University of Maryland, College Park, where he was a brother in Tau Epsilon Phi. He graduated in 1970 with a Bachelor of Arts in history. At college, he discovered that he could make people laugh simply by being himself. After college, David joined the United States Army Reserve and received training as a petroleum storage specialist. To avoid the final year of his six-year enlistment, he paid a psychiatrist to write a letter declaring him unfit for duty.
== Career ==
=== 1980–1987: Stand-up and SNL ===
While a stand-up comedian, David also worked as a store clerk, limousine driver, and historian. He lived in Manhattan Plaza, a federally subsidized housing complex in Manhattan's Hell's Kitchen neighborhood, across the hall from Kenny Kramer, the inspiration for the Cosmo Kramer character in Seinfeld. From 1980 to 1982, David became a writer and cast member for ABC's Fridays, where he worked with Michael Richards, who later played Kramer on Seinfeld.
From 1984 to 1985, David was a writer for NBC's Saturday Night Live (SNL) where he met cast member Julia Louis-Dreyfus. During his time at SNL, he was able to get only one sketch on the air, which aired at 12:50 am, the show's last time slot. David quit his job at SNL in the first season, angrily disparaging the quality of the show to producer Dick Ebersol, only to show up to work two days later as if nothing had happened. That event inspired the second-season Seinfeld episode "The Revenge". He can be heard heckling Michael McKean when McKean hosted SNL in 1984, and can be seen in the sketch "The Run, Throw, and Catch Like a Girl Olympics" when Howard Cosell hosted the season finale in 1985. In 1987, David was a writer and performer for Way Off Broadway, a variety talk show on Lifetime hosted by Joy Behar.
=== 1989–1998: Breakthrough with Seinfeld ===
In 1989, David teamed up with comedian Jerry Seinfeld to create a pilot for NBC called The Seinfeld Chronicles, which became the basis for Seinfeld, one of the most successful shows in history, reaching the top of TV Guide's list of the 50 greatest TV shows of all time. Entertainment Weekly ranked it the third-best US TV show of all time. David made occasional uncredited appearances on the show, playing such roles as Frank Costanza's cape-wearing lawyer and the voice of George Steinbrenner. He was also the primary inspiration for the show's character George Costanza. David left Seinfeld amicably after the show's seventh season and returned two years later to write the series finale in 1998. He also continued to voice Steinbrenner.
David wrote 62 Seinfeld episodes, including 1992's "The Contest", for which he won a Primetime Emmy Award and which TV Guide ranked as episode No. 1 on its list of "TV's Top 100 Episodes of All Time". He has also been involved in other films and television series. David wrote and directed the 1998 film Sour Grapes, about two cousins who feud over a casino jackpot. It was neither a commercial nor a critical success. He has also appeared in bit roles in Woody Allen's Radio Days (1987) and New York Stories (1989).
=== 1999–2024: Curb Your Enthusiasm and acclaim ===
The HBO cable television channel aired David's one-hour special, Larry David: Curb Your Enthusiasm, on October 17, 1999. This was followed by Curb Your Enthusiasm, an HBO television series whose first episode aired on October 15, 2000. The show revisits many of the themes of Seinfeld and is improvised from a story outline only several pages long written by David (and, from the fifth season onward, additional writers).
The actors improvise their dialogue based on the outline and direction. David has said that his character in the show, a fictionalized version of himself, is what he would be like in real life if he lacked social awareness and sensitivity. The character's numerous and frequent social faux pas, misunderstandings, and ironic coincidences are the basis of much of the show's comedy and have led to the entry into the American pop culture lexicon of the expression "Larry David moment", meaning an inadvertently created socially awkward situation. Curb Your Enthusiasm has been described as depicting "the things nobody wants to say, but wish they could".
The show is based on David's life following the fortune he earned from Seinfeld; semi-retired, he strives to live a fulfilled life. Alongside David is his wife Cheryl (Cheryl Hines), his manager and best friend Jeff (Jeff Garlin), and Jeff's wife Susie (Susie Essman). Celebrities, including comedians Richard Lewis, Wanda Sykes, and Bob Einstein, appeared on the show regularly. Actors Ted Danson and Mary Steenburgen have had recurring roles as themselves.
The show is critically acclaimed and has been nominated for 30 Primetime Emmy Awards, with one win, as well as a Golden Globe win. In the first six seasons, Julia Louis-Dreyfus and Jason Alexander appear in several episodes, and Jerry Seinfeld has a cameo. In season 7, the cast of Seinfeld, including Michael Richards, return in a story arc involving David's attempt to organize a Seinfeld reunion special. On June 2, 2010, the series premiered on the TV Guide Network, its network television debut. TV Guide Network also produced a series of related discussions with high-profile guest stars, media pundits, and prominent social figures called "Curb: The Discussion" debating the moral implications of each episode. David is quoted as saying "Finally, thanks to the TV Guide Network, I'll get a chance to watch actual, intelligent people discuss and debate the issues addressed on 'Curb'. Now if only someone could tell me where this alleged 'Network' is, I might even watch it." The show's 12th and final season premiered in January 2024.
David played the leading role in Woody Allen's 2009 comedy film Whatever Works alongside Evan Rachel Wood. He had a cameo appearance on the HBO series Entourage as a client of Ari Gold, and because his daughters were Hannah Montana fans, David and his daughters guest-starred as themselves in the episode "My Best Friend's Boyfriend", in which they wait for a table at a fancy restaurant. David appeared as a panelist on the NBC series The Marriage Ref and also played Sister Mary-Mengele in the 2012 reboot of The Three Stooges. He co-wrote and starred in the 2013 HBO television film Clear History. David wrote and starred in the Broadway play Fish in the Dark. Also appearing were Rita Wilson, Jayne Houdyshell, and Rosie Perez. The play centers on the death of a family patriarch. It opened on March 5, 2015. Jason Alexander took over David's role in July. The play closed in August. As of February 1, 2015, its advance sale of $13.5 million had broken records for a Broadway show.
==== Portrayal of Bernie Sanders ====
Since 2015, David has made multiple guest appearances portraying 2016 and 2020 United States presidential election candidate Bernie Sanders on Saturday Night Live; he also hosted the show on February 6, 2016, with musical guest The 1975 and a cameo by Sanders himself, and on November 4, 2017, with musical guest Miley Cyrus.
In 2017, PBS's Finding Your Roots discovered through genealogical research that David and Sanders are distantly related. Sanders told David the news. "I was very happy about that," David said, according to Variety. "I thought there must have been some connection." The comedian explained that Sanders is "a third cousin or something". He is in fact David's sixth cousin once removed.
On January 8, 2020, David joked on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, "I would say, I would beg him [Bernie] to drop out so I don't have to keep flying in from Los Angeles to do SNL. I thought when he had the heart attack that would be it, I wouldn't have to fly in from Los Angeles. But, you know, he's indestructible. Nothing stops this man!" He later added, "If he wins, do you know what that's going to do to my life? Do you have any idea? I mean, it will be great for the country—great for the country, terrible for me."
==== "My Dinner With Adolf" essay (2025) ====
On April 21, 2025, The New York Times published an opinion essay by David titled "My Dinner With Adolf". Framed as a fictional 1939 dinner between the narrator and Adolf Hitler, the satirical piece uses dark humor to explore how personal charm can dangerously obscure the true nature of monstrous people. Without directly naming any contemporary figures, the essay mirrors the language Bill Maher used when describing his dinner with Donald Trump. Despite being a longtime critic of Trump, Maher characterized Trump as "gracious and measured" in private.
=== 2025–present: Return to television ===
In July 2025, David announced his return to television with a six-episode sketch comedy series for HBO, centered on overlooked figures and absurd moments in U.S. history. The series is co-written and executive produced by David and longtime collaborator Jeff Schaffer, who will also direct. The show is produced in collaboration with Barack and Michelle Obama's Higher Ground Productions. David, who said he was returning to TV "with a heavy heart" following the end of Curb Your Enthusiasm, will star alongside several familiar faces from Curb and guest appearances. The project is intended to coincide with the 250th anniversary of the United States. Life, Larry and the Pursuit of Unhappiness: An Almost History of America will premiere in June 2026.
== Influences ==
David has named Woody Allen, Mel Brooks, Phil Silvers, Abbott and Costello, Jackie Mason, Alan King, Don Rickles, and Mad magazine as influences.
== Personal life ==
David lives in the Pacific Palisades neighborhood of Los Angeles, California. He was married to Laurie Lennard from 1993 to 2007. They have two daughters, Cazzie David and Romy David. Larry and Laurie became contributing bloggers at The Huffington Post in 2005. In 2017, David was introduced to producer Ashley Underwood at a birthday party for Sacha Baron Cohen. They married in 2020. David's niece is actress Julie Claire, who appears in Seinfeld and Curb Your Enthusiasm.
David is an atheist and an avid sports fan. A native New Yorker, he supports the New York Jets, Yankees, Knicks, and Rangers. David is also a supporter of the Democratic Party. In 2010, he wrote an article for The New York Times criticizing the extension of the Bush tax cuts for the wealthy. He ended the article by sarcastically thanking then-President Barack Obama for approving the extension.
=== Wealth ===
In 2013, Charlie Rose estimated David's net worth at around $500 million. Two years later, two other estimates put the number between $400 million and $900 million. In 2020, National Review offered an estimate of about $400 million.
Most of David's wealth originates from syndication deals of Seinfeld and Curb Your Enthusiasm, the former having netted $3.1 billion in rerun fees as of 2013. The syndication of Seinfeld earned David an estimated $250 million in 1998 alone. In 2008, David was reported to have grossed $55 million, mostly from Seinfeld syndication and work on Curb Your Enthusiasm.
David's net worth was parodied in a 2001 episode of Curb Your Enthusiasm, "The Shrimp Incident", in which HBO executive Allan Wasserman yells at David: "If you want shrimp, take your $475 million, go buy a shrimp boat."
In a 2015 interview with CBS, David confirmed that his 2007 divorce reduced his wealth by half in the community property state of California. "I have a lot of money", he said, but added that the "figures out there are crazy".
=== Cryptocurrency promotion lawsuit ===
David was among several celebrities who appeared in television commercials for the cryptocurrency exchange FTX that aired during Super Bowl LVI in February 2022. In November 2022, FTX filed for bankruptcy, and David, alongside other spokespeople, was sued in a class action lawsuit. In January 2024, David expressed some regrets over appearing in the ad. In May 2025, a federal court dismissed most claims in the lawsuit.
== Works and performances ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
=== Theater ===
=== Bibliography ===
David, Larry (January 1, 2006). "Cowboys Are My Weakness". The New York Times. Retrieved April 3, 2023.
David, Larry (December 20, 2010). "Thanks for the Tax Cut!". The New York Times. Retrieved June 13, 2020.
David, Larry (July 23, 2018). "The Most Important Meal of the Day". The New York Times. Retrieved June 13, 2020.
David, Larry (August 10, 2018). "What Really Happened at Trump Tower". The New York Times. Retrieved June 13, 2020.
David, Larry (November 18, 2019). "On the First-World Campaign Trail". Shouts & Murmurs. The New Yorker. Vol. 95, no. 36. p. 29. Retrieved February 17, 2020.
David, Larry (November 22, 2019). "Imagining What Keeps Trump Up at Night". The New York Times. Retrieved June 13, 2020.
David, Larry (November 29, 2021). "Larry David's Notes for His Biographer". The New Yorker. Retrieved December 5, 2021.
David, Larry (April 21, 2025). "Larry David: My Dinner with Adolf". The New York Times. Retrieved April 22, 2025.
== Awards and nominations ==
David has received numerous awards, including two Emmy Awards, three Producers Guild of America Awards, and three Writers Guild of America Awards. He has been nominated for three Golden Globe Awards and six Screen Actors Guild Awards. Fellow comedians and comedy insiders voted David the 23rd-greatest comedy star ever in a poll to select The Comedian's Comedian. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire | Western Roman Empire | In modern historiography, the Western Roman Empire was the Roman Empire's western provinces collectively during any period in which they were administered separately from the eastern provinces by a separate, independent imperial court. Particularly during the period from AD 395 to 476, there were separate, coequal courts dividing the governance of the empire into western and eastern provinces with a distinct imperial succession in the separate courts. The terms Western Roman Empire and Eastern Roman Empire were coined in modern times to describe political entities that were de facto independent; contemporary Romans did not consider the Empire to have been split into two empires but viewed it as a single polity governed by two imperial courts for administrative purposes. The Western Empire collapsed in 476, and the Western imperial court in Ravenna disappeared by 554, at the end of Justinian's Gothic War.
Though there were periods with more than one emperor ruling jointly before, the view that it was impossible for a single emperor to govern the entire Empire was institutionalized by emperor Diocletian following the disastrous civil wars and disintegrations of the Crisis of the Third Century. He introduced the system of the Tetrarchy in 286, with two senior emperors titled Augustus, one in the East and one in the West, each with an appointed subordinate and heir titled Caesar. Though the tetrarchic system would collapse in a matter of years, the East–West administrative division would endure in one form or another over the coming centuries. As such, the unofficial Western Roman Empire would exist intermittently in several periods between the 3rd and 5th centuries. Some emperors, such as Constantine I and Theodosius I, governed, if briefly, as the sole Augustus across the Roman Empire. On the death of Theodosius in 395, the empire was divided between his two infant sons, with Honorius as his successor in the West governing briefly from Mediolanum then from Ravenna, and Arcadius as his successor in the East governing from Constantinople.
In 476, after the Battle of Ravenna, the Roman army in the West suffered defeat at the hands of Odoacer and his Germanic foederati. Odoacer forced the abdication of the emperor Romulus Augustulus and became the first King of Italy. In 480, following the assassination of the previous Western emperor Julius Nepos, the Eastern emperor Zeno dissolved the Western court and proclaimed himself the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. The date of 476 was popularised by the 18th-century British historian Edward Gibbon as a demarcating event for the fall of the Western Roman Empire and is sometimes used to mark the transition from Antiquity to the Middle Ages. Odoacer's Italy and other barbarian kingdoms, many of them representing former Western Roman allies that had been granted lands in return for military assistance, would maintain a pretense of Roman continuity through the continued use of the old Roman administrative systems and nominal subservience to the Eastern Roman court.
In the 6th century, Emperor Justinian I re-imposed direct Imperial rule on large parts of the former Western Roman Empire, including the prosperous regions of North Africa, the ancient Roman heartland of Italy and parts of Hispania. Political instability in the Eastern heartlands, combined with foreign invasions, plague, and religious differences, made efforts to retain control of these territories difficult and they were gradually lost for good. Though the Eastern Empire retained territories in the south of Italy until the eleventh century, the influence that the Empire had over Western Europe had diminished significantly. The papal coronation of the Frankish king Charlemagne as Roman Emperor in 800 marked a new imperial line that would evolve into the Holy Roman Empire, which presented a revival of the Imperial title in Western Europe but was in no meaningful sense an extension of Roman traditions or institutions. The Great Schism of 1054 between the churches of Rome and Constantinople further diminished any authority the emperor in Constantinople could hope to exert in the West.
== Background ==
As the Roman Republic expanded, it reached a point where the central government in Rome could not effectively rule the distant provinces. Communications and transportation were especially problematic given the vast extent of the Empire. News of invasion, revolt, natural disasters, or epidemic outbreak was carried by ship or mounted postal service, often requiring much time to reach Rome and for Rome's orders to be returned and acted upon. Therefore, provincial governors had de facto autonomy in the name of the Roman Republic. Governors had several duties, including the command of armies, handling the taxes of the province and serving as the province's chief houses.
Prior to the establishment of the Empire, the territories of the Roman Republic had been divided in 43 BC among the members of the Second Triumvirate: Mark Antony, Octavian and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Antony received the provinces in the East: Achaea, Macedonia and Epirus (roughly modern Greece, Albania and the coast of Croatia), Bithynia, Pontus and Asia (roughly modern Turkey), Syria, Cyprus, and Cyrenaica. These lands had previously been conquered by Alexander the Great; thus, much of the aristocracy was of Greek origin. The whole region, especially the major cities, had been largely assimilated into Greek culture, Greek often serving as the lingua franca.
Octavian obtained the Roman provinces of the West: Italia (modern Italy), Gaul (modern France), Gallia Belgica (parts of modern Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg), and Hispania (modern Spain and Portugal). These lands also included Greek and Carthaginian colonies in the coastal areas, though Celtic tribes such as Gauls and Celtiberians were culturally dominant. Lepidus received the minor province of Africa (roughly modern Tunisia). Octavian soon took Africa from Lepidus, while adding Sicilia (modern Sicily) to his holdings.
Upon the defeat of Mark Antony, a victorious Octavian controlled a united Roman Empire. The Empire featured many distinct cultures; all experienced a gradual Romanization. While the predominantly Greek culture of the East and the predominantly Latin culture of the West functioned effectively as an integrated whole, political and military developments would ultimately realign the Empire along those cultural and linguistic lines. More often than not, Greek and Latin practices (and to some extent the languages themselves) would be combined in fields such as history (e.g., those by Cato the Elder), philosophy and rhetoric.
=== Rebellions and political developments ===
Minor rebellions and uprisings were fairly common events throughout the Empire. Conquered tribes or oppressed cities would revolt and the legions would be detached to crush the rebellion. While this process was simple in peacetime, it could be considerably more complicated in wartime. In a full-blown military campaign, the legions were far more numerous – as, for example, those led by Vespasian in the First Jewish–Roman War. To ensure a commander's loyalty, a pragmatic emperor might hold some members of the general's family hostage. To this end, Nero effectively held Domitian and Quintus Petillius Cerialis, Governor of Ostia, who were respectively the younger son and brother-in-law of Vespasian. Nero's rule was ended by a revolt of the Praetorian Guard, who had been bribed in the name of Galba. The Praetorian Guard, a figurative "sword of Damocles", was often perceived as being of dubious loyalty, primarily due its role in court intrigues and in overthrowing several emperors, including Pertinax and Aurelian. Following their example, the legions at the borders increasingly participated in civil wars. For instance, legions stationed in Egypt and the eastern provinces would see significant participation in the civil war of 218 between Emperor Macrinus and Elagabalus.
As the Empire expanded, two key frontiers revealed themselves. In the West, behind the rivers Rhine and Danube, Germanic tribes were an important enemy. Augustus, the first emperor, had tried to conquer them but had pulled back after the disastrous Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Whilst the Germanic tribes were formidable foes, the Parthian Empire in the East presented the greatest threat to the Empire. The Parthians were too remote and powerful to be conquered and there was a constant Parthian threat of invasion. The Parthians repelled several Roman invasions, and even after successful wars of conquest, such as those implemented by Trajan or Septimius Severus, the conquered territories were forsaken in attempts to ensure a lasting peace with the Parthians. The Parthian Empire would be succeeded by the Sasanian Empire, which continued hostilities with the Roman Empire.
Controlling the western border of Rome was reasonably easy because it was relatively close to Rome itself and also because of the disunity among the Germans. However, controlling both frontiers simultaneously during wartime was difficult. If the emperor was near the border in the East, the chances were high that an ambitious general would rebel in the West and vice versa. This wartime opportunism plagued many ruling emperors and indeed paved the road to power for several future emperors. By the time of the Crisis of the Third Century, usurpation became a common method of succession: Philip the Arab, Trebonianus Gallus and Aemilianus were all usurping generals-turned-emperors whose rule would end with usurpation by another powerful general.
The idea of co-emperorship was first tested by Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180), who decided to rule alongside his adoptive brother Lucius Verus. There was, however, much precedent. The consulate of the Republic was a twin magistracy, and earlier emperors had often had a subordinate lieutenant with many imperial offices. Many emperors had planned a joint succession in the past—Augustus planned to leave Gaius and Lucius Caesar as joint emperors on his death; Tiberius wished to have Caligula and Tiberius Gemellus do so as well; as Claudius with Nero and Britannicus. All of these arrangements had ended in failure, either through premature death (Gaius and Lucius) or murder (Gemellus and Britannicus). Marcus Aurelius ruled mostly from the West, while Verus spent most of his reign campaigning in the East, against Parthia. Verus accompanied Marcus at the start of the Marcomannic Wars, but died shortly after. Decades later, Septimius Severus (r. 193–211) appointed his sons Geta and Caracalla as joint heirs. However, Caracalla murdered his brother shortly after succeeding to the throne.
=== Crisis of the Third Century ===
With the assassination of the emperor Alexander Severus in March 235 by his own troops, the Roman Empire sank into a 50-year period of civil war now known as the Crisis of the Third Century. During this period, the Empire saw the combined pressures of barbarian invasions and migrations into Roman territory, civil wars, peasant rebellions and political instability, with multiple usurpers competing for power. The idea of dividing the empire was first developed in this time; Valerian and his son Gallienus divided the empire between them, the former ruling from the East and the latter from the West. However, Valerian was captured by the Sassanids at the Battle of Edessa, leaving Gallienus as sole emperor.
Saloninus, Gallienus' infant son, and the praetorian prefect Silvanus resided in Colonia Agrippina (modern Cologne) to solidify the loyalty of the local legions. Nevertheless, Postumus – the local governor of the German provinces – rebelled, and his assault on Colonia Agrippina resulted in the deaths of Saloninus and the prefect. In the confusion that followed, an independent state known in modern historiography as the Gallic Empire emerged. Its capital was Augusta Treverorum (modern Trier), and it quickly expanded its control over the German and Gaulish provinces, all of Hispania and Britannia. It had its own senate, and a partial list of its consuls still survives. It maintained Roman religion, language, and culture, and was far more concerned with fighting the Germanic tribes, fending off Germanic incursions and restoring the security the Gallic provinces had enjoyed in the past, than in challenging the Roman central government.
In the reign of Claudius Gothicus (268–270), large expanses of the Gallic Empire were restored to Roman rule. At roughly the same time, however, several eastern provinces seceded to form the Palmyrene Empire, under the rule of Queen Zenobia.
In 272, Emperor Aurelian finally managed to reclaim Palmyra and its territory for the empire. With the East secure, his attention turned to the West, invading the Gallic Empire a year later. Aurelian decisively defeated Tetricus I in the Battle of Châlons, and soon captured Tetricus and his son Tetricus II. Both Zenobia and the Tetrici were pardoned, although they were first paraded in a triumph.
=== Tetrarchy ===
Diocletian divided the Roman Empire when, in 286, he elevated Maximian to the rank of Augustus (emperor) and gave him control of the Western Empire, while he continued to rule the East. In 293, Galerius and Constantius Chlorus were appointed as their subordinate (caesars), as a way to avoid the civil unrest that had marked the 3rd century. This system effectively divided the Empire into four major regions, the First Tetrarchy: in the West, Maximian made Mediolanum (now Milan) his capital, and Constantius made Trier his. In the East, Galerius made his capital Sirmium and Diocletian made Nicomedia his. On 1 May 305, Diocletian and Maximian abdicated, replaced by Galerius and Constantius, who, in turn, appointed Maximinus II and Valerius Severus, respectively, as their caesars, thus creating the Second Tetrarchy.
The Tetrarchy collapsed after the unexpected death of Constantius in 306.
His son, Constantine, was declared Western emperor by the British legions, but several other claimants arose and attempted to seize the Western Empire. In 308, Galerius revived the Tetrarchy by dividing the Western Empire between Constantine and Licinius. However, Constantine was more interested in conquering the whole empire so, by 314, began to compete against Licinius, finally defeating him in 324 at the Battle of Chrysopolis. After Constantine unified the empire, he refounded the city of Byzantium in modern-day Turkey as Nova Roma ("New Rome"), later called Constantinople, and made it the capital of the Roman Empire. Although the Tetrarchy was ended, the concept of physically dividing the Roman Empire into East and a West continued, as happened after the deaths of Constantine and Theodosius I.
=== Further divisions ===
The Roman Empire was under the rule of a single emperor, but, with the death of Constantine in 337, the empire was partitioned between his surviving male heirs. Constantius, his third son and the second by his wife Fausta (Maximian's daughter) received the eastern provinces, including Constantinople, Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and Cyrenaica; Constantine II received Britannia, Gaul, Hispania, and Mauretania; and Constans, initially under the supervision of Constantine II, received Italy, Africa, Illyricum, Pannonia, Macedonia, and Achaea. The provinces of Thrace, Achaea and Macedonia were shortly controlled by Dalmatius, nephew of Constantine I and a caesar, not an Augustus, until his murder by his own soldiers in 337. The West was unified in 340 under Constans, who was assassinated in 350 under the order of the usurper Magnentius. After Magnentius lost the Battle of Mursa Major and committed suicide, a complete reunification of the whole Empire occurred under Constantius in 353.
Constantius II focused most of his power in the East. Under his rule, the city of Byzantium – only recently re-founded as Constantinople – was fully developed as a capital. At Constantinople, the political, economic and military control of the Eastern Empire's resources would remain safe for centuries to come. The city was well fortified and located at the crossroads of several major trade and military routes. The site had been acknowledged for its strategic importance already by emperors Septimius Severus and Caracalla, more than a century prior.
In 361, Constantius II became ill and died, and Constantius Chlorus' grandson Julian, who had served as Constantius II's Caesar, assumed power. Julian was killed in 363 in the Battle of Samarra against the Sasanian Empire and was succeeded by Jovian, who ruled for only nine months. Following the death of Jovian, Valentinian I emerged as emperor in 364. He immediately divided the Empire once again, giving the eastern half to his brother Valens. Stability was not achieved for long in either half, as the conflicts with outside forces (barbarian tribes) intensified. In 376, the Visigoths, fleeing before the Ostrogoths, who in turn were fleeing before the Huns, were allowed to cross the river Danube and settle in the Balkans by the Eastern government. Mistreatment caused a full-scale rebellion, and in 378 they inflicted a crippling defeat on the Eastern Roman field army in the Battle of Adrianople, in which Emperor Valens also died. The defeat at Adrianople was shocking to the Romans, and forced them to negotiate with and settle the Visigoths within the borders of the Empire, where they would become semi-independent foederati under their own leaders.
More than in the East, there was also opposition to the Christianizing policy of the emperors in the western part of the Empire. In 379, Valentinian I's son and successor Gratian declined to wear the mantle of Pontifex Maximus, and in 382 he rescinded the rights of pagan priests and removed the Altar of Victory from the Roman Curia, a decision which caused dissatisfaction among the traditionally pagan aristocracy of Rome.
The political situation was unstable. In 383, a powerful and popular general named Magnus Maximus seized power in the West and forced Gratian's half-brother Valentinian II to flee to the East for aid; in a destructive civil war the Eastern emperor Theodosius I restored him to power. In 392, the Frankish and pagan magister militum Arbogast assassinated Valentinian II and proclaimed an obscure senator named Eugenius as emperor. In 394 the forces of the two halves of the Empire again clashed with great loss of life. Again Theodosius I won, and he briefly ruled a united Empire until his death in 395. He was the last emperor to rule both parts of the Roman Empire before the West fragmented and collapsed.
Theodosius I's older son Arcadius inherited the eastern half while the younger Honorius got the western half. Both were still minors and neither was capable of ruling effectively. Honorius was placed under the tutelage of the half-Roman/half-barbarian magister militum Flavius Stilicho, while Rufinus became the power behind the throne in the east. Rufinus and Stilicho were rivals, and their disagreements would be exploited by the Gothic leader Alaric I who again rebelled in 408 following the massacre by Roman legions of thousands of barbarian families who were trying to assimilate into the Roman empire.
Neither half of the Empire could raise forces sufficient even to subdue Alaric's men, and both tried to use Alaric against the other half. Alaric himself tried to establish a long-term territorial and official base, but was never able to do so. Stilicho tried to defend Italy and bring the invading Goths under control, but to do so he stripped the Rhine frontier of troops and the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi invaded Gaul in large numbers in 406. Stilicho became a victim of court intrigues and was killed in 408. While the East began a slow recovery and consolidation, the West began to collapse entirely. Alaric's men sacked Rome in 410.
== History ==
=== Reign of Honorius ===
Honorius, the younger son of Theodosius I, was declared Augustus (and as such co-emperor with his father) on 23 January in 393, at the age of 9. Upon the death of Theodosius, Honorius inherited the throne of the West at the age of ten whilst his older brother Arcadius inherited the East. The western capital was initially Mediolanum, as it had been during previous divisions, but it was moved to Ravenna in 401 upon the entry of the Visigothic king Alaric I into Italy. Ravenna, protected by abundant marshes and strong fortifications, was far easier to defend and had easy access to the imperial fleet of the Eastern Empire but made it more difficult for the Roman military to defend the central parts of Italy from regular barbarian incursions. Ravenna would remain the western capital until 450 when Valentinian III moved the court back to Rome. Most western emperors from 450 until 475 reigned from Rome. The last de facto western emperor Romulus Augustulus resided in Ravenna from 475 until his deposition in 476 and Ravenna would later be the capital of both the Ostrogothic Kingdom and the Exarchate of Ravenna.
Despite the moved capital, economic power remained focused on Rome and its rich senatorial aristocracy which dominated much of Italy and Africa in particular. After Emperor Gallienus had banned senators from army commands in the mid-3rd century, the senatorial elite lost all experience of – and interest in – military life. In the early 5th century the wealthy landowning elite of the Roman Senate largely barred its tenants from military service, but it also refused to approve sufficient funding for maintaining a sufficiently powerful mercenary army to defend the entire Western Empire. The West's most important military area had been northern Gaul and the Rhine frontier in the 4th century, when Trier frequently served as a military capital of sorts for the Empire. Many leading Western generals were barbarians.
The reign of Honorius was, even by Western Roman standards, chaotic and plagued by both internal and external struggles. The Visigothic foederati under Alaric, magister militum in Illyricum, rebelled in 395. Gildo, the Comes Africae and Magister utriusque militiae per Africam, rebelled in 397 and initiated the Gildonic War. Stilicho managed to subdue Gildo but was campaigning in Raetia when the Visigoths entered Italy in 402. Stilicho, hurrying back to aid in defending Italy, summoned legions in Gaul and Britain with which he managed to defeat Alaric twice before agreeing to allow him to retreat back to Illyria.
The weakening of the frontiers in Britain and Gaul had dire consequences for the Empire. As the imperial government was not providing the military protection the northern provinces expected and needed, numerous usurpers arose in Britain, including Marcus (406–407), Gratian (407), and Constantine III who invaded Gaul in 407. Britain was effectively abandoned by the empire by 410 due to the lack of resources and the need to look after more important frontiers. The weakening of the Rhine frontier allowed multiple barbarian tribes, including the Vandals, Alans and Suebi, to cross the river and enter Roman territory in 406.
Honorius was convinced by the minister Olympius that Stilicho was conspiring to overthrow him, and so arrested and executed Stilicho in 408. Olympius headed a conspiracy that orchestrated the deaths of key individuals related to the faction of Stilicho, including his son and the families of many of his federated troops. This led many of the soldiers to instead join with Alaric, who returned to Italy in 409 and met little opposition. Despite attempts by Honorius to reach a settlement and six legions of Eastern Roman soldiers sent to support him, the negotiations between Alaric and Honorius broke down in 410 and Alaric sacked the city of Rome. Though the sack was relatively mild and Rome was no longer the capital of even the Western Empire, the event shocked people across both halves of the Empire as this was the first time Rome (viewed at least as the symbolic heart of the Empire) had fallen to a foreign enemy since the Gallic invasions of the 4th century BC. The Eastern Roman emperor Theodosius II, the successor of Arcadius, declared three days of mourning in Constantinople.
Without Stilicho and following the sack of Rome, Honorius' reign grew more chaotic. The usurper Constantine III had stripped Roman Britain of its defenses when he crossed over to Gaul in 407, leaving the Romanized population subject to invasions, first by the Picts and then by the Saxons, Angli, and the Jutes who began to settle permanently from about 440 onwards. After Honorius accepted Constantine as co-emperor, Constantine's general in Hispania, Gerontius, proclaimed Maximus as emperor. With the aid of general Constantius, Honorius defeated Gerontius and Maximus in 411 and shortly thereafter captured and executed Constantine III. With Constantius back in Italy, the Gallo-Roman senator Jovinus revolted after proclaiming himself emperor, with the support of the Gallic nobility and the barbarian Burgundians and Alans. Honorius turned to the Visigoths under King Athaulf for support. Athaulf defeated and executed Jovinus and his proclaimed co-emperor Sebastianus in 413, around the same time as another usurper arose in Africa, Heraclianus. Heraclianus attempted to invade Italy but failed and retreated to Carthage, where he was killed.
With the Roman legions withdrawn, northern Gaul became increasingly subject to Frankish influence, the Franks naturally adopting a leading role in the region. In 418, Honorius granted southwestern Gaul (Gallia Aquitania) to the Visigoths as a vassal federation. Honorius removed the local imperial governors, leaving the Visigoths and the provincial Roman inhabitants to conduct their own affairs. As such, the first of the "barbarian kingdoms", the Visigothic Kingdom, was formed.
=== Escalating barbarian conflicts ===
Honorius' death in 423 was followed by turmoil until the Eastern Roman government installed Valentinian III as Western emperor in Ravenna by force of arms, with Galla Placidia acting as regent during her son's minority. Theodosius II, the Eastern emperor, had hesitated to announce the death of Honorius and in the ensuing interregnum, Joannes was nominated as Western emperor. Joannes' rule was short and the forces of the East defeated and executed him in 425.After a violent struggle with several rivals, and against Placidia's wish, Aetius rose to the rank of magister militum. Aetius was able to stabilize the Western Empire's military situation somewhat, relying heavily on his Hunnic allies. With their help Aetius undertook extensive campaigns in Gaul, defeating the Visigoths in 437 and 438 but suffering a defeat himself in 439, ending the conflict in a status quo ante with a treaty.
Meanwhile, pressure from the Visigoths and a rebellion by Bonifacius, the governor of Africa, induced the Vandals under King Gaiseric to cross from Spain to Tingitana in what is now Morocco in 429. They temporarily halted in Numidia in 435 before moving eastward. With Aetius occupied in Gaul, the Western Roman government could do nothing to prevent the Vandals conquering the wealthy African provinces, culminating in the fall of Carthage on 19 October 439 and the establishment of the Vandal Kingdom. By the 400s, Italy and Rome itself were dependent on the taxes and foodstuffs from these provinces, leading to an economic crisis. With Vandal fleets becoming an increasing danger to Roman sea trade and the coasts and islands of the western and central Mediterranean, Aetius coordinated a counterattack against the Vandals in 440, organizing a large army in Sicily.
However, the plans for retaking Africa had to be abandoned due to the immediate need to combat the invading Huns, who in 444 were united under their ambitious king Attila. Turning against their former ally, the Huns became a formidable threat to the Empire. Aetius transferred his forces to the Danube, though Attila concentrated on raiding the Eastern Roman provinces in the Balkans, providing temporary relief to the Western Empire. In 449, Attila received a message from Honoria, Valentinian III's sister, offering him half the western empire if he would rescue her from an unwanted marriage that her brother was forcing her into. With a pretext to invade the West, Attila secured peace with the Eastern court and crossed the Rhine in early 451. With Attila wreaking havoc in Gaul, Aetius gathered a coalition of Roman and Germanic forces, including Visigoths and Burgundians, and prevented the Huns from taking the city of Aurelianum, forcing them into retreat. At the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, the Roman-Germanic coalition met and defeated the Hunnic forces, though Attila escaped.
Attila regrouped and invaded Italy in 452. With Aetius not having enough forces to attack him, the road to Rome was open. Valentinian sent Pope Leo I and two leading senators to negotiate with Attila. This embassy, combined with a plague among Attila's troops, the threat of famine, and news that the Eastern emperor Marcian had launched an attack on the Hun homelands along the Danube, forced Attila to turn back and leave Italy. When Attila died unexpectedly in 453, the power struggle that erupted between his sons ended the threat posed by the Huns.
=== Internal unrest and Majorian ===
Valentinian III was intimidated by Aetius and was encouraged by the Roman senator Petronius Maximus and the chamberlain Heraclius to assassinate him. When Aetius was at court in Ravenna delivering a financial account, Valentinian suddenly leaped from his seat and declared that he would no longer be the victim of Aetius' drunken depravities. Aetius attempted to defend himself from the charges, but Valentinian drew his sword and struck the weaponless Aetius on the head, killing him on the spot. On 16 March the following year, Valentinian himself was killed by supporters of the dead general, possibly acting for Petronius Maximus. With the end of the Theodosian dynasty, Petronius Maximus proclaimed himself emperor during the ensuing period of unrest.
Petronius was not able to take effective control of the significantly weakened and unstable Empire. He broke the betrothal between Huneric, son of the Vandal king Gaiseric, and Eudocia, daughter of Valentinian III. This was seen as a just cause of war by King Gaiseric, who set sail to attack Rome. Petronius and his supporters attempted to flee the city at the sight of the approaching Vandals, only to be stoned to death by a Roman mob. Petronius had reigned only 11 weeks. With the Vandals at the gates, Pope Leo I requested that the King not destroy the ancient city or murder its inhabitants, to which Gaiseric agreed and the city gates were opened to him. Though keeping his promise, Gaiseric looted great amounts of treasure and damaged objects of cultural significance such as the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. The severity of the Vandal sack of 455 is disputed, though with the Vandals plundering the city for a full fourteen days as opposed to the Visigothic sack of 410, where the Visigoths only spent three days in the city, it was likely more thorough.
Avitus, a prominent general under Petronius, was proclaimed emperor by the Visigothic king Theodoric II and accepted as such by the Roman Senate. Though supported by the Gallic provinces and the Visigoths, Avitus was resented in Italy due to ongoing food shortages caused by Vandal control of trade routes, and for using a Visigothic imperial guard. He disbanded his guard due to popular pressure, and the Suebian general Ricimer used the opportunity to depose Avitus, counting on popular discontent. After the deposition of Avitus, the Eastern emperor Leo I did not select a new western Augustus. The prominent general Majorian defeated an invading force of Alemanni and was subsequently proclaimed Western emperor by the army and eventually accepted as such by Leo.
Majorian was the last Western emperor to attempt to recover the Western Empire with his own military forces. To prepare, Majorian significantly strengthened the Western Roman army by recruiting large numbers of barbarian mercenaries, among them the Gepids, Ostrogoths, Rugii, Burgundians, Huns, Bastarnae, Suebi, Scythians and Alans, and built two fleets, one at Ravenna, to combat the strong Vandalic fleet. Majorian personally led the army to wage war in Gaul, leaving Ricimer in Italy. The Gallic provinces and the Visigothic Kingdom had rebelled following the deposition of Avitus, refusing to acknowledge Majorian as lawful emperor. At the Battle of Arelate, Majorian decisively defeated the Visigoths under Theoderic II and forced them to relinquish their great conquests in Hispania and return to foederati status. Majorian then entered the Rhone Valley, where he defeated the Burgundians and reconquered the rebel city of Lugdunum. With Gaul back under Roman control, Majorian turned his eyes to the Vandals and Africa. Not only did the Vandals pose a constant danger to coastal Italy and trade in the Mediterranean, but the province they ruled was economically vital to the survival of the West. Majorian began a campaign to fully reconquer Hispania to use it as a base for the reconquest of Africa. Throughout 459, Majorian campaigned against the Suebi in northwestern Hispania.
The Vandals began to increasingly fear a Roman invasion. King Gaiseric tried to negotiate a peace with Majorian, who rejected the proposal. In the wake of this, Gaiseric devastated Mauretania, part of his own kingdom, fearing that the Roman army would land there. Having regained control of Hispania, Majorian intended to use his fleet at Carthaginiensis to attack the Vandals. Before he could, the fleet was destroyed, allegedly by traitors paid by the Vandals. Deprived of his fleet, Majorian had to cancel his attack on the Vandals and conclude a peace with Gaiseric. Disbanding his barbarian forces, Majorian intended to return to Rome and issue reforms, stopping at Arelate on his way. Here, Ricimer deposed and arrested him in 461, having gathered significant aristocratic opposition against Majorian. After five days of beatings and torture, Majorian was beheaded near the river Iria.
=== Collapse ===
The final collapse of the Empire in the West was marked by increasingly ineffectual puppet emperors dominated by their Germanic magistri militum. The most pointed example of this is Ricimer, who effectively became a "shadow emperor" following the depositions of Avitus and Majorian. Unable to take the throne for himself due to his barbarian heritage, Ricimer appointed a series of puppet emperors who could do little to halt the collapse of Roman authority and the loss of the territories re-conquered by Majorian. The first of these puppet emperors, Libius Severus, had no recognition outside of Italy, with the Eastern emperor Leo I and provincial governors in Gaul and Illyria all refusing to recognize him.
Severus died in 465 and Leo I, with the consent of Ricimer, appointed the capable Eastern general Anthemius as Western emperor following an eighteen-month interregnum. The relationship between Anthemius and the East was good, Anthemius is the last Western emperor recorded in an Eastern law, and the two courts conducted a joint operation to retake Africa from the Vandals, culminating in the disastrous Battle of Cape Bon in 468. In addition Anthemius conducted failed campaigns against the Visigoths, hoping to halt their expansion.
The trial and subsequent execution of Romanus, an Italian senator and friend of Ricimer, on the grounds of treachery in 470 made Ricimer hostile to Anthemius. Following two years of ill feeling, Ricimer deposed and killed Anthemius in 472, elevating Olybrius to the Western throne. During the brief reign of Olybrius, Ricimer died and his nephew Gundobad succeeded him as magister militum. After only seven months of rule, Olybrius died of dropsy. Gundobad elevated Glycerius to Western emperor. The Eastern Empire had rejected Olybrius and also rejected Glycerius, instead supporting a candidate of their own, Julius Nepos, magister militum in Dalmatia. With the support of Eastern emperors Leo II and Zeno, Julius Nepos crossed the Adriatic Sea in the spring of 474 to depose Glycerius. At the arrival of Nepos in Italy, Glycerius abdicated without a fight and was allowed to live out his life as the Bishop of Salona.
The brief rule of Nepos in Italy ended in 475 when Orestes, a former secretary of Attila and the magister militum of Julius Nepos, took control of Ravenna and forced Nepos to flee by ship to Dalmatia. Later in the same year, Orestes crowned his own young son as Western emperor under the name Romulus Augustus. Romulus Augustus was not recognised as Western emperor by the Eastern Court, who maintained that Nepos was the only legal Western emperor, reigning in exile from Dalmatia.
On 4 September 476, Odoacer, leader of the Germanic foederati in Italy, captured Ravenna, killed Orestes and deposed Romulus. Though Romulus was deposed, Nepos did not return to Italy and continued to reign as Western emperor from Dalmatia, with support from Constantinople. Odoacer proclaimed himself ruler of Italy and began to negotiate with the Eastern emperor Zeno. Zeno eventually granted Odoacer patrician status as recognition of his authority and accepted him as his viceroy of Italy. Zeno, however, insisted that Odoacer had to pay homage to Julius Nepos as the emperor of the Western Empire. Odoacer accepted this condition and issued coins in the name of Julius Nepos throughout Italy. This, however, was mainly an empty political gesture, as Odoacer never returned any real power or territories to Nepos. The murder of Nepos in 480 prompted Odoacer to invade Dalmatia, annexing it to his Kingdom of Italy.
=== Fall of the Empire ===
By convention, the Western Roman Empire is deemed to have ended on 4 September 476, when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustus, but the historical record calls this determination into question. Indeed, the deposition of Romulus Augustus received very little attention in contemporary times. Romulus was a usurper in the eyes of the Eastern Roman Empire and the remaining territories of Western Roman control outside of Italy, with the previous emperor Julius Nepos still being alive and claiming to rule the Western Empire in Dalmatia. Furthermore, the Western court had lacked true power and had been subject to Germanic aristocrats for decades, with most of its legal territory being under control of various barbarian kingdoms. With Odoacer recognising Julius Nepos, and later the Eastern emperor Zeno, as his sovereign, nominal Roman control continued in Italy. Syagrius, who had managed to preserve Roman sovereignty in an exclave in northern Gaul (a realm today known as the Domain of Soissons) also recognized Nepos as his sovereign and the legitimate Western emperor.
The authority of Julius Nepos as emperor was accepted not only by Odoacer in Italy, but by the Eastern Empire and Syagrius in Gaul (who had not recognized Romulus Augustulus). Nepos was murdered by his own soldiers in 480, a plot some attribute to Odoacer or the previous, deposed emperor Glycerius, and the Eastern emperor Zeno chose not to appoint a new Western emperor. Zeno, recognizing that no true Roman control remained over the territories legally governed by the Western court, instead chose to abolish the juridical division of the position of emperor and declared himself the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. Zeno became the first sole Roman emperor since the division after Theodosius I, 85 years prior, and the position would never again be divided. As such, the (eastern) Roman emperors after 480 are the successors of the western ones, albeit only in a juridical sense. These emperors would continue to rule the Roman Empire until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, nearly a thousand years later. As 480 marks the end of the juridical division of the empire into two imperial courts, some historians refer to the death of Nepos and abolition of the Western Empire by Zeno as the end of the Western Roman Empire.
Despite the fall, or abolition, of the Western Empire, many of the new kings of western Europe continued to operate firmly within a Roman administrative framework. This is especially true in the case of the Ostrogoths, who came to rule Italy after Odoacer. They continued to use the administrative systems of Odoacer's kingdom, essentially those of the Western Roman Empire, and administrative positions continued to be staffed exclusively by Romans. The Senate continued to function as it always had, and the laws of the Empire were recognized as ruling the Roman population, though the Goths were ruled by their own traditional laws. Western Roman administrative institutions, in particular those of Italy, thus continued to be used during "barbarian" rule and after the forces of the Eastern Roman empire re-conquered some of the formerly imperial territories. Some historians thus refer to the reorganizations of Italy and abolition of the old and separate Western Roman administrative units, such as the Praetorian prefecture of Italy, during the sixth century as the "true" fall of the Western Roman Empire.
Roman cultural traditions continued throughout the territory of the Western Empire for long after its disappearance, and a recent school of interpretation argues that the great political changes can more accurately be described as a complex cultural transformation, rather than a fall.
== Political aftermath ==
After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Germanic kingdoms, often referred to as "barbarian kingdoms", founded during its collapse continued to grow and prosper. Their beginnings, together with the end of the Western Roman Empire, mark the transition from late antiquity to the Middle Ages. The practices of the barbarian kingdoms gradually replaced the old Roman institutions, specifically in the praetorian prefectures of Gaul and Italy, during the sixth and seventh centuries. In many places, the Roman institutions collapsed along with the economic stability. In some regions, notably Gaul and Italy, the settlement of barbarians on former Roman lands seems to have caused relatively little disruption, with barbarian rulers using and modifying the Roman systems already in place. The Germanic kingdoms in Italy, Hispania and Gaul continued to recognise the emperor in Constantinople as a somewhat nominal sovereign, the Visigoths minted coins in their names until the reign of Justinian I in the sixth century.
Some territories under direct Roman control continued to exist in the West even after 480. The Domain of Soissons, a rump state in Northern Gaul ruled by Syagrius, survived until 486 when it was conquered by the Franks under King Clovis I in the Franco-Roman War of 486 after beaten Syagrius in the Battle of Soissons. Syagrius was known as the "King of the Romans" by the Germanic peoples of the region and repeatedly claimed that he was merely governing a Roman province, not an independent realm. Under Clovis I from the 480s to 511, the Franks would come to develop into a great regional power. After their conquest of Soissons, the Franks defeated the Alemanni in 504 and conquered all Visigothic territory north of the Pyrenees other than Septimania in 507. Relations between the Franks and the Eastern Empire appear to have been positive, with Emperor Anastasius granting Clovis the title of consul following his victory against the Visigoths. At the time of its dissolution in the 800s, the Frankish Kingdom had lasted far longer than the other migration period barbarian kingdoms. Its divided successors would develop into the medieval states of France (initially known as West Francia) and Germany (initially known as East Francia).
A Mauro-Roman realm survived in the province of Mauretania Caesariensis until the late 7th or early 8th century. An inscription on a fortification at the ruined city of Altava from the year 508 identifies a man named Masuna as the king of the Kingdom of the Moors and Romans (Regnum Maurorum et Romanorum). It is possible that Masuna is the same man as the "Massonas" who allied himself with the forces of the Eastern Roman Empire against the Vandals in 535. This Kingdom was defeated by the Eastern Roman magister militum Gennadius in 578, and its coastal territories were incorporated into the Empire once more.
=== Germanic Italy ===
The deposition of Romulus Augustus and the rise of Odoacer as ruler of Italy in 476 received very little attention at the time. Overall, very little changed for the people; there was still a Roman emperor in Constantinople to whom Odoacer had subordinated himself. Interregna had been experienced at many points in the West before and the deposition of Romulus Augustus was nothing out of the ordinary. Odoacer saw his rule as entirely in the tradition of the Roman Empire, not unlike Ricimer, and he effectively ruled as an imperial "governor" of Italy and was even awarded the title of patricius. Odoacer ruled using the Roman administrative systems already in place and continued to mint coins with the name and portrait of Julius Nepos until 480 and later with the name and portrait of the Eastern Augustus, rather than in his own name.
When Nepos was murdered in Dalmatia in 480, Odoacer assumed the duty of pursuing and executing the assassins and established his own rule in Dalmatia at the same time. Odoacer established his power with the loyal support of the Roman Senate, a legislative body that had continued even without an emperor residing in Italy. Indeed, the Senate seems to have increased in power under Odoacer. For the first time since the mid-3rd century, copper coins were issued with the legend S C (Senatus Consulto). These coins were copied by Vandals in Africa and also formed the basis of the currency reform carried out by Emperor Anastasius in the East.
Under Odoacer, Western consuls continued to be appointed as they had been under the Western Roman Empire and were accepted by the Eastern Court, the first being Caecina Decius Maximus Basilus in 480. Basilus was made the praetorian prefect of Italy in 483, another traditional position which continued to exist under Odoacer. Eleven further consuls were appointed by the Senate under Odoacer from 480 to 493 and one further Praetorian Prefect of Italy was appointed, Caecina Mavortius Basilius Decius (486–493).
Though Odoacer ruled as a Roman governor would have and maintained himself as a subordinate to the remaining Empire, the Eastern emperor Zeno began to increasingly see him as a rival. Thus, Zeno promised Theoderic the Great of the Ostrogoths, foederati of the Eastern Court, control over the Italian peninsula if he was able to defeat Odoacer. Theoderic led the Ostrogoths across the Julian Alps and into Italy and defeated Odoacer in battle twice in 489. Following four years of hostilities between them, John, the Bishop of Ravenna, was able to negotiate a treaty in 493 between Odoacer and Theoderic whereby they agreed to rule Ravenna and Italy jointly. Theoderic entered Ravenna on 5 March and Odoacer was dead ten days later, killed by Theoderic after sharing a meal with him.
Theoderic inherited Odoacer's role as acting viceroy for Italy and ostensibly a patricius and subject of the emperor in Constantinople. This position was recognized by Emperor Anastasius in 497, four years after Theoderic had defeated Odoacer. Though Theodoric acted as an independent ruler, he meticulously preserved the outward appearance of his subordinate position. Theoderic continued to use the administrative systems of Odoacer's kingdom, essentially those of the Western Roman Empire, and administrative positions continued to be staffed exclusively by Romans. The senate continued to function as it always had and the laws of the Empire were recognized as ruling the Roman population, though the Goths were ruled by their own traditional laws. As a subordinate, Theoderic did not have the right to issue his own laws, only edicts or clarifications. The army and military offices were exclusively staffed by the Goths, however, who largely settled in northern Italy.
Though acting as a subordinate in domestic affairs, Theodoric acted increasingly independent in his foreign policies. Seeking to counterbalance the influence of the Empire in the East, Theoderic married his daughters to the Visigothic king Alaric II and the Burgundian prince Sigismund. His sister Amalfrida was married to the Vandal king Thrasamund and he married Audofleda, sister of the Frankish king Clovis I, himself. Through these alliances and occasional conflicts, the territory controlled by Theoderic in the early sixth century nearly constituted a restored Western Roman Empire. Ruler of Italy since 493, Theoderic became king of the Visigoths in 511 and exerted hegemony over the Vandals in North Africa between 521 and 523. As such, his rule extended throughout the western Mediterranean. The Western imperial regalia, housed in Constantinople since the deposition of Romulus Augustulus in 476, were returned to Ravenna by Emperor Anastasius in 497. Theoderic, by now Western emperor in all but name, could not, however, assume an imperial title, not only because the notion of a separate Western court had been abolished but also due to his "barbarian" heritage, which, like that of Ricimer before him, would have barred him from assuming the throne.
With the death of Theodoric in 526, his network of alliances began to collapse. The Visigoths regained autonomy under King Amalaric and the Ostrogoths' relations with the Vandals turned increasingly hostile under the reign of their new king Athalaric, a child under the regency of his mother Amalasuntha. After the collapse of Theoderic's control of the western Mediterranean, the Frankish Kingdom rose to become the most powerful of the barbarian kingdoms, having taken control of most of Gaul in the absence of Roman governance.
Amalasuntha continued the policies of conciliation between the Goths and Romans, supporting the new Eastern emperor Justinian I and allowing him to use Sicily as a staging point during the reconquest of Africa in the Vandalic War. With the death of Athalaric in 534, Amalasuntha crowned her cousin and only relative Theodahad as king, hoping for his support. Instead, Amalasuntha was imprisoned and, even though Theodahad assured Emperor Justinian of her safety, she was executed shortly after. This served as an ideal casus belli for Justinian, who prepared to invade and reclaim the Italian peninsula for the Roman Empire.
=== Imperial reconquest ===
With Emperor Zeno having juridically reunified the Empire into one imperial court, the remaining Eastern Roman Empire continued to lay claim to the areas previously controlled by the Western court throughout late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Though military campaigns had been conducted by the Western court prior to 476 with the aim of recapturing lost territory, most notably under Majorian, the reconquests, if successful at all, were only momentary. It was as a result of the campaigns of the generals Belisarius and Narses on behalf of the Eastern Roman emperor Justinian I from 533 to 554 that long-lasting reconquests of Roman lands were witnessed.
Despite also suffering from barbarian incursions, the Eastern Empire had survived the fifth century mostly intact. The Western Roman Empire, less urbanized than the Eastern and more thinly populated, may have experienced an economic decline throughout the Late Empire in some provinces. Southern Italy, northern Gaul (except for large towns and cities), and to some extent Spain and the Danubian areas may have suffered. The East fared better economically, especially as Emperors such as Constantine the Great and Constantius II had invested heavily in the eastern economy. As a result, the Eastern Empire could afford large numbers of professional soldiers and to augment them with mercenaries, while the Western Roman Empire could not afford this to the same extent. Even after major defeats, the East could, although not without difficulties, buy off its enemies with a ransom or "protection money". Numbering more than 300,000 soldiers, the Eastern Roman army of Justinian I was among the most powerful in the world.
Unlike the Visigoths and Ostrogoths, the Vandals in Africa minted their own coinage and were both de facto and de jure independent, often being enemies of both the Western and Eastern Roman Empires. With the pro-Roman Vandal king Hilderic having been deposed by Gelimer in 530, Justinian prepared an expedition led by Belisarius. It swiftly retook North Africa between June 533 and March 534, returning the wealthy province to Roman rule. Following the reconquest, Justinian swiftly reintroduced the Roman administrations of the province, establishing a new Praetorian Prefecture of Africa and taking measures to decrease Vandal influence, eventually leading to the complete disappearance of the Vandalic people.
Following the execution of the pro-Roman Ostrogoth queen Amalasuntha and the refusal of Ostrogoth King Theodahad to renounce his control of Italy, Justinian ordered the expedition to move on to reconquer Italy, ancient heartland of the Empire. From 534 to 540, the Roman forces campaigned in Italy and captured Ravenna, the Ostrogothic and formerly Western Roman capital, in 540. The Gothic resistance revived under King Totila in 541. They were finally defeated following campaigns by the Roman general Narses, who also repelled invasions into Italy by the Franks and Alemanni, though some cities in northern Italy continued to hold out until the 560s. Justinian promulgated the Pragmatic Sanction to reorganize the governance of Italy and the province was returned to Roman rule. The end of the conflict saw Italy devastated and considerably depopulated, which, combined with the disastrous effects of the Plague of Justinian, made it difficult to retain over the following centuries.
At the time of the collapse of the Western Empire in 476–480, the Visigoths controlled large areas of southern Gaul as well as a majority of Hispania. Their increased domain had been partly conquered and partly awarded to them by the Western emperor Avitus in the 450s–60s. Justinian undertook some limited campaigns against them, recovering portions of the southern coast of the Iberian peninsula. Here, the province of Spania would last until the 620s, when the Visigoths under King Suintila reconquered the south coast. These regions remained under Roman control throughout the reign of Justinian. Three years after his death, the Lombards invaded Italy. The Lombards conquered large parts of the devastated peninsula in the late 500s, establishing the Lombard Kingdom. They were in constant conflict with the Exarchate of Ravenna, a polity established to replace the old Praetorian Prefecture of Italy and enforce Roman rule in Italy. The wealthiest parts of the province, including the cities of Rome and Ravenna, remained securely in Roman hands under the Exarchate throughout the seventh century.
Although other Eastern emperors occasionally attempted to campaign in the West, none were as successful as Justinian. After 600, events conspired to drive the Western provinces out of Constantinople's control, with imperial attention focused on the pressing issues of war with Sasanian Persia and then the rise of Islam. For a while, the West remained important, with Emperor Constans II ruling from Syracuse in Sicily a Roman Empire that still stretched from North Africa to the Caucasus in the 660s. Thereafter, imperial attention declined, with Constantinople itself being besieged in the 670s, renewed war with the Arabs in the 680s, and then a period of chaos between 695 and 717, during which time Africa was finally lost once and for all, being conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate. Through reforms and military campaigns, Emperor Leo III attempted to restore order in the Empire, but his doctrinal reforms, known as the Iconoclastic Controversy, were extremely unpopular in the West and were condemned by Pope Gregory III.
The Roman Empire was not the only Christian nation affected by the Islamic conquests, as the Visigothic Kingdom finally fell to the Umayyad Caliphate in the 720s. The Kingdom of Asturias was founded by Pelagius of Asturias around the same time and was the first Christian realm to be established in Iberia following the defeat of the Visigoths. Asturias would be transformed into the Kingdom of León in 924, which would develop into the predecessors of modern-day Spain.
The religious disagreements between Rome and Constantinople eventually led to the breakdown in imperial rule over Rome itself, and the gradual transition of the Exarchate of Ravenna into the independent Papal States, led by the Pope. In an attempt to gain support against the Lombards, the Pope called for aid from the Frankish Kingdom instead of the Eastern Empire, eventually crowning the Frankish king Charlemagne as "Roman Emperor" in 800. Though this coronation was strongly opposed by the Eastern Empire, there was little they could do as their influence in Western Europe decreased. After a series of small wars in the 810s, Emperor Michael I recognized Charlemagne as an "Emperor". He refused to recognize him as a "Roman Emperor" (a title which Michael reserved for himself and his successors), instead recognizing him as the slightly less prestigious "Emperor of the Franks".
Imperial rule continued in Sicily throughout the eighth century, with the island slowly being overrun by the Arabs during the course of the ninth century. In Italy, a few strongholds in Calabria provided a base for a later, modest imperial expansion, which reached its peak in the early eleventh century, with most of southern Italy under Roman rule of a sort. This, however, was undone by further civil wars in the Empire, and the slow conquest of the region by the Empire's former mercenaries, the Normans, who finally put an end to imperial rule in Western Europe in 1071 with the conquest of Bari. The last emperor to attempt reconquests in the West was Manuel I Komnenos, who invaded southern Italy during a war with the Norman Kingdom of Sicily in the 1150s. The city of Bari willingly opened its gates to the emperor and after successes in taking other cities in the region, Manuel dreamed of a restored Roman Empire and a union between the churches of Rome and Constantinople, separated since the schism of 1054. Despite initial successes and Papal support, the campaign was unsuccessful and Manuel was forced to return east.
== Legacy ==
As the Western Roman Empire crumbled, the new Germanic rulers who conquered its constituent provinces maintained most Roman laws and traditions. Many of the invading Germanic tribes were already Christianized, although most were followers of Arianism. They quickly changed their adherence to the state church of the Roman Empire. This helped cement the loyalty of the local Roman populations, as well as the support of the powerful Bishop of Rome. Although they initially continued to recognize indigenous tribal laws, they were more influenced by Roman law and gradually incorporated it. Roman law, particularly the Corpus Juris Civilis collected on the orders of Justinian I, is the basis of modern civil law. In contrast, common law is based on Germanic Anglo-Saxon law. Civil law is by far the most widespread system of law in the world, in force in some form in about 150 countries.
Latin as a language did not disappear. Vulgar Latin combined with neighboring Germanic and Celtic languages, giving rise to modern Romance languages such as Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, and a large number of minor languages and dialects. Today, more than 900 million people are native speakers of Romance languages worldwide. In addition, many Romance languages are used as lingua francas by non-native speakers.
Latin also influenced Germanic languages such as English and German. It survives in a "purer" form as the language of the Catholic Church; the Catholic Mass was spoken exclusively in Latin until 1969. As such it was also used as a lingua franca by ecclesiasticals. It remained the language of medicine, law, and diplomacy, as well as of intellectuals and scholarship, well into the 18th century. Since then the use of Latin has declined with the growth of other lingua francas, especially English and French. The Latin alphabet was expanded due to the split of I into I and J, and of V into U, V, and, in places (especially Germanic languages and Polish), W. Latin script is the basis for the largest number of alphabets of any writing system and is the
most widely adopted writing system in the world. Roman numerals continue to be used in some fields and situations, though they have largely been replaced by Arabic numerals.
A very visible legacy of the Western Roman Empire is the Catholic Church. Church institutions slowly began to replace Roman ones in the West, even helping to negotiate the safety of Rome during the late 5th century. As Rome was invaded by Germanic tribes, many assimilated, and by the middle of the medieval period (c. 9th and 10th centuries) the central, western, and northern parts of Europe had been largely converted to Roman Catholicism and acknowledged the Pope as the Vicar of Christ. The first of the Barbarian kings to convert to the Church of Rome was Clovis I of the Franks; other kingdoms, such as the Visigoths, later followed suit to garner favor with the papacy.
When Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as "Roman Emperor" in 800, he both severed ties with the outraged Eastern Empire and established the precedent that no man in Western Europe would be emperor without a papal coronation. Although the power the Pope wielded changed significantly throughout the subsequent periods, the office itself has remained as the head of the Catholic Church and the head of state of the Vatican City. The Pope has consistently held the title of "Pontifex Maximus" since before the fall of the Western Roman Empire and retains it to this day; this title formerly used by the high priest of the Roman polytheistic religion, one of whom was Julius Caesar.
The Roman Senate survived the initial collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Its authority increased under the rule of Odoacer and later the Ostrogoths, evident by the Senate in 498 managing to install Symmachus as pope despite both Theodoric of Italy and Emperor Anastasius supporting another candidate, Laurentius. Exactly when the senate disappeared is unclear, but the institution is known to have survived at least into the 6th century, inasmuch as gifts from the senate were received by Emperor Tiberius II in 578 and 580. The traditional senate building, Curia Julia, was rebuilt into a church under Pope Honorius I in 630, probably with permission from the Eastern emperor, Heraclius.
=== Nomenclature ===
Marcellinus Comes, a sixth-century Eastern Roman historian and a courtier of Justinian I, mentions the Western Roman Empire in his Chronicle, which primarily covers the Eastern Roman Empire from 379 to 534. In the Chronicle, it is clear that Marcellinus made a clear divide between East and West, with mentions of a geographical east ("Oriens") and west ("Occidens") and of an imperial east ("Orientale imperium" and "Orientale respublica") and an imperial west ("Occidentalie imperium", "Occidentale regnum", "Occidentalis respublica", "Hesperium regnum", "Hesperium imperium" and "principatum Occidentis"). Furthermore, Marcellinus specifically designates some emperors and consuls as being "Eastern", "Orientalibus principibus" and "Orientalium consulum" respectively. The term Hesperium Imperium, translating to "Western Empire", has sometimes been applied to the Western Roman Empire by modern historians as well.
Though Marcellinus does not refer to the Empire as a whole after 395, only to its separate parts, he clearly identifies the term "Roman" as applying to the Empire as a whole. When using terms such as "us", "our generals", and "our emperor", Marcellinus distinguished both divisions of the Empire from outside foes such as the Sasanian Persians and the Huns. This view is consistent with the view that contemporary Romans of the 4th and 5th centuries continued to consider the Empire as a single unit, although more often than not with two rulers instead of one. The first time the Empire was divided geographically was during the reign of Diocletian, but there was precedent for multiple emperors. Before Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, there had been a number of periods where there were co-emperors, such as with Caracalla and Geta in 210–211, who inherited the imperial throne from their father Septimius Severus, but Caracalla ruled alone after the murder of his brother.
=== Attempted restorations of a Western court ===
The positions of Eastern and Western Augustus, established under Emperor Diocletian in 286 as the Tetrarchy, had been abolished by Emperor Zeno in 480 following the loss of direct control over the western territories. Declaring himself the sole Augustus, Zeno only exercised true control over the largely intact Eastern Empire and over Italy as the nominal overlord of Odoacer. The reconquests under Justinian I would bring back large formerly Western Roman territories into Imperial control, and with them the Empire would begin to face the same problems it had faced under previous periods prior to the Tetrarchy when there had been only one ruler. Shortly after the reconquest of North Africa a usurper, Stotzas, appeared in the province (though he was quickly defeated). As such, the idea of dividing the Empire into two courts out of administrative necessity would see a limited revival during the period that the Eastern Empire controlled large parts of the former West, both by courtiers in the East and enemies in the West.
The earliest attempt at crowning a new Western emperor after the abolition of the title occurred already during the Gothic Wars under Justinian. Belisarius, an accomplished general who had already successfully campaigned to restore Roman control over North Africa and large parts of Italy, including Rome itself, was offered the position of Western Roman emperor by the Ostrogoths during his siege of Ravenna (the Ostrogothic, and previously Western Roman, capital) in 540. The Ostrogoths, desperate to avoid losing their control of Italy, offered the title and their fealty to Belisarius as Western Augustus. Justinian had expected to rule over a restored Roman Empire alone, with the Codex Justinianeus explicitly designating the new Praetorian Prefect of Africa as the subject of Justinian in Constantinople. Belisarius, loyal to Justinian, feigned acceptance of the title to enter the city, whereupon he immediately relinquished it. Despite Belisarius relinquishing the title, the offer had made Justinian suspicious and Belisarius was ordered to return east.
At the end of Emperor Tiberius II's reign in 582, the Eastern Roman Empire retained control over relatively large parts of the regions reconquered under Justinian. Tiberius chose two Caesares, the general Maurice and the governor Germanus, and married his two daughters to them. Germanus had clear connections to the western provinces, and Maurice to the eastern provinces. It is possible that Tiberius was planning to divide the empire into western and eastern administrative units once more. If so, the plan was never realized. At the death of Tiberius, Maurice inherited the entire empire as Germanus had refused the throne. Maurice established a new type of administrative unit, the Exarchate, and organized the remaining western territories under his control into the Exarchate of Ravenna and the Exarchate of Africa.
=== Later claims to the Imperial title in the West ===
In addition to remaining as a concept for an administrative unit in the remaining Empire, the ideal of the Roman Empire as a mighty Christian Empire with a single ruler further continued to appeal to many powerful rulers in western Europe. With the papal coronation of Charlemagne as "Emperor of the Romans" in AD 800, his realm was explicitly proclaimed as a restoration of the Roman Empire in Western Europe under the concept of translatio imperii. Though the Carolingian Empire collapsed in 888 and Berengar, the last "Emperor" claiming succession from Charlemagne, died in 924, the concept of a papacy- and Germanic-based Roman Empire in the West would resurface in the form of the Holy Roman Empire in 962. The Holy Roman Emperors would uphold the notion that they had inherited the supreme power and prestige of the Roman emperors of old until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806.
Charlemagne, and the subsequent Holy Roman Emperors, were not, and did not claim to be, rulers of a restored Western Roman Empire. Pope Leo III and contemporary historians were fully aware that the notion of a separate Western court had been abolished over three centuries prior and considered the Roman Empire to be "one and indivisible". The ruler of the Roman Empire at the time of Charlemagne's coronation was Irene of Athens, the mother of emperor Constantine VI who she had deposed. Leo III considered Irene to be a usurper and illegitimate to rule due to her gender and as such considered the imperial throne to be vacant. Thus, Charlemagne was not crowned as the ruler of the Western Roman Empire and successor to Romulus Augustulus, but rather as the successor of Constantine VI and as sole Roman Emperor. Irene was deposed and replaced by Emperor Nikephoros soon after, and the Eastern Empire refused to recognize the Imperial title of Charlemagne. Following several wars in the 810s Emperor Michael I Rangabe eventually recognized Charlemagne as an "Emperor", but as the slightly humiliating "Emperor of the Franks" rather than "Roman Emperor", a title he reserved for himself. For centuries to come, the "revived" Western court and the Eastern court, in direct succession to the Roman emperors of old, would make competing claims to be rulers of the whole Roman Empire. With the Eastern Empire terming the Holy Roman Empire as an "Empire of the Franks", the term "Empire of the Greeks" was popularized in the Frankish court as a way to refer to the Empire centered in Constantinople.
Following the end of the Eastern Roman Empire after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the title of "Emperor" became widespread among European monarchs. The Austrian Empire laid claim to be the heir of the Holy Roman Empire as Austria's Habsburgs attempted to unite Germany under their rule. The German Empire, established in 1871, also claimed to be a successor of Rome through the lineage of the Holy Roman Empire. Both of these empires used the imperial title Kaiser (derived from the Latin word "Caesar"), the German word for emperor. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary, successor of the Austrian Empire, would both fall in the aftermath of the First World War along with the Russian and Ottoman Empires which had also claimed succession from the Eastern Roman Empire.
== List of Western Roman emperors ==
With junior colleagues and heirs are listed below the reign of each emperor.
=== Tetrarchy (286–313) ===
Maximian: 286–305
Constantius I: 293–305
Maximian was elevated to caesar by Diocletian in 285, after Diocletian defeated Carinus. He became Western emperor in 286, with the establishment of the Tetrarchy. On 1 May 305, both Maximian and Diocletian abdicated, leaving Constantius and Galerius as emperors.
Constantius I: 305–306
Severus II: 305–306
Constantius was elevated to caesar in 293, under Maximian. Constantius became the Western emperor in 305, after the abdication of Maximian. Constantius died on 25 July 306, leaving a highly contested succession in his wake.
Severus II: 306–307
Constantine I: 306–307
Valerius Severus was elevated to caesar by Constantius in 305, after the abdication of Maximian and Diocletian. After the death of Constantius in 306, Severus became Western emperor. Severus was forced to deal with the revolt of Maxentius, the son of Maximian. Maxentius invaded in early 307, and captured the Western Empire. He had Severus put to death soon after his capture.
Maxentius: 306–312
Maximian: 306–308 (Second reign)
Maxentius was proclaimed emperor in 306, in opposition to Valerius Severus, and ruled alongside his father Maximian. They succeeded in capturing the Western Empire in 307, and had Severus killed soon after. The Western Empire was invaded in 312 by Constantine, who on 28 October 312 decisively defeated Maxentius, who drowned when his forces were pushed back into the Tiber river. Maximian had relinquished the title of augustus in 308, but rebelled in Gaul once again in 310. He was defeated by Constantine shortly after.
Licinius: 308–313
Valens I: 317 (Titular emperor of the West, ruled only in the East)
Martinian: 324 (Titular emperor of the West, ruled only in the East)
Licinius was made emperor of the Eastern Empire, and parts of the Western Empire, all of which was actually held by Maxentius, at the Council of Carnuntum, which was held in 308 in order to try to end the civil war in the Western Empire. Constantine invaded Licinius' section of the Western Empire in 313, and forced him to sign a treaty in which he forfeited his claim to the Western Empire, and only controlled the Eastern Empire. Licinius attempted twice to replace Constantine, first with Valerius Valens in 316 and then Martinian in 324, but they were both killed shortly after their elevation.
=== Constantinian dynasty (309–363) ===
Constantine I: 306–337 (Sole emperor: 324–337).
Crispus: 317–326
Constantine I was proclaimed augustus of the Western Empire by his father's troops on 25 July 306 and was accepted as caesar by Galerius later that year. In 307 Maximian accepted him to augustus (although Maximian himself was considered an usurper) and in 309 he proclaimed himself as the Western emperor, in opposition to Maxentius and Licinius. He ruled alone in the West from 312 and became sole Roman emperor following the defeat of Licinius at the Battle of Chrysopolis.
Constantine II 337–340 (Emperor of Gaul, Britannia and Hispania: 337–340).
Constantine II was proclaimed caesar of the Eastern Empire in late 317. In 335, Constantine I allotted the inheritance his sons would receive after his death, which would take place two years later in 337, giving Constantine II the Praetorian prefecture of Gaul, which also included Britannia and Hispania. Constantine II's relationship with Constans I was tense, and in 340, Constantine took advantage of Constans absence from Italy and invaded it. However, in the same year, he was ambushed by Constans' forces in Aquilea, and was killed.
Constans I 337–350 (Emperor of Italy and Africa: 337–340, Western emperor: 340–350).
Constans was given the Praetorian prefecture of Italy and Africa on the death of Constantine I. After Constantine II was killed in 340, while attempting to invade Constans' territory in Italy, Constans took control of the entire Western Empire. Constans was contemptuous of his army, who as a result proclaimed Magnentius as emperor in 350. Constans fled toward Hispania, but was captured and executed by an agent of Magnentius on the border.
Magnentius 350–353 (Not recognized in the East)
Vetranio: 350 (Rival emperor; recognized by Constantius II)
Nepotianus: 350 (Rival emperor; recognized by the Roman Senate)
Magnentius was defeated by Constantius II at the Battle of Mursa Major in 351, but continued to rule Italy and Gaul until his final defeat at the Battle of Mons Seleucus.
Constantius II 351–361 (Eastern emperor: 337–351, Sole emperor: 351–361).
Constantius Gallus: 351–354
Julian: 355–361
Constantius II was proclaimed caesar in 334, and became Eastern emperor in 337, after the death of Constantine I. After Constans was killed by the usurper Magnentius, Constantius laid claim to the Western Empire, and after defeating Magnentius took possession of it, becoming sole emperor. Constantius II died in 361, of a violent fever.
Julian: 361–363 (Sole emperor).
Julian was proclaimed caesar in 355. He was proclaimed emperor by his troops shortly before Constantius' death. Julian died in March 363, of wounds sustained during the Battle of Samarra.
=== Non-dynastic (363–364) ===
Jovian: 363–364 (Sole emperor).
When Julian died in 363, he left no heir, causing a succession crisis. The Roman Army elected Jovian as sole emperor. Jovian reigned only seven months, in which he signed a humiliating peace treaty with the Sasanian Empire, under Shapur II. In this agreement, Rome surrendered five provinces and 18 fortresses to the Sasanians, in exchange for a 30-year truce. Jovian died on 16 February 364, due to either indigestion or charcoal vapour inhalation.
=== Valentinianic dynasty (364–392) ===
Valentinian I: 364–375
Gratian: 367–375
After the death of Jovian, Valentinian I was elected. He divided the Empire between himself and his younger brother, Valens, giving himself the West and Valens the East. Valentinian spent much of his reign defending Gaul against repeated attacks by barbarian tribes, only leaving the region in 373. In 375, while meeting with the Quadi, he suffered a stroke brought on by rage.
Gratian: 375–383
Valentinian II: 375–383
Valentinian I elevated his son, Gratian, to augustus in 367, however after his death in 375 his leading generals elevated his much younger son, Valentinian II, to augustus alongside Gratian and Valens who was emperor in the East. Gratian showed a strong preference for the barbarian mercenaries in his army, especially his Alanic guard, which inflamed the Roman population, to the point that in 383, Roman troops in Britain declared Magnus Maximus emperor, in opposition to Gratian. Maximus landed troops in Gaul, and attacked Gratian's troops near Paris. Gratian was defeated, and fled to Lyon, where he was murdered on 25 August 383.
Valentinian II: 383–392
After the death of Gratian, Valentinian II succeeded him, although he only controlled Italy itself, with all other Western Roman provinces recognizing Maximus. In 387 Maximus invaded Italy, to depose Valentinian. Valentinian fled to the court of Theodosius, where he succeeded in convincing Theodosius to attack Maximus, and to reinstate himself as Western emperor, which was done after Maximus was defeated in battle near Aquileia. Valentinian continued to rule the Western Empire until 392, when he was probably murdered by Arbogast.
Magnus Maximus: 383–388
Victor: 383/384–388
Magnus Maximus was elected emperor by his men in 383, in opposition to Gratian, and defeated him in battle in 383. Maximus was recognized as the Western emperor by Eastern emperor Theodosius I in 384, however this recognition was revoked by him when Maximus invaded Italy and deposed Valentinian II in 387. Valentinian II fled to the Eastern Roman Empire, and convinced Theodosius I to invade the Western Roman Empire and restore him to the Western Roman throne, which he did in 388. Maximus was defeated in battle near Aquileia, and executed.
=== Theodosian dynasty (392–455) ===
Theodosius I: 394–395 (Eastern emperor: 379–394, sole emperor: 394–395)
Theodosius was proclaimed Eastern Emperor by Gratian on 19 January 379, after securing victory against invading barbarians along the Danube. He became sole emperor in August 394, after defeating the usurper Eugenius. Theodosius died of edema in January 395.
Honorius: 395–423
Constantine III: 409–411 (Not recognized by Eastern emperor but recognized by Honorius; accepted by the Senate)
Constans II: 409–411 (Not recognized by Honorius and Eastern emperor; recognized only by Constantine III; not accepted by the Senate)
Priscus Attalus: 409–410 (Not recognized by Honorius and Eastern emperor; accepted by the Senate)
Constantius III: 421
Honorius became Western emperor in 395, after the death of his father Theodosius. His reign was beset by barbarian invasions, and for much of his early reign, until 408, he was controlled by Stilicho, whose influence over Honorius would create a standard for puppet Western Emperors. After 408 his reign was greatly influenced by the general Constantius, who briefly reigned as his co-emperor for a few months before dying of natural causes. He also faced the usurpation of Priscus Attalus, a senator who was proclaimed emperor at Rome in 409, and Constantine, who took over Britain and Gaul around the same time. Honorius died of edema in 423.
Joannes: 423–425 (Not recognized by Eastern emperor; accepted by the Senate)
Valentinian III was designated Honorius' heir in 421, although he was not proclaimed caesar, only given the title of nobilissimus puer. In 423, after the death of Honorius, a usurper named Joannes rose up, forcing Valentinian III to flee with his family to the court of the Eastern emperor Theodosius II. Joannes was defeated by Theodosius in Ravenna.
Valentinian III: 425–455
Valentinian III was killed on 16 March 455, by Optila, a friend of Aetius, whom Valentinian had killed.
=== Non-dynastic (455–480) ===
The following last emperors of the West were all accepted by the Senate but only two of them (Anthemius and Julius Nepos) were recognized in the East. In fact, these two emperors were installed by the Eastern emperor.
Petronius Maximus: 455 (Not recognized by Eastern emperor)
Petronius Maximus became the Western Roman emperor on 17 March 455, after assassinating Valentinian III. During his short reign, he provoked Gaiseric, the Vandal king, into invading the Western Empire and sacking Rome, by breaking a marriage agreement made between Gaiseric and Valentinian III. Maximus and his son Palladius attempted to flee on 31 May 455, however they were apprehended by a group of peasants, and either killed by them, or by palace servants wishing to curry favor with them.
Avitus: 455–456 (Not recognized by Eastern emperor)
Avitus was proclaimed Western emperor on 9 July 455, with the support of the Visigoth King Theodoric II. While he held support from the Visigoths, his rule alienated both the Roman Senate and people. In 456 Ricimer, a senior officer, had Avitus deposed, and ruled the Western Empire through a series of puppet emperors until his death in 472.
Majorian: 457–461 (Not recognized by Eastern emperor)
Majorian was proclaimed Western emperor on 28 December 457. On 7 August 461, Majorian was compelled to abdicate, and reportedly died five days later of dysentery, although modern historians have asserted he was likely murdered by Ricimer, who became the power behind the throne.
Libius Severus: 461–465 (Not recognized by Eastern emperor)
Libius Severus was proclaimed Western emperor on 19 November 461. His rule, even as a puppet emperor, extended little beyond Italy, with Aegidius splitting off from the Western Empire, and establishing the Kingdom of Soissons. Libius Severus incited the hostility of the Vandals, who invaded Italy and Sicily. During these events, Libius Severus died on 14 November 465, possibly due to being poisoned by Ricimer.
Anthemius: 467–472
Anthemius was proclaimed Western emperor on 12 April 467 by Leo I. Under Anthemius, the Western Empire, which had become increasingly isolated from the Eastern Empire, grew closer, although this collaboration came too late to save the Western Empire. Anthemius' friendly attitude towards the Eastern Empire angered Ricimer, who deposed him in March or April of 472.
Olybrius: 472 (Not recognized by Eastern emperor)
Olybrius was proclaimed emperor in April 472. His brief reign, lasting only five or six months, was dominated by Gundobad, who had replaced his uncle Ricimer as the true power behind the throne, after the former's death. Olybrius died in October or November 472, of edema.
Glycerius: 473–474 (Not recognized by Eastern emperor)
After the death of both Olybrius and Ricimer, Glycerius was proclaimed Western emperor by the Western Roman army, on 3 or 5 May 473. He was deposed by Julius Nepos in July 474, and sent to live in a monastery, where he remained until his death.
Julius Nepos: 474–475 (In exile 475–480)
The Eastern Roman Empire had rejected the coronation of both Olybrius and Glycerius, instead supporting Julius Nepos, magister militum in Dalmatia as Western Roman emperor. Nepos, with support from the East, deposed Glycerius in the spring of 474. Orestes, magister militum of Nepos, deposed him a year later in 475, forcing Nepos to flee Ravenna to his estates in Dalmatia. Orestes crowned his son Romulus as Western emperor, though the Eastern Empire and the Western possessions outside of Italy maintained recognition of Nepos as the legitimate Emperor. Nepos continued to rule as "Western emperor" in exile in Dalmatia until his murder in 480 and would be the last holder of the title.
Romulus Augustus: 475–476 (Not recognized by Eastern emperor)
Romulus Augustus was crowned as Western emperor after his father Orestes deposed Julius Nepos. The rule of Romulus would be brief; in the autumn of 476 the foederati under the control of Odoacer rebelled when their demands for a third of the land of Italy were ignored. Orestes was captured and executed on 28 August of the same year and Romulus was deposed by Odoacer a week later. Romulus was spared and allowed to live in the Castellum Lucullanum in Campania, where he might have been alive as late as AD 507.
With the deposition of Romulus Augustus by Odoacer, direct Roman control ceased to exist in Italy. Odoacer assumed control of the peninsula as a de jure representative of Western Roman emperor Nepos. With the death of Nepos in 480, the Eastern Roman emperor Zeno abolished the title and position of Western Roman emperor and assumed the role of Odoacer's sovereign. The position of Roman emperor would never again be divided, though some new candidates for the position of Western emperor were proposed during and after the Eastern Roman re-conquests of the sixth century, such as Belisarius in 540 and Germanus in 582. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis | Tennis | Tennis is a racket sport that is played either individually against a single opponent (singles) or between two teams of two players each (doubles). Each player uses a tennis racket strung with a cord to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with felt over or around a net and into the opponent's court. The object is to manoeuvre the ball in such a way that the opponent is not able to play a valid return. If a player is unable to return the ball successfully, the opponent scores a point.
Tennis can be played by anyone who can hold a racket, including wheelchair users, and is played by people at every level of society and across all ages. The original forms of tennis developed in France during the late Middle Ages. The modern form of tennis originated in Birmingham, England, in the late 19th century as lawn tennis. It had close connections to various field (lawn) games such as croquet and bowls as well as to the older racket sport today called real tennis.
The rules of modern tennis have changed little since the 1890s. The two exceptions being the server needing to have one foot on the ground at all times prior to 1961, and the adoption of the tiebreak in the 1970s. A recent addition to professional tennis has been the adoption of electronic review technology coupled with a point-challenge system, which allows a player to contest the line call of a point, a system known as Hawk-Eye.
Tennis has millions of recreational players and is a popular spectator sport worldwide. The four Grand Slam tournaments, also known as "majors" are especially popular and are considered the epitome of competitive tennis. The four Grand Slam tournaments are the Australian Open, played on hardcourts; the French Open, played on red clay courts; Wimbledon, played on grass courts; and the US Open, also played on hardcourts. Tennis was one of the original Olympic sports, and has been consistently part of the Summer Olympic Games since 1988.
== History ==
=== Predecessors ===
Historians believe that the game's ancient origin lay in 12th-century northern France, where a ball was struck with the palm of the hand. Louis X of France was a keen player of jeu de paume ("game of the palm"), which evolved into real tennis, and became notable as the first person to construct indoor tennis courts in the modern style. Louis was unhappy with playing tennis outdoors and accordingly had indoor, enclosed courts made in Paris "around the end of the 13th century". In due course this design spread across royal palaces all over Europe. In June 1316 at Vincennes, Val-de-Marne, and following a particularly exhausting game, Louis drank a large quantity of cooled wine and subsequently died of either pneumonia or pleurisy, although there was also suspicion of poisoning. Because of the contemporary accounts of his death, Louis X is history's first tennis player known by name. Another of the early enthusiasts of the game was King Charles V of France, who had a court set up at the Louvre Palace.
The word tennis probably comes from the French term tenez, which can be translated as "hold!", "receive!" or "take!", an interjection used as a call from the server to his opponent. It was popular in England and France, although the game was only played indoors, where the ball could be hit off the wall. Henry VIII of England was a big fan of this game, which is now known as real tennis.
An epitaph in St Michael's Church, Coventry, written c. 1705, read, in part:
During the 18th and early 19th centuries, as real tennis declined, new racket sports emerged in England.
The invention of the first lawn mower in Britain in 1830 is believed to have been a catalyst for the preparation of modern-style grass courts, sporting ovals, playing fields, pitches, greens, etc. This in turn led to the codification of modern rules for many sports, including lawn tennis, most football codes, lawn bowls and others.
=== Origins of the modern game ===
Between 1859 and 1865, Harry Gem, a solicitor, and his friend Augurio Perera developed a game that combined elements of racquets and the Basque ball game pelota, which they played on Perera's croquet lawn in Birmingham, England. In 1872, along with two local doctors, they founded the world's first tennis club on Avenue Road, Leamington Spa. This is where "lawn tennis" was used as the name of an activity by a club for the first time.
In Tennis: A Cultural History, Heiner Gillmeister reveals that on 8 December 1874, British army officer Walter Clopton Wingfield wrote to Harry Gem, commenting that he (Wingfield) had been experimenting with his version of lawn tennis "for a year and a half". In December 1873, Wingfield designed and patented a game which he called sphairistikè (Greek: σφαιριστική, meaning "ball-playing"), and which was soon known simply as "sticky" – for the amusement of guests at a garden party on his friend's estate of Nantclwyd Hall, in Llanelidan, Wales. According to R. D. C. Evans, turfgrass agronomist, "Sports historians all agree that [Wingfield] deserves much of the credit for the development of modern tennis." According to Honor Godfrey, museum curator at Wimbledon, Wingfield "popularized this game enormously. He produced a boxed set which included a net, poles, rackets, balls for playing the game – and most importantly you had his rules. He was absolutely terrific at marketing and he sent his game all over the world. He had very good connections with the clergy, the law profession, and the aristocracy and he sent thousands of sets out in the first year or so, in 1874." The world's oldest annual tennis tournament took place at Leamington Lawn Tennis Club in Birmingham in 1874. This was three years before the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club would hold its first championships at Wimbledon, in 1877. The first Championships culminated in a significant debate on how to standardise the rules.
In the United States in 1874, Mary Ewing Outerbridge, a young socialite, returned from Bermuda with a sphairistikè set. She became fascinated by the game of tennis after watching British army officers play. She laid out a tennis court at the Staten Island Cricket Club at Camp Washington, Tompkinsville, Staten Island, New York. The first American National championship was played there in September 1880. An Englishman named O.E. Woodhouse won the singles title, and a silver cup worth $100, by defeating Canadian I. F. Hellmuth. There was also a doubles match which was won by a local pair. There were different rules at each club. The ball in Boston was larger than the one normally used in New York.
On 21 May 1881, the oldest nationwide tennis organization in the world was formed, the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (now the United States Tennis Association) in order to standardize the rules and organize competitions. The US National Men's Singles Championship, now the US Open, was first held in 1881 at the Newport Casino, Newport, Rhode Island. The US National Women's Singles Championships were first held in 1887 in Philadelphia.
Tennis also became popular in France, where the French Championships date to 1891, although until 1925 they were open only to tennis players who were members of French clubs. Thus, Wimbledon, the US Open, the French Open and the Australian Open (dating to 1905) became and have remained the most prestigious events in tennis. Together, these four events are called the Majors or Slams (a term borrowed from bridge rather than baseball).
In 1913, the International Lawn Tennis Federation (ILTF), now the International Tennis Federation (ITF), was founded and established three official tournaments as the major championships of the day. The World Grass Court Championships were awarded to Great Britain. The World Hard Court Championships were awarded to France; the term "hard court" was used for clay courts at the time. Some tournaments were held in Belgium instead. And the World Covered Court Championships for indoor courts were awarded annually; Sweden, France, Great Britain, Denmark, Switzerland and Spain each hosted the tournament. At a meeting held on 16 March 1923 in Paris, the title "World Championship" was dropped and a new category of "Official Championship" was created for events in Great Britain, France, the US and Australia – today's Grand Slam events. The impact on the four recipient nations to replace the "world championships" with "official championships" was simple in a general sense: each became a major nation of the federation with enhanced voting power, and each now operated a major event.
The comprehensive rules promulgated in 1924 by the ILTF have remained largely stable in the ensuing 80 years, the one major change being the addition of the tiebreak system designed by Jimmy Van Alen. That same year, tennis withdrew from the Olympics after the 1924 Games, but returned 60 years later as a 21-and-under demonstration event in 1984. This reinstatement was credited by the efforts of then ITF president Philippe Chatrier, ITF general secretary David Gray and ITF vice president Pablo Llorens, with support from International Olympic Committee president Juan Antonio Samaranch. The success of the event was overwhelming, and the IOC decided to reintroduce tennis as a full-medal sport at Seoul in 1988.
The Davis Cup, an annual competition between men's national teams, dates to 1900. The analogous competition for women's national teams, the Fed Cup, was founded as the Federation Cup in 1963 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the founding of the ITF.
In 1926, promoter C. C. Pyle established the first professional tennis tour with a group of American and French tennis players playing exhibition matches to paying audiences. The most notable of these early professionals were the American Vinnie Richards and the Frenchwoman Suzanne Lenglen. Players turned pro would no longer be permitted to compete in the major (amateur) tournaments.
In 1968, commercial pressures and rumours of some amateurs taking money under the table led to the abandonment of this distinction, inaugurating the Open Era, in which all players could compete in all tournaments, and top players were able to make their living from tennis. With the beginning of the Open Era, the establishment of an international professional tennis circuit, and revenues from the sale of television rights, tennis's popularity has spread worldwide, and the sport has shed its middle-class English-speaking image (although it is acknowledged that this stereotype still exists).
In 1954, Van Alen founded the International Tennis Hall of Fame, a nonprofit museum in Newport, Rhode Island. The building contains a large collection of tennis memorabilia as well as a hall of fame honouring prominent members and tennis players from all over the world.
== Equipment ==
Part of the appeal of tennis stems from the simplicity of equipment required for play. Beginners need only a racket and balls.
=== Rackets ===
The components of a tennis racket include a handle, known as the grip, connected to a neck which joins a roughly elliptical frame that holds a matrix of tightly pulled strings. For the first 100 years of the modern game, rackets were made of wood and of standard size, and strings were of animal gut. Laminated wood construction yielded more strength in rackets used through most of the 20th century until first metal and then composites of carbon graphite, ceramics, and lighter metals such as titanium were introduced. These stronger materials enabled the production of oversized rackets that yielded yet more power. Meanwhile, technology led to the use of synthetic strings that match the feel of gut yet with added durability.
Under modern rules of tennis, the rackets must adhere to the following guidelines;
The hitting area, composed of the strings, must be flat and generally uniform.
The frame of the hitting area may not be more than 29 inches (74 cm) in length and 12.5 inches (32 cm) in width.
The entire racket must be of a fixed shape, size, weight, and weight distribution. There may not be any energy source built into the rackets.
The rackets must not provide any kind of communication, instruction or advice to the player during the match.
The rules regarding rackets have changed over time, as material and engineering advances have been made. For example, the maximum length of the frame had been 32 inches (81 cm) until 1997, when it was shortened to 29 inches (74 cm).
Many companies manufacture and distribute tennis rackets. Wilson, Head and Babolat are three of the most commonly used brands; however, many more companies produce adequate tennis equipment. The same companies sponsor players to use these rackets in the hopes that the company name will become better known by the public.
=== Strings ===
There are multiple types of tennis strings, including natural gut and synthetic strings made from materials such as nylon, kevlar, or polyester.
==== Natural gut ====
The first type of tennis strings available were natural gut strings, introduced by Babolat. They were the only type used until synthetic strings were introduced in the 1950s. Natural gut strings are still used frequently by players such as Roger Federer. They are made from cow intestines, and provide increased power, and are easier on the arm than most strings.
==== Synthetic ====
Most synthetic strings are made from monofilament or multifiliament nylon strings. Monofilament strings are cheap to buy, and are used widely by many recreational level players for their all round performance, while multifilament strings are created to mimic natural gut more closely by weaving together fibres, but are generally more expensive than their monofilament counterparts. Polyester strings allow for more spin on the ball than any other string, due to their firm strings, while keeping control of the ball, and this is why many players use them, especially higher player ones. Kevlar tennis strings are highly durable, and are mostly used by players that frequently break strings, because they maintain tension well, but these strings can be stiff on the arm.
==== Hybrid strings ====
Hybrid stringing is when a tennis racket is strung with two different strings for the mains (the vertical strings) and the crosses (the horizontal strings). This is most commonly done with two different strings that are made of different materials, but can also be done with two different types of the same string. A notable example of a player using hybrid strings is Roger Federer, using natural gut strings in his mains and polyester strings in his crosses.
=== Balls ===
Tennis balls were originally made of cloth strips stitched together with thread and stuffed with feathers. Modern tennis balls are made of hollow vulcanized rubber with a felt coating. Traditionally white, the predominant colour was gradually changed to optic yellow in the latter part of the 20th century to allow for improved visibility. Tennis balls must conform to certain criteria for size, weight, deformation, and bounce to be approved for regulation play. The International Tennis Federation (ITF) defines the official diameter as 65.41–68.58 mm (2.575–2.700 in). Balls must weigh between 56.0 and 59.4 g (1.98 and 2.10 oz). Tennis balls were traditionally manufactured in the United States and Europe. Although the process of producing the balls has remained virtually unchanged for the past 100 years, the majority of manufacturing now takes place in the Far East. The relocation is due to cheaper labour costs and materials in the region. Tournaments that are played under the ITF Rules of Tennis must use balls that are approved by the International Tennis Federation (ITF) and be named on the official ITF list of approved tennis balls.
== Manner of play ==
=== Court ===
Tennis is played on a rectangular, flat surface. The court is 78 feet (23.77 m) long, and 27 feet (8.2 m) wide for singles matches and 36 ft (11 m) for doubles matches. Additional clear space around the court is required in order for players to reach overrun balls. A net is stretched across the full width of the court, parallel with the baselines, dividing it into two equal ends. It is held up by either a cord or metal cable of diameter no greater than 0.8 cm (1⁄3 in). The net is 3 feet 6 inches (1.07 m) high at the posts and 3 feet (0.91 m) high in the centre. The net posts are 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the doubles court on each side or, for a singles net, 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the singles court on each side.
The modern tennis court owes its design to Major Walter Clopton Wingfield. In 1873, Wingfield patented a court much the same as the current one for his stické tennis (sphairistike). This template was modified in 1875 to the court design that exists today, with markings similar to Wingfield's version, but with the hourglass shape of his court changed to a rectangle.
Tennis is unusual in that it is played on a variety of surfaces. Grass, clay, and hard courts of concrete or asphalt topped with acrylic are the most common. Occasionally carpet is used for indoor play, with hardwood flooring having been historically used. Artificial turf courts can also be found.
==== Lines ====
The lines that delineate the width of the court are called the baseline (farthest back) and the service line (middle of the court). The short mark in the centre of each baseline is referred to as either the hash mark or the centre mark. The outermost lines that make up the length are called the doubles sidelines; they are the boundaries for doubles matches. The lines to the inside of the doubles sidelines are the singles sidelines, and are the boundaries in singles play. The area between a doubles sideline and the nearest singles sideline is called the doubles alley, playable in doubles play. The line that runs across the centre of a player's side of the court is called the service line because the serve must be delivered into the area between the service line and the net on the receiving side. Despite its name, this is not where a player legally stands when making a serve.
The line dividing the service line in two is called the centre line or centre service line. The boxes this centre line creates are called the service boxes; depending on a player's position, they have to hit the ball into one of these when serving. A ball is out only if none of it has hit the area inside the lines, or the line, upon its first bounce. All lines are required to be between 1 and 2 inches (25 and 51 mm) in width, with the exception of the baseline which can be up to 4 inches (100 mm) wide, although in practice it is often the same width as the others.
=== Play of a single point ===
The players or teams start on opposite sides of the net. One player is designated the server, and the opposing player is the receiver. The choice to be server or receiver in the first game and the choice of ends is decided by a coin toss before the warm-up starts. Service alternates game by game between the two players or teams. For each point, the server starts behind the baseline, between the centre mark and the sideline. The receiver may start anywhere on their side of the net. When the receiver is ready, the server will serve, although the receiver must play to the pace of the server.
For a service to be legal, the ball must travel over the net without touching it into the diagonally opposite service box. If the ball hits the net but lands in the service box, this is a let or net service, which is void, and the server retakes that serve. The player can serve any number of let services in a point and they are always treated as voids and not as faults. A fault is a serve that falls long or wide of the service box, or does not clear the net. There is also a "foot fault" when a player's foot touches the baseline or an extension of the centre mark before the ball is hit. If the second service, after a fault, is also a fault, the server double faults, and the receiver wins the point. However, if the serve is in, it is considered a legal service.
A legal service starts a rally, in which the players alternate hitting the ball across the net. A legal return consists of a player hitting the ball so that it falls in the server's court, before it has bounced twice or hit any fixtures except the net. A player or team cannot hit the ball twice in a row. The ball must travel over or round the net into the other players' court. A ball that hits the net during a rally is considered a legal return as long as it crosses into the opposite side of the court. The first player or team to fail to make a legal return loses the point. The server then moves to the other side of the service line at the start of a new point.
=== Scoring ===
==== Game, set, match ====
===== Game =====
A game consists of a sequence of points played with the same player serving. A game is won by the first player to have won at least four points in total and at least two points more than the opponent. The running score of each game is described in a manner peculiar to tennis: scores from zero to three points are described as "love", "15", "30", and "40", respectively. If at least three points have been scored by each player, making the player's scores equal at 40 apiece, the score is not called out as "40–40", but rather as "deuce". If at least three points have been scored by each side and a player has one more point than their opponent, the score of the game is "advantage" for the player in the lead. During informal games, advantage can also be called "ad in" or "van in" when the serving player is ahead, and "ad out" or "van out" when the receiving player is ahead; alternatively, either player may simply call out "my ad" or "your ad".
The score of a tennis game during play is always read with the serving player's score first. In tournament play, the chair umpire calls the point count (e.g., "15–love") after each point. At the end of a game, the chair umpire also announces the winner of the game and the overall score.
===== Set =====
A set consists of a sequence of games played with service alternating between games, ending when the count of games won meets certain criteria. Typically, a player wins a set by winning at least six games and at least two games more than the opponent. If one player has won six games and the opponent five, an additional game is played. If the leading player wins that game, the player wins the set 7–5. If the trailing player wins the game (tying the set 6–6) a tiebreak is played. A tiebreak, played under a separate set of rules, allows one player to win one more game and thus the set, to give a final set score of 7–6. A tiebreak game can be won by scoring at least seven points and at least two points more than the opponent. In a tiebreak, two players serve by 'ABBA' system which has been proven to be fair. If a tiebreak is not played, the set is referred to as an advantage set, where the set continues without limit until one player leads by a two-game margin. A "love set" means that the loser of the set won zero games, colloquially termed a "jam donut" in the US. In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the winner of the set and the overall score. The final score in sets is always read with the winning player's score first, e.g. "6–2, 4–6, 6–0, 7–5".
===== Match =====
A match consists of a sequence of sets. The outcome is determined through a best of three or five sets system. On the professional circuit, men play best-of-five-set matches at all four Grand Slam tournaments, Davis Cup, and the final of the Olympic Games and best-of-three-set matches at all other tournaments, while women play best-of-three-set matches at all tournaments. The first player to win two sets in a best-of-three, or three sets in a best-of-five, wins the match. Only in the final sets of matches at the Fed Cup are tiebreaks not played. In these cases, sets are played indefinitely until one player has a two-game lead, occasionally leading to some remarkably long matches.
In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the end of the match with the well-known phrase "Game, set, match" followed by the winning person's or team's name.
==== Special point terms ====
===== Game point =====
A game point occurs in tennis whenever the player who is in the lead in the game needs only one more point to win the game. The terminology is extended to sets (set point), matches (match point), and even championships (championship point). For example, if the player who is serving has a score of 40–love, the player has a triple game point (triple set point, etc.) as the player has three consecutive chances to win the game. Game points, set points, and match points are not part of official scoring and are not announced by the chair umpire in tournament play.
===== Break point =====
A break point occurs if the receiver, not the server, has a chance to win the game with the next point. Break points are of particular importance because serving is generally considered advantageous, with servers being expected to win games in which they are serving. A receiver who has one (score of 30–40 or advantage), two (score of 15–40) or three (score of love–40) consecutive chances to win the game has break point, double break point or triple break point, respectively. If the receiver does, in fact, win their break point, the game is awarded to the receiver, and the receiver is said to have converted their break point. If the receiver fails to win their break point it is called a failure to convert. Winning break points, and thus the game, is also referred to as breaking serve, as the receiver has disrupted, or broken the natural advantage of the server. If in the following game the previous server also wins a break point it is referred to as breaking back. Except where tiebreaks apply, at least one break of serve is required to win a set (otherwise a two-game lead would never occur).
=== Rule variations ===
No ad
From 'No advantage'. Scoring method created by Jimmy Van Alen. The first player or doubles team to win four points wins the game, regardless of whether the player or team is ahead by two points. When the game score reaches three points each, the receiver chooses which side of the court (advantage court or deuce court) the service is to be delivered on the seventh and game-deciding point. Utilized by World Team Tennis professional competition, ATP tours, WTA tours, ITF Pro Doubles and ITF Junior Doubles.
Pro set
Instead of playing multiple sets, players may play one pro set. A pro set is first to 8 (or 10) games by a margin of two games, instead of first to 6 games. A 12-point tiebreak is usually played when the score is 8–8 (or 10–10). These are often played with no-ad scoring.
Match tiebreak
This is sometimes played instead of a third set. A match tiebreak (also called super tiebreak) is played like a regular tiebreak, but the winner must win ten points instead of seven. Match tiebreaks are used in the Hopman Cup, Grand Slams (excluding Wimbledon) and the Olympic Games for mixed doubles; on the ATP (since 2006), WTA (since 2007) and ITF (excluding four Grand Slam tournaments and the Davis Cup) tours for doubles and as a player's choice in USTA league play.
Fast4
Fast4 is a shortened format that offers a "fast" alternative, with four points, four games and four rules: there are no advantage scores, lets are played, tiebreakers apply at three games all, with it being first to five points with a "sudden death" point at four points all, and the first to four games wins the set. In the event of a no advantage deuce, the receiver gets to choose the service side. If a let occurs, the point continues as normal, and the non-receiver (in a doubles game) is permitted to return the serve. When players swap sides, they are not permitted to sit down and must be ready to play within sixty seconds. Between sets, players are permitted to sit down, and must be ready to play within ninety seconds.
Another, however informal, tennis format is called Canadian doubles. This involves three players, with one person playing against a doubles team. The single player gets to utilize the alleys normally reserved only for a doubles team. Conversely, the doubles team does not use the alleys when executing a shot. The scoring is the same as for a regular game. This format is not sanctioned by any official body.
"Australian doubles", another informal and unsanctioned form of tennis, is played with similar rules to the Canadian doubles style, only in this version, players rotate court position after each game, each player taking a turn at playing alone against the other two. As such, each player plays doubles and singles over the course of a match, with the singles player always serving. Scoring styles vary, but one popular method is to assign a value of 2 points to each game, with the server taking both points if he or she holds serve and the doubles team each taking one if they break serve.
Wheelchair tennis can be played by able-bodied players as well as people who require a wheelchair for mobility. An extra bounce is permitted. This rule makes it possible to have mixed wheelchair and able-bodied matches. It is possible for a doubles team to consist of a wheelchair player and an able-bodied player (referred to as "one-up, one-down"), or for a wheelchair player to play against an able-bodied player. In such cases, the extra bounce is permitted for the wheelchair users only.
== Match play ==
=== Continuity ===
A tennis match is intended to be continuous. Because stamina is a relevant factor, arbitrary delays are not permitted. In most cases, service is required to occur no more than 20 seconds after the end of the previous point. This is increased to 90 seconds when the players change ends (after every odd-numbered game), and a 2-minute break is permitted between sets. Other than this, breaks are permitted only when forced by events beyond the players' control, such as rain, damaged footwear, damaged racket, or the need to retrieve an errant ball. Should a player be deemed to be stalling repeatedly, the chair umpire may initially give a warning followed by subsequent penalties of "point", "game", and default of the match for the player who is consistently taking longer than the allowed time limit.
In the event of a rain delay, darkness or other external conditions halting play, the match is resumed at a later time, with the same score as at the time of the delay, and each player at the same end of the court as when rain halted play, or as close to the same relative compass point if play is resumed on a different court.
=== Ball changes ===
Balls wear out quickly in serious play and, therefore, in ATP and WTA tournaments, they are changed after every nine games with the first change occurring after only seven games, because the first set of balls is also used for the pre-match warm-up. In ITF tournaments like Fed Cup, the balls are changed after every eleven games (rather than nine) with the first change occurring after only nine games (instead of seven). An exception is that a ball change may not take place at the beginning of a tiebreaker, in which case the ball change is delayed until the beginning of the second game of the next set. As a courtesy to the receiver, the server will often signal to the receiver before the first serve of the game in which new balls are used as a reminder that they are using new balls. Continuity of the balls' condition is considered part of the game, so if a re-warm-up is required after an extended break in play (usually due to rain), then the re-warm-up is done using a separate set of balls, and use of the match balls is resumed only when play resumes.
=== On-court coaching ===
A recent rule change is to allow coaching on court on a limited basis during a match. This has been introduced in women's tennis for WTA Tour events in 2009 and allows the player to request her coach once per set.
== Stance ==
Stance refers to the way a player prepares themselves in order to best be able to return a shot. Essentially, it enables them to move quickly in order to achieve a particular stroke. There are four main stances in modern tennis: open, semi-open, closed, and neutral. All four stances involve the player crouching in some manner: as well as being a more efficient striking posture, it allows them to isometrically preload their muscles in order to play the stroke more dynamically. What stance is selected is strongly influenced by shot selection. A player may quickly alter their stance depending on the circumstances and the type of shot they intend to play. Any given stance also alters dramatically based upon the actual playing of the shot with dynamic movements and shifts of body weight occurring.
=== Open stance ===
This is the most common stance in tennis. The player's feet are placed parallel to the net. They may be pointing sideways, directly at the net or diagonally towards it. This stance allows for a high degree of torso rotation which can add significant power to the stroke. This process is sometimes likened to the coiling and uncoiling of a spring. i.e. the torso is rotated as a means of preloading the muscular system in preparation for playing the stroke: this is the coiling phase. When the stroke is played the torso rotates to face forwards again, called uncoiling, and adds significant power to the stroke. A disadvantage of this stance is that it does not always allow 'for proper weight transfer and maintenance of balance' when making powerful strokes. It is commonly used for forehand strokes; double-handed backhands can also be made effectively from it.
=== Semi-open stance ===
This stance is somewhere between open and closed and is a very flexible stance. The feet are aligned diagonally towards the net. It allows for a lot of shoulder rotation and the torso can be coiled, before being uncoiled into the shot in order to increase the power of the shot. It is commonly used in modern tennis especially by 'top professional players on the forehand'. Two-handed backhands can also be employed from this stance.
=== Closed stance ===
The closed stance is the least commonly used of the three main stances. One foot is placed further towards the net with the other foot further from it; there is a diagonal alignment between the feet. It allows for effective torso rotation in order to increase the power of the shot. It is usually used to play backhand shots and it is rare to see forehand shots played from it. A stroke from this stance may entail the rear foot coming completely off the floor with bodyweight being transferred entirely to the front foot.
=== Neutral stance ===
This is sometimes also referred to as the square stance. One foot is positioned closer to the net and ahead of the other which is behind and in line with it. Both feet are aligned at a 90 degree angle to the net. The neutral stance is often taught early because 'It allows beginners to learn about shifting weight and rotation of the body.' Forehands and backhands may be made from it.
== Shots ==
Competent tennis players have eight basic shots in their repertoire: the serve, forehand, backhand, volley, half-volley, overhead smash, drop shot, and lob.
=== Grip ===
A grip is a way of holding the racket in order to hit shots during a match. The grip affects the angle of the racket face when it hits the ball and influences the pace, spin, and placement of the shot. Players use various grips during play, including the Continental (The "Handshake Grip"), Eastern (either semi-eastern or full eastern, usually used for backhands), and Western (semi-western or full western, usually for forehand grips) grips. Most players change grips during a match depending on what shot they are hitting; for example, slice shots and serves call for a Continental grip.
=== Serve ===
A serve (or, more formally, a "service") in tennis is a shot to start a point. The serve is initiated by tossing the ball into the air and hitting it (usually near the apex of its trajectory) into the diagonally opposite service box without touching the net. The serve may be hit under- or overhand although underhand serving remains a rarity. If the ball hits the net on the first serve and bounces over into the correct diagonal box then it is called a "let" and the server gets two more additional serves to get it in. There can also be a let if the server serves the ball and the receiver isn't prepared. If the server misses his or her first serve and gets a let on the second serve, then they get one more try to get the serve in the box.
Experienced players strive to master the conventional overhand serve to maximize its power and placement. The server may employ different types of serve including flat serve, topspin serve, slice serve, and kick (American twist) serve. A reverse type of spin serve is hit in a manner that spins the ball opposite the natural spin of the server, the spin direction depending upon right- or left-handedness. If the ball is spinning counterclockwise, it will curve right from the hitter's point of view and curve left if spinning clockwise.
Some servers are content to use the serve simply to initiate the point; however, advanced players often try to hit a winning shot with their serve. A winning serve that is not touched by the opponent is called an "ace".
=== Forehand ===
For a right-handed player, the forehand is a stroke that begins on the right side of the body, continues across the body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the left side of the body. There are various grips for executing the forehand, and their popularity has fluctuated over the years. The most important ones are the continental, the eastern, the semi-western, and the western. For a number of years, the small, frail 1920s player Bill Johnston was considered by many to have had the best forehand of all time, a stroke that he hit shoulder-high using a western grip. Few top players used the western grip after the 1920s, but in the latter part of the 20th century, as shot-making techniques and equipment changed radically, the western forehand made a strong comeback and is now used by many modern players. No matter which grip is used, most forehands are generally executed with one hand holding the racket, but there have been fine players with two-handed forehands. In the 1940s and 50s, the Ecuadorian/American player Pancho Segura used a two-handed forehand to achieve a devastating effect against larger, more powerful players. Players such as Monica Seles or France's Fabrice Santoro and Marion Bartoli are also notable players known for their two-handed forehands.
=== Backhand ===
For right-handed players, the backhand is a stroke that begins on the left side of their body, continues across their body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the right side of their body. It can be executed with either one hand or with both and is generally considered more difficult to master than the forehand. For most of the 20th century, the backhand was performed with one hand, using either an eastern or a continental grip. The first notable players to use two hands were the 1930s Australians Vivian McGrath and John Bromwich, but they were lone exceptions. The two-handed grip gained popularity in the 1970s as Björn Borg, Chris Evert, Jimmy Connors, and later Mats Wilander and Marat Safin used it to great effect, and it is now used by a large number of the world's best players, including Novak Djokovic, Rafael Nadal and Serena Williams.
Two hands give the player more control, while one hand can generate a slice shot, applying backspin on the ball to produce a low trajectory bounce. Reach is also limited with the two-handed shot. The player long considered to have had the best backhand of all time, Don Budge, had a powerful one-handed stroke in the 1930s and 1940s that imparted topspin onto the ball. Ken Rosewall, another player noted for his one-handed backhand, used a very accurate slice backhand through the 1950s and 1960s. A small number of players, notably Monica Seles, use two hands on both the backhand and forehand sides.
=== Other shots ===
A volley is a shot returned to the opponent in mid-air before the ball bounces, generally performed near the net, and is usually made with a stiff-wristed punching motion to hit the ball into an open area of the opponent's court. The half volley is made by hitting the ball on the rise just after it has bounced, also generally in the vicinity of the net, and played with the racket close to the ground. The swinging volley is hit out of the air as the player approaches the net. It is an offensive shot used to take preparation time away from the opponent, as it returns the ball into the opponent's court much faster than a standard volley.
From a poor defensive position on the baseline, the lob can be used as either an offensive or defensive weapon, hitting the ball high and deep into the opponent's court to either enable the lobber to get into better defensive position or to win the point outright by hitting it over the opponent's head. If the lob is not hit deeply enough into the other court, however, an opponent near the net may then hit an overhead smash, a hard, serve-like shot, to try to end the point.
A difficult shot in tennis is the return of an attempted lob over the backhand side of a player. When the contact point is higher than the reach of a two-handed backhand, most players will try to execute a high slice (under the ball or sideways). Fewer players attempt the backhand sky-hook or smash. Rarely, a player will go for a high topspin backhand, while themselves in the air. A successful execution of any of these alternatives requires balance and timing, with less margin of error than the lower contact point backhands, since this shot is a break in the regular pattern of play.
If their opponent is deep in their court, a player may suddenly employ an unexpected drop shot, by softly tapping the ball just over the net so that the opponent is unable to run in fast enough to retrieve it. Advanced players will often apply back spin to a drop shot, causing the ball to "skid" upon landing and bounce sideways, with less forward momentum toward their opponent, or even backwards towards the net, thus making it even more difficult to return.
== Tournaments ==
Tournaments are often organized by gender and number of players. Common tournament configurations include men's singles, women's singles, and doubles, where two players play on each side of the net. Tournaments may be organized for specific age groups, with upper age limits for youth and lower age limits for senior players. Example of this include the Orange Bowl and Les Petits As junior tournaments. There are also tournaments for players with disabilities, such as wheelchair tennis and deaf tennis. In the four Grand Slam tournaments, the singles draws are limited to 128 players for each gender.
Most large tournaments seed players, but players may also be matched by their skill level. According to how well a person does in sanctioned play, a player is given a rating that is adjusted periodically to maintain competitive matches. For example, the United States Tennis Association administers the National Tennis Rating Program (NTRP), which rates players between 1.0 and 7.0 in 1/2 point increments. Average club players under this system would rate 3.0–4.5 while world class players would be 7.0 on this scale.
=== Grand Slam tournaments ===
The four Grand Slam tournaments are considered to be the most prestigious tennis events in the world. They are held annually and comprise, in chronological order, the Australian Open, the French Open, Wimbledon, and the US Open. Apart from the Olympic Games, Davis Cup, Fed Cup, and Hopman Cup, they are the only tournaments regulated by the International Tennis Federation (ITF). The ITF's national associations, Tennis Australia (Australian Open), the Fédération Française de Tennis (French Open), the Lawn Tennis Association (Wimbledon) and the United States Tennis Association (US Open) are delegated the responsibility to organize these events.
Aside from the historical significance of these events, they also carry larger prize funds than any other tour event and are worth double the number of ranking points to the champion than in the next echelon of tournaments, the ATP Masters 1000 (men) and Premier events (women). Another distinguishing feature is the number of players in the singles draw. There are 128, more than any other professional tennis tournament. This draw is composed of 32 seeded players, other players ranked in the world's top 100, qualifiers, and players who receive invitations through wild cards. Grand Slam men's tournaments have best-of-five set matches while the women play best-of-three. Grand Slam tournaments are among the small number of events that last two weeks, the others being the Indian Wells Masters and the Miami Masters.
Currently, the Grand Slam tournaments are the only tour events that have mixed doubles contests. Grand Slam tournaments are held in conjunction with wheelchair tennis tournaments and junior tennis competitions. These tournaments also contain their own idiosyncrasies. For example, players at Wimbledon are required to wear predominantly white. Andre Agassi chose to skip Wimbledon from 1988 through 1990 citing the event's traditionalism, particularly its "predominantly white" dress code. Wimbledon has its own particular methods for disseminating tickets, often leading tennis fans to follow complex procedures to obtain tickets.
The French Open became an international tournament in 1925.
=== Men's tournament structure ===
==== ATP 1000 ====
The ATP Masters 1000 is a group of nine tournaments that form the second-highest echelon in men's tennis. Each event is held annually, and a win at one of these events is worth 1000 ranking points. When the ATP, led by Hamilton Jordan, began running the men's tour in 1990, the directors designated the top nine tournaments, outside of the Grand Slam events, as "Super 9" events. In 2000 this became the Tennis Masters Series and in 2004 the ATP Masters Series. In November at the end of the tennis year, the world's top eight players compete in the ATP Finals, a tournament with a rotating locale. It is currently held in Turin.
In August 2007 the ATP announced major changes to the tour that were introduced in 2009. The Masters Series was renamed to the "ATP Masters 1000", the addition of the number 1000 referring to the number of ranking points earned by the winner of each tournament. Contrary to earlier plans, the number of tournaments was not reduced from nine to eight and the Monte-Carlo Masters remains part of the series although, unlike the other events, it does not have a mandatory player commitment. The Hamburg Masters has been downgraded to a 500-point event. The Madrid Masters moved to May and onto clay courts, and a new tournament in Shanghai took over Madrid's former indoor October slot. As of 2011 six of the nine "1000" level tournaments are combined ATP and WTA events.
==== 500 and 250 series ====
The third and fourth tier of men's tennis tournaments are formed by the ATP 500 series, consisting of 11 tournaments, and the ATP 250 series with 40 tournaments. Like the ATP Masters 1000, these events offer various amounts of prize money and the numbers refer to the number of ranking points earned by the winner of a tournament. The Dubai Tennis Championships offer the largest financial incentive to players, with total prize money of US$2,313,975 (2012). These series have various draws of 28, 32, 48 and 56 for singles and 16 and 24 for doubles. It is mandatory for leading players to enter at least four 500 events, including at least one after the US Open.
==== Challenger Tour and Futures tournaments ====
The Challenger Tour for men is the lowest level of tournament administered by the ATP. It is composed of about 150 events and, as a result, features a more diverse range of countries hosting events. The majority of players use the Challenger Series at the beginning of their career to work their way up the rankings. Andre Agassi, between winning Grand Slam tournaments, plummeted to World No. 141 and used Challenger Series events for match experience and to progress back up the rankings. The Challenger Series offers prize funds of between US$25,000 and US$150,000.
Below the Challenger Tour are the Futures tournaments, events on the ITF Men's Circuit. These tournaments also contribute towards a player's ATP rankings points. Futures Tournaments offer prize funds of between US$10,000 and US$15,000. Approximately 530 Futures Tournaments are played each year.
=== Women's tournament structure ===
In 2021, the WTA rebranded, resembling the men's tournament series, and also providing extra simplicity for fans and consumers. The numbers do not indicate ranking points, or prize money, but is a system to help define different levels of women's tennis.
==== WTA 1000 ====
The WTA 1000 Tournaments (formerly the Premier Mandatory and Premier 5 Tournaments), are a series of seven tournaments that are part of the second-highest tier in women's tennis.
==== 500 and 250 Series ====
The third and fourth tier of women's tennis tournaments are formed from the WTA 500 Series (formerly Premier 700), with fifteen tournaments, and the WTA 250 Series (formerly International), consisting of thirty tournaments.
==== WTA 125 ====
The WTA 125 Series (formerly 125K Series), is the lowest tier of women's tennis, with fourteen tournaments.
== Players ==
=== Professional players ===
Professional tennis players enjoy the same relative perks as most top sports personalities: clothing, equipment and endorsements. Like players of other individual sports such as golf, they are not salaried, but must play and finish highly in tournaments to obtain prize money.
In recent years, professional tennis players have been mocked by tabloids and fans for the involuntary or deliberate noise caused by players' grunting. This controversy has spurred the Grand Slam Committee, the International Tennis Association, and the Women's Tennis Association to teach players techniques to avoid grunting.
==== Singles and doubles professional careers ====
While players are gradually less competitive in singles by their late 20s and early 30s, they can still continue competitively in doubles (as instanced by Martina Navratilova and John McEnroe, who won doubles titles in their 40s).
In the Open Era, several female players such as Martina Navratilova, Margaret Court, Martina Hingis, Serena Williams, and Venus Williams (the latter two sisters playing together) have been prolific at both singles and doubles events throughout their careers. John McEnroe is one of the very few professional male players to be top ranked in both singles and doubles at the same time, and Yevgeny Kafelnikov is the most recent male player to win multiple Grand Slams in both singles and doubles during the same period of his career.
In terms of public attention and earnings (see below), singles champions have far surpassed their doubles counterparts. The Open Era, particularly the men's side, has seen many top-ranked singles players that only sparingly compete in doubles, while having "doubles specialists" who are typically being eliminated early in the singles draw but do well in the doubles portion of a tournament. Notable doubles pairings include The Woodies (Todd Woodbridge and Mark Woodforde) and the Bryan brothers (identical twin brothers Robert Charles "Bob" Bryan and Michael Carl "Mike" Bryan). Woodbridge has disliked the term "doubles 'specialists'", saying that he and Woodforde "set a singles schedule and doubles fitted in around that", although later in Woodbridge's career he focused exclusively on doubles as his singles ranking fell too low that it was no longer financially viable to recover at that age. Woodbridge noted that while top singles players earn enough that they do not need to nor want to play doubles, he suggested that lower-ranked singles players outside the Top Ten should play doubles to earn more playing time and money.
==== Olympics ====
The Olympics doubles tennis tournament necessitates that both members of a doubles pairing be from the same country, hence several top professional pairs such as Jamie Murray and Bruno Soares cannot compete in the Olympics. Top-ranked singles players that are usually rivals on the professional circuit, such as Boris Becker and Michael Stich, and Roger Federer and Stan Wawrinka have formed a rare doubles partnership for the Olympics. Unlike professional tennis tournaments (see below) where singles players receive much more prize money than doubles players, an Olympic medal for both singles and doubles has similar prestige. The Olympics is more of a priority for doubles champions while singles champions often skip the tournament. While the ATP has voted for Olympic results to count towards player ranking points, WTA players voted against it.
For the 2000 Olympics, Lisa Raymond was passed over for Team USA in favour of Serena Williams by captain Billie Jean King, even though Raymond was the top-ranked doubles player in the world at the time, and Raymond unsuccessfully challenged the selection.
==== Prize money ====
In professional tennis tournaments such as Wimbledon, the singles competition receives the most prize money and coverage, followed by doubles, and then mixed doubles usually receive the lowest monetary awards. For instance in the US Open as of 2018, the men's and women's singles prize money (US$40,912,000) accounts for 80.9 percent of total player base compensation, while men's and women's doubles (US$6,140,840), men's and women's singles qualifying (US$3,008,000), and mixed doubles (US$505,000) account for 12.1 percent, 5.9 percent, and 1.0 percent, respectively. The singles winner receives US$3,800,000, while the doubles winning pair receives $700,000 and the mixed doubles winning pair receives US$155,000.
=== Grand Slam tournament winners ===
The following players have won at least five singles titles at Grand Slam tournaments (active players in bold):
=== Greatest male players ===
A frequent topic of discussion among tennis fans and commentators is who was the greatest male singles player of all time. By a large margin, an Associated Press poll in 1950 named Bill Tilden as the greatest player of the first half of the 20th century. From 1920 to 1930, Tilden won singles titles at Wimbledon three times and the US Championships seven times. In 1938, however, Donald Budge became the first person to win all four major singles titles during the same calendar year, the Grand Slam, and won six consecutive major titles in 1937 and 1938. Tilden called Budge "the finest player 365 days a year that ever lived." In his 1979 autobiography, Jack Kramer said that, based on consistent play, Budge was the greatest player ever. Some observers, however, also felt that Kramer deserved consideration for the title. Kramer was among the few who dominated amateur and professional tennis during the late 1940s and early 1950s. Tony Trabert has said that of the players he saw before the start of the Open Era, Kramer was the best male champion.
By the 1960s, Budge and others had added Pancho Gonzales and Lew Hoad to the list of contenders. Budge reportedly believed that Gonzales was the greatest player ever. Gonzales said about Hoad, "When Lew's game was at its peak nobody could touch him. ... I think his game was the best game ever. Better than mine. He was capable of making more shots than anybody. His two volleys were great. His overhead was enormous. He had the most natural tennis mind with the most natural tennis physique."
Before and during the Open Era, Rod Laver remains the only male player in history to have won the calendar year Grand Slam twice in 1962 and 1969 and also the calendar year Professional Grand Slam in 1967.
Jimmy Connors, Björn Borg, and John McEnroe had a fierce rivalry in the late 1970s and early 1980s that propelled "the men's game to new heights of popularity". Connors had a long and prolific career and holds the Open Era men's singles records of 109 titles including eight Grand Slams, 1,557 matches played, and 1,274 match wins. Borg was regarded by his contemporaries as among the greatest ever, having a calm court demeanor and unrivalled physical conditioning, winning six French Opens and five straight Wimbledon titles, retiring at age 26 when he was still in his prime. McEnroe attained the No. 1 ranking in both singles and doubles, finishing his career with 77 singles and 78 doubles titles; this remains the highest men's combined total of the Open Era.
The Agassi–Sampras rivalry showcased the two best players in the 1990s. Sampras had a precise and powerful serve while Agassi was considered to be one of the best service returners in the history of the game. By the early 2000s, Pete Sampras had won a then-record of 14 Grand Slam titles which was by far the most among his contemporaries. Sampras also held the record for most weeks at No. 1 with 286 until it was broken a decade later by Federer and Djokovic after that. Andre Agassi was the first player to complete the Career Grand Slam on all modern three surfaces (hard, grass, and clay courts) as previous winners of Grand Slam tournaments played in an era of grass and clay only (Rod Laver and Ken Rosewall also won major Pro tournaments on the three surfaces). Agassi also is the only player to win all four Grand Slam titles along with the year-end championships and the olympics. Both Sampras and Agassi are regarded to be among the greatest players of all time.
By the early twenty-first century, the 'Big Three' of Roger Federer, Rafael Nadal and Novak Djokovic have dominated men's singles tennis for two decades, collectively winning 66 major singles tournaments; Djokovic with an all-time record 24 titles, Nadal with 22 and Federer with 20. They have been ranked as world No. 1s in singles for a total 947 weeks (equivalent to 18 years); Djokovic for a record 428 weeks, Federer for 310, and Nadal for 209.
=== Greatest female players ===
As with the men there are frequent discussions about who is the greatest female singles player of all time with Steffi Graf, Martina Navratilova and Serena Williams being the three players most often nominated.
In March 2012 the Tennis Channel published a combined list of the 100 greatest men and women tennis players of all time. It ranked Steffi Graf as the greatest female player (in 3rd place overall), followed by Martina Navratilova (4th place) and Margaret Court (8th place). The rankings were determined by an international panel.
Sportswriter John Wertheim of Sports Illustrated stated in an article in July 2010 that Serena Williams is the greatest female tennis player ever with the argument that "Head-to-head, on a neutral surface (i.e. hard courts), everyone at their best, I can't help feeling that she crushes the other legends.". In a reaction to this article Yahoo sports blog Busted Racket published a list of the top-10 women's tennis players of all time placing Martina Navratilova in first spot. This top-10 list was similar to the one published in June 2008 by the Bleacher Report who also ranked Martina Navratilova as the top female player of all time.
Steffi Graf is considered by some to be the greatest female player. Billie Jean King said in 1999, "Steffi is definitely the greatest women's tennis player of all time." Martina Navratilova has included Graf on her list of great players. In December 1999, Graf was named the greatest female tennis player of the 20th century by a panel of experts assembled by the Associated Press. Tennis writer Steve Flink, in his book The Greatest Tennis Matches of the Twentieth Century, named her as the best female player of the 20th century, directly followed by Martina Navratilova.
Tennis magazine selected Martina Navratilova as the greatest female tennis player for the years 1965 through 2005. Tennis historian and journalist Bud Collins has called Navratilova "arguably, the greatest player of all time." Billie Jean King said about Navratilova in 2006, "She's the greatest singles, doubles and mixed doubles player who's ever lived."
In 2018, a Tennis.com panel selected Serena Williams as the greatest female tennis player in the Open Era. In May 2020, the Tennis Channel ranked Williams as the greatest female tennis player of all time.
In November 2018, Tennis.com polled its readers to choose the greatest women's tennis player of all time and Graf came in first. In July 2020, The Guardian polled its readers to determine the greatest female tennis player of the past 50 years, and Graf was the clear favorite, picking up nearly twice as many votes as any other player.
== Officials ==
In most professional play and some amateur competition, there is an officiating head judge or chair umpire (usually referred to simply as the umpire), who sits in a raised chair to one side of the court. The umpire has absolute authority to make factual determinations. The umpire may be assisted by line judges, who determine whether the ball has landed within the required part of the court and who also call foot faults. There also may be a net judge who determines whether the ball has touched the net during service. The umpire has the right to overrule a line judge or a net judge if the umpire is sure that a clear mistake has been made.
In past tournaments, line judges tasked with calling the serve were sometimes assisted by electronic sensors that beeped to indicate an out-of-bounds serve; one such system was called "Cyclops". Cyclops has since largely been replaced by the Hawk-Eye system. In professional tournaments using this system, players are allowed three unsuccessful appeals per set, plus one additional appeal in the tiebreak to challenge close line calls by means of an electronic review. The US Open, Miami Masters, US Open Series, and World Team Tennis started using this challenge system in 2006 and the Australian Open and Wimbledon introduced the system in 2007. In clay-court matches, such as at the French Open, a call may be questioned by reference to the mark left by the ball's impact on the court surface.
The referee, who is usually located off the court, is the final authority about tennis rules. When called to the court by a player or team captain, the referee may overrule the umpire's decision if the tennis rules were violated (question of law) but may not change the umpire's decision on a question of fact. If, however, the referee is on the court during play, the referee may overrule the umpire's decision. (This would only happen in Davis Cup or Fed Cup matches, not at the World Group level, when a chair umpire from a non-neutral country is in the chair.)
== Junior tennis ==
In tennis, a junior is a player under 18 who is still legally protected by a parent or guardian. Players on the main adult tour who are under 18 must have documents signed by a parent or guardian. These players, however, are still eligible to play in junior tournaments.
The International Tennis Federation (ITF) conducts a junior tour that allows juniors to establish a world ranking and an Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) or Women's Tennis Association (WTA) ranking. Most juniors who enter the international circuit do so by progressing through ITF, Satellite, Future, and Challenger tournaments before entering the main circuit. The latter three circuits also have adults competing in them. Some juniors, however, such as Australian Lleyton Hewitt and Frenchman Gaël Monfils, have catapulted directly from the junior tour to the ATP tour by dominating the junior scene or by taking advantage of opportunities given to them to participate in professional tournaments.
In 2004, the ITF implemented a new rankings scheme to encourage greater participation in doubles, by combining two rankings (singles and doubles) into one combined tally. Junior tournaments do not offer prize money except for the Grand Slam tournaments, which are the most prestigious junior events. Juniors may earn income from tennis by participating in the Future, Satellite, or Challenger tours. Tournaments are broken up into different tiers offering different amounts of ranking points, culminating with Grade A.
Leading juniors are allowed to participate for their nation in the Junior Fed Cup and Davis Cup competitions. To succeed in tennis often means having to begin playing at a young age. To facilitate and nurture a junior's growth in tennis, almost all tennis playing nations have developed a junior development system. Juniors develop their play through a range of tournaments on all surfaces, accommodating all different standards of play. Talented juniors may also receive sponsorships from governing bodies or private institutions.
== Injuries ==
Muscle strain is one of the most common injuries in tennis. When an isolated large-energy appears during the muscle contraction and at the same time body weight apply huge amount of pressure to the lengthened muscle, muscle strain can occur. Inflammation and bleeding are triggered when muscle strain occurs, which can result in redness, pain and swelling. Overuse is also common in tennis players of all levels. Muscle, cartilage, nerves, bursae, ligaments and tendons may be damaged from overuse. The repetitive use of a particular muscle without time for repair and recovery is the most common cause of injury.
== In popular culture ==
=== Literature ===
"Tennis balles" are mentioned by William Shakespeare in his play Henry V (1599), when a basket of them is given to King Henry as a mockery of his youth and playfulness.
David Foster Wallace, an amateur tennis player himself at Urbana High School in Illinois, included tennis in many of his works of non-fiction and fiction including "Tennis Player Michael Joyce's Professional Artistry as a Paradigm of Certain Stuff about Choice, Freedom, Discipline, Joy, Grotesquerie, and Human Completeness", the autobiographical piece "Derivative Sport in Tornado Alley", and Infinite Jest, which is partially set at the fictional "Enfield Tennis Academy" in Massachusetts.
Japanese manga series The Prince of Tennis revolves around the tennis prodigy Echizen Ryoma and tennis matches between rival schools.
Imogen, a 1978 romance novel by Jilly Cooper has a central character who is a professional tennis player.
=== TV and film ===
The Royal Tenenbaums (2001) is a film that features Richie Tenenbaum (Luke Wilson), a tennis pro who has depression and has a breakdown on court in front of thousands of fans.
Wimbledon (2004) is a film about a discouraged pro tennis player (Paul Bettany) who meets a young woman on the women's tennis circuit (Kirsten Dunst) who helps him find his drive to go and win Wimbledon.
In The Squid and the Whale (2005), Joan (Laura Linney) has an affair with her kids' tennis coach, Ivan (William Baldwin). In a symbolic scene, Joan's ex-husband, Bernard (Jeff Daniels), loses a tennis match against Ivan in front of the kids.
Woody Allen's Match Point (2005) features a love affair between a former tennis pro, Chris Wilton (Jonathan Rhys Meyers), and his best friend's fiancé, Nola Rice (Scarlett Johansson). A scene of the movie includes a brief comparison between Andre Agassi and Tim Henman, with Chris Wilton calling both of them "geniuses".
Confetti (2006) is a mockumentary which sees three couples competing to win the title of "Most Original Wedding of the Year". One competing couple (Meredith MacNeill and Stephen Mangan) are a pair of hyper-competitive professional tennis players holding a tennis-themed wedding.
Challengers, a 2024 film by director Luca Guadagnino, centers around a trio of tennis players, and their relationship with one another, romantic and otherwise. It was nominated four times at the 82nd Golden Globe Awards, where it won Best Original Score.
=== Video games ===
There are several tennis video games including the Mario Tennis series, the TopSpin series, the Virtua Tennis series, Sega Superstars Tennis, Grand Slam Tennis and Wii Sports. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomorrow_X_Together | Tomorrow X Together | Tomorrow X Together (Korean: 투모로우바이투게더; Tomorrow by Together, stylized in all caps), commonly abbreviated as TXT, is a South Korean boy band formed by Big Hit Entertainment. The group consists of five members: Yeonjun, Soobin, Beomgyu, Taehyun, and Hueningkai.
They debuted on March 4, 2019, with the extended play (EP) The Dream Chapter: Star. The EP debuted and peaked at number one on the Gaon Album Chart and Billboard World Albums Chart and entered the US Billboard 200 at number 140, the highest-charting debut album by any male K-pop group at the time. Its lead single "Crown" debuted at number one on the Billboard World Digital Songs chart. The group also topped the Billboard Emerging Artists chart. Tomorrow X Together was the first Korean boy band to perform and headline at Lollapalooza, one of the biggest music festivals in the US.
The band's early commercial success earned them several new artist awards, including Rookie of the Year at the 34th Golden Disc Awards and the 2019 Melon Music Awards, New Artist of the Year at the 9th Gaon Chart Music Awards, and Best New Male Artist at the 2019 Mnet Asian Music Awards.
== Name ==
In Korean, the group's name is 투모로우바이투게더, which is "Tomorrow by Together" transliterated into Hangul; they do not have a separate Korean version of their name. According to their website, their name refers to five individuals who "come together under one dream in hopes of building a better tomorrow".
The full name is often shortened to 투바투; Tubatu by Korean media and fans. International media and fans often shorten the group's name to TXT. In their first interview with MBC's Section TV, the band stated that they prefer to be called "Tomorrow X Together" over "TXT".
== History ==
=== Pre-debut activities ===
Plans for a second boy group from Big Hit Entertainment were announced by founder Bang Si-hyuk as early as 2017, and a debut date for early 2019 was set in November 2018. Tomorrow X Together was officially revealed on January 10, 2019. Over the next ten days, videos depicting each member, dubbed "introduction films," were released on YouTube.
=== 2019: Debut and The Dream Chapter: Magic ===
In 2019, Big Hit Entertainment announced their new boy group, Tomorrow X Together. The band's debut broadcast aired on Big Hit's YouTube page, announced alongside their debut extended play (EP), The Dream Chapter: Star, which was released on March 4, 2019. Their debut showcase was held at the Yes24 Live Hall on March 5. Following the release of the EP, the music video of the album's lead single, "Crown" garnered 14.5 million views on YouTube, breaking the record for the most viewed K-pop debut music video within 24 hours for a boy group and the most liked K-pop debut music video, with 2.3 million likes in 24 hours. The album debuted atop the Gaon Album Chart and Billboard World Albums Chart, while "Crown" debuted at number one on the Billboard World Digital Songs chart. The band debuted at number one on the Billboard Emerging Artists and at number 140 on the Billboard 200 chart, making them the fastest to appear in these charts (they were the second fastest K-pop group to appear in the Billboard Emerging Artists) and highest-charting debut album by any male K-pop group. The album also ranked at number three on Oricon's Weekly Album Chart. Additionally, it went on to top the Gaon Monthly Album Chart for the month of March. Tomorrow X Together's first music show performance aired on March 7, 2019, on Mnet's M Countdown. They earned their first music show win on SBS MTV's The Show with "Crown", just after one week after their debut, followed by wins on M Countdown and Show Champion. "Crown" featured on GQ's Decade-end list of "game-changers from a decade of K-pop" for the year 2019, with GQ writing, "The bright, effervescent pop of TXT who are in their own element as they playfully explore teenage growing pains."
On April 9, Tomorrow X Together announced their first overseas tour, a six-show debut showcase in six American cities—New York City, Chicago, Los Angeles, Dallas, Orlando, and Atlanta—over the course of two weeks, from May 9 to 24. Tickets to all shows sold out in less than 24 hours. Following their showcase in May, the band performed at the 2019 iHeartRadio Wango Tango music concert at Dignity Health Sports Park in Los Angeles on June 1.
On June 11, it was announced that Tomorrow X Together would be the first artist to join the new platform Weverse. On June 20, the band announced that they would be performing in two of Japan's largest fashion festivals, Kansai Collection's Autumn/Winter 2019 runway show on August 27, followed by the Tokyo Girls Collection's Autumn/Winter 2019 show on September 7, making them the first Korean artist to perform at both shows in the same season. On July 6, the band performed at the KCON 2019 NY music festival at Madison Square Garden, New York, in front of 55,000 spectators. Later that month, Tomorrow X Together received their first MTV Video Music Award nomination in the category of "Best K-pop".
On August 8, Big Hit Entertainment announced that plans to release a new album in August would be postponed to September due to Soobin's infectious conjunctivitis diagnosis and Yeonjun's back pain. On August 20, Big Hit Entertainment revealed members Taehyun and HueningKai had also been diagnosed with conjunctivitis, thus pushing the release date for the new album back from September to October.
On October 21, 2019, Tomorrow X Together released their first studio album, The Dream Chapter: Magic, with "9 and Three Quarters (Run Away)" as lead single. Musically, the album incorporated a variety of music genres, including R&B, tropical house, acoustic pop and hip hop. The album debuted atop the Gaon Album Chart, surpassing 124,000 sales in its first week. This marked the band's second chart-topping album following their debut EP. The album debuted at number three on Billboard's World Albums Chart and at number six on the Billboard Heatseekers Album chart. A total of four tracks from the album entered the Billboard World Digital Songs chart, with the lead single debuting at number two. Billboard and Dazed both later named "9 and Three Quarters (Run Away)" one of the best K-pop songs of the year.
Tomorrow X Together's commercial success in their early months earned them several rookie awards at major Korean year-end music award shows, including the Asia Artist Awards, Melon Music Awards, Mnet Asian Music Awards, Golden Disc Awards, Gaon Chart Music Awards and Seoul Music Awards.
=== 2020: Japanese debut, The Dream Chapter: Eternity, and Minisode 1: Blue Hour ===
On January 15, 2020, Tomorrow X Together made their Japanese debut with the single "Magic Hour", which included the Japanese versions of their songs "Run Away", "Crown", and "Angel or Devil". The single album debuted at number one on the Oricon Daily Chart and at number two on the Oricon Weekly Singles Chart. On January 19, the band's Japanese television debut was announced with their first appearance on TV Asahi's Music Station. They performed the Japanese version of "Run Away" on January 24, the first Korean artist to perform on the show in 2020. "Magic Hour" was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ) for selling 100,000 units.
On April 28, Big Hit Entertainment set the release date of the band's second EP, The Dream Chapter: Eternity, for May 18, to be led by the single "Can't You See Me?". The EP sold over 181,000 units in its first week and entered the Gaon Album Chart at number two. It debuted at number one on the Oricon Albums Chart, becoming the band's first chart-topper in Japan. In July 2020, the EP received a platinum certification from the Korea Music Content Association (KMCA) for 250,000 album shipments, giving the Tomorrow X Together their first certification in the country since their debut. Two months later, The Dream Chapter: Star and The Dream Chapter: Magic were also certified platinum by the KMCA.
On July 20, 2020, it was announced that Soobin would be the new MC of KBS2's Music Bank for one year, along with Oh My Girl's Arin. His first broadcast as MC was on July 24, 2020, and his final on October 1, 2021. On August 19, 2020, Tomorrow X Together released their second Japanese single "Drama". The single album included Japanese versions of "Drama" and "Can't You See Me?", as well as their first original Japanese song, "Everlasting Shine". "Everlasting Shine" served as the twelfth opening theme of the anime Black Clover, which began airing on September 1. "Drama" debuted and peaked at number three on the Japanese Oricon Singles Chart and was certified gold by the RIAJ.
Tomorrow X Together released their third EP Minisode1: Blue Hour with the lead single "Blue Hour" on October 26. The album debuted at number three on the Gaon Album Chart, selling over 300,000 copies in its first week. In the United States, the EP debuted at number 25 on the Billboard 200, the top-selling album of the week. It also claimed the top spot on the Billboard World Albums chart, with Tomorrow X Together again topping the Emerging Artists chart. The EP also entered the Oricon Albums Chart at number one, becoming their second chart-topper in Japan. It was certified platinum by the KMCA. Tomorrow X Together released an original soundtrack titled "Your Light" for the JTBC teen-drama Live On on November 24, and member Yeonjun also made a cameo in the last episode.
=== 2021: Still Dreaming, The Chaos Chapter, and Chaotic Wonderland ===
The band's debut Japanese studio album Still Dreaming was released on January 20, 2021. The album included the original Japanese song "Force", which served as the opening theme for the second season of anime World Trigger. Still Dreaming debuted and peaked at number one on the Japanese Oricon Albums Chart and was certified gold by the RIAJ. The album charted at number 173 on the Billboard 200, making Tomorrow X Together the second Korean band in history to chart an album in Japanese on the US albums chart. In April 2021, Minisode1: Blue Hour was certified double platinum by the KMCA, indicating 500,000 shipments.
On April 22, 2021, Big Hit Music announced that Tomorrow X Together would make a comeback at the end of May. The band released their second studio album, The Chaos Chapter: Freeze on May 31 with lead single "0X1=Lovesong (I Know I Love You)", featuring Seori. On May 7, it was announced that the album pre-orders had surpassed 520,000 copies in six days. On May 31, before the official release of the album, pre-orders increased to over 700,000 copies, doubling from their last release. The Chaos Chapter: Freeze debuted at number five on the Billboard 200, becoming the band's highest-charting album in the United States and the top-selling album that week. The album peaked at number one on the Oricon Albums Chart, becoming Tomorrow X Together's fourth consecutive chart-topper in Japan. On May 24, the band released the original soundtrack "Love Sight" for the tvN drama Doom At Your Service. On June 25, the band released a remix of "0X1=Lovesong (I Know I Love You)" featuring pH-1, Woodie Gochild and Seori. In July, The Chaos Chapter: Freeze was certified Gold by the RIAJ, Tomorrow X Together's first Korean release to be certified in Japan. In August, the album was certified triple platinum by the KMCA, indicating 750,000 shipments.
Tomorrow X Together released The Chaos Chapter: Fight or Escape, a repackaged version of The Chaos Chapter: Freeze, with lead single "Loser=Lover" on August 17, 2021. On October 3, the band held their first full-length concert, entitled Act: Boy. The concert ran for 150 minutes, featured 25 songs, and was streamed through online platform VenewLive to fans in 126 countries. On October 5, it was announced that each member would serve as guest DJs on KBS Cool FM's Kiss the Radio from October 25 to 31, hosting "Tomorrow x Together week" to "showcase their unique charms" following previous DJ Young K's military enlistment.
The band released their first Japanese EP, Chaotic Wonderland, on November 10, 2021. It contained Japanese versions of "0X1=Lovesong (I Know I Love You)" featuring Ikuta Lilas, vocalist of Japanese musical duo Yoasobi, and "MOA Diary (Dubaddu Wari Wari)", along with original Japanese song "Ito" and the group's first original English song "Magic". "Ito", composed by Japanese rock band Greeeen, served as the theme song for Japanese drama Spiral Labyrinth – DNA Forensic Investigation[ja], adapted from the manga of the same name.
On November 24, 2021, Tomorrow X Together was awarded the 2021 Men of the Year Pop Icon Award by GQ Japan. The band also featured on the cover of Euphoria magazine, where they spoke to Aedan Juvet about being named the "it group" of K-pop's fourth generation.
=== 2022: Minisode 2: Thursday's Child and first world tour ===
On February 23, 2022, "PS5" by Salem Ilese was released, featuring members Yeonjun and Taehyun. On March 14, it was announced that Yeonjun would be the new MC of SBS's Inkigayo alongside Roh Jeong-eui and Seo Bum-june.
Tomorrow X Together released their fourth EP, Minisode 2: Thursday's Child, and its lead single "Good Boy Gone Bad" on May 9.
The EP surpassed 810,000 pre-ordered copies six days after the sales began. To support the EP, the group embarked on their first world tour, Act: Lovesick, beginning on July 2. On July 22, the group released an English single "Valley of Lies" featuring Puerto Rican rapper Iann Dior. On July 30, Tomorrow X Together became the first K-pop act to perform at Lollapalooza.
On August 31, the band's third Japanese single, "Good Boy Gone Bad" was released. It contained the Japanese version of "Good Boy Gone Bad" and two original Japanese songs, "Hitori no Yoru" and "Kimi janai dareka no (Ring)". "Ring" was used as the theme song for Abema's show Heart Signal Japan, a remake of the Korean reality show Heart Signal.
=== 2023: The Name Chapter: Temptation, second world tour and The Name Chapter: Freefall ===
The band released their fifth EP, The Name Chapter: Temptation, on January 27, 2023. On February 22, the band made available "Goodbye now" which served as the original soundtrack for the Webtoon Love Revolution. On March 22, Tomorrow X Together became the first K-pop group to headline at Lollapalooza, having performed the previous year. In March, the band embarked on their second world, Act: Sweet Mirage. On July 5, Tomorrow X Together released their second Japanese album, Sweet. The album included the original Japanese song "Ajisai no yōna koi (Hydrangea Love)" which served as the opening theme for the drama Saiko No Seito: Yomei Ichinen No Last Dance.
On July 7, the band released the single "Do It Like That" with the Jonas Brothers. In August, The Name Chapter: Temptation was certified Gold by the RIAA. It was Tomorrow X Together's first release to be certified in the United States. On September 15, the band released the single "Back For More" with Anitta, and the song was performed for the first time at the MTV Video Music Awards. On October 13, the band released their third Korean studio album, The Name Chapter: Freefall.
=== 2024: Minisode 3: Tomorrow and third world tour ===
For the opening theme of the 2024 anime television series Solo Leveling, the band collaborated with Japanese composer Hiroyuki Sawano on a song titled "LeveL". In March 2024, they announced their upcoming world tour Act: Promise. Initial dates for the tour include stops in South Korea and the US, and tickets for the US dates sold out after going on sale.
Tomorrow X Together released their sixth EP, Minisode 3: Tomorrow, on April 1, 2024. In July 2024, the music-themed Grammy Museum in Los Angeles, California announced that a special K-pop exhibit will take place in August 2024, displaying the accessories and performance gear worn by artists under Hybe, including Tomorrow X Together. On November 4, the band released their seventh EP, The Star Chapter: Sanctuary.
On December 10, it was announced that the group would go on a long-term break after the 39th Golden Disc Awards on January 5, 2025, to spend time with their families and rest, but with plans to return later in the year. This was after leader Soobin had gone on a temporary hiatus due to health issues in November. Ten days later, the group announced the second part of the Act: Promise tour, taking the tour to Europe with additional stops in Asia. Venues were announced in January 2025, with the leg to begin in March, following the conclusion of their previously announced hiatus.
=== 2025: The Star Chapter: Together, contract renewals, and Starkissed ===
Tomorrow X Together released a digital single "Love Language" on May 2, and the fourth Korean-language studio album The Star Chapter: Together on July 21. To promote the album, the band embarked on their fourth world tour, Act: Tomorrow.
On August 23, all five members of the band renewed their contracts with their agency. The announcement was made via Weverse and was later referenced during the group's first concert stop of their fourth world tour, Act: Tomorrow, held at Gocheok Sky Dome in Seoul. At the end of the show, leader Soobin read a handwritten letter expressing gratitude to fans, stating that the members had renewed their commitment to go "longer and farther" together, from debut to future stages.
On October 20, Tomorrow X Together released their third Japanese-language studio album Starkissed.
=== 2026–present: 7th Year: A Moment of Stillness in the Thorns ===
On March 1, 2026, Tomorrow X Together announced their new album on the final day of MOA Con concert at KSPO Dome. This is their first album since their contract renewal back in August 2025. Briefly after the concert, a Weverse announcement was posted announcing the comeback that is set to happen on April 13, 2026.
== Members ==
Yeonjun (연준)
Soobin (수빈) – leader
Beomgyu (범규)
Taehyun (태현)
Hueningkai (휴닝카이)
== Artistry ==
=== Musical style and lyrical themes ===
According to Rolling Stone, Tomorrow X Together's music "dabbles in disco, shoegaze, indie rock, and pop" and discusses "personal stories about the growing pains that come along with being a teenager". NME described the group's discography as mostly "bright, breezy and blissfully free from life's worries" and "focusing more on fantasy and fun". The members have expressed their desire to be more involved in songwriting.
== Endorsements ==
In May 2019, Tomorrow X Together was announced as the new ambassadors for Korean skincare brand It's Skin. In December 2019, the band was announced as exclusive models for Korean student uniform brand Skoolooks' 2020 collections.
In February 2021, Tomorrow X Together was selected as "main characters" in TikTok's #BeMyValentine global campaign to celebrate Valentine's Day. In March 2021, the band was announced as models for the Japanese audio brand GLIDiC. In July 2021, the band was revealed to be the newest brand ambassadors of Philippine telecommunications giant Smart Communications for its "Build Your Own Giga" campaign. In August 2021, Tomorrow X Together was selected as models for Korean beauty brand 4OIN.
In May 2022, the band was announced as the global ambassadors for Korean skin care brand Ma:nyo factory.
In February 2023, Tomorrow X Together was appointed as the first global ambassador for the personal care brand Kundal. They were selected as the new global ambassadors for Korean beauty brand Clio in the same month. In August 2023, the band was announced as the new brand ambassadors for Dior.
== Discography ==
== Filmography ==
=== Television ===
=== Online shows ===
=== Radio shows ===
== Concerts and tours ==
=== Headlining tours ===
Act: Lovesick (2022)
Act: Sweet Mirage (2023)
Act: Promise (2024–2025)
Act: Tomorrow (2025-2026)
=== Concerts ===
=== Concert participation ===
2021 New Year's Eve Live presented by Weverse
2022 Weverse Con [New Era]
2022 Lollapalooza
2022 Summer Sonic Festival
2023 Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve
2023 Weverse Con Festival
2023 Lollapalooza
== Awards and nominations == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harder_Than_You_Think | Harder Than You Think | "Harder Than You Think" is the first single from American hip-hop group Public Enemy's 20th-anniversary album How You Sell Soul to a Soulless People Who Sold Their Soul?, released in 2007. It was produced by Gary G-Wiz.
The song gained popularity during late summer 2007, and became Public Enemy's highest-charting single on the UK Singles Chart in August 2012. It borrows from Shirley Bassey's 1972 track "Jezahel", a cover of the song "Jesahel" by the Italian prog rock band Delirium. On November 25, 2023 the authors of "Jesahel" (Ivano Fossati and Oscar Prudente) and Universal Music Group sued Public Enemy for plagiarism, as Fossati and Prudente are not credited for the use of "Jesahel" in "Harder Than You Think".
The song is also known in the UK for its use as Channel 4's theme for their coverage of the Paralympic Games since the 2012 Summer Paralympics, as well as the theme tune for talk and sketch comedy show The Last Leg, which was initially created to cover the Paralympics.
== Music video ==
The music video was directed by David C. Snyder, and was uploaded unofficially onto YouTube on August 3, 2007.
Following the use of "Harder Than You Think" to soundtrack the UK's Channel 4 coverage of the Summer 2012 Paralympics, a music video including clips from the Channel 4 trailer for the Summer 2012 Paralympics was produced by HWIC Filmworks (founded by John Delserone and David C. Snyder, who directed the original video).
A version of the video was also produced for the Dehasse Radio Edit, a dance version of the track remixed for the 2012 re-emergence of the track in the UK charts.
== Use in media ==
The song was featured in Eric Koston's segment in the 2007 skateboarding video "Fully Flared". The song and its beat were used by ESPN for the 2011 Big East men's basketball tournament. The song is also featured on the soundtrack of the video game Skate 2. The song was later featured heavily in a Fall K-Mart ad as of September 2011. It is also one of the lead songs in the commercials for ESPN's broadcasting of the Winter X Games. The song featured prominently towards the end of the BBC Four 2011 documentary "Public Enemy: Prophets Of Rage" which was screened as the fourth episode of the channel's "Black Music Legends Of The 1980s" series. It also appeared in the trailer for the 2012 film Something from Nothing: The Art of Rap and was also the only track to feature on its soundtrack album which did not appear in the actual film. The song is also featured at the opening of the 2012 film End of Watch. In 2021 it's been used in the NBA commercial about Martin Luther King, Jr Day called "We Must Learn". It is also featured in The Redeem Team documentary film released by Netflix in 2022. The song is also featured in the 6th episode of Succession's fourth season as Kendall walks out to make a speech. In 2023, the song is featured again in the biographical film Gran Turismo during the film's final race in the 24 Hours of Le Mans.
=== Paralympics ===
In the United Kingdom, it was used as the soundtrack in both the 90-second trailer and as the theme tune to Channel 4's coverage of the 2012 Summer Paralympics. The song subsequently experienced a surge in sales, peaking at number 4 and thereby becoming Public Enemy's first Top 10 single in the UK and their highest-charting single ever in the nation. A review for The Independent said of its re-release in the UK: "Following its prominent use in Channel 4's Paralympics coverage, great lost 2007 single 'Harder Than You Think' had a sales surge that carried it into the UK Top Five, giving the band their biggest hit to date. It'd be a thrilling piece of work in any era, Chuck delivering a typically apocalyptic call to arms over a backing track which uses a horn sample from Shirley Bassey's 'Jezahel', but to hear it blasting from the radio in the second decade of this century is beyond beautiful." The song also serves as the theme tune to the British TV show The Last Leg, which was originally a show that ran alongside the 2012 Paralympics, but later spun off as an independent show.
The song was also used as the theme tune to Channel 4's coverage of the 2014 Winter Paralympics in Sochi, Russia; the 2016 Summer Paralympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; the 2018 Winter Paralympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea and a re-recorded version was used the 2020 Summer Paralympics in Tokyo, Japan, the 2022 Winter Paralympics in Beijing, China, and the 2024 Summer Paralympics in Paris, France.
== Track listing ==
12" vinyl
Side A
"Harder Than You Think" (Clean Mix)
"Harder Than You Think" (Instrumental)
Side B
"Amerikan Gangster" (Dirty Mix)
"Amerikan Gangster" (Clean Mix)
"Amerikan Gangster" (Instrumental)
2012 digital download
"Harder Than You Think" (UK Radio Edit) - 3:10
Other versions
"Harder Than You Think" (Album Version) - 4:10
"Harder Than You Think" (Remix) - 4:38
Harder Than You Think (Dehasse Radio Edit) - 3:18
Harder Than You Think (Dehasse Club Mix) - 5:59
== Chart performance ==
=== Year-end charts ===
== Certifications ==
== Release history == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramesses_II | Ramesses II | Ramesses II (; Ancient Egyptian: rꜥ-ms-sw, Rīꜥa-masē-sə, Ancient Egyptian pronunciation: [ɾiːʕamaˈseːsə]; c. 1303 BC – 1213 BC), commonly known as Ramesses the Great, was the third pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt. Ramesses II is regarded as the greatest, most celebrated, and most powerful pharaoh of the New Kingdom, which itself was the most powerful period of ancient Egypt. He is also widely considered one of ancient Egypt's most successful warrior pharaohs, conducting no fewer than 15 military campaigns, all resulting in victories, excluding the Battle of Kadesh, which is generally considered a stalemate. His 66-year rule was also the longest recorded reign of any pharaoh (and one of the longest in history), possibly alongside Pepi II, who lived 1000 years earlier and is said to have reigned for 90 years.
In ancient Greek sources, he is called Ozymandias, derived from the first part of his Egyptian-language regnal name: Usermaatre Setepenre. Ramesses was also referred to as the "Great Ancestor" by successor pharaohs.
Ramesses ascended to the throne at age 25, and for the early part of his reign, he focused on building cities, temples, and monuments. After establishing the city of Pi-Ramesses in the Nile Delta, he designated it as Egypt's new capital and used it as the main staging point for his campaigns in Syria. Ramesses led several military expeditions into the Levant, where he reasserted Egyptian control over Canaan and Phoenicia; he also led a number of expeditions into Nubia, all commemorated in inscriptions at Beit el-Wali and Gerf Hussein. He celebrated an unprecedented thirteen or fourteen Sed festivals—more than any other pharaoh.
Estimates of his age at death vary, although 90 or 91 is considered to be the most likely figure. Upon his death, he was buried in a tomb (KV7) in the Valley of the Kings; his body was later moved to the Royal Cache, where it was discovered by archaeologists in 1881. Ramesses' mummy is now on display at the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization, located in the city of Cairo.
Ramesses II was one of the few pharaohs who was worshipped as a deity during his lifetime.
Scholars dispute Ramesses II's association with the popular and contemporary depiction of him as the pharaoh of The Exodus, including former Secretary-General of Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities Mostafa Wazir and Jewish historian Lester L. Grabbe.
== Early life ==
Ramesses II was not born a prince. His grandfather, Ramesses I, was a vizier (tjaty) and military officer during the reign of pharaoh Horemheb, who appointed Ramesses I as his successor; at that time, Ramesses II was about eleven years old.
After Ramesses I died, his son, Seti I became king, and designated his son Ramesses II as prince regent at about the age of fourteen.
== Reign length ==
Ramesses' date of accession to the throne is recorded as III Shemu (11th month), day 27, which most Egyptologists believe to be 31 May 1279 BC.
The Jewish historian Josephus, in his book Contra Apionem which included material from Manetho's Aegyptiaca, assigned Ramesses II ("Armesses Miamun") a reign of 66 years, 2 months. This is essentially confirmed by the calendar of Papyrus Gurob fragment L, where Year 67, I Akhet day 18 of Ramesses II is immediately followed by Year 1, II Akhet day 19 of Merneptah (Ramesses II's son), meaning Ramesses II died about 2 months into his 67th Regnal year.
In 1994, A. J. Peden proposed that Ramesses II died between days 3 and 13 of II Akhet on the basis of Theban graffito 854+855, equated to Merneptah's Year 1 II Akhet day 2. The workman's village of Deir el-Medina preserves a fragment of a mid-20th dynasty necropolis journal (P. Turin prov. nr. 8538 recto I, 5; unpublished) which records that the date II Akhet day 6 was a Free feast day for the "Sailing of UsimaRe-Setepenre." (for Ramesses II). As the Egyptologist Robert J. Demarée notes in a 2016 paper:
The feast called ẖnw – ‘Sailing’ – was clearly observed in Thebes or at Deir el-Medina during the Ramesside Period in remembrance of the passing of deified royals. The ‘Sailing’ of Ahmose-Nefertari was celebrated on II Shemu 15; the ‘Sailing’ of Seti I on III Shemu 24; and the ‘Sailing’ of Ramesses II on II Akhet 6.
The date of Ramesses II's recorded death on II Akhet (2nd month) day 6 falls perfectly within Peden's estimated timeline for the king's death in the interval between II Akhet day 3 and II Akhet day 13. This means that Ramesses II died on 13 August 1213 BC (Year 67, II Akhet day 6), after reigning 66 years and 74 days. This also falls perfectly within the calculations of Jürgen von Beckerath, who placed Ramesses' death on either late July or early August 1213 BC.
== Military campaigns ==
Early in his life, Ramesses II embarked on numerous campaigns to restore possession of previously held territories lost to the Nubians and Hittites and to secure Egypt's borders. He was also responsible for suppressing some Nubian revolts and carrying out a campaign in Libya. Though the Battle of Kadesh often dominates the scholarly view of Ramesses II's military prowess and power, he nevertheless enjoyed more than a few outright victories over Egypt's enemies. During his reign, the Egyptian army is estimated to have totaled some 100,000 men: a formidable force that he used to strengthen Egyptian influence.
=== Battle against Sherden pirates ===
In his second year, Ramesses II decisively defeated the Sherden sea pirates who were wreaking havoc along Egypt's Mediterranean coast by attacking cargo-laden vessels travelling the sea routes to Egypt. The Sherden people probably came from the coast of Ionia, from southwest Anatolia or perhaps, also from the island of Sardinia. Ramesses posted troops and ships at strategic points along the coast and patiently lured the pirates to attack their perceived prey before ambushing them in a sea battle and capturing them all in a single action. A stele from Tanis speaks of them coming "in their war-ships from the midst of the sea, and none were able to stand before them". There probably was a naval battle somewhere near the mouth of the Nile, as shortly afterward, many Sherden are seen among the pharaoh's body-guard where they are conspicuous by their horned helmets with a ball projecting from the middle, their round shields, and the great Naue II swords with which they are depicted in inscriptions of the Battle of Kadesh. In that sea battle, together with the Sherden, the pharaoh also defeated the Lukka (L'kkw, possibly the people later known as the Lycians), and the Šqrsšw (Shekelesh) peoples.
=== Syrian campaigns ===
==== First Syrian campaign ====
The immediate antecedents to the Battle of Kadesh were the early campaigns of Ramesses II into Canaan. His first campaign seems to have taken place in the fourth year of his reign and was commemorated by the erection of what became the first of the Commemorative stelae of Nahr el-Kalb near what is now Beirut. The inscription is almost totally illegible due to weathering.
In the fourth year of his reign, he captured the Hittite vassal state of the Amurru during his campaign in Syria.
==== Second Syrian campaign ====
The Battle of Kadesh in his fifth regnal year was the climactic engagement in a campaign that Ramesses fought in Syria, against the resurgent Hittite forces of Muwatalli II. The pharaoh wanted a victory at Kadesh both to expand Egypt's frontiers into Syria, and to emulate his father Seti I's triumphal entry into the city just a decade or so earlier.
He also constructed his new capital, Pi-Ramesses. There he built factories to manufacture weapons, chariots, and shields, supposedly producing some 1,000 weapons in a week, about 250 chariots in two weeks, and 1,000 shields in a week and a half. After these preparations, Ramesses moved to attack territory in the Levant, which belonged to a more substantial enemy than any he had ever faced in war: the Hittite Empire.
After advancing through Canaan for exactly a month, according to the Egyptian sources, Ramesses arrived at Kadesh on 1 May 1274 BC. Here, Ramesses' troops were caught in a Hittite ambush and were initially outnumbered by the enemy, whose chariotry smashed through the second division of Ramesses' forces and attacked his camp. Receiving reinforcements from other Egyptian divisions arriving on the battlefield, the Egyptians counterattacked and routed the Hittites, whose survivors abandoned their chariots and swam the Orontes River to reach the safe city walls. Although left in possession of the battlefield, Ramesses, logistically unable to sustain a long siege, returned to Egypt. While Ramesses claimed a great victory, and this was technically true in terms of the actual battle, it is generally considered that the Hittites were the ultimate victors as far as the overall campaign was concerned, since the Egyptians retreated after the battle, and Hittite forces invaded and briefly occupied the Egyptian possessions in the region of Damascus.
==== Third Syrian campaign ====
Egypt's sphere of influence was now restricted to Canaan while Syria fell into Hittite hands. Canaanite princes, seemingly encouraged by the Egyptian incapacity to impose their will and goaded on by the Hittites, began revolts against Egypt. Ramesses II was not willing to let this stand, and prepared to contest the Hittite advance with new military campaigns. Because they are recorded on his monuments with few indications of precise dates or the regnal year, the precise chronology of the subsequent campaigns is not clear. Late in the seventh year of his reign (April/May 1272 BC), Ramesses II returned to Syria again. This time he proved more successful against his Hittite foes. During this campaign he split his army into two forces. One force was led by his son, Amun-her-khepeshef, and it chased warriors of the Šhasu tribes across the Negev as far as the Dead Sea, capturing Edom-Seir. It then marched on to capture Moab. The other force, led by Ramesses himself, attacked Jerusalem and Jericho. He, too, then entered Moab, where he rejoined his son. The reunited army then marched on Hesbon, Damascus, on to Kumidi, and finally, recaptured Upi (the land around Damascus), reestablishing Egypt's former sphere of influence.
==== Later Syrian campaigns ====
Ramesses extended his military successes in his eighth and ninth years. He crossed the Dog River (Nahr al-Kalb) and pushed north into Amurru. His armies managed to march as far north as Dapur, where he had a statue of himself erected. The Egyptian pharaoh thus found himself in northern Amurru, well past Kadesh, in Tunip, where no Egyptian soldier had been seen since the time of Thutmose III, almost 120 years earlier. He laid siege to Dapur before capturing it, and returning to Egypt. By November 1272 BC, Ramesses was back in Egypt, at Heliopolis. His victory in the north proved ephemeral. After having reasserted his power over Canaan, Ramesses led his army north. A mostly illegible stele at the Dog River near Beirut, (Lebanon), which appears to be dated to the king's second year, was probably set up there in his tenth year (1269 BC). The thin strip of territory pinched between Amurru and Kadesh did not make for a stable possession. Within a year, they had returned to the Hittite fold, so that Ramesses had to march against Dapur once more in his tenth year. This time he claimed to have fought the battle without even bothering to put on his corslet, until two hours after the fighting began. Six of Ramesses's youthful sons, still wearing their side locks, took part in this conquest. He took towns in Retjenu, and Tunip in Naharin, later recorded on the walls of the Ramesseum. This second success at the location was equally as meaningless as his first, as neither power could decisively defeat the other in battle. In year eighteen, Ramesses erected a stele at Beth Shean, on 19 January 1261 BC.
=== Peace treaty with the Hittites ===
In Year 21 of Ramesses's reign, he concluded a peace treaty with the Hittites known to modern scholars as the Treaty of Kadesh. Though this treaty settled the disputes over Canaan, its immediate impetus seems to have been a diplomatic crisis that occurred following Ḫattušili III's accession to the Hittite throne. Ḫattušili had come to power by deposing his nephew Muršili III in the brief and bitter Hittite Civil War. Though the deposed king was initially sent into exile in Syria, he subsequently attempted to regain power and fled to Egypt once these attempts were discovered.
When Ḫattušili demanded his extradition, Ramesses II denied any knowledge of his whereabouts. When Ḫattušili insisted that Muršili was in Egypt, Ramesses's response suggested that Ḫattušili was being deceived by his subjects. This demand precipitated a crisis, and the two empires came close to war. Eventually, in the twenty-first year of his reign (1259 BC), Ramesses concluded an agreement at Kadesh to end the conflict.
The peace treaty was recorded in two versions, one in Egyptian hieroglyphs, the other in Hittite, using cuneiform script; both versions survive. Such dual-language recording is common to many subsequent treaties. This treaty differs from others, in that the two language versions are worded differently. While the majority of the text is identical, the Hittite version says the Egyptians came suing for peace and the Egyptian version says the reverse. The treaty was given to the Egyptians in the form of a silver plaque, and this "pocket-book" version was taken back to Egypt and carved into the temple at Karnak. The Egyptian account records Ramesses II's receipt of the Hittite peace treaty tablets on I Peret 21 of Year 21, corresponding to 10 November 1259 BC, according to the standard "Low Chronology" used by Egyptologists.
The treaty was concluded between Ramesses II and Ḫattušili III in year 21 of Ramesses's reign (c. 1259 BC). Its 18 articles call for peace between Egypt and Hatti and then proceeds to maintain that their respective deities also demand peace. The frontiers are not laid down in this treaty, but may be inferred from other documents. The Anastasy A papyrus describes Canaan during the latter part of the reign of Ramesses II and enumerates and names the Phoenician coastal towns under Egyptian control. The harbour town of Sumur, north of Byblos, is mentioned as the northernmost town belonging to Egypt, suggesting it contained an Egyptian garrison.
No further Egyptian campaigns in Canaan are mentioned after the conclusion of the peace treaty. The northern border seems to have been safe and quiet, so the rule of the pharaoh was strong until Ramesses II's death, and the subsequent waning of the dynasty. When the King of Mira attempted to involve Ramesses in a hostile act against the Hittites, the Egyptian responded that the times of intrigue in support of Mursili III, had passed. Ḫattušili III wrote to Kadashman-Enlil II, Kassite king of Karduniaš (Babylon) in the same spirit, reminding him of the time when his father, Kadashman-Turgu, had offered to fight Ramesses II, the king of Egypt. The Hittite king encouraged the Babylonian to oppose another enemy, which must have been the king of Assyria, whose allies had killed the messenger of the Egyptian king. Ḫattušili encouraged Kadashman-Enlil to come to his aid and prevent the Assyrians from cutting the link between the Canaanite province of Egypt and Mursili III, the ally of Ramesses.
=== Nubian campaigns ===
Ramesses II also campaigned south of the first cataract of the Nile into Nubia. When Ramesses was about 22 years old, two of his own sons, including Amun-her-khepeshef, accompanied him in at least one of those campaigns. By the time of Ramesses, Nubia had been a colony for 200 years, but its conquest was recalled in decoration from the temples Ramesses II built at Beit el-Wali (which was the subject of epigraphic work by the Oriental Institute during the Nubian salvage campaign of the 1960s), Gerf Hussein and Kalabsha in northern Nubia. On the south wall of the Beit el-Wali temple, Ramesses II is depicted charging into battle against tribes south of Egypt in a war chariot, while his two young sons, Amun-her-khepsef and Khaemwaset, are shown behind him, also in war chariots. A wall in one of Ramesses's temples says he had to fight one battle with those tribes without help from his soldiers.
=== Libyan campaigns ===
During the reign of Ramesses II, the Egyptians were evidently active on a 300-kilometre (190 mi) stretch along the Mediterranean coast, at least as far as Zawyet Umm El Rakham, where remains of a fortress described by its texts as built on Libyans land have been found. Although the exact events surrounding the foundation of the coastal forts and fortresses is not clear, some degree of political and military control must have been held over the region to allow their construction.
There are no detailed accounts of Ramesses II's undertaking large military actions against the Libyans, only generalised records of his conquering and crushing them, which may or may not refer to specific events that were otherwise unrecorded. It may be that some of the records, such as the Aswan Stele of his year 2, are harking back to Ramesses's presence on his father's Libyan campaigns. Perhaps it was Seti I who achieved this supposed control over the region, and who planned to establish the defensive system, in a manner similar to how he rebuilt those to the east, the Ways of Horus across Northern Sinai.
== Sed festivals ==
As of Year 28 of his reign, Ramesses II favored the god Amun above all other divinities, as evidenced in the texts of two separate ostraca discovered at Deir el-Medina.
By tradition, in the 30th year of his reign, Ramesses celebrated a jubilee called the Sed festival. These were held to honour and rejuvenate the pharaoh's strength. Only halfway through what would be a 66-year reign, Ramesses had already eclipsed all but a few of his greatest predecessors in his achievements. He had brought peace, maintained Egyptian borders, and built numerous monuments across the empire. His country was more prosperous and powerful than it had been in nearly a century.
Sed festivals traditionally were held again every three years after the 30th year; Ramesses II, who sometimes held them after two years, eventually celebrated an unprecedented thirteen or fourteen.
== Building projects and monuments ==
In the third year of his reign, Ramesses started the most ambitious building project after the pyramids, which were built almost 1,500 years earlier. Ramesses built extensively from the Delta to Nubia, "covering the land with buildings in a way no monarch before him had."
Some of the activities undertaken were focused on remodeling or usurping existing works, improving masonry techniques, and using art as propaganda.
In Thebes, the ancient temples were transformed, so that each of them reflected honour to Ramesses as a symbol of his putative divine nature and power.
The elegant but shallow reliefs of previous pharaohs were easily transformed, and so their images and words could easily be obliterated by their successors. Ramesses insisted that his carvings be deeply engraved into the stone, which made them not only less susceptible to later alteration, but also made them more prominent in the Egyptian sun, reflecting his relationship with the sun deity, Ra.
Ramesses used art as a means of propaganda for his victories over foreigners, which are depicted on numerous temple reliefs.
His cartouches are prominently displayed even in buildings that he did not construct.
He founded a new capital city in the Delta during his reign, called Pi-Ramesses. It previously had served as a summer palace during Seti I's reign.
Ramesses II expanded gold mining operations in Akuyati (modern day Wadi Allaqi).
Ramesses also undertook many new construction projects. Two of his biggest works, besides Pi-Ramesses, were the temple complex of Abu Simbel and the Ramesseum, a mortuary temple in western Thebes.
=== Pi-Ramesses ===
Ramesses II moved the capital of his kingdom from Thebes in the Nile valley to a new site in the eastern Delta. His motives are uncertain, although he possibly wished to be closer to his territories in Canaan and Syria. The new city of Pi-Ramesses (or to give the full name, Pi-Ramesses Aa-nakhtu, meaning "Domain of Ramesses, Great in Victory") was dominated by huge temples and his vast residential palace, complete with its own zoo. In the 10th century AD, the Bible exegete Rabbi Saadia Gaon believed that the biblical site of Ramesses had to be identified with Ain Shams. For a time, during the early 20th century, the site was misidentified as that of Tanis, due to the amount of statuary and other material from Pi-Ramesses found there, but it now is recognized that the Ramesside remains at Tanis were brought there from elsewhere, and the real Pi-Ramesses lies about 30 km (18.6 mi) south, near modern Qantir. The colossal feet of the statue of Ramesses are almost all that remains above ground today. The rest is buried in the fields.
=== Ramesseum ===
The temple complex built by Ramesses II between Qurna and the desert has been known as the Ramesseum since the 19th century. The Greek historian Diodorus Siculus marveled at the gigantic temple, now no more than a few ruins.
Oriented northwest and southeast, the temple was preceded by two courts. An enormous pylon stood before the first court, with the royal palace at the left and the gigantic statue of the king at the back. Only fragments of the base and torso remain of the syenite statue of the enthroned pharaoh, 17 metres (56 ft) high and weighing more than 1,000 tonnes (980 long tons; 1,100 short tons). Scenes of the pharaoh and his army triumphing over the Hittite forces fleeing before Kadesh are represented on the pylon. Remains of the second court include part of the internal facade of the pylon and a portion of the Osiride portico on the right. Scenes of war and the alleged rout of the Hittites at Kadesh are repeated on the walls. In the upper registers, feast and honour of the phallic deity Min, god of fertility.
On the opposite side of the court, the few Osiride pillars and columns still remaining may furnish an idea of the original grandeur. Scattered remains of the two statues of the seated king also may be seen, one in pink granite and the other in black granite, which once flanked the entrance to the temple. Thirty-nine out of the forty-eight columns in the great hypostyle hall (41 × 31 m) still stand in the central rows. They are decorated with the usual scenes of the king before various deities. Part of the ceiling, decorated with gold stars on a blue ground, also has been preserved. Ramesses's children appear in the procession on the few walls left. The sanctuary was composed of three consecutive rooms, with eight columns and the tetrastyle cell. Part of the first room, with the ceiling decorated with astral scenes, and few remains of the second room are all that is left. Vast storerooms built of mud bricks stretched out around the temple. Traces of a school for scribes were found among the ruins.
A temple of Seti I, of which nothing remains beside the foundations, once stood to the right of the hypostyle hall.
=== Abu Simbel ===
In 1255 BC, Ramesses and his queen Nefertari had traveled into Nubia to inaugurate a new temple, Abu Simbel. It is said to be ego cast into stone; the man who built it intended not only to become Egypt's greatest pharaoh, but also one of its deities.
The temple at Abu Simbel was discovered in 1813 by the Swiss Orientalist and traveler Johann Ludwig Burckhardt. An enormous pile of sand almost completely covered the facade and its colossal statues, blocking the entrance for four more years. The Paduan explorer Giovanni Battista Belzoni reached the interior on 4 August 1817.
=== Other Nubian monuments ===
As well as the temples of Abu Simbel, Ramesses left other monuments to himself in Nubia. His early campaigns are illustrated on the walls of the Temple of Beit el-Wali (now relocated to New Kalabsha). Other temples dedicated to Ramesses are Derr and Gerf Hussein (also relocated to New Kalabsha). For the temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal, the temple's foundation probably dates during the reign of Thutmose III, while the temple was shaped during his reign and that of Ramesses II.
=== Other archeological discoveries ===
The colossal statue of Ramesses II dates back 3,200 years, and was originally discovered in six pieces in a temple near Memphis, Egypt. Weighing some 83-tonne (82-long-ton; 91-short-ton), it was transported, reconstructed, and erected in Ramesses Square in Cairo in 1955. In August 2006, contractors relocated it to save it from exhaust fumes that were causing it to deteriorate. The new site is near the Grand Egyptian Museum.
In 2018, a group of archeologists in Cairo's Matariya neighborhood discovered pieces of a booth with a seat that, based on its structure and age, may have been used by Ramesses. "The royal compartment consists of four steps leading to a cubic platform, which is believed to be the base of the king's seat during celebrations or public gatherings," such as Ramesses' inauguration and Sed festivals. It may have also gone on to be used by others in the Ramesside Period, according to the mission's head. The excavation mission also unearthed "a collection of scarabs, amulets, clay pots and blocks engraved with hieroglyphic text."
In December 2019, a red granite royal bust of Ramesses II was unearthed by an Egyptian archaeological mission in the village of Mit Rahina in Giza. The bust depicted Ramesses II wearing a wig with the symbol "Ka" on his head. Its measurements were 55 cm (21.65 in) wide, 45 cm (17.71 in) thick and 105 cm (41.33 in) long. Alongside the bust, limestone blocks appeared showing Ramesses II during the Heb-Sed religious ritual. "This discovery is considered one of the rarest archaeological discoveries. It is the first-ever Ka statue made of granite to be discovered. The only Ka statue that was previously found is made of wood and it belongs to one of the kings of the 13th dynasty of ancient Egypt which is displayed at the Egyptian Museum in Tahrir Square," said archaeologist Mostafa Waziri.
In May 2023, French archaeologists from the Sorbonne University in Paris identified part of the original granite sarcophagus of Ramesses II. The fragment of granite sarcophagus had been reused by a high priest of the 21st Dynasty named Menkheperre, around 1000 BCE but its original owner was unknown until Frédéric Payraudeau's careful analysis discovered the cartouche of Ramesses II on it. The sarcophagus dates back to approximately 1279-1213 BCE, aligning with Ramesses II's reign and "its elaborate design and inscriptions underscore the artistic and religious conventions of the era." Payraudeau states in his study published in Revue d'Égyptologie:
"The quality of the craftsmanship and the specific references to deities like Ra and Osiris strongly indicate that this sarcophagus was initially intended for Ramesses II,"
In September 2024, it was published that during an archaeological excavation of a 3,200 year old fort along the Nile, researches found a golden sword with Ramses II signature on it.
== Death and burial ==
The Egyptian scholar Manetho (third century BC) attributed Ramesses a reign of 66 years and 2 months.
By the time of his death, aged about 90 years, Ramesses was suffering from severe dental problems and was plagued by arthritis, hardening of the arteries and heart disease. He had made Egypt rich from all the supplies and bounty he had collected from other empires, outliving many of his wives and children and leaving great memorials all over Egypt. Nine more pharaohs took the name Ramesses in his honour.
=== Mummy ===
Originally Ramesses II was buried in tomb KV7 in the Valley of the Kings, but because of looting in the valley, priests later transferred the body to a holding area, re-wrapped it, and placed it inside the tomb of queen Ahmose Inhapy. Seventy-two hours later it was again moved, to the tomb of the high priest Pinedjem II. All of this is recorded in hieroglyphics on the linen covering the body of his coffin. His mummy was eventually discovered in 1881 in TT320 inside a reused but ordinary wooden coffin and is now in Cairo's National Museum of Egyptian Civilization (until 3 April 2021 it was in the Egyptian Museum).
The pharaoh's mummy reveals an aquiline nose and strong jaw. It stands at about 1.7 metres (5 ft 7 in). Gaston Maspero, who first unwrapped the mummy of Ramesses II, writes, "on the temples there are a few sparse hairs, but at the poll the hair is quite thick, forming smooth, straight locks about five centimeters in length. White at the time of death, and possibly auburn during life, they have been dyed a light red by the spices (henna) used in embalming ... the moustache and beard are thin. ... The hairs are white, like those of the head and eyebrows ... the skin is of earthy brown, splotched with black ... the face of the mummy gives a fair idea of the face of the living king."
According to Egyptologist Frank J. Yurco, the mummy held features characteristic of northern Egyptians as Rameses II originated from the far north-eastern nome of Egypt rather than deriving from a southern regions as the case with the 12th dynasty, 17th dynasty and 18th dynasty. In his view, this reflected a wider continuum of admixture and physical variation exhibited across Egyptian royal dynasties.
In 1975, Maurice Bucaille, a French doctor, examined the mummy at the Cairo Museum and found it in poor condition. French President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing succeeded in convincing Egyptian authorities to send the mummy to France for treatment. In September 1976, it was greeted at Paris–Le Bourget Airport with full military honours befitting a king, then taken to a laboratory at the Musée de l'Homme. Persistent claims that the mummy was issued with a passport for the journey are incorrect, but may be based on the French word passeport being used to describe the extensive documentation required.
The mummy was forensically tested in 1976 by Pierre-Fernand Ceccaldi, the chief forensic scientist at the Criminal Identification Laboratory of Paris. Ceccaldi observed that the mummy had slightly wavy, red hair. From this trait combined with cranial features, he concluded that Ramesses II was of a "Berber type" and hence – according to Ceccaldi's analysis – fair-skinned. Subsequent microscopic inspection of the roots of Ramesses II's hair proved that the king's hair originally was red. Unlike Maspero, who had assumed the hair had been dyed by the mummification process, Bucaille confirmed that the red hair was natural, which suggests that he came from a family of redheads. This has more than just cosmetic significance: in ancient Egypt people with red hair were associated with the deity Set, the slayer of Osiris, and thus the enemy of Horus (Horus being the son of Osiris). In addition, it's noted that Ramesses had familiar connections to Set; the name of Ramesses II's father, Seti I, means "follower of Set", and Seti's father, Ramesses I, had served as the High Priest of Set under Amenhotep III. Cheikh Anta Diop disputed the results of the study, arguing that the structure of hair morphology cannot determine the ethnicity of a mummy and that a comparative study should have featured Nubians in Upper Egypt before a conclusive judgement was reached.
In 2006, French police arrested a man who tried to sell several tufts of Ramesses' hair on the Internet. Jean-Michel Diebolt said he had got the relics from his late father, who had been on the analysis team in the 1970s. They were returned to Egypt the following year.
Ramesses II's arthritis is believed to have made him walk with a hunched back for the last decades of his life. A 2004 study excluded ankylosing spondylitis as a possible cause and proposed diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis as a possible alternative, which was confirmed by more recent work. A significant hole in the pharaoh's mandible was detected. Researchers observed "an abscess by his teeth (which) was serious enough to have caused death by infection, although this cannot be determined with certainty".
After being irradiated in an attempt to eliminate fungi and insects, the mummy was returned from Paris to Egypt in May 1977.
In April 2021, his mummy was moved from the old Egyptian Museum to the new National Museum of Egyptian Civilization along with those of 17 other kings and 4 queens in an event termed the Pharaohs' Golden Parade.
=== Burial of wives and relatives ===
==== Tomb of Nefertari ====
The tomb of the most important consort of Ramesses was discovered by Ernesto Schiaparelli in 1904. Although it had been looted in ancient times, the tomb of Nefertari is extremely important, because its magnificent wall-painting decoration is regarded as one of the greatest achievements of ancient Egyptian art. A flight of steps cut out of the rock gives access to the antechamber, which is decorated with paintings based on chapter seventeen of the Book of the Dead. The astronomical ceiling represents the heavens and is painted in dark blue, with a myriad of golden five-pointed stars. The east wall of the antechamber is interrupted by a large opening flanked by representation of Osiris at the left and Anubis at the right; this in turn leads to the side chamber, decorated with offering-scenes, preceded by a vestibule in which the paintings portray Nefertari presented to the deities, who welcome her. On the north wall of the antechamber is the stairway down to the burial-chamber, a vast quadrangular room covering a surface-area of about 90 square metres (970 sq ft), its astronomical ceiling supported by four pillars, entirely decorated. Originally, the queen's red granite sarcophagus lay in the middle of this chamber. According to religious doctrines of the time, it was in this chamber, which the ancient Egyptians called the Golden Hall, that the regeneration of the deceased took place. This decorative pictogram of the walls in the burial-chamber drew inspiration from chapters 144 and 146 of the Book of the Dead: in the left half of the chamber, there are passages from chapter 144 concerning the gates and doors of the kingdom of Osiris, their guardians, and the magic formulas that had to be uttered by the deceased in order to go past the doors.
==== Tomb KV5 ====
In 1995, Professor Kent Weeks, head of the Theban Mapping Project, rediscovered Tomb KV5. It has proven to be the largest tomb in the Valley of the Kings, and originally contained the mummified remains of some of this king's estimated 52 sons. Approximately 150 corridors and tomb chambers have been located in this tomb as of 2006 and the tomb may contain as many as 200 corridors and chambers. It is believed that at least four of Ramesses's sons, including Meryatum, Sety, Amun-her-khepeshef (Ramesses's first-born son) and "the King's Principal Son of His Body, the Generalissimo Ramesses, justified" (i.e., deceased) were buried there from inscriptions, ostraca or canopic jars discovered in the tomb. Joyce Tyldesley writes that thus far
no intact burials have been discovered and there have been little substantial funeral debris: thousands of potsherds, faience ushabti figures, beads, amulets, fragments of Canopic jars, of wooden coffins ... but no intact sarcophagi, mummies or mummy cases, suggesting that much of the tomb may have been unused. Those burials which were made in KV5 were thoroughly looted in antiquity, leaving little or no remains.
== In literature and the arts ==
Ramesses is the basis for Percy Bysshe Shelley's poem "Ozymandias". Diodorus Siculus gives an inscription on the base of one of his sculptures as: "King of Kings am I, Osymandias. If anyone would know how great I am and where I lie, let him surpass one of my works." This is paraphrased in Shelley's poem.
The life of Ramesses II has inspired many fictional representations, including the historical novels of the French writer Christian Jacq, the Ramsès series; the graphic novel Watchmen, in which the character of Adrian Veidt uses Ramesses II to form part of the inspiration for his alter-ego, Ozymandias; Norman Mailer's novel Ancient Evenings, which is largely concerned with the life of Ramesses II, though from the perspective of Egyptians living during the reign of Ramesses IX; and the Anne Rice book The Mummy, or Ramses the Damned (1989), in which Ramesses was the main character. In The Kane Chronicles Ramesses is an ancestor of the main characters Sadie and Carter Kane. Ramesses II is one of the characters in the video game Civilization V, as well as in additional downloadable content for its sequel, Civilization VI.
The East Village underground rock band The Fugs released their song "Ramses II Is Dead, My Love" on their 1968 album It Crawled into My Hand, Honest.
Ramesses II is a main character in the fiction book The Heretic Queen by Michelle Moran, published in 2008. It is a novel about the love story and beginning years of the marriage of Pharaoh Ramesses and Queen Nefertari, during the time Ramesses is trying to decide who will be queen between his two wives, Nefertari and Iset. Nefertari is the daughter and orphan of Queen Mutnodjmet and General Nakhtmin, niece of Queen Nefertiti and Pharaoh Ankhenaten. The book is told from the perspective of Nefertari and is fiction, but deals with many historical events during the beginning of Ramesses' reign and many historical people, giving readers a view of what life and these historical figures may have been like.
=== As the pharaoh of the Exodus ===
Though scholars generally do not recognize the biblical portrayal of the Exodus as an actual historical event, various historical pharaohs have been proposed as the corresponding ruler at the time the story takes place.
Though Ramesses II is often portrayed in films and popular media as the Pharaoh of the Exodus, this is in dispute by historical evidence to the contrary from Egyptologists. Numerous biblical passages, including the singular verse highlighted by proponents (Exodus 1:11), reveal that neither Ramesses II or any of the Ramesside Dynasty pharaohs could have been the pharaoh during The Exodus. In 2023, Mostafa Waziry, who was then secretary-general of Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities, said that there is no archaeological or historical evidence in Egyptian antiquities that indicates Ramesses II is the Pharaoh of the Exodus, or any other Egyptian king, and added the Hyksos were the ruling power at the time. In addition, academic research points to a lack of archeological evidence of Israelite labor, and no references of foreign slave labor in state projects in Egyptian records of the time in the construction of Pi-Ramsses, or any other cities.
Jewish historian Lester L. Grabbe wrote in The Dawn of Israel: A History of Canaan in the Second Millennium BCE, that the association of Ramesses II with the Exodus and its associated stories in the Bible are because of his historical prominence. "Strangely, though, it is often proposed that the exodus and/or conquest of Canaan by the Israelites took place under his reign – apparently overlooking that he was one of the strongest of the pharaohs who had a firm hold of the whole region well into Syria and reigned for so much of the thirteenth century – and did not drown in the Red Sea. One cannot imagine an Egypt devastated by plagues, with a huge population leaving the country and an army destroyed in the wilderness near the Red Sea, as compatible with everything we know about this ruler." he wrote.
He is cast in this role in the 1944 novella The Tables of the Law by Thomas Mann. Although not a major character, Ramesses appears in Joan Grant's So Moses Was Born, a first-person account from Nebunefer, the brother of Ramose, which paints a picture of the life of Ramose from the death of Seti, replete with the power play, intrigue, and assassination plots of the historical record, and depicting the relationships with Bintanath, Tuya, Nefertari, and Moses.
In the film, Ramesses is played by Yul Brynner in Cecil B. DeMille's classic The Ten Commandments (1956). Here Ramesses is portrayed as a vengeful tyrant as well as the main antagonist of the film, ever scornful of his father's preference for Moses over "the son of [his] body". The animated film The Prince of Egypt (1998) also features a depiction of Ramesses (voiced by Ralph Fiennes, for both the speaking and the singing), portrayed as Moses' adoptive brother, and ultimately as the film's villain with essentially the same motivations as in the earlier 1956 film. Joel Edgerton played Ramesses in the 2014 film Exodus: Gods and Kings. Sérgio Marone plays Ramesses in the 2015–2016 Brazilian telenovela series Os Dez Mandamentos (English: 'The Ten Commandments').
In the 2013 miniseries The Bible, he is portrayed by Stewart Scudamore.
Ali Gomaa announced in 2020 that when there were tests run on the body of Ramses, the reason of death was found to be suffocation. Egyptian archaeologist Zahi Hawass however states that it's not possible to know whether he died of drowning or not, as the lungs are not present in the mummy. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_the_Berlin_Wall#:~:text=The%20fall%20of%20the%20Berlin,restrictions%20were%20overwhelmed%20and%20discarded. | Fall of the Berlin Wall#:~:text=The fall of the Berlin,restrictions were overwhelmed and discarded. | The Berlin Wall fell on 9 November 1989 during the Peaceful Revolution, marking the beginning of the destruction of the figurative Iron Curtain, as East Berlin transit restrictions were overwhelmed and discarded. Sections of the wall were breached, and planned deconstruction began the following June. It was one of the series of events that started the fall of communism in Central and Eastern Europe. The fall of the inner German border took place shortly afterward. An end to the Cold War was declared at the Malta Summit in early December, and German reunification took place in October the following year.
== Background ==
=== Opening of the Iron Curtain ===
The opening of the Iron Curtain between Austria and Hungary at the Pan-European Picnic on 19 August 1989 set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer an East Germany and the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated. After the picnic, which was based on an idea by Otto von Habsburg to test the reaction of the USSR and Mikhail Gorbachev to an opening of the border, tens of thousands of media-informed East Germans set off for Hungary. Erich Honecker dictated to the Daily Mirror for the Pan-European Picnic: "Habsburg distributed leaflets far into Poland, on which the East German holidaymakers were invited to a picnic. When they came to the picnic, they were given gifts, food and Deutsche Mark, and then they were persuaded to come to the West." The leadership of the GDR in East Berlin did not dare to completely block the borders of their own country and the USSR did not respond at all. Thus the bracket of the Eastern Bloc was broken.
Following the summer of 1989, by early November refugees were finding their way to Hungary via Czechoslovakia or via the West German embassy in Prague. On 30 September, following negotiations with East Germany and the Soviet Union, the West German Foreign Minister Hans-Dietrich Genscher went to the Prague embassy to personally inform the thousands of refugees that they were allowed to leave for West Germany. His speech from the embassy's balcony, which included the line, "Wir sind zu Ihnen gekommen, um Ihnen mitzuteilen, dass heute Ihre Ausreise..." ("We came to you, to let you know that today, your departure...") was met with loud cheers and jubilations. The next day, the first of the embassy refugees left Prague for Bavaria.
The emigration was initially tolerated because of long-standing agreements with the communist Czechoslovak government, allowing free travel across their common border. However, this movement of people grew so large it caused difficulties for both countries. In addition, East Germany was struggling to meet loan payments on foreign borrowings; Egon Krenz sent Alexander Schalck-Golodkowski to unsuccessfully ask West Germany for a short-term loan to make interest payments.
=== Protection of the wall ===
The Berlin Wall was made up of two walls. Both walls were 4 metres tall and had a length of 155 kilometres. They were separated by a mined corridor called the death strip. This strip was heavily guarded and included 302 watchtowers (by 1989). Guards had authorization to shoot people who attempted to go through this strip.
=== Political changes in East Germany ===
On 18 October 1989, longtime Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) leader Erich Honecker stepped down in favor of Krenz. Honecker had been seriously ill, and those looking to replace him were initially willing to wait for a "biological solution", but by October were convinced that the political and economic situation was too grave. Honecker approved the choice, naming Krenz in his resignation speech, and the Volkskammer duly elected him. Although Krenz promised reforms in his first public speech, he was considered by the East German public to be following his predecessor's policies, and public protests demanding his resignation continued. Despite promises of reform, public opposition to the regime continued to grow.
On 1 November, Krenz authorized the reopening of the border with Czechoslovakia, which had been sealed to prevent East Germans from fleeing to West Germany. On 4 November, the Alexanderplatz demonstration took place.
On 6 November, the Interior Ministry published a draft of new travel regulations, which made cosmetic changes to Honecker-era rules, leaving the approval process opaque and maintaining uncertainty regarding access to foreign currency. The draft enraged ordinary citizens, and was denounced as "complete trash" by West Berlin Mayor Walter Momper. Hundreds of refugees crowded onto the steps of the West German embassy in Prague, enraging the Czechoslovaks, who threatened to seal off the East German–Czechoslovak border.
On 7 November, Krenz approved the resignation of Prime Minister Willi Stoph and two-thirds of the Politburo; however, Krenz was unanimously re-elected as General Secretary by the Central Committee.
=== New East German immigration policy ===
On 19 October, Krenz asked Gerhard Lauter to draft a new travel policy. Lauter was a former People's Police officer. After rising rapidly through the ranks he had recently been promoted to a position with the Interior Ministry ("Home Office" / "Department of the Interior") as head of the department responsible for issuing passports and the registration of citizens.
On 8 November, the East German Politburo enacted a portion of the draft travel regulations addressing permanent emigration immediately. Initially, the Politburo planned to create a special border crossing near Schirnding specifically for this emigration. However, Interior Ministry officials and Stasi bureaucrats charged with drafting the new text concluded the proposal was not feasible, and instead crafted new text relating to both emigration and temporary travel. The revised text stipulated East German citizens could apply for permission to travel abroad, without having to meet the previous requirements for those trips. To ease the difficulties, the Krenz-led Politburo decided on 9 November refugees could exit directly through crossing points between East Germany and West Germany, including between East and West Berlin. Later the same day, the ministerial administration modified the proposal to include private, round-trip, travel. The new regulations would take effect the next day.
=== VVS b2-937/89 ===
== Events ==
=== Misinformed public announcements ===
The announcement of the regulations which brought down the Wall took place at an hour-long press conference led by Günter Schabowski, the outgoing party leader in East Berlin and top party spokesman as Secretary for Information, beginning at 18:00 CET on 9 November and broadcast live on East German television and radio. Schabowski was joined by Minister of Foreign Trade Gerhard Beil and Central Committee members Helga Labs and Manfred Banaschak.
Topics of the press conference included the results of votes at the Central Committee meeting, the surprising removal of SED Bezirk First Secretaries Hans-Joachim Böhme and Werner Walde, the SED's electoral and press reform plans and the new travel regulations.
Schabowski had not been involved in the discussions about the new regulations and had not been fully updated. Shortly before the press conference, he was handed a note from Krenz announcing the changes, but given no further instructions on how to handle the information. The text stipulated that East German citizens could apply for permission to travel abroad without having to meet the previous requirements for those trips, and also allowed for permanent emigration between all border crossings—including those between East and West Berlin.
At 18:53, near the end of the press conference, ANSA's Riccardo Ehrman asked if the draft travel law of 6 November was a mistake. Schabowski gave a confusing answer that asserted it was necessary because West Germany had exhausted its capacity to accept fleeing East Germans, then remembered the note he had been given and added that a new regulation had been drafted to allow permanent emigration at any border crossing. This caused a stir in the room; amid several questions at once, Schabowski expressed surprise that the reporters had not yet seen this regulation, and started reading from the note. After this, a reporter, either Ehrman or Bild-Zeitung reporter Peter Brinkmann, both of whom were sitting in the front row at the press conference, asked when the regulations would take effect. After a few seconds' hesitation, Schabowski replied, "As far as I know, it takes effect immediately, without delay" (German: Das tritt nach meiner Kenntnis ... ist das sofort ... unverzüglich). This was an apparent assumption based on the note's opening paragraph; as Beil attempted to interject that it was up to the Council of Ministers to decide when it took effect, Schabowski proceeded to read this clause, which stated it was in effect until a law on the matter was passed by the Volkskammer. Crucially, a journalist then asked if the regulation also applied to the crossings to West Berlin. Schabowski shrugged and read item 3 of the note, which confirmed that it did.
After this exchange, Daniel Johnson of The Daily Telegraph asked what this law meant for the Berlin Wall. Schabowski sat frozen before giving a rambling statement about the Wall being tied to the larger disarmament question. He then ended the press conference promptly at 19:00 as journalists hurried from the room.
After the press conference, Schabowski sat for an interview with NBC News anchor Tom Brokaw in which he repeated that East Germans would be able to emigrate through the border and the regulations would go into effect immediately.
=== The news spread ===
The news began spreading immediately: the West German Deutsche Presse-Agentur issued a bulletin at 19:04 which reported that East German citizens would be able to cross the inner German border "immediately". Excerpts from Schabowski's press conference were broadcast on West Germany's two main news programs that night—at 19:17 on ZDF's heute, which came on the air as the press conference was ending, and as the lead story at 20:00 on ARD's Tagesschau. As ARD and ZDF had broadcast to nearly all of East Germany since the late 1950s, were far more widely viewed than the East German channels, and had become accepted by the East German authorities, this is how most of the population heard the news. Later that night, on ARD's Tagesthemen, anchorman Hanns Joachim Friedrichs proclaimed, "This 9 November is a historic day. The GDR has announced that, starting immediately, its borders are open to everyone. The gates in the Wall stand open wide."
In 2009, Ehrman claimed that a member of the Central Committee had called him and urged him to ask about the travel law during the press conference, but Schabowski called that absurd. Ehrman later recanted this statement in a 2014 interview with an Austrian journalist, admitting that the caller was Günter Pötschke, head of the East German news agency ADN, and he only asked if Ehrman would attend the press conference.
=== Peace prayers at Nikolai Church ===
Despite the policy of state atheism in East Germany, Christian pastor Christian Führer had regularly met with his congregation at St. Nicholas Church for prayer since 1982. Over the next seven years the church's congregation grew, despite authorities' barricading the adjacent streets, and peaceful candlelit marches took place following its services. The secret police issued death threats and even attacked some of the marchers, but the crowds still continued to gather. On 9 October 1989, the police and army units were given permission to use force against those assembled, but this did not deter the church service and march from taking place, which gathered 70,000 people and in which not a single shot was fired.
=== Crowding of the border ===
After hearing the 9 November broadcast, East Germans began gathering at the Wall, at the six checkpoints between East and West Berlin, demanding that border guards immediately open the gates. The surprised and overwhelmed guards made many hectic telephone calls to their superiors about the problem. At first, they were ordered to find the "more aggressive" people gathered at the gates and stamp their passports with a special stamp that barred them from returning to East Germany—in effect, revoking their citizenship. However, this still left thousands of people demanding to be let through "as Schabowski said we can". It soon became clear that no one among the East German authorities would take personal responsibility for issuing orders to use lethal force, so the vastly outnumbered soldiers had no way to hold back the huge crowd of East German citizens. Mary Elise Sarotte in a 2009 Washington Post story characterized the series of events leading to the fall of the Wall as an accident, saying "One of the most momentous events of the past century was, in fact, an accident, a semicomical and bureaucratic mistake that owes as much to the Western media as to the tides of history".
=== Border openings ===
Finally, at 22:45 (alternatively given as 23:30) on 9 November, Harald Jäger, commander of the Bornholmer Straße border crossing, yielded, allowing guards to open the checkpoints and let people through with little or no identity-checking. As the Ossis swarmed through, they were greeted by Wessis waiting with flowers and champagne amid wild rejoicing. Soon afterward, a crowd of West Berliners jumped on top of the Wall and were soon joined by East German youngsters. The evening of 9 November 1989 is known as the night the Wall came down.
Another border crossing to the south may have been opened earlier. An account by Heinz Schäfer indicates that he also acted independently and ordered the opening of the gate at Waltersdorf-Rudow a couple of hours earlier. This may explain reports of East Berliners appearing in West Berlin earlier than the opening of the Bornholmer Straße border crossing.
=== "Wallpeckers" demolition ===
Removal of the Wall began on the evening of 9 November 1989 and continued over the following days and weeks, with people nicknamed Mauerspechte (wallpeckers) using various tools to chip off souvenirs, demolishing lengthy parts in the process, and creating several unofficial border crossings. In the season holidays this became a sort of international action. People from all over the western world went to West Berlin and local youth provided a range of appropriate demolition tools.
Television coverage of citizens demolishing sections of the Wall on 9 November was soon followed by the East German regime announcing ten new border crossings, including the historically significant locations of Potsdamer Platz, Glienicker Brücke, and Bernauer Straße. Crowds gathered on both sides of the historic crossings waiting for hours to cheer the bulldozers that tore down portions of the Wall to reconnect the divided roads. While the Wall officially remained guarded at a decreasing intensity, new border crossings continued for some time. Initially the East German Border Troops attempted repairing the damage done by the "wallpeckers"; gradually these attempts ceased, and guards became laxer, tolerating the increasing demolitions and "unauthorized" border crossing through the holes.
=== Prime ministers meet ===
The Brandenburg Gate in the Berlin Wall was opened on 22 December 1989; on that date, West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl walked through the gate and was greeted by East German Prime Minister Hans Modrow. West Germans and West Berliners were allowed visa-free travel starting 23 December. Until then, they could only visit East Germany and East Berlin under restrictive conditions that involved application for a visa several days or weeks in advance and obligatory exchange of at least 25 DM per day of their planned stay, all of which hindered spontaneous visits. Thus, in the weeks between 9 November and 23 December, East Germans could actually travel more freely than Westerners.
=== Official demolition ===
On 13 June 1990, the East German Border Troops officially began dismantling the Wall, beginning in Bernauer Straße and around the Mitte district. From there, demolition continued through Prenzlauer Berg/Gesundbrunnen, Heiligensee and throughout the city of Berlin until December 1990. According to estimates by the border troops, a total of around 1.7 million tonnes of building rubble was produced by the demolition. Unofficially, the demolition of the Bornholmer Straße crossing began because of construction work on the railway. This involved a total of 300 GDR border guards and—after 3 October 1990—600 Pioneers of the Bundeswehr. These were equipped with 175 trucks, 65 cranes, 55 excavators and 13 bulldozers. Virtually every road that was severed by the Berlin Wall, every road that once linked from West Berlin to East Berlin, was reconstructed and reopened by 1 August 1990. In Berlin alone, 184 km (114 mi) of wall, 154 km (96 mi) border fence, 144 km (89 mi) signal systems and 87 km (54 mi) barrier ditches were removed. What remained were six sections that were to be preserved as a memorial. Various military units dismantled the Berlin/Brandenburg border wall, completing the job in November 1991. Painted wall segments with artistically valuable motifs were put up for auction in 1990 in Berlin and Monte Carlo.
On 1 July 1990, the day East Germany adopted the West German currency, all de jure border controls ceased, although the inter-German border had become meaningless for some time before that. The demolition of the Wall was completed in 1994.
The fall of the Wall marked the first critical step towards German reunification, which formally concluded a mere 339 days later on 3 October 1990 with the dissolution of East Germany and the official reunification of the German state along the democratic lines of the West German Basic Law.
=== International opposition ===
French President François Mitterrand and British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher both opposed the eventual reunification of Germany, fearing potential German designs on its neighbours using its increased strength. In September 1989, Margaret Thatcher privately confided to Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev that she wanted the Soviet leader to do what he could to stop it. Thatcher told Gorbachev:
We do not want a united Germany. This would lead to a change to postwar borders and we cannot allow that because such a development would undermine the stability of the whole international situation and could endanger our security.
After the fall of the Berlin Wall, Mitterrand warned Thatcher that a unified Germany could make more ground than Adolf Hitler ever had and that Europe would have to bear the consequences.
== Legacy ==
=== Celebrations and anniversaries ===
On 21 November 1989, Crosby, Stills & Nash performed the song "Chippin' Away" from Graham Nash's 1986 solo album Innocent Eyes in front of the Brandenburg Gate.
On 25 December 1989, Leonard Bernstein gave a concert in Berlin celebrating the end of the Wall, including Beethoven's 9th symphony (Ode to Joy) with the word "Joy" (Freude) changed to "Freedom" (Freiheit) in the lyrics sung. The poet Schiller may have originally written "Freedom" and changed it to "Joy" out of fear. The orchestra and choir were drawn from both East and West Germany, as well as the United Kingdom, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States. On New Year's Eve 1989, David Hasselhoff performed his song "Looking for Freedom" while standing atop the partly demolished Wall in front of 200,000 people. Roger Waters performed the Pink Floyd album The Wall just north of Potsdamer Platz on 21 July 1990, with guests including Scorpions, Bryan Adams, Sinéad O'Connor, Cyndi Lauper, Thomas Dolby, Joni Mitchell, Marianne Faithfull, Levon Helm, Rick Danko and Van Morrison.
Over the years, there has been a repeated controversial debate as to whether 9 November would make a suitable German national holiday, often initiated by former members of political opposition in East Germany, such as Werner Schulz. Besides being the emotional apogee of East Germany's peaceful revolution, 9 November is also the date of the 1918 abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II and declaration of the Weimar Republic, the first German republic. However, 9 November is also the anniversary of the execution of Robert Blum following the 1848 Vienna revolts, the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch and the infamous Kristallnacht pogroms of the Nazis in 1938. Nobel Laureate Elie Wiesel criticised the first euphoria, noting that "they forgot that 9 November has already entered into history—51 years earlier it marked the Kristallnacht." As reunification was not official and complete until 3 October (1990), that day was finally chosen as German Unity Day.
==== 10th anniversary celebrations ====
On 9 November 1999, the 10th anniversary was observed with a concert and fireworks at the Brandenburg Gate. Russian cellist Mstislav Rostropovich played music by Johann Sebastian Bach, while German rock band Scorpions performed their 1990 song Wind of Change. Wreaths were placed for victims shot down when they attempted to escape to the west, and politicians delivered speeches.
==== 20th anniversary celebrations ====
On 9 November 2009, Berlin celebrated the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall with a "Festival of Freedom" with dignitaries from around the world in attendance for an evening celebration around the Brandenburg Gate. A high point was when over 1,000 colourfully designed foam domino tiles, each over 8 feet (2.4 m) tall, that were stacked along the former route of the Wall in the city center were toppled in stages, converging in front of the Brandenburg Gate.
A Berlin Twitter Wall was set up to allow Twitter users to post messages commemorating the 20th anniversary. The Chinese government quickly shut down access to the Twitter Wall after internet users in China began using it to protest the Great Firewall.
In the United States, the German Embassy coordinated a public diplomacy campaign with the motto "Freedom Without Walls", to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall. The campaign was focused on promoting awareness of the fall of the Berlin Wall among current college students. Students at over 30 universities participated in "Freedom Without Walls" events in late 2009. First place winner of the Freedom Without Walls Speaking Contest Robert Cannon received a free trip to Berlin for 2010.
An international project called Mauerreise (Journey of the Wall) took place in various countries. Twenty symbolic Wall bricks were sent from Berlin starting in May 2009, with the destinations being Korea, Cyprus, Yemen, and other places where everyday life is characterised by division and border experience. In these places, the bricks would become a blank canvas for artists, intellectuals and young people to tackle the "Wall" phenomenon.
To commemorate the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall, the 3D online virtual world Twinity reconstructed a true-to-scale section of the Wall in virtual Berlin. The MTV Europe Music Awards, on 5 November, had U2 and Tokio Hotel perform songs dedicated to and about the Berlin Wall. U2 performed at the Brandenburg Gate, and Tokio Hotel performed "World Behind My Wall".
Palestinians in the town of Kalandia, West Bank, pulled down parts of the Israeli West Bank barrier, in a demonstration marking the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall.
The International Spy Museum in Washington D.C., hosted a Trabant car rally where 20 Trabants gathered in recognition of the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall. Rides were raffled every half-hour and a Trabant crashed through a Berlin Wall mock up. The Trabant was the East German people's car that many used to leave DDR after the collapse.
The Allied Museum in the Dahlem district of Berlin hosted a number of events to mark the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall. The museum held a Special Exhibition entitled "Wall Patrol – The Western Powers and the Berlin Wall 1961–1990" which focused on the daily patrols deployed by the Western powers to observe the situation along the Berlin Wall and the fortifications on the GDR border. A sheet of "Americans in Berlin" Commemorative Cinderella stamps designed by T.H.E. Hill was presented to the Museum by David Guerra, Berlin veteran and webmaster of the site www.berlinbrigade.com.
==== 30th anniversary celebrations ====
Berlin planned a week-long arts festival from 4 to 10 November 2019 and a citywide music festival on 9 November to celebrate the 30th anniversary. On 4 November, outdoor exhibits opened at Alexanderplatz, the Brandenburg Gate, the East Side Gallery, Gethsemane Church, Kurfürstendamm, Schlossplatz, and the former Stasi headquarters in Lichtenberg.
=== Polling ===
A small minority still support the wall or even support rebuilding the wall back up. In 2008 a poll found that 11% of participants from the former West Berlin and 12% from the former East Berlin said it would be better if the wall was still in place.
A November 2009 poll found that 12% of Germans said the wall should be rebuilt. The poll also found that in the former West German states support was at 12% and in the former East German states it was 13%. A September 2009 poll found 15% of Germans supported a wall, while in the west it was 16% and in the east it was at 10%.
A 2010 poll from Emnid for Bild, found that 24% of West Germans and 23% of East Germans wished for the wall still being in place.
A 2011 poll from Berliner Zeitung on the 30th anniversary, found that 8% of Berliners supported the idea if the wall was still standing, The overwhelming majority of Berliners at 87% however supported the fall of the wall. The poll also found that 28% of the Alternative for Germany (AfD) and 16% of Free Democratic Party (FDP) supporters supported bringing back the wall. A 2019 Yougov poll found that 13% of Germans wanted the wall back, in the West support was at 14% and in the East it was 13%.
A 2019 poll from Forsa found 35% of Berliners thought the construction of the Wall was not so wrong with supporters of the left party Die Linke at 74%. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus | Carl Linnaeus | Carl Linnaeus (23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné, was a Swedish biologist and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming organisms. He is known as the "father of modern taxonomy". Many of his writings were in Latin; his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus and, after his 1761 ennoblement, as Carolus a Linné.
Linnaeus was the son of a curate and was born in Råshult, in the countryside of Småland, southern Sweden. He received most of his higher education at Uppsala University and began giving lectures in botany there in 1730. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published the first edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands. He then returned to Sweden where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on several journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants and animals. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, while publishing several volumes. By the time of his death in 1778, he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe.
Linnaeus has been called Princeps botanicorum (Prince of Botanists) and "The Pliny of the North". He is also considered one of the founders of modern ecology.
In botany, the abbreviation L. is used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for a species' name. In zoology, the abbreviation Linnaeus is generally used; the abbreviations L., Linnæus, and Linné are also used. In older publications, the abbreviation "Linn." is found. Linnaeus is designated as the type specimen for the human species, Homo sapiens.
== Early life ==
=== Childhood ===
Linnaeus was born in the village of Råshult in Småland, Sweden, on 23 May 1707. He was the first child of Nicolaus (Nils) Linnaeus (born as Nils Ingemarsson) and Christina Brodersonia. His father taught him Latin as a small child. One of a long line of peasants and priests, Nils was an amateur botanist, a Lutheran minister, and the curate of the small village of Stenbrohult in Småland. Christina was the daughter of the rector of Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius. A year after Linnaeus's birth, his grandfather Samuel Brodersonius died, and his father Nils became the rector of Stenbrohult. The family moved into the rectory from the curate's house. Even in his early years, Linnaeus seemed to have a liking for plants, flowers in particular. Whenever he was upset, he was given a flower, which immediately calmed him. Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus and told him their names. Soon Linnaeus was given his own patch of land where he could grow plants.
Carl's father was the first in his ancestry to adopt a permanent surname. Before that, ancestors had used the patronymic naming system of Scandinavian countries; his father was named Ingemarsson after his father Ingemar Bengtsson. When Nils was admitted to Lund University, he had to take on a family name. He adopted the Latinate name Linnæus after a giant lime tree, lind in Swedish, that grew on the family homestead. This name was spelled with the æ ligature. When Carl was born, he was named Carl Linnæus, with his father's family name. The son also always spelled it with the æ ligature, both in handwritten documents and in publications. Carl's patronymic would have been Nilsson, as in Carl Nilsson Linnæus.
=== Early education ===
Linnaeus's father began teaching him basic Latin, religion, and geography at an early age. When Linnaeus was seven, Nils decided to hire a tutor for him. The parents picked Johan Telander, a son of a local yeoman. Linnaeus did not like him, writing in his autobiography that Telander "was better calculated to extinguish a child's talents than develop them".
Two years after his tutoring had begun, he was sent to the Lower Grammar School at Växjö in 1717. Linnaeus rarely studied, often going to the countryside to look for plants. At some point, his father went to visit him and, after hearing critical assessments by his preceptors, he decided to put the youth as an apprentice to some honest cobbler. His headmaster, Daniel Lannerus, noticed Linnaeus's interest in botany, and introduced him to Johan Rothman, the state doctor of Småland and a teacher at Katedralskolan in Växjö. Rothman broadened Linnaeus's interest in botany and helped him develop an interest in medicine. By the age of 17, Linnaeus had become well acquainted with the existing botanical literature. He remarks in his journal that he "read day and night, knowing like the back of my hand, Arvidh Månsson's Rydaholm Book of Herbs, Tillandz's Flora Åboensis, Palmberg's Serta Florea Suecana, Bromelii's Chloros Gothica and Rudbeckii's Hortus Upsaliensis".
Linnaeus entered the Växjö Katedralskola in 1724, where he studied mainly Greek, Hebrew, theology, and mathematics, a curriculum designed for boys preparing for the priesthood. In the last year at the gymnasium, Linnaeus's father visited to ask the professors how his son's studies were progressing; to his dismay, most said that the boy would never become a scholar. Rothman believed otherwise, suggesting Linnaeus could have a future in medicine. The doctor offered to have Linnaeus live with his family in Växjö and to teach him physiology and botany. Nils accepted this offer.
== University studies ==
=== Lund ===
Rothman showed Linnaeus that botany was a serious subject. He taught Linnaeus to classify plants according to Tournefort's system. Linnaeus was also taught about the sexual reproduction of plants, according to Sébastien Vaillant. In 1727, Linnaeus, age 21, enrolled in Lund University in Scania (Skåne). He was registered as Carolus Linnæus, the Latin form of his full name, which he also used later for his Latin publications.
Professor Kilian Stobæus, natural scientist, physician and historian, offered Linnaeus tutoring and lodging, as well as the use of his library, which included many books about botany. He also gave the student free admission to his lectures. In his spare time, Linnaeus explored the flora of Skåne, together with students sharing the same interests.
=== Uppsala ===
In August 1728, Linnaeus decided to attend Uppsala University on the advice of Rothman, who believed it would be a better choice if Linnaeus wanted to study both medicine and botany. Rothman based this recommendation on the two professors who taught at the medical faculty at Uppsala: Olof Rudbeck the Younger and Lars Roberg. Although Rudbeck and Roberg had undoubtedly been good professors, by then they were older and not so interested in teaching. Rudbeck no longer gave public lectures, and had others stand in for him. The botany, zoology, pharmacology and anatomy lectures were not in their best state. In Uppsala, Linnaeus met a new benefactor, Olof Celsius, who was a professor of theology and an amateur botanist. He received Linnaeus into his home and allowed him use of his library, which was one of the richest botanical libraries in Sweden.
In 1729, Linnaeus wrote a thesis, Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum on plant sexual reproduction. This attracted the attention of Rudbeck; in May 1730, he selected Linnaeus to give lectures at the university although the young man was only a second-year student. His lectures were popular, and Linnaeus often addressed an audience of 300 people. In June, Linnaeus moved from Celsius's house to Rudbeck's to become the tutor of the three youngest of his 24 children. His friendship with Celsius did not wane and they continued their botanical expeditions. Over that winter, Linnaeus began to doubt Tournefort's system of classification and decided to create one of his own. His plan was to divide the plants by the number of stamens and pistils. He began writing several books, which would later result in, for example, Genera Plantarum and Critica Botanica. He also produced a book on the plants grown in the Uppsala Botanical Garden, Adonis Uplandicus.
Rudbeck's former assistant, Nils Rosén, returned to the University in March 1731 with a degree in medicine. Rosén started giving anatomy lectures and tried to take over Linnaeus's botany lectures, but Rudbeck prevented that. Until December, Rosén tutored Linnaeus privately in medicine. In December, Linnaeus had a "disagreement" with Rudbeck's wife and had to move out of his mentor's house; his relationship with Rudbeck did not appear to suffer. That Christmas, Linnaeus returned home to Stenbrohult to visit his parents for the first time in about three years. His mother had disapproved of his failing to become a priest, but she was pleased to learn he was teaching at the university.
== Expedition to Lapland ==
During a visit with his parents, Linnaeus told them about his plan to travel to Lapland; Rudbeck had made the journey in 1695, but the detailed results of his exploration were lost in a fire seven years afterwards. Linnaeus's hope was to find new plants, animals and possibly valuable minerals. He was also curious about the customs of the native Sami people, reindeer-herding nomads who wandered Scandinavia's vast tundras. In April 1732, Linnaeus was awarded a grant from the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala for his journey.
Linnaeus began his expedition from Uppsala on 12 May 1732, just before he turned 25. He travelled on foot and horse, bringing with him his journal, botanical and ornithological manuscripts and sheets of paper for pressing plants. Near Gävle he found great quantities of Campanula serpyllifolia, later known as Linnaea borealis, the twinflower that would become his favourite. He sometimes dismounted on the way to examine a flower or rock and was particularly interested in mosses and lichens, the latter a main part of the diet of the reindeer, a common and economically important animal in Lapland.
Linnaeus travelled clockwise around the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, making major inland incursions from Umeå, Luleå and Tornio. He returned from his six-month-long, over 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) expedition in October, having gathered and observed many plants, birds and rocks. Although Lapland was a region with limited biodiversity, Linnaeus described about 100 previously unidentified plants. These became the basis of his book Flora Lapponica. However, on the expedition to Lapland, Linnaeus used Latin phrase names to describe organisms because he had not yet developed the binomial system.
In Flora Lapponica Linnaeus's ideas about nomenclature and classification were first used in a practical way, making this the first proto-modern Flora. The account covered 534 species, used the Linnaean classification system and included, for the described species, geographical distribution and taxonomic notes. It was Augustin Pyramus de Candolle who attributed Linnaeus with Flora Lapponica as the first example in the botanical genre of Flora writing. Botanical historian E. L. Greene described Flora Lapponica as "the most classic and delightful" of Linnaeus's works.
It was during this expedition that Linnaeus had a flash of insight regarding the classification of mammals. Upon observing the lower jawbone of a horse at the side of a road he was travelling, Linnaeus remarked: "If I only knew how many teeth and of what kind every animal had, how many teats and where they were placed, I should perhaps be able to work out a perfectly natural system for the arrangement of all quadrupeds."
In 1734, Linnaeus led a small group of students to Dalarna. Funded by the Governor of Dalarna, the expedition was to catalogue known natural resources and discover new ones, but also to gather intelligence on Norwegian mining activities at Røros.
== Years in the Dutch Republic (1735–38) ==
=== Doctorate ===
His relations with Nils Rosén having worsened, Linnaeus accepted an invitation from Claes Sohlberg, son of a mining inspector, to spend the Christmas holiday in Falun, where Linnaeus was permitted to visit the mines.
In April 1735, at the suggestion of Sohlberg's father, Linnaeus and Sohlberg set out for the Dutch Republic, where Linnaeus intended to study medicine at the University of Harderwijk while tutoring Sohlberg in exchange for an annual salary. At the time, it was common for Swedes to pursue doctoral degrees in the Netherlands, then a highly revered place to study natural history.
On the way, the pair stopped in Hamburg, where they met the mayor, who proudly showed them a supposed wonder of nature in his possession: the taxidermied remains of a seven-headed hydra. Linnaeus quickly discovered the specimen was a fake, cobbled together from the jaws and paws of weasels and the skins of snakes. The provenance of the hydra suggested to Linnaeus that it had been manufactured by monks to represent the Beast of Revelation. Even at the risk of incurring the mayor's wrath, Linnaeus made his observations public, dashing the mayor's dreams of selling the hydra for an enormous sum. Linnaeus and Sohlberg were forced to flee from Hamburg.
Linnaeus began working towards his degree as soon as he reached Harderwijk, a university known for awarding degrees in as little as a week. He submitted a dissertation, written back in Sweden, entitled Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa, in which he laid out his hypothesis that malaria arose only in areas with clay-rich soils. Although he failed to identify the true source of disease transmission, (i.e., the Anopheles mosquito), he did correctly predict that Artemisia annua (wormwood) would become a source of antimalarial medications. Within two weeks he had completed his oral and practical examinations and was awarded a doctoral degree.
That summer Linnaeus reunited with Peter Artedi, a friend from Uppsala with whom he had once made a pact that should either of the two predecease the other, the survivor would finish the decedent's work. Ten weeks later, Artedi drowned in the canals of Amsterdam, leaving behind an unfinished manuscript on the classification of fish.
=== Publishing of Systema Naturae ===
One of the first scientists Linnaeus met in the Netherlands was Johan Frederik Gronovius, to whom Linnaeus showed one of the several manuscripts he had brought with him from Sweden. The manuscript described a new system for classifying plants. When Gronovius saw it, he was very impressed, and offered to help pay for the printing. With an additional monetary contribution by the Scottish doctor Isaac Lawson, the manuscript was published as Systema Naturae (1735).
Linnaeus became acquainted with one of the most respected physicians and botanists in the Netherlands, Herman Boerhaave, who tried to convince Linnaeus to make a career there. Boerhaave offered him a journey to South Africa and America, but Linnaeus declined, stating he would not stand the heat. Instead, Boerhaave convinced Linnaeus that he should visit the botanist Johannes Burman. After his visit, Burman, impressed with his guest's knowledge, decided Linnaeus should stay with him during the winter. During his stay, Linnaeus helped Burman with his Thesaurus Zeylanicus. Burman also helped Linnaeus with the books on which he was working: Fundamenta Botanica and Bibliotheca Botanica.
=== George Clifford, Philip Miller, and Johann Jacob Dillenius ===
In August 1735, during Linnaeus's stay with Burman, he met George Clifford III, a director of the Dutch East India Company and the owner of a rich botanical garden at the estate of Hartekamp in Heemstede. Clifford was very impressed with Linnaeus's ability to classify plants, and invited him to become his physician and superintendent of his garden. Linnaeus had already agreed to stay with Burman over the winter, and could thus not accept immediately. However, Clifford offered to compensate Burman by offering him a copy of Sir Hans Sloane's Natural History of Jamaica, a rare book, if he let Linnaeus stay with him, and Burman accepted. On 24 September 1735, Linnaeus moved to Hartekamp to become personal physician to Clifford, and curator of Clifford's herbarium. He was paid 1,000 florins a year, with free board and lodging. Though the agreement was only for a winter of that year, Linnaeus practically stayed there until 1738. It was here that he wrote a book Hortus Cliffortianus, in the preface of which he described his experience as "the happiest time of my life". (A portion of Hartekamp was declared as public garden in April 1956 by the Heemstede local authority, and was named "Linnaeushof". It eventually became, as it is claimed, the biggest playground in Europe.)
In July 1736, Linnaeus travelled to England, at Clifford's expense. He went to London to visit Sir Hans Sloane, a collector of natural history, and to see his cabinet of curiosities, as well as to visit the Chelsea Physic Garden and its keeper, Philip Miller. He taught Miller about his new system of subdividing plants, as described in Systema Naturae. At first, Miller was reluctant to use the new binomial nomenclature, preferring instead the classifications of Joseph Pitton de Tournefort and John Ray. Nevertheless, Linnaeus applauded Miller's Gardeners Dictionary. The conservative Miller retained in his dictionary some pre-Linnaean binomial signifiers discarded by Linnaeus but which have been retained by modern botanists. He only fully changed to the Linnaean system in the edition of The Gardeners Dictionary of 1768. Miller ultimately was impressed, and from then on started to arrange the garden according to Linnaeus's system.
Linnaeus also travelled to Oxford University to visit the botanist Johann Jacob Dillenius. He failed to make Dillenius publicly fully accept his new classification system, though the two men remained in correspondence for many years afterwards. Linnaeus dedicated his Critica Botanica to him, as "opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non-vidit". Linnaeus later named a genus of tropical tree Dillenia in his honour. He then returned to Hartekamp, bringing with him many specimens of rare plants. The next year, 1737, he published Genera Plantarum, in which he described 935 genera of plants, and shortly thereafter he supplemented it with Corollarium Generum Plantarum, with another sixty genera.
His work at Hartekamp led to another book, Hortus Cliffortianus, a catalogue of the botanical holdings in the herbarium and botanical garden of Hartekamp. He wrote it in nine months (completed in July 1737), but it was not published until 1738. It contains the first use of the name Nepenthes, which Linnaeus used to describe a genus of pitcher plants.
Linnaeus stayed with Clifford at Hartekamp until 18 October 1737 (new style), when he left the house to return to Sweden. Illness and the kindness of Dutch friends obliged him to stay some months longer in Holland. In May 1738, he set out for Sweden again. On the way home, he stayed in Paris for about a month, visiting botanists such as Antoine de Jussieu. After his return, Linnaeus never again left Sweden.
== Return to Sweden ==
When Linnaeus returned to Sweden on 28 June 1738, he went to Falun, where he entered into an engagement to Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Three months later, he moved to Stockholm to find employment as a physician, and thus to make it possible to support a family. Once again, Linnaeus found a patron; he became acquainted with Count Carl Gustav Tessin, who helped him get work as a physician at the Admiralty. During this time in Stockholm, Linnaeus helped found the Royal Swedish Academy of Science; he became the first Praeses of the academy by drawing of lots.
Because his finances had improved and were now sufficient to support a family, he received permission to marry his fiancée, Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Their wedding was held 26 June 1739. Seventeen months later, Sara gave birth to their first son, Carl. Two years later, a daughter, Elisabeth Christina, was born, and the subsequent year Sara gave birth to Sara Magdalena, who died when 15 days old. Sara and Linnaeus would later have four other children: Lovisa, Sara Christina, Johannes and Sophia.
In May 1741, Linnaeus was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University, first with responsibility for medicine-related matters. Soon, he changed place with the other Professor of Medicine, Nils Rosén, and thus was responsible for the Botanical Garden (which he would thoroughly reconstruct and expand), botany and natural history, instead. In October that same year, his wife and nine-month-old son followed him to live in Uppsala.
=== Öland and Gotland ===
Ten days after he was appointed professor, he undertook an expedition to the island provinces of Öland and Gotland with six students from the university to look for plants useful in medicine. They stayed on Öland until 21 June, then sailed to Visby in Gotland. Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month, and then returned to Uppsala. During this expedition, they found 100 previously unrecorded plants. The observations from the expedition were later published in Öländska och Gothländska Resa, written in Swedish. Like Flora Lapponica, it contained both zoological and botanical observations, as well as observations concerning the culture in Öland and Gotland.
During the summer of 1745, Linnaeus published two more books: Flora Suecica and Fauna Suecica. Flora Suecica was a strictly botanical book, while Fauna Suecica was zoological. Anders Celsius had created the temperature scale named after him in 1742. Celsius's scale was originally inverted compared to the way it is used today, with water boiling at 0 °C and freezing at 100 °C. Linnaeus inverted the scale to its present usage in 1745.
=== Västergötland ===
In the summer of 1746, Linnaeus was once again commissioned by the Government to carry out an expedition, this time to the Swedish province of Västergötland. He set out from Uppsala on 12 June and returned on 11 August. On the expedition his primary companion was Erik Gustaf Lidbeck, a student who had accompanied him on his previous journey. Linnaeus described his findings from the expedition in the book Wästgöta-Resa, published the next year. After he returned from the journey, the Government decided Linnaeus should take on another expedition to the southernmost province Scania. This journey was postponed, as Linnaeus felt too busy.
In 1747, Linnaeus was given the title archiater, or chief physician, by the Swedish king Adolf Frederick—a mark of great respect. The same year he was elected member of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin.
=== Scania ===
In the spring of 1749, Linnaeus could finally journey to Scania (Skåne), again commissioned by the government. With him he brought his student Olof Söderberg. On the way to Scania, he made his last visit to his brothers and sisters in Stenbrohult since his father had died the previous year. The expedition was similar to the previous journeys in most aspects, but this time he was also ordered to find the best place to grow walnut and Swedish whitebeam trees; these trees were used by the army to make rifles. While there, they visited the Ramlösa mineral spa, where he remarked on the quality of its ferruginous water. The journey was successful, and Linnaeus's observations were published the next year in Skånska Resa ("Scanian Journey"). The book comprises 561 pages and is a diary with detailed descriptions of everything he discovered in Scania. He praises the people of Scania for their hospitality, which "in no land, though everywhere I have been received well, can be compared."
=== Rector of Uppsala University ===
In 1750, Linnaeus became rector of Uppsala University, starting a period where natural sciences were esteemed. Perhaps the most important contribution he made during his time at Uppsala was to teach; many of his students travelled to various places in the world to collect botanical samples. Linnaeus called the best of these students his "apostles". His lectures were normally very popular and were often held in the Botanical Garden. He tried to teach the students to think for themselves and not trust anybody, not even him. Even more popular than the lectures were the botanical excursions made every Saturday during summer, where Linnaeus and his students explored the flora and fauna in the vicinity of Uppsala.
=== Philosophia Botanica ===
Linnaeus published Philosophia Botanica in 1751. The book contained a complete survey of the taxonomy system he had been using in his earlier works. It also contained information of how to keep a journal on travels and how to maintain a botanical garden.
=== Nutrix Noverca ===
During Linnaeus's time it was normal for upper class women to have wet nurses for their babies. Linnaeus joined an ongoing campaign to end this practice in Sweden and promote breast-feeding by mothers. In 1752 Linnaeus published a thesis along with Frederick Lindberg, a physician student, based on their experiences. In the tradition of the period, this dissertation was essentially an idea of the presiding reviewer (prases) expounded upon by the student. Linnaeus's dissertation was translated into French by J. E. Gilibert in 1770 as La Nourrice marâtre, ou Dissertation sur les suites funestes du nourrisage mercénaire. Linnaeus suggested that children might absorb the personality of their wet nurse through the milk. He admired the child care practices of the Lapps and pointed out how healthy their babies were compared to those of Europeans who employed wet nurses. He compared the behaviour of wild animals and pointed out how none of them denied their newborns their breastmilk. It is thought that his activism played a role in his choice of the term Mammalia for the class of organisms.
=== Species Plantarum ===
Linnaeus published Species Plantarum, the work which is now internationally accepted as the starting point of modern botanical nomenclature, in 1753. The first volume was issued on 24 May, the second volume followed on 16 August of the same year. The book contained 1,200 pages and was published in two volumes; it described over 7,300 species. The same year the king dubbed him knight of the Order of the Polar Star, the first civilian in Sweden to become a knight in this order. He was then seldom seen not wearing the order's insignia.
=== Ennoblement ===
Linnaeus felt Uppsala was too noisy and unhealthy, so he bought two farms in 1758: Hammarby and Sävja. The next year, he bought a neighbouring farm, Edeby. He spent the summers with his family at Hammarby; initially it only had a small one-storey house, but in 1762 a new, larger main building was added. In Hammarby, Linnaeus made a garden where he could grow plants that could not be grown in the Botanical Garden in Uppsala. He began constructing a museum on a hill behind Hammarby in 1766, where he moved his library and collection of plants. A fire that destroyed about one third of Uppsala and had threatened his residence there necessitated the move.
Since the initial release of Systema Naturae in 1735, the book had been expanded and reprinted several times; the tenth edition was released in 1758. This edition established itself as the starting point for zoological nomenclature, the equivalent of Species Plantarum.
The Swedish King Adolf Frederick granted Linnaeus nobility in 1757, but he was not ennobled until 1761. With his ennoblement, he took the name Carl von Linné (Latinised as Carolus a Linné), 'Linné' being a shortened and gallicised version of 'Linnæus', and the German nobiliary particle 'von' signifying his ennoblement. The noble family's coat of arms prominently features a twinflower, one of Linnaeus's favourite plants; it was given the scientific name Linnaea borealis in his honour by Gronovius. The shield in the coat of arms is divided into thirds: red, black and green for the three kingdoms of nature (animal, mineral and vegetable) in Linnaean classification; in the centre is an egg "to denote Nature, which is continued and perpetuated in ovo". At the bottom is a phrase in Latin, borrowed from the Aeneid, which reads "Famam extendere factis": we extend our fame by our deeds. Linnaeus inscribed this personal motto in books that were given to him by friends.
After his ennoblement, Linnaeus continued teaching and writing. In total, he presided at 186 PhD ceremonies, with many of the dissertations written by himself. His reputation had spread over the world, and he corresponded with many different people. For example, Catherine II of Russia sent him seeds from her country. He also corresponded with Giovanni Antonio Scopoli, "the Linnaeus of the Austrian Empire", who was a doctor and a botanist in Idrija, Duchy of Carniola (nowadays Slovenia). Scopoli communicated all of his research, findings, and descriptions (for example of the olm and the dormouse, two little animals hitherto unknown to Linnaeus). Linnaeus greatly respected Scopoli and showed great interest in his work. He named a solanaceous genus, Scopolia, the source of scopolamine, after him, but because of the great distance between them, they never met.
== Final years ==
Linnaeus was relieved of his duties in the Royal Swedish Academy of Science in 1763, but continued his work there as usual for more than ten years after. In 1769 he was elected to the American Philosophical Society for his work. He stepped down as rector at Uppsala University in December 1772, mostly due to his declining health.
Linnaeus's last years were troubled by illness. He had had a disease called the Uppsala fever in 1764, but survived due to the care of Rosén. He developed sciatica in 1773, and the next year, he had a stroke which partially paralysed him. He had a second stroke in 1776, losing the use of his right side and leaving him bereft of his memory; while still able to admire his own writings, he could not recognise himself as their author.
In December 1777, he had another stroke which greatly weakened him, and eventually led to his death on 10 January 1778 in Hammarby. Despite his desire to be buried in Hammarby, he was buried in Uppsala Cathedral on 22 January.
His library and collections were left to his widow Sara and their children. Joseph Banks, an eminent botanist, wished to purchase the collection, but his son Carl refused the offer and instead moved the collection to Uppsala. In 1783 Carl died and Sara inherited the collection, having outlived both her husband and son. She tried to sell it to Banks, but he was no longer interested; instead an acquaintance of his agreed to buy the collection. The acquaintance was a 24-year-old medical student, James Edward Smith, who bought the whole collection: 14,000 plants, 3,198 insects, 1,564 shells, about 3,000 letters and 1,600 books. Smith founded the Linnean Society of London five years later.
The von Linné name ended with his son Carl, who never married. His other son, Johannes, had died aged 3. There are over two hundred descendants of Linnaeus through two of his daughters.
== Apostles ==
During Linnaeus's time as Professor and Rector of Uppsala University, he taught many devoted students, 17 of whom he called "apostles". They were the most promising, most committed students, and all of them made botanical expeditions to various places in the world, often with his help. The amount of this help varied; sometimes he used his influence as Rector to grant his apostles a scholarship or a place on an expedition. To most of the apostles he gave instructions of what to look for on their journeys. Abroad, the apostles collected and organised new plants, animals and minerals according to Linnaeus's system. Most of them also gave some of their collection to Linnaeus when their journey was finished. Thanks to these students, the Linnaean system of taxonomy spread through the world without Linnaeus ever having to travel outside Sweden after his return from Holland. The British botanist William T. Stearn notes, without Linnaeus's new system, it would not have been possible for the apostles to collect and organise so many new specimens.
=== Early expeditions ===
Christopher Tärnström, the first apostle and a 43-year-old pastor with a wife and children, made his journey in 1746. He boarded a Swedish East India Company ship headed for China. Tärnström never reached his destination, dying of a tropical fever on Côn Sơn Island the same year. Tärnström's widow blamed Linnaeus for making her children fatherless, causing Linnaeus to prefer sending out younger, unmarried students after Tärnström. Six other apostles later died on their expeditions, including Pehr Forsskål and Pehr Löfling.
Two years after Tärnström's expedition, Finnish-born Pehr Kalm set out as the second apostle to North America. There he spent two-and-a-half years studying the flora and fauna of Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey and Canada. Linnaeus was overjoyed when Kalm returned, bringing back with him many pressed flowers and seeds. At least 90 of the 700 North American species described in Species Plantarum had been brought back by Kalm.
=== Cook expeditions and Japan ===
Daniel Solander was living in Linnaeus's house during his time as a student in Uppsala. Linnaeus was very fond of him, promising Solander his eldest daughter's hand in marriage. On Linnaeus's recommendation, Solander travelled to England in 1760, where he met the English botanist Joseph Banks. With Banks, Solander joined James Cook on his expedition to Oceania on the Endeavour in 1768–71. Solander was not the only apostle to journey with James Cook; Anders Sparrman followed on the Resolution in 1772–75 bound for, among other places, Oceania and South America. Sparrman made many other expeditions, one of them to South Africa.
Perhaps the most famous and successful apostle was Carl Peter Thunberg, who embarked on a nine-year expedition in 1770. He stayed in South Africa for three years, then travelled to Japan. All foreigners were barred from entering Japan and were restricted to the tiny island of Dejima outside Nagasaki, so it was thus hard for Thunberg to study the flora. He did, however, manage to persuade some of the translators to bring him different plants, and he also found plants in the gardens of Dejima. He returned to Sweden in 1779, one year after Linnaeus's death.
== Major publications ==
=== Systema Naturae ===
The first edition of Systema Naturae was printed in the Netherlands in 1735. It was a twelve-page work. By the time it reached its 10th edition in 1758, it classified 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants. People from all over the world sent their specimens to Linnaeus to be included. By the time he started work on the 12th edition, Linnaeus needed a new invention—the index card—to track classifications.
After the decline in Linnaeus's health in the early 1770s, publication of editions of Systema Naturae went in two different directions. Another Swedish scientist, Johan Andreas Murray, issued the Regnum Vegetabile section separately in 1774 as the Systema Vegetabilium, rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition. Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entire Systema appeared in parts between 1788 and 1793 under the editorship of Johann Friedrich Gmelin. It was through the Systema Vegetabilium that Linnaeus's work became widely known in England, following its translation from the Latin by the Lichfield Botanical Society as A System of Vegetables (1783–1785).
=== Species Plantarum ===
Species Plantarum (or, more fully, Species Plantarum, exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas) was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work. Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today.
==== Genera Plantarum ====
Genera plantarum: eorumque characteres naturales secundum numerum, figuram, situm, et proportionem omnium fructificationis partium was first published in 1737, delineating plant genera. Around 10 editions were published, not all of them by Linnaeus himself; the most important is the 1754 fifth edition. In it Linnaeus divided the plant Kingdom into 24 classes. One, Cryptogamia, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns).
==== Philosophia Botanica ====
Philosophia Botanica (1751) was a summary of Linnaeus's thinking on plant classification and nomenclature, and an elaboration of the work he had previously published in Fundamenta Botanica (1736) and Critica Botanica (1737). Other publications forming part of his plan to reform the foundations of botany include his Classes Plantarum and Bibliotheca Botanica: all were printed in Holland (as were Genera Plantarum (1737) and Systema Naturae (1735)), the Philosophia being simultaneously released in Stockholm.
== Collections ==
At the end of his lifetime the Linnean collection in Uppsala was considered one of the finest collections of natural history objects in Sweden. Next to his own collection, he had also built up a museum for the university of Uppsala, which was supplied by material donated by Carl Gyllenborg (in 1744–1745), crown-prince Adolf Fredrik (in 1745), Erik Petreus (in 1746), Claes Grill (in 1746), Magnus Lagerström (in 1748 and 1750) and Jonas Alströmer (in 1749). The relation between the museum and the private collection was not formalised and the steady flow of material from Linnean pupils was incorporated into the private collection rather than to the museum. Linnaeus felt his work was reflecting the harmony of nature, and he said in 1754 "the earth is then nothing else but a museum of the all-wise creator's masterpieces, divided into three chambers". He felt that he had turned his own estate into a microcosm of that 'world museum'.
In 1784 the young medical student James Edward Smith purchased the entire specimen collection, library, manuscripts, and correspondence of Carl Linnaeus from his widow and daughter and transferred the collections to London. Not all material in Linné's private collection was transported to England. Thirty-three fish specimens preserved in alcohol were not sent and were later lost.
In London Smith tended to neglect the zoological parts of the collection; he added some specimens and also gave some specimens away. Over the following centuries the Linnean collection in London suffered enormously at the hands of scientists who studied the collection, and in the process disturbed the original arrangement and labels, added specimens that did not belong to the original series and withdrew precious original type material.
Much material that Linné studied belonged to the collection of Queen Lovisa Ulrika (1720–1782); the Linnean publications call this "Museum Ludovicae Ulricae" or "M. L. U."). The collection was donated by her grandson King Gustav IV Adolf (1778–1837) to the museum in Uppsala in 1804. Her husband King Adolf Fredrik's (1710–1771) collection is known in the Linnean sources as "Museum Adolphi Friderici" or "Mus. Ad. Fr.". The wet parts (the alcohol collection) were later donated to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and are housed in the Swedish Museum of Natural History at Stockholm. The dry material was transferred to Uppsala.
== System of taxonomy ==
=== Linnaean system ===
The establishment of universally accepted conventions for the naming of organisms was Linnaeus's main contribution to taxonomy—his work marks the starting point of consistent use of binomial nomenclature. Another major contribution of his was the popularisation of using the Mars and Venus symbols (♂ and ♀) to denote sex within species. These became the standard gender symbols. During the 18th century expansion of natural history knowledge, Linnaeus also developed what became known as the Linnaean taxonomy; the system of scientific classification now widely used in the biological sciences. A previous zoologist Rumphius (1627–1702) had more or less approximated the Linnaean system and his material contributed to the later development of the binomial scientific classification by Linnaeus.
The Linnaean system classified nature within a nested hierarchy, starting with three kingdoms. Kingdoms were divided into classes and they, in turn, into orders, and thence into genera (singular: genus), which were divided into species (singular: species). Below the rank of species he sometimes recognised taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank; these have since acquired standardised names such as variety in botany and subspecies in zoology. Modern taxonomy includes a rank of family between order and genus and a rank of phylum between kingdom and class that were not present in Linnaeus's original system.
Linnaeus's groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics, and not based upon differences. Of his higher groupings, only those for animals are still in use, and the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since their conception, as have the principles behind them. Nevertheless, Linnaeus is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics and intended to reflect natural relationships.
=== Human taxonomy ===
Linnaeus's system of taxonomy was the first to include humans (Homo) taxonomically grouped with apes (Simia), under the header of Anthropomorpha. German biologist Ernst Haeckel speaking in 1907 called this the "most important sign of Linnaeus's genius".
Linnaeus classified humans among the primates, beginning with the first edition of Systema Naturae. During his time at Hartekamp, he had the opportunity to examine several monkeys and noted similarities between them and man. He pointed out that they basically had the same anatomy; except for speech, he found no other differences. Thus he placed man and monkeys under the same category, Anthropomorpha, meaning "manlike". This classification received criticism from other biologists such as Johan Gottschalk Wallerius, Jacob Theodor Klein and Johann Georg Gmelin on the ground that it is illogical to describe man as human-like. In a letter to Gmelin from 1747, Linnaeus replied:
It does not please [you] that I've placed Man among the Anthropomorpha, perhaps because of the term 'with human form', but man learns to know himself. Let's not quibble over words. It will be the same to me whatever name we apply. But I seek from you and from the whole world a generic difference between man and simian that [follows] from the principles of Natural History. I absolutely know of none. If only someone might tell me a single one! If I would have called man a simian or vice versa, I would have brought together all the theologians against me. Perhaps I ought to have by virtue of the law of the discipline.
The theological concerns were twofold: first, putting man at the same level as monkeys or apes would lower the spiritually higher position that man was assumed to have in the great chain of being, and second, because the Bible says man was created in the image of God (theomorphism), if monkeys/apes and humans were not distinctly and separately designed, that would mean monkeys and apes were created in the image of God as well. This was something many could not accept.
After such criticism, Linnaeus felt he needed to explain himself more clearly. The 10th edition of Systema Naturae introduced new terms, including Mammalia and Primates, the latter replacing Anthropomorpha and giving humans the full binomial Homo sapiens. The new classification received less criticism, but many natural historians still believed he had demoted humans from their former place of ruling over nature. Linnaeus believed that man biologically belonged to the animal kingdom and had to be included in it. In his book Dieta Naturalis, he said, "One should not vent one's wrath on animals. Theology decrees that man has a soul and that the animals are mere 'automata mechanica', but I believe they would be better advised that animals have a soul and that the difference is of nobility."
Linnaeus added a second species to the genus Homo in Systema Naturae based on a figure and description by Jacobus Bontius from a 1658 publication: Homo troglodytes ("caveman") and published a third in 1771: Homo lar. Swedish historian Gunnar Broberg states that the new human species Linnaeus described were actually simians or native people clad in skins to frighten colonial settlers, whose appearance had been exaggerated in accounts to Linnaeus. For Homo troglodytes Linnaeus asked the Swedish East India Company to search for one, but they did not find any signs of its existence. Homo lar has since been reclassified as Hylobates lar, the lar gibbon.
In the first edition of Systema Naturae, Linnaeus subdivided the human species into four varieties: "Europæus albesc[ens]" (whitish European), "Americanus rubesc[ens]" (reddish American), "Asiaticus fuscus" (tawny Asian) and "Africanus nigr[iculus]" (blackish African). In the tenth edition of Systema Naturae he further detailed phenotypical characteristics for each variety, based on the concept of the four temperaments from classical antiquity, and changed the description of Asians' skin tone to "luridus" (yellow). While Linnaeus believed that these varieties resulted from environmental differences between the four known continents, the Linnean Society acknowledges that his categorization's focus on skin color and later inclusion of cultural and behavioral traits cemented colonial stereotypes and provided the foundations for scientific racism. Additionally, Linnaeus created a wastebasket taxon "monstrosus" for "wild and monstrous humans, unknown groups, and more or less abnormal people".
Linnaeus treated himself as the type specimen (holotype) of H. sapiens. In 1959, W. T. Stearn designated Linnaeus as the lectotype of H. sapiens, following the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, since the sole specimen that he is known to have examined was himself.
== Influences and economic beliefs ==
Linnaeus's applied science was inspired not only by the instrumental utilitarianism general to the early Enlightenment, but also by his adherence to the older economic doctrine of Cameralism. Additionally, Linnaeus was a state interventionist. He supported tariffs, levies, export bounties, quotas, embargoes, navigation acts, subsidised investment capital, ceilings on wages, cash grants, state-licensed producer monopolies, and cartels.
== Commemoration ==
Anniversaries of Linnaeus's birth, especially in centennial years, have been marked by major celebrations. Linnaeus has appeared on numerous Swedish postage stamps and banknotes. There are numerous statues of Linnaeus in countries around the world. The Linnean Society of London has awarded the Linnean Medal for excellence in botany or zoology since 1888. Following approval by the Riksdag of Sweden, Växjö University and Kalmar College merged on 1 January 2010 to become Linnaeus University. Among the things named after Linnaeus is the twinflower genus Linnaea, Linnaeosicyos (a monotypic genus in the family Cucurbitaceae).
== Commentary ==
Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau once wrote of Linnaeus, "I know no greater man on Earth." Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote: "With the exception of William Shakespeare and Baruch Spinoza, I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly." Swedish author August Strindberg wrote: "Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist." In his autobiography, published by his student Adam Afzelius in 1823, Linnaeus described himself as unargumentative, sensitive, quick, and uninterested in his personal appearance.
In the 21st century, Linnæus's taxonomy of human "races" has been criticized. Some claim that Linnæus was one of the forebears of the modern pseudoscientific notion of scientific racism, while others hold the view that while his classification was stereotyped, it did not imply that certain human "races" were superior to others.
== Standard author abbreviation ==
== Selected publications by Linnaeus == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubik%27s_Cube | Rubik's Cube | The Rubik's Cube is a 3D combination puzzle invented in 1974 by Hungarian sculptor and professor of architecture Ernő Rubik. Originally called the Magic Cube, the puzzle was licensed by Rubik to be sold by Pentangle Puzzles in the UK in 1978, and then by Ideal Toy Corp in 1980 via businessman Tibor Laczi and Seven Towns founder Tom Kremer. The cube was released internationally in 1980 and became one of the most recognised icons in popular culture. It won the 1980 German Game of the Year special award for Best Puzzle. As of January 2024, around 500 million cubes had been sold worldwide, making it the world's bestselling puzzle game and bestselling toy. The Rubik's Cube was inducted into the US National Toy Hall of Fame in 2014.
On the original, classic Rubik's Cube, each of the six faces was covered by nine stickers, with each face in one of six solid colours: white, red, blue, orange, green and yellow. Some later versions of the cube have been updated to use coloured plastic panels instead. Since 1988, the arrangement of colours has been standardised, with white opposite yellow, blue opposite green and orange opposite red, and with the red, white and blue arranged clockwise, in that order. On early cubes, the position of the colours varied from cube to cube.
An internal pivot mechanism enables each layer to turn independently, thus mixing up the colours. For the puzzle to be solved, each face must be returned to having only one colour. The cube has inspired other designers to create a number of similar puzzles with various numbers of sides, dimensions and mechanisms.
Although the Rubik's Cube reached the height of its mainstream popularity in the 1980s, it is still widely known and used. Many speedcubers continue to practise it and similar puzzles, competing for the fastest times in various categories. Since 2003, the World Cube Association (WCA), the international governing body of the Rubik's Cube, has organised competitions worldwide and has recognised world records.
== History ==
=== Precursors ===
In March 1970, Larry D. Nichols invented a 2x2x2 "Puzzle with Pieces Rotatable in Groups" and filed a Canadian patent application for it. Nichols's cube was held together by magnets. Nichols was granted U.S. patent 3,655,201 on 11 April 1972, two years before Rubik invented his Cube.
On 9 April 1970, Frank Fox applied to patent an "amusement device", a type of sliding puzzle on a spherical surface with "at least two 3×3 arrays" intended to be used for the game of noughts and crosses. He received his UK patent (1344259) on 16 January 1974.
=== Rubik's invention ===
In the mid-1970s, Ernő Rubik worked at the Department of Interior Design at the Academy of Applied Arts and Crafts in Budapest. Although it is widely reported that the Cube was built as a teaching tool to help his students understand 3D objects, his actual purpose was solving the structural problem of moving the parts independently without the entire mechanism falling apart. He did not realise that he had created a puzzle until the first time he scrambled his new Cube and then tried to restore it, which took him about a month to solve himself. Rubik applied for a patent in Hungary for his "Magic Cube" (Hungarian: bűvös kocka) on 30 January 1975, and HU170062 was granted later that year. He wrote his experience in his book, Cubed: The Book of Us All.
The first test batches of the Magic Cube were produced in late 1977 and released in toy shops in Budapest. Magic Cube was held together with interlocking plastic pieces that prevented the puzzle from being easily pulled apart, unlike the magnets in Nichols's design. With Ernő Rubik's permission, businessman Tibor Laczi took a Cube to Germany's Nuremberg Toy Fair in February 1979 in an attempt to popularise it. It was noticed by Seven Towns founder Tom Kremer, and they signed a deal with Ideal Toys in September 1979 to release the Magic Cube worldwide. Ideal wanted at least a recognisable name to trademark; that arrangement put Rubik in the spotlight because the Magic Cube was renamed after its inventor in 1980. The puzzle made its international debut at the toy fairs of London, Paris, Nuremberg, and New York in January and February 1980.
After its international debut, the progress of the Cube towards the toy shop shelves of the West was briefly halted so that it could be manufactured to Western safety and packaging specifications. A lighter Cube was produced, and Ideal decided to rename it. "The Gordian Knot" and "Inca Gold" were considered, but the company finally decided on "Rubik's Cube", and the first batch was exported from Hungary in May 1980.
The packaging had a few variations depending on the country, most popular being a clear plastic cylinder but cardboard versions were also used. The cube itself had slightly different variations in the order of the colours (Western vs. Japanese colour scheme where blue/yellow are switched) and some of the cubes did not have a white piece logo.
=== 1980s Cube craze ===
After the first batches of Rubik's Cubes were released in May 1980, initial sales were modest, but Ideal began a television advertising campaign in the middle of the year which it supplemented with newspaper advertisements. At the end of 1980, Rubik's Cube won a German Game of the Year special award and won similar awards for best toy in the UK, France, and the US. By 1981, Rubik's Cube had become a craze, and it is estimated that in the period from 1980 to 1983 around 200 million Rubik's Cubes were sold worldwide. In March 1981, a speedcubing championship organised by the Guinness Book of World Records was held in Munich, and a Rubik's Cube was depicted on the front cover of Scientific American that same month. In June 1981, The Washington Post reported that Rubik's Cube is "a puzzle that's moving like fast food right now ... this year's Hoola Hoop or Bongo Board", and by September 1981, New Scientist noted that the cube had "captivated the attention of children of ages from 7 to 70 all over the world this summer."
As most people could solve only one or two sides, numerous books were published including David Singmaster's Notes on Rubik's "Magic Cube" (1980) and Patrick Bossert's You Can Do the Cube (1981). At one stage in 1981, three of the top ten best selling books in the US were books on solving Rubik's Cube, and the best-selling book of 1981 was James G. Nourse's The Simple Solution to Rubik's Cube which sold over 6 million copies. In 1981, the Museum of Modern Art in New York exhibited a Rubik's Cube, and at the 1982 World's Fair in Knoxville, Tennessee a six-foot Cube was put on display. In 1983, ABC Television released a cartoon show called Rubik, the Amazing Cube. In June 1982, the First Rubik's Cube World Championship took place in Budapest and would become the only competition recognized as official until the championship was revived in 2003.
In October 1982, The New York Times reported that sales had fallen and that "the craze has died", and by 1983 it was clear that sales had plummeted. However, in some countries such as China and the USSR, the craze had started later and demand was still high because of a shortage of Cubes.
=== 21st-century revival ===
Rubik's Cubes continued to be marketed and sold throughout the 1980s and 1990s, but it was not until the early 2000s that interest in the Cube began increasing again. In the US, sales doubled between 2001 and 2003, and The Boston Globe remarked that it was "becoming cool to own a Cube again". The 2003 Rubik's Cube World Championship was the first speedcubing tournament since 1982. It was held in Toronto and was attended by 83 participants. The tournament led to the formation of the World Cube Association in 2004. Annual sales of Rubik branded cubes were said to have reached 15 million worldwide in 2008. Part of the new appeal was ascribed to the advent of Internet video sites, such as YouTube, which allowed fans to share their solving strategies. Following the expiration of Rubik's patent in 2000, other brands of cubes appeared, especially from Chinese companies. Many of these Chinese branded cubes have been engineered for speed and are favoured by speedcubers. On 27 October 2020, Spin Master said it will pay $50 million to buy the Rubik's Cube brand.
== Imitations ==
Taking advantage of an initial shortage of cubes, many imitations and variations appeared, many of which may have violated one or more patents. In 2000, the patents expired, and since then, many Chinese companies have produced copies, modifications, and improvements upon the Rubik and V-Cube designs.
=== Patent history ===
Nichols assigned his patent to his employer Moleculon Research Corp., which sued Ideal in 1982. In 1984, Ideal lost the patent infringement suit and appealed. In 1986, the appeals court affirmed the judgment that Rubik's 2×2×2 Pocket Cube infringed Nichols's patent, but overturned the judgment on Rubik's 3×3×3 Cube.
Even while Rubik's patent application was being processed, Terutoshi Ishigi, a self-taught engineer and ironworks owner near Tokyo, filed for a Japanese patent for a nearly identical mechanism, which was granted in 1976 (Japanese patent publication JP55-008192). Until 1999, when an amended Japanese patent law was enforced, Japan's patent office granted Japanese patents for non-disclosed technology within Japan without requiring worldwide novelty. Hence, Ishigi's patent is generally accepted as an independent reinvention at that time. Rubik applied for more patents in 1980, including another Hungarian patent on 28 October. In the United States, Rubik was granted U.S. patent 4,378,116 on 29 March 1983 for the Cube. This patent expired in 2000.
=== Trademarks ===
Rubik's Brand Ltd. also holds the registered trademarks for the word "Rubik" and "Rubik's" and for the 2D and 3D visualisations of the puzzle. The trademarks were upheld by a ruling of the General Court of the European Union on 25 November 2014 in a successful defence against a German toy manufacturer seeking to invalidate them. However, European toy manufacturers are allowed to create differently shaped puzzles that have a similar rotating or twisting functionality of component parts such as for example Skewb, Pyraminx or Impossiball.
On 10 November 2016, Rubik's Cube lost a ten-year battle over a key trademark issue. The European Union's highest court, the Court of Justice, ruled that the puzzle's shape was not sufficient to grant it trademark protection.
== Mechanics ==
A standard Rubik's Cube measures 5.6 centimetres (2+1⁄4 in) on each side. The puzzle consists of 26 unique miniature cubes, also known as "cubies" or "cubelets". Each of these includes a concealed inward extension that interlocks with the other cubes while permitting them to move to different locations. However, the centre cube of each of the six faces is merely a single square façade; all six are affixed to the core mechanism. These provide structure for the other pieces to fit into and rotate around. Hence, there are 21 pieces: a single core piece consisting of three intersecting axes holding the six centre squares in place but letting them rotate, and 20 smaller plastic pieces that fit into it to form the assembled puzzle.
Each of the six centre pieces pivots on a fastener held by the centre piece, a "3D cross". A spring between each fastener and its corresponding piece tensions the piece inward, so that collectively, the whole assembly remains compact but can still be easily manipulated. The older versions of the official Cube used a screw that can be tightened or loosened to change the "feel" of the Cube. Newer official Rubik's brand cubes have rivets instead of screws and cannot be adjusted. Inexpensive clones do not have screws or springs, all they have is a plastic clip to keep the centre piece in place and freely rotate.
The Cube can be taken apart without much difficulty, typically by rotating the top layer by 45° and then prying one of its edge cubes away from the other two layers. Consequently, it is a simple process to "solve" a Cube by taking it apart and reassembling it in a solved state.
There are six central pieces that show one coloured face, twelve edge pieces that show two coloured faces, and eight corner pieces that show three coloured faces. Each piece shows a unique colour combination, but not all combinations are present (for example, if red and orange are on opposite sides of the solved Cube, there is no edge piece with both red and orange sides). The location of these cubes relative to one another can be altered by twisting an outer third of the Cube by increments of 90 degrees, but the location of the coloured sides relative to one another in the completed state of the puzzle cannot be altered; it is fixed by the relative positions of the centre squares. However, Cubes with alternative colour arrangements also exist; for example, with the yellow face opposite the green, the blue face opposite the white, and red and orange remaining opposite each other.
Douglas Hofstadter, in the July 1982 issue of Scientific American, pointed out that Cubes could be coloured in such a way as to emphasise the corners or edges, rather than the faces as the standard colouring does; but neither of these alternative colourings has ever become popular.
== Mathematics ==
The puzzle was originally advertised as having "over 3,000,000,000 (three billion) combinations but only one solution". Depending on how combinations are counted, the actual number is significantly higher.
=== Permutations ===
The original (3×3×3) Rubik's Cube has eight corners and twelve edges. There are 8! (40,320) ways to arrange the corner cubes. Each corner has three possible orientations, although only seven (of eight) can be oriented independently; the orientation of the eighth (final) corner depends on the preceding seven, giving 37 (2,187) possibilities. There are 12!/2 (239,500,800) ways to arrange the edges, restricted from 12! because edges must be in an even permutation exactly when the corners are. (When arrangements of centres are also permitted, as described below, the rule is that the combined arrangement of corners, edges, and centres must be an even permutation.) Eleven edges can be flipped independently, with the flip of the twelfth depending on the preceding ones, giving 211 (2,048) possibilities. Thus the total number of arrangements of a Rubik's Cube is
8
!
×
3
7
×
12
!
2
×
2
11
=
43,252,003,274,489,856,000
,
{\displaystyle {8!\times 3^{7}\times {\frac {12!}{2}}\times 2^{11}}=43{,}252{,}003{,}274{,}489{,}856{,}000,}
which is about 43 quintillion. To put this into perspective, if one had one standard-sized Rubik's Cube for each permutation, one could cover the Earth's surface 275 times, or stack them in a tower 261 light-years high.
The preceding figure is limited to permutations that can be reached solely by turning the sides of the cube. If the permutations reached through disassembly of the cube are considered, the number becomes twelve times larger:
8
!
×
3
8
×
12
!
×
2
12
=
519,024,039,293,878,272,000
{\displaystyle {8!\times 3^{8}\times 12!\times 2^{12}}=519{,}024{,}039{,}293{,}878{,}272{,}000}
which is approximately 519 quintillion possible arrangements of the pieces that make up the cube, but only one-twelfth of these are actually solvable. This is because there is no sequence of moves that will swap a single pair of pieces or rotate a single corner or edge cube. Thus, there are 12 possible sets of reachable configurations, sometimes called "universes" or "orbits", into which the cube can be placed by dismantling and reassembling it.
The preceding numbers assume the centre faces are in a fixed position. If turning the whole cube is considered a different permutation, then each of the preceding numbers should be multiplied by 24. A chosen colour can be on one of six sides, and then one of the adjacent colours can be in one of four positions; this determines the positions of all remaining colours.
=== Centre faces ===
The original Rubik's Cube had no orientation markings on the centre faces (although some carried the "Rubik's Cube" mark on the centre square of the white face), and therefore solving it does not require any attention to orienting those faces correctly. However, the central squares of an unscrambled Cube can be marked with four coloured marks on each edge, each corresponding to the colour of the adjacent face; a cube marked in this way is referred to as a "supercube". Some Cubes have also been produced commercially with markings on all of the squares, such as the Lo Shu magic square or playing card suits. Cubes have also been produced where the nine stickers on a face are used to make a single larger picture, and centre orientation matters on these as well. Thus one can nominally solve a Cube yet have the markings on the centres rotated; it then becomes an additional test to solve the centres as well.
Marking Rubik's Cube's centres increases its difficulty, because this expands the set of distinguishable possible configurations. There are 46/2 (2,048) ways to orient the centres since an even permutation of the corners implies an even number of quarter turns of centres as well. In particular, when the Cube is unscrambled apart from the orientations of the central squares, there will always be an even number of centre squares requiring a quarter turn. Thus orientations of centres increases the total number of possible Cube permutations from 43,252,003,274,489,856,000 (4.3×1019) to 88,580,102,706,155,225,088,000 (8.9×1022).
When turning a cube over is considered to be a change in permutation then we must also count arrangements of the centre faces. Nominally there are 6! ways to arrange the six centre faces of the cube, but only 24 of these are achievable without disassembly of the cube. When the orientations of centres are also counted, as above, this increases the total number of possible Cube permutations from 88,580,102,706,155,225,088,000 (8.9×1022) to 2,125,922,464,947,725,402,112,000 (2.1×1024).
=== Algorithms ===
In Rubik's cubers' parlance, a memorised sequence of moves that have a desired effect on the cube is called an "algorithm". This terminology is derived from the mathematical use of algorithm, meaning a list of well-defined instructions for performing a task from a given initial state, through well-defined successive states, to a desired end-state. Each method of solving the Cube employs its own set of algorithms, together with descriptions of what effect the algorithm has, and when it can be used to bring the cube closer to being solved.
Many algorithms are designed to transform only a small part of the cube without interfering with other parts that have already been solved so that they can be applied repeatedly to different parts of the cube until the whole is solved. For example, there are well-known algorithms for cycling three corners without changing the rest of the puzzle or flipping the orientation of a pair of edges while leaving the others intact.
Some algorithms do have a certain desired effect on the cube (for example, swapping two corners) but may also have the side-effect of changing other parts of the cube (such as permuting some edges). Such algorithms are often simpler than the ones without side effects and are employed early on in the solution when most of the puzzle has not yet been solved and the side effects are not important. Towards the end of the solution, the more specific (and usually more complicated) algorithms are used instead.
=== Relevance and application of mathematical group theory ===
Rubik's Cube lends itself to the application of mathematical group theory, which has been helpful for deducing certain algorithms – in particular, those which have a commutator structure, namely XYX−1Y−1 (where X and Y are specific moves or move-sequences and X−1 and Y−1 are their respective inverses), or a conjugate structure, namely XYX−1, often referred to by speedcubers colloquially as a "setup move". In addition, the fact that there are well-defined subgroups within the Rubik's Cube group enables the puzzle to be learned and mastered by moving up through various self-contained "levels of difficulty". For example, one such "level" could involve solving cubes that have been scrambled using only 180-degree turns. These subgroups are the principle underlying the computer cubing methods by Thistlethwaite and Kociemba, which solve the cube by further reducing it to another subgroup.
=== Unitary representation ===
The Rubik's group can be endowed with a unitary representation: such a description allows the Rubik's Cube to be mapped into a quantum system of few particles, where the rotations of its faces are implemented by unitary operators. The rotations of the faces act as generators of the Lie group.
== Solutions ==
=== Singmaster notation ===
Many 3×3×3 Rubik's Cube enthusiasts use a notation developed by David Singmaster to denote a sequence of moves, referred to as "Singmaster notation" or simple "Cube notation". Its relative nature allows algorithms to be written in such a way that they can be applied regardless of which side is designated the top or how the colours are organised on a particular cube.
F (Front): the side currently facing the solver
B (Back): the side opposite the front
U (Up): the side above or on top of the front side
D (Down): the side opposite the top, underneath the Cube
L (Left): the side directly to the left of the front
R (Right): the side directly to the right of the front
f (Front two layers): the side facing the solver and the corresponding middle layer
b (Back two layers): the side opposite the front and the corresponding middle layer
u (Up two layers): the top side and the corresponding middle layer
d (Down two layers): the bottom layer and the corresponding middle layer
l (Left two layers): the side to the left of the front and the corresponding middle layer
r (Right two layers): the side to the right of the front and the corresponding middle layer
x (rotate): rotate the entire Cube on R
y (rotate): rotate the entire Cube on U
z (rotate): rotate the entire Cube on F
When a prime symbol ( ′ ) follows a letter, it indicates an anticlockwise face turn; while a letter without a prime symbol denotes a clockwise turn. These directions are as one is looking at the specified face. A letter followed by a 2 (occasionally a superscript 2) denotes two turns, or a 180-degree turn. For example, R means to turn the right side clockwise, but R′ means to turn the right side anticlockwise. The letters x, y, and z are used to indicate that the entire Cube should be turned about one of its axes, corresponding to R, U, and F turns respectively. When x, y, or z is primed, it is an indication that the cube must be rotated in the opposite direction. When x, y, or z is squared, the cube must be rotated 180 degrees.
One of the most common deviations from Singmaster notation, and in fact the current official standard, is to use "w", for "wide", instead of lowercase letters to represent moves of two layers; thus, a move of Rw is equivalent to one of r.
For methods using middle-layer turns (particularly corners-first methods), there is a generally accepted "MES" extension to the notation where letters M, E, and S denote middle layer turns. It was used e.g. in Marc Waterman's Algorithm.
M (Middle): the layer between L and R, turn direction as L (top-down)
E (Equator): the layer between U and D, turn direction as D (left-right)
S (Standing): the layer between F and B, turn direction as F
The 4×4×4 and larger cubes use an extended notation to refer to the additional middle layers. Generally speaking, uppercase letters (F B U D L R) refer to the outermost portions of the cube (called faces). Lowercase letters (f b u d l r) refer to the inner portions of the cube (called slices). An asterisk (L*), a number in front of it (2L), or two layers in parentheses (Ll), means to turn the two layers at the same time (both the inner and the outer left faces) For example: (Rr)' l2 f' means to turn the two rightmost layers anticlockwise, then the left inner layer twice, and then the inner front layer anticlockwise. By extension, for cubes of 6×6×6 and larger, moves of three layers are notated by the number 3, for example, 3L.
Another notation appeared in the 1981 book The Simple Solution to Rubik's Cube. Singmaster notation was not widely known at the time of publication. The faces were named Top (T), Bottom (B), Left (L), Right (R), Front (F), and Posterior (P), with + for clockwise, – for anticlockwise, and 2 for 180-degree turns.
Another notation appeared in the 1982 "The Ideal Solution" book for Rubik's Revenge. Horizontal planes were noted as tables, with table 1 or T1 starting at the top. Vertical front to back planes were noted as books, with book 1 or B1 starting from the left. Vertical left to right planes were noted as windows, with window 1 or W1 starting at the front. Using the front face as a reference view, table moves were left or right, book moves were up or down, and window moves were clockwise or anticlockwise.
=== Period of move sequences ===
The repetition of any given move sequence on a cube which is initially in solved state will eventually return the cube back to its solved state: the smallest number of iterations required is the period of the sequence. For example, the 180-degree turn of any side has period 2 (e.g. {U2}2); the 90-degree turn of any side has period 4 (e.g. {R}4). The maximum period for a move sequence is 1260: for example, allowing for full rotations, {F x}1260 or {R y}1260 or {U z}1260; not allowing for rotations, {D R' U2 M}1260, or {B E L' F2}1260, or {S' U' B D2}1260; only allowing for clockwise quarter turns, {U R S U L}1260, or {F L E B L}1260, or {R U R D S}1260; only allowing for lateral clockwise quarter turns, {F B L F B R F U}1260, or {U D R U D L U F}1260, or {R L D R L U R F}1260.
=== Optimal solutions ===
Although there are a significant number of possible permutations for Rubik's Cube, a number of solutions have been developed which allow solving the cube in well under 100 moves.
Many general solutions for the Cube have been discovered independently. David Singmaster first published his solution in the book Notes on Rubik's "Magic Cube" in 1981. This solution involves solving the Cube layer by layer, in which one layer (designated the top) is solved first, followed by the middle layer, and then the final and bottom layer. After sufficient practice, solving the Cube layer by layer can be done in under one minute. Other general solutions include "corners first" methods or combinations of several other methods. In 1982, David Singmaster and Alexander Frey hypothesised that the number of moves needed to solve the Cube, given an ideal algorithm, might be in "the low twenties". In 2007, Daniel Kunkle and Gene Cooperman used computer search methods to demonstrate that any 3×3×3 Rubik's Cube configuration can be solved in 26 moves or fewer.
In 2008, Tomas Rokicki lowered that number to 22 moves, and in July 2010, a team of researchers including Rokicki, working with computers provided by Google, proved that the so-called "God's number" for Rubik's Cube is 20. This means that all initial configurations can be solved in 20 moves or less, and some (in fact millions) require 20. More generally, it has been shown that an n×n×n Rubik's Cube can be solved optimally in Θ(n2 / log(n)) moves.
=== Speedcubing methods ===
A solution commonly used by speedcubers was developed by Jessica Fridrich. This method is called CFOP standing for "Cross, F2L, OLL, PLL". It is similar to the layer-by-layer method but employs the use of a large number of algorithms, especially for orienting and permuting the last layer. The cross is solved first, followed by first layer corners and second layer edges simultaneously, with each corner paired up with a second-layer edge piece, thus completing the first two layers (F2L). This is then followed by orienting the last layer, then permuting the last layer (OLL and PLL respectively). There are a total of 120 algorithms for Fridrich's method, however they are not all required to use the CFOP method. Most dedicated cubers will learn as many of these algorithms as possible, and most advanced cubers know all of them. If a cuber knows every algorithm for OLL they may be described as knowing full OLL. It is the same for PLL and F2L.
A now well-known method was developed by Lars Petrus. In this method, a 2×2×2 section is solved first, followed by a 2×2×3, and then the incorrect edges are solved using a three-move algorithm, which eliminates the need for a possible 32-move algorithm later. The principle behind this is that in layer-by-layer, one must constantly break and fix the completed layer(s); the 2×2×2 and 2×2×3 sections allow three or two layers (respectively) to be turned without ruining progress. One of the advantages of this method is that it tends to give solutions in fewer moves. For this reason, the method is also popular for fewest move competitions.
The Roux Method, developed by Gilles Roux, is similar to the Petrus method in that it relies on block building rather than layers, but derives from corners-first methods. In Roux, a 3×2×1 block is solved, followed by another 3×2×1 on the opposite side. Next, the corners of the top layer are solved. The cube can then be solved using only moves of the U layer and M slice.
=== Beginners' methods ===
Most beginner solution methods involve solving the cube one layer at a time ("layer-by-layer" method or "beginner's method"), using algorithms that preserve what has already been solved. The easiest layer by layer methods require only 3–8 algorithms.
In 1981, thirteen-year-old Patrick Bossert developed a solution for solving the cube, along with a graphical notation, designed to be easily understood by novices. It was subsequently published as You Can Do The Cube and became a best-seller.
In 1997, Denny Dedmore published a solution described using diagrammatic icons representing the moves to be made, instead of the usual notation.
Philip Marshall's The Ultimate Solution to Rubik's Cube takes a different approach, averaging only 65 twists yet requiring the memorisation of only two algorithms. The cross is solved first, followed by the remaining edges (using the Edge Piece Series FR'F'R), then five corners (using the Corner Piece Series URU'L'UR'U'L, which is the same as the typical last layer corner permutation algorithm), and finally the last three corners.
=== Rubik's Cube solver programs ===
The fastest move optimal online Rubik's Cube solver program uses Michael Feather's two-phase algorithm. The fastest suboptimal online Rubik's Cube solver which can typically determine a solution of 20 moves or fewer uses an optimized version of Herbert Kociemba's two-phase algorithm. The user has to set the colour configuration of the scrambled cube, and the program returns the steps required to solve it in the half-turn metric.
== Competitions and records ==
=== Speedcubing competitions ===
Speedcubing (or speedsolving) is the practice of trying to solve a Rubik's Cube in the shortest time possible. There are a number of speedcubing competitions that take place around the world.
A speedcubing championship organised by Guinness World Records was held in Munich on 13 March 1981. The contest used standardised scrambling and fixed inspection times, and the winners were Ronald Brinkmann and Jury Fröschl with times of 38.0 seconds. The first world championship was the 1982 World Rubik's Cube Championship held in Budapest on 5 June 1982, which was won by Minh Thai, a Vietnamese student from Los Angeles, with a time of 22.95 seconds.
Since 2003, the winner of a competition has been determined by taking a trimmed average of five solves, removing the slowest and fastest. The single best time is usually also recorded.
The World Cube Association maintains a history of world records.
In 2004, the WCA introduced a requirement to use a special timing device known as a Stackmat Timer for any solve to be officially counted.
In addition to the main 3x3x3 event, the WCA also holds events where the cube is solved in different ways:
Blindfolded solving
Multiple blindfolded solving, or "multi-blind", in which the contestant solves any number of cubes blindfolded in a row
Solving the cube using a single hand, or "one-handed (OH)" solving
Solving the cube in the fewest possible moves, also known as Fewest Moves Challenge (FMC)
In blindfolded solving, the contestant first studies the scrambled cube (i.e., looking at it normally with no blindfold), and is then blindfolded before beginning to turn the cube's faces. Their recorded time for this event includes both the time spent memorizing the cube and the time spent solving it.
In multiple blindfolded solving, all of the cubes are memorised, and then all of the cubes are solved once blindfolded; thus, the main challenge is memorising many – often ten or more – separate cubes. The event is scored not by time but by the number of points achieved after the one-hour time limit has elapsed. The number of points achieved is equal to the number of cubes solved correctly, minus the number of cubes unsolved after the end of the attempt, where a greater number of points is better. If multiple competitors achieve the same number of points, rankings are assessed based on the total time of the attempt, with a shorter time being better.
In fewest moves solving, the contestant is given a set of moves that scramble the cube (a "scramble"), and they have one hour to write down the shortest solution to the cube they can find.
=== Records ===
==== Competition records ====
Single time: The world record time for solving a 3×3×3 Rubik's Cube is 2.76 seconds, held by Teodor Zajder of Poland, broken on 8 February 2026 at GLS Big Cubes Gdańsk.
Average time: The world record average of the middle three of five solve times (which excludes the fastest and slowest) is 3.84 seconds, set by Xuanyi Geng (耿暄一) of China on 10-11 January 2026 at the Beijing Winter 2026 cubing competition in Zhejiang, TaiZhou, China.
One-handed solving: The world record fastest one-handed solve is 5.66 seconds, set by Dhruva Sai Meruva of Switzerland on 6 October 2024 at Swiss Nationals 2024 in Basel, Switzerland. The world record fastest average of five one-handed solves is 7.72 seconds, set by Luke Garrett of the United States on 9 March 2025 at Chicagoland Newcomers 2025.
Blindfold solving: The world record fastest Rubik's Cube solve blindfolded is 11.67 seconds (including memorization), set by Charlie Eggins of Australia on 9-11 January 2026 at Cubing at The Cube 2026 in Sydney, Australia. The world record mean of three for blindfold solving is 14.05 seconds, tied by Tommy Cherry on 28 July 2024 at the Rubik's WCA European Championship 2024 in Pamplona, Spain and Charlie Eggins of Australia on 9-11 January 2026 at Cubing at The Cube 2026 in Sydney, Australia.
Multiple blindfold solving: The world record for multiple Rubik's Cube solving blindfolded is 63 out of 65 cubes in 58 minutes and 23 seconds, set by Graham Siggins of the United States on 18 October 2025 at Please Be Quiet Reno 2025.
Fewest moves solving: The world record of fewest moves to solve a cube, given one hour to determine one's solution, is 16, which was achieved by Sebastiano Tronto of Italy on 15 June 2019 at FMC 2019, Aeden Bryant of the USA on 23 June 2024 at Ashfield Summer Challenge 2024, Levi Gibson of the USA on 23 June 2024 at Ashfield Summer Challenge 2024, and Jacob Sherwen Brown of the UK on 26 October 2024 at Rubik's UK Championship FMC 2024. The world record mean of three for the fewest moves challenge is 19.33, set by Wong Chong Wen (黄崇文) of Singapore on March 2026 at FMCanton Nansha 2026.
==== Other records ====
Non-human solving: The fastest non-human Rubik's Cube solve was performed by Rubik's Contraption, a robot made by Ben Katz and Jared Di Carlo. A YouTube video shows a 0.38-second solving time using a Nucleo with the min2phase algorithm.
Highest order physical n×n×n cube solving: Jeremy Smith solved a 21x21x21 in 95 minutes and 55.52 seconds.
Group solving (12 minutes): The record for most people solving a Rubik's Cube at once in twelve minutes is 134, set on 17 March 2010 by schoolboys from Dr Challoner's Grammar School, Amersham, England, breaking the previous Guinness World Record of 96 people at once.
Group solving (30 minutes): On 21 November 2012, at the O2 Arena in London, 1414 people, mainly students from schools across London, solved Rubik's Cube in under 30 minutes, breaking the previous Guinness World Record of 937. The event was hosted by Depaul UK.
On 4 November 2012, 3248 people, mainly students of the College of Engineering Pune, successfully solved Rubik's cube in 30 minutes on college ground. The successful attempt is recorded in the Limca Book of Records. The college will submit the relevant data, witness statements and video of the event to Guinness authorities.
== Variations ==
There are many different variations of Rubik's Cubes. The most common class of variants changes the "order" of the cube, defined by the number of layers in each dimension or equivalently by the number of pieces along each edge (including corners). The 2×2×2 (Pocket/Mini Cube), the standard 3×3×3 cube, the 4×4×4 (Rubik's Revenge/Master Cube), and the 5×5×5 (Professor's Cube) are the most well known, as they are all available under the official Rubik's brand. The WCA sanctions speedsolving competitions for cube orders up to 7×7×7. These "big cubes" represent about the limit of practicality for the purpose of competitive speedsolving, as the cubes become increasingly ungainly and prone to mechanical failure (such as "popping", where one or more pieces become dislodged from the puzzle), and average solve times increase quadratically with each larger order, in proportion to the number of total "facelets" of the cube.
Even larger cubes based on the V-Cube patents are commercially available to the mass-market from non-licensed manufacturers, most of them Chinese firms which also produce popular cubes designed for speed-solving. The 17×17×17 "Over the Top" cube (available late 2011) was until December 2017 the largest commercially sold cube, and the most expensive, costing over US$2000. A mass-produced 17×17×17 was later introduced by the Chinese manufacturer YuXin. A working design for a 22×22×22 cube exists and was demonstrated in January 2016, a 33×33×33 in December 2017, and a 49×49×49 in August 2024, though designs this large are not currently mass-produced. Chinese manufacturer ShengShou has been producing cubes in all sizes from 2×2×2 to 15×15×15 (as of May 2020), and has also come out with a 17×17×17. The largest currently mass-produced cube is 21×21×21, made by MoYu beginning in 2021, and costing between $1100 and $1600.
There are many variations of the original cube, some of which are made by Rubik. The mechanical products include Rubik's Magic, 360, and Twist. There are electronic variants such as Rubik's Revolution and Slide that were also inspired by the original. One of the 3×3×3 Cube variants is Rubik's TouchCube. Sliding a finger across its faces causes its patterns of coloured lights to rotate the same way they would on a mechanical cube. The TouchCube also has buttons for hints and self-solving, and it includes a charging stand. The TouchCube was introduced at the American International Toy Fair in New York on 15 February 2009. Other electronic variations include Rubik’s Connected cubes, which have an associated app that can track player times and give suggestions, and the WOWCube, which has screens instead of stickers and supports dozens of other games.
The Cube has inspired an entire category of similar puzzles, commonly referred to as twisty puzzles, which includes the cubes of different sizes mentioned above, as well as various other geometric shapes. Some such shapes include the tetrahedron (Pyraminx), the octahedron (Skewb Diamond), the dodecahedron (Megaminx), and the icosahedron (Dogic). There are also puzzles that change shape such as Rubik's Snake and the Square One.
In 2011, Guinness World Records awarded the "largest order Rubiks magic cube" to a 17×17×17 cube, made by Oskar van Deventer. On 2 December 2017, Grégoire Pfennig announced that he had broken this record, with a 33×33×33 cube, and that his claim had been submitted to Guinness for verification. On 8 April 2018, Grégoire Pfennig announced another world record, the 2x2x50 cube. Whether this is a replacement for the 33×33×33 record, or an additional record, remains to be seen. Pfennig's record was later broken on 30 March 2024 when Preston Alden unveiled his 49×49×49 cube on his YouTube channel and recognized by Guinness.
Some puzzles have also been created in the shape of Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra, such as Alexander's Star (a great dodecahedron). Grégoire Pfennig has also created at least one puzzle in the shape of a small stellated dodecahedron.
=== Custom-built puzzles ===
Puzzles have been built resembling Rubik's Cube, or based on its inner workings. For example, a cuboid is a puzzle based on Rubik's Cube, but with different functional dimensions, such as 2×2×4, 2×3×4, and 3×3×5.
Other Rubik's Cube modifications include "shape mods", cubes that have been extended or truncated to form a new shape. An example of this is the Trabjer's Octahedron, which can be built by truncating and extending portions of a regular 3×3×3. Most shape modifications can be adapted to higher-order cubes. In the case of Tony Fisher's Rhombic Dodecahedron, there are 3×3×3, 4×4×4, 5×5×5, and 6×6×6 versions of the puzzle.
=== Rubik's Cube software ===
Puzzles like Rubik's Cube can be simulated by computer software to provide very large puzzles that are impractical to build, as well as virtual puzzles that cannot be physically built, such as many higher dimensional analogues of the Rubik's Cube. Google has released the Chrome Cube Lab in association with Ernő Rubik. The site has various interactive objects based on Rubik's Cube. Customised versions of Rubik's Cube can be created and uploaded.
== Exhibits and art ==
Liberty Science Center in Jersey City, New Jersey, and Google designed an interactive exhibit based on the Rubik's Cube. It opened in April 2014 in celebration of the 40th anniversary of the Cube's invention before travelling internationally for seven years. Exhibition elements include a 35-foot-tall rooftop cube made of lights that people can manipulate with their cellphones, a $2.5 million cube made of diamonds, a giant walk-in cube displaying the inner workings of the puzzle, and cube-solving robots.
Probably from the earliest days of the Rubik's Cube craze in the 1980s people have assembled cubes to form simple art pieces, several early 'Folk Artists' are noted for their work. Rubik's Cubes have also been the subject of several pop art installations. Owing to their popularity as a children's toy several artists and groups have created large Rubik's Cubes.
Tony Rosenthal's Alamo (The Astor Place Cube) is a spinnable statue of a Cube standing in New York City. Once the cube was covered with coloured panels so that it resembled a Rubik's Cube. Similarly, the University of Michigan students covered Endover creating a large Rubik's Cube on the University of Michigan's Central Campus for April Fool's Day in 2008.
=== Rubik's Cubism ===
Beyond Folk Art and oversized cube replicas, artists developed a pointillist art style using the cubes known as Rubik's Cube Art or Rubik's Cubism, which uses a standard Rubik's cube. The earliest recorded artworks appear to have been created by Fred Holly, a legally blind man in his 60s in the mid-1980s. These early pieces focus on geometrics and colour patterns. There does not appear to be other recorded art pieces until the mid-1990s by cube aficionados involved in the puzzle and game industry.
The Folk art form reached another level of its evolution with the development and maturity into a Pop art form consisting of pointillist Cube Art renderings. The street artist who uses the alias "Invader" or "Space Invader" started exhibiting pointillist pieces, including one of a man behind a desk and Mario Bros, using Rubik's Cube in June 2005 in an exhibition named 'Rubik Cubism' at Sixspace in Los Angeles. Prior to this exhibition the artist had used Rubik's Cubes to create giant Space Invaders. Another artist includes Robbie Mackinnon of Toronto Canada with earliest published work in 2007 who claims to have developed his pointillist Cube Art years earlier while being a teacher in China. Robbie Mackinnon's work has been exhibited in Ripley's Believe it or Not and focussed on using pop-art, while Space Invader has exhibited his Cube Art alongside mosaic Space Invaders in commercial and public galleries.
In 2010 artist Pete Fecteau created "Dream Big", a tribute to Martin Luther King Jr. using 4,242 officially licensed Rubik's Cubes. Fecteau also worked with the organisation You Can Do The Rubik's Cube to create two separate guides designed to teach school children how to create Rubik's Cube mosaics from templates which he also created.
=== Music ===
Italian composer Maria Mannone created a cube called "CubeHarmonic" which has musical note names on its facets, creating different chord structures depending on its configuration.
== Reviews ==
Games
1980 Games 100 in Games
1981 Games 100 in Games |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_England | New England | New England is a region consisting of six states in the Northeastern United States: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York to the west and by the Canadian provinces of New Brunswick to the northeast and Quebec to the north. The Gulf of Maine and Atlantic Ocean are to the east and southeast, and Long Island Sound is to the southwest. Boston is New England's largest city and the capital of Massachusetts. Greater Boston, comprising the Boston–Worcester–Providence Combined Statistical Area, houses more than half of the region's total population. The Greater Boston area includes Worcester, Massachusetts, the second-largest city in New England; Manchester, New Hampshire, the largest city in New Hampshire; and Providence, Rhode Island, the capital of and largest city in Rhode Island.
In 1620, the Pilgrims established Plymouth Colony, the second successful settlement in British America after the Jamestown Settlement in Virginia, founded in 1607. Ten years later, Puritans established Massachusetts Bay Colony north of Plymouth Colony. Over the next 126 years, people in the region fought in four French and Indian Wars until the English colonists and their Iroquois allies defeated the French and their Algonquian allies.
In the late 18th century, political leaders from the New England colonies initiated resistance to Britain's taxes without the consent of the colonists. Residents of Rhode Island captured and burned a British Royal Navy ship which was enforcing unpopular trade restrictions, and residents of Boston threw British tea into the harbor. Britain responded with a series of punitive laws stripping Massachusetts of self-government which the colonists called the "Intolerable Acts". These confrontations led to the first battles of the American Revolutionary War in 1775 and the expulsion of the British authorities from the region in spring 1776. The region played a prominent role in the movement to abolish slavery in the United States, and it was the first region of the U.S. transformed by the Industrial Revolution, initially centered on the Blackstone and Merrimack river valleys.
The physical geography of New England is diverse. Southeastern New England is covered by a narrow coastal plain, while the western and northern regions are dominated by the rolling hills and worn-down peaks of the northern end of the Appalachian Mountains. The Atlantic fall line lies close to the coast, which enabled numerous cities to take advantage of water power along the many rivers, such as the Connecticut River, which bisects the region from north to south.
Each state is generally subdivided into small municipalities known as towns, many of which are governed by town meetings. Unincorporated areas exist only in portions of Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, and village-style governments common in other areas are limited to Vermont and Connecticut. New England is one of the U.S. Census Bureau's nine regional divisions and the only multi-state region with clear and consistent boundaries. It maintains a strong sense of cultural identity, although the terms of this identity are often contrasted, combining Puritanism with liberalism, agrarian life with industry, and isolation with immigration.
== History ==
=== Pre-history ===
Humans reached the current-day New England region by at least 10,500 years ago and likely earlier, occupying a recently de-glaciated environment. Pre-contact Native American groups in New England did not have market economies and physical artifacts tended to change very slowly. However, technological shifts brought agriculture and ceramics to the region prior to the arrival of European settlers in the 17th century.
=== Algonquian ===
The communities inhabiting the territory in the period of European colonization spoke a variety of the Eastern Algonquian languages. Prominent tribes included the Abenakis, Mi'kmaq, Penobscot, Pequots, Mohegans, Narragansetts, Nipmucs, Pocumtucks, and Wampanoags. Prior to the arrival of European colonists, the Western Abenakis inhabited what is now New Hampshire, New York, and Vermont, as well as parts of Quebec and western Maine. Their principal town was Norridgewock in today's Maine.
The Penobscots lived along the Penobscot River in Maine. The Narragansetts and smaller tribes under their sovereignty lived in Rhode Island, west of Narragansett Bay, including Block Island. The Wampanoags occupied southeastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and the islands of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket. The Pocumtucks lived in Western Massachusetts, and the Mohegan and Pequot tribes lived in Connecticut. The Connecticut River Valley linked numerous tribes culturally, linguistically, and politically.
As early as 1600 CE, French, Dutch, and English traders began exploring the New World, trading metal, glass, and cloth for local beaver pelts. Many Indigenous communities are still present in modern-day New England and remain within traditional territorial boundaries, including the ten federally recognized tribes spread out across the region.
=== Colonial period ===
On April 10, 1606, King James I of England issued a charter for the Virginia Company, which consisted of the London Company and the Plymouth Company. These two privately funded ventures were intended to claim land for England, to conduct trade, and to return a profit. In 1620, the Pilgrims arrived on the Mayflower and established Plymouth Colony in Massachusetts, beginning the history of permanent European colonization in New England.
In 1616, English explorer John Smith named the region "New England". The name was officially sanctioned on November 3, 1620, when the charter of the Virginia Company of Plymouth was replaced by a royal charter for the Plymouth Council for New England, a joint-stock company established tew into the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in 1636. At this time, Vermont was uncolonized, and the territories of New Hampshire and Maine were claimed and governed by Massachusetts. As the region grew, it received many immigrants from Europe due to its religious tolerance and economy.
=== French and Indian Wars ===
Relationships alternated between peace and armed skirmishes between colonists and local Native American tribes, the bloodiest of which was the Pequot War in 1637 which resulted in the Mystic massacre. On May 19, 1643, the colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, New Haven, and Connecticut joined in a loose compact called the New England Confederation (officially "The United Colonies of New England"). The confederation was designed largely to coordinate mutual defense, and it gained some importance during King Philip's War which pitted the colonists and their Indian allies against a widespread Indian uprising from June 1675 through April 1678, resulting in killings and massacres on both sides. In the aftermath of settler-Native conflicts, hundreds of captive Indians were sold into slavery. Up until 1700, Native Americans comprised a majority of the non-white labor force in colonial New England.
During the next 74 years, there were six colonial wars that took place primarily between New England and New France, during which New England was allied with the Iroquois Confederacy and New France was allied with the Wabanaki Confederacy. Mainland Nova Scotia came under the control of New England after the Siege of Port Royal (1710), but both New Brunswick and most of Maine remained contested territory between New England and New France. The British eventually defeated the French in 1763, opening the Connecticut River Valley for British settlement into western New Hampshire and Vermont.
The New England Colonies were settled primarily by farmers who became relatively self-sufficient. Later, New England's economy began to focus on crafts and trade, aided by the Puritan work ethic, in contrast to the Southern colonies which focused on agricultural production while importing finished goods from England.
=== Dominion of New England ===
By 1686, King James II had become concerned about the increasingly independent ways of the colonies, including their self-governing charters, their open flouting of the Navigation Acts, and their growing military power. He therefore established the Dominion of New England, an administrative union including all of the New England colonies. In 1688, the former Dutch colonies of New York, East New Jersey, and West New Jersey were added to the dominion. The union was imposed from the outside and contrary to the rooted democratic tradition of the colonies, and it was highly unpopular among the colonists.
The dominion significantly modified the charters of the colonies, including the appointment of royal governors to nearly all of them. There was an uneasy tension among the royal governors, their officers, and the elected governing bodies of the colonies. The governors wanted unlimited authority, and the different layers of locally elected officials would often resist them. In most cases, the local town governments continued operating as self-governing bodies, just as they had before the appointment of the governors.
After the Glorious Revolution, in 1689, Bostonians overthrew the royal governor, Sir Edmund Andros. During a popular and bloodless uprising, they seized dominion officials and adherents to the Church of England. These tensions eventually culminated in the American Revolution, boiling over with the outbreak of the War of American Independence in 1775. The first battles of which were fought in Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts, leading to the Siege of Boston by continental troops. In March 1776, British forces were compelled to retreat from Boston.
=== New England in the new nation ===
After the dissolution of the Dominion of New England, the colonies of New England ceased to function as a unified political unit but remained a defined cultural region. There were often disputes over territorial jurisdiction, leading to land exchanges such as those regarding the Equivalent Lands and New Hampshire Grants.
By 1784, all of the states in the region had taken steps towards the abolition of slavery, with Vermont and Massachusetts introducing total abolition in 1777 and 1783, respectively. The nickname "Yankeeland" was sometimes used to denote the New England area, especially among Southerners and the British.
Vermont was admitted to statehood in 1791 after settling a dispute with New York. The territory of Maine had been a part of Massachusetts, but it was granted statehood on March 15, 1820, as part of the Missouri Compromise. Today, New England is defined as the six states of Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut.
New England's economic growth relied heavily on trade with the British Empire, and the region's merchants and politicians strongly opposed trade restrictions. As the United States and the United Kingdom fought the War of 1812, New England Federalists organized the Hartford Convention in the winter of 1814 to discuss the region's grievances concerning the war, and to propose changes to the United States Constitution to protect the region's interests and maintain its political power. Radical delegates within the convention proposed the region's secession from the United States, but they were outnumbered by moderates who opposed the idea.
Politically, the region often disagreed with the rest of the country. Massachusetts and Connecticut were among the last refuges of the Federalist Party, and New England became the strongest bastion of the new Whig Party when the Second Party System began in the 1830s. The Whigs were usually dominant throughout New England, except in the more Democratic Maine and New Hampshire.
=== Industrial Revolution ===
New England was key to the Industrial Revolution in the United States. The Blackstone Valley running through Massachusetts and Rhode Island has been called the birthplace of America's industrial revolution. In 1787, the first cotton mill in America was founded in the North Shore seaport of Beverly, Massachusetts as the Beverly Cotton Manufactory. The Manufactory was also considered the largest cotton mill of its time. Technological developments and achievements from the Manufactory led to the development of more advanced cotton mills, including Slater Mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. Towns such as Lawrence, Massachusetts, Lowell, Massachusetts, Woonsocket, Rhode Island, and Lewiston, Maine became centers of the textile industry following the innovations at Slater Mill and the Beverly Cotton Manufactory.
The Connecticut River Valley became a crucible for industrial innovation, particularly the Springfield Armory, pioneering such advances as interchangeable parts and the assembly line which influenced manufacturing processes all around the world. From early in the nineteenth century until the mid-twentieth, the region surrounding Springfield, Massachusetts and Hartford, Connecticut served as the United States' epicenter for advanced manufacturing, drawing skilled workers from all over the world.
The rapid growth of textile manufacturing in New England between 1815 and 1860 caused a shortage of workers. Recruiters were hired by mill agents to bring young women and children from the countryside to work in the factories. Between 1830 and 1860, thousands of farm girls moved from rural areas where there was no paid employment to work in the nearby mills, such as the Lowell Mill Girls. As the textile industry grew, immigration also grew. By the 1850s, immigrants began working in the mills, especially French Canadians and Irish.
New England as a whole was the most industrialized part of the United States. By 1850, the region accounted for well over a quarter of all manufacturing value in the country and over a third of its industrial workforce. It was also the most literate and most educated region in the country.
=== Political and demographic shift ===
During the same period, New England and areas settled by New Englanders (upstate New York, Ohio's Western Reserve, and the upper midwestern states of Michigan and Wisconsin) were the center of the strongest abolitionist and anti-slavery movements in the United States, coinciding with the Protestant Great Awakening in the region. Abolitionists who demanded immediate emancipation had their base in the region, such as William Lloyd Garrison, John Greenleaf Whittier, and Wendell Phillips. So too did anti-slavery politicians who wanted to limit the growth of slavery, such as John Quincy Adams, Charles Sumner, and John P. Hale. The anti-slavery Republican Party was formed in the 1850s, and all of New England became strongly Republican, including areas that had previously been strongholds for both the Whig and the Democratic parties. New England remained solidly Republican until Catholics began to mobilize behind the Democrats, especially in 1928. This led to the end of "Yankee Republicanism" and began New England's relatively swift transition into a consistently Democratic stronghold in national elections.
The flow of immigrants continued at a steady pace from the 1840s until cut off by World War I. The largest numbers came from Ireland and Britain before 1890, and after that from Quebec, Italy, and Southern Europe. The immigrants filled the ranks of factory workers, craftsmen, and unskilled laborers. The Irish and Italians assumed a larger and larger role in the Democratic Party in the cities and statewide, while the rural areas remained Republican.
=== The Great Depression and post-World War II changes ===
The Great Depression in the United States of the 1930s hit the region hard, with high unemployment in the industrial cities. The Boston Stock Exchange rivaled the New York Stock Exchange in 1930. The Democrats appealed to factory workers and especially Catholics, pulling them into the New Deal coalition and making the once-Republican region into one that was closely divided. However, the enormous spending on munitions, ships, electronics, and uniforms during World War II caused a burst of prosperity in every sector.
The region lost most of its factories starting with the loss of textiles in the 1930s and getting worse after 1960. The New England economy was radically transformed after World War II. The factory economy practically disappeared. Once-bustling New England communities fell into economic decay following the flight of the region's industrial base. The textile mills one by one went out of business from the 1920s to the 1970s. For example, the Crompton Company went bankrupt in 1984 after 178 years in business, costing the jobs of 2,450 workers in five states. The major reasons were cheap imports, the strong dollar, declining exports, and a failure to diversify. The shoe industry subsequently left the region as well.
What remains is very high technology manufacturing, such as jet engines, nuclear submarines, pharmaceuticals, robotics, scientific instruments, and medical devices. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology invented the format for university-industry relations in high tech fields and spawned many software and hardware firms, some of which grew rapidly. By the 21st century, the region had become famous for its leadership roles in the fields of education, medicine, medical research, high-technology, finance, and tourism.
Some industrial areas were slow in adjusting to the new service economy. In 2000, New England had two of the ten poorest cities in the U.S. (by percentage living below the poverty line): the state capitals of Providence, Rhode Island and Hartford, Connecticut. They were no longer in the bottom ten by 2010; Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire remain among the ten wealthiest states in the United States in terms of median household income and per capita income.
== Geography ==
The states of New England have a combined area, including water surfaces, of 71,988 square miles (186,447 km2), making the region slightly larger than the state of Washington and slightly smaller than Great Britain. Maine alone constitutes nearly one-half of the total area of New England, yet is only the 39th-largest state, slightly smaller than Indiana. The remaining states are among the smallest in the U.S., including the smallest state—Rhode Island.
The areas of the states (including water area) are:
Maine, 35,380 square miles (91,600 km2)
Massachusetts, 10,554 square miles (27,330 km2)
Vermont, 9,616 square miles (24,910 km2)
New Hampshire, 9,349 square miles (24,210 km2)
Connecticut, 5,543 square miles (14,360 km2)
Rhode Island, 1,545 square miles (4,000 km2)
=== Geology ===
New England's long rolling hills, mountains, and jagged coastline are glacial landforms resulting from the retreat of ice sheets approximately 18,000 years ago, during the last glacial period.
New England is geologically a part of the New England province, an exotic terrane region consisting of the Appalachian Mountains, the New England highlands and the seaboard lowlands. The Appalachian Mountains roughly follow the border between New England and New York. The Berkshires in Massachusetts and Connecticut, and the Green Mountains in Vermont, as well as the Taconic Mountains, form a spine of Precambrian rock.
The Appalachians extend northwards into New Hampshire as the White Mountains, and then into Maine and Canada. Mount Washington in New Hampshire is the highest peak in the Northeast, although it is not among the ten highest peaks in the eastern United States. It is the site of the second highest recorded wind speed on Earth, and has the reputation of having the world's most severe weather.
The coast of the region, extending from southwestern Connecticut to northeastern Maine, is dotted with lakes, hills, marshes and wetlands, and sandy beaches. Important valleys in the region include the Champlain Valley, the Connecticut River Valley and the Merrimack Valley. The longest river is the Connecticut River, which flows from northeastern New Hampshire for 407 mi (655 km), emptying into Long Island Sound, roughly bisecting the region. Lake Champlain, which forms part of the border between Vermont and New York, is the largest lake in the region, followed by Moosehead Lake in Maine and Lake Winnipesaukee in New Hampshire.
=== Climate ===
The climate of New England varies greatly across its 500 miles (800 km) span from northern Maine to southern Connecticut:
Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and western Massachusetts have a humid continental climate (Dfb in Köppen climate classification). In this region the winters are long and cold, and heavy snow is common (most locations receive 60–120 inches (150–300 cm) of snow annually in this region). The summer's months are moderately warm, though summer is rather short and rainfall is spread through the year.
In central and eastern Massachusetts, northern Rhode Island, and northern Connecticut, the same humid continental climate prevails (Dfa), though summers are warm to hot, winters are shorter, and there is less snowfall (especially in the coastal areas where it is often warmer).
Southern and coastal Connecticut is the broad transition zone from the cold continental climates of the north to the milder subtropical climates to the south. The frost free season is greater than 180 days across far southern/coastal Connecticut, coastal Rhode Island, and the islands (Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard). Winters also tend to be much sunnier in southern Connecticut and southern Rhode Island compared to the rest of New England.
=== Regions ===
=== Biodiversity ===
New England contains forested ecosystems with a variety of terrestrial vertebrates. Land-use patterns and land disturbance, such as the dramatic increase in land clearing for agriculture in the mid eighteenth century to nineteenth century, greatly altered the ecosystem and resulted in extinctions, local extirpations, and recolonizations.
According to an analysis of USDA Forest Service data, tree species diversity increases from north to south at about two to three species per degree in latitude. In addition, taller trees are associated with higher tree species diversity, and tree height is a better predictor than general forest age or biomass. Due to an increasing the amount of nitrogen in the soil from climate change, the red maple is becoming one of the most abundant trees in the region, and outcompeting other maples such as the sugar maple.
=== Largest cities ===
The most populous cities as of the 2020 U.S. Census were (metropolitan areas in parentheses):
Boston, Massachusetts: 675,647 (4,941,632)
Worcester, Massachusetts: 206,518 (923,672)
Providence, Rhode Island: 190,934 (1,604,291)
Springfield, Massachusetts: 155,929 (699,162)
Bridgeport, Connecticut: 148,654 (939,904)
Stamford, Connecticut: 135,470 (part of Greater Bridgeport)
New Haven, Connecticut: 134,023 (862,477)
Hartford, Connecticut: 121,054 (1,214,295)
Cambridge, Massachusetts: 118,403 (part of Greater Boston)
Manchester, New Hampshire: 115,644 (406,678)
During the 20th century, urban expansion in regions surrounding New York City has become an important economic influence on neighboring Connecticut, parts of which belong to the New York metropolitan area. The U.S. Census Bureau groups Fairfield, New Haven and Litchfield counties in western Connecticut together with New York City and other parts of New York and New Jersey as a combined statistical area.
=== Metropolitan areas and capitals ===
==== Metropolitan areas ====
The following are metropolitan statistical areas as defined by the United States Census Bureau.
==== State capitals ====
Hartford, Connecticut
Augusta, Maine
Boston, Massachusetts
Concord, New Hampshire
Providence, Rhode Island
Montpelier, Vermont
== Demographics ==
In 2020, New England had a population of 15,116,205, a growth of 4.6% from 2010. Massachusetts is the most populous state with 7,029,917 residents, while Vermont is the least populous state with 643,077 residents. Boston is by far the region's most populous city and metropolitan area.
Although a great disparity exists between New England's northern and southern portions, the region's average population density is 234.93 inhabitants/sq mi (90.7/km2). New England has a significantly higher population density than that of the U.S. as a whole (79.56/sq mi), or even just the contiguous 48 states (94.48/sq mi). Three-quarters of the population of New England, and most of the major cities, are in southern New England—the states of Connecticut, Massachusetts and Rhode Island—where the combined population density is 786.83/sq mi (2000 census). In northern New England—the states of Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont—the combined population density is 63.56/sq mi (2000 census).
According to the 2006–08 American Community Survey, 48.7% of New Englanders were male and 51.3% were female. Approximately 22.4% of the population were under 18 years of age; 13.5% were over 65 years of age. The six states of New England have the lowest birth rate in the U.S.
White Americans make up the majority of New England's population at 73.4% of the total population, Hispanic and Latino Americans are New England's largest minority, and they are the second-largest group in the region behind non-Hispanic European Americans. As of 2014, Hispanics and Latinos of any race made up 10.2% of New England's population. Connecticut had the highest proportion at 13.9%, while Vermont had the lowest at 1.3%. There were nearly 1.5 million Hispanic and Latino individuals reported in New England in 2014.
Puerto Ricans were the most numerous of the Hispanic and Latino subgroups. Over 660,000 Puerto Ricans lived in New England in 2014, forming 4.5% of the population. The Dominican population is over 200,000, and the Mexican and Guatemalan populations are each over 100,000. Americans of Cuban descent are scant in number; there were roughly 26,000 Cuban Americans in the region in 2014. People of all other Hispanic and Latino ancestries, including Salvadoran, Colombian and Bolivian, formed 2.5% of New England's population and numbered over 361,000 combined.
According to the 2014 American Community Survey, the top ten largest reported European ancestries were the following: Irish: 19.2% (2.8 million); English (includes "American" ancestry): 16.7% (2.4 million); Italian: 13.6% (2.0 million); French and French Canadian: 13.1% (1.9 million); German: 7.4% (1.1 million); Polish: 4.9% (roughly 715,000); Portuguese: 3.2% (467,000); Scottish: 2.5% (370,000); Russian: 1.4% (206,000); and Greek: 1.0% (152,000).
English is, by far, the most common language spoken at home. Approximately 81.3% of all residents (11.3 million people) over the age of five spoke only English at home. Roughly 1,085,000 people (7.8% of the population) spoke Spanish at home, and roughly 970,000 people (7.0% of the population) spoke other Indo-European languages at home. Over 403,000 people (2.9% of the population) spoke an Asian or Pacific Island language at home. Slightly fewer (about 1%) spoke French at home, although this figure is above 20% in northern New England, which borders francophone Québec. Roughly 99,000 people (0.7% of the population) spoke languages other than these at home.
As of 2014, approximately 87% of New England's inhabitants were born in the U.S., while over 12% were foreign-born. Of foreign-born residents, 35.8% were born in Latin America, 28.6% were born in Asia, 22.9% were born in Europe, and 8.5% were born in Africa.
Southern New England forms an integral part of the BosWash megalopolis, a conglomeration of urban centers that spans from Boston to Washington, D.C. The region includes three of the four most densely populated states in the U.S.; only New Jersey has a higher population density than the states of Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Connecticut.
Greater Boston, which includes parts of southern New Hampshire, has a total population of approximately 4.8 million, while over half the population of New England falls inside Boston's Combined Statistical Area of over 8.2 million.
== Economy ==
Several factors combine to make the New England economy unique. The region is distant from the geographic center of the country, and it is a relatively small region but densely populated. It historically has been an important center of industry and manufacturing and a supplier of natural resource products, such as granite, lobster, and codfish. The service industry is important, including tourism, education, financial and insurance services, and architectural, building and construction services. The U.S. Department of Commerce has called the New England economy a microcosm for the entire U.S. economy.
The region underwent a long period of deindustrialization in the first half of the 20th century, as traditional manufacturing companies relocated to the Midwest, with textile and furniture manufacturing migrating to the South. In the late-20th century, an increasing portion of the regional economy included high technology, military defense industry, finance and insurance services, and education and health services. As of 2018, the GDP of New England was $1.1 trillion.
New England exports food products ranging from fish to lobster, cranberries, potatoes, and maple syrup. About half of the region's exports consist of industrial and commercial machinery, such as computers and electronic and electrical equipment. Granite is quarried at Barre, Vermont, guns made at Springfield, Massachusetts, Exeter, New Hampshire and Saco, Maine, submarines at Groton, Connecticut, surface naval vessels at Bath, Maine, and hand tools at Turners Falls, Massachusetts.
=== Urban centers ===
In 2017, Boston was ranked as having the ninth-most competitive financial center in the world and the fourth-most competitive in the United States. Boston-based Fidelity Investments helped popularize the mutual fund in the 1980s and has made Boston one of the top financial centers in the United States. The city is home to the headquarters of Santander Bank and a center for venture capital firms. State Street Corporation specializes in asset management and custody services and is based in the city.
Boston is also a printing and publishing center. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt is headquartered there, along with Bedford-St. Martin's and Beacon Press. The city is also home to the Hynes Convention Center in the Back Bay and the Seaport Hotel and Seaport World Trade Center and Boston Convention and Exhibition Center on the South Boston waterfront.
The General Electric Corporation announced its decision to move the company's global headquarters to the Boston Seaport District from Fairfield, Connecticut, in 2016, citing factors including Boston's preeminence in the realm of higher education. The city also holds the headquarters to several major athletic and footwear companies, including Converse, New Balance and Reebok. Rockport, Puma and Wolverine World Wide have headquarters or regional offices just outside the city.
Hartford is the historic international center of the insurance industry, with companies such as Aetna, Conning & Company, The Hartford, Harvard Pilgrim Health Care, The Phoenix Companies and Hartford Steam Boiler based in the city, and The Travelers Companies and Lincoln National Corporation have major operations in the city. It is also home to the corporate headquarters of U.S. Fire Arms Mfg. Co., United Technologies, and Virtus Investment Partners.
Fairfield County, Connecticut, has a large concentration of investment management firms in the area, most notably Bridgewater Associates (one of the world's largest hedge fund companies), Aladdin Capital Management and Point72 Asset Management. Moreover, many international banks have their North American headquarters in Fairfield County, such as NatWest Group and UBS.
=== Agriculture ===
Agriculture is limited by the area's rocky soil, cool climate, and small area. Some New England states, however, are ranked highly among U.S. states for particular areas of production. Maine is ranked ninth for aquaculture, and has abundant potato fields in its northeast part. Vermont is fifteenth for dairy products, and Connecticut and Massachusetts seventh and eleventh for tobacco, respectively. Cranberries are grown in Massachusetts' Cape Cod-Southcoast-South Shore area, and blueberries in Maine.
=== Energy ===
The region is mostly energy-efficient compared to the U.S. at large, with every state but Maine ranking within the ten most energy-efficient states; every state in New England also ranks within the ten most expensive states for electricity prices. Wind power, mainly from offshore sources, is expected to gain market share in the 2020s.
=== Overall tax burden ===
In 2023, three of the six New England states were among the top ten states in the country in terms of taxes paid per taxpayer, while one was among the top five least. The rankings being #3 Maine (11.14%), #4 Vermont (10.28%), #5 Connecticut (9.83%), #11 Rhode Island (9.07%), #20 Massachusetts (8.48%), and #48 New Hampshire (6.14%). While overall tax burden varies widely, all six states sport exceptionally high property taxes with five of the six states being within the nationwide top 10. The rankings being #1 Maine (5.33%), #2 Vermont (4.98%), #3 New Hampshire (4.94%), #6 Connecticut (4.24%), #7 Rhode Island (4.17%), and #13 Massachusetts (3.42%).
== Government ==
=== Town meetings ===
New England town meetings were derived from meetings held by church elders, and are still an integral part of government in many New England towns. At such meetings, any citizen of the town may discuss issues with other members of the community and vote on them. This is the strongest example of direct democracy in the U.S. today, and the strong democratic tradition was even apparent in the early 19th century, when Alexis de Tocqueville wrote in Democracy in America:
New England, where education and liberty are the daughters of morality and religion, where society has acquired age and stability enough to enable it to form principles and hold fixed habits, the common people are accustomed to respect intellectual and moral superiority and to submit to it without complaint, although they set at naught all those privileges which wealth and birth have introduced among mankind. In New England, consequently, the democracy makes a more judicious choice than it does elsewhere.
By contrast, James Madison wrote in Federalist No. 55 that, regardless of the assembly, "passion never fails to wrest the scepter from reason. Had every Athenian citizen been a Socrates, every Athenian assembly would still have been a mob." The use and effectiveness of town meetings is still discussed by scholars, as well as the possible application of the format to other regions and countries.
=== Politics ===
=== Elections ===
State and national elected officials in New England recently have been elected mainly from the Democratic Party. The region is generally considered to be the most liberal in the United States, with more New Englanders identifying as liberals than Americans elsewhere. In 2010, four of six of the New England states were polled as the most liberal in the United States.
As of 2021, five of the six states of New England have voted for every Democratic presidential nominee since 1992. In that time, New Hampshire has voted for Democratic nominees in every presidential election except 2000, when George W. Bush narrowly won the state. 2020 was a particularly strong year for Democratic nominee Joe Biden in New England, winning 61.2% of the total vote in the six states, the highest percentage for Democrats since the landslide election of 1964. As of the 117th Congress, all members of the U.S. House of Representatives from New England are members of the Democratic Party, and all but one of its senators caucus with the Democrats. Two of those senators, although caucusing with Democrats, are the only independents currently serving in Congress: Bernie Sanders, a self-described democratic socialist, representing Vermont, and Angus King, an Independent representing Maine.
In the 2008 presidential election, Barack Obama carried all six New England states by 9 percentage points or more. He carried every county in New England except for Piscataquis County, Maine, which he lost by 4% to Senator John McCain (R-AZ). Pursuant to the reapportionment following the 2010 census, New England collectively has 33 electoral votes.
The following table presents the vote percentage for the popular-vote winner for each New England state, New England as a whole, and the United States as a whole, in each presidential election from 1900 to 2020, with the vote percentage for the Republican candidate shaded in red and the vote percentage for the Democratic candidate shaded in blue:
==== Political party strength ====
Judging purely by party registration rather than voting patterns, New England today is one of the most Democratic regions in the U.S. According to Gallup, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Vermont are "solidly Democratic", Maine "leans Democratic", and New Hampshire is a swing state.
Though New England is today considered a Democratic Party stronghold, much of the region was staunchly Republican before the mid-twentieth century. This changed in the late 20th century, in large part due to demographic shifts and the Republican Party's adoption of socially conservative platforms as part of its strategic shift towards the South. For example, Vermont voted Republican in every presidential election from 1856 through 1988 with the exception of 1964, and has voted Democratic every election since. Maine and Vermont were the only two states in the nation to vote against Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt all four times he ran for president. Republicans in New England are today considered by both liberals and conservatives to be more moderate (socially liberal) compared to Republicans in other parts of the U.S.
==== New Hampshire primary ====
Historically, the New Hampshire primary has been the first in a series of nationwide political party primary elections held in the United States every four years. Held in the state of New Hampshire, it usually marks the beginning of the U.S. presidential election process. Even though few delegates are chosen from New Hampshire, the primary has always been pivotal to both New England and American politics. One college in particular, Saint Anselm College, has been home to numerous national presidential debates and visits by candidates to its campus.
== Education ==
=== Colleges and universities ===
New England contains some of the oldest and most renowned institutions of higher learning in the United States and the world. Harvard College was the first such institution, founded in 1636 at Cambridge, Massachusetts, to train preachers. Yale University was founded in Old Saybrook, Connecticut, in 1701, and awarded the nation's first doctoral (PhD) degree in 1861. Yale moved to New Haven, Connecticut, in 1718, where it has remained to the present day.
Brown University was the first college in the nation to accept students of all religious affiliations, and is the seventh oldest U.S. institution of higher learning. It was founded in Providence, Rhode Island, in 1764. Dartmouth College was founded five years later in Hanover, New Hampshire, with the mission of educating the local American Indian population as well as English youth. The University of Vermont, the fifth oldest university in New England, was founded in 1791, the same year that Vermont joined the Union.
In addition to four out of eight Ivy League schools, New England contains the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), the bulk of educational institutions that are identified as the "Little Ivies", four of the original Seven Sisters, one of the eight original Public Ivies, the Colleges of Worcester Consortium in central Massachusetts, and the Five Colleges consortium in western Massachusetts. The University of Maine, the University of New Hampshire, the University of Connecticut, the University of Massachusetts at Amherst, the University of Rhode Island, and the University of Vermont are the flagship state universities in the region.
=== Private and independent secondary schools ===
At the pre-college level, New England is home to most of the nation's upscale private schools. The concept of the elite "New England prep school" (preparatory school) and the "preppy" lifestyle is an iconic part of the region's image.
See the list of private schools for each state:Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont.
=== Public education ===
New England is home to some of the oldest public schools in the nation and was the first region in the United States to implement universal compulsory schooling. Boston Latin School is the oldest public school in America and was attended by several signatories of the Declaration of Independence. Hartford Public High School is the second oldest operating high school in the U.S.
As of 2005, the National Education Association ranked Connecticut as having the highest-paid teachers in the country. Massachusetts and Rhode Island ranked eighth and ninth, respectively. New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont have cooperated in developing a New England Common Assessment Program test under the No Child Left Behind guidelines. These states can compare the resultant scores with each other.
=== Academic journals and press ===
Besides a vigorous newspaper press, there are numerous academic journals and publishing companies in the region, including The New England Journal of Medicine, Harvard University Press and Yale University Press. Some of its institutions lead the open access alternative to conventional academic publication, including MIT, the University of Connecticut, and the University of Maine. The Federal Reserve Bank of Boston publishes the New England Economic Review.
== Popular culture ==
New England has a shared heritage with England and a culture primarily shaped by waves of immigration. In contrast to other American regions, most of New England's earliest Puritan settlers came from eastern England, contributing to the region's distinctive accents, foods, customs, and social structures. Within modern New England a cultural divide exists between urban New Englanders living along the densely populated coastline, and rural New Englanders in western Massachusetts, northwestern and northeastern Connecticut, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, where population density is low. There is also a substantial divide between Connecticut and the other states of the region, owing to the former's close cultural and economic ties with the New York metropolitan area.
=== Religion ===
Today, New England is the least religious region of the U.S. In 2009, less than half of those polled in Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Vermont claimed that religion was an important part of their daily lives. Connecticut and Rhode Island are among the ten least religious states, where 55% and 53% of those polled (respectively) claimed that it was important. According to the American Religious Identification Survey, 34% of Vermonters reported having no religion; nearly one out of every four New Englanders identifies as having no religion, more than in any other part of the U.S. New England had one of the highest percentages of Catholics in the U.S. This number declined from 50% in 1990 to 36% in 2008.
=== Cultural roots ===
Many of the first European colonists of New England had a maritime orientation toward whaling (first noted about 1650) and fishing, in addition to farming. New England has developed a distinct cuisine, dialect, architecture, and government. New England cuisine has a reputation for its emphasis on seafood and dairy; clam chowder, lobster, and other products of the sea are among some of the region's most popular foods.
New England has largely preserved its regional character, especially in its historic places. The region has become more ethnically diverse, having seen waves of immigration from Ireland, Quebec, Italy, Portugal, Germany, Poland, Scandinavia, Asia, Latin America, Africa, other parts of the U.S., and elsewhere. The enduring European influence can be seen in the region in the use of traffic rotaries; the bilingual French and English towns of northern Vermont, Maine, and New Hampshire; the unique, often non-rhotic traditional coastal dialect akin to the southeastern half of England; and the region's heavy prevalence of English town- and county-names. These repeat from state to state, primarily due to settlers throughout the region having named their new towns after their old ones. For example, the town of North Yarmouth, Maine, was named by settlers from Yarmouth, Massachusetts, which was in turn named for Great Yarmouth (still locally called Yarmouth) in England. Every New England state has a town named Warren (a French-English noble family of wealthy settlers), and each except Rhode Island has a city/town named Franklin and Washington (constitutional founding fathers), Andover, Bridgewater, Chester, Manchester, Plymouth, and Windsor (these six were towns in England). Every state except Connecticut has a Lincoln and has a Richmond. Massachusetts, Vermont, and Maine each contain a Franklin County.
=== Cuisine ===
New England maintains a distinct cuisine and food culture. Early foods in the region were influenced by Native American and English cuisines. The early colonists often adapted their original cuisine to fit with the available foods of the region. New England staples reflect the convergence of American Indian and Pilgrim cuisine, such as johnnycakes, succotash, cornbread and various seafood recipes. The Wabanaki tribal nations made nut milk.
New England also has a distinct food language. A few of the unique regional terms include "grinders" for submarine sandwiches and "frappes" for thick milkshakes, referred to as "Cabinets" in Rhode Island. Other foods native to the region include steak tips (marinated sirloin steak), bulkie rolls, maple syrup, cranberry recipes and clam chowder.
A type of India pale ale known as New England India Pale Ale (NEIPA) was developed in Vermont in the 2010s. Other regional beverages include Moxie, one of the first mass-produced soft drinks in the United States, introduced in Lowell, Massachusetts, in 1876; it remains popular in New England, particularly in Maine. Coffee milk is associated with Rhode Island as the official state drink.
Portuguese cuisine is an important element in the annual Feast of the Blessed Sacrament in New Bedford, Massachusetts, the largest ethnic heritage festival in New England.
=== Accents and dialects ===
There are several characteristics of spoken American English in the region, most famously the Boston accent, which is native to the northeastern coastal regions of New England. The most identifiable features of the Boston accent originated from England's Received Pronunciation, which shares features such as the broad A and dropping the final R. Another source was 17th century speech in East Anglia and Lincolnshire, where many of the Puritan immigrants had originated. The East Anglian "whine" developed into the Yankee "twang". Boston accents were most strongly associated at one point with the so-called "Eastern Establishment" and Boston's upper class, although today the accent is predominantly associated with blue-collar natives, as exemplified by movies such as Good Will Hunting and The Departed. The Boston accent and those accents closely related to it cover eastern Massachusetts, New Hampshire and Maine.
Some Rhode Islanders speak with a non-rhotic accent that many compare to a "Brooklyn" accent or a cross between a New York and Boston accent, where "water" becomes "wata". Many Rhode Islanders distinguish the aw sound [ɔː], as one might hear in New Jersey; e.g., the word "coffee" is pronounced KAW-fee. This type of accent was brought to the region by early settlers from eastern England in the Puritan migration in the mid-seventeenth century.
=== Social activities and music ===
Acadian and Québécois culture are included in music and dance in much of rural New England, particularly Maine. Contra dancing and country square dancing are popular throughout New England, usually backed by live Irish, Acadian or other folk music. Fife and drum corps are common, especially in southern New England and more specifically Connecticut, with music of mostly Celtic, English, and local origin. New England leads the U.S. in ice cream consumption per capita. Candlepin bowling is essentially confined to New England, where it was invented in the 19th century.
New England was an important center of American classical music for some time. The First New England School of composers was active between 1770 and 1820, and the Second New England School about a century later. Prominent modernist composers also come from the region, including Charles Ives and John Adams. Boston is the site of the New England Conservatory, Boston Conservatory at Berklee, and the Boston Symphony Orchestra.
In popular music, the region has produced Donna Summer, JoJo, New Edition, Bobby Brown, Bel Biv Devoe, Passion Pit, MGMT, Meghan Trainor, New Kids on the Block, Rachel Platten, Clairo, Noah Kahan, Amy Allen and John Mayer. In rock music, the region has produced Rob Zombie, Aerosmith, Extreme, the Modern Lovers, Phish, the Pixies, the Cars, the J. Geils Band, the Mighty Mighty Bosstones, Grace Potter, GG Allin, the Dresden Dolls, Dinosaur Jr., the Dropkick Murphys and Boston. Quincy, Massachusetts, native Dick Dale helped popularize surf rock. Hip hop acts hailing from New England include Gang Starr, Apathy, Mr. Lif and Akrobatik.
=== Media ===
The leading U.S. cable TV sports broadcaster ESPN is headquartered in Bristol, Connecticut. New England has several regional cable networks, including New England Cable News (NECN) and the New England Sports Network (NESN). New England Cable News is the largest regional 24-hour cable news network in the U.S., broadcasting to more than 3.2 million homes in all of the New England states. Its studios are located in Newton, Massachusetts, outside of Boston, and it maintains bureaus in Manchester, New Hampshire; Hartford, Connecticut; Worcester, Massachusetts; Portland, Maine; and Burlington, Vermont. In Connecticut's Litchfield, Fairfield, and New Haven counties, it also broadcasts New York based news programs—this is due in part to the immense influence New York has on this region's economy and culture, and also to give Connecticut broadcasters the ability to compete with overlapping media coverage from New York-area broadcasters.
NESN broadcasts the Boston Red Sox baseball and Boston Bruins hockey throughout the region, save for Fairfield County, Connecticut. Connecticut also receives the YES Network, which broadcasts the games of the New York Yankees and Brooklyn Nets as well as SportsNet New York (SNY), which broadcasts New York Mets games.
NBC Sports Boston broadcasts the games of the Boston Celtics, New England Revolution and Boston Cannons to all of New England except Fairfield County. While most New England cities have daily newspapers, The Boston Globe and The New York Times are distributed widely throughout the region. Major newspapers also include The Providence Journal, Portland Press Herald, and Hartford Courant, the oldest continuously published newspaper in the U.S.
==== Comedy ====
New Englanders are well represented in American comedy. Writers for The Simpsons and late-night television programs often come by way of The Harvard Lampoon. A number of Saturday Night Live (SNL) cast members have roots in New England, from Adam Sandler to Amy Poehler, who also starred in the NBC television series Parks and Recreation. Seth MacFarlane, the creator of Family Guy, is from Connecticut, with the show taking place in a fictional town called Quahog, Rhode Island. Former Daily Show correspondents John Hodgman, Rob Corddry and Steve Carell are from Massachusetts. Carell was also involved in film and the American adaptation of The Office (alongside fellow Massachusetts natives Mindy Kaling, B. J. Novak, and John Krasinski), which features Dunder-Mifflin branches set in Stamford, Connecticut, and Nashua, New Hampshire.
Late-night television hosts Jay Leno and Conan O'Brien have roots in the Boston area. Notable stand-up comedians are also from the region, including Bill Burr, Steve Sweeney, Steven Wright, Sarah Silverman, Lisa Lampanelli, Denis Leary, Lenny Clarke, Patrice O'Neal and Louis CK. SNL cast member Seth Meyers once attributed the region's imprint on American humor to its "sort of wry New England sense of pointing out anyone who's trying to make a big deal of himself", with The Boston Globe suggesting that irony and sarcasm are its trademarks, as well as Irish influences.
=== Literature ===
New Englanders have made significant contributions to literature. The first printing press in America was set up in Cambridge, Massachusetts, by Stephen Daye in the 17th century. Writers in New England produced many works on religious subjects, particularly on Puritan theology and poetry during colonial times and on Enlightenment ideas during the American Revolution. The literature of New England has had an enduring influence on American literature in general, with themes that are emblematic of the larger concerns of American letters, such as religion, race, the individual versus society, social repression and nature.
19th century New England was a center for progressive ideals, and many abolitionist and transcendentalist tracts were produced. Leading transcendentalists were from New England, such as Henry David Thoreau, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Frederic Henry Hedge. Hartford, Connecticut resident Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel Uncle Tom's Cabin was an influential book in the spread of abolitionist ideas and is said to have "laid the groundwork for the Civil War". Other prominent New England novelists include John Irving, Edgar Allan Poe, Louisa May Alcott, Sarah Orne Jewett, H. P. Lovecraft, Annie Proulx, Stephen King, Jack Kerouac, George V. Higgins, and Nathaniel Hawthorne.
Boston was the center of the American publishing industry for some years, largely on the strength of its local writers and before it was overtaken by New York in the middle of the nineteenth century. Boston remains the home of publishers Houghton Mifflin and Pearson Education, and it was the longtime home of literary magazine The Atlantic Monthly. Merriam-Webster is based in Springfield, Massachusetts. Yankee is a magazine for New Englanders based in Dublin, New Hampshire.
Many New Englander poets have also been preeminent in American poetry. Prominent poets include Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, David Lindsay-Abaire, Annie Proulx, Edwin Arlington Robinson, Amy Lowell, John Cheever, Emily Dickinson, Elizabeth Bishop, Stanley Kunitz, E. E. Cummings, Edna St. Vincent Millay, Robert P. T. Coffin and Richard Wilbur. Robert Frost who was described as an "artistic institution" frequently wrote about rural New England life. The Confessional poetry movement features prominent New England writers including Robert Lowell, Anne Sexton and Sylvia Plath.
=== Film, television, and acting ===
New England has a rich history in filmmaking dating back to the dawn of the motion picture era at the turn of the 20th century, sometimes dubbed Hollywood East by film critics. A theater at 547 Washington Street in Boston was the second location to debut a picture projected by the Vitascope, and shortly thereafter several novels were being adapted for the screen and set in New England, including The Scarlet Letter and The House of Seven Gables. The New England region continued to churn out films at a pace above the national average for the duration of the 20th century, including blockbuster hits such as Jaws, Good Will Hunting and The Departed, all of which won Academy Awards.
The New England area became known for a number of themes that recurred in films made during this era, including the development of yankee characters, small town life contrasted with city values, seafaring tales, family secrets and haunted New England. These themes are rooted in centuries of New England culture and are complemented by the region's diverse natural landscape and architecture, from the Atlantic Ocean and brilliant fall foliage to church steeples and skyscrapers.
Since the turn of the millennium, Boston and the greater New England region have been home to the production of numerous films and television series, thanks in part to tax incentive programs put in place by local governments to attract filmmakers to the region.
Notable actors and actresses that have come from the New England area include Ben Affleck, Matt Damon, Chris Evans, Ryan O'Neal, Amy Poehler, Elizabeth Banks, Steve Carell, Ruth Gordon, John Krasinski, Edward Norton, Mark Wahlberg and Matthew Perry. Many films and television series have been produced in and set in New England.
=== Museums, historical societies, and libraries ===
There are many museums located throughout New England, especially in the Greater Boston area. These museums include privately held collections as well as public institutions. Most notable of these museums are the Museum of Fine Arts, the Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston, the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Worcester Art Museum, and the Peabody Essex Museum. The oldest public museum in continuous operation in the United States is the Pilgrim Hall Museum in Plymouth, Massachusetts, which opened in 1824.
The Boston Public Library is the largest public library in the region with over 8 million materials in its collection. The largest academic research library in the world is the Harvard Library in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The W. E. B. Du Bois Library of the University of Massachusetts Amherst is the tallest academic library in the world.
There are also many historical societies in the region. Historic New England operates museums and historic sites in the name of historical preservation. Many properties belonging to HNE include preserved house museums of prominent figures in New England and American history. Other societies include the Massachusetts Historical Society, the Essex Institute, the American Antiquarian Society, and The Bostonian Society. The Massachusetts Historical Society, founded in 1791, is the oldest operating in the United States. Many cities and towns across New England operate their own historical societies focused on historical preservation of local sites and the recording of local history.
=== Sports ===
New England has a strong heritage of athletics, and many internationally popular sports were invented and codified in the region, including basketball, volleyball, and American football.
Football is the most popular sport in the region and was developed by Walter Camp in New Haven, Connecticut, in the 1870s and 1880s. The New England Patriots are based in Foxborough, Massachusetts, and are the most popular professional sports team in New England. The Patriots have won six Super Bowl championships and are one of the most winning teams in the National Football League. There are also high-profile collegiate and high school football rivalries in New England. These games are most often played on Thanksgiving Day and are some of the oldest sports rivalries in the United States. The high school rivalry between Wellesley High School and Needham High School in Massachusetts is considered to be the nation's oldest football rivalry, having started in 1882.
Before the advent of modern rules of baseball, a different form was played called the Massachusetts Game. This version of baseball was an early rival of the Knickerbocker Rules of New York and was played throughout New England. In 1869, there were 59 teams throughout the region which played according to the Massachusetts rules. The New York rules gradually became more popular throughout the United States, and professional and semi-professional clubs began to appear. Early teams included the Providence Grays, the Worcester Worcesters and the Hartford Dark Blues; these did not last long, but other teams grew to renown, such as the Boston Braves and the Boston Red Sox. Fenway Park was built in 1912 and is the oldest ballpark still in use in Major League Baseball. The Red Sox have won the World Series nine times, tied for third-most among all MLB teams. Other professional baseball teams in the region include the Hartford Yard Goats, New Hampshire Fisher Cats, Vermont Lake Monsters, Portland Sea Dogs, Bridgeport Bluefish, New Britain Bees and the Worcester Red Sox.
Basketball was developed in Springfield, Massachusetts, by James Naismith in 1891. Naismith was attempting to create a game which could be played indoors so that athletes could keep fit during New England winters. The Boston Celtics were founded in 1946 and are the most successful NBA team, winning 18 titles. The Celtics' NBA G League team, the Maine Celtics, is based in Portland, Maine. The Women's National Basketball Association's Connecticut Sun is based in Uncasville, Connecticut. The UConn Huskies women's basketball team is the most successful women's collegiate team in the nation, winning 11 NCAA Division I titles, and the UConn Huskies men's basketball team has won six titles, tied for third-most in the nation. The Basketball Hall of Fame is located in Springfield, Massachusetts.
Winter sports are extremely popular and have a long history in the region, including alpine skiing, snowboarding, and Nordic skiing. Ice hockey is also a popular sport. The Boston Bruins were founded in 1924 as an Original Six team, and they have a historic rivalry with the Montreal Canadiens. The Bruins play in the TD Garden, a venue that they share with the Boston Celtics. The Boston Fleet of the Professional Women's Hockey League (PWHL) plays at Tsongas Center. College hockey is also a popular spectator sport, with Boston's annual Beanpot tournament between Northeastern University, Boston University, Harvard University and Boston College. Other hockey teams include the Maine Mariners, Providence Bruins, Springfield Thunderbirds, Worcester Railers, Bridgeport Sound Tigers and the Hartford Wolf Pack. The region's largest ice hockey and skating facility is the New England Sports Center in Marlborough, Massachusetts, home to the Skating Club of Boston, one of the oldest ice skating clubs in the United States.
Volleyball was invented in Holyoke, Massachusetts, in 1895 by William G. Morgan. Morgan was an instructor at a YMCA and wanted to create an indoor game for his athletes. The game was based on badminton and was spread as a sport through YMCA facilities. The international Volleyball Hall of Fame is located in Holyoke.
Rowing, sailing, and yacht racing are also popular events in New England. The Head of the Charles race is held on the Charles River in October every year and attracts over 10,000 athletes and over 200,000 spectators each year. Sailing regattas include the Newport Bermuda Race, the Marblehead to Halifax Ocean Race, and the Single-Handed Trans-Atlantic Race. The New York Times considers the Newport and Marblehead races to be among the most prestigious in the world.
The Boston Marathon is run on Patriots' Day every year and was first run in 1897. It is a World Marathon Major and is operated by the Boston Athletic Association. The race route goes from Hopkinton, Massachusetts, through Greater Boston, finishing at Copley Square in Boston. The race offers far less prize money than many other marathons, but its difficulty and long history make it one of the world's most prestigious marathons. It is New England's largest sporting event with nearly 500,000 spectators each year.
New England is represented in the top level of American professional soccer by the New England Revolution, an inaugural team of the Major League Soccer founded in 1994 and playing in Gillette Stadium which it shares with the New England Patriots. The Revolution have won a U.S. Open Cup and a SuperLiga Championship, and they have appeared in five MLS finals. In the USL Championship, the second division on the American soccer pyramid, New England is represented by Hartford Athletic which was founded in 2019 and plays its games at Dillon Stadium, and Rhode Island FC, which began play in 2024.
The International Tennis Hall of Fame is in Newport, Rhode Island.
== Transportation ==
Each of the New England states has its own Department of Transportation which plans and develops systems for transport, though some transportation authorities operate across state and municipal lines. The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) oversees public transportation in the Greater Boston area. It is the largest such agency and operates throughout eastern Massachusetts and into Rhode Island. The MBTA oversees the oldest subway system (the Tremont Street subway) and the second most-used light rail line (the Green Line) in the United States, as well as one of five remaining trolleybus systems nationwide. Coastal Connecticut makes use of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority of New York due to the connection of that region to New York's economy. The MTA operates the Metro-North Railroad in coordination with the Connecticut Department of Transportation. CTrail is a division of the Connecticut Department of Transportation which operates the Shore Line East along its southern coast, terminating in Old Saybrook and New London. It also operates the Hartford Line, leading south to New Haven and north to Springfield. Commuter rail service is provided north of Springfield to Greenfield, Massachusetts, as part of the Valley Flyer Amtrak route.
Amtrak provides interstate rail service throughout New England. Boston is the northern terminus of the Northeast Corridor. The Vermonter connects Vermont to Massachusetts and Connecticut, while the Downeaster links Maine to Boston. The long-distance Lake Shore Limited train has two eastern termini after splitting in Albany, one of which is Boston. This provides rail service on the former Boston and Albany Railroad which runs between its namesake cities. The rest of the Lake Shore Limited continues to New York City.
Bus transportation is available in most urban areas and is governed by regional and local authorities. The Pioneer Valley Transit Authority and the MetroWest Regional Transit Authority are examples of public bus transportation which support more suburban and rural communities.
South Station in Boston is a major center for bus, rail, and light rail lines. Major interstate highways traversing the region include I-95, I-93, I-91, I-89, I-84, and I-90 (the Massachusetts Turnpike). Logan Airport is the busiest transportation hub in the region in terms of number of passengers and total cargo, opened in 1923 and located in East Boston and Winthrop, Massachusetts. It is a hub for Cape Air and Delta Air Lines, and a focus city for JetBlue. It is the 16th busiest airport in the United States. Other airports in the region include Patrick Leahy Burlington International Airport, Bradley International Airport, Rhode Island T. F. Green International Airport, Manchester–Boston Regional Airport, and Portland International Jetport. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Canadian_federal_general_elections | List of Canadian federal general elections | |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westfield,_Alabama | Westfield, Alabama | Westfield is an unincorporated community and former coal mining town in Jefferson County, Alabama. It was a coal mining camp for Tennessee Coal & Iron Co. that was purchased by U.S. Steel and developed as a planned steel worker community that was predominantly African American. It was home to Westfield High School. In 1969 it was described as a model of company owned community with various amenities noted.
Star professional baseball player Willie Mays was born in Westfield in 1931. Lawyer and former judge U. W. Clemon grew up in Westfield.
Rev. Clarence S. Reeves wrote a history of the high school. It closed with desegregation. Alumni remained active in subsequent years. In 2013 the film Westfield: Struggles to Success about Westfield High School debuted.
Early in businessman A. G. Gaston's career he worked in the mines around Westfield. After his return from military service in Europe during World War I, he "was as a labourer with the Tennessee Coal & Iron Co. in Westfield, Alabama where his interest in entrepreneurship began to surface."
== History ==
Built for the Tennessee Coal & Iron Co. (TCI), Westfield was subsequently purchased by U.S. Steel. The community was planned to be developed as a predominantly African-American steel worker community. It was home to Westfield High School. In 1969, it was described as a model of company-owned community with various amenities noted.
In 2013 the film Westfield: Struggles to Success about Westfield High School debuted.
== Notable people ==
U. W. Clemon (born 1943), Alabama attorney and a former United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Alabama.
A. G. Gaston, (1892–1996), American businessman who established a number of businesses in Birmingham, Alabama. Worked in the TCI mines in Westfield.
Willie Mays (1931-2024), former Major League Baseball player and member of the baseball Hall Of Fame for the New York / San Francisco Giants |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Twist_(song) | The Twist (song) | "The Twist" is an American song written and originally released in 1958 by Hank Ballard and the Midnighters as a B-side to "Teardrops on Your Letter". It was inspired by the twist dance craze. Ballard's version was a moderate hit, peaking at number 28 on the US Billboard Hot 100 in 1960. On the US Billboard Hot R&B Sides chart, the original version of "The Twist" first peaked at number 16 in 1959 and at number six in 1960. By 1962, the record sold in excess of one million copies, becoming Ballard's fourth million seller.
Chubby Checker's 1960 cover version of the song reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 on September 19, 1960, where it stayed for one week and then went on to set a record at the time as the only song to reach number one during two different chart runs when it resurfaced and topped the Hot 100 again for two weeks starting on January 13, 1962. This would not happen for another song for nearly 59 years until December 2020, when Mariah Carey's "All I Want for Christmas Is You" reached the summit after previously topping in another separate chart run in December 2019.
On Billboard's list of all-time No. 1 Hot 100 singles, which considers total weeks on the chart and chart position each week, "The Twist" held the top position from 2008 until September 2020, when "Blinding Lights" by the Weeknd took over the top position. In 2014, Billboard magazine declared the song the "biggest hit" of the 1960s. On Canada's CHUM Charts, the songs were co-charted, reaching number two on August 22, 1960.
== History ==
Hank Ballard wrote "The Twist" after seeing teenagers in Tampa, Florida doing the titular dance. In a 2014 interview with Tom Meros, Midnighters member Lawson Smith claimed that The Gospel Consolaters' Nathaniel Bills wrote the song and initially asked The Spaniels to record it, and that Ballard "stole" the song, falsely claiming authorship. Green and Ballard already had written a song together called "Is Your Love for Real", which was based on Clyde McPhatter and The Drifters' 1955 song "What'cha Gonna Do", so they created an entirely new song by simply putting the new Twist words to the older melody. They originally recorded a loose version of the song in a Florida studio for Vee-Jay Records in early 1958, with slightly different lyrics, featuring Green on guitar playing like Jimmy Reed. This version appeared on the box set "The Vee-Jay Story" in 1993, but it went unreleased at the time. They did not get around to recording the released version until November 11, 1958, when the Midnighters were in Cincinnati.
Ballard thought "The Twist" was the hit side, but King Records producer Henry Glover preferred the ballad "Teardrops on Your Letter", which he had written himself. The song ultimately became the B-side of Hank Ballard and The Midnighters' 1959 single "Teardrops on Your Letter".
== Chubby Checker version ==
The song became popular on a Baltimore television dance show hosted by local DJ Buddy Deane; Deane recommended the song to Dick Clark, host of the national American Bandstand, then based in Philadelphia. When the song proved popular with his audience, Clark attempted to book Ballard to perform on the show. Ballard was unavailable, and Clark searched for a local artist to record the song. He settled on Checker, whose voice was very similar to Ballard's. Checker's version featured Buddy Savitt on saxophone and Ellis Tollin on drums, with backing vocals by the Dreamlovers. Exposure for the song on American Bandstand and on The Dick Clark Saturday Night Show helped propel the song to the top of the American charts.
In July 1960, Checker performed "The Twist" for the first time in front of a live audience at the Rainbow Club in Wildwood, New Jersey, and just weeks later, on August 6, 1960, the song became a national sensation after Checker performed it on Dick Clark's American Bandstand. In Canada, his version was co-charted with the Hank Ballard version.
In late 1961 and early 1962, the twist craze belatedly caught on in high society. Sightings of celebrities doing the dance made the song a hit with adults, particularly after a report in the Cholly Knickerbocker gossip column. Soon there were long lines at the Peppermint Lounge nightclub in New York, the most popular celebrity twisting spot. This new interest made "The Twist" the first recording to hit number one on the United States charts during two separate chart runs, and marked a major turning point for adult acceptance of rock and roll music.
Checker re-recorded the song numerous times. An updated 1982 recording (from his album The Change Has Come) was retitled "T-82", and in the 1990s, he recorded a country version. In the late 1970s, he recorded a new version that, except for the sound mix and some minor arrangement changes, was identical to the 1960 original; as a result this later version is often misidentified on compilations as the original recording. In 1988, he joined The Fat Boys on a rap version of the song, which hit number 2 in the UK, number 16 in the US, and number 1 in Germany and Switzerland. Checker also joined the group to perform the song that summer at a London tribute concert for Nelson Mandela. In addition, he recorded variations on the theme, such as "Let's Twist Again" to keep the craze alive ("Let's Twist Again" was and has remained more popular than "The Twist" itself in the United Kingdom). Joey Dee and the Starliters, the Peppermint Lounge house band, scored a hit with "Peppermint Twist", while other artists, including Sam Cooke scored with other "Twist"-themed songs. In Europe, Petula Clark scored hits in several countries with "Twist"-themed records, while Bill Haley and His Comets recorded several albums of Twist songs in Mexico for the Orfeon Records label. In 1997, the song was featured in a Teledyne Waterpik commercial, and a commercial for Denny's in 1998, to promote the New Slams.
In the sixth episode of the second season of the TV series Quantum Leap, entitled "Good Morning, Peoria" (set on September 9, 1959), Dr. Sam Beckett (Scott Bakula) and Al Calavicci (Dean Stockwell) meet Chubby Checker (played by himself) in a radio station, where they sing and dance "The Twist". An impressed Checker asks, "Can I use that move?" Sam responds, "Yah, but I got it from you!". The song was used in the 2007 film Spider-Man 3 and appears on the film's official soundtrack album.
=== Charts ===
== Fat Boys version ==
In 1988, American hip-hop trio Fat Boys covered "The Twist" with featured lyrics from Checker and additional rap lyrics written by Jim Glenn and Damon Wimbley. Produced by Albert Cabrera and Tony Moran (the Latin Rascals), this version reached number two in the United Kingdom and number one in West Germany, as well as number 16 on the Billboard Hot 100. The song's music video was produced by Ken Walz and shows the Fat Boys doing the twist with Checker at a sweet sixteen party. Checker initially missed the filming in May 1988 due to being hospitalized with spinal meningitis.
=== Track listings ===
7-inch and cassette single
A. "The Twist" (Yo, Twist!) – 4:00
B. "The Twist" (Buffapella) – 4:15
US 12-inch single
A1. "The Twist" (Twist So Def version) – 5:57
A2. "Yo, Twist!" (7-inch version) – 4:00
B1. "The Twist" (Yell for More!) – 6:30
B2. "The Twist" (Buffapella) – 4:15
CDV single
"Rock the House, Y'all" (audio) – 3:30
"Comin' Back Hard Again" (audio) – 3:20
"Back and Forth" (audio) – 2:40
"The Twist" (audio) – 4:05
"The Twist" (video) – 5:00
=== Charts ===
==== Weekly charts ====
==== Year-end charts ====
=== Certifications ===
== Accolades ==
Chubby Checker's "The Twist" held the honor of being the most successful single in Billboard history on its various "Greatest Hot 100 Songs of All Time" charts over the decades. It held the title until 2021, when it was dethroned by the Weeknd's "Blinding Lights".
The song was ranked number 451 on the Rolling Stone magazine's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time in 2004, and number 457 on the revised list in 2010. Jim Dawson wrote a 1995 book about the song and the Twist phenomenon called The Twist: The Story of the Song and Dance That Changed the World for Faber and Faber.
In 2000, the 1960 recording by Chubby Checker on Parkway Records was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.
The song has been added to the National Recording Registry in the Library of Congress on March 21, 2013, for long-term preservation. In 2014, Billboard magazine declared the song the "biggest hit" of the 1960s.
In 2018, Checker's version was one of six singles inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in a new category honoring singles by artists who have not been elected to the Hall.
== Editions ==
USA: Hank Ballard and the Midnighters: "Teardrops on Your Letter" b/w "The Twist" 1959
USA: Chubby Checker: "The Twist" b/w "Toot" Parkway 811; 7/60
USA: Chubby Checker: "The Twist" b/w "Twistin' USA" Parkway 811; 11/61 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessemer,_Alabama | Bessemer, Alabama | Bessemer is a city in Jefferson County, Alabama, United States and a southwestern suburb of Birmingham. The population was 26,019 at the 2020 census, and was estimated to be 25,079 in 2024. It is within the Birmingham–Hoover, AL Metropolitan statistical area, of which Jefferson County is the center. It developed rapidly as an industrial city in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
== History ==
The town was founded in the Reconstruction Era by the Bessemer Land and Improvement Company, named after Henry Bessemer and owned by coal magnate Henry F. DeBardeleben. He had inherited Daniel Pratt's investments. The mayor and councilmen voted to incorporate the city of Bessemer on September 9, 1887. Located 15.3 miles southwest of Birmingham, Bessemer grew rapidly and its promoters believed that it might overtake the other city in economic power.
Given the iron ore, coal and limestone deposits in the area, the city became a center of steelmaking from about 1890 through the 20th century. It attracted rural migrants from across the South, as well as European immigrants. By the 1950s, the city was majority African American in population.
The steel industry went through considerable restructuring in the late 20th century, and jobs moved out of the area. Steel is no longer made there. By 2019, Bessemer was named Alabama’s “Worst City to Live in.”
In 2019, it was named Alabama's "Worst City to Live in" by 24/7 Wall Street.
== Geography ==
Bessemer is located approximately 15.3 miles (24.6 km) southwest of Birmingham.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 40.851 square miles (105.80 km2), of which 40.639 square miles (105.25 km2) is land and 0.212 square miles (0.55 km2) (0.52%) is water.
Bessemer is situated in the midst of the iron ore and limestone district of Alabama, in the southern part of Jones Valley (about 3 miles (4.8 km) wide). Iron ore was mined on the hills on the city's southeast side, coal was, and still is mined to the north and west, and limestone deposits were also nearby. All three ingredients were necessary for steelmaking, which led to the area becoming a major steel center from about 1890 through the twentieth century. Steel is no longer made within the city limits but is still manufactured in the neighboring city of Fairfield.
=== Climate ===
The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. Bessemer has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps, within the Köppen Climate Classification system.
== Demographics ==
=== Racial and ethnic composition ===
=== 2023 American Community Survey ===
As of the 2023 American Community Survey, there are 10,598 estimated households in Bessemer with an average of 2.36 persons per household. The city has a median household income of $37,844. Approximately 30.7% of the city's population lives at or below the poverty line. Bessemer has an estimated 50.0% employment rate, with 14.4% of the population holding a bachelor's degree or higher and 86.9% holding a high school diploma.
=== Ancestry ===
The top five reported ancestries (people were allowed to report up to two ancestries, thus the figures will generally add to more than 100%) were English (92.5%), Spanish (6.8%), Indo-European (0.5%), Asian and Pacific Islander (0.1%), and Other (0.1%).
=== 2020 census ===
As of the 2020 census, Bessemer had a population of 26,019 and 10,628 households, of which 6,536 were families. The population density was 645.15 inhabitants per square mile (249.1/km2). There were 12,218 housing units at an average density of 302.95 per square mile (117.0/km2).
The median age was 40.4 years. 22.3% of residents were under the age of 18 and 19.0% of residents were 65 years of age or older. For every 100 females there were 86.3 males, and for every 100 females age 18 and over there were 82.4 males age 18 and over.
94.6% of residents lived in urban areas, while 5.4% lived in rural areas.
Of the 10,628 households, 28.5% had children under the age of 18 living in them. Of all households, 25.6% were married-couple households, 23.3% were households with a male householder and no spouse or partner present, and 45.9% were households with a female householder and no spouse or partner present. About 33.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 14.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.
There were 12,218 housing units, of which 13.0% were vacant. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.1% and the rental vacancy rate was 8.6%.
=== 2010 census ===
As of the 2010 census, there were 27,456 people, 10,711 households, and _ families residing in the city. The population density was 688.98 inhabitants per square mile (266.0/km2). There were 12,369 housing units at an average density of 310.39 per square mile (119.8/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 24.29% White, 71.19% African American, 0.32% Native American, 0.19% Asian, 0.00% Pacific Islander, 3.13% from some other races and 0.88% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 4.05% of the population.
=== 2000 census ===
As of the 2000 census, there were 29,672 people, 11,537 households, and 7,868 families residing in the city. The population density was 729.04 inhabitants per square mile (281.5/km2). There were 12,790 housing units at an average density of 314.25 per square mile (121.3/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 28.93% White, 69.55% African American, 0.28% Native American, 0.18% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.30% from some other races and 0.74% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 1.14% of the population.
There were 11,537 households, out of which 30.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.6% were married couples living together, 29.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.8% were non-families. 29.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 13.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.52 and the average family size was 3.12.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 26.8% under the age of 18, 9.6% from 18 to 24, 26.1% from 25 to 44, 21.1% from 45 to 64, and 16.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 82.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 75.8 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $23,066, and the median income for a family was $28,230. Males had a median income of $29,413 versus $21,552 for females. The per capita income for the city was $12,232. About 24.2% of families and 27.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 37.8% of those under age 18 and 24.7% of those age 65 or over.
== Economy ==
In 1900, Bessemer ranked eighth in the population in Alabama, second in the amount of capital invested in manufacturing, and fourth in the value of its manufactured product for the year. By 1911, ore mining, iron smelting, and the manufacture of iron and coke were the chief industries of Bessemer. Truck farming was an important industry, dating from the area's agricultural past.
Both blacks and whites from rural areas were attracted to the city for its new work opportunities. Gradually African Americans moved into industrial jobs and became part of integrated unions. Such jobs enabled many working-class families to enjoy middle-class incomes.
Today, ore mining has ended, as supplies were exhausted. Manufacturing remains a factor, with the U.S. Pipe and Foundry ductile pipe plant on the city's north side. In May 2007, U.S. Pipe announced that it would be building a new $45-million foundry near the current plant. The site was selected, among other reasons, for having available space for potential future expansions. U.S. Pipe is the largest domestic producer of ductile iron pipe in sizes 4 inch through 64 inch.
Bessemer was once home to a large railroad car manufacturing factory, operated by Pullman Standard for many decades and later by Trinity Industries. With railroad restructuring in the late 20th century and other manufacturing moving offshore, this plant ceased most production in the 1990s. In 2012, BLOX LLC (bloxbuilt.com) a manufacturer of modular components for healthcare facilities moved into this facility.
The decline of mining and exodus of the steelmaking and railcar manufacturing industries resulted in extensive loss of jobs. Bessemer has lost population since a peak population in 1970. It faced an economic crisis in the early to mid-1980s, as unemployed workers constituted more than one-third of the workforce. Since that time the city has been successful in diversifying its economy, through the efforts of the Bessemer Area Chamber of Commerce and the Bessemer Industrial Development Board. It is recognized for its business growth. In June 2018, Amazon announced that it would build a new 800,000 square feet (74,000 m2), $325 million fulfillment center in Bessemer, which will initially create 1,500 new jobs.
== Crime ==
According to the Uniform Crime Report statistics compiled by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in 2023, there were 654 violent crimes and 2,381 property crimes per 100,000 residents. Of these, the violent crimes consisted of 16 murders, 14 forcible rapes, 121 robberies and 503 aggravated assaults, while 289 burglaries, 1,818 larceny-thefts, 266 motor vehicle thefts and 8 acts of arson defined the property offenses.
According to the NeighborhoodScout, Bessemer ranks first in terms of violent crimes for U.S. cities with 25,000 or more people as of 2019.
== Arts and culture ==
The performance center Bessemer Civic Center provides multiple performance spaces for music and theatre.
== Government ==
Bessemer uses the mayor–city council form of government. The council has seven members, elected from single-member districts. As of 2016, Kenneth Gulley is mayor, a position elected at-large. He was first elected in 2010 and reelected to a second term in 2014.
A satellite Jefferson County Courthouse is located in downtown Bessemer. There is a special county government district, known as the "Bessemer Cutoff", which was established in the middle of the 20th century when Bessemer was a major city in its own right. A separate county government was considered a possibility, but there was not sufficient land area to meet legislative requirements for a county. The "Cutoff" had a separate series of Alabama license plates, with a different numeric prefix than the rest of the county.
Bessemer has since been surpassed in size by Birmingham suburbs such as Hoover, Vestavia Hills, and Homewood. But Bessemer retains the branch county courthouse to this day. The term "Bessemer Cutoff" continues to be used regularly by area residents.
The United States Postal Service operates the Bessemer Post Office.
The state Alabama Department of Corrections operates the William E. Donaldson Correctional Facility, a prison for men, in unincorporated Jefferson County, Alabama, near Bessemer. The prison includes one of the two Alabama death rows for men.
== Education ==
=== Public schools ===
Bessemer has its own school system independent of Jefferson County schools, Bessemer City School District. The system includes:
Hard Elementary
Jonesboro Elementary
Greenwood Elementary
Abrams Elementary
Westhills Elementary
Bessemer City Middle
Bessemer City High School (formerly Jess Lanier)
The Board of Education also operates the Quitman Mitchell Opportunity Center, which includes an adult learning center, Even Start child care center, and New Horizon Alternative School.
=== Private schools ===
K–12 private schools in the Bessemer include Rock Christian School and Bessemer Academy, which was founded as a segregation academy.
=== Community college ===
Lawson State Community College operates the former Bessemer Technical College campus. The two schools merged in 2005 as a cost-saving measure.
== Media ==
The Western Star is a weekly newspaper which covers Bessemer and nearby communities.
The Birmingham News is published three days per week, and also publishes a weekly section devoted to news from Bessemer and nearby communities.
One radio station, WZGX (1450 AM), operates within the city; it broadcasts some Spanish-language programming and music to appeal to the growing Mexican-American population of Jefferson County. It also continues a tradition of broadcasting high school football games on Friday nights. All of metro Birmingham's stations are heard in Bessemer, as well as several stations broadcasting from Tuscaloosa.
Television station WDBB (channel 17) is licensed to Bessemer, but broadcasts from studios in Birmingham, simulcasting with WTTO (channel 21). All of Birmingham's television stations may be viewed in Bessemer, and some have established news bureaus there.
== Infrastructure ==
=== Transportation ===
In 1911, the town was served by five railroad lines: Alabama Great Southern (Queen & Crescent route), the Louisville & Nashville Railroad, the Kansas City, Memphis & Birmingham (St. Louis & San Francisco Railroad system), the Birmingham Southern Railroad, and the Atlanta, Birmingham and Atlantic Railways. Passenger service decreased after people started choosing to travel by automobiles, increasingly so after World War II. In addition, there was widespread restructuring in the railroad industry that also applied to freight lines.
By 2006, the companies listed above had consolidated into CSX Transportation, which has lines to Birmingham and Brookwood, and the Norfolk Southern Railway, with lines to Birmingham, Mobile and New Orleans. Birmingham Southern continues in service. A major railroad feature is the "High Line", constructed by Tennessee Coal & Iron (predecessor to U.S. Steel) to ship iron ore from the mines on the city's south side to the steel works in nearby Fairfield. This elevated line traverses the eastern side of the city. Though tracks were removed over much of the High Line when the mines closed, part of the line is still used by the Birmingham Southern. All of the roadbed and bridges remain in place.
Transit service in Bessemer is provided by Birmingham-Jefferson County Transit Authority, which operates Max Transit bus service.
Bessemer is served by the small Bessemer Airport to the southeast of the city. Commercial service in the region is provided by the much larger Birmingham-Shuttlesworth International Airport, located 5 miles (8.0 km) north of downtown Birmingham, about 21 miles away in total.
Major highways in Bessemer include I-20/59, I-459, U.S. Route 11, and State Route 150, which connects Bessemer with Hoover.
== Notable people ==
David Bonnett, NASCAR driver
Neil Bonnett, NASCAR driver
McKinley Boykin, professional football player
Alex Bradford, composer, singer, arranger, and choir director
Mildred Brown, journalist
David L. DeJarnette, archaeologist, generally considered the "Father of Alabama Archaeology"
Thornton Dial, African-American folk artist
Nelsan Ellis, actor and playwright
Anthony Henton, former NFL linebacker
Mike Hill, Broadcaster, ESPN/Fox Sports and other national outlets
Virginia Hill, actress, mob courier and girlfriend of Bugsy Siegel
Andre Holland, actor
Frank House, born in Bessemer, major league baseball player
Bo Jackson, Heisman Trophy winner, NFL and MLB player
Lamar Johnson, former MLB first baseman
Eddie LeVert, singer
Gucci Mane, rapper
Reese McCall, former NFL tight end
David McCampbell, Medal of Honor recipient, and the US Navy's all-time leading ace with 34 aerial victories during World War II.
Edward McClain, Alabama state legislator
Deborah E. McDowell, English professor and author of a 1997 memoir of life in Bessemer, Leaving Pipe Shop
Elijah Nevett, NFL player
Kerry Rhodes, NFL player
Curtis Rowe, professional basketball player
DeMeco Ryans, NFL player and head coach
Glenn Shadix, born in Bessemer, actor
John Paul Thomas, artist, educator and scholar; born in Bessemer
Ontario Tillman, member of the Alabama House of Representatives born in Bessemer and resident
Olanda Truitt, NFL player
Larry Watkins, former NFL running back
Jack Whitten, abstract painter
Andre Williams, singer and producer
Gran Wilson, opera singer
Rod Windsor, NFL player
Jameis Winston, Heisman Trophy winner, quarterback for the New York Football Giants
== Notable animal ==
Matilda (chicken), Guinness World Record holder |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret_Truman | Margaret Truman | Mary Margaret Truman Daniel (February 17, 1924 – January 29, 2008) was an American classical soprano, actress, journalist, radio and television personality, writer, and New York socialite. She was the only child of President Harry S. Truman and First Lady Bess Truman. While her father was president during the years 1945 to 1953, Margaret regularly accompanied him on campaign trips, such as the 1948 countrywide whistle-stop campaign lasting several weeks. She also appeared at important White House and political events during those years and was a favorite with the media.
After graduating from George Washington University in 1946, Truman embarked on a career as a coloratura soprano, beginning with a concert appearance with the Detroit Symphony Orchestra in 1947. She appeared in the US in concerts with orchestras and in recitals through 1956. She made recordings for RCA Victor and made television appearances on programs such as What's My Line? and The Bell Telephone Hour.
In 1957, one year after her marriage, Truman abandoned her singing career to pursue a career as a journalist and radio personality when she became the cohost of the program Weekday with Mike Wallace. She also wrote articles as an independent journalist for a variety of publications in the 1960s and 1970s. Truman later became the successful author of a series of murder mysteries as well as a number of works on first ladies and their families, including well-received biographies of her father.
Truman was married to journalist Clifton Daniel, managing editor of The New York Times. The couple had four sons and lived in a Park Avenue apartment.
== Early life ==
Mary Margaret Truman was born at 219 North Delaware Street in Independence, Missouri, on February 17, 1924 and was named for her aunt Mary Jane Truman and maternal grandmother Margaret Gates Wallace, but she was called Margaret from early childhood. She took voice and piano lessons as a child (at the encouragement of her father, who famously played piano) and attended public school in Independence until her father's 1934 election to the United States Senate, after which her education was split between public schools in Independence and Gunston Hall School, a private school for girls in Washington, D.C.
In 1942, Truman matriculated at George Washington University, where she was a member of Pi Beta Phi, and earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in history and international relations in 1946. In June 1944, she christened the battleship USS Missouri at Brooklyn Navy Yard, and spoke again in 1986 at the ship's recommissioning. She studied singing with Estelle Liebling, the voice teacher of Beverly Sills, in New York City.
On April 12, 1945, President Franklin D. Roosevelt died and his vice president Harry Truman assumed the presidency when Margaret was 21.
== Career ==
=== Singing ===
When Truman was 16 years old, she began taking voice lessons in Independence from Mrs. Thomas J. Strickler, a family friend. After classical vocal training, Truman's singing career began with a debut radio recital in March 1947, followed shortly thereafter with her professional concert debut with the Detroit Symphony Orchestra. She sang professionally for the next decade, appearing with major American orchestras and embarking on several national concert tours. Some of her credits include concert appearances with the Los Angeles Philharmonic at the Hollywood Bowl, the National Symphony Orchestra, the NBC Symphony Orchestra, the Pittsburgh Symphony, the Philadelphia Orchestra, and the Saint Louis Symphony. While she never performed in staged operas, she did perform opera arias in concert. Her performances were mainly of both sacred and secular art songs, Lieder, and works from the concert soprano repertoire. In 1951 and 1952, RCA Victor issued two albums by Truman, one of classical selections, the other of American art songs. She also made recordings of German Lieder for NBC. A 1951 Time Magazine cover featured Truman with a single musical note floating by her head. She performed on stage, radio, and television through 1956.
At the beginning of her career, critical reviews of Truman's singing were positive, polite or diplomatic in tone, with some later reviewers speculating that negative opinions were withheld from deference to her father as a current president. This practice was broken in 1950 when Washington Post music critic Paul Hume wrote that Truman was "extremely attractive on the stage... [but] cannot sing very well. She is flat a good deal of the time. And still cannot sing with anything approaching professional finish." The review angered President Truman (who was dealing that same day with the sudden death of his childhood friend and White House press secretary Charlie Ross), who wrote to Hume, "Some day I hope to meet you. When that happens you'll need a new nose, a lot of beefsteak for black eyes, and perhaps a supporter below!" Hume wanted to publish the letter, but Washington Post publisher Philip Graham vetoed the idea. However, Hume showed the letter to a number of his colleagues, including Milton Berliner, music critic of the rival Washington Times Herald, which published a story. The Washington Post was then forced to acknowledge the letter, which drew international headlines, becoming a minor scandal for the Truman administration. Subsequent reviewers felt freer to be honest in their reviews of her performances, with mixed criticism for her singing thereafter.
=== Acting, radio, and journalism ===
Truman's professional acting debut occurred on April 26, 1951 when she costarred with James Stewart in the "Jackpot" episode of Screen Directors Playhouse on NBC radio. On March 17, 1952, Truman was a guest soloist on The Railroad Hour in a presentation of the operetta Sari.
Truman also performed on the NBC Radio program The Big Show where she met writer Goodman Ace, who offered her advice and pointers. Ace became a lifelong friend, advising Truman even after The Big Show. Truman became part of the team of NBC Radio's Weekday show that premiered in 1955, shortly after its Monitor program made its debut. Paired with Mike Wallace, she presented news and interviews aimed at a female listening audience.
She appeared several times as a panelist (and twice as a mystery guest) on the game show What's My Line? and guest-starred multiple times on NBC's The Martha Raye Show.
In 1957, Truman sang and played piano on The Gisele MacKenzie Show.
=== Writing ===
Truman's full-length biography of her father, published shortly before his 1972 death, was critically acclaimed. She also wrote a personal biography of her mother and histories of the White House and its inhabitants (including first ladies and pets). Truman published regularly into her eighties.
==== Novels ====
From 1980 to 2011, 25 books in the Capital Crimes series of murder mysteries, most set in and around Washington, D.C., were published under Margaret Truman's name.
Professional ghostwriter Donald Bain (1935–2017) acknowledged in the March 14, 2014, issue of Publishers Weekly that he had written "27 novels in the Margaret Truman Capital Crimes series (mostly bylined by Truman, my close collaborator – my name is on only the most recent entries, released after her death)."
In 2000, another ghostwriter, William Harrington, had claimed in a self-written obituary before his apparent suicide that Margaret Truman and others were his clients.
=== Institutions ===
She served on the board of directors for the Harry S. Truman Presidential Library and Museum and the Board of Governors of the Roosevelt Institute, and served as a Trustee for her alma mater.
== Personal life ==
On April 21, 1956, Truman married Clifton Daniel, a reporter for The New York Times and later its managing editor, at Trinity Episcopal Church in Independence; he died in 2000. They had four sons:
Clifton Truman Daniel (born June 5, 1957), Director of Public Relations for Harry S Truman College.
William Wallace Daniel (May 19, 1960 – September 4, 2000), a psychiatric social worker and researcher at Columbia University. He died after being struck by a taxicab in New York City.
Harrison Gates Daniel (born 1963)
Thomas Washington Daniel (born 1966)
== Popular culture ==
Italian dress designer Micol Fontana, who designed Truman’s wedding gown, was invited to be a surprise guest on the TV show What's My Line? in New York City, just six days before the Truman/Daniel wedding on April 21, 1956, in Independence, Missouri.
== Later years and death ==
In later life, Truman lived in her Park Avenue home. She died on January 29, 2008, in Chicago (to which she was relocating to be closer to her son Clifton). She was said to have been suffering from "a simple infection" and had been breathing with the assistance of a respirator. Her ashes and those of her husband are interred in Independence in her parents' burial plot on the grounds of the Truman Library.
== Written works ==
=== Non-fiction ===
=== Fiction ===
The Capital Crimes series:
As of 2021, six further novels in the series had been published under Truman's name as "with Donald Bain" or "with John Land." |
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bronco&redirect=no | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bronco&redirect=no | |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inspectah_Deck | Inspectah Deck | Jason S. Hunter (born July 6, 1970), better known by his stage name Inspectah Deck, is an American rapper and hip hop producer. He is a member of the groups Wu-Tang Clan and Czarface.
He has acquired critical praise for his intricate lyricism, and for his verses on many of the group's most revered songs. He has grown to become a producer in his own right, taking up tracks for fellow Wu rappers and his own projects.
== Early life ==
Jason Hunter was born July 6, 1970 in The Bronx and grew up in Staten Island. Hunter routinely mentions the Park Hill Projects in Clifton, Staten Island, where he grew up and went to school with Method Man, Raekwon, Ghostface Killah, and Remedy. Hunter's father died when he was six years old.
== Career ==
Hunter developed a laid-back and quiet personality which he carried into his stage persona, as a low-key counterbalance to the antics of Method Man, Ol' Dirty Bastard, and RZA, referenced by Method Man at the end of the track "Can it Be All So Simple?" on Wu-Tang's debut album Enter the Wu-Tang (36 Chambers):
Inspectah Deck, he's like that dude that'll sit back and watch you play yourself and all that right? And see you sit there and know you lying; and he'll take you to court after that, cause he the Inspectah.
Despite this inconspicuous persona, Inspectah Deck maintained a relatively high profile, as he was the second most featured member on the album, and provided highly acclaimed verses for the singles "C.R.E.A.M.," "Protect Ya Neck," "Wu-Tang Clan Ain't Nuthing ta Fuck Wit," and "Da Mystery of Chessboxin'." In the years following, Hunter would appear on several Wu members' solo projects, including Method Man's Tical (1994), Raekwon's Only Built 4 Cuban Linx… (1995), GZA's Liquid Swords (1995), and Ghostface Killah's Ironman (1996). On Wu-Tang's second group album, Wu-Tang Forever (1997), Deck produced the track "Visionz" and contributed a solo track, "The City", as well as writing one of the most critically acclaimed verses in hip-hop on the group's hit single "Triumph". He would also provide production for some of his Wu cohorts, including "Elements" and "Spazzola" for Method Man's Tical 2000: Judgement Day (1998), "Kiss of a Black Widow" for RZA's RZA as Bobby Digital in Stereo (1998), and the title track for GZA's Beneath the Surface (1999).
=== Solo career ===
Inspectah Deck was originally supposed to be featured on the track "Got My Mind Made Up" by 2Pac for his album All Eyez on Me along with Lady of Rage, however both artists were cut out at Shakur's request. The song went on to feature Tha Dogg Pound, Redman, and Deck's fellow Wu-Tang Clan member Method Man. Despite his verse being cut out, he can still be heard at the end of the song saying "INS the rebel" before it fades out. His debut album Uncontrolled Substance was initially set for a 1995 release on Loud Records, on which he signed for $650,000. But after Loud was acquired by Sony, it was delayed and set to release in late 1997, however, this experienced several additional delays due to a flood in producer RZA's basement studio, which destroyed over one hundred beats, including all of the instrumentals made for the album. In September 1999, Uncontrolled Substance was released, and featured more of Deck's own production, and appearances from several lesser known affiliates. The album received generally favorable reviews from music critics, but failed to garner the reception attained by earlier Wu-Tang solo projects. Shortly after this release, Deck returned to the Wu-Tang fold for the group albums The W (2000), and Iron Flag (2001).
In 2003, Inspectah Deck released his second studio album, The Movement, which he would later state did not live up to his expectations, and in 2006, he released The Resident Patient, intended as a prequel to The Movement. In 2007, the rapper reconvened with the Wu-Tang Clan to record the group album 8 Diagrams. Along with Raekwon, and Ghostface Killah, Inspectah Deck
partook in the controversy, sparked when several group members disparaged RZA's tight artistic control of the album, championing Ghost's album The Big Doe Rehab. In regards to these disagreements, Deck stated in an interview:
I feel like we have to give them a newer, better album such as the new Ghost album. I’m not saying that’s the truth either. I’m just saying that his album sounds like what a Wu-Tang album should sound like, but it’s him by himself.
Around this time he announced two new projects: an album called Czarface as a new collaboration called Czarface with Boston's 7L & Esoteric featuring the legendary DJ Premier and his up-coming solo album The Rebellion, confirming production from RZA and the Wu-Elements; it is now set to come after The Resident Patient II, and will reportedly be his final album as a solo artist.
On March 23, 2010, Inspectah Deck released his fourth solo album Manifesto, which features guest-appearances from Raekwon, Cormega, Termanology, Planet Asia, Cappadonna, Kurupt, and M.O.P.'s Billy Danze. In 2008, a mixtape entitled The Resident Patient II was leaked on to the internet; this features some original material, as well as freestyles over other artists' songs. Inspectah Deck stated in an interview that The Manifesto was meant to be the originally announced full-length sequel, Resident Patient II.
Since early 2010, Inspectah Deck has begun work on Czarface and The Rebellion, and has expressed his interest in working with several Wu-Tang members, as well as Snoop Dogg, E-40, Nas and Jadakiss on the album. He had mentioned in an interview with Conspiracy Radio that he will only retire from solo albums if the fans don't show support for The Manifesto and The Rebellion. He has also mentioned his plans to release an instrumental album of his own production, entitled The Bodyrock Volume 1, which is inspired by the instrumental albums released by Alchemist, Ayatollah, and Pete Rock. On February 11, 2013, in an interview with HipHopDX, Inspectah Deck stated that he also has an upcoming album with producer Agallah in the works, and later confirmed during that year that he had renamed his "The Rebellion" album to Rebellion 2013. He recently confirmed via Twitter that he has again changed the name of his final album to Uncontrolled Substance II, a sequel to his debut album; that will be produced primarily by RZA along with The Wu-Elements.
After working with The Wu-Tang Clan on their sixth studio album A Better Tomorrow, he reunited with 7L & Esoteric for another Czarface album titled Every Hero Needs a Villain, which was released in June 2015, and again in 2016 for the third Czarface album, A Fistful of Peril, after Marvel Entertainment reached out to them to record a track for their Black Panther web-series.
== Discography ==
Studio albums
Uncontrolled Substance (1999)
The Movement (2003)
The Resident Patient (2006)
Manifesto (2010)
Chamber No. 9 (2019)
with Czarface
Czarface (2013)
Every Hero Needs a Villain (2015)
A Fistful of Peril (2016)
First Weapon Drawn (2017)
Double Dose of Danger (2019)
The Odd Czar Against Us (2019)
Czar Noir (2021)
Czarmageddon (2022)
Czartificial Intelligence (2023)
Collaboration albums with Czarface
Czarface Meets Metal Face (with MF Doom) (2018)
Czarface Meets Ghostface (with Ghostface Killah) (2019)
Super What? (with MF Doom) (2021)
Everybody Eats! (with Kool Keith) (2024) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Benoit#Death | Chris Benoit#Death | Christopher Michael Benoit ( bə-NWAH; May 21, 1967 – June 24, 2007) was a Canadian professional wrestler who worked for various promotions during his 22-year career. Despite his accomplishments, he is more generally known for murdering his wife and youngest son before committing suicide.
Bearing the nicknames The (Canadian) Crippler alongside The Rabid Wolverine throughout his career, Benoit held 30 championships between the World Wrestling Federation/World Wrestling Entertainment (WWF/WWE), World Championship Wrestling (WCW), Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW – all United States), New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW – Japan), and Stampede Wrestling (Canada). Benoit was a two-time world champion, having reigned as a one-time WCW World Heavyweight Champion and a one-time World Heavyweight Champion in WWE; he was booked to win the ECW World Championship at Vengeance: Night of Champions, which was held the night of his death. Benoit was the twelfth WWE Triple Crown Champion and the seventh WCW Triple Crown Champion, and the second of four men in history to achieve both the WWE and the WCW Triple Crown Championships. He was also the 2004 Royal Rumble winner, joining Shawn Michaels and preceding Edge as one of the three men to win the Royal Rumble match as the number one entrant. Benoit headlined multiple pay-per-views for WWF/WWE, including a victory in the World Heavyweight Championship main event of WrestleMania XX in March 2004.
In a three-day double-murder and suicide, Benoit murdered his wife in their residence on June 22, 2007, and his 7-year-old son the next day, before killing himself on June 24. The incident profoundly shocked and changed the professional wrestling industry and drew intense media criticism regarding brain injuries, substance abuse, and the long-term health of athletes in contact sports. Subsequent research undertaken by the Sports Legacy Institute (now the Concussion Legacy Foundation) suggested that depression and advanced chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), a condition of brain damage, from repeated legitimate strikes to the head that Benoit had sustained throughout his pro-wrestling career were likely contributing factors of the crimes.
Due to his murders, Benoit's legacy in the professional wrestling industry is widely controversial and heavily debated. Benoit has been renowned by many for his exceptional technical wrestling ability. Prominent combat sports journalist Dave Meltzer considers Benoit "one of the top 10, maybe even [in] the top five, all-time greats" in professional wrestling history. Benoit was inducted into the Stampede Wrestling Hall of Fame in 1995 and the Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame in 2003. His WON induction was put to a re-vote in 2008 to determine if Benoit should remain a member of their Hall of Fame. The threshold percentage of votes required to remove Benoit was not met. While arguments have been made by a number of pro-wrestling fans and industry alumni for Benoit to one day enter the WWE Hall of Fame on account of his in-ring work, the overwhelming opinion from the majority of industry veterans is that the nature of Benoit's death disqualifies him from a posthumous induction.
== Early life ==
Benoit was born in Montreal, Quebec, the son of Michael and Margaret Benoit. He grew up in Edmonton, Alberta, from where he was billed throughout the bulk of his career. He had a sister who lived near Edmonton.
During his childhood and early adolescence in Edmonton, Benoit idolized Tom "Dynamite Kid" Billington and Bret Hart; at twelve years old, he attended a local wrestling event at which the two performers "stood out above everyone else". Benoit trained to become a professional wrestler in the Hart family "Dungeon", receiving education from family patriarch Stu Hart. In-ring, Benoit emulated both Billington and Bret Hart, cultivating a high-risk style and physical appearance more reminiscent of the former (years later, he adopted Hart's own "Sharpshooter" hold as a finishing move).
== Professional wrestling career ==
=== Stampede Wrestling (1985–1989) ===
Benoit began his career in 1985, in Stu Hart's Stampede Wrestling promotion. From the beginning, similarities between Benoit and Billington were apparent, as Benoit adopted many of his moves such as the diving headbutt and the snap suplex; the homage was complete with his initial billing as "Dynamite" Chris Benoit. According to Benoit, in his first match, he attempted the diving headbutt before learning how to land correctly, and had the wind knocked out of him; he said he would never do the move again at that point. His debut match was a tag team match on November 22, 1985, in Calgary, Alberta, where he teamed with "The Remarkable" Rick Patterson against Butch Moffat and Mike Hammer, which Benoit's team won the match after Benoit pinned Moffat with a sunset flip. The first title Benoit ever won was the Stampede British Commonwealth Mid-Heavyweight Championship on March 18, 1988, against Gama Singh. During his tenure in Stampede, he won four International Tag Team and three more British Commonwealth titles, and had a lengthy feud with Johnny Smith that lasted for over a year, which both men traded back-and-forth the British Commonwealth title. In 1989, Stampede closed its doors, and with a recommendation from Bad News Allen, Benoit departed for New Japan Pro-Wrestling.
=== New Japan Pro-Wrestling (1986–1999) ===
Upon arriving to New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW), Benoit spent about a year training in their "New Japan Dojo" with the younger wrestlers to improve his abilities. While in the dojo, he spent months doing strenuous activities like push-ups and floor sweeping before stepping into the ring. He made his Japanese debut in 1986 under his real name. In 1989, he started wearing a mask and assuming the name The Pegasus Kid. Benoit said numerous times that he originally hated the mask, but it eventually became a part of him. While with NJPW, he came into his own as a performer in matches with luminaries like Jushin Thunder Liger, Shinjiro Otani, Black Tiger, and El Samurai in their junior heavyweight division.
In August 1990, he won his first major championship, the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship, from Jushin Thunder Liger. He eventually lost the title in November 1990 (and in July 1991 in Japan and in November 1991 in Mexico, his mask) back to Liger, forcing him to reinvent himself as Wild Pegasus. Benoit spent the next couple years in Japan, winning the Best of the Super Juniors tournament twice in 1993 and 1995. He went on to win the inaugural Super J-Cup tournament in 1994, defeating Black Tiger, Gedo, and The Great Sasuke in the finals. He wrestled outside New Japan occasionally to compete in Mexico and Europe, where he won a few regional championships, including the UWA Light Heavyweight Championship. He held that title for over a year, having many forty-plus minute matches with Villano III.
=== World Championship Wrestling (1992–1993) ===
Benoit first came to World Championship Wrestling (WCW) in June 1992, teaming up with fellow Canadian wrestler Biff Wellington for the NWA World Tag Team Championship tournament; they were defeated by Brian Pillman and Jushin Thunder Liger in the first round at Clash of the Champions XIX.
He did not return to WCW until January 1993 at Clash of the Champions XXII, defeating Brad Armstrong. A month later, at SuperBrawl III, he lost to 2 Cold Scorpio, getting pinned with only three seconds left in the 20-minute time limit. At the same time, he formed a tag team with Bobby Eaton. After he and Eaton lost to Scorpio and Marcus Bagwell at Slamboree, Benoit headed back to Japan.
=== Various promotions (1993–1994) ===
After WCW, Benoit worked in Australia, and CMLL in Mexico. In early 1994, he worked for NWA New Jersey where he defeated Jerry Lawler. A month later he fought Terry Funk to a double count out.
=== Extreme Championship Wrestling (1994–1995) ===
In August 1994, Benoit began working with Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) in between tours of Japan. He was booked as a dominant wrestler there, gaining notoriety as the "Crippler" after he put Rocco Rock out. In his first appearance, Benoit competed in a one-night eight-man tournament for the vacant NWA World Heavyweight Championship, losing to 2 Cold Scorpio in the quarter-finals match.
At November to Remember, Benoit accidentally broke Sabu's neck within the opening seconds of the match. The injury came when Benoit threw Sabu with the intention that he take a face-first "pancake" bump, but Sabu attempted to turn mid-air and take a backdrop bump instead. He did not achieve full rotation and landed almost directly on his neck.
After this match Benoit returned to the locker room and broke down over the possibility that he might have paralysed someone. Paul Heyman, the head booker of ECW at the time, came up with the idea of continuing the "Crippler" moniker for Benoit. From that point until his departure from ECW, he was known as "Crippler Benoit". When he returned to WCW in October 1995, WCW modified his ring name to "Canadian Crippler Chris Benoit". In The Rise and Fall of ECW book, Heyman commented that he planned on using Benoit as a dominant heel for quite some time, before putting the company's main title, the ECW World Heavyweight Championship, on him to be the long-term champion of the company.
Benoit and Dean Malenko won the ECW World Tag Team Championship – Benoit's first American title – from Sabu and The Tazmaniac in February 1995 at Return of the Funker. After winning, they were initiated into the Triple Threat stable, led by ECW World Heavyweight Champion, Shane Douglas, as Douglas's attempt to recreate the Four Horsemen, as the three-man contingency held all three of the ECW championships at the time (Malenko also held the ECW World Television Championship at the time). The team lost the championship to The Public Enemy that April at Three Way Dance. Benoit spent some time in ECW feuding with The Steiner Brothers and rekindling the feud with 2 Cold Scorpio. He was forced to leave ECW after his work visa expired; Heyman was supposed to renew it, but he failed to make it on time, so Benoit left ECW in August 1995 as a matter of job security and the ability to enter the United States. He toured Japan until WCW called.
=== World Wrestling Federation (1995) ===
In June 1995, while under contract with ECW, Benoit worked in three dark matches, losing to Bob Holly, Adam Bomb and Owen Hart.
=== Return to WCW (1995–2000) ===
==== The Four Horsemen (1995–1999) ====
New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) and World Championship Wrestling (WCW) had a working relationship, and because of their "talent exchange" program, Benoit signed with WCW in late 1995 along with a number of talent working in New Japan to be a part of the angle. Like the majority of those who came to WCW in the exchange, he started out in as a member of the cruiserweight division, having lengthy matches against many of his former rivals in Japan on almost every single broadcast. At the end of 1995, Benoit went back to Japan as a part of the "talent exchange" to wrestle as a representative for New Japan in the Super J-Cup: 2nd Stage, defeating Lionheart in the quarterfinals (he received a bye to the quarterfinals for his work in 1995, similar to the way he advanced in the 1994 edition) and losing to Gedo in the semifinals.
After impressing higher-ups with his work, he was approached by Ric Flair and the WCW booking staff to become a member of the reformed Four Horsemen in 1995, alongside Flair, Arn Anderson, and Brian Pillman; he was introduced by Pillman as a gruff, no-nonsense heel similar to his ECW persona, "The Crippler". He was brought in to add a new dynamic for Anderson and Flair's tormenting of Hulk Hogan and Randy Savage in their "Alliance to End Hulkamania", which saw the Horsemen team up with The Dungeon of Doom, but that alliance ended with Dungeon leader and WCW booker, Kevin Sullivan feuding with Pillman. When Pillman abruptly left the company for the WWF, Benoit was placed into his ongoing feud with Sullivan. This came to fruition through a dissension between the two in a tag team match with the two reluctantly teaming with each other against The Public Enemy, and Benoit being attacked by Sullivan at Slamboree. This led to the two having violent confrontations at pay-per-views, which led to Sullivan booking a feud in which Benoit was having an affair with Sullivan's real-life wife and onscreen valet, Nancy (also known as Woman). Benoit and Nancy were forced to spend time together to make the affair look real, (hold hands in public, share hotel rooms, etc.).
This onscreen relationship developed into a real-life affair offscreen. As a result, Sullivan and Benoit had a contentious backstage relationship at best, and an undying hatred for each other at worst. Benoit did, however, admit having a certain amount of respect for Sullivan, saying on the DVD Hard Knocks: The Chris Benoit Story that Sullivan never took undue liberties in the ring during their feud, even though he blamed Benoit for breaking up his marriage. This continued for over the course of a year with Sullivan having his enforcers apprehend Benoit in a multitude of matches. This culminated in a retirement match at the Bash at the Beach, where Benoit defeated Sullivan; this was used to explain Sullivan going to a behind-the-scenes role, where he could focus on his initial job of booking.
In 1998, Benoit had a long feud with Booker T. They fought over the WCW World Television Championship until Booker lost the title to Fit Finlay. Booker won a "Best-of-Seven" series which was held between the two to determine a number one contender. Benoit went up 3 to 1 before Booker caught up, forcing the 7th and final match on Monday Nitro. During the match, Bret Hart interjected himself, interfering on behalf of Benoit in an attempt to get him to join the New World Order. Benoit refused to win that way and told the referee what happened, getting himself disqualified. Booker refused that victory, instead opting for an eighth match at the Great American Bash to see who would fight Finlay later that night. Booker won the final match and went on to beat Finlay for the title. This feud significantly elevated both men's careers as singles competitors, and both remained at the top of the midcard afterward.
In 1999, Benoit teamed with Dean Malenko once again and defeated Curt Hennig and Barry Windham to win the WCW World Tag Team Championship. This led to a reformation of the Four Horsemen with the tag team champions, Anderson, and Steve "Mongo" McMichael. The two hunted after the tag team championship for several months, feuding with teams like Raven and Perry Saturn or Billy Kidman and Rey Mysterio Jr.
==== The Revolution and World Heavyweight Champion (1999–2000) ====
After a falling out with Anderson and McMichael, Benoit and Malenko left the Horsemen; he won the WCW United States Heavyweight Championship before bringing together Malenko, Perry Saturn, and Shane Douglas to form "the Revolution".
The Revolution was a heel stable of younger wrestlers who felt slighted (both kayfabe and legitimate) by WCW management, believing they never gave them the chance to be stars, pushing older, more established wrestlers instead, despite their then-current questionable worthiness of their pushes. This led to the Revolution seceding from WCW, and forming their own nation, complete with a flag. This led to some friction being created between Benoit and leader, Douglas, who called into question Benoit's heart in the group, causing Benoit to quit the group, thus turning face, and having his own crusade against the top stars, winning the Television title one more time and the United States title from Jeff Jarrett in a ladder match. In October 1999 on Nitro in Kansas City, Missouri, Benoit wrestled Bret Hart as a tribute to Bret's brother Owen Hart, who had recently died due to an equipment malfunction. Hart defeated Benoit by submission, and the two received a standing ovation, and an embrace from guest ring announcer, Harley Race.
Benoit was unhappy working for WCW. One last attempt in January 2000 was made to try to keep him with WCW, by putting the vacant WCW World Heavyweight Championship on him by defeating Sid Vicious at Souled Out. However, due to disagreements with management and to protest the promotion of Kevin Sullivan to head booker, Benoit left WCW the next day alongside his friends Eddie Guerrero, Dean Malenko, and Perry Saturn, forfeiting his title in the process. WCW then refused to acknowledge Benoit's victory as an official title reign, and Benoit's title reign was not listed in the title lineage at WCW.com. However, the WWF recognized Benoit's title win, and Benoit's title reign is still listed in the title lineage at WWE.com. Benoit spent the next few weeks in Japan before heading to the WWF, who acknowledged his WCW World Heavyweight Championship win and presented him as a former world champion.
=== World Wrestling Federation/Entertainment (2000–2007) ===
==== The Radicalz (2000–2001) ====
Benoit joined the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) near the end of its Attitude Era. Along with Guerrero, Saturn and Malenko, Benoit debuted in a stable that became known as the Radicalz. After losing their "tryout matches" upon entry, The Radicalz aligned themselves with WWF Champion Triple H and became a heel faction. At WrestleMania 2000 on April 2, Benoit pinned Chris Jericho in a triple threat match to win Kurt Angle's Intercontinental Championship. In Benoit's first WWF pay-per-view main events, he challenged The Rock for the WWF Championship at Fully Loaded on July 23 and in a fatal four-way match at Unforgiven on September 24. On both occasions Benoit appeared to have won the title, only to have the decision reversed by then-WWF commissioner Mick Foley due to cheating on Benoit's part. Benoit simultaneously entered into a lengthy feud over the Intercontinental title with Jericho, who he defeated at Backlash on April 30, Judgment Day on May 21 and SummerSlam on August 27. The feud culminated in Jericho defeating Benoit in a ladder match at Royal Rumble on January 21, 2001. Benoit won the title three times between April 2000 and January 2001.
In early 2001, Benoit broke away from The Radicalz (who had recently reformed three months earlier) and turned face, feuding first with his former stablemates and then with Angle. Benoit lost to Angle at WrestleMania X-Seven on April 1, but defeated him in an "Ultimate Submission" match at Backlash on April 29. The feud continued after Benoit stole Angle's cherished Olympic Gold Medal, with Angle defeating Benoit at Judgment Day on May 20 in a two-out-of-three falls match with the help of Edge and Christian. In response, Benoit teamed up with his former rival Jericho to defeat Edge and Christian in that night's Tag Team Turmoil match to become the number one contenders to the WWF Tag Team Championship.
The next night on Raw Is War, Benoit and Jericho won the titles from Stone Cold Steve Austin and Triple H. On the May 24 episode of SmackDown!, Benoit suffered a legitimate neck injury in a four-way TLC match. Benoit challenged Austin for the WWF Championship on two occasions, first losing in a manner similar to the Montreal Screwjob in Calgary on the May 28 episode of Raw is War and then losing in a close match in Benoit's hometown of Edmonton on the May 31 episode of SmackDown!. Despite the neck injury, Benoit continued to wrestle until the King of the Ring on June 24, where he was pinned by Austin in a triple threat match for the WWF Championship also involving Jericho. Benoit missed the next year due to his neck injury, missing the entire Invasion storyline.
==== Championship pursuits and reigns (2002–2003) ====
During the first WWF draft, Benoit was the third wrestler picked by Vince McMahon to be part of the new SmackDown! roster, although still on the injured list. However, when Benoit returned, he did so as a member of the Raw roster, turning heel by aligning himself with Eddie Guerrero. Benoit and Guerrero lost to the Dudley Boyz (Bubba Ray and Spike) in an elimination tables match at Vengeance on July 21. The following week on Raw, Benoit defeated Rob Van Dam to become Intercontinental Champion for the fourth and final time. Benoit and Guerrero were then moved to SmackDown! during a storyline "open season" on wrestler contracts, with Benoit taking the Intercontinental Championship to SmackDown!. Van Dam defeated Benoit at SummerSlam on August 25 and returned the title to Raw.
Benoit defeated Kurt Angle at Unforgiven on September 22. Benoit was then paired with Angle in a tournament to crown the first-ever WWE Tag Team Champions, defeating Edge and Rey Mysterio in the finals at No Mercy on October 20. Benoit and Angle made their first successful defense against Los Guerreros (Eddie and Chavo) at Rebellion on October 26. Benoit and Angle lost the WWE Tag Team Championship to Edge and Mysterio on the November 7 episode of SmackDown! in a two-out-of-three falls match. At Survivor Series on November 17, Benoit and Angle were the first team eliminated in a triple threat elimination match for the titles against Edge and Mysterio and Los Guerreros. Shortly after, the team split when Angle became the number one contender to the WWE Championship, turning Benoit face. Benoit defeated Eddie Guerrero on December 15 at Armageddon.
After Angle won the WWE Championship at Armageddon, Benoit feuded with Angle and his Team Angle stablemates Charlie Haas and Shelton Benjamin. On January 19, 2003, at the Royal Rumble, Benoit failed to win the title from Angle. At No Way Out on February 23, Benoit and Brock Lesnar defeated Team Angle in a handicap match. At WrestleMania XIX on March 30, Benoit and Rhyno failed to win the WWE Tag Team Championship from Team Angle in a triple threat tag team match also involving Los Guerreros. They teamed with Spanky in a loss to John Cena and The Full Blooded Italians at Judgment Day on May 18.
In June, the WCW United States Championship was reactivated and renamed the WWE United States Championship, and Benoit participated in a tournament for the title. Benoit lost in the finals to Eddie Guerrero at Vengeance on July 27 after Rhyno turned on Benoit. Benoit failed to win the title in a fatal four-way match at SummerSlam on August 24 and defeated A-Train at No Mercy on October 19. At Survivor Series on November 16, Benoit eliminated Lesnar as part of a Survivor Series elimination tag team match between Team Angle against Team Lesnar. As a result, Benoit challenged Lesnar for the WWE Championship on the December 4 episode of SmackDown!, but lost after passing out to Lesnar's debuting Brock Lock submission hold.
==== World Heavyweight Champion (2004–2005) ====
On the January 1, 2004 episode of SmackDown!, Benoit and Cena defeated FBI in a handicap match to qualify for the Royal Rumble match; SmackDown! General Manager Paul Heyman named Benoit as the number one entrant. At the Royal Rumble on January 25, Benoit won the Royal Rumble match by last eliminating Big Show, earning a world title shot at WrestleMania XX and becoming the second person to win the Royal Rumble as the number one entrant after Shawn Michaels. Instead of challenging for SmackDown!'s WWE Championship, Benoit exploited a "loophole" in the rules and moved to the Raw brand to challenge World Heavyweight Champion Triple H at WrestleMania. Michaels, whose Last Man Standing match for the title against Triple H at Royal Rumble ended in a draw, thought that he deserved to be in the main event. Before Benoit could sign the contract putting himself in the main event, Michaels superkicked him and signed his name on the contract, resulting in a triple threat match between Michaels, Benoit, and the champion Triple H.
At WrestleMania XX on March 14, Benoit won the World Heavyweight Championship after Triple H submitted to his signature submission move, the Crippler Crossface, marking the first time the main event of a WrestleMania ended in submission. After the match, Benoit celebrated his win with then-reigning WWE Champion Eddie Guerrero. At Backlash on April 18, in Benoit's hometown of Edmonton, he successfully defended the title in a rematch after Michaels submitted to Benoit's Sharpshooter. The next night in Calgary on Raw, Benoit and Edge won the World Tag Team Championship from Batista and Ric Flair, making Benoit a double champion. Benoit simultaneously feuded with Kane, and Benoit and Edge lost the titles to La Résistance on the May 31 episode of Raw. On June 13, at Bad Blood, Benoit and Edge failed to regain the World Tag Team Championship (winning by disqualification when Kane interfered), while Benoit successfully defended the World Heavyweight Championship against Kane later that night. Benoit again defeated Kane to retain the title on the June 28 episode of Raw.
At Vengeance on July 11, Benoit successfully defended the title against Triple H. At SummerSlam on August 15, Benoit lost the World Heavyweight Championship to Randy Orton, ending his reign at 154 days. Benoit failed to regain the title the next night on Raw. Benoit and William Regal defeated Batista and Flair at Unforgiven on September 12.
Benoit then feuded with Edge, who had turned into an arrogant and conceited heel. At Taboo Tuesday on October 19, Benoit, Edge and Michaels were all put into a poll to see who would face Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship that night. Michaels received the most votes, and Edge and Benoit were forced to face World Tag Team Champions La Résistance in the same night. Despite Edge deserting Benoit during the match, they regained the World Tag Team Championship, before losing the titles in a rematch on the November 1 episode of Raw. Benoit was a part of Orton's team at Survivor Series on November 14, while Edge was on Triple H's team. Despite Benoit being pinned after a Pedigree from Triple H, Orton's team won. At New Year's Revolution on January 9, 2005, Benoit and Edge competed in the Elimination Chamber match for the vacant World Heavyweight Championship, but both lost. Benoit entered the Royal Rumble as the second entrant on January 30, lasting longer than any competitor before being eliminated by Flair. Benoit competed in the Money in the Bank ladder match at WrestleMania 21 on April 3, which was won by Edge after he knocked Benoit off the ladder by smashing his arm with a chair. Their feud ended in a Last Man Standing match at Backlash on May 1, which Edge won with a brick shot to the back of Benoit's head.
==== United States Champion (2005–2007) ====
On June 9, Benoit was drafted to the SmackDown! brand after being the first man selected by SmackDown! in the 2005 Draft Lottery and participated in an ECW-style revolution against the SmackDown! heels. Benoit appeared at ECW One Night Stand on June 12, defeating Eddie Guerrero.
On July 24, at The Great American Bash, Benoit failed to win the United States Championship from Orlando Jordan, but won it in a rematch at SummerSlam on August 21 in 25 seconds. Benoit then won three consecutive matches against Jordan in less than a minute. At No Mercy on October 9, Benoit successfully defended the title against Booker T, Christian and Jordan in a fatal-four way match. However, Booker T and his wife, Sharmell, cheated Benoit out of the title on the October 21 episode of SmackDown!.
On November 13, Eddie Guerrero was found dead in his hotel room. The following night, Raw held a Guerrero tribute show hosted by both Raw and SmackDown! wrestlers. Benoit was devastated at Guerrero's death and was very emotional during a series of video testimonials, breaking down on camera. The same week on SmackDown! (taped on the same night as Raw), Benoit defeated Triple H in a tribute match to Guerrero, after which they and Dean Malenko assembled in the ring and pointed to the sky in salute of Guerrero.
After controversy surrounding a United States Championship match against Booker T on the November 25 episode of SmackDown!, Theodore Long set up a "Best of Seven" series between the two. Booker T won three times in a row at Survivor Series on November 27, the November 29 SmackDown! Special and the December 9 episode of SmackDown!, due largely to Sharmell's interference, and Benoit faced elimination in the series. Benoit won the fourth match to stay alive at Armageddon on December 18, but after the match, Booker T suffered a legitimate groin injury, and Randy Orton was chosen as a stand-in. Benoit defeated Orton twice by disqualification on the December 30 and January 6, 2006 episodes of SmackDown!. However, in the seventh and final match, Orton defeated Benoit with the help of Booker T, Sharmell and Jordan, awarding Booker T the United States Championship. At No Way Out on February 19, Benoit won the title after making Booker T submit to the Crippler Crossface, ending the feud.
The next week on SmackDown!, Benoit (kayfabe) broke John "Bradshaw" Layfield (JBL)'s hand (JBL actually needed surgery to remove a cyst). At WrestleMania 22 on April 2, Benoit lost the title to JBL, who used an illegal cradle to win. Benoit used his rematch clause two weeks later in a steel cage match on SmackDown!, but JBL again won with illegal tactics. Benoit entered the King of the Ring tournament, but lost to Finlay in the first round after Finlay struck Benoit's neck with a chair and delivered a Celtic Cross. At Judgment Day on May 21, Benoit defeated Finlay. On the following episode of SmackDown!, Mark Henry brutalized Benoit during their match, giving him (kayfabe) back and rib injuries and causing him to bleed from his mouth. Benoit then took a sabbatical to heal nagging shoulder injuries.
On October 8, Benoit made his surprise return at No Mercy, defeating William Regal. Later that week, Benoit defeated Mr. Kennedy to win his fifth and final United States Championship. Benoit engaged in a feud with Chavo and Vickie Guerrero, seeking answers from them for their rash behaviour towards Rey Mysterio, but was avoided by the two and eventually assaulted. Benoit successfully defended the title against Chavo at Survivor Series on November 26, Armageddon on December 17, and in a no disqualification match on the January 19, 2007 episode of SmackDown!. Benoit's next feud was with Montel Vontavious Porter (MVP), teaming with the Hardy Boys (Jeff and Matt) to defeat MVP and MNM (Joey Mercury and Johnny Nitro) at No Way Out on February 18. Benoit successfully defended the title against MVP at WrestleMania 23 on April 1 and Backlash on April 29, before losing it to MVP in a two-out-of-three falls match at Judgment Day on May 20.
==== ECW (2007) ====
On the June 11 episode of Raw, Benoit was drafted to the ECW brand as part of the 2007 WWE draft after losing to ECW World Champion Bobby Lashley. In his debut on the ECW brand, Benoit teamed with CM Punk to defeat Elijah Burke and Marcus Cor Von. On the June 19 episode of ECW, Benoit wrestled his final match, defeating Burke in a match to determine who would compete for the vacated ECW World Championship at Vengeance on June 24. Since Lashley was drafted to Raw, he had vacated the title.
Benoit missed the weekend house shows, informing close colleagues that his wife and son were vomiting blood due to food poisoning. When he failed to show up for Vengeance, viewers were informed that he was unable to compete due to a "family emergency" and he was replaced in the title match by Johnny Nitro, who defeated Punk to become ECW World Champion. The crowd spent the majority of the match chanting for Benoit. It would be revealed in the following days that Benoit had murdered his wife Nancy and son Daniel before committing suicide.
WWE executive Stephanie McMahon later indicated that Benoit would have defeated CM Punk for the ECW World Championship had he been present for Vengeance. Professional wrestler and MMA fighter Bob Sapp, whom WWE had tried to sign up before a contract dispute with K-1 rendered it impossible, reported he would have been put into an oncoming angle with Benoit in case he would have been able to debut.
== Professional wrestling style ==
Benoit, known for his high-impact technical style, included a wide array of submission holds in his move-set and used a crossface, dubbed the Crippler Crossface, and a sharpshooter as finishers. He also used a diving headbutt, which saw him leap off the top rope and land head first on his opponent; this move was partially blamed for the head trauma that caused Benoit to commit his crimes. Another of Benoit's trademark moves was three rolling German suplexes. This move would later be mimicked by multiple other wrestlers, including Brock Lesnar who uses it as Suplex City.
Former WWE rival Kurt Angle said in a 2017 interview that "he has got to be in the top three of all time."
== Professional wrestling games ==
== Personal life ==
Benoit spoke both English and French fluently. He married twice, and had two children (David and Megan) with his first wife, Martina. By 1997, that marriage had broken down, and Benoit was living with Nancy Sullivan, the wife of the WCW booker and frequent opponent Kevin Sullivan. On February 25, 2000, Chris and Nancy's son Daniel was born; on November 23, 2000, Chris and Nancy married. It was Nancy's third marriage. In 2003, Nancy filed for divorce from Benoit, citing the marriage as "irrevocably broken" and alleging "cruel treatment". She claimed that he would break and throw furniture around. She later dropped the suit as well as the restraining order she had filed.
Benoit was good friends with fellow pro-wrestlers Eddie Guerrero and Dean Malenko; the trio travelled from promotion to promotion together putting on matches, eventually being dubbed the "Three Amigos" by commentators. According to Benoit, the Crippler Crossface was borrowed from Malenko and eventually caught on as Benoit's finishing hold. After Guerrero died in November 2005, Benoit acquired a diary in which he wrote grief-stricken personal entries to a deceased Guerrero as a coping mechanism.
Benoit's lost tooth, his top-right lateral incisor, was commonly misattributed to training or an accident early on in his wrestling career. It actually resulted from an accident involving his pet Rottweiler: one day while playing with the dog, the animal's head struck Benoit's chin, and his tooth "popped out".
== Death ==
On June 25, 2007, police entered Benoit's home in Fayetteville, Georgia, when WWE, Benoit's employers, requested a "welfare check" after Benoit missed weekend events without notice, leading to concerns. The officers discovered the bodies of Benoit, his wife Nancy, and their 7-year-old son Daniel at around 2:30 p.m. EDT. Upon investigating, no additional suspects were sought by authorities. It was determined that Benoit had committed the murders. Over a three-day period, Benoit had killed his wife and son before committing suicide. His wife was bound before the killing. Benoit's son was drugged with Xanax and likely unconscious before Benoit strangled him. Benoit then committed suicide by hanging himself on his lat pulldown machine.
WWE cancelled the scheduled three-hour-long live Raw show on June 25 and replaced the broadcast version with a three-hour tribute to Benoit's life and career, featuring his past matches, segments from the Hard Knocks: The Chris Benoit Story DVD, and comments from wrestlers and announcers. Once the details of Benoit's actions became apparent, WWE made the decision to remove nearly all mentions of Chris Benoit from their website, future broadcasts, and all publications.
Toxicology reports released on July 17, 2007, revealed that at their time of death, Nancy had three different drugs in her system: Xanax, hydrocodone, and hydromorphone, all of which were found at the therapeutic rather than toxic levels. Daniel was found to have Xanax in his system, which led the chief medical examiner to believe that he was sedated before he was murdered. Benoit was found to have Xanax, hydrocodone, and an elevated level of testosterone, caused by a synthetic form of the hormone, in his system. The chief medical examiner attributed the testosterone level to Benoit possibly being treated for a deficiency caused by previous steroid abuse or testicular insufficiency. There was no indication that anything in Benoit's body contributed to his violent behaviour that led to the murder-suicide, concluding that there was no "roid-rage" involved. Prior to the murder-suicide, Benoit had illegally been given medications not in compliance with WWE's Talent Wellness Program in February 2006, including nandrolone, an anabolic steroid, and anastrozole, a breast cancer medication which is used by bodybuilders for its powerful antiestrogenic effects. During the investigation into steroid abuse, it was revealed that other wrestlers had also been given steroids.
After the double-murder suicide, neuroscientist and retired professional wrestler Christopher Nowinski contacted Michael Benoit, Chris's father, suggesting that years of trauma to his son's brain may have led to his actions. Tests were conducted on Benoit's brain by Julian Bailes, the head of neurosurgery at West Virginia University, and results showed that "Benoit's brain was so severely damaged it resembled the brain of an 85-year-old Alzheimer's patient." He was reported to have had an advanced form of dementia, similar to the brains of four retired NFL players who had multiple concussions, sank into depression, and harmed themselves or others. Bailes and his colleagues concluded that repeated concussions can lead to dementia, which can contribute to severe behavioural problems. Benoit's father suggests that brain damage may have been the leading cause.
== Championships and accomplishments ==
Cauliflower Alley Club
Future Legend Award (2002)
Catch Wrestling Association
CWA World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Dave Taylor
Extreme Championship Wrestling
ECW World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Dean Malenko
New Japan Pro-Wrestling
IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
Super J-Cup (1994)
Top/Best of the Super Juniors (1993, 1995)
Super Grade Junior Heavyweight Tag League (1994) – with Shinjiro Otani
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Feud of the Year (2004) vs. Triple H
Match of the Year (2004) vs. Shawn Michaels and Triple H at WrestleMania XX
Wrestler of the Year (2004)
Ranked No. 69 of the top 500 greatest wrestlers in the PWI Years in 2003
Ranked No. 1 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2004
Stampede Wrestling
Stampede British Commonwealth Mid-Heavyweight Championship (4 times)
Stampede Wrestling International Tag Team Championship (4 times) – with Ben Bassarab (1), Keith Hart (1), Lance Idol (1), and Biff Wellington (1)
Stampede Wrestling Hall of Fame (1995)
Universal Wrestling Association
WWF Light Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
World Championship Wrestling
WCW World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
WCW World Tag Team Championship (2 times) – with Dean Malenko (1) and Perry Saturn (1)
WCW World Television Championship (3 times)
WCW United States Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
WCW Triple Crown Champion (7th)
World Wrestling Federation/Entertainment
World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)
WWE Tag Team Championship (1 time, inaugural) – with Kurt Angle
WWE United States Championship (3 times)
WWF/WWE Intercontinental Championship (4 times)
WWF/World Tag Team Championship (3 times) – with Chris Jericho (1) and Edge (2)
Royal Rumble (2004)
WWE Tag Team Championship Tournament (2002) – with Kurt Angle
Triple Crown Champion (12th)
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Best Brawler (2004)
Best Technical Wrestler (1994, 1995, 2000, 2003, 2004)
Feud of the Year (2004) vs. Shawn Michaels and Triple H
Match of the Year (2002) with Kurt Angle vs. Edge and Rey Mysterio at No Mercy
Most Outstanding Wrestler (2000, 2004)
Most Underrated (1998)
Readers' Favorite Wrestler (1997, 2000)
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame (Class of 2003) |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoren_Fleury | Theoren Fleury | Theoren Wallace "Theo" Fleury (born 29 June 1968) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player, author and motivational speaker. Fleury played for the Calgary Flames, Colorado Avalanche, New York Rangers, and Chicago Blackhawks of the National Hockey League (NHL), Tappara of Finland's SM-liiga, and the Belfast Giants of the UK's Elite Ice Hockey League. He was drafted by the Flames in the 8th round, 166th overall, at the 1987 NHL entry draft, and played over 1,000 games in the NHL between 1989 and 2003.
One of the smallest players of his generation, Fleury played a physical style that often led to altercations. As a junior, he was at the centre of the infamous Punch-up in Piestany, a brawl that resulted in the disqualification of both Canada and the Soviet Union from the 1987 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships. Once considered unlikely to play in the NHL due to his small size, Fleury scored over 1,000 points in his career, placing him 61st in career NHL scoring and won the Stanley Cup in 1989 with the Flames. During his career Fleury recorded 90+ points four times, and 100+ points twice. He averaged 1.026 points per game in the Stanley Cup playoffs, 32nd best in league history. He twice represented Canada at the Winter Olympics, winning a gold medal in 2002. Throughout his career, he battled drug and alcohol addictions that ultimately forced him out of the NHL in 2003. He played one season in the British Elite Ice Hockey League in 2005–06, and made two attempts to win the Allan Cup. After an unsuccessful NHL comeback attempt with the Flames, he retired in 2009.
Outside of hockey, Fleury overcame his addictions, operated a concrete business in Calgary with his family, and filmed a pilot for a reality television show about it. He marketed his own brand of clothing, which led him to play two professional baseball games for the Calgary Vipers of the Golden Baseball League. In 1995, he was diagnosed with Crohn's disease, and his annual charity golf tournament has helped raise more than $1 million for the Crohn's and Colitis Foundation of Canada.
Fleury co-wrote Playing with Fire, a best-selling autobiography released in October 2009, in which he revealed that he had been sexually abused by former coach Graham James. Fleury filed a criminal complaint against James, who subsequently pleaded guilty to charges of sexual assault. Fleury has since become an advocate for sexual abuse victims and developed a career as a public speaker. He was a recipient of the Indspire Award in the sports category in 2013. Additionally, Theoren hosts the "Theo Fleury 14 Hockey Camp" which helps to teach, inspire and educate young hockey players ages 6 to 16. Moreover, Fleury travelled to Vancouver in 2013 where he assisted and co-hosted the 19th Annual Aboriginal Achievement Awards.
== Early life ==
Fleury was born on 29 June 1968, in Oxbow, Saskatchewan, the first of Wally and Donna Fleury's three sons. Wally was a hockey player whose dreams of a professional career ended when he broke his leg playing baseball in the summer of 1963; the injury helped fuel a drinking problem. Donna was a quiet, religious woman who battled drug addiction for many years. Fleury is of Métis heritage and his grandmother Mary was Cree. Fleury was subject to racism for being of Metis descent throughout his playing career. The Fleurys lived in Williams Lake, British Columbia, for four years, a period that saw Theo's brother Ted born in 1970, before settling in Russell, Manitoba, by 1973, the year his youngest brother Travis was born. Wally worked as a truck driver and maintenance worker at the arena in Russell. Fleury and his family shared a passion for music. One of his fondest memories when he was a child was listening to his grandfather play the fiddle. Fleury's father was a talented man who could play a variety of instruments, such as the piano and guitar. This passion for music brought happiness and joy to Theoren and his family as it was a part of their Metis heritage growing up.
Always one of the smallest children in his class and without stable supervision at home, Fleury adopted an aggressive posture and later described himself as a bully. He turned to hockey as an outlet when he borrowed an old pair of skates and a broken stick to play his first game at the age of five. From that point on, he played hockey at every opportunity, often accompanying his father to the arena in Russell in the pre-dawn hours. He was described by his teachers as a determined youth, who would repeat any activity he failed at until he got it right.
Although his mother was a Jehovah's Witness, Fleury was raised as a Catholic. He attended Mass from age 6 to 12, serving as an altar boy until the church's priest died of a heart attack, depriving Fleury of one of his early positive influences.
Always lacking money and stable home life, Fleury received support from the hockey community, in particular the Peltz family in Russell, who ensured that he and his brothers were fed and bought them new clothes when required. In January 1982, Fleury's dreams of playing in the NHL nearly ended at the age of 13 when, during a game, he suffered a deep cut under his arm that severed his brachial artery. He missed nearly a year of contact hockey as a result. Five months after the incident, the community raised money to send him to the Andy Murray Hockey School in Brandon, Manitoba. It was there that Fleury met Graham James, who was working as a scout for the Winnipeg Warriors of the Western Hockey League (WHL). James told Fleury that he had the skill to play in the NHL despite his size, and promised to recruit him to play junior hockey for the Warriors when he was old enough.
== Playing career ==
=== Junior ===
Fleury began his junior career in 1983–84 as a 15-year-old with the St. James Canadians of the Manitoba Junior Hockey League, scoring 33 goals and 64 points in 22 games, an incredible pace of nearly three points per game. In 1984–85 he moved to the Moose Jaw Warriors, who had just relocated from Winnipeg, scoring 29 goals and 75 points in 71 games as a 16-year-old. He improved his totals in each of his four years in the WHL, culminating with a 68-goal, 92-assist season in 1987–88. Fleury's 160 points tied him for the league lead with Joe Sakic, and the two players shared the Bob Clarke Trophy as the WHL's top scorers. Fleury's 92 assists and 160 points remain team records; he also holds the Warriors' career records for goals (201), assists (271) and points (472). As of 2024, he remains 10th all-time in WHL scoring.
Always one of the smallest players in the game, Fleury learned early that he had to play an unpredictable style of game to survive against players much larger than he was. He found that the best way to protect himself was to intimidate his opponents by playing a feisty, physical game, which he said led to many retaliatory penalties and several arguments with his coaches. He recorded 235 minutes in penalties in his final year of junior, nearly 100 more than any of the other top 10 WHL scorers. Fleury retained this style of play throughout his hockey career, routinely surprising opponents who felt their size was an advantage.
Fleury twice represented Canada at the World Junior Hockey Championships. He first joined the team for the 1987 tournament in Piešťany, Czechoslovakia. The tournament is best remembered for the "Punch-up in Piestany" on 4 January 1987, an infamous bench-clearing brawl between the Canadians and the Soviet Union. Fleury scored the first goal of the game and, as part of his celebration, used his stick to mimic firing a machine gun at the Soviet bench, a move that was criticized by Canadian officials. The brawl began early in the second period with Canada leading 4–2, when Pavel Kostichkin slashed Fleury, leading to a fight between the two. It quickly escalated into a line brawl involving all skaters on the ice, after which the Soviet players left their bench, followed closely by the Canadians. Both teams were disqualified from the tournament, costing Fleury and the Canadians a medal – potentially the gold.
The International Ice Hockey Federation suspended all players involved in the brawl from participating in international tournaments for 18 months, though the bans were later reduced to 6 months on appeal. This reduction allowed Fleury to participate in the 1988 tournament in Moscow. He was named captain, finished second in team scoring with eight points in seven games, and was named a tournament all-star as Canada won the gold medal.
Although he scored 129 points for the Warriors in 1986–87, Fleury's small stature led many teams to doubt that he could play in the NHL. The Calgary Flames drafted him in the 8th round, 166th overall, of the 1987 NHL entry draft. Upon completing his junior season in 1988, Fleury signed his first professional contract, worth C$415,000, and joined the Flames' International Hockey League (IHL) affiliate, the Salt Lake Golden Eagles. He scored seven points in two regular season games, then 16 more in eight playoff games as the Eagles won the Turner Cup championship.
=== Calgary Flames ===
Fleury arrived at the Flames' 1988 training camp 20 pounds (9.1 kg) overweight, and was assigned back to Salt Lake to begin the 1988–89 season. He averaged nearly two points per game, recording 37 goals and 37 assists to lead the IHL in scoring after 40 games. Mired in a slump, the Flames recalled Fleury on 1 January 1989, in the hope he could help their offence. He played his first NHL game against the Quebec Nordiques two nights later and recorded his first points – three assists – on 5 January against the Los Angeles Kings. He scored his first two NHL goals in a 7–2 victory over the Edmonton Oilers on 7 January. Fleury continued to score, and finished with 34 points in 36 games in his NHL rookie season. He added 11 points in the playoffs, helping the Flames to the first Stanley Cup championship in franchise history.
After improving to 33 goals in his first full season, Fleury broke out in 1990–91, scoring 51 goals and 104 points to lead the Flames offensively. He played in the 1991 All-Star Game, scoring a goal in an 11–5 victory by the Campbell Conference over the Wales Conference. Towards the end of the season, Fleury set a league record by scoring three shorthanded goals in one game against the St. Louis Blues. He shared the NHL Plus-Minus Award with Marty McSorley, whom he tied for the league lead with +48. Fleury scored only two goals in the 1991 Stanley Cup Playoffs, but after his overtime winner in game six against the Oilers he famously slid the entire length of the ice in jubilation before crashing into the boards as his teammates attempted to catch up to him. CBC Hockey Night in Canada play-by-play announcer Chris Cuthbert called Fleury's goal in a dramatic fashion: Messier gives it away! HERE'S FLEURY! LOOKING FOR HIS FIRST GOAL OF THE SERIES... SCORES! And Theoren Fleury and the Flames are in seventh heaven!" Unfortunately, the Flames were defeated in game seven by an overtime goal from Esa Tikkanen, in which Tikkanen scored a hat-trick to end the Flames season.
Fleury fell back to 33 goals in 1991–92 as the Flames missed the playoffs. That season, he made his second All-Star Game appearance, recording a goal for the Campbell Conference. Fleury finished with over 100 points for the second time in his career in 1992–93 to lead the team in scoring, and set a franchise record by going +9 in a 13–1 victory over the San Jose Sharks on 10 February 1993, in which he scored six points.
The 1994–95 NHL lockout reduced the season to 48 games from 84. During the lockout, Fleury played for Tappara in Finland's top league, the SM-liiga. He recorded 17 points in ten games before the NHL's labour dispute was resolved, bringing him back to Calgary. Late in the season, Fleury recorded two goals and an assist against the Oilers on 31 March 1995, to surpass 500 career points.
Lacking a contract prior to the 1995–96 season, Fleury staged a brief hold-out during training camp before signing a five-year, $12 million deal with the Flames. He agreed to take less money than he could have received on the open market out of loyalty to the franchise that had given him his NHL opportunity. He missed much of the preseason with a stomach ailment, but joined the team for the season opener. Although he felt like somebody was "stabbing a knife in [his] gut every five minutes", Fleury had played every game for the Flames when he revealed in December 1995 that he had been diagnosed with Crohn's disease and doctors had finally found the correct medication to control it. Despite the ailment, Fleury led the team in goals, assists, and points, and played in his third All-Star Game, serving as Calgary's only representative.
When Joe Nieuwendyk refused to report to the Flames prior to the 1995–96 season, they named Fleury interim captain. The title was made permanent when Nieuwendyk was traded in December. Fleury was reluctant to assume the captaincy, but did so out of loyalty to the team and because there was nobody else capable of taking on the role. He relinquished it two seasons later after deciding that it was harming his play and affecting his relationship with his teammates and coach Pierre Pagé.
The Flames struggled in 1996–97, finishing last in the Pacific Division and missing the playoffs for only the second time since their arrival in Calgary in 1980. Fleury again led the team in scoring, but his 29 goals were the fewest he had scored in a full season in the NHL. He was the Flames' lone representative at the 1997 All-Star Game. He scored only 27 goals in 1997–98, but increased his point total from 67 to 78 while also leading the team with 197 penalties in minutes. On 29 November 1997, Fleury scored his 315th career goal, breaking Nieuwendyk's franchise record. The same day, he was named to Team Canada for the 1998 Winter Olympics. Fleury participated in his fifth All-Star Game that season, but the Flames again missed the playoffs.
On 19 February 1999, he surpassed Al MacInnis as the franchise scoring leader with his 823rd career point. He held the record for 10 years until surpassed by Jarome Iginla in 2009. The Flames, who had been struggling financially and were unable to sign Fleury to a new contract, chose to trade him less than two weeks after he broke the record rather than risk losing him to free agency. He was dealt to the Colorado Avalanche on 28 February for René Corbet, Wade Belak, and Robyn Regehr. Although it was expected, the trade nonetheless stunned fans in Calgary. His popularity was such that during a game in 1999, after Fleury was sent off the ice to change a bloody jersey, a fan threw his own souvenir jersey over the boards so that Fleury would not miss a shift. He put the jersey on before realizing it was autographed and handed it back.
The trade was viewed as another sign that small-market Canadian teams could no longer compete in the NHL. The economics of hockey had changed such that the Flames felt that they had to deal their top player despite being just two points out of a playoff spot. However, with Fleury due to become an unrestricted free agent at the end of the season, the Flames did not want to chance losing him without getting anything in return. Following the trade, Fleury said that any team looking to sign him to a new contract would have to pay him $7 million per year. In his autobiography, Playing with Fire, Fleury claims that he was offered $16 million over four years by the Flames before the trade, and countered with an offer of $25 million over five years.
=== Colorado, New York, and Chicago ===
Fleury made his debut for the Avalanche the day after the trade and was met with loud cheers from the Denver crowd. He scored a goal in a 4–3 loss to Edmonton, but also sprained his knee and missed the next two weeks. He had missed only seven games during his 11-year career in Calgary. He played in 15 regular-season games for the Avalanche, scoring 10 goals and 14 assists, and another 5 goals and 12 assists in 18 playoff games before the Avalanche were eliminated by the Dallas Stars in the Western Conference Finals.
The Avalanche chose not to re-sign Fleury, and he joined the New York Rangers on a three-year contract worth $21 million that included a club option for a fourth year at $7 million. He touched off a wave of anger on signing with the Rangers when he claimed he was unappreciated in Calgary, comments he later stated were directed at the Flames' owners and not the team's fans, who he said always supported him. Fleury's first year in Manhattan was a disappointment. He scored only 15 goals in 1999–2000, struggling under the pressure of trying to lead the Rangers into the playoffs and adapting to life in New York. After the season, he voluntarily entered a league-operated program that treats substance abuse and emotional problems, though he denied that either had any effect on his play.
Fleury rebounded to score 30 goals in 2000–01 and participated in his seventh All-Star Game. He scored his 400th NHL goal on 4 November 2000, in a 5–2 victory over the Montreal Canadiens. Fleury was leading his team, and was fourth in the league, with 74 points in 62 games, when the Rangers announced that he had again entered the league's substance abuse program. The decision ended his season.
Prior to the 2001–02 season Fleury said that he continued to struggle with substance abuse and had difficulty adapting to life in Manhattan after growing up in a Canadian prairie town of 1,500. He played all 82 games in 2001–02, but his problems affected his behavior on the ice. After receiving a major and game misconduct penalty in a game against the San Jose Sharks on 28 December, he wound up in a confrontation with the Sharks' mascot, S.J. Sharkie, in a hallway of the HP Pavilion, reportedly breaking the rib of the mascot portrayer. Fleury himself later downplayed the incident, saying that he "nudged" Sharkie. Upon taking a penalty in a January 2002 game against the Pittsburgh Penguins, Fleury left the arena rather than skate to the penalty box. He later apologized to his teammates, claiming he was deeply stressed by family problems. Two weeks later, he was fined $1,000 for making an obscene gesture to fans of the New York Islanders who had been taunting him over his drug use. Towards the end of February, he lashed out against the league's officials. He claimed they were not judging him fairly, and threatened to retire. The league dismissed his complaints. He did achieve a personal milestone during the season, however: on 27 October 2001, Fleury assisted on a goal by Mike York, scoring the 1,000th point of his NHL career. The Rangers presented him with a silver stick in honour of the achievement.
Following the season, the Rangers did not exercise their option, and traded Fleury's playing rights to the San Jose Sharks, which entitled the Sharks to a compensatory draft pick if Fleury signed elsewhere. He did so with a two-year, $8.5 million contract with the Chicago Blackhawks. Two days prior to the opening of the 2002–03 season, he was suspended by the NHL for violating the terms of the league's substance abuse program. The Blackhawks hired one of Fleury's friends, also a recovering alcoholic, to ensure that he attended Alcoholics Anonymous meetings and abided by the terms of the NHL's aftercare program.
Fleury missed the first two months of the season before being reinstated. While out with teammates in January 2003, he was involved in a drunken brawl with bouncers at a strip club in Columbus, Ohio, that left him bloodied; he has no memory of the night and described it as among the lowest points of his life. He was not suspended, but the incident contributed to a collapse in the standings by the Blackhawks, and they placed him on waivers in March. No team claimed him, and Fleury finished the season with the Blackhawks, recording 12 goals and 21 assists in 54 games. Following the season, in April 2003, he was suspended again by the league for violations of its substance abuse program. The suspension ended his NHL career.
=== Senior hockey and the Belfast Giants ===
In January 2005, Fleury announced that he had joined his cousin Todd Holt and former NHL players Gino Odjick, Sasha Lakovic and Dody Wood in playing for the Horse Lake Thunder of the North Peace Hockey League for the Allan Cup, Canada's national senior amateur championship. He also hoped to serve as a role model for kids on the Horse Lake First Nation. Hockey Alberta initially ruled that he was ineligible to play senior hockey in 2004–05 because he had been signed to a professional contract during the 2003–04 season. Hockey Alberta denied an appeal, citing a new policy it had put in effect to prevent NHL players from joining senior teams during the 2004–05 NHL lockout. It reversed its decision on a second appeal after the NHL and National Hockey League Players' Association both agreed that Fleury was a free agent, and not a locked-out player. Fleury played his first game for the Thunder on 22 January 2005, scoring a goal and two assists.
Fleury remained embroiled in controversy at the 2005 Allan Cup tournament. The Thunder were repeatedly accused of paying players despite being an amateur team, and Fleury angrily denied rumours that he was secretly being paid $100,000. Tournament fans were extremely hostile towards the Thunder, and after they were eliminated in the semi-finals Fleury accused them of racism and threatened to return his 2002 Olympic gold medal: "The one thing that's really bothered me through this whole thing is the prejudice, still, in this country when it comes to native people. I've seen it first-hand in every building we go into, how these people are treated, and it's absolutely embarrassing to be a Canadian and know that stuff is still going on."
Fleury was convinced by a friend to move to the United Kingdom to play with the Belfast Giants of the Elite Ice Hockey League (EIHL) for the 2005–06 season. He scored three goals and added four assists and a fight in his first game, against the Edinburgh Capitals. He scored 22 goals and 52 assists in 34 games, as Belfast won the regular season league title. Described as the "most talented" player ever to play in the United Kingdom, Fleury was named the EIHL's Player of the Year and voted a first team All-Star by the British Ice Hockey Writers Association. Fleury argued with visiting fans, as well as officials, which led him not to return to Belfast in 2006–07.
In late 2008, Fleury joined his brother Ted with the Steinbach North Stars in a second bid to win the Allan Cup. He played 13 league games, scoring eight goals and 19 assists. At the 2009 Allan Cup tournament, he recorded a goal and an assist to lead the host North Stars to a 5–0 win in their opening game, and finished tied for the lead in tournament scoring at seven points. The North Stars lost the semi-finals to the South East Prairie Thunder, 4–2.
=== NHL comeback attempt ===
Unhappy with how his NHL career ended, Fleury hired a personal trainer in February 2009 and began an attempt to return to the NHL. By August, he petitioned Commissioner Gary Bettman to lift his suspension. He was reinstated on 10 September following a meeting with Bettman, Deputy Commissioner Bill Daly and league doctors. Fleury then accepted a try-out offer from the Flames. He said he wanted to prove to himself that he could still play at the NHL level, though his skeptics pointed to his child support payments and the failure of his concrete business, as well as the planned release of his autobiography, and argued Fleury's comeback was financially motivated.
He made his return to the NHL in an exhibition game in Calgary against the New York Islanders on 17 September on a line with Daymond Langkow and Nigel Dawes. Fleury was met with loud cheers throughout the game, and scored the only goal in a shootout to give the Flames a 5–4 win. After the game, he saluted the crowd as the fans chanted "Theo! Theo! Theo!" Three nights later, he scored a goal and an assist in a 5–2 victory over the Florida Panthers.
Fleury played four exhibition games, scoring four points, before being released by the Flames. General Manager Darryl Sutter expressed his pride in Fleury's attempt and commended his effort, but decided he was not one of the top six wingers in camp, which Sutter and Fleury had agreed was a condition of the tryout continuing. On 28 September 2009, Fleury announced his retirement at a news conference at the Saddledome. He thanked the Flames for allowing him to attempt the comeback, and expressed satisfaction at how his career ended. "I get to retire a Calgary Flame. I HAD to retire a Calgary Flame. It's been a long journey. It's time to put down some roots. And there's no better place than here," said Fleury of his decision not to seek an offer from another team.
=== International ===
Fleury made his debut with the Canadian senior team at the 1990 Ice Hockey World Championships, scoring 11 points in nine games for the fourth-place Canadians. He returned the following year despite a knee injury, helping Canada win the silver medal at the 1991 tournament. His 51-goal NHL season in 1990–91 also earned Fleury a spot at the 1991 Canada Cup, where he scored a goal and four assists in seven games for the tournament champion Canadians. Five years later, he played in the 1996 World Cup of Hockey, the successor to the Canada Cup. He finished fourth in the tournament with four goals, but Canada finished in second place after giving up four goals in the final four minutes of the championship game against the American team.
National Hockey League players were first allowed to participate in the Olympic ice hockey tournament at the 1998 games. Invited to join Canada's "Dream Team", Fleury described his selection as a highlight of his life. He scored a goal for Canada, who lost their semi-final match-up against the Czech Republic in a shootout and failed to medal. Four years later, Fleury was invited by General Manager Wayne Gretzky to participate in Canada's selection camp for the 2002 Olympics. The invitation was controversial, as his behavioural and substance abuse issues had become increasingly public in previous months. Fleury wanted to justify Gretzky's support and, knowing that he would be removed from consideration if he failed, refrained from drinking or taking drugs during the 2001–02 NHL season, later describing himself as a "dry drunk". He earned a spot on the team and recorded two assists in six games as the Canadian hockey team won its first Olympic gold medal in 50 years. Fleury considers the championship to be the pinnacle of his career.
== Charitable work and advocacy for abuse, addictions programs ==
=== Sexual abuse charges against Graham James ===
With the help of Kirstie McLellan Day, Fleury wrote his autobiography, Playing with Fire, which was released on 16 October 2009. He wrote he was sexually abused by hockey coach Graham James during a two-year period. While he stated he "doesn't want to become the poster boy for abuse by James", Fleury hoped speaking out might make it easier for other childhood sexual abuse victims to come forward, and get help. The book became the top-selling non-fiction book in Canada; without help, he and his wife were unable to keep up with the mail they were receiving. It is the second book about Fleury's life, following Fury, released in 1997, which did not discuss many of the problems he was facing at the time. Playing with Fire became the top seller on Amazon.ca within a week of its release, and Fleury stated that he had been contacted by several sexual abuse victims who were motivated by his book to seek help.
He told CBC in October 2009 he was contemplating a criminal complaint against James, and was volunteering with an organization dedicated to helping male sexual abuse victims. Sheldon Kennedy, another victim of James, encouraged Fleury to press charges. In January 2010, investigators with the Winnipeg Police Service began an investigation after Fleury met with officers to file a complaint. James plead guilty to charges stemming from his abuse of Fleury and his cousin Todd Holt. James was sentenced to two years in prison, a decision which sparked outrage across Canada for its perceived leniency. Fleury praised the response by Canadians and called for harsher punishments for sexual predators. Fleury has shared his story as a motivational speaker.
McLellan Day adapted the autobiography into a one-man play, entitled Playing with Fire: The Theo Fleury Story, which was produced by Alberta Theatre Projects in Calgary in 2012. Fleury and his autobiography were also the subject of a 2012 documentary by HBO Canada.
=== Work with programs for abuse victims, addictions and other services ===
Fleury has been open about his struggles against drug and alcohol addictions, and his own experiences with sexual abuse. He is also an advocate for youth victims of sexual abuse and a supporter of improving access to trauma treatments, addictions programs and mental health services.
In his autobiography, he blamed the sexual abuse for turning him into a "raging, alcoholic lunatic", and claimed to have placed a loaded gun in his mouth and contemplated suicide in 2004. He revealed most of his income had been spent on alcohol, drugs, gambling and women.
Fleury said he failed 13 consecutive drug tests while playing for the Rangers, but the NHL did not want to suspend him because he was a top scorer. The league disputed this claim, and stated that its substance abuse program functioned appropriately.
Fleury has organized or participated in numerous charitable causes. He launched a hockey school in the mid-1990s that ran for seven years in Calgary and another eight in Russell, Manitoba and donated the proceeds to minor hockey associations.
Following his diagnosis with Crohn's disease in 1995, Fleury joined with the Crohn's and Colitis Foundation of Canada to host an annual golf tournament in Calgary. The event has raised over $1 million, and is one of the organization's largest fundraising events in the Calgary area. He participates in Flames Alumni events and volunteers with the Calgary Dream Centre, which helps people overcome addictions.
Fleury was a participant on the second season of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation figure skating reality show Battle of the Blades, aired in the fall of 2010, and was donating his winnings to The Men's Project, a charity that provides support for men abused in childhood. His partner was Jamie Salé and the pair finished 5th.
Fleury said in a November 2004 interview with the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation he was still battling the drug and alcohol addictions that had ended his NHL career a year and a half earlier. On 18 September 2005, he became sober and credited the achievement to help from his second wife, Jennifer. Fleury feared Jennifer's frustrations with his addictions would cost him the relationship. With her help, he was able to quit alcohol and drug abuse.
Fleury and Jennifer met when he was playing for Horse Lake in 2005. They married one year later and have a daughter, Skylah. Fleury also has a son and daughter, Beaux and Tatym, with his first wife, Veronica, and a son, Josh, born in 1987 to his high school girlfriend, Shannon.
== Political opinions and conspiracy theories ==
Fleury and Jamie Salé host The Theo & Jamie Show: Fire and Ice, an online program with the Calgary-based conservative media outlet Canadians for Truth. Politically, Fleury is a conservative although he has previously voted for the Liberal Party in past federal elections.
Fleury is a skeptic of COVID-19 vaccines. When reports about the virus were first made in late 2019, Fleury said he believed the virus was "complete bullshit." He has criticized liberal and conservative politicians who supported mask and vaccine mandates, including Alberta Premier Jason Kenney and Prime Minister Justin Trudeau. He has also promoted ivermectin as a treatment for COVID-19 and criticised the mainstream media for a supposed "absolute all out disinformation campaign" over its use.
He told Fox News host Tucker Carlson that Canada is an "authoritarian" country and that Trudeau is controlled by "five entities." In a separate interview with Fox News host Laura Ingraham in January 2022, he repeated his belief that Trudeau was being controlled by unnamed foreign entities and hoped the Canada convoy protest would lead to a "revolution."
In 2021, Brandon University issued a statement criticizing Fleury for saying on Twitter that COVID-19 vaccine passports would be used by pedophiles to track children, calling the comment "a stain on his legacy." The university had previously granted Fleury an honorary degree in 2015. Fleury has also promoted the "Great Reset" conspiracy theory.
In 2018, Fleury was a guest speaker at a fundraising event for the Progressive Conservative Party of Prince Edward Island. He is a member of the United Conservative Party and endorsed Brian Jean for party leadership in 2017. He endorsed Danielle Smith during the 2022 UCP leadership race. In the 2022 Conservative Party of Canada leadership election, Fleury endorsed and joined the campaign of Joseph Bourgault.
During the 2023 wildfires across Canada, Fleury claimed that progressives were weaponizing the wildfires to force "climate lockdowns" onto the masses.
== Business ventures ==
In 1994, Fleury joined a group that involved his former junior coach, Graham James, fellow NHL player Joe Sakic, and professional wrestler Bret Hart as a minority owner of the expansion Calgary Hitmen of the Western Hockey League. He sold his share of the team to the Flames in 1997 in the aftermath of James' conviction for sexually abusing Sheldon Kennedy and another player.
After returning from the United Kingdom, he operated Fleury's Concrete Coatings, a concrete sealing business he started with his wife Jennifer and brother Travis, until it closed in 2009. He filmed a pilot episode in 2007 for a reality TV series based on his concrete business called Theoren Fleury: Rock Solid: "We want to show people that if you have a dream, anything is possible with a little ambition," Fleury said of the show. It was not picked up by any network.
The 2008 launch of clothing line "FAKE" (Fleury's Artistic Kustom Enterprises) led him to approach the Calgary Vipers of the Golden Baseball League in the hope of convincing them to use his brand of practice jerseys. The conversation led to talk of Fleury playing a game for the Vipers as a publicity stunt.
He made his professional baseball debut on 9 August 2008, at the age of 40, hitting a single in a pinch-hit appearance against the Yuma Scorpions. He started the second game at left field and struck out twice before he was replaced. "I've had so many things happen in my life already that I sometimes surprise myself with the things I've done, the things I've accomplished. This was just another one of those days," Fleury said of his appearance with the Vipers.
=== Country music career ===
In September 2015, it was announced through Fleury's Twitter he was working on a country music record to be released in the fall of 2015. He released his first single titled "My Life's Been a Country Song" and it reached more than 20,000 plays on SoundCloud within the first 24 hours of being released. His debut record, I Am Who I Am, was released on 16 October 2015, through eOne Music Canada.
Fleury said his country music ambitions had been a six-year process and he received vocal and performance training from music industry professionals. He collaborated with long-time friends Phil Deschambault and Paddy McCallion and together wrote more than 30 songs worth of material that would be later cut to ten songs for the album.
In 2017, Fleury wrote a song, "Longshot", for the video game Madden NFL 18's story mode of the same name.
== Career statistics ==
=== Regular season and playoffs ===
=== International ===
=== All-Star Games ===
== Awards ==
Aside from Fleury's hockey accomplishments, he has also been awarded the Canadian Humanitarian Award and the Queen's Jubilee Medallion. The Medallion is awarded to those individuals who have made a significant contribution to Canada. Along with these awards Fleury has also received the Aboriginal Inspire Award. Fleury has also received the honorary Siksika Nation Chief and an honorary doctorate in science from the University of Guelph-Humber for outstanding contributions to the mental health of Canadians. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._T._Snow | J. T. Snow | Jack Thomas Snow Jr. (born February 26, 1968) is an American former professional baseball player, television sports color commentator, former bench coach for the Oakland Ballers and current manager for the Modesto Roadsters (aka Modesto Glow Riders). He played as a first baseman in Major League Baseball from 1992 to 2006, most notably as a member of the San Francisco Giants. Snow excelled as a defensive player, winning six consecutive Gold Glove Awards as a first baseman between 1995 and 2000. After his playing career, Snow worked in radio and television broadcasting. He has also worked as a special assistant to the general manager for the Giants.
== Early life ==
Snow was born in Long Beach, California, to former NFL player Jack Snow and Merry Carole Shane, who died in 1998 from thyroid cancer. He has two sisters, Michelle and Stephanie.
His father worked with him at first base, throwing balls from shortstop purposely in the dirt to improve his fielding skills. He played recreational baseball in Seal Beach, for what is now known as Seal Beach PONY. Snow attended Los Alamitos High School in Los Alamitos, California and was awarded All-Orange County honors in baseball, football, and basketball. He played safety his junior year (1984) and quarterback his senior year (1985) on the varsity football team. Receiver Rob Katzaroff set an Orange County record with 93 single-season receptions (a record which still stands after the 2022 season) while Snow played quarterback. On the basketball team, Snow played point guard. On the baseball team, Snow played with future Giants reliever Robb Nen and future UCLA Bruins outfielder Katzaroff. All three Griffin baseball players from the 1985 season were eventually drafted to play minor league baseball.
== College career ==
After high school, Snow attended the University of Arizona and played three seasons for the Arizona Wildcats baseball team, where his teammates included Kenny Lofton, Alan Zinter, Scott Erickson, Trevor Hoffman, and Kevin Long. In 1988, he played collegiate summer baseball for the Orleans Cardinals of the Cape Cod Baseball League.
== Professional career ==
=== Draft and minor leagues ===
The New York Yankees selected Snow in the fifth round of the 1989 Major League Baseball draft.
=== New York Yankees (1992) ===
He made his major league debut with the Yankees at the end of the 1992 season.
=== California Angels (1993–1996) ===
After the 1992 season, the Yankees traded Snow, Jerry Nielsen, and Russ Springer to the California Angels for Jim Abbott. Snow played for the Angels from 1993 to 1996, where he won two Gold Glove Awards.
=== San Francisco Giants (1997–2005) ===
Snow was traded to the Giants after the 1996 season for left-handed pitcher Allen Watson and minor league pitcher Fausto Macey.
While a switch-hitter earlier in his career, Snow batted exclusively left-handed after 1998. In 2000, he led the league in sacrifice flies with 14. After a two-year injury-riddled stretch from 2002 to 2003 when his batting average was .246, Snow rebounded in 2004 with a .327 average, hitting .387 after the All-Star break (which ranked second only to Ichiro Suzuki in the Major Leagues).
On June 26, 1999, Snow tagged out Los Angeles Dodgers pitcher Carlos Pérez using the "hidden ball trick", the last successful execution of the play in the 20th century.
In the 2000 National League Division Series against the New York Mets, with the Giants trailing 4–1 in the bottom of the ninth, Snow hit a three-run pinch-hit homer against Mets reliever Armando Benítez. However, the Giants failed to capitalize on their momentum, eventually falling in the 10th inning and going on to lose the series.
In the 2002 World Series, Snow was scoring a run in Game 5 off a Kenny Lofton triple and lifted 3-year-old Darren Baker, the Giants' batboy and son of then Giants’ manager Dusty Baker, by the jacket as he was crossing home plate. Darren had run out to collect Lofton's bat before the play was completed. This turned into a touching and memorable incident, but easily could have resulted in disaster with a small child wandering into the path of Snow and David Bell as they both barreled home to score. Following the incident with Darren Baker, Major League Baseball required batboys and girls to be at least 14 years of age. A photograph of this incident now hangs in the Baseball Hall of Fame, in Cooperstown, New York.
In the 2003 National League Division Series against the Florida Marlins, with the Giants trailing 7–6 in Game 4 in the ninth inning, he attempted to score from second base on a single to left field, but Jeff Conine's throw to the plate came in time as catcher Iván Rodríguez tagged Snow at the plate as Snow barreled into him, ending the game and the series. According to the Elias Sports Bureau, it was the first postseason series to end with the potential tying run thrown out at the plate.
=== Boston Red Sox (2006) ===
Snow's tenure with the Giants effectively ended when the team declined to offer him salary arbitration before the 2006 season. He signed a one-year, $2 million contract with the Boston Red Sox on January 6, 2006. After his father's death in 2006, Snow wore his father's number 84 in his honor. He served primarily in a platoon with Kevin Youkilis at first base until he requested to be designated for assignment due to a lack of playing time. He was granted his designation June 19, and was officially released eight days later.
=== San Francisco Giants (2008) and retirement ===
At the end of the 2006 season, Snow retired from baseball and began working as a color commentator on Giants radio broadcasts alongside play-by-play announcer Dave Flemming. He has also served as an advisor to the Giants' general manager, Brian Sabean, and as a roving minor league instructor for the Giants. Since 2013, he has worked as a college baseball broadcaster for the Pac-12 Network.
On September 24, 2008, the Giants signed Snow to a one-day contract to allow him to retire as a Giant. However, rather than immediately retiring after signing the symbolic contract and receiving no actual pay as is usually done, Snow was penciled into the starting lineup and took the field on September 27 against the Dodgers, but was replaced before the first pitch. It was a move that allowed Snow to officially take the field as a Giants player one last time. Eugenio Vélez, Omar Vizquel, and Rich Aurilia threw balls in the dirt to mess with Snow during fielding practice prior to the first pitch, but Snow still made the plays. For his brief official appearance, he received the prorated league minimum salary of $2,100.
In 28 postseason games, Snow batted .327 (32-for-98) with 11 runs, 3 home runs and 15 RBI.
== Coaching career ==
On January 18, 2024, Snow was announced as the first base coach and bench coach for the Oakland Ballers of the Pioneer League during their inaugural season.
On November 13, 2025, Snow was named the manager of the newly formed Modesto Roadsters (aka Modesto Glow Riders) of the Pioneer League.
== Personal life ==
Snow lives in Northern California with his wife Gina. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UEFA_Champions_League | UEFA Champions League | The UEFA Champions League (UCL or UEFA CL), commonly known as the Champions League, is an annual club association football competition organised by the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) that is contested by top-division European clubs. The competition begins with a round robin league phase to qualify for the double-legged knockout rounds, and a single-leg final. It is the most-watched club competition in the world and the third most-watched football competition overall, behind only the FIFA World Cup and the UEFA European Championship. It is one of the most prestigious football tournaments in the world and the most prestigious club competition in European football, played by the national league champions (and, for some nations, one or more runners-up) of their national associations.
Introduced in 1955 as the European Champion Clubs' Cup (French: Coupe des Clubs Champions Européens), and commonly known as the European Cup, it was initially a straight knockout tournament open only to the champions of Europe's domestic leagues, with its winner reckoned as the European club champion. The competition took on its current name in 1992, adding a round-robin group stage in 1991 and allowing multiple entrants from certain countries since the 1997–98 season. While only the winners of many of Europe's national leagues can enter the competition, the top 5 leagues by coefficient provide four teams each by default, with a possibility for additional spots based on performance during the previous season. Clubs that finish below the qualifying spots are eligible for the second-tier UEFA Europa League competition, and since 2021, for the third-tier UEFA Conference League.
In its present format, the Champions League begins in early July with three qualifying rounds and a play-off round, all played over two legs. The seven surviving teams enter the league phase, joining 29 teams qualified in advance. The 36 teams each play eight opponents, four home and four away. The 24 highest-ranked teams proceed to the knockout phase that culminates with the final match in late May or early June. The winner of the Champions League automatically qualifies for the following year's Champions League, the UEFA Super Cup, the FIFA Intercontinental Cup and the FIFA Club World Cup.
Spanish clubs have the most victories (20 wins), followed by England (15 wins), Italy (12 wins), Germany (8 wins), Netherlands (6 wins) and Portugal (4 wins). England has the most winning teams, with six clubs having won the title. The competition has been won by 24 clubs and 13 of them have won it more than once. Since the tournament changed name and structure in 1992, only two top-tier football clubs outside the Big Five European nations (Spain, England, Italy, Germany and France) have also reached the final: Porto (2003–04) and Ajax (1994–95 and 1995–96).
Real Madrid is the most successful club in the tournament's history, having won it 15 times. Madrid is the only club to have won it five times in a row (the first five editions). Only one club has won all of their matches in a single tournament en route to their tournament victory: Bayern Munich in the 2019–20 season. Paris Saint-Germain are the current European champions, having beaten Inter Milan 5–0 in the 2025 final for their first ever title.
== History ==
The first time the champions of two European leagues met was in what was nicknamed the 1895 World Championship, when English champions Sunderland beat Scottish champions Heart of Midlothian 5–3. The first pan-European tournament was the Challenge Cup, a competition between clubs in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Three years later, in 1900, the champions of Belgium, Netherlands and Switzerland, which were the only existing leagues in continental Europe at the time, participated in the Coupe Van der Straeten Ponthoz, thus being dubbed as the "club championship of the continent" by the local newspapers.
The Mitropa Cup, a competition modelled after the Challenge Cup, was created in 1927, an idea of Austrian Hugo Meisl, and played between Central European clubs. In 1930, the Coupe des Nations (lit. 'Nations Cup'), the first attempt to create a cup for national champion clubs of Europe, was played and organised by Swiss club Servette. Held in Geneva, it brought together ten champions from across the continent. The tournament was won by Újpest of Hungary. Latin European nations came together to form the Latin Cup in 1949.
After receiving reports from his journalists over the highly successful South American Championship of Champions of 1948, Gabriel Hanot, editor of L'Équipe, began proposing the creation of a continent-wide tournament. In interviews, Jacques Ferran (one of the founders of the European Champions Cup, together with Gabriel Hanot), said that the South American Championship of Champions was the inspiration for the European Champions Cup. After Stan Cullis declared Wolverhampton Wanderers "Champions of the World" following a successful run of friendlies in the 1950s, in particular a 3–2 friendly victory against Budapest Honvéd, Hanot finally managed to convince UEFA to put into practice such a tournament. It was conceived in Paris in 1955 as the European Champion Clubs' Cup.
=== 1955–1967: Beginnings ===
The first European Cup took place during the 1955–56 season. Sixteen teams participated (some by invitation): AC Milan (Italy), AGF Aarhus (Denmark), Anderlecht (Belgium), Djurgården (Sweden), Gwardia Warszawa (Poland), Hibernian (Scotland), Partizan (Yugoslavia), PSV Eindhoven (Netherlands), Rapid Wien (Austria), Real Madrid (Spain), Rot-Weiss Essen (West Germany), Saarbrücken (Saar), Servette (Switzerland), Sporting CP (Portugal), Reims (France) and Vörös Lobogó (Hungary).
The first European Cup match took place on 4 September 1955, and ended in a 3–3 draw between Sporting CP and Partizan. The first goal in European Cup history was scored by João Baptista Martins of Sporting CP. The inaugural final took place at the Parc des Princes between Stade de Reims and Real Madrid on 13 June 1956. The Spanish squad came back from behind to win 4–3 thanks to goals from Alfredo Di Stéfano and Marquitos, as well as two goals from Héctor Rial. Real Madrid successfully defended the trophy next season in their home stadium, the Santiago Bernabéu, against Fiorentina. After a scoreless first half, Real Madrid scored twice in six minutes to defeat the Italians. In 1958, Milan failed to capitalise after going ahead on the scoreline twice, only for Real Madrid to equalise. The final, held in Heysel Stadium, went to extra time where Francisco Gento scored the game-winning goal to allow Real Madrid to retain the title for the third consecutive season.
In a rematch of the first final, Real Madrid faced Stade Reims at the Neckarstadion for the 1959 final, and won 2–0. West German side Eintracht Frankfurt became the first team not to compete in the Latin cup to reach the European Cup final. The 1960 final holds the record for the most goals scored, with Real Madrid beating Eintracht Frankfurt 7–3 at Hampden Park, courtesy of four goals by Ferenc Puskás and a hat-trick by Alfredo Di Stéfano. This was Real Madrid's fifth consecutive title, a record that still stands today.
Real Madrid's reign ended in the 1960–61 season when bitter rivals Barcelona dethroned them in the first round. Barcelona were defeated in the final by Portuguese side Benfica 3–2 at the Wankdorf Stadium. Reinforced by Eusébio, Benfica defeated Real Madrid 5–3 at the Olympic Stadium in Amsterdam and kept the title for a second consecutive season. Benfica wanted to repeat Real Madrid's successful run of the 1950s after reaching the showpiece event of the 1962–63 European Cup, but a brace from Brazilian-Italian José Altafini at Wembley gave the spoils to Milan, making the trophy leave the Iberian Peninsula for the first time ever.
Inter Milan beat an ageing Real Madrid 3–1 at the Ernst-Happel-Stadion to win the 1963–64 season and replicate their local-rival's success. The title stayed in Milan for the third year in a row after Inter beat Benfica 1–0 at their home ground, the San Siro. Under the leadership of Jock Stein, Scottish club Celtic beat Inter Milan 2–1 in the 1967 final to become the first British club to win the European Cup. The Celtic players that day, all of whom were born within 30 miles (48 km) of Glasgow, subsequently became known as the "Lisbon Lions".
=== 1968–1976 ===
The 1967–68 season saw Manchester United become the first English team to win the European Cup, beating two-times winners Benfica 4–1 in the final. In the 1968–69 season, Ajax became the first Dutch team to reach the European Cup final, but they were beaten 4–1 by Milan, who claimed their second European Cup, with Pierino Prati scoring a hat-trick.
The 1969–70 season saw the first Dutch winners of the competition. Feyenoord knocked out the defending champions, Milan in the second round, before beating Celtic in the final. In the 1970–71 season, Ajax won the title, beating Greek side Panathinaikos in the final. The season saw a number of changes, with penalty shoot-outs being introduced, and the away goals rule being changed so that it would be used in all rounds except the final. It was also the first time a Greek team reached the final, as well as the first season that Real Madrid failed to qualify, having finished sixth in La Liga the previous season. Ajax went on to win the competition three years in a row (1971 to 1973), which Bayern Munich emulated from 1974 to 1976.
The era was characterized by the dominance of football clubs from the Netherlands and West Germany, who together won 7 back-to-back European Cups between 1970 and 1976.
=== 1977–1997: Heysel Disaster and rebrand into Champions League ===
Liverpool won their first two titles in 1977 and 1978. The following seasons saw victories in 1978–79 and 1979–80 for Brian Clough's Nottingham Forest. The following year Liverpool won their third title before Aston Villa continued the sense of English dominance in 1982. In 1982–83, Hamburger SV broke the English dominance. Liverpool regained it in 1983–84 before losing to Juventus (1984–85). All English clubs were banned for five years (Liverpool for six years) following the 1985 European Cup final due to the Heysel Stadium disaster.
Following the five-year ban on English teams, Steaua București won the European Cup in 1985–86, followed by Porto in 1986–87, PSV Eindhoven in 1987–88; AC Milan (2), Red Star Belgrade and Barcelona became champions before the competition was re-formulated as the UEFA Champions League. The 1996-97 season was the final Champions League tournament in which only European league champions were allowed to compete; the tournament was won by Borussia Dortmund.
The era was characterized by the dominance of football clubs from England between 1977 and 1984, winning seven European Cup finals, and later the dominance of Italian football clubs in the 1990s; in a nine-year period from 1989 to 1998, Italian clubs reached nine Champions League finals.
=== 1998–present: League expansion ===
The era was characterized by the dominance of football clubs from Spain, who won 3 out of 5 finals from 1998–2002 and dominated the competition from 2014–18, with Real Madrid winning three back-to-back Champions League titles in 2016, 2017, and 2018, and England, who won 3 times between 2005–12 (as did Barcelona) and had 3 wins from 2018–23. From the expansion of the Champions League in 1997–98 to the 2023-4 final, Spanish clubs reached 17 finals and English clubs reached 16 finals.
During the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, the tournament was suspended in mid-March 2020 and resumed in August 2020.
== Anthem ==
The UEFA Champions League anthem, officially titled simply as "Champions League", was written by Tony Britten, and is an adaptation of George Frideric Handel's 1727 anthem Zadok the Priest (one of his Coronation Anthems). UEFA commissioned Britten in 1992 to arrange an anthem, and the piece was performed by London's Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and sung by the Academy of St. Martin in the Fields. Stating that "the anthem is now almost as iconic as the trophy", UEFA's official website adds it is "known to set the hearts of many of the world's top footballers aflutter".
The chorus contains the three official languages used by UEFA: English, German, and French. The climactic moment is set to the exclamations 'Die Meister! Die Besten! Les Grandes Équipes! The Champions!'. The anthem's chorus is played before each UEFA Champions League game as the two teams are lined up, as well as at the beginning and end of television broadcasts of the matches. In addition to the anthem, there is also entrance music, which contains parts of the anthem itself, which is played as teams enter the field. The complete anthem is about three minutes long, and has two short verses and the chorus.
Special vocal versions have been performed live at the Champions League final with lyrics in other languages, changing over to the host nation's language for the chorus. These versions were performed by Andrea Bocelli (Italian; Rome 2009, Milan 2016 and Cardiff 2017), Juan Diego Flores (Spanish; Madrid 2010), All Angels (Wembley 2011), Jonas Kaufmann and David Garrett (Munich 2012) and Mariza (Lisbon 2014). In the 2013 final at Wembley, the chorus was played twice. In the 2018 and 2019 finals, held in Kyiv and Madrid respectively, the instrumental version of the chorus was played, by 2Cellos (2018) and Asturia Girls (2019). In the 2023 final, held in Istanbul, Hungarian pianist Ádám György performed the piano version of the anthem. The anthem has been released commercially in its original version on iTunes and Spotify with the title of Champions League Theme. In 2018, composer Hans Zimmer remixed the anthem with rapper Vince Staples for EA Sports' video game FIFA 19, with it also featuring in the game's reveal trailer.
== Branding ==
In 1991, UEFA asked its commercial partner, Television Event and Media Marketing (TEAM), to help brand the Champions League. This resulted in the anthem, "house colours" of black and white or silver and a logo, and the "starball". The starball was created by Design Bridge, a London-based firm selected by TEAM after a competition. TEAM gives particular attention to detail in how the colours and starball are depicted at matches. According to TEAM, "Irrespective of whether you are a spectator in Moscow or Milan, you will always see the same stadium dressing materials, the same opening ceremony featuring the 'starball' centre circle ceremony, and hear the same UEFA Champions League Anthem". Based on research it conducted, TEAM concluded that by 1999, "the starball logo had achieved a recognition rate of 94 percent among fans".
== Format ==
=== Qualification ===
The UEFA Champions League used to begin with a double round-robin group stage of 32 teams until it evolved into a league phase of 36 teams, which is preceded by two qualification 'streams' for teams that do not receive direct entry to the tournament proper. The two streams are divided between teams qualified by virtue of being league champions, and those qualified by virtue of finishing second, third or fourth in their national championship.
The number of teams that each association enters into the UEFA Champions League is based upon the UEFA coefficients of the member associations. These coefficients are generated by the results of clubs representing each association during the previous five Champions League, Europa League and Conference League seasons. The higher an association's coefficient, the more teams represent the association in the Champions League, and the fewer qualification rounds the association's teams must compete in.
Five of the remaining seven qualifying places are granted to the winners of a four-round qualifying tournament between the remaining 43 or 44 national champions, within which those champions from associations with higher coefficients receive byes to later rounds. The other two are granted to the winners of a three-round qualifying tournament between ten and eleven clubs from the associations ranked 5–6 through 15, which have qualified based upon finishing second, third or fourth in their respective national league.
In addition to sporting criteria, any club must be licensed by its national association to participate in the Champions League. To obtain a licence, the club must meet certain stadium, infrastructure and finance requirements.
In 2005–06, Liverpool and Artmedia Bratislava became the first teams to reach the Champions League group stage after playing in all three qualifying rounds. Real Madrid and Barcelona hold the record for the most appearances in the group stage, having qualified 29 times, followed by Bayern Munich on 28.
Between 1999 and 2008, no differentiation was made between champions and non-champions in qualification. The 16 top-ranked teams spread across the biggest domestic leagues qualified directly for the tournament group stage. Prior to this, three preliminary knockout qualifying rounds whittled down the remaining teams, with teams starting in different rounds.
An exception to the usual European qualification system happened in 2005, after Liverpool won the Champions League the year before, but did not finish in a Champions League qualification place in the Premier League that season. UEFA gave special dispensation for Liverpool to enter the Champions League, giving England five qualifiers. UEFA subsequently ruled that the defending champions qualify for the competition the following year regardless of their domestic league placing. However, for those leagues with four entrants in the Champions League, this meant that, if the Champions League winner fell outside of its domestic league's top four, it would qualify at the expense of the fourth-placed team in the league. Until 2015–16, no association could have more than four entrants in the Champions League. In May 2012, Tottenham Hotspur finished fourth in the 2011–12 Premier League, two places ahead of Chelsea, but failed to qualify for the 2012–13 Champions League, after Chelsea won the 2012 final. Tottenham were demoted to the 2012–13 UEFA Europa League.
In May 2013, it was decided that, starting from the 2015–16 season (and continuing at least for the three-year cycle until the 2017–18 season), the winners of the previous season's UEFA Europa League would qualify for the UEFA Champions League, entering at least the play-off round, and entering the group stage if the berth reserved for the Champions League title holders was not used. The previous limit of a maximum of four teams per association was increased to five, meaning that a fourth-placed team from one of the top three ranked associations would only have to be moved to the Europa League if both the Champions League and Europa League winners came from that association and both finished outside the top four of their domestic league. Starting from the 2018–19 season, the Europa League winner would receive automatic qualification for the Champions League group stage, with no additional entries required. Starting from the 2024–25 season, the two associations with the highest coefficients from the previous season would receive an extra Champions League spot (known as European Performance Spot) into the league phase. The Champions League and Europa League winners would not be able to fill the European Performance Spots, and they would still receive an additional spot if one or both came from the same top-five association and finished outside of the top four of their domestic league, though the fourth-placed team of the league would no longer go to the Europa League, thus increasing the maximum number of teams per association from five to seven.
In 2007, Michel Platini, the UEFA president, had proposed taking one place from the three leagues with four entrants and allocating it to that nation's cup winners. This proposal was rejected in a vote at a UEFA Strategy Council meeting. In the same meeting, however, it was agreed that the third-placed team in the top three leagues would receive automatic qualification for the group stage, rather than entry into the third qualifying round, while the fourth-placed team would enter the play-off round for non-champions, guaranteeing an opponent from one of the top 15 leagues in Europe. This was part of Platini's plan to increase the number of teams qualifying directly into the group stage, while simultaneously increasing the number of teams from lower-ranked nations in the group stage. In the reforming plan for the 2018–21 cycle, which was announced in August 2016 and confirmed in December, the top four teams in the top four leagues would receive automatic qualification for the group stage.
In 2012, Arsène Wenger referred to qualifying for the Champions League by finishing in the top four places in the Premier League as the "4th Place Trophy". The phrase was coined after a pre-match conference when he was questioned about Arsenal's lack of a trophy after exiting the FA Cup. He said "The first trophy is to finish in the top four". At Arsenal's 2012 AGM, Wenger was also quoted as saying: "For me there are five trophies every season: Premier League, Champions League, the third is to qualify for the Champions League..."
=== League phase and knockout phase ===
Beginning with the 2024–25 season, UEFA changed the format of their three club competitions, abandoning the group stage in favour of an expanded league phase. The number of participating teams was increased from 32 to 36 teams. Teams are no longer divided into groups of four teams each but are ranked in a single table resembling the Swiss-system tournament format. Each team plays eight matches against eight different opponents. For the draw of the league phase, teams are divided into four seeding pots according to their UEFA coefficient. Each team will play against two teams from each pot, one home and one away. The league phase is played from September to January, while the knockout phase begins in February, with matches predominantly played on Tuesday and Wednesday nights.
After the league phase, a two-legged knockout play-off round is played between teams finishing 9–16 (seeded) and 17–24 (unseeded) in the league phase. Teams finishing in the top eight of the league phase receive a bye to the round of 16 as seeded teams, while the eight winning teams from the knockout play-off round will enter the round of 16 draw as unseeded teams. Teams finishing 25th–36th place in the league phase and the eight losers of the knockout play-offs are eliminated from the competition and from European football since it is no longer possible to enter the Europa League from the league phase onwards.
After the round of 16 the competition follows the traditional knockout format with quarter-finals, semi-finals (both two legged and without association draw protection) and then the final at a venue chosen prior to the season. The final is typically held in late May or early June.
Prior to the 2024–25 season, there was a group stage of 32 teams, divided into eight groups of four. The draw to determine which teams entered each group was seeded based on each team's UEFA coefficient, and no group could contain more than one club from each association. Each team played six group stage games, meeting the other three teams in its group home and away in a round-robin format. The first place team and the runners-up from each group then progressed to the next round. The third-placed teams entered the Europa League's knockout round and the fourth-placed teams were eliminated from the competition.
For the next stage—the last 16—the winning team from one group played against the runners-up from another group, but teams from the same association could not be drawn against each other (see random two-sided matching). From the quarter-finals onwards, the draw was entirely random, without association protection.
The group stage was played from September to December, whilst the knockout stage began in February, with matches usually played on Tuesday and Wednesday nights. The knockout ties were played in a two-legged format, with the exception of the final. In the 2019–20 season, due to the COVID-19 pandemic the tournament was suspended for five months. The format of the remainder of the tournament was temporarily amended as a result, with the quarter-finals and semi-finals being played as single match knockout ties at neutral venues in Lisbon, Portugal in the summer with the final taking place on 23 August 2020.
=== Distribution ===
The following is the default access list.
Changes will be made to the access list above if the Champions League or Europa League title holders qualify for the tournament via their domestic leagues.
If the Champions League title holders qualify for the league phase via their domestic league's standard berth allocation, the best champions in qualifying rounds enter the league phase, and champions of the highest-ranked associations in earlier rounds are also promoted accordingly.
If the Europa League title holders qualify for the league phase via their domestic league's standard berth allocation, the best club in qualifying rounds enters the league phase, except for the runners-up of associations 11–15, as they have a higher-ranked domestic team in the qualifiers, and teams of the highest-ranked associations in earlier rounds are also promoted accordingly.
If the Champions League or Europa League title holders qualify for the qualifying rounds via their domestic league, their spot in the qualifying rounds is vacated, and teams of the highest-ranked associations in earlier rounds are promoted accordingly.
== Prizes ==
=== Trophy and medals ===
Each year, the winning team is presented with the European Champion Clubs' Cup, the current version of which has been awarded since 1967. From the 1968–69 season and prior to the 2008–09 season any team that won the Champions League three years in a row or five times overall was awarded the official trophy permanently. Each time a club achieved this, a new official trophy had to be forged for the following season. Five clubs own a version of the official trophy: Real Madrid, Ajax, Bayern Munich, Milan and Liverpool. Since 2008, the official trophy has remained with UEFA and the clubs are awarded a replica.
The current trophy is 74 cm (29 in) tall and made of silver, weighing 11 kg (24 lb). It was designed by Jürg Stadelmann, a jeweller from Bern, Switzerland, after the original was given to Real Madrid in 1966 in recognition of their six titles to date, and cost 10,000 Swiss francs.
50 gold medals are presented to the Champions League winners, and 50 silver medals to the runners-up.
=== Prize money ===
Starting with the 2024–25 season, the distribution of the prize money is as follows.
Play-off round: €4,290,000
Base fee for league phase: €18,620,000
League phase victory: €2,100,000
League phase draw: €700,000
Bonus based on league phase ranking: €275,000 - €9,900,000
League phase top 8: €2,000,000
League phase ranked 9 through 16: €1,000,000
Knockout round play-offs: €1,000,000
Round of 16: €11,000,000
Quarter-finals: €12,500,000
Semi-finals: €15,000,000
Runners-up: €18,500,000
Champions: €25,000,000
A large part of the distributed revenue from the UEFA Champions League is linked to the "market pool", the distribution of which is determined by the value of the television market in each nation. For the 2019–20 season, Paris Saint-Germain, who were the runners-up, earned nearly €126.8 million in total, of which €101.3 million was prize money, compared with the €125.46 million earned by Bayern Munich, who won the tournament and were awarded €112.96 million in prize money.
== Sponsorship ==
Like the FIFA World Cup, the UEFA Champions League is sponsored by a group of multinational corporations, in contrast to the single main sponsor typically found in national top-flight leagues. When the Champions League was created in 1992, it was decided that a maximum of eight companies should be allowed to sponsor the event, with each corporation being allocated four advertising boards around the perimeter of the pitch, as well as logo placement at pre- and post-match interviews and a certain number of tickets to each match. This, combined with a deal to ensure tournament sponsors were given priority on television advertisements during matches, ensured that each of the tournament's main sponsors was given maximum exposure.
From the 2012–13 knockout phase, UEFA used LED advertising hoardings installed in knockout participant stadiums, including the final. From the 2015–16 season onwards, UEFA has used such hoardings from the play-off round until the final. Since 2021, the UEFA also used Virtual Board Replacement (VBR) technology to offer region-based advertising; regional sponsors are inserted into the hoardings as shown on the broadcast feed in specific regions along with the global sponsors.
Individual clubs may wear jerseys with advertising. However, only two sponsorships are permitted per jersey in addition to that of the kit manufacturer, at the chest and the left sleeve. Exceptions are made for non-profit organisations, which can feature on the front of the shirt, incorporated with the main sponsor or in place of it; or on the back, either below the squad number or on the collar area.
If a club plays a match in a nation where the relevant sponsorship category is restricted (such as France's alcohol advertising restriction), then they must remove that logo from their jerseys. For example, when Rangers played French side Auxerre in the 1996–97 Champions League, they wore the logo of the holiday chain Center Parcs instead of their primary sponsor, McEwan's Lager (both companies at the time were subsidiaries of Scottish & Newcastle).
== Media coverage ==
The competition attracts an extensive television audience, not just in Europe, but throughout the world. The final of the tournament has been, in recent years, the most-watched annual sporting event in the world. The final of the 2012–13 tournament had the competition's highest TV ratings to date, drawing approximately 360 million television viewers.
== Team records and statistics ==
=== Performance by club ===
=== Performances by nation ===
Notes
== Player records ==
=== Most wins ===
=== Most appearances ===
As of 18 March 2026
Players taking part in the 2025–26 UEFA Champions League are highlighted in bold.
The table below does not include appearances made in the qualification stage of the competition.
=== Most goals ===
As of 18 March 2026
A ‡ indicates the player was from the European Cup era.
Players taking part in the 2025–26 UEFA Champions League are highlighted in bold.
The table below does not include goals scored in the qualification stage of the competition.
=== Most assists ===
As of 18 March 2026
Players that are still active in Europe are highlighted in boldface.
== Awards ==
=== Player of the Season ===
Starting from the 2021–22 edition, UEFA introduced the UEFA Champions League Player of the Season award.
The jury is composed of the coaches of the clubs that participated in the group stage of the competition, as well as 55 journalists selected by the European Sports Media (ESM) group, one from each UEFA member association.
=== Young Player of the Season ===
In the same season, UEFA also introduced the UEFA Champions League Young Player of the Season award. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_of_Mankind | Memory of Mankind | Memory of Mankind (MOM) is a preservation project founded by Martin Kunze in Hallstatt, Austria, in 2012. Its main goal is to preserve knowledge about present human civilization from oblivion and collective amnesia. Information is printed on ceramic tablets and stored in the local salt mine. The project aims to create the "time capsule of our era", letting anyone participate by allowing them to submit texts and images. In contrast to national archives, content for MOM is collected by those who take part, and it constitutes a collective, "bottom-up" history.
== History ==
The project was started by ceramicist Martin Kunze. His earliest experience with a time capsule was in the early 1980s, when, as a 13-year-old, he buried a bottle at a beach with a message containing his name and phone number. Thirty years later, someone found it.
Circa 2008, Kunze read Alan Weisman's nonfiction work The World Without Us, which included the claim that ceramic objects had the greatest chance to survive into the future. This, coupled with the knowledge that the internet already contributed 2% of CO2 emissions, led Kunze to think about a ceramic time capsule. Part of the inspiration came from an art project by a classmate, who had written "feminine experiences" on ceramic tablets.
In 2012, the Memory of Mankind started with the first tablet, which had a greeting to future finders, an explanation about the project, and a date expressed in terms of astronomical events. By 2018, the project had over 500 tablets.
== Ambitions ==
The primary ambition of MOM is to preserve an image of the current era, created by numerous participants from all over the planet. It also intends to contain information that our society is obligated to forward to the future, e.g., descriptions of nuclear waste repositories. MOM collaborates with the nuclear agency NEA and the Swedish nuclear waste company SKB.
The project is also intended as a critique of our digital civilization. According to Kunze, nothing of the 21st century may last in the future, since most of our interactions are now virtual. The conflict of accuracy is one of the main themes of the MOM project. The project aims to save a fragment of the information produced until today, Kunze says, but this fragment has to be representative.
The project is open to the public, and its creator emphasizes that it is not a "doomsday project".
== Content ==
Collecting content for the MOM is subject to bias. In order to take this into account, it is split into three sections, and as much meta-information as necessary is added to any contribution in order to enable future finders to apply source criticism. The collecting process is not centralized, and it is specifically relevant to each country/region/entity.
The three sections are:
Individual content: content uploaded by individuals, accompanied by a declaration of why this particular text is worthy of preservation. Each individual upload is marked as "private content" in the overall MOM index;
General content: content collected automatically to avoid bias, e.g., collecting the daily editorials of newspapers worldwide, randomly selected Facebook profiles, weekly/monthly magazines on different topics (with the "meta-information": numbers of readers; reason for selecting the respective magazine; description of the target group). A language-deciphering tool is also part of this section;
Specific content: in this section, MOM is used as a "medium". Outside institutions bring content to MOM and use the storage and ceramic microfilm. Examples include the nuclear industry (information about waste repositories) or universities, which use MOM for awards.
== Salt mine ==
The Hallstatt salt mine is the oldest continuously exploited by humans. Several factors contribute to its suitability for the MOM archives: as well as the depth and relative stability of the mine, the salt absorbs moisture and dries the air, and it has a natural plasticity that helps to seal cracks and fractures, keeping the caverns watertight.
The geology dictates that over hundreds of thousands of years, the archive will rise to the surface. Since the mouth of the cavern closes at about the rate of human fingernail growth, the project has about 40 years to be completed. Under Austrian law, the archive is considered to be "like waste", and ownerless.
== Ceramic data carriers ==
Ancient Sumerian clay tablets inspired those used by MOM. These modern variants are made of a ceramic material that is capable of preserving the information that they contain, as it is less vulnerable to corrosion, biological degradation, and ordinary weathering, and lasts for a longer time than other materials that have been used to record information—it resists temperatures of up to 1,200 °C (2,200 °F), chemicals, water, radiation, magnetism and pressure, and can "only be destroyed by a hammer" (even if a tablet breaks, information will not disappear). The goal is to have the most durable support available, able to carry the message over a long span of time (e.g., one million years).
The tablets measure 20x20 cm. One type carries images and text with a 300 dpi resolution, while the other type is "ceramic microfilm" and carries up to 5 million characters. It is required that the information be analog and recognizable as data to future finders.
Variations of languages over time and even the hypothesis of an alien intelligence discovering the MOM archives have been anticipated. Again, the creators of MOM take inspiration from historical methods. They designed their own "Rosetta Stone", translated into several languages with the appropriate character set and number system, an astronomical time indicating "2013" (via extremely rare events of simultaneous transits of Mercury and Venus), and thousands of images depicting concrete situations with the corresponding words, completed by the theoretical volumes of the main languages, e.g., phrases, grammar, thesauruses, and orthography.
== Token and ceremonial gathering ==
A token (a disc 6,5 cm in diameter) is given to all participants of the MOM project. On its surface, the token indicates a place on Earth with a precision of some ten meters. The front side depicts the outline of Europe, with a mark representing Hallstatt's location. The back shows the position of the entrance to the MOM relative to the shape of Hallstatt lake. In addition, a multi-cubic shape representing the crystalline structure of the mine's salt is included. Due to the design of MOM and the token, the archive can only be retrieved by a society with a similar technical and physical understanding of the world to modern-era humans. This is intended to ensure that techniques to decode the content are available to future finders.
An "Ariadne's thread" in the form of ceramic tablets with mathematical indications of the direction and depth will be placed in the entrance tunnel, including "gaps", which are also mathematically indicated, in order to avoid accidental recovery by an immature society.
An instruction for a rite is attached to this token: the owners are supposed to gather every 50 years to commemorate and decide whether humanity still knows the content of MOM and if extensions are needed. The token should be transmitted to the descendants of the owners.
Unlike other time capsules, which predefine opening dates (not considering if at that point an appropriate addressee will exist), MOM's token defines the culture rather than the date of the opening by ensuring a pre-mature society would be unable to interpret the token.
== Crowdfunding aspect ==
Memory of Mankind distinguishes itself by asking for contributions from both public and private entities, be they companies or common people. Contributions can be financial or content to be stored. Cooking recipes and personal stories are examples of contributions that may be stored. In exchange for a contribution above a certain character minimum, the contributor receives one of the ceramic tokens.
== Cost ==
MOM is a global project: in order to enable citizens of every country to represent themselves, the price of the tablets varies based on the donor's gross national income per capita-ranking table of the World Bank.
== Gallery == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/28th_Tony_Awards | 28th Tony Awards | The 28th Annual Tony Awards ceremony was held on April 21, 1974, at the Shubert Theatre in New York City, and broadcast by ABC television. Hosts were Peter Falk, Florence Henderson, Robert Preston and Cicely Tyson. The theme was "Homecoming", where stars from TV and film returned to Broadway to help present the awards or perform.
== Eligibility ==
Shows that opened on Broadway during the 1973–1974 season before March 11, 1974 are eligible.
== The ceremony ==
Presenters: Alan Alda, Ed Asner, Karen Black, David Carradine, Johnny Carson, Bette Davis, Peter Falk, Henry Fonda, Elliott Gould, Ken Howard, Glynis Johns, Cloris Leachman, Michael Learned, Elizabeth Montgomery, Carroll O'Connor, Al Pacino, Suzanne Pleshette, Jane Powell, Lynn Redgrave, Esther Rolle, Marlo Thomas, Lesley Ann Warren.
Performers: Beatrice Arthur, Carol Channing, Will Geer, Joel Grey, Florence Henderson, Cleavon Little, Charles Nelson Reilly, Nancy Walker.
Musicals represented:
Over Here! ("Over Here"/"Charlie's Place" - Patty and Maxene Andrews and Company)
Raisin ("Whole Lot of Sunshine" - Virginia Capers/"Sidewalk Tree" - Ralph Carter)
Lorelei ("Men" - Carol Channing, Peter Palmer and Ian Tucker)
Good News ("You're the Cream in My Coffee" - Alice Faye and John Payne)
Seesaw ("I'm Way ahead"/"Seesaw" - Michele Lee)
Fanny ("Welcome Home" - Florence Henderson)
A Mother's Kisses ("There Goes My Life" - Bea Arthur)
Medley of Songs from Broadway Shows - Charles Nelson Reilly
The Cradle Will Rock (Medley - Will Geer)
George M! (Medley - Joel Grey)
Phoenix '55 ("Upper Berth" - Nancy Walker and Men)
Purlie ("New Fangled Preacher Man" - Cleavon Little)
== Winners and nominees ==
Winners are in bold
== Special Tony awards ==
Liza Minnelli, for adding lustre to the Broadway season
Bette Midler, for adding lustre to the Broadway season
Peter Cook and Dudley Moore, co-stars and authors of Good Evening
A Moon for the Misbegotten, an outstanding dramatic revival of an American classic. Produced by Lester Osterman, Elliott Martin and Richard Hurner
Candide, an outstanding contribution to the artistic development of the musical theatre. Produced by Chelsea Theatre Group, Harold Prince and Ruth Mitchell
Actors' Equity Association
Theatre Development Fund
John F. Wharton, veteran theatrical attorney
Harold Friedlander, the industry's foremost printing expert
=== Multiple nominations and awards === |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murray_State_University#Former_Presidents_of_the_University | Murray State University#Former Presidents of the University | Murray State University (MSU) is a public university in Murray, Kentucky, United States. In addition to the main campus in Calloway County in southwestern Kentucky, Murray State operates extended campuses offering upper-level and graduate courses in Paducah, Hopkinsville, Madisonville, and Henderson.
== History ==
Murray State University was founded after the passage of Senate Bill 14 by the General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Kentucky, which created two normal schools in the early 20th century to address the growing demand for professional teachers. One was to be located in the western part of the state, and many cities and towns bid for the new normal school. Rainey T. Wells spoke on behalf of the city of Murray to convince the Normal School Commission to choose his city. On September 2, 1922, Murray was chosen as the site of the western normal school, while Morehead was chosen for the eastern normal school. On November 26, 1922, John Wesley Carr was elected the first president of the Murray State Normal School by the State Board of Education. Believing it had the authority to elect the president, the Normal School Commission picked Rainey Wells as the first president. On May 15, 1923, the Kentucky Court of Appeals ruled for the State Board of Education, and Carr became Murray's first president.
Murray State Normal School opened on September 24, 1923. In 1924, the first building on Murray State's campus, the Administrative Building, was constructed. Before this, all MSU classes had been held on the first floor of what is now Murray Middle School, located on Main Street. Designed by Joseph & Joseph in the Collegiate Gothic style the Administrative Building, later known as Wrather Hall, housed classrooms, a dining hall, offices, and a chapel. The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1975, and renovated soon after, finally being renamed to Wrather West Kentucky Museum, named for Murray State executive vice-president Marvin O. Wrather. All students lived at home or boarded with local families until the first dormitory, Wells Hall, was constructed in 1925. Wilson Hall was also completed under Carr's presidency, with other structures in progress.
In 1926, Rainey T. Wells, recognized as the founder of Murray State, became its second president. Wells served from 1926 to 1932, and during this time Lovett Auditorium, Carr Health Building, and Pogue Library were all completed. In 1926, the Normal School was renamed Murray State Normal School and Teachers College, with a four-year curriculum, and the General Assembly granted it authority to confer baccalaureate degrees. In 1928, the college was accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. In 1930, the name was changed to Murray State Teachers College and it was granted authority to offer liberal arts and pre-professional courses. The name was changed again in 1948 to Murray State College, with the expansion of the programs to include graduate-level courses, in 1966 the General Assembly authorized the Board of Regents to change the name to Murray State University.
== Shield ==
The Shield has the heraldic coat of arms of the family of William Murray, Earl of Mansfield, and Lord Chief Justice of Great Britain in 1756. William Murray is an ancestor of the Murray family from whom the city and the university take their names. The shield is blue with a double gold border—its three stars represent hope, endeavor, and achievement.
== Campus ==
=== Quad ===
The oldest and most easily recognizable buildings on the Murray State campus are situated around a large, grassy, tree-lined area on the south side of the campus. This part of the campus, known as the Quad, is bounded by 16th Street to the west, 15th Street to the east, Lovett Auditorium to the north, and Wilson Hall to the south.
In the southwest corner of the Quad is the oldest building on campus, now known as Wrather West Kentucky Museum. It was first known as the Administration Building and then as Wrather Hall, and housed classrooms and offices, before it became a museum. Ground for Wrather was broken on October 15, 1923, and it has been in use since 1924. The building was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975, and features a large auditorium that is frequently used for lectures and meetings.
Faculty Hall, Wells Hall, and the Arthur J. Bauernfeind Business Building line the western edge of the Quad. The Lowry Center, Pogue Library, and the Price Doyle Fine Arts Center line the eastern side of the Quad. The 11-story Doyle Fine Arts Center is the tallest building on campus, housing numerous classrooms, practice rooms, recital halls, the Robert E. Johnson Theatre, Clara Eagle Art Gallery, WKMS-FM, and television studios used for student work.
Directly south of the Quad is Sparks Hall. The five-story, 39,000-square-foot (3,600 m2), Sparks Hall was completed in 1967 for $1,308,514, and functions as the main administrative building, housing the offices of student financial aid, registration, accounting and financial services, human resources and branding, marketing and communication.
To the south of the Quadrangle, and directly west of Sparks Hall is Oakhurst, the residence of the university president. Construction of the mansion, originally known as Edgewood, began in 1917 and was completed in 1918. The home was built by Rainey T. Wells and his wife. The board of regents purchased the home from Wells in June 1936. It was remodeled that year and renamed Oakhurst in preparation for James H. Richmond's occupation of the house.
=== Central campus ===
The central portion of the Murray State campus lines 15th Street between Chestnut Street and Olive Boulevard. This portion of 15th Street was originally open to automobile traffic but has since been closed and converted into a pedestrian thoroughfare. Along the west side of the pedestrian pathway are the Martha Layne Collins Center for Industry and Technology, Blackburn Science Building, and Oakley Applied Science Building. To the east of the pedestrian pathway lies the Curris Center, Carr Health Building and Cutchin Fieldhouse, Waterfield Library, Mason Hall, and the front facade of the now-demolished Ordway Hall. Woods Hall, a former dormitory located behind Waterfield Library, was razed in the summer of 2019, and the space it occupied will soon be replaced with a park.
Ordway Hall was the most historic building in the central portion of campus. It was completed in 1931. Originally used as a men's dormitory, 38,600-square-foot Ordway Hall later housed event space and several offices. Because of costly renovation needs, Ordway was razed in 2013. The front facade was retained as a monument to its significance.
=== Science campus ===
An aggressive building campaign on campus has resulted in a westward expansion of the main academic campus of Murray State. The expansion began with a massive renovation and expansion of what is now known as Alexander Hall on the west side of 16th Street near Calloway Avenue. The project was the first to unveil a new architectural style that would become consistent through all renovation and new construction projects on campus. Alexander Hall houses classrooms and offices for the College of Education. Construction continued with the new state-of-the-art science complex for biology and chemistry that is located just to the southwest of Alexander Hall. The massive new science complex was constructed in phases, with the Biology Building (Logan Hall) opening in 2004, and the rest of the complex and centerpiece clock tower reaching completion in March 2008. The new clock tower was dedicated in 2007 as the Jesse L. Jones Family Clock Tower. A physics and engineering building was completed in the summer of 2017.
=== Sports and recreation facilities ===
The majority of the university's sports and recreation facilities are located on the northernmost edge of the campus, along the KY-121 Bypass. The most prominent structure in the sports complex is Roy Stewart Stadium. The stadium, the home field to the Murray State Racers football program, was completed in 1973 and named for former Murray State football coach Roy Stewart. It seats 16,800. The outdated AstroTurf surface was replaced with FieldTurf in 2007. Located on the second floor of the seven-story press box and seating structure is the Pat Spurgin Rifle Range, home of the three-time NCAA champion rifle squad. The 8,602-seat CFSB Center was completed in 1998 to replace the aging Racer Arena, which had been outgrown by the men's and women's basketball teams. Racer Arena remains in use by the women's volleyball team.
On April 16, 2005, the new Susan E. Bauernfeind Student Recreation and Wellness Center was dedicated. The 73,000-square-foot (6,800 m2) student recreation center includes a swimming pool, two racquetball courts, a walking/jogging track, an aerobic studio, basketball courts, and free weights and cardio workout machines. The center is located just north of the residential colleges, near Roy Stewart Stadium.
=== Residence halls ===
A building campaign is underway to replace many of the older residence halls. A replacement building for Clark College was completed and ready for residents at the beginning of the 2007 fall semester. Clark Hall was the newest building, and the first residence hall specifically designed around the residential college concept and model. A new four-story, 270-bed, 79,900-square foot Richmond Hall was opened for James H. Richmond Residential College in fall 2009. It has a similar concept and design as Clark College. In the fall of 2009, the old Clark Hall building was torn down.
Following the completion of the spring 2011 semester, the university began renovation to Elizabeth Hall, which houses the Elizabeth Residential College. The $7.2 million renovation project closed the building for the entire 2011–12 academic year as the highrise was upgraded to meet Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) standards. The renovation also included new heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning systems to achieve Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) silver status. The renovated Elizabeth Hall reopened on August 18, 2012. The university broke ground in March 2025 on a new learning commons/residence hall.
== Academics ==
Murray State University offers eleven associate programs, 64 bachelor programs, 42 master and specialist programs, and three doctoral programs which are administered through four academic colleges, two schools, 30 departments, and one joint program shared by the College of Business and the College of Science, Engineering, and Technology. The College of Business is the largest at Murray State, enrolling 23% of the undergraduate students.
Murray State has been institutionally accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools, Commission on Colleges, continuously since 1928. It is one of eight schools in the state of Kentucky to achieve AACSB accreditation of business programs; however, the school is not AACSB-accredited in accounting programs. Several other programs have achieved specialized accreditation: primarily programs in teaching, fine arts and nursing. As a former normal school and teachers' college, Murray State is best known for its NCATE-accredited education programs. The Clinical Psychology Master's program is accredited by the Masters in Psychology and Counseling Accreditation Council (MPCAC). The university has also gained national recognition for its fine arts programs. The Department of Music has been a member of the National Association of Schools of Music since 1936.
=== Rankings ===
For more than 30 years, Murray State University has been recognized by U.S. News & World Report's Best Colleges as one of the top regional universities in the United States. The 2025 rankings listed Murray State as the #1 Best Value School in the South region. Murray State has consistently been one of the top-ranked public regional universities in Kentucky in the Regional Universities-South category, which consists of both private and public schools. Murray State has also been ranked by Forbes among America's Top Colleges since 2008.
== Tuition policies ==
Presumably, due to its location near multiple state borders, Murray State offers discounts from its normal out-of-state tuition rates to residents of several regional states. These discounts apply only to residential students; all online students pay the same rate regardless of residency. Tuition for doctoral students also does not vary by state of residence.
Residents of Alabama, Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Missouri, and Mississippi receive what Murray State calls a "regional" rate for both undergraduate and graduate programs.
Residents of Tennessee receive the regional rate for graduate programs, but undergraduate programs receive a special rate between the regional and in-state rates.
Residents of specific counties in Illinois, Indiana, and Tennessee are treated as Kentucky residents for tuition purposes:
Illinois: Massac County (directly across the Ohio River from Paducah, the largest city in Murray State's home Purchase region)
Indiana: Posey, Vanderburgh, and Warrick Counties (all directly across the Ohio from Kentucky; Evansville is in Vanderburgh County)
Tennessee: Henry, Montgomery, Obion, Stewart, and Weakley Counties (all bordering Kentucky; Clarksville is in Montgomery County)
== Campus life ==
=== Residential colleges ===
As of fall 2012, Murray State had 2,831 students living on campus. Murray State has said that it was the first public university in the United States to adopt a successful campus-wide residential college program. The residential college structure, which took form on the campus in 1996, is based on similar, but much more established programs at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge in the United Kingdom as well as Yale University, Harvard College and Princeton University in the United States.
There are eight residential colleges:
Clark College, named for Lee Clark, who assisted Rainey T. Wells in founding the university. Clark later served as the superintendent of grounds and buildings. The current Clark College opened in August 2007 as the first new residence hall built on campus since 1970. It is also the first residence hall at Murray to be specifically designed to support the residential college concept.
Elizabeth College, named for Elizabeth Harkless Woods, wife of fourth Murray State President Ralph H. Woods
Hart College, named for George Hart, a board of regents member and mayor of Murray
Hester College, named for Cleo Gillis Hester, who served Murray State University from 1927 to 1960, as registrar
Regents College, named in honor of those who have served on the Murray State University Board of Regents; completed in 1970
Richmond College, named for the third president of the university, James H. Richmond
Springer-Franklin College, named for O.B. Springer, member of the board of regents from 1950 to 1958 and 1960 to 1970, and Hollis C. Franklin, who served on the board from 1947 to 1956
White College, named for R.H. "Bob" White, a board of regents member
=== Greek life ===
Murray State is home to twenty-six chapters of both social and professional Greek organizations. The oldest social fraternity on campus is Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia and the oldest professional fraternity is Sigma Alpha Iota (both relating to music) with the oldest social sorority being Sigma Sigma Sigma. As of the spring 2016 semester, 1,438 students were officially reported to be involved with Greek life, representing 19% of the undergraduate student population.
As of Fall 2019, 16% of undergraduate students make up Murray State Greek Life. The average chapter size for the Panhellenic Council is 93; Interfraternity Council is 50; and National Pan-Hellenic Council is 5. The average Greek GPA is 3.20.
The Order of Omega has a chapter on campus. This organization is an honor society for fraternity and sorority members. Membership is limited to 5% of the Greek community. The Greek community also featured a local sorority from 1988 to 1994. Theta Chi Delta sorority was a member of MSU's Panhellenic Council and participated in most campus events. In 1994 the sorority became a colony of Phi Sigma Sigma but the colonization was unsuccessful and the organization folded in 1995.
Greek life has been banned on campus several times in past decades, namely 2012 and 2018. The 2012 incidents involved Alpha Gamma Rho and Alpha Tau Omega fraternity houses. The 2018 ban on Greek life and social events followed the death of 19-year-old Zach Wardrip.
== Athletics ==
The Murray State athletic teams are called the Racers. Their historic nickname had been the "Thoroughbreds", but all teams changed over time to "Racers", with the last holdout of baseball making the change in 2014. The university is a member of the NCAA Division I ranks (for football, the Football Championship Subdivision), primarily competing in the Missouri Valley Conference (MVC) since the 2022–23 academic year. The Racers previously competed in the Ohio Valley Conference (OVC) from 1948–49 to 2021–22; and in the Kentucky Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (currently known as the River States Conference (RSC) since the 2016–17 school year) of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) from 1933–34 to 1947–48.
Murray State competes in 15 intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, football, and golf; while women's sports include basketball, cross country, golf, soccer, softball, tennis, track & field, and volleyball; and co-ed sports include rifle.
=== Move to the MVC ===
In July 2022, Murray State and Belmont left the OVC to join the MVC. Because the MVC does not sponsor football, Murray State remained in OVC football for the 2022 season before leaving for the Missouri Valley Football Conference (a separate entity from the MVC) in 2023. MSU maintains OVC membership in rifle, another sport not sponsored by the MVC.
=== Accomplishments ===
Murray State's men's basketball program has made 18 appearances in the NCAA Tournament, most recently in 2022. In 2010, as a 13-seed, Murray State won their second-ever NCAA tournament game on a buzzer-beater against 4th-seeded Vanderbilt. Mark Gottfried coached the Racers to three Ohio Valley Conference Championships all three years he coached there, the only OVC coach to accomplish such a mark. The Racer men's basketball team was also led to the 2012 OVC championship by Coach Steve Prohm.
Frank Beamer and Houston Nutt are both former Racers head coaches. Former Maryland head coach Ralph Friedgen was a Racers assistant under Beamer, and former Illinois head coach Ron Zook was an assistant under former ESPN college football analyst Mike Gottfried, who was Beamer's predecessor as head coach.
== Publications ==
The Murray State News is the student newspaper of Murray State University. The newspaper has been the recipient of several ACP Pacemaker awards, the highest award given to collegiate newspapers, most recently in 2004. In October 2013 the newspaper won third place best-in-show for four-year weekly broadcast at the National College Media Convention in New Orleans. The Murray State News gained notoriety between 1998 and 2001 through the work of cartoonist Darin Shock. Shock earned the honor of top college cartoonist in the nation from the College Media Advisers in 2000. He had earned second-place honors the previous year.
Gateway Magazine is a full-color, glossy magazine published annually as an imprint of The Murray State News.
The school yearbook, The Shield, was awarded three Pacemaker awards and two CSPA Silver Crowns. The Shield ceased publication with its 2008 edition due to financial concerns.
The university's national literary magazine, New Madrid with editor Ann Neelon, featured work from a range of nationally recognized authors and received acclaim from sources as diverse as La Bloga, a leading Hispanic journal, and New Pages, a leading national review of literary magazines. A lack of funding led to the suspension of publication in 2018.
== Presidents ==
Presidents of the university include:
John W. Carr, 1923–1926
Rainey T. Wells, 1926–1932
John W. Carr, 1933–1936
James H. Richmond, 1936–1945
Ralph H. Woods, 1945–1968
Harry M. Sparks, 1968–1973
Constantine W. Curris, 1973–1983
Kala M. Stroup, 1983–1990
James L. Booth, 1989–1990 (Acting)
Ronald J. Kurth, 1990–1994
Samuel Kern Alexander, 1994–2001
Fieldon King Alexander, 2001–2005
Samuel Kern Alexander, 2006 (interim)
Tim Miller, 2006 (interim)
Randy J. Dunn, 2006–2013
Tim Miller, 2013–2014
Robert O. Davies, 2014–2018
Robert L. Jackson, 2018–2025
Ron K. Patterson, 2025–present
== Notable alumni == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_LeBlanc | Matt LeBlanc | Matthew Steven LeBlanc ( lə-BLAHNK; born July 25, 1967) is an American actor. He gained global recognition with his portrayal of Joey Tribbiani in the NBC sitcom Friends (1994–2004), and in its spin-off series Joey (2004–2006). For his work on Friends, LeBlanc received three nominations at the Primetime Emmy Awards. He has also starred as a fictionalized version of himself in Episodes (2011–2017), for which he won a Golden Globe Award and received four additional Emmy Award nominations. He co-hosted Top Gear from 2016 to 2019. From 2016 to 2020, he played patriarch Adam Burns in the CBS sitcom Man with a Plan.
== Early life ==
Matthew Steven LeBlanc was born at Newton-Wellesley Hospital in Newton, Massachusetts. His mother, Patricia (née Di Cillo), was an office manager; his father, Paul LeBlanc, was a mechanic and a veteran of the Vietnam War. He has a brother named Justin LeBlanc. His father is of French-Canadian descent and his mother is of Italian ancestry, the daughter of immigrants from Arce, Lazio. He attended Newton North High School, where he graduated in the same year as future comedian Louis C.K. After high school he attended college at Wentworth Institute of Technology in Boston. He dropped out shortly after starting his second semester.
LeBlanc moved to New York at the age of 17 to pursue a career in modeling, but he was told he was too short to be in the industry. His acting career began after a woman invited him to accompany her to an audition, where he ended up getting signed by her manager. Although he had booked commercials and television and film roles before Friends, he was reportedly down to his last eleven dollars before landing the role of Joey Tribbiani.
== Career ==
=== 1987–1994: Early career ===
LeBlanc first appeared in a 1987 Heinz Tomato Ketchup commercial. In 1988, he starred in the television drama TV 101 for one season. In 1991, he had a recurring role on the hit Fox sitcom Married... with Children. He played Vinnie Verducci, a family friend of protagonist Al Bundy (Ed O'Neill) who briefly dates his daughter, Kelly (Christina Applegate). He also guest-starred in the first season of Red Shoe Diaries. LeBlanc starred in two short-lived Married... with Children spin-offs: Top of the Heap (1991) and Vinnie & Bobby (1992).
He appeared in two Bon Jovi music videos: "Miracle", from the Young Guns II soundtrack in 1990, and "Say It Isn't So" in 2000. He also appeared in videos for Alanis Morissette's single "Walk Away", Tom Petty & The Heartbreakers's "Into The Great Wide Open" and Bob Seger's "Night Moves".
=== 1994–2006: Friends, Joey and film roles ===
LeBlanc found success as the dimwitted but lovable Joey Tribbiani on Friends; he played this character for 12 years—10 seasons of Friends and two seasons of Joey. Friends was wildly successful, and LeBlanc (along with co-stars Jennifer Aniston, Courteney Cox, Lisa Kudrow, Matthew Perry, and David Schwimmer) gained wide recognition among viewers. This ensemble situation comedy became a major hit for NBC, airing on Thursday nights for ten years.
For his performance, LeBlanc received three Primetime Emmy Award nominations, three Golden Globe award nominations, and one Screen Actors Guild Award nomination. During this time he also appeared in the films Lookin' Italian (1994), Ed (1996), Lost in Space (1998), Charlie's Angels (2000), and its sequel, Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle (2003).
Following the cancellation of Joey, LeBlanc announced that he would be taking a one-year hiatus from acting on television, which eventually turned into five years.
=== 2011–present: Career revival ===
From 2011, LeBlanc appeared as a fictionalized version of himself in Episodes, a television series about an American remake of a fictional British television series. The series is written by Friends co-creator David Crane and his partner Jeffrey Klarik. The role was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award four times and, at the 69th Golden Globe Awards in 2012, LeBlanc was awarded Best Actor – Television Series Musical or Comedy of 2011.
In February 2012, LeBlanc appeared in the second episode of the eighteenth series of Top Gear, where he set the fastest lap time in the "Star in a Reasonably Priced Car" segment in a Kia Cee'd. Lapping at 1:42.1, he beat the show's previous record-holder, Rowan Atkinson, by 0.1 seconds. He later appeared in the fourth episode of the nineteenth series to race the new Kia Cee'd, with which he beat his previous time.
In February 2016, the BBC announced LeBlanc had signed on to become one of the new Top Gear hosts, signing a two-year deal later that year. In May 2018, he announced that he was leaving the series in order to spend more time with his family and friends in the US. He and Rory Reid were replaced by new co-hosts Paddy McGuinness and Andrew Flintoff for the twenty-seventh series in June 2019.
LeBlanc played the lead role in the CBS sitcom Man with a Plan, which began airing in 2016 until it was cancelled in 2020.
== Personal life ==
LeBlanc has an extensive interest in cars, and worked as a carpenter before acting. In the mid-1990s, he dated actress Kate Hudson. He married Melissa McKnight, a British-born American model and a divorced single mother of two children, in May 2003. They had been introduced to each other in 1997 by McKnight's friend, Kelly Phillips (wife of actor Lou Diamond Phillips). LeBlanc proposed to her a year later. Their daughter, born in 2004, began suffering seizures at eight months old. By the time she was two years old, the condition, thought to be due to cortical dysplasia, had mostly subsided. LeBlanc and McKnight divorced in October 2006, citing irreconcilable differences.
LeBlanc met actress Andrea Anders in 2004, while she was co-starring as his friend and eventual love interest on Joey. The pair eventually embarked on a relationship, which was confirmed in 2006 following LeBlanc's divorce from his wife Melissa McKnight. After over eight years as a couple, LeBlanc announced at the start of 2015 that he and Anders had separated several months earlier.
LeBlanc started getting gray hair around the second season of Friends and dyed his hair throughout the course of the series. Once the spin-off series Joey ended, he stopped dyeing his hair.
LeBlanc primarily resides in Pacific Palisades, Los Angeles.
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
=== Music videos ===
== Awards and nominations == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Beautiful_Day_in_the_Neighborhood | A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood | A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood is a 2019 American biographical drama film on the TV host Fred Rogers, directed by Marielle Heller and written by Micah Fitzerman-Blue and Noah Harpster, inspired by the 1998 article "Can You Say ... Hero?" by Tom Junod, published in Esquire. It stars Tom Hanks, Matthew Rhys, Susan Kelechi Watson, and Chris Cooper. It depicts Lloyd Vogel (Rhys), a troubled journalist for Esquire who is assigned to profile television icon Fred Rogers (Hanks).
The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 7, 2019, and was theatrically released in the United States on November 22, 2019, by Sony Pictures Releasing. It grossed $68 million worldwide. Critics praised Hanks and Rhys's performances, Heller's direction, and its heart-warming messages. It was chosen by Time magazine as one of the ten best films of the year. For his performance, Hanks was nominated for Best Supporting Actor at the Academy Awards, as well as the Golden Globes, Critics' Choice, Screen Actors Guild Awards, and BAFTA Awards, among others.
== Plot ==
The film begins with a remake of the opening sequence of Mister Rogers' Neighborhood. Fred Rogers shows his television audience a picture board with portraits of some of his friends, including King Friday and Mr. McFeely. He then introduces a new friend, Lloyd Vogel, whom he explains has been hurt, and is having a hard time forgiving the person who hurt him.
Lloyd, a journalist for Esquire magazine known for his cynical writing, is reluctant to go to his sister Lorraine's third wedding because his estranged father Jerry will be there, but he attends with his wife Andrea, and their newborn son, Gavin. When Jerry makes an insensitive remark about Lloyd's deceased mother Lila (who he cheated on and abandoned when she was dying of cancer twenty years earlier), Lloyd becomes furious and punches his father, starting a chaotic fight in which another guest breaks his nose. Lloyd's editor, Ellen, assigns him to interview Rogers at WQED Studios in Pittsburgh for a 400-word article about heroes. Lloyd feels that the assignment is beneath him, but is informed that none of the other heroes were willing to talk to him due to his reputation. On meeting Lloyd, Rogers is dismissive of his fame and chiefly displays concern for Lloyd's nose injury. With coaxing, Lloyd admits some of the issues with his father, whose apology and attempt at reconciliation Lloyd has rebuffed. Rogers tells him his ways of dealing with anger, including striking the keys of a piano.
As Lloyd shadows Rogers on a visit to New York, he goads him with various personal questions to expose Rogers' friendly persona as an act. Rogers dodges most of the questions, but kindly accepts Lloyd's suggestion that his sons may have had some difficulties growing up due to their father working so much. Using his puppets, he gently urges Lloyd to share his memories of childhood, prompting Lloyd to recall a stuffed animal rabbit he once owned. Lloyd ends the interview when Rogers starts asking about his father. Later, he returns home to find Andrea having lunch with Jerry, along with his new wife Dorothy, leading to a tense confrontation between father and son. Lloyd refuses to accept that Jerry has changed, still resentful of him for having left his mother. During the fight, Jerry suffers a heart attack and is taken to the hospital. Overwhelmed and seeking Rogers' counsel, Lloyd abandons his father over Andrea's objections and boards a bus to Pittsburgh, interrupting a taping of Mister Rogers' Neighborhood by collapsing on the soundstage. He imagines himself on an episode of the show, where Rogers and Andrea (as Lady Aberlin) encourage him to open up about his sadness. He then sees a vision of his mother, telling him he does not need to be angry on her behalf.
Rogers and his wife Joanne take Lloyd to their home to recuperate. Rogers encourages Lloyd to think about the people who loved and raised him, including Jerry, and urges him to forgive Jerry. Lloyd returns home and apologizes to Andrea for leaving her and Gavin at the hospital, and visits Jerry and Dorothy at their home. He learns Jerry is dying of cardiac stenosis, hence his attempts to reconnect with Lloyd. Lloyd forgives Jerry, promising to be a better father. Later Lorraine, her husband Todd, and Rogers visit Jerry. Jerry dies shortly after the visit, and Lloyd's 10,000-word article, "Can You Say... Hero?" is published as Esquire's cover story.
At his studio, Rogers finishes the episode about Lloyd, showing off the last photo on his picture board depicting Lloyd happily reunited with his family. He bids his television audience goodbye and filming wraps. As the crew leaves, Rogers remains behind, playing the piano alone. He briefly stops, strikes the keys to let off some steam, and resumes playing.
== Cast ==
Tom Hanks as Fred Rogers:The creator and host of Mister Rogers' Neighborhood. To prepare for his role, Hanks visited the Fred Rogers Center at Saint Vincent College in Latrobe, Pennsylvania, for research in the Fred Rogers Archives and also watched Won't You Be My Neighbor?, a 2018 documentary film. At the 2019 Toronto International Film Festival, Hanks recalled watching "hundreds of hours" of footage of Rogers on set and behind the scenes in order to get into character. Heller noted that Rogers "doesn't have the dynamic nature you need for a protagonist for a movie" and considered him "the antagonist [...] who comes into someone's life and flips it upside down through his philosophy and the way he lived his life".
Matthew Rhys as Lloyd Vogel:A cynical journalist who is assigned to profile Fred Rogers for the magazine Esquire. Lloyd is based loosely on journalist Tom Junod, whose encounter with Rogers was adapted into the film. Director Marielle Heller described Lloyd as the viewer's "entry point into Fred's teachings" and expressed hope that Lloyd's character development and growth as a new father would compel viewers to reflect upon themselves.
Chris Cooper as Jerry Vogel:Lloyd's estranged father and a philanderer who cheated on his dying wife Lila twenty years before the events of the film. In a press interview for the film, Cooper described his character as "multidimensional" and compared filming a scene with Hanks to seeing the "eyes of God".
Susan Kelechi Watson as Andrea Vogel:A public attorney, Lloyd's wife, and a fan of Rogers' show. Watson, herself a fan of Mister Rogers' Neighborhood, described her character as a "career woman" who faces unique challenges of patience and adaptation as the mother of a newborn.
Maryann Plunkett as Joanne Rogers:Fred's wife. Plunkett met with Joanne Rogers to prepare for the role.
Enrico Colantoni as Bill Isler:The President & CEO of Family Communications. In a radio interview, Colantoni said he became friends with the real Bill Isler while filming and described his character as having been "so important to Fred".
Wendy Makkena as Dorothy Vogel:Jerry's second wife. Makkena described her character as part of Vogel's "dysfunctional, complicated family".
Tammy Blanchard as Lorraine Vogel: Lloyd's sister and Todd's wife.
Noah Harpster as Todd: Lorraine's husband and Lloyd's brother-in-law.
Christine Lahti as Ellen: Lloyd's editor.
Additional cast members include Carmen Cusack as Margy, a producer of Mister Rogers' Neighborhood; Jessica Hecht as Lila Vogel, Lloyd's late mother and Jerry's ex-wife; Maddie Corman as Betty Aberlin, an actress starring as Lady Aberlin on Mister Rogers' Neighborhood; Daniel Krell as Mr. McFeely; and Jordan, Naomi, and Zoey Harsh as Gavin Vogel, Lloyd's son.
Notable cameos in the film include Rogers' wife Joanne, Mr. McFeely actor David Newell, Family Communications head Bill Isler, and Mister Rogers' Neighborhood producer Margy Whitmer who appear as customers in a restaurant that Rogers and Lloyd meet in. Arsenio Hall and Oprah Winfrey make uncredited appearances in archive footage of talk shows that Lloyd watches in the film, and Fred Rogers appears in archive footage of his show during the ending credits, singing the song "You've Got to Do It".
== Production ==
=== Development ===
On January 29, 2018, it was announced that Sony's TriStar Pictures had bought the worldwide distribution rights to the film You Are My Friend, a biographical film based on a 1998 Esquire magazine article about television personality Fred Rogers, who would be played by Tom Hanks. The script by Micah Fitzerman-Blue and Noah Harpster appeared on the 2013 Black List of best unproduced screenplays. It would be directed by Marielle Heller; its producers would be Big Beach's Marc Turtletaub and Peter Saraf along with Youree Henley.
In July 2018, Matthew Rhys signed to play journalist Lloyd Vogel, with production set to start in September 2018. Being Welsh, Rhys had never heard of Fred Rogers before he was offered the role. In August 2018, Chris Cooper was added to play Vogel's father; and in September, Susan Kelechi Watson was added. In October 2018, Enrico Colantoni, Maryann Plunkett, Tammy Blanchard, Wendy Makkena, Sakina Jaffrey, Carmen Cusack, Harpster and Maddie Corman joined the cast. In 2018, Nate Heller was chosen to score the film.
Film director Marielle Heller publicly stated that the film was not a biopic, as it covered the life of Fred Rogers in a more limited scope by focusing mainly on just his "philosophy and practice." Heller stated that a recent documentary was in fact closer to being a biopic about Rogers.
=== Filming ===
Principal photography began on September 10, 2018, in Pittsburgh, with several sets converted into New York City. Filming also took place in the Fred Rogers Studio at WQED (TV) where the late television host recorded Mister Rogers' Neighborhood, and at the Jewish Community Center in Squirrel Hill. The crew consulted with original crew members from Rogers' television series, and brought in the same cameras and monitors used in the original production. The film received tax credits of approximately $9.5 million against a production budget of $45 million for filming in Pittsburgh. Production wrapped on November 9, 2018.
On October 12, 2018, sound mixer James Emswiller had a heart attack and fell from a second-story balcony while on set filming in Mt. Lebanon. He was taken to University of Pittsburgh Medical Center-Mercy, where he was pronounced dead.
== Release ==
A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 7, 2019. It was originally going to be released on October 18, 2019, by Sony Pictures Releasing, but in May 2018, it was announced that the release would be pushed back a month to November 22, 2019. It was released in China on September 18, 2020, after the country reopened theaters following COVID-19 pandemic lockdowns.
=== Marketing ===
The film's title was announced on December 27, 2018. The trailer was released on July 22, 2019.
=== Home media ===
The film was released by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment on Digital HD on February 4, 2020, and on Ultra HD Blu-ray, Blu-ray and DVD on February 18.
== Reception ==
=== Box office ===
A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood grossed $61.7 million in the United States and Canada, and $6.7 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $68.4 million, against a production budget of $25 million.
In the United States and Canada, it was released alongside Frozen 2 and 21 Bridges, and was projected to gross around $15 million from 3,231 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $4.5 million on its first day, including $900,000 from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $13.3 million, finishing third at the box office. It fell just 11% in its second weekend, making $11.8 million and finishing fifth, and remained in fifth place the following weekend with $5.2 million.
=== Critical response ===
On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 95% based on 372 reviews, with an average rating of 8/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Much like the beloved TV personality that inspired it, A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood offers a powerfully affecting message about acceptance and understanding." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 80 out of 100, based on 50 critics, indicating "generally favorable" reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale, while those at PostTrak gave it an average four out of five stars, with 66% saying they would definitely recommend it.
Steve Pond of TheWrap wrote: "A Beautiful Day in the Neighborhood finds a gentle state of grace and shows the courage and smarts to stay in that zone, never rushing things or playing for drama ... But just as Mr. Rogers used his show to talk about big issues with children in a tone that was softer and more halting than you'd expect given the subject matter, so does Heller stick to understatement in a way that threatens to become dull or sappy but never does." Benjamin Lee of The Guardian wrote: "It's a given that Hanks will nab at least a best supporting actor nomination but it would be all too easy to forget his co-star. The cynic-becomes-a-believer arc is age old but it unfolds here without cliche thanks to an emotionally intelligent script from Noah Harpster and Micah Fitzerman-Blue, but mainly because of a marvelous, prickly turn from Rhys."
Armond White of the National Review was more critical: "Heller and screenwriters Micah Fitzerman-Blue and Noah Harpster don't show enough faith in Rogers' remedies—and not enough interest in their religious origins. In short, the movie seems wary of faith (it briefly mentions that Rogers was an ordained minister) and settles for secular sentimentality to account for his sensibility and behavior. This not only weakens the film, but it also hobbles Hanks's characterization."
=== Accolades === |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Economist_Democracy_Index | The Economist Democracy Index | The Democracy Index published by the British media company the Economist Group is an index measuring the quality of democracy across the world. This quantitative and comparative assessment is centrally concerned with democratic rights and democratic institutions. The methodology for assessing democracy used in this democracy index is according to the Economist Intelligence Unit which is part of the Economist Group, a UK-based private company, which publishes the weekly newspaper The Economist. The index is based on 60 indicators grouped into five categories, measuring pluralism, civil liberties, and political culture. In addition to a numeric score and a ranking, the index categorizes each country into one of four regime types: full democracies, flawed democracies, hybrid regimes, and authoritarian regimes. The first Democracy Index report was published in 2006. Reports were published every two years until 2010 and annually thereafter. The index includes 167 countries and territories, of which 165 are sovereign states and 164 are UN member states. Other democracy indices with similar assessments of the state of democracy include the V-Dem Democracy Indices or Bertelsmann Transformation Index.
== Methodology ==
As described in the report, the Democracy Index produces a weighted average based on the answers to 60 questions, or indicators, each one with either two or three permitted answers. Most answers are experts' assessments. Some answers are provided by public-opinion surveys from the respective countries. In the case of countries for which survey results are missing, survey results for similar countries and expert assessments are used in order to fill in gaps.
The questions are grouped into five categories:
electoral process and pluralism (12 indicators)
functioning of government (14 indicators)
political participation (9 indicators)
political culture (8 indicators)
civil liberties (17 indicators)
Each answer is converted to a score, either 0 or 1, or for the three-answer questions, 0, 0.5 or 1. With the exceptions mentioned below, within each category, the scores are added, multiplied by ten, and divided by the total number of questions within the category. There are a few modifying dependencies, which are explained much more precisely than the main rule procedures. In a few cases, an answer yielding zero for one question voids another question; e.g., if the elections for the national legislature and head of government are not considered free (question 1), then the next question, "Are elections... fair?", is not considered, but automatically scored zero. Likewise, there are a few questions considered so important that a low score on them yields a penalty on the total score sum for their respective categories, namely:
"Whether national elections are free and fair";
"The security of voters";
"The influence of foreign powers on government";
"The capability of the civil servants to implement policies".
The five category indices, which are listed in the report, are then averaged to find the overall score for a given country. Finally, the score, rounded to two decimals, decides the regime-type classification of the country.
The report discusses other indices of democracy, as defined, e.g., by Freedom House, and argues for some of the choices made by the team from the Economist Intelligence Unit. In this comparison, a higher emphasis is placed on the public opinion and attitudes, as measured by surveys, but on the other hand, economic living-standards are not weighted as one criterion of democracy (as seemingly some other investigators have done).
The report is widely cited in the international press as well as in peer-reviewed academic journals.
== Definitions ==
Full democracies are countries where civil liberties and fundamental political freedoms are not only respected but also reinforced by a political culture conducive to the thriving of democratic principles. These nations have a valid system of governmental checks and balances, an independent judiciary whose decisions are enforced, governments that function adequately, and diverse and independent media. These nations have only limited problems in democratic functioning.
Flawed democracies are countries where elections are fair and free and basic civil liberties are honoured, but may have issues (e.g. media freedom infringement and minor suppression of political opposition and critics). These countries can have significant faults in other democratic aspects, including an underdeveloped political culture, low levels of participation in politics, and issues in the functioning of governance.
Hybrid regimes are countries with regular electoral fraud, preventing them from being fair and free democracies. These countries commonly have non-independent judiciaries, widespread corruption, and weak rule of law. Political opponents and the media face harassment and pressure from governments. These countries have a less-developed political culture, lower levels of participation in politics, and more pronounced issues in the functioning of governance compared to flawed democracies.
Authoritarian regimes are countries where political pluralism is nonexistent or severely limited. These nations are often absolute monarchies or dictatorships and may have some conventional institutions of democracy but with meagre significance. Infringements and abuses of civil liberties are commonplace, elections (if they take place) are not fair or free (especially sham elections), the media is often state-owned or controlled by groups associated with the ruling regime, the judiciary is not independent, and censorship and suppression of governmental criticism are commonplace.
== By regime type ==
The following table indicates the number of nations and the percentage of world population for each type of regime. Some microstates are not considered in the calculation.
== List by region ==
The following table lists the average of each country scored by geographic region, as defined by the Economist Democracy Index.
The following table lists the number of countries in each of the four democracy classifications.
== List by country ==
The following table shows each nation's score over the years. The regions are assigned by the Economist Intelligence Unit, and may differ from conventional classifications (for example, Turkey is grouped in Western Europe).
== Components ==
The following table shows the five parameters that made up the score of each nation in 2024 and the changes that had occurred since 2023.
== Countries not listed ==
The Democracy Index does not cover some UN member states, namely Andorra, Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Brunei, Dominica, the Federated States of Micronesia, Grenada, Kiribati, Kosovo, Liechtenstein, the Maldives, the Marshall Islands, Monaco, Nauru, Palau, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, San Marino, São Tomé and Príncipe, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Somalia, South Sudan, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.
== Recent changes ==
In 2016, the United States was downgraded from a full democracy to a flawed democracy; its score, which had been declining for some years, crossed the threshold from 8.05 in 2015 to 7.98 in 2016. The report stated that this was caused by myriad factors dating back to at least the late 1960s which have eroded Americans' trust in governmental institutions. Nigeria was also upgraded from an authoritarian regime to a hybrid regime.
The 2017 Democracy Index registered, at the time, the worst year for global democracy since 2010–11. Asia was the region with the largest decline since 2016. Venezuela was downgraded from a hybrid regime to an authoritarian regime. In China, Xi Jinping, General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), further entrenched his power by writing his contribution to the CCP's ideology, dubbed Xi Jinping Thought, into the party's constitution. Moldova was downgraded from a flawed democracy to a hybrid regime as a result of problematic elections. By contrast, Armenia was re-upgraded from an authoritarian regime to a hybrid regime as a result of constitutional changes that shifted power from the presidency to parliament. The Gambia was upgraded again from an authoritarian regime to a hybrid regime after Yahya Jammeh, who was president from 1996 to 2017, was defeated by Adama Barrow, an opposition candidate in the 2016 presidential elections.
In 2019, France, Portugal and Chile were upgraded from flawed democracies to full democracies. In fact, this was not a new experience for the former two, which suffered from the eurozone crisis many years before. By contrast, Malta was downgraded from a full democracy to a flawed democracy. Thailand and Albania were upgraded from hybrid regimes to flawed democracies. Algeria was upgraded again from an authoritarian regime to a hybrid regime.
In 2020, Taiwan was upgraded from flawed democracy to full democracy following judicial reforms, and soared to 11th (8.94) position from its previous position at 33rd (7.73), surpassing Switzerland, which ranked 12th. Japan and South Korea were also upgraded again to full democracies, while France and Portugal were once again relegated to flawed democracies. Hong Kong was downgraded from a flawed democracy to a hybrid regime. Algeria was downgraded again from a hybrid regime to an authoritarian regime. The Economist Intelligence Unit noted that democracy "was dealt a major blow in 2020". Almost 70% of countries covered by the Democracy Index recorded a decline in their overall score, as most of them imposed lockdowns and other restrictions in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, in addition to some arresting journalists and citizens accused of spreading COVID-19 misinformation. The global average score fell to its lowest level since the index began in 2006.
In 2021, both the global and regional average scores continued downward trends, with the exception of the Central and Eastern Europe region. Spain and Chile were downgraded from full democracies to flawed democracies, while Ecuador, Mexico, Paraguay, and Tunisia were downgraded from flawed democracies to hybrid regimes. Haiti, Lebanon, and Kyrgyzstan were downgraded from hybrid regimes to authoritarian regimes. In addition, Moldova, Montenegro, and North Macedonia were upgraded from hybrid regimes to flawed democracies, whereas Mauritania was upgraded from authoritarian to hybrid regime. For the first time, North Korea was displaced as the lowest-ranked state in the Democracy Index, with Myanmar and Afghanistan recording scores lower than North Korea due to a military coup and the 2021 Taliban offensive and subsequent takeover of government respectively.
In 2022, the global average score stagnated, with the lifting of COVID-related restrictions being largely canceled out by other negative developments globally.
In 2023, the global average score deteriorated further, with most declines occurring in authoritarian and hybrid regimes, with the former becoming more entrenched and the latter struggling to democratize. The threshold for each color has also been changed from greater than the integer to greater than or equal to.
In 2024, the global average once again trended downwards, largely due to continued and expanded crackdowns in dissent in authoritarian regimes. The average score for democracies remained the same, despite 2024 being a major election year. One of the most notable declines was South Korea's decline from a full democracy to a flawed democracy, which was majorly a result of the political crisis caused by President Yoon Suk Yeol's declaration of martial law in December. Romania's score fell by 0.46 points to 5.99 after controversially cancelling a presidential election, making it the first EU member state to be classified as a hybrid regime. The Czech Republic's score rose from 7.97 to 8.08, which reupgraded it to a full democracy. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Literature#1960 | List of Nobel laureates in Literature#1960 | The Nobel Prize in Literature (Swedish: Nobelpriset i litteratur) is awarded annually by the Swedish Academy to authors for outstanding contributions in the field of literature. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the 1895 will of Alfred Nobel, which are awarded for outstanding contributions in chemistry, physics, literature, peace, and physiology or medicine. As dictated by Nobel's will, the award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and awarded by the Swedish Academy. Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a monetary award prize that has varied throughout the years. In 1901, the first laureate Sully Prudhomme received 150,782 SEK, which is equivalent to 8,823,637.78 SEK in January 2018. The award is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel's death.
As of 2025, the Nobel Prize in Literature has been awarded to 122 individuals. 18 women have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, the second highest number of any of the Nobel Prizes behind the Nobel Peace Prize. As of 2024, there have been 29 English-speaking laureates of the Nobel Prize in Literature, followed by French with 16 laureates and German with 14 laureates. France has the highest number of Nobel laureates.
== Laureates ==
== Nobel laureates by country ==
The 122 Nobel laureates in literature from 1901 to 2025 came from the following countries:
== Nobel laureates by language ==
The 122 Nobel laureates in literature from 1901 to 2025 wrote in the following languages:
== Nobel laureates by gender ==
The 122 Nobel laureates in literature from 1901 to 2025 were from the following genders: |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Baldwin | Stephen Baldwin | Stephen Andrew Baldwin (born May 12, 1966) is an American actor. He has appeared in the films Born on the Fourth of July (1989), Posse (1993), 8 Seconds (1994), Threesome (1994), The Usual Suspects (1995), Bio-Dome (1996) and The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas (2000). Baldwin also starred in the television series The Young Riders (1989–1992) and as himself in the reality shows Celebrity Big Brother 7, in which he placed 9th in the United Kingdom, and The Celebrity Apprentice. In 2004, he directed Livin' It, a Christian-themed skateboarding DVD. He is the youngest of the four Baldwin brothers.
== Early life ==
Baldwin was born in Massapequa, New York, the youngest son of Carol Newcomb (née Martineau; December 15, 1929 – May 26, 2022), founder of The Baldwin Fund, and Alexander Rae Baldwin Jr. (October 26, 1927 – April 15, 1983), a high school social studies teacher and football coach. Baldwin's elder brothers are actors Alec, Daniel and William, they are collectively known as the "Baldwin brothers". He was raised in the Catholic faith. In high school, Baldwin participated on the varsity wrestling team, along with William. Baldwin has two elder sisters, Elizabeth (née Baldwin) Keuchler and Jane (née Baldwin) Sasso. Baldwin attended the American Academy of Dramatic Arts.
== Career ==
Baldwin began acting on television and made his film debut in The Beast. He starred in the western television series The Young Riders and in Threesome (1994). Baldwin landed a breakthrough role in The Usual Suspects (1995) and played Barney Rubble in The Flintstones in Viva Rock Vegas (2000). He participated in Celebrity Mole Hawaii, the first celebrity edition of The Mole in 2002. ABC broadcast the program in early 2003. Later that year, he returned for Celebrity Mole Yucatán, which ABC aired in early 2004. In 2006, Baldwin played a villainous thug in the television film Jesse Stone: Night Passage. In August 2007, Baldwin returned to television, when CMT cast him in Ty Murray's Celebrity Bull Riding Challenge, one of nine celebrities cast. In the first episode, Baldwin was injured in a bad fall from a wooden pontoon, breaking his shoulder blade and cracking a rib. Under doctor's orders, he left the show in the second episode. From January to March 2008, Baldwin appeared on Donald Trump's Celebrity Apprentice on NBC. He finished fifth out of the 14 celebrity contestants. He and Trace Adkins became friends while competing on the show. In October 2008, Baldwin appeared in Adkins's music video, "Muddy Water". In March 2013, Baldwin returned to compete in All-Star Celebrity Apprentice. He was a contestant on the 2009 NBC reality show I'm a Celebrity…Get Me out of Here!. Baldwin quit the show mid-season. On the second episode, he baptized The Hills actor Spencer Pratt. In 2019, Baldwin starred in a Filipino film, Kaibigan.
== Personal life ==
Baldwin resides in the village of Nyack, New York, with his wife, the Brazilian graphic designer Kennya Baldwin (née Deodato), whom he met in 1987 and married in 1990. They have two daughters, Alaia Baldwin and Hailey Bieber; both are models. His father-in-law is Brazilian composer Eumir Deodato, and Canadian singer Justin Bieber is his son-in-law through marriage to his daughter Hailey. Through his daughters, Baldwin has two grandchildren.
In 2006, Baldwin launched a campaign to prevent an adult bookstore from opening in Nyack. He has a tattoo on his left shoulder of the initials "HM" for Hannah Montana. He got the tattoo after making a pact with Miley Cyrus that he would be allowed to cameo on the show if he had the initials tattooed on him. He revealed the tattoo to Cyrus at a book signing in Nashville on November 10, 2008. He was never given the opportunity to appear on the show and has since said that he regrets getting the tattoo.
In June 2009, Baldwin's foreclosed $515,000, 1.4-acre home in Rockland County, New York was publicly auctioned after he and his wife defaulted on more than $824,000 in mortgage payments. In July, Baldwin filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection claiming more than $2.3 million in debt. Court papers showed he owed $1.2 million on two mortgages on a New York property valued at only $1.1 million, and more than $1 million in taxes and credit card debt.
Baldwin was the first person to enter the Celebrity Big Brother house on January 3, 2010. The theme for this series was "Hell", with a devil head on the front door. He frequently taunted the head by saying "you're a loser". During his stay in the house, he frequently read passages from the Bible to his fellow housemates. He failed to win many fans and was evicted on January 22, 2010, becoming the fourth housemate to be evicted. In a three-way vote—against Ivana Trump and Sisqó—he received 50% of the public vote. After his eviction, the website restorestephenbaldwin.org, unsolicited by him, began soliciting cash donations to improve Baldwin's career.
In December 2010, Baldwin filed a $3.8 million lawsuit against Kevin Costner over oil-separating technology that was used to help solve the BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. In June 2012, a jury sided with Costner and awarded Baldwin no damages. In March 2013, Baldwin pleaded guilty to failing to file income taxes for the years 2008, 2009, and 2010. He stated that he never intended to avoid paying taxes and that he had received bad advice from lawyers and accountants. Baldwin agreed to pay $300,000 within a year, or he would be sentenced to five years' probation and have five years to pay the money.
== Views ==
=== Religion ===
In September 2006, Baldwin released his book titled The Unusual Suspect, which details highlights from his personal life, career, days of drug abuse and his turn to becoming a born-again Evangelical after the September 11 attacks in 2001. In the same year, Baldwin, Mario D'Ortenzio, and Bobby Brewer founded Breakthrough Ministry, which was designed to use extreme sports as a ministry via arena tours, called AsSalt Tours. The tours featured extreme sports celebrities, including Christian Hosoi.
In late 2008, Baldwin formed a for-profit organization called Antioch Ministry, which exists "to facilitate the gifts and calling of Stephen Baldwin." In 2009, Baldwin launched a third ministry called Now More Than Ever, designed to reach enlisted men and women in the U.S. armed services around the world. In 2008, Baldwin teamed up with conservative talk-radio host Kevin McCullough to put together a Saturday radio show called Baldwin/McCullough Radio. As of April 18, 2009, the show aired on 213 stations and in more than 400 cities across the US and worldwide on Sirius 161 and XM 227. Baldwin appears weekly on the show from the broadcast studios in New York City and from various locations around the country when he is traveling for other business purposes.
=== Politics ===
In 2007, Baldwin endorsed Sam Brownback for U.S. president. After Brownback ended his campaign, Baldwin switched his support to Mike Huckabee. Baldwin was an outspoken advocate of the John McCain–Sarah Palin presidential ticket after Huckabee dropped out of the 2008 presidential election.
In 2011, Baldwin mentioned the possibility of entering New York City's 2013 mayoral election as an opponent of his brother Alec, who had suggested that he might run himself.
Baldwin was among the first Hollywood celebrities to endorse Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election. He would later endorse Trump in 2020 and 2024.
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
=== Director ===
== Awards == |
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas | Christmas | Christmas is an annual festival commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ, observed primarily on December 25 as a religious and cultural celebration among billions of people around the world. A liturgical feast central to Christianity, Christmas preparation begins on the First Sunday of Advent. Advent is followed by Christmastide, which historically in the West lasts twelve days and culminates on Twelfth Night. Christmas Day is a public holiday in many countries and is observed by a majority of Christians; it is also celebrated culturally by many non-Christians and forms an integral part of the annual holiday season.
The traditional Christmas narrative recounted in the New Testament, known as the Nativity of Jesus, says that Jesus was born in Bethlehem, in accordance with messianic prophecies. When Joseph and Mary arrived in the city, the inn had no room, and so they were offered a stable where the Christ Child was soon born, with angels proclaiming this news to shepherds, who then spread the word.
There are different hypotheses regarding the date of the birth of Jesus. In the early fourth century, the church fixed the date as December 25, the date of the winter solstice in the Roman Empire. It is nine months after Annunciation on March 25, also the Roman date of the spring equinox. Most Christians celebrate on December 25 in the Gregorian calendar, which has been adopted almost universally in the civil calendars used in countries throughout the world. However, part of the Eastern Christian Churches celebrate Christmas on December 25 of the older Julian calendar, which currently corresponds to January 7 in the Gregorian calendar. For Christians, celebrating that God came into the world in the form of man to atone for the sins of humanity is more important than knowing Jesus Christ's exact birth date.
The customs associated with Christmas in various countries have a mix of pre-Christian, Christian, and secular themes and origins. Popular holiday traditions include gift-giving; completing an Advent calendar or Advent wreath; Christmas music and carolling; watching Christmas films; viewing a Nativity play; an exchange of Christmas cards; attending church services; a special meal; and displaying various Christmas decorations, including Christmas trees, Christmas lights, nativity scenes, poinsettias, garlands, wreaths, mistletoe, and holly. Additionally, several related and often interchangeable figures, known as Santa Claus, Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas, and Christkind, are associated with bringing gifts to children during the Christmas season and have their own body of traditions and lore. Because gift-giving and many other aspects of the Christmas festival involve heightened economic activity, Christmas has become a significant event and a key sales period for retailers and businesses. Over the past few centuries, Christmas has had a steadily growing economic effect in many regions of the world.
== Etymology ==
The English word Christmas is a shortened form of 'Christ's Mass'. The word is recorded as Crīstesmæsse in 1038 and Cristes-messe in 1131. Crīst (genitive Crīstes) is from the Greek Χριστός (Khrīstos, 'Christ'), a translation of the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ (Māšîaḥ, 'Messiah'), meaning 'anointed'; and mæsse is from the Latin missa, the celebration of the Eucharist.
The form Christenmas was also used during some periods, but is now considered archaic. The term derives from Middle English Cristenmasse. Xmas is an abbreviation of Christmas, particularly in print, based on the initial letter chi (Χ) in the Greek Χριστός (Christ), although some style guides discourage its use. This abbreviation has a precedent in Middle English Χρ̄es masse (where Χρ̄ is another abbreviation of the Greek word).
=== Other names ===
The Anglo-Saxons referred to Christmas as midwinter. The period corresponding to December and January was called Gēola ('Yule'), and this term was eventually equated with Christmastide; Old English Ġeōhel-dæg ('Yule Day') was sometimes used as a name for Christmas Day. Yule or Yuil survived as the main name for Christmastide in Scotland until the modern era.
A rare name for Christmas in Old English was Nātiuiteð ('Nativity'), from the Latin nātīvitās meaning 'birth'. 'Noel' (also 'Nowel' or 'Nowell', as in "The First Nowell") entered English in the late 14th century and is from the Old French noël or naël, itself ultimately from the Latin nātālis (diēs) meaning 'birth (day)'.
Koleda is the traditional Slavic name for Christmas and the period from Christmas to Epiphany or, more generally, to Slavic Christmastide rituals, some dating to pre-Christian times.
During the late Qing dynasty, the Shanghai News referred to Christmas by a variety of terms. In 1872, it initially called Christmas "Jesus' birthday" (Chinese: 耶穌誕日; pinyin: yēsū dànrì). However, from 1873 to 1881, the Qing dynasty used terms such as "Western countries' Winter Solstice" (Chinese: 西國冬至; pinyin: xīguó dōngzhì) and "Western peoples' Winter Solstice" (Chinese: 西人冬節; pinyin: xīrén dōngjiē); they settled on "Foreign Winter Solstice" (Chinese: 外國冬至; pinyin: wàiguó dōngzhì) in 1882. This term was gradually replaced by the now standard term "Festival of the birth of the Holy One" (Chinese: 聖誕節; pinyin: shèngdàn jiē) during the early twentieth century.
== Nativity ==
The gospels of Luke and Matthew describe Jesus as being born in Bethlehem of Judea to the Virgin Mary. In the Gospel of Luke, Joseph and Mary travel from Nazareth to Bethlehem in order to be counted for a census, and Jesus is born there and placed in a manger. Angels proclaim him a savior for all people, and three shepherds come to adore him. In the Gospel of Matthew, by contrast, three magi follow a star to Bethlehem to bring gifts to Jesus.
== History ==
=== Early and medieval era ===
In the 2nd century, the "earliest church records" indicate that "Christians were remembering and celebrating the birth of the Lord", an "observance [that] sprang up organically from the authentic devotion of ordinary believers"; although "they did not agree upon a set date". Though Christmas did not appear on the lists of festivals given by the early Christian writers Irenaeus and Tertullian, the early Church Fathers John Chrysostom, Augustine of Hippo, and Jerome attested to December 25 as the date of Christmas toward the end of the fourth century.
The earliest document to place Jesus's birthday on December 25 is the Chronograph of 354 (also called the Calendar of Filocalus), which also names it as the birthday of the god Sol Invictus (the 'Invincible Sun'). Liturgical historians generally agree that this part of the text was written in Rome in AD 336. This is consistent with the assertion that the date was formally set by Pope Julius I, bishop of Rome from 337 to 352. December 25 was the traditional date of the winter solstice in the Roman Empire, where most Christians lived, and the Roman festival Dies Natalis Solis Invicti (birthday of Sol Invictus) had been held on this date since AD 274.
In the East, the birth of Jesus was celebrated in connection with the Epiphany on January 6. This holiday was not primarily about Christ's birth, but rather his baptism. Christmas was promoted in the East as part of the revival of Orthodox Christianity that followed the death of the pro-Arian Emperor Valens at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. The feast was introduced in Constantinople in 379, in Antioch by John Chrysostom towards the end of the fourth century, probably in 388, and in Alexandria in the following century. There is evidence that Christmas was celebrated in Jerusalem by the sixth century.
In the Early Middle Ages, Christmas Day was overshadowed by Epiphany, which in western Christianity focused on the visit of the magi. However, the medieval calendar was dominated by Christmas-related holidays. The forty days before Christmas became the "forty days of St. Martin" (which began on November 11, the feast of St. Martin of Tours), now known as Advent. In Italy, former Saturnalian traditions were attached to Advent. Around the 12th century, these traditions transferred again to the Twelve Days of Christmas (December 25 – January 5); a time that appears in the liturgical calendars as Christmastide or Twelve Holy Days.
In 567, the Council of Tours put in place the season of Christmastide, proclaiming "the twelve days from Christmas to Epiphany as a sacred and festive season, and established the duty of Advent fasting in preparation for the feast". This was done in order to solve the "administrative problem for the Roman Empire as it tried to coordinate the solar Julian calendar with the lunar calendars of its provinces in the east".
The prominence of Christmas Day increased gradually after Charlemagne was crowned Emperor on Christmas Day in 800. King Edmund the Martyr was anointed on Christmas in 855 and King William I of England was crowned on Christmas Day 1066.
By the High Middle Ages, the holiday had become so prominent that chroniclers routinely noted where various magnates celebrated Christmas. King Richard II of England hosted a Christmas feast in 1377 at which 28 oxen and 300 sheep were eaten. The Yule boar was a common feature of medieval Christmas feasts. Caroling also became popular, and was originally performed by a group of dancers who sang. The group was composed of a lead singer and a ring of dancers that provided the chorus. Writers of the time condemned caroling as lewd, indicating that the unruly traditions of Saturnalia and Yule may have continued in this form. "Misrule"—drunkenness, promiscuity, gambling—was also an important aspect of the festival. In England, gifts were exchanged on New Year's Day (a custom at the royal court), and there was special Christmas ale.
Christmas during the Middle Ages was a public festival that incorporated ivy, holly, and other evergreens. Christmas gift-giving during the Middle Ages was usually between people with legal relationships, such as tenant and landlord. The annual indulgence in eating, dancing, singing, sporting, and card playing escalated in England, and by the 17th century the Christmas season featured lavish dinners, elaborate masques, and pageants. In 1607, King James I insisted that a play be acted on Christmas night and that the court indulge in games. It was during the Reformation in 16th–17th-century Europe that many Protestants changed the gift bringer to the Christ Child or Christkindl, and the date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.
=== 17th and 18th centuries ===
Following the Protestant Reformation, many of the new denominations, including the Anglican Church and Lutheran Church, continued to celebrate Christmas. In 1629, the Anglican poet John Milton penned On the Morning of Christ's Nativity, a poem that has since been read by many during Christmastide. Donald Heinz, a professor at California State University, Chico, states that Martin Luther "inaugurated a period in which Germany would produce a unique culture of Christmas, much copied in North America". Among the congregations of the Dutch Reformed Church, Christmas was celebrated as one of the principal evangelical feasts.
However, in 17th century England, some groups such as the Puritans strongly condemned the celebration of Christmas, considering it a Catholic invention and the "trappings of popery" or the "rags of the Beast". In contrast, the established Anglican Church "pressed for a more elaborate observance of feasts, penitential seasons, and saints' days. The calendar reform became a major point of tension between the Anglican party and the Puritan party". The Catholic Church also responded, promoting the festival in a more religiously oriented form. King Charles I of England directed his noblemen and gentry to return to their landed estates in midwinter to keep up their old-style Christmas generosity. Following the Parliamentarian victory over Charles I during the English Civil War, England's Puritan rulers banned Christmas in 1647. Oliver Cromwell even ordered his troops to confiscate any special meals made on Christmas Day.
Protests followed as pro-Christmas rioting broke out in several cities and for weeks Canterbury was controlled by the rioters, who decorated doorways with holly and shouted royalist slogans. Football, among the sports the Puritans banned on a Sunday, was also used as a rebellious force: when Puritans outlawed Christmas in England in December 1647 the crowd brought out footballs as a symbol of festive misrule. The book, The Vindication of Christmas (London, 1652), argued against the Puritans, and makes note of Old English Christmas traditions, dinner, roast apples on the fire, card playing, dances with "plow-boys" and "maidservants", old Father Christmas and carol singing. During the ban, semi-clandestine religious services marking Christ's birth continued to be held, and people sang carols in secret.
Christmas was restored as a legal holiday in England with the Restoration of King Charles II in 1660 when Puritan legislation was declared void, with Christmas again freely celebrated in England. Many Calvinist clergymen disapproved of Christmas celebrations. As such, in Scotland, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland discouraged the observance of Christmas, and though James VI commanded its celebration in 1618, attendance at church was scant. The Parliament of Scotland officially abolished the observance of Christmas in 1640, claiming that the church had been "purged of all superstitious observation of days". Whereas in England, Wales and Ireland Christmas Day is a common law holiday, having been a customary holiday since time immemorial, it was not until 1871 that it was designated a bank holiday in Scotland. The diary of James Woodforde, from the latter half of the 18th century, details the observance of Christmas and celebrations associated with the season over a number of years.
As in England, Puritans in Colonial America staunchly opposed the observation of Christmas. The Pilgrims of New England pointedly spent their first December 25 in the New World working normally. Puritans such as Cotton Mather condemned Christmas both because scripture did not mention its observance and because Christmas celebrations of the day often involved boisterous behavior. Many non-Puritans in New England deplored the loss of the holidays enjoyed by the laboring classes in England. Christmas observance was outlawed in Boston in 1659. The ban on Christmas observance was revoked in 1681 by English governor Edmund Andros, but it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region.
At the same time, Christian residents of Virginia and New York observed the holiday freely. Pennsylvania Dutch settlers, predominantly Moravian settlers of Bethlehem, Nazareth, and Lititz in Pennsylvania and the Wachovia settlements in North Carolina, were enthusiastic celebrators of Christmas. The Moravians in Bethlehem had the first Christmas trees in America as well as the first Nativity Scenes. Christmas fell out of favor in the United States after the American Revolution, when it was considered an English custom.
With the atheistic Cult of Reason in power during the era of Revolutionary France, Christian Christmas religious services were banned and the three kings cake was renamed the "equality cake" under anticlerical government policies.
=== 19th century ===
In the early 19th century, Christmas festivities and services gradually spread with the rise of the Oxford Movement in the Church of England that emphasized the centrality of Christmas in Christianity and charity to the poor, along with Washington Irving, Charles Dickens, and other authors emphasizing family, children, kind-heartedness, gift-giving, and Santa Claus (for Irving), or Father Christmas (for Dickens). An indication this increased recognition of Christmas was slow, however, is seen in the fact that "in twenty of the years between 1790 and 1835, The Times did not mention Christmas at all."
In the early-19th century, writers imagined Tudor-period Christmas as a time of heartfelt celebration. In 1835, Thomas Hervey and Robert Seymour published The Christmas Book in which they introduced what has been called a "national Christmas narrative." In his book, Hervey asserted: "the revels of merry England are fast subsiding into silence, and her many customs wearing gradually away." In 1843, Charles Dickens wrote the novel A Christmas Carol, which helped revive the "spirit" of Christmas and seasonal merriment. Its instant popularity played a major role in portraying Christmas as a holiday emphasizing family, goodwill, and compassion.
Dickens sought to construct Christmas as a family-centered festival of generosity, linking "worship and feasting, within a context of social reconciliation". Superimposing his humanitarian vision of the holiday, in what has been termed "Carol Philosophy", Dickens influenced many aspects of Christmas that are celebrated today in Western culture, such as family gatherings, seasonal food and drink, dancing, games, and a festive generosity of spirit. It has been said that Dickens' breakthrough with A Christmas Carol was his "ingenious pairing of seasonal fiction and seasonal [book] sales." A prominent phrase from the tale, "Merry Christmas", was popularized following the appearance of the story. This coincided with the appearance of the Oxford Movement and the growth of Anglo-Catholicism, which led a revival in traditional rituals and religious observances.
The term Scrooge became a synonym for miser, with the phrase "Bah! Humbug!" becoming emblematic of a dismissive attitude of the festive spirit. In 1843, the first commercial Christmas card was produced by Sir Henry Cole. The revival of the Christmas Carol began with William Sandys's Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern (1833), with the first appearance in print of "The First Noel", "I Saw Three Ships", "Hark the Herald Angels Sing" and "God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen", popularized in Dickens's A Christmas Carol.
In Britain, the Christmas tree was introduced in the early 19th century by the German-born Queen Charlotte. In 1832, the future Queen Victoria wrote about her delight at having a Christmas tree, hung with lights, ornaments, and presents placed round it. After her marriage to her German cousin Prince Albert, by 1841 the custom became more widespread throughout Britain. An image of the British royal family with their Christmas tree at Windsor Castle created a sensation when it was published in the Illustrated London News in 1848. A modified version of this image was published in Godey's Lady's Book, Philadelphia in 1850. By the 1870s, putting up a Christmas tree had become common in America.
In America, interest in Christmas had been revived in the 1820s by several short stories by Washington Irving which appear in his The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent. and "Old Christmas". Irving's stories depicted harmonious warm-hearted English Christmas festivities he experienced while staying in Aston Hall, Birmingham, England, that had largely been abandoned, and he used the tract Vindication of Christmas (1652) of Old English Christmas traditions, that he had transcribed into his journal as a format for his stories.
In 1822, Clement Clarke Moore wrote the poem A Visit From St. Nicholas (popularly known by its first line: Twas the Night Before Christmas). The poem helped popularize the tradition of exchanging gifts, and seasonal Christmas shopping began to assume economic importance. This also started the cultural conflict between the holiday's spiritual significance and its associated commercialism that some see as corrupting the holiday. In her 1850 book The First Christmas in New England, Harriet Beecher Stowe includes a character who complains that the true meaning of Christmas was lost in a shopping spree.
While the celebration of Christmas was not yet customary in some regions in the U.S., Henry Wadsworth Longfellow detected "a transition state about Christmas here in New England" in 1856. "The old puritan feeling prevents it from being a cheerful, hearty holiday; though every year makes it more so". In Reading, Pennsylvania, a newspaper remarked in 1861, "Even our presbyterian friends who have hitherto steadfastly ignored Christmas—threw open their church doors and assembled in force to celebrate the anniversary of the Savior's birth."
The First Congregational Church of Rockford, Illinois, "although of genuine Puritan stock", was 'preparing for a grand Christmas jubilee', a news correspondent reported in 1864. By 1860, fourteen states including several from New England had adopted Christmas as a legal holiday. In 1875, Louis Prang introduced the Christmas card to Americans. He has been called the "father of the American Christmas card". On June 28, 1870, Christmas was formally declared a United States federal holiday.
=== 20th and 21st centuries ===
During the First World War and particularly in 1914, a series of informal truces took place for Christmas between opposing armies. The truces, which were organised spontaneously by fighting men, ranged from promises not to shoot (shouted at a distance in order to ease the pressure of war for the day) to friendly socializing, gift giving and even sport between enemies. These incidents became a well known and semi-mythologised part of popular memory. They have been described as a symbol of common humanity even in the darkest of situations and used to demonstrate to children the ideals of Christmas.
Under the state atheism of the Soviet Union, after its foundation in 1917, Christmas celebrations—along with other Christian holidays—were prohibited in public. During the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, the League of Militant Atheists encouraged school pupils to campaign against Christmas traditions, such as the Christmas tree, as well as other Christian holidays, including Easter; the League established an antireligious holiday to be the 31st of each month as a replacement. At the height of this persecution, in 1929, on Christmas Day, children in Moscow were encouraged to spit on crucifixes as a protest against the holiday. Instead, the importance of the holiday and all its trappings, such as the Christmas tree and gift-giving, was transferred to the New Year. It was not until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 that the persecution ended and Orthodox Christmas became a state holiday again for the first time in Russia after seven decades.
In 1991, the Gubbio Christmas Tree, in Italy, 650 metres (2,130 ft) high and decorated with over 700 lights, entered the Guinness Book of Records as the tallest Christmas tree in the world. European History Professor Joseph Perry wrote that likewise, in Nazi Germany, "because Nazi ideologues saw organized religion as an enemy of the totalitarian state, propagandists sought to deemphasize—or eliminate altogether—the Christian aspects of the holiday" and that "Propagandists tirelessly promoted numerous Nazified Christmas songs, which replaced Christian themes with the regime's racial ideologies".
Some Christians and organizations such as Pat Robertson's American Center for Law and Justice cite alleged attacks on Christmas (dubbing them a "war on Christmas"). Such groups claim that any specific mention of the term "Christmas" or its religious aspects is being increasingly censored, avoided, or discouraged by a number of advertisers, retailers, government (prominently schools), and other public and private organizations. One controversy is the occurrence of Christmas trees being renamed Holiday trees. In the U.S. there has been a tendency to replace the greeting Merry Christmas with Happy Holidays, which is considered inclusive at the time of the Jewish celebration of Hanukkah. In the U.S., and Canada, where the use of the term "Holidays" is most prevalent, opponents have denounced its usage and avoidance of using the term "Christmas" as being politically correct. In 1984, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Lynch v. Donnelly that a Christmas display (which included a Nativity scene) owned and displayed by the city of Pawtucket, Rhode Island, did not violate the First Amendment.
== Observance and traditions ==
Christmas Day is celebrated as a major festival and public holiday in countries around the world, including many whose populations are mostly non-Christian. In some non-Christian areas, periods of former colonial rule introduced the celebration (e.g. Hong Kong); in others, Christian minorities or foreign cultural influences have led populations to observe the holiday. Countries such as Japan, where Christmas is popular despite there being only a small number of Christians, have adopted many of the cultural aspects of Christmas, such as gift-giving, decorations, and Christmas trees. A similar example is in Turkey, being Muslim-majority and with a small number of Christians, where Christmas trees and decorations tend to line public streets during the festival.
Many popular customs associated with Christmas developed independently of the commemoration of Jesus's birth, with some claiming that certain elements are Christianized and have origins in pre-Christian festivals that were celebrated by pagan populations who were later converted to Christianity; other scholars reject these claims and affirm that Christmas customs largely developed in a Christian context. The prevailing atmosphere of Christmas has also continually evolved since the holiday's inception, ranging from a sometimes raucous, drunken, carnival-like state in the Middle Ages, to a tamer family-oriented and children-centered theme introduced in a 19th-century transformation. The celebration of Christmas was banned on more than one occasion within certain groups, such as the Puritans and Jehovah's Witnesses (who do not celebrate birthdays in general), due to concerns that it was too unbiblical. Celtic winter herbs such as mistletoe and ivy, and the custom of kissing under a mistletoe, are common in modern Christmas celebrations in the English-speaking countries.
The pre-Christian Germanic peoples—including the Anglo-Saxons and the Norse—celebrated a winter festival called Yule, held in the late December to early January period, yielding modern English yule, today used as a synonym for Christmas. In Germanic language-speaking areas, numerous elements of modern Christmas folk custom and iconography may have originated from Yule, including the Yule log, Yule boar, and the Yule goat. Often leading a ghostly procession through the sky (the Wild Hunt), the long-bearded god Odin is referred to as "the Yule one" and "Yule father" in Old Norse texts, while other gods are referred to as "Yule beings". On the other hand, as there are no reliable existing references to a Christmas log prior to the 16th century, the burning of the Christmas block may have been an early modern invention by Christians unrelated to the pagan practice.
Among countries with a strong Christian tradition, a variety of Christmas celebrations have developed that incorporate regional and local cultures. For example, in eastern Europe Christmas celebrations incorporated pre-Christian traditions such as the Koleda, which shares parallels with the Christmas carol.
=== Church attendance ===
Christmas Day (inclusive of its vigil, Christmas Eve), is a Festival in the Lutheran Churches, a solemnity in the Roman Catholic Church, and a Principal Feast of the Anglican Communion. Other Christian denominations do not rank their feast days but nevertheless place importance on Christmas Eve/Christmas Day, as with other Christian feasts like Easter, Ascension Day, and Pentecost. As such, for Christians, attending a Christmas Eve or Christmas Day church service plays an important part in the recognition of the Christmas season. Christmas, along with Easter, is the period of the highest annual church attendance. A 2010 survey by LifeWay Christian Resources found that six in ten Americans attend church services during this time. In the United Kingdom, the Church of England reported an estimated attendance of 2.5 million people at Christmas services in 2015.
=== Decorations ===
Nativity scenes are known from 10th-century Rome. They were popularised by Saint Francis of Assisi from 1223, quickly spreading across Europe. Different types of decorations developed across the Christian world, dependent on local tradition and available resources, and can vary from simple representations of the crib to far more elaborate sets – renowned manger scene traditions include the colourful Kraków szopka in Poland, which imitate Kraków's historical buildings as settings, the elaborate Italian presepi (Neapolitan, Genoese and Bolognese), or the Provençal crèches in southern France, using hand-painted terracotta figurines called santons. In certain parts of the world, notably Sicily, living nativity scenes following the tradition of Saint Francis are a popular alternative to static crèches. The first commercially produced decorations appeared in Germany in the 1860s, inspired by paper chains made by children. In countries where a representation of the Nativity scene is very popular, people are encouraged to compete and create the most original or realistic ones. Within some families, the pieces used to make the representation are considered a valuable family heirloom.
The traditional colours of Christmas decorations are red, green, and gold. Red symbolizes the blood of Jesus, which was shed in his crucifixion; green symbolizes eternal life, and in particular the evergreen tree, which does not lose its leaves in the winter; and gold is the first colour associated with Christmas, as one of the three gifts of the Magi, symbolizing royalty.
The Christmas tree was first used by German Lutherans in the 16th century, with records indicating that a Christmas tree was placed in the Cathedral of Strassburg in 1539, under the leadership of the Protestant Reformer, Martin Bucer. In the United States, these "German Lutherans brought the decorated Christmas tree with them; the Moravians put lighted candles on those trees". When decorating the Christmas tree, many individuals place a star at the top of the tree symbolizing the Star of Bethlehem, a fact recorded by The School Journal in 1897. Professor David Albert Jones of Oxford University writes that in the 19th century, it became popular for people to also use an angel to top the Christmas tree in order to symbolize the angels mentioned in the accounts of the Nativity of Jesus. Additionally, in the context of a Christian celebration of Christmas, the Christmas tree, being evergreen in colour, is symbolic of Christ, who offers eternal life; the candles or lights on the tree represent the Light of the World—Jesus—born in Bethlehem. Christian services for family use and public worship have been published for the blessing of a Christmas tree, after it has been erected. The Christmas tree is considered by some as Christianisation of pagan tradition and ritual surrounding the Winter Solstice, which included the use of evergreen boughs, and an adaptation of pagan tree worship; according to eighth-century biographer Æddi Stephanus, Saint Boniface (634–709), who was a missionary in Germany, took an ax to an oak tree dedicated to Thor and pointed out a fir tree, which he stated was a more fitting object of reverence because it pointed to heaven and it had a triangular shape, which he said was symbolic of the Trinity. The English language phrase "Christmas tree" is first recorded in 1835 and represents an importation from the German language.
Since the 16th century, the poinsettia, a native plant from Mexico, has been associated with Christmas carrying the Christian symbolism of the Star of Bethlehem; in that country it is known in Spanish as the Flower of the Holy Night. Other popular holiday plants include holly, mistletoe, red amaryllis, and Christmas cactus. Along with a Christmas tree, the interior of a home may be decorated with these plants, along with garlands and evergreen foliage. The display of Christmas villages has also become a tradition in many homes this season. The outside of houses may be decorated with lights and sometimes with illuminated Christmas figures. Mistletoe features prominently in European myth and folklore (for example, the legend of Baldr). It is customary to hang a sprig of mistletoe in the house at Christmas, and anyone standing underneath it may be kissed.
Other traditional decorations include bells, candles, candy canes, stockings, wreaths, and angels. The wreaths and candles in each window are a more traditional Christmas display. The concentric assortment of leaves, usually from an evergreen, make up Christmas wreaths. Candles in each window are meant to demonstrate that Christians believe that Jesus Christ is the ultimate light of the world.
Christmas lights and banners may be hung along streets, music played by speakers, and Christmas trees placed in prominent places. It is common in many parts of the world for town squares and consumer shopping areas to sponsor and display decorations. Rolls of brightly colored paper with secular or religious Christmas motifs are manufactured to wrap gifts. In some countries, Christmas decorations are traditionally taken down on Twelfth Night.
=== Nativity play ===
The tradition of the Nativity scene comes from Italy. One of the earliest representation in art of the nativity was found in the early Christian Roman catacomb of Saint Valentine. It dates to about AD 380. Another, of similar date, is beneath the pulpit in Sant'Ambrogio, Milan.
For the Christian celebration of Christmas, the viewing of the Nativity play is one of the oldest Christmastime traditions, with the first reenactment of the Nativity of Jesus taking place in A.D. 1223 in the Italian town of Greccio. In that year, Francis of Assisi assembled a Nativity scene outside of his church in Italy and children sang Christmas carols celebrating the birth of Jesus.
Each year, this grew larger, and people travelled from afar to see Francis' depiction of the Nativity of Jesus that came to feature drama and music. Nativity plays eventually spread throughout all of Europe, where they remained popular. Christmas Eve and Christmas Day church services often came to feature Nativity plays, as did schools and theatres. In France, Germany, Mexico, and Spain, Nativity plays are often reenacted outdoors in the streets.
=== Christmas lights ===
Many families have been decorating their houses with lights and in modern times, inflatables, to create a festive environment. The origin of Christmas lights began with candles on Christmas trees in 16th-century Germany, where they symbolized Christ as the light of the world.
=== Music and carols ===
The earliest extant specifically Christmas hymns appear in fourth-century Rome. Latin hymns such as "Veni redemptor gentium", written by Ambrose, Archbishop of Milan, were austere statements of the theological doctrine of the Incarnation in opposition to Arianism. "Corde natus ex Parentis" ("Of the Father's love begotten") by the Spanish poet Prudentius (died 413) is still sung in some churches today. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Christmas "Sequence" or "Prose" was introduced in North European monasteries, developing under Bernard of Clairvaux into a sequence of rhymed stanzas. In the 12th century the Parisian monk Adam of St. Victor began to derive music from popular songs, introducing something closer to the traditional Christmas carol. Christmas carols in English appear in a 1426 work of John Awdlay who lists twenty five "caroles of Cristemas", probably sung by groups of 'wassailers', who went from house to house.
The songs now known specifically as carols were originally communal folk songs sung during celebrations such as "harvest tide" as well as Christmas. It was only later that carols began to be sung in church. Traditionally, carols have often been based on medieval chord patterns, and it is this that gives them their uniquely characteristic musical sound. Some carols like "Personent hodie", "Good King Wenceslas", and "In dulci jubilo" can be traced directly back to the Middle Ages. They are among the oldest musical compositions still regularly sung. "Adeste Fideles" (O Come all ye faithful) appeared in its current form in the mid-18th century.
The singing of carols increased in popularity after the Protestant Reformation in the Lutheran areas of Europe, as the Reformer Martin Luther wrote carols and encouraged their use in worship, in addition to spearheading the practice of caroling outside the Mass. The 18th-century English reformer Charles Wesley, a founder of Methodism, understood the importance of music to Christian worship. In addition to setting many psalms to melodies, he wrote texts for at least three Christmas carols. The best known was originally entitled "Hark! How All the Welkin Rings", later renamed "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing".
Christmas seasonal songs of a secular nature emerged in the late 18th century. The Welsh melody for "Deck the Halls" dates from 1794, with the lyrics added by Scottish musician Thomas Oliphant in 1862, and the American "Jingle Bells" was copyrighted in 1857. Other popular carols include "The First Noel", "God Rest Ye Merry, Gentlemen", "The Holly and the Ivy", "I Saw Three Ships", "In the Bleak Midwinter", "Joy to the World", "Once in Royal David's City" and "While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks". In the 19th and 20th centuries, African American spirituals and songs about Christmas, based in their tradition of spirituals, became more widely known. An increasing number of seasonal holiday songs were commercially produced in the 20th century, including jazz and blues variations. In addition, there was a revival of interest in early music, from groups singing folk music, such as The Revels, to performers of early medieval and classical music.
One of the most ubiquitous festive songs is "We Wish You a Merry Christmas", which originates from the West Country of England in the 1930s. Radio has covered Christmas music from variety shows from the 1940s and 1950s, as well as modern-day stations that exclusively play Christmas music from late November through December 25. Hollywood movies have featured new Christmas music, such as "White Christmas" in Holiday Inn and Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer. Traditional carols have also been included in Hollywood films, such as "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing" in It's a Wonderful Life (1946), and "Silent Night" in A Christmas Story.
=== Traditional cuisine ===
A special Christmas family meal is traditionally an important part of the holiday's celebration, and the food served varies greatly from country to country. Some regions have special meals for Christmas Eve, such as Sicily, where 12 kinds of fish are served. In the United Kingdom and countries influenced by its traditions, a standard Christmas meal includes turkey, goose or other large bird, gravy, potatoes, vegetables, sometimes bread, and cider. Special desserts are also prepared, such as Christmas pudding, mince pies, fruit cake and Yule log cake.
In Poland and Scandinavia, fish is often used for the traditional main course, but richer meat such as lamb is increasingly served. In Sweden, it is common with a special variety of smörgåsbord, where ham, meatballs, and herring play a prominent role. In Germany, France, and Austria, goose and pork are favored. Beef, ham, and chicken in various recipes are popular worldwide. The Maltese traditionally serve Imbuljuta tal-Qastan, a chocolate and chestnuts beverage, after Midnight Mass and throughout the Christmas season. Slovenes prepare the traditional Christmas bread potica, bûche de Noël in France, panettone in Italy, and elaborate tarts and cakes. Panettone, an Italian type of sweet bread and fruitcake, originally from Milan, Italy, usually prepared and enjoyed for Christmas and New Year in Western, Southern, and Southeastern Europe, as well as in South America, Eritrea, Australia and North America.
The eating of sweets and chocolates has become popular worldwide, and sweeter Christmas delicacies include the German stollen, marzipan cake or candy, and Jamaican rum fruit cake. As one of the few fruits traditionally available to northern countries in winter, oranges have been long associated with special Christmas foods. Eggnog is a sweetened dairy-based beverage traditionally made with milk, cream, sugar, and whipped eggs (which gives it a frothy texture). Spirits such as brandy, rum, or bourbon are often added. The finished serving is often garnished with a sprinkling of ground cinnamon or nutmeg.
=== Cards ===
Christmas cards are illustrated messages of greeting exchanged between friends and family members during the weeks preceding Christmas Day. The traditional greeting reads "wishing you a Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year", much like that of the first commercial Christmas card, produced by Sir Henry Cole in London in 1843. The custom of sending them has become popular among a wide cross-section of people with the emergence of the modern trend towards exchanging E-cards.
Christmas cards are purchased in considerable quantities and feature artwork, commercially designed and relevant to the season. The content of the design might relate directly to the Christmas narrative, with depictions of the Nativity of Jesus, or Christian symbols such as the Star of Bethlehem, or a white dove, which can represent both the Holy Spirit and Peace on Earth. Other Christmas cards are more secular and can depict Christmas traditions, figures such as Santa Claus, objects directly associated with Christmas such as candles, holly, and baubles, or a variety of images associated with the season, such as Christmastide activities, snow scenes, and the wildlife of the northern winter.
=== Commemorative stamps ===
A number of nations have issued commemorative stamps at Christmastide. Postal customers will often use these stamps to mail Christmas cards, and they are popular with philatelists. These stamps are regular postage stamps, unlike Christmas seals, and are valid for postage year-round. They usually go on sale sometime between early October and early December and are printed in considerable quantities.
=== Christmas seals ===
Christmas seals were first issued to raise funding to fight and bring awareness to tuberculosis. The first Christmas seal was issued in Denmark in 1904, and since then other countries have issued their own Christmas seals.
=== Gift giving ===
The exchanging of gifts is one of the core aspects of the modern Christmas celebration, making it the most profitable time of year for retailers and businesses throughout the world. On Christmas, people exchange gifts based on the Christian tradition associated with Saint Nicholas, and the gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh which were given to the baby Jesus by the Magi. The practice of gift giving in the Roman celebration of Saturnalia may have influenced Christian customs, but on the other hand the Christian "core dogma of the Incarnation, however, solidly established the giving and receiving of gifts as the structural principle of that recurrent yet unique event", because it was the Biblical Magi, "together with all their fellow men, who received the gift of God through man's renewed participation in the divine life". However, Thomas J. Talley holds that the Roman Emperor Aurelian placed the alternate festival on December 25 in order to compete with the growing rate of the Christian Church, which had already been celebrating Christmas on that date first.
==== Gift-bearing figures ====
A number of figures are associated with Christmas and the seasonal giving of gifts. Among these are Father Christmas, also known as Santa Claus (derived from the Dutch for Saint Nicholas), Père Noël, and the Weihnachtsmann; Saint Nicholas or Sinterklaas; the Christkind; Kris Kringle; Joulupukki; tomte/nisse; Babbo Natale; Saint Basil; and Ded Moroz. The Scandinavian tomte (also called nisse) is sometimes depicted as a gnome instead of Santa Claus.
The best known of these figures today is the red-dressed Santa Claus, of diverse origins. The name 'Santa Claus' can be traced back to the Dutch Sinterklaas ('Saint Nicholas'). Nicholas was a 4th-century Greek bishop of Myra. Among other saintly attributes, he was noted for the care of children, generosity, and the giving of gifts. His feast day, December 6, came to be celebrated in many countries with the giving of gifts.
Saint Nicholas traditionally appeared in bishop's attire, accompanied by helpers, inquiring about the behaviour of children during the past year before deciding whether they deserved a gift or not. By the 13th century, Saint Nicholas was well known in the Netherlands, and the practice of gift-giving in his name spread to other parts of central and southern Europe. At the Reformation in 16th- and 17th-century Europe, many Protestants changed the gift bringer to the Christ Child or Christkindl, corrupted in English to 'Kris Kringle', and the date of giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.
The modern popular image of Santa Claus, however, was created in the United States, and in particular in New York. The transformation was accomplished with the aid of notable contributors including Washington Irving and the German-American cartoonist Thomas Nast (1840–1902). Following the American Revolutionary War, some of the inhabitants of New York City sought out symbols of the city's non-English past. New York had originally been established as the Dutch colonial town of New Amsterdam and the Dutch Sinterklaas tradition was reinvented as Saint Nicholas.
Current tradition in several Latin American countries holds that while Santa makes the toys, he then gives them to the Baby Jesus, who is the one who actually delivers them to the children's homes, a reconciliation between traditional religious beliefs and the iconography of Santa Claus imported from the United States.
In Italy's South Tyrol, Austria, the Czech Republic, Southern Germany, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Slovakia, and Switzerland, the Christkind (Ježíšek in Czech, Jézuska in Hungarian and Ježiško in Slovak) brings the presents. Greek children get their presents from Saint Basil on New Year's Eve, the eve of that saint's liturgical feast. The German St. Nikolaus is not identical with the Weihnachtsmann (who is the German version of Santa Claus / Father Christmas). St. Nikolaus wears a bishop's dress and still brings small gifts (usually candies, nuts, and fruits) on December 6 and is accompanied by Knecht Ruprecht. Although many parents around the world routinely teach their children about Santa Claus and other gift bringers, some have come to reject this practice, considering it deceptive.
Multiple gift-giver figures exist in Poland, varying between regions and individual families. St Nicholas (Święty Mikołaj) dominates Central and North-East areas, the Starman (Gwiazdor) is most common in Greater Poland, Baby Jesus (Dzieciątko) is unique to Upper Silesia, with the Little Star (Gwiazdka) and the Little Angel (Aniołek) being common in the South and the South-East. Grandfather Frost (Dziadek Mróz) is less commonly accepted in some areas of Eastern Poland. It is worth noting that across all of Poland, St Nicholas is the gift giver on Saint Nicholas Day on December 6.
=== Sport ===
Christmas during the Middle Ages was a public festival with annual indulgences, including sporting. When Puritans outlawed Christmas in England in December 1647 the crowd brought out footballs as a symbol of festive misrule. The Orkney Christmas Day Ba' tradition continues. In the former top tier of English football, home and away Christmas Day and Boxing Day double headers were often played guaranteeing football clubs large crowds by allowing many working people their only chance to watch a game. Champions Preston North End faced Aston Villa on Christmas Day 1889 and the last December 25 fixture was in 1965 in England, Blackpool beating Blackburn Rovers 4–2. One of the most memorable images of the Christmas truce during World War I was the games of football played between the opposing sides on Christmas Day 1914.
== Choice of date ==
=== Theories ===
There are several theories as to why December 25 was chosen as the date for Christmas. However, according to theology professor Susan Roll, liturgical historians agree that it was linked in some way with "the sun, the winter solstice and the popularity of solar worship in the later Roman Empire". In Roman tradition, December 25 was deemed to be the winter solstice and March 25 the spring equinox, dates that retained significance despite Julian calendar drift. Greco-Roman writers in the second and third centuries called December 25 the birth day of the Sun. The early Church linked Jesus to the Sun and referred to him as the 'true Sun' or 'Sun of Righteousness'. In the early fifth century, Augustine of Hippo and Maximus of Turin preached that it was fitting to celebrate Christ's birth at the winter solstice, because it marked the point when the hours of daylight begin to grow. The use of solar imagery for Christ is understood as part of broader cosmological symbolism in late antiquity, and may not have been direct cultic borrowing.
The 'history of religions' or 'substitution' theory proposes that the Church chose December 25 as Christ's birthday (dies Natalis Christi) to appropriate the Roman winter solstice festival dies Natalis Solis Invicti, the birthday of the god Sol Invictus (the 'Invincible Sun'). It had been held on this date since 274 AD; before the earliest evidence of Christmas on December 25. Professor Gary Forsythe says that the Natalis Solis Invicti followed "the seven-day period of the Saturnalia (December 17–23), Rome's most joyous holiday season since Republican times, characterized by parties, banquets, and exchanges of gifts". Roll says that "the specific nature of the relation" between Christmas and the Natalis Solis Invicti has not yet been "conclusively proven from extant texts".
The 'calculation theory' proposes that the date arose from Christian chronography rather than from an effort to supplant a pagan festival. It was first proposed by Louis Duchesne. Some early Christians marked Jesus's death on the day before Passover, the 14th of Nisan. Several third‑century sources correlate this with the spring equinox on March 25. Duchesne conjectured that early Christians believed Jesus was conceived and died on the same date, yielding a March 25 conception and December 25 birth nine months later. However, he admitted that this belief is not found in any early Christian text. The earliest attestation of a December 25 Nativity may be contemporaneous with or earlier than clear attestations of a December 25 Sol Invictus festival.
=== Date according to Julian calendar ===
Some jurisdictions of the Eastern Orthodox Church, including those of Russia, Georgia, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Jerusalem, mark feasts using the older Julian calendar. Since Christmas 1899 until Christmas 2099 inclusive, there is a difference of 13 days between the Julian calendar and the modern Gregorian calendar. As a result, December 25 on the Julian calendar currently corresponds to January 7 on the calendar used by most governments and people in everyday life. Therefore, the aforementioned Orthodox Christians mark December 25 (and thus Christmas) on the day that is internationally considered to be January 7.
However, following the Council of Constantinople in 1923, other Orthodox Christians, such as those belonging to the jurisdictions of Constantinople, Bulgaria, Greece, Romania, Antioch, Alexandria, Albania, Cyprus, Finland, and the Orthodox Church in America, among others, began using the Revised Julian calendar, which at present corresponds exactly to the Gregorian calendar. Therefore, these Orthodox Christians mark December 25 (and thus Christmas) on the same day that is internationally considered to be December 25.
The Armenian Apostolic Church continues the original ancient Eastern Christian practice of celebrating the birth of Christ not as a separate holiday, but on the same day as the celebration of his baptism (Theophany), which is on January 6. This is a public holiday in Armenia, and it is held on the same day that is internationally considered to be January 6, because since 1923 the Armenian Church in Armenia has used the Gregorian calendar. However, there is also a small Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem, which maintains the traditional Armenian custom of celebrating the birth of Christ on the same day as Theophany (January 6), but uses the Julian calendar for the determination of that date. As a result, this church celebrates "Christmas" (more properly called Theophany) on the day that is considered January 19 on the Gregorian calendar in use by the majority of the world.
Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Ukraine officially moved its Christmas date from January 7 to December 25, to distance itself from the Russian Orthodox Church that had supported Russia's invasion. This followed the Orthodox Church of Ukraine formally adopting the Revised Julian calendar for fixed feasts and solemnities.
=== Table of dates ===
There are four different dates used by different Christian groups to mark the birth of Christ, given in the table below.
== Economy ==
Christmas is typically a peak selling season for retailers in many nations around the world; sales increase dramatically during this time as people purchase gifts, decorations, and supplies to celebrate. In the United States, the "Christmas shopping season" starts as early as October. In Canada, merchants begin advertising campaigns before Halloween (October 31) and step up their marketing following Remembrance Day on November 11. In the UK and Ireland, the Christmas shopping season starts from mid-November, around the time when high street Christmas lights are turned on. A concept devised by retail entrepreneur David Lewis, the first Christmas grotto opened in Lewis's department store in Liverpool, England in 1879. In the United States, it has been calculated that a quarter of all personal spending takes place during the Christmas/holiday shopping season. Figures from the US Census Bureau reveal that expenditure in department stores nationwide rose from $20.8 billion in November 2004 to $31.9 billion in December 2004, an increase of 54 percent. In other sectors, the pre-Christmas increase in spending was even greater, there being a November–December buying surge of 100 percent in bookstores and 170 percent in jewelry stores. In the same year employment in American retail stores rose from 1.6 million to 1.8 million in the two months leading up to Christmas. Industries completely dependent on Christmas include Christmas cards, of which 1.9 billion are sent in the United States each year, and live Christmas trees, of which 20.8 million were cut in the US in 2002. In the UK in 2010, up to £8 billion was expected to be spent online at Christmas, approximately a quarter of total retail festive sales.
In most Western nations, Christmas Day is the least active day of the year for business and commerce; almost all retail, commercial and institutional businesses are closed, and almost all industries cease activity (more than any other day of the year), whether laws require such or not. In England and Wales, the Christmas Day (Trading) Act 2004 prevents all large shops from trading on Christmas Day. Similar legislation was approved in Scotland in 2007. Film studios release many high-budget movies during the holiday season, including Christmas films, fantasy movies or high-tone dramas with high production values to hopes of maximizing the chance of nominations for the Academy Awards.
One economist's analysis calculates that despite increased overall spending, Christmas is a deadweight loss under orthodox microeconomic theory, because of the effect of gift-giving. This loss is calculated as the difference between what the gift giver spent on the item and what the gift receiver would have paid for the item. It is estimated that in 2001, Christmas resulted in a $4 billion deadweight loss in the US alone. Because of complicating factors, this analysis is sometimes used to discuss possible flaws in current microeconomic theory. Other deadweight losses include the effects of Christmas on the environment and the fact that material gifts are often perceived as white elephants, imposing cost for upkeep and storage and contributing to clutter.
== Prohibition ==
Christmas has been the subject of controversy and attacks from various sources, both Christian and non-Christian. Historically, it was prohibited by Puritans during their ascendency in the Commonwealth of England (1647–1660) and in Colonial New England where the Puritans outlawed the celebration of Christmas in 1659 on the grounds that Christmas was not mentioned in Scripture and therefore violated the regulative principle of worship. The Parliament of Scotland, which was dominated by Presbyterians, passed a series of acts outlawing the observance of Christmas between 1637 and 1690; Christmas Day did not become a public holiday in Scotland until 1871. Today, some conservative Reformed denominations such as the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland and the Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America likewise reject the celebration of Christmas based on the regulative principle and what they see as its non-Scriptural origin. Celebrating Christmas is banned in the Jehovah's Witnesses, as the Governing Body believes that Christmas is originally pagan and without basis in Scripture. Christmas celebrations have also been prohibited by atheist states such as the Soviet Union and in 2015 by the majority Muslim states of Somalia, Tajikistan and Brunei.
As Christmas celebrations began to spread globally even outside traditional Christian cultures, several Muslim-majority countries began to ban the observance of Christmas, claiming it undermined Islam. In December 2018, the Iraqi Council of Ministers amended the national holidays law in order to designate Christmas Day (December 25) an official nationwide holiday which is to be celebrated by all Iraqis instead of only the country's Christian minority. In 2023, public Christmas celebrations were cancelled in Bethlehem, the city synonymous with the birth of Jesus. Palestinian leaders of various Christian denominations cited the ongoing Israel–Gaza war in their unanimous decision to cancel celebrations.
The government of the People's Republic of China officially espouses state atheism, and has conducted antireligious campaigns to this end. In December 2018, officials raided Christian churches prior to Christmastide and coerced them to close; Christmas trees and Santa Clauses were also forcibly removed. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Lynch_filmography | David Lynch filmography | David Lynch (January 20, 1946 – January 16, 2025) was an American filmmaker, visual artist, musician and actor. Known for his surrealist films, he developed his own cinematic style which has been dubbed "Lynchian" and is characterized by its dream imagery and meticulous sound design. The surreal and, in many cases, violent elements to his films have earned them the reputation that they "disturb, offend or mystify" their audiences.
Lynch's oeuvre includes short and feature-length films, music videos, documentaries and television episodes, while his involvement in these ranged from direction, production, and screenwriting to acting and sound design. Lynch's first project was the 1967 short Six Men Getting Sick (Six Times), an animated film which blended elements of sculpture and painting into its animation.
His first feature-length project, 1977's Eraserhead, became a cult film and launched his commercial career. It also marked his first collaboration with Jack Nance, who would appear in many more of Lynch's productions until the death of the actor in 1996. Lynch's other feature films include the commercial flop Dune, and the critically successful The Elephant Man (1980), Blue Velvet (1986), The Straight Story (1999) and Mulholland Drive (2001), all of which went on to earn Academy Award nominations.
Lynch also branched out into television, and later, internet-based series. His first foray into television was Twin Peaks, a joint venture with Mark Frost which became a cult success, leading to Lynch and Frost working together on a number of other projects, including On the Air and American Chronicles.
In 2002, Lynch began producing two series of short films released through his official website: the Flash-animated DumbLand and Rabbits. Having begun acting in his 1972 short The Amputee, Lynch went on to appear on screen in Twin Peaks, Zelly and Me, and Dune. From 2010 to 2013, Lynch appeared in a recurring voice role in the animated series The Cleveland Show. He was a supporting actor in the 2017 John Carroll Lynch film Lucky.
== Feature film ==
== Short film ==
== Television ==
== Web series ==
== Music videos ==
== Commercials ==
== Concert film ==
== Other works ==
=== Acting roles ===
Film
Short film
Television
=== Documentary films ===
=== Executive producer === |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scream_(1996_film) | Scream (1996 film) | Scream is a 1996 American slasher film directed by Wes Craven and written by Kevin Williamson. It stars David Arquette, Neve Campbell, Courteney Cox, Matthew Lillard, Rose McGowan, Skeet Ulrich, and Drew Barrymore. Set in the fictional town of Woodsboro, California, the plot follows high school student Sidney Prescott (Campbell) and her friends, who, on the anniversary of her mother's murder, become the targets of a costumed serial killer.
Williamson, who was struggling to get his projects off the ground, was inspired by reports of a series of murders by the Gainesville Ripper as he wrote a screenplay that satirized the clichés of the slasher genre popularized in films such as Halloween (1978), Friday the 13th (1980), and Craven's own A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984). Developed under the title Scary Movie, Williamson's script became the subject of an intense bidding war from multiple studios before Miramax Films purchased the rights for its Dimension Films label. Craven, despite turning down the opportunity multiple times, agreed to direct the film after he had read the script as he was determined to re-establish himself after several career setbacks. The involvement of Barrymore and Cox helped secure more support from the studio. Principal photography took place from April to June 1996 in California on a budget of $15 million. Craven trimmed down the violence in the film after being involved in a tense conflict with the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) over the desired R rating.
Released on December 20, Scream was not expected to perform well due to concerns over releasing a slasher film in a time normally reserved for holiday entertainment. However, it went on to gross approximately $173 million worldwide through the strength of word of mouth, becoming an unexpected success and one of the highest-grossing films of the year. Contemporary reviews were positive, with praise going to the performances of its cast and its unique meta humor, but criticism was directed at its excessive violence and lack of suspense in favor of that humor. Scream revitalized both Craven's and Barrymore's careers and helped bolster the careers of its young cast.
In the years since its release, Scream's reception has continued to be positive. It has been credited with rekindling interest in the horror genre during the 1990s following a decline in the genre's popularity and has been credited for shifting the genre towards younger audiences and casting established actors. The film's opening sequence, in which Barrymore's character is killed by Ghostface, is considered one of the most shocking and subversive in cinematic history. The success of the film launched a multimedia franchise, which comprises the sequels Scream 2 (1997), Scream 3 (2000), Scream 4 (2011), Scream (2022), Scream VI (2023), and Scream 7 (2026), as well as an anthology television series.
== Plot ==
In the small town of Woodsboro, California, high school student Casey Becker is home alone when she receives a phone call from an unknown person. They discuss horror films until the caller turns sadistic, threatening her life and revealing that her boyfriend, Steve Orth, is tied up on her patio. The caller demands she answer questions about horror films to save his life, but Casey gives an incorrect answer about Friday the 13th, resulting in Steve's death. Casey attempts to escape, but is stabbed to death by someone wearing a "Ghostface" costume, and her disemboweled corpse is found hanging from a tree by her parents.
The next morning, the news media descend on the town as a police investigation ensues. Casey's classmate, Sidney Prescott, struggles with the impending first anniversary of the rape and murder of her mother Maureen by Cotton Weary. The trauma has made her unable to consummate her relationship with her boyfriend, Billy Loomis. As her father Neil is traveling for work, Sidney waits at home alone for her best friend, Tatum Riley. She receives a call taunting her about Maureen's death and is attacked by Ghostface, who disappears just before Billy climbs through her window. Sidney immediately grows suspicious when he drops a cell phone, and Billy is arrested by Deputy Sheriff Dewey, Tatum's brother. Outside the police station, Sidney gets into a physical altercation with investigative journalist Gale Weathers. Gale had written a book claiming that Maureen had multiple extramarital affairs, including one with Cotton, who Gale believes was falsely accused of Maureen's homicide. Sidney stays at Tatum's home but receives another taunting call from the killer. The calls are traced to Neil's phone, but the police are unable to locate him.
Following his release, Billy encounters Sidney at school and further upsets her by comparing his absent mother to Maureen's death. After suspending classes in the wake of the murders, Principal Himbry is killed in his office. To celebrate the school's closure, Stu Macher, Tatum's boyfriend, hosts a party at his secluded home. Dewey and Gale keep watch on the party in case the killer strikes again. Tatum is isolated in the garage by Ghostface, who crushes her neck in the garage door. As fellow high schooler Randy Meeks details the rules of surviving a horror film, news arrives of Himbry's murder. Most partygoers leave to see his body, nearly running over Dewey and Gale while inadvertently leading them to Neil's hidden car. Billy arrives at the house to reconcile with Sidney, and they finally have sex. Afterward, they are attacked by Ghostface, and Billy is stabbed. Sidney evades Ghostface, who kills Gale's cameraman Kenny and stabs Dewey when he returns. Gale, attempting to flee in her van, crashes and is knocked unconscious. Sidney seeks refuge inside the house, locking Stu and Randy outside as they accuse each other of being the killer.
A seemingly wounded Billy emerges and allows Randy inside before shooting him in the shoulder, revealing himself as the killer and Stu as his accomplice. Billy confesses they killed Maureen because the discovery of her affair with his father led to his mother's abandonment. The pair abducted Neil to frame him for their crimes and proceed to stab each other to depict themselves as the last survivors. However, they are distracted by Gale's return, allowing Sidney to incapacitate Billy and kill Stu by dropping a television set on his head. Billy nearly stabs Sidney but is shot by Gale. After Randy remarks that horror film killers revive for a final scare, Billy lunges for them, but Sidney shoots him in the head, killing him. As dawn breaks, Neil is rescued, Dewey is taken away by ambulance, and Gale provides an impromptu news report about the night's events.
== Cast ==
David Arquette as Dewey Riley: The goofy and hapless, but caring deputy sheriff
Neve Campbell as Sidney Prescott: A strong and resilient high-schooler traumatized by the murder of her mother
Courteney Cox as Gale Weathers: A snarky and ruthless investigative journalist
Matthew Lillard as Stu Macher: The eccentric and clumsy boyfriend of Tatum, and Billy's best friend
Rose McGowan as Tatum Riley: Sidney's spunky best friend and Dewey's younger sister
Skeet Ulrich as Billy Loomis: Sidney's boyfriend, who has a passion for horror films
Jamie Kennedy as Randy Meeks: A horror film fanatic
W. Earl Brown as Kenny: Gale's cameraman
Joseph Whipp as Burke: The town sheriff
Liev Schreiber as Cotton Weary: The man convicted of killing Sidney's mother
Drew Barrymore as Casey Becker: A high-schooler
Scream also features Roger L. Jackson as the voice of Ghostface, and Kevin Patrick Walls as Steve Orth, Casey's boyfriend. Lawrence Hecht and Lynn McRee portray Sidney's parents, Neil and Maureen. C.W. Morgan appears as Hank Loomis, Frances Lee McCain portrays Mrs. Riley, and David Booth and Carla Hatley appear as Casey's father and mother. Leonora Scelfo portrays a "bitchy" cheerleader in the school bathroom. Scream features several cameo appearances, including Henry Winkler as principal Arthur Himbry, Linda Blair as Obnoxious Reporter, casting director Lisa Beach as a reporter, and director Wes Craven as Fred the janitor, an homage to iconic horror character Freddy Krueger.
== Production ==
=== Writing ===
In 1994, Kevin Williamson was a novice and financially struggling screenwriter, having recently sold his first script, Killing Mrs. Tingle (1999). While house-sitting, Williamson watched a Turning Point documentary about serial killer Danny Rolling which he said left him unsettled. Williamson later noticed an open window, armed himself with a knife, and called his friend for support. The pair began discussing horror characters that had resonated with them such as Freddy Krueger and Jason Voorhees. The following morning, Williamson was woken by a nightmare and used the experience as inspiration for the opening home invasion of Scream. He was also influenced by a one-act play he wrote in college about an unknown caller taunting a young girl.
Williamson spent the next three days writing a script for a slasher film he called Scary Movie while listening to the score to Halloween for further inspiration. He also drafted two five-page outlines for possible sequels. He developed much of the script around a single line of dialogue, "movies don't create psychos, movies make psychos more creative". This was his response to contemporary concerns about the influence of cinematic violence on audience, and he "thought it was a great line". Williamson's script drew upon many of his favorite horror films, such as Halloween (1978), Friday the 13th, Prom Night (both 1980), and A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984). At the time, the successful slasher films of the 1970s and 1980s had fallen out of favor, in part because of increasingly poorly received sequels to long-running horror franchises.
His characters were intentionally designed to be knowledgeable about these horror films and their typical elements, with the intention of creating a unique killer who was not only aware of horror film clichés but also exploited them for his own advantage. Williamson expressed his approach, "I thought if you could expose the rules and play with them, then the audience doesn't know what they're going to get. Suddenly they're on edge. I started playing with the tropes, and the 'rules' were part of that." The opening scene depicting Casey Becker's death emulates that of Janet Leigh's character in Psycho (1960) by killing off a possible main character early on. Williamson believed it would hook studio executives and leave audiences unsure how the plot would progress. Williamson set the script in his hometown of Bayboro, North Carolina, believing its quiet atmosphere would provide a strong contrast with a serial killer's actions.
Williamson pursued Scary Movie because it was the type of horror film he enjoyed as a child but believed were no longer being made. Even so, he did not believe studios would develop and intended to use it to garner attention and secure other work. Williamson's agent had him scale back the gore, removing descriptions such as "the insides are slowly rolling down her leg", because it would make it difficult to sell the script. Williamson refused to cut any dialogue, however, believing it set it apart from similar films.
=== Development ===
By 1995, there was competition to secure the rights to Scary Movie, with early interest expressed by Morgan Creek Entertainment, Paramount Pictures, Universal Pictures, and filmmaker Oliver Stone. The script came to the attention of producer Cathy Konrad of Woods Entertainment, which had a development deal with production studio Miramax Films. She brought it to Richard Potter, the director of development for Miramax Films' genre-film-focused subsidiary Dimension Films. Potter expected a "stupid spoof" but was drawn in by the opening scene and recommended Miramax Films chairman, Bob Weinstein, pursue the rights. He agreed, considering it an opportunity to produce films instead of distributing those of others. Although others offered larger figures, Williamson's lawyer advised him take Weinstein's offer ($400,000–$500,000) because Dimension Films was willing to make the film immediately.
Williamson revised the script based on studio input, removing some gorier content (such as exposed internal organs and severed limbs) and adding the murder of Principal Himbry because Weinstein said there was too long a period following the opening without any deaths. This solved a separate difficulty Williamson was having explaining why all but the core group of characters leave Stu's party in the finale, as they go to see Himbry's corpse. The Scary Movie title was also changed to Scream late in production because Weinstein was concerned Scary Movie would lead audiences to believe it was a comedy instead of a horror.
The search for a director was protracted, with Danny Boyle, Tom McLoughlin, Sam Raimi, George A. Romero, Bryan Singer, Quentin Tarantino, Robert Rodriguez, and Anthony Waller being considered. No agreements were secured because those approached for the role interpreted the script as a comedy instead of a horror satire. Wes Craven was discounted by the studio due to his lack of experience directing satires. Craven liked the script but he wanted to work on less gory and more mainstream content (including a film adaptation of the 1959 horror novel The Haunting of Hill House) because of the negative public perception of him based on his previous films.
Craven's assistant Julie Plec and producer Marianne Maddalena continued to push Scream to Craven. His interest was renewed after The Haunting of Hill House adaptation was cancelled and he experienced the personal disappointment of his failed horror comedy, Vampire in Brooklyn (1995). After reading the script, Plec said Craven suggested the studio "'make him an offer he can't refuse.' And so Dimension did. And he took it." The deal also offered Craven his choice of other projects to direct after Scream.
Williamson met Craven to discuss the script, believing he would request substantial rewrites, but Craven's notes related mainly to typos and some minor additions including restoring some of the gorier content and refining the ending which was not yet fully realized. Williamson said "The story stayed pretty much intact, but we added some scares, and shortened it. Wes reworked some of the action sequences, and we would argue and go back and forth, but there's a point where I had to realize that Wes is more experienced than I am." Describing the script Craven said, "what it forces you to do is sort of look at the reality of things we typically look at as amusing, like the Friday the 13th type of deaths where people have arrows through their heads and kids scream and laugh. But that suddenly starts happening in their actual lives."
=== Casting ===
Atypical for the genre at the time, Scream featured a cast of established stars, such as Drew Barrymore and Courteney Cox, as well as relatively unknown actors. Executive producer Cary Woods used his friendship with Barrymore's agent to cast her in the lead role of Sidney Prescott, but she later requested the smaller role of Casey Becker. Maddalena suggested that Barrymore had wanted to leave the project entirely, but took the smaller role to avoid disappointing Bob Weinstein and his brother Harvey. The filmmakers agreed to the change, believing it would be impactful to kill off their most well-known actor during Scream's opening and convince audiences that no character was safe. Vinessa Shaw and Reese Witherspoon were also considered for Sidney Prescott. Witherspoon was discounted because she looked too young compared to the other cast, and Williamson's choice, Molly Ringwald, believed she was too old for the part. The final choices came down to Alicia Witt, Brittany Murphy, and Neve Campbell. According to Williamson, Campbell swiftly emerged as the favored choice among the principal crew and, to improve her chances, they filmed her screen-test first, forcing the other contenders to try and surpass her performance. Beach and Maddalena said Campbell brought athleticism from her dancing background with a combination of strength and vulnerability. Describing what attracted her to the role, Campbell said Sidney was "a fantastic character for any kind of movie" who transitions from "tormented, traumatized, insecure young woman to overwhelmingly empowered and strong".
Woods suggested Courteney Cox for the cold and calculating Gale Weathers, believing it would be interesting to play against her typical personable characters in series such as Family Ties (1982–1989) and Friends (1994–2004). Craven did not believe Cox could play the part and so she wrote a letter assuring him that "being 'a bitch' wouldn't be a stretch at all". Brooke Shields and Janeane Garofalo were considered but a more established actress was preferred. David Arquette auditioned for unspecified younger characters, but he was attracted to the role of Dewey and acting against Cox. The character was written as a "dumb jock" but Arquette interpreted it as a "position of authority getting no respect ... He wants to be John Wayne ... He wants to be this tough guy, but he's just got a heart of gold." Rose McGowan's agent jeopardized her chance to play Tatum by insisting on a payment of $250,000 instead of the offered $50,000, which was lower than the $100,000 received by some other principal actors. As a result, McGowan had to reaudition for the role twice. McGowan influenced Tatum's design, dying her hair blonde to avoid having two dark-haired main female characters, removing an Indigo Girls poster from Tatum's bedroom (because she would not listen to the relatively older band), and rejecting costuming suggestions in favor of her self-bought outfits. Thora Birch and Natasha Lyonne also auditioned for the role; Lyonne was the preferred choice but, as she was under 18, could not consent to joining without parental permission.
Believing he was rising in popularity, Vince Vaughn was the studio's preferred choice for Billy Loomis, but he was too ill to audition. Skeet Ulrich did not attend auditions because of scheduling conflicts but his girlfriend did and mentioned Ulrich brought her; Beach went out to meet him personally. Ulrich liked playing a serial killer after more innocent and naive previous roles. To develop his character, Ulrich researched serial murders, psychological profiles, and outfitted one of his hotel rooms to the Billy persona to help him get into character, outfitting it with punk rock posters and blacklights. He said, "I was into punk music in my teens and really just trying to recapture that angst ... I would sit in there and read about serial killers and watch Faces of Death (1978) ... anything to get into that gory mindset." Ulrich and Campbell starred together in The Craft (1996), which they believed fostered a natural relationship between their characters. Matthew Lillard auditioned for Billy, but the casting directors did not consider him the right actor to "make out with [Campbell]" and had him audition as Stu for Craven, who immediately offered him the part.
Seth Green, Jason Lee, and Breckin Meyer were all preferred for Randy, the "lanky, gangly, opinionated fifth wheel, who really has a love and passion for movies", but Craven and Williamson appreciated the innocence and comedy that Jamie Kennedy brought to his portrayal. Kennedy credited Craven for supporting his casting. W. Earl Brown and Craven were friends and he was not required to audition but did have to gain about 20 lb (9.1 kg); he originally wanted to portray Dewey. Roger L. Jackson was hired based on his voice work for Mars Attacks! (1996). He recounted overhearing his competitors discussing the Ghostface as the "new Freddy Krueger", but Jackson interpreted it as a more subtle role which required charisma and sexiness to keep his target on the phone even though they want to hang up. Barrymore wanted someone to act against in her scene instead of the character's lines being read to her, and while the filmmakers intended to dub over Jackson's voice with Tom Kane, Craven liked his performance. Henry Winkler shared an agent with Craven and made his cameo appearance as a favor. Lynn McCree, Sidney's mother, was a Sonoma local; she spent two hours taking pictures with Campbell for the role but had no knowledge of the character's backstory. Liev Schreiber took the part of Cotton Weary for $20,000 during an unrelated meeting with Bob Weinstein. Extras were drawn from locals including the owners of a restaurant frequented by the cast and crew.
=== Pre-production ===
It was determined early on that Scream required too many different interior and exterior locations to be filmed on sets. Production designer Bruce Miller explained that it was important to portray the characters as vulnerable in their homes which made it essential that they could film inside and outside the properties. Scouts researched locations in the United States and Canada but struggled to locate a house for the opening scene which featured plentiful windows and visibility. Craven initially researched Wilmington, North Carolina but it failed to meet his expectations: "I wanted to have very American looking houses ... and a lot of the houses there were very dark brown, or brick, and that didn't look attractive to me." Locations near Vancouver were discounted for similar reasons, as was Napa County, California.
Santa Rosa in Sonoma County, California offered most features the filmmakers required, but the Weinsteins rejected the additional $1 to 2 million required to film there until the filmmakers convinced them that Craven's name would attract enough audiences to compensate for the added cost. The opening scene used a house in Glen Ellen. Miller said, "We didn't want homes that looked like castles, or that you could really protect yourself in ... so if somebody was going to be stalking them, they could get to them very quickly." Other Santa Rosa locations used in Scream include Sidney's house at 1820 Calistoga Road, interiors of Tatum's house at 824 McDonald Avenue, and the Bradley Video store, where Randy works. The Healdsburg, California town square appears as the location of the Woodsboro Town Square, the fountain, and the exterior of the town police station.
Stu's home was an unoccupied property in Tomales which offered a dark and isolated atmosphere for the finale. Cinematographer Mark Irwin unsuccessfully argued against using the property because it was on top of a hill, introducing logistical challenges for accessing trailers and equipment. Miller built a facade of barns in front of the house so trailers could be sited closer while remaining concealed. The art department extensively modified the house, adding Gothic elements such as beams and stained-glass windows to give it a haunted feel, painting the walls red (although they realized later this made the blood stand out less), and adding a white picket fence. The farmhouse-style home offered a "convoluted" layout for a convincing setting where the murders could occur without the other characters realizing. The production crew also added a volleyball net to make it appear as if a teenager lived there.
Santa Rosa High School was selected to portray Woodsboro High School due to its gothic and castle-like imposing visuals. Ten days of filming were to take place there in early June at a cost of $30,000 to 50,000, but permission was revoked in March 1996 by the Santa Rosa school district. The change was ostensibly because of the disruption filming would cause during school hours and scheduled exams, but several school board members objected to the violent content in the script, and hundreds of locals attended a council meeting to debate against and for the production; the board ultimately voted against allowing filming.
The Sonoma Community Center served as a replacement filming location, but scenes had to be rewritten to accommodate the new location and additional costs to transform the former elementary school into one appropriate for young adults, including larger desks and installing lockers. Craven estimated the disruption and location changes caused by the Santa Rosa district's decision cost the production $350,000, including the $27,000 the center was paid for three days of filming. The disruption to filming by the school was not forgotten, with the film's credits stating "No thanks whatsoever to the Santa Rosa city school district governing board."
Williamson's script had not described the killer's appearance beyond wearing a "ghostly white mask". Special effects company KNB EFX Group was commissioned to design a mask, but the filmmakers disliked their "gargoyle-ish", witch, and goblin-like masks designs. While location scouting a house, Maddalena came across what would become the Ghostface mask. This mask, featuring a white shroud, was designed by Brigitte Sleiertin as "the Peanut-Eyed Ghost" for the novelty company Fun World in 1991, based on a design by makeup artist Loren Gitthens. However, Craven and the studio wanted to own the design used in the film and tasked KNB EFX with creating a similar but legally distinct design, stretching the nose and chin. Unhappy with the results, Craven eventually decided to pursue the original Fun World design. The killer's outfit was completed with a black shroud to avoid their clothing or movements hinting at their identity.
=== Filming ===
Principal photography began on April 15, 1996, on a $14 million budget. The first week was spent filming the Casey Becker scenes. To elicit the necessary emotions, Barrymore recalled a sad story developed with Craven and made herself hyperventilate. To enhance her performance, Jackson was situated outside the house so that he could see Barrymore while making the calls but she could not see him. Jackson was used similarly for other Ghostface call scenes, and never met the cast in person. He said "the scariest monsters are the monsters you don't see, but the monsters you make in your mind. So just having the voice to react to made it larger in their minds".
For safety, stunt performers portrayed the killer in costume, although Craven portrays the killer in parts of the opening. The first few days of filming used a custom mask designed for Scream, but Craven did not like it and reshot various scenes with the Fun World design before it was licensed. Because the hung Casey was to appear gutted from chest to waist, effects artist Howard Berger decided against applying prosthetics to Barrymore in favor of a mannequin that could be hollowed out, showing her spine holding her upper and lower parts together. The effect was enhanced with various rubber and vinyl guts. For Steve Orth's death, KNB created an open back chair allowing the actor to kneel behind a hollowed out anatomical mannequin torso cut open at the abdomen and filled with latex, rubber, and gelatin intestines.
After viewing the dailies raw footage, Bob criticized the quality of Craven's work as "workmanlike at best", believing it lacked tension and had an inconsistent tone. He was critical of the Fun World Mask—believing it was "flat" and not scary—and ordered that the opening scene be re-filmed with alternative masks to see which worked best. Barrymore was also criticized for lacking sex appeal because of the pageboy hairstyle she had chosen. Williamson recounted Craven receiving a call from the brothers and seeing "his back slump. He just started sliding down the chair." The studio considered firing Craven, and sent him dailies from other films, such as Nightwatch (1997), to demonstrate what they wanted for Scream.
Konrad defended Craven to the brothers, and in response Bob Weinstein sent Dimension executives Cary Granat and Andrew Rona to the set to directly intervene. Craven, Konrad, Maddalena, and line producer Stuart M. Besser met with Granat, who wanted the opening reshot with each of the Weinstein's alternative mask suggestions. Instead, they offered to edit together the existing footage to prove the scene and mask worked and if it did not, then the project would be cancelled.
Editor Patrick Lussier worked with Craven to piece together most of the opening, adding temporary music and sound effects. The Weinsteins barred Craven and the producers from attending screening of the footage. Afterward, Bob Weinstein told the filmmakers, "What do I know about dailies? Keep going", and provided additional financing. The producers suggested Weinstein had an "ulterior motive" to force the filmmakers to complete the footage – the upcoming Milan Film Festival, as edited footage was not typically allowed to be screened until eight weeks after filming concluded.
The next main scene filmed was of the central cast sitting around a fountain. Ulrich admitted he did not realize Scream was intended to be a horror with comedic elements and was confused by Lillard's and Kennedy's "humorous moments", believing they were "ruining the movie ... Like, 'This isn't funny. This isn't supposed to be funny.' And man, was I wrong." Craven encouraged improvisation throughout filming, much of it coming from Arquette and Lillard, with Williamson acknowledging that Lillard's ad-libs improved the script.
=== The finale ===
The film's 42-minute end sequence set at Stu's party was filmed at night over three weeks. Issues filming at the location, including difficulties with providing proper lighting because of the uneven landscape, exacerbated tensions between Craven and Irwin regarding the quality of Irwin's footage. Scream was filmed with an anamorphic lens, which distorts and stretches the image to achieve a specific aspect ratio. However, neither Craven nor Irwin had much experience with this type of lens. The crew, including Lussier, had raised concerns about lens flares and out-of-focus images, partially blaming the focus puller hired by Irwin. Lussier explained, "You can often tell your focus is supposed to be on somebody's eye usually, ... and the focus puller just hasn't moved with the actor". As a result, there were limited options during the editing process due to the inconsistent focus. Irwin said he was informed that all filmed footage was unusable and that 35 days of scenes needed to be reshot. After an argument with Maddalena, Irwin was immediately fired and replaced by Peter Deming for the final three weeks of filming. Irwin believed he was made a scapegoat for the film's behind-schedule status, risking Craven forfeiting his salary, but Konrad denied this.
Kennedy's horror rules scene was initially performed in a single take, but he requested additional takes, feeling he could enhance the performance (Craven ultimately chose the third take). During Tatum's death scene, McGowan had trouble staying in the pet door as the garage door rose. To address this, the crew nailed her shirt to the frame to hold her in place. Craven found it challenging managing the scene's tone, aiming to avoid trivializing Tatum's death while paying homage to other horror films. McGowan improvised the screams for her mother to give the character more humanity. When Gale drives a van with Kenny's corpse on top, Brown was on top of the van, but the unprepared stunt driver accelerated at full speed. When he hit the brakes, Brown fell off the side of the van and the stunt coordinator grabbed Brown's pants and ankle, saving him from harm.
Five nights were spent on the kitchen confrontation between Billy, Stu, and Sidney. By the time they had filmed Gale returning with a gun, Ulrich said he and Lillard were "roaming around like caged animals" to keep the intensity of their performances high, to the point Craven asked them to relax because they were scaring Cox. Lillard described maintaining that level of adrenaline as exhausting. Campbell, Kennedy, Lillard, and Ulrich endured multiple nights covered in fake blood, and the costumes could not be washed to maintain continuity (they were dampened each night to make the blood appear fresh). When Ulrich stabs a sofa, the filmmakers were unaware it was stuffed with feathers which stuck to the fake blood; Maddalena considered Craven "nuts" for keeping the feathers in the scene. Lillard improvised lines such as "My mom and dad are going to be so mad at me" and "You fucking hit me with the phone, you dick", the latter taking place when Ulrich threw a phone near him as intended but the sticky blood caused it to veer off and inadvertently hit Lillard. Ulrich suggested Billy cracking his neck before shooting Gale, and the sound was added in post-production. Campbell's stuntwoman accidentally stabbed Ulrich with an umbrella tip, missing the protective vest he was wearing and hitting the site of an open heart surgery Ulrich had as a child.
Filming concluded on June 14, 1996. The cast spoke fondly of the "summer camp" atmosphere during filming and the camaraderie they formed. The main cast and select crew members, including Craven, often gathered together in the early mornings after filming for meals, activities, and socializing. Arquette's hotel room was transformed into a makeshift club where they would congregate. However, due to complaints from other residents, they eventually relocated their early morning gatherings to a nearby barn.
=== Post-production ===
The Scary Movie title remained late into production, appearing on the cast and crew gifts for completing filming. Harvey Weinstein suggested Scream based on the Michael and Janet Jackson song "Scream". Many of the cast and crew were initially unhappy with the change. Sony Pictures filed a lawsuit against Dimension and Miramax, claiming Scream infringed on their copyright of Screamers (1995). The case was settled out of court with Dimension being able to use Scream going forward. Although Arquette's and Kennedy's characters were killed in the script, alternate scenes were filmed showing them survive in case they proved popular with test screening audiences. The successful screenings also resulted in Miramax asking Craven to direct two Scream sequels.
Scream was rated NC-17 by the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), restricting its audience to those over 17 years of age, which was considered "box-office suicide" by industry experts. The MPAA told Craven that Scream would never receive a more commercial R-rating, allowing younger people to see the film when accompanied by an adult. Craven said, "I'm a director who can do something very well but am not allowed to put it on screen. And they ultimately get you, as they did on this one, on intensity. They say, 'it's not a specific shot, it's not blood, it's just too intense'". The filmmakers eventually convinced the MPAA that Scream was a spoof, believing they were too focused on the horror aspects.
It took up to nine cuts to address the MPAA's complaints, including removing any movement of Steve Orth's internal organs, trimming Kenny's throat being slit (because the actor's pained expression was too "disturbing"), moving Billy and Stu stabbing each other off screen, and reducing scenes of Casey's hanging body and Tatum's crushed head. The slow motion stabbing of Casey was considered excessive but was allowed with only a few frames removed because there was no alternate footage to use. The final cut runs for 111 minutes.
=== Music ===
Despite having no background in film scoring or an interest in the horror genre, Marco Beltrami was recommended to Plec and Craven, who found his music samples original compared with Beltrami's contemporaries. Craven gave Beltrami a weekend to compose "The Cue from Hell", the score for the film's opening sequence, which secured his hiring. Beltrami wrote the piece from Casey's perspective and used an "operatic" style, employing a range of instruments, including piano and brass. Beltrami described himself as "bumbling" through the scoring process, acknowledging his limited knowledge of horror music styles. He incorporated elements of the western genre, particularly for Dewey's theme, and took cues from composers including Elliot Goldenthal, Ennio Morricone, Eric Serra, Christopher Young, and Hans Zimmer.
Due to budget constraints, Beltrami had to work with a small orchestra of fewer than 50 performers. To compensate for the lack of string harmonics, he instructed the string players to whistle, and asked Craven, Lussier, Maddalena, and Woods to join and boost their numbers. Beltrami identified most with Sidney's character and considered her theme – "Sidney's Lament" – to be one of the score's crucial pieces. He chose not to assign a distinctive motif to Ghostface, to avoid hinting at the killer's identity. Licensed music for Scream was provided by TVT Records and includes covers of "(Don't Fear) The Reaper" by Gus Black and "Birds Fly (Whisper to a Scream)" by Soho, "School's Out" by Alice Cooper, "First Cool Hive" by Moby, and "Drop Dead Gorgeous" by Republica. Excepts from the Halloween score are also present.
== Release ==
=== Context ===
Over forty films were scheduled for release in late 1996, including Beavis and Butt-Head Do America, Jerry Maguire, Mars Attacks!, Ransom, Space Jam, and Star Trek: First Contact. Bob Weinstein opted to release Scream in December as counterprogramming, offering teenagers an alternative to more traditional holiday fare. The decision was unpopular with the cast and crew, with Williamson expecting the film to fail. Weinstein explained, "people said we were crazy to put out Scream over Christmas ... It was a thriller; it didn't have big stars; it couldn't compete. Well, after Beavis and Butt-Head, where is that audience going to go?"
The marketing for Scream positioned Barrymore as the lead character to intentionally shock the audience with her death. During a promotional interview, Ulrich inadvertently revealed he portrayed one of the killers and called his agent to get the story blocked.
=== Box office ===
The premiere of Scream took place on December 18, 1996, at the AVCO theater in Westwood, Los Angeles. It was released in the United States and Canada on December 20. During its opening weekend, the film grossed $6.4 million across 1,413 theaters—an average of $4,497 per theater—making it the fourth-highest-grossing film of the weekend, behind 101 Dalmatians ($7 million), Jerry Maguire ($13.1 million), and the debut of Beavis and Butt-Head Do America ($20.1 million). The performance was considered a failure by industry professionals, resulting in Variety labeling Scream "dead on arrival". Maddalena recounted herself and Craven observing a raucous audience for Beavis and Butt-Head Do America while Scream had "maybe seven people in there. No one was laughing or screaming. We went away so dejected." However, Scream received positive audience word-of-mouth and exit-polling responses, leading the studio to increase the marketing and distribution budget. This contributed to Scream's performance improving in the following weeks. Audiences polled by CinemaScore in its opening weekend gave the film an average grade of B+ on an A+ to F scale. Although it fell to fifth place in its second weekend, it increased its weekend gross to $9.1 million, and again in its third weekend, rising to third place with $10 million. Scream remained in the top-ten-highest-grossing films for nine weeks in total, becoming a surprise success and grossing a total of $103 million. This figure made it the number 13 highest-grossing film of 1996, and highest-grossing slasher film of its time, until Halloween (2018). It was Miramax's second film to gross $100 million in the United States and Canada after Pulp Fiction (1994). The film was most successful with teenagers and young people in their 20s.
Outside of the U.S. and Canada, Scream is estimated to have grossed a further $70 million, including $14 million in the United Kingdom, making it the number 21 highest-grossing film. This gives Scream a cumulative worldwide total of $173 million, making it the number 14 highest-grossing film of the year. After four weeks of release, it became the highest-grossing horror film in France, with a gross of $6.2 million (37.9 million French Francs). In Japan, the release date was postponed from May 1997 to August after the murder of a 14-year-old boy, whose killer was apparently obsessed with horror movies.
Industry analysis showed that most of the films released toward the end of the year were box office failures, including both big-budget fare and a surge of films targeted toward women. Only a few were seen as successes, including 101 Dalmatians, Beavis and Butt-Head Do America, Jerry Maguire, Ransom, Scream, and Star Trek: First Contact. The success of Scream resulted in additional financial compensation for the principal crew and cast, triggered by the box office surpassing $40 million and subsequent increments of $10 million up to $100 million. Kennedy noted that his first residual check was double his salary.
== Reception ==
=== Critical response ===
Scream received generally positive reviews. Critics, such as Roger Ebert, James Berardinelli, and Owen Gleiberman, praised Scream's meta commentary about its horror predecessors and its self-referential humor while also writing that the self parody diluted any suspense, and criticizing the excessive violence. Some critics said that the film's intelligence and wit beneath the gore would be appreciated by "sophisticated viewers", but Ebert was unsure if the degree of violence was "defused by the ironic way the film uses it and comments on it".
Janet Maslin wrote that while Scream offered original ideas for the genre, it quickly exhausted them. John Hartl offered a similar sentiment, believing Scream was so focused on referencing other films that it did not know when to "settle down to tell a coherent story". Bill Stamets considered these references insightful, particularly the killers' motives, saying "Killers without motives are far more scary."
Critics such as Berardinelli, Thomas, and Leonard Klady wrote positively of the ensemble cast and their instrumentality in the film's success. Peter Stack and Dave Kehr praised Campbell for her standout performance that successfully carried the central focus on her character, portraying a tough, capable heroine who avoids the "damsel in distress" archetype. While some reviewers appreciated Cox for delivering a strong performance in an against-type role, others criticized her for being unconvincing as a tough and career-obsessed reporter. Thomas and John Hartl wrote that Arquette delivered a "goofily charming" performance. Lisa Alspector described Ulrich as the only cast member capable of balancing genuine characterization with self-parody.
The film's opening sequence received praise for building tension and suspense. Gleiberman and Richard Harrington appreciated the absence of gratuitous nudity in the scene, which was atypical for the genre. Kevin Thomas credited Irwin's "resourcefulness" and Lussier's "razor-sharp" editing as key to Scream's success.
=== Accolades ===
At the 23rd Saturn Awards in 1997, Scream won awards for Best Actress (Campbell), Best Writing (Williamson), and Best Horror Film. The film was named Best Movie at the MTV Movie Awards, and Campbell was nominated for Best Female Performance. Scream was named Best Film by the International Horror Guild. Craven also received the Grand Prize at the Gérardmer Film Festival.
== Post-release ==
=== Home media ===
The soundtrack of Scream was released in December 1996 by TVT Records as Scream: Music From The Dimension Motion Picture; it sold poorly. Scream was released on VHS and Laserdisc in June 1997, and was especially successful in the video rental market, becoming the second most rented film of 1997 in the United States. In 2000, Scream was released as part of "The Ultimate Scream Collection", alongside its then-two sequels, Scream 2 (1997) and Scream 3 (2000). The release introduced special features including cast screen tests, outtakes, and a documentary about the making of the three films featuring interviews with Craven, Williamson, Campbell, Cox, and Arquette. A director's cut release of Scream restored uncut sequences removed for the theatrical release.
The film was released on Blu-ray in 2011, including previously released special features. For the film's 25th anniversary in 2021, Scream was remastered and released on 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray in a steelbook case. Alongside the previously released special features, the remastered version included "A Bloody Legacy: Scream 25 Years Later", a documentary featuring new interviews with the cast and crew. In 2022, Varèse Sarabande released the score in a limited-edition six-disc box CD set and digitally, alongside Beltrami's work on other installments, as well as unreleased music, demos, and alternate versions. A four-LP record set was released separately in a jacket that turns into a Ghostface mask.
=== Other media ===
A 2011 documentary, Still Screaming: The Ultimate Scary Movie Retrospective, documents the production of the original trilogy of Scream films, and includes interviews with cast and crew from throughout the series. A book, It All Began With A Scream by Padraic Maroney, was also released that year, offering a similar look at the production of Scream and its three immediate sequels.
The popularity of the Ghostface character generated a variety of merchandise, and the killer's outfit remained a popular Halloween costume as of 2023.
== Thematic analysis ==
=== Themes ===
Scream is influenced by, and pays many homages to, the history of the horror genre, including a school janitor referencing Freddy Krueger, a cameo appearance by Linda Blair, famed for her appearance in The Exorcist (1973), and the killers admonishing the police for not watching Prom Night for advice. In a meta reference, Randy recounts the rules of the genre: to survive a horror film, characters cannot sin by drinking, taking drugs, or having sex, and they cannot say "'I'll be right back.' Because you won't be back". This self reference is extended when Randy (Jamie Kennedy), watches Halloween and yells at the lead character Laurie (Jamie Lee Curtis) to look behind her, oblivious to the killer approaching himself from behind. Further, Kenny futilely yells at Randy to look behind him while observing via a remote camera. When Sidney confronts Billy and Stu, she says "You've seen one too many movies", to which Billy replies "Movies don't create psychos, movies make psychos more creative." Writer Kate Gardener believed this dialogue rejects the blame on horror films for inspiring real-world violence. Lussier said the MPAA had objected to this dialogue because "you can't speak that kind of truth".
Writers Adam White and Michelle Delgado wrote that Scream is an exploration of the "exploitative" nature of the news media using traumatic events as entertainment. The debut of Scream coincided with growing discourse in the United States on the impact of on-screen violence and its potential consequences for society. During this time, the Clinton administration introduced the V-chip, a device designed to enable parents to block mature television content. However, news programs remained exempt from the ratings system, which Delgado said continued to "exploit" violent incidents to captivate audiences. Gale portrays a relentless television reporter who used Maureen's murder to further her own career and seeks to do the same with the Woodsboro murders. Although Gale advocates for the innocence of Cotton Weary in Maureen's death, she does so both because she believes he is innocent and to secure a lucrative book deal. While Gale's actions revolve around profiting from the suffering of others, she is depicted not as a villain but a careerist and an antagonist to Sidney who evolves into a heroic figure, aiding in the deaths of Billy and Stu. Gardener wrote that making a living from murder is not morally equal to committing murder, but that it represents the commodification of crime and female trauma. Scream acknowledges the audience's voyeuristic interest in murder and horror, underscoring the monetary value placed on sensationalized crimes.
White described Williamson's script as emblematic of its time, featuring a "picture-perfect" mother raped and murdered in American suburbia and the stalking of her daughter one year later. He compared it to contemporary sensationalized cases such as the Murder trial of O. J. Simpson, Lorena Bobbit's assault of her husband, the Long Island Lolita case, and the Gainesville Ripper. The Ripper's defence included his assertion of being influenced by films such as The Exorcist III (1990). Despite public concerns about the influence of violent media, instances of violent crime were decreasing when Scream was released and there remained no direct link between violent media content and real-life crimes. Even so, public fascination with these media portrayals created a form of celebrity for the victims or perpetrators, with dramatic events being turned into documentaries and films. In Scream, Sidney jokes that a film will be made about the traumatic events of her life and, in the sequels, the film-within-a-film Stab horror series is created, based partly on the events of each preceding Scream entry.
=== Analysis ===
Author Padraic Maroney wrote that Scream was pro-feminism, depicting several final girls who fight the killer instead of submitting. The success of Scream demonstrated to studios that although typically seen as fare for young males, horror films had an untapped female market. Writer Aime Simon said Sidney, like Craven's Nancy Thompson, is allowed to develop as a character by surviving successive films. The Scream films often explore female trauma through characters such as Sidney and Gale, including the dangers posed by angry males who feel rejected. Gardener said that although this may not have been Craven's intention, the film's narrative effectively conveys this theme. She continued that the male killers in Scream enact violence and intimidation primarily on women, including Casey who romantically rejects Stu before the events of the film, and Sidney's mother Maureen, as Billy blames her for the end of his parents' marriage. Maureen is not responsible for his mother leaving, but Billy blames her, takes his anger out on her directly, and then abuses Sidney's emotional vulnerability caused by her death. In this way, the portrayal of Billy and Stu as angry entitled men seeking revenge is more relatable and realistic than supernatural horror villains.
Scream has been analyzed for homosexual or queer undertones, influenced by Williamson's own experiences as a gay man. He has expressed how his personal struggles informed Sidney's character because he identified parallels between her survival tactics and those of young gay individuals. In a 2021 interview, he said "as a gay kid, I related to the final girl and to her struggle because it's what one has to do to survive as a young gay kid, too. Subconsciously, I think the Scream movies are coded in gay survival." Several publications have highlighted the positive response from gay fans of the franchise to these underlying themes.
Some writers, such as Maroney, Brant Lewis, and Joe Lipsett, have discussed the theory that Billy and Stu are in a homosexual relationship or that Stu held unrequited feelings for Billy. Professor David Greven wrote that Billy and Stu are representative of the changing notions of masculinity and the underlying currents of queer desire in 90s films. The interactions between them throughout the movie contain themes of homoeroticism, such as when Stu playfully touches Randy's earlobe or leans on Billy during the climax before they stab each other with phallic weapons. Greven believed that although it is easy to assign homosexuality to Stu because of his lack of motive to kill and apparent willingness to please his friend, Billy also features homoerotic characteristics such as the gay trope of fixating on his maternal relationship, similar to Norman Bates in Psycho, and Billy's visual styling resembling actor James Dean, considered a queer icon. Williamson loosely based the characters on Leopold and Loeb, queer individuals who committed murder to prove their intellectual superiority. In a 2022 interview he said he was "very hesitant to present the gay side of me in [Scream]" and that any queerness in Billy's and Stu's characters was "a little coded and maybe accidental".
== Legacy ==
=== Cultural influence ===
In the decades following its release, Scream has remained an enduringly popular horror film and launched a successful film franchise. It is credited with revitalizing the horror genre, which had significantly declined in popularity by the early 1990s. Far Out and MTV described Scream as a "ground-breaking" slasher film that "successfully crossed over into the mainstream" because of its deft blend of traditional horror with self-aware commentary and satire. Vox wrote that Scream "mainstreamed metatextual storytelling and made that analytical understanding of the genre mainstream in a lot of ways".
Studios rushed to capitalize on Scream's success with teen-centric horror films and television series leading into the 2000s, such as I Know What You Did Last Summer (1997), Urban Legend, The Faculty (both 1998), Final Destination, and Cherry Falls (both 2000), as well as sequels to popular, but diminished, franchises such as Halloween H20: 20 Years Later and Bride of Chucky (both 1998). Scream also serves as the subject of the parody film Scary Movie (2000), which in turn launched its own franchise of horror spoofs. Director Jordan Peele has credited Scream as a direct inspiration for his own influential horror film, Get Out (2017), in manipulating the audience's expectations of the contemporary horror genre.
Scream helped launch or bolster the careers of its principal stars, including Campbell, Ulrich, Lillard, McGowan, Kennedy, and Arquette. Williamson became an in-demand screenwriter, contributing to horror films such as I Know What You Did Last Summer (1997) and television series Dawson's Creek (1998–2003). Scream helped revitalize Craven's career after several career setbacks and a string of poor performances. Lussier credited his work on Scream's opening with his transition to director, beginning with Dracula 2000 (2000). Barrymore's involvement helped raised the profile of the horror genre, making it a more attractive prospect for prominent actors instead of relative unknowns. In a 2021 interview, Kennedy said he was still approached by fans about his horror rules monologue. Lillard described Scream as a "seminal" moment of his career. He and Campbell began a two-year relationship during filming, while Cox and Arquette married and eventually divorced.
Scream has often been referenced in popular culture in and outside the horror genre. The Ghostface killer is considered to be among the most iconic cinematic horror villains. The Billy and Stu version of Ghostface (voiced by Jackson) appears as a playable character in the fighting game Mortal Kombat 1 (2023). As of 2021, Lillard's improvised dialogue, "My mom and dad are gonna be so mad at me", was still quoted to him by fans.
In the years since its release, Scream was cited as an influence in several violent crimes and murders, with perpetrators sometimes dressing as Ghostface, as in the 2006 murder of Cassie Jo Stoddart. Following the Columbine High School massacre in 1999, an increasing media and public scrutiny on the influence of violent films, games, and other media on society the United States Senate Commerce committee reviewed the marketing of films to youths, specifically the horror genre. Scream's opening was shown as an example of negative media which may be viewed by children. The use of Caller ID to identify incoming callers also increased by 300% following Scream's release.
=== Retrospective assessments ===
Scream is regarded as a classic of the horror genre, and among the greatest horror and slasher films ever made. Several publications have also listed it among the best films of the 1990s. Williamson believed Scream's success was due, in part, to fitting the contemporary zeitgeist when "everyone wanted to have scary and fun in their life ... If the movie had been released at any other time, I'm not sure that would've been the case". Campbell believed it connected with audiences because of a deft combination of humor, horror, and intelligence. As of 2026, Scream is the second highest-grossing film in the Scream film series, and is generally considered to be the best film in the series. The franchise is also among the highest-grossing horror franchises, alongside Halloween, Saw, and The Conjuring Universe.
In 2008, Empire ranked the film number 482 on its list of "The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time", and Entertainment Weekly listed Scream as one of the Best High School movies and among the best films of the preceding 13 years. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 78% from the aggregated reviews of 130 critics, with an average score of 7.1/10. The consensus reads: "Horror icon Wes Craven's subversive deconstruction of the genre is sly, witty, and surprisingly effective as a slasher film itself, even if it's a little too cheeky for some". The film has a score of 66 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 25 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". The British Film Institute (BFI) called the opening scene "one of the all-time great pre-credit scenes—an unforgettable masterclass of building tension, heart-stopping terror, and shocking images". The scene appeared at number 13 on Bravo's 2004 list of the 100 Scariest Movie Moments.
== Sequels and television series ==
Due to the success of Scream, development of a sequel began while the original was still in theaters. Scream 2 (1997) achieved similar financial and critical success as Scream. Williamson was unavailable to write Scream 3 (2000), the trilogy's concluding chapter, and was replaced with Ehren Kruger. The film fared less well than its predecessors, commercially and critically, and is regarded as the franchise's most divisive entry. Williamson returned to the series with the reboot film Scream 4 (2011). While Scream 4 has been positively reassessed since its release, its modest box office and critical reception on its release, as well as Craven's death, placed the franchise on hold.
A television adaptation, Scream (2015–2019), ran for three seasons. The Weinsteins refused to license the Fun World costume for the show or allow references to the films, which was controversial with fans and contributed to the series' low ratings, poor reception, and eventual cancellation.
The film series was relaunched with Scream (2022), and its success led to immediate development of a sixth installment, Scream VI (2023). Both films are directed by Matt Bettinelli-Olpin and Tyler Gillett, and written by James Vanderbilt and Guy Busick. These films focus on a younger cast, including Melissa Barrera and Jenna Ortega, with Campbell, Cox, and Arquette appearing in supporting legacy roles. Scream VI was the first film in the series not to feature Campbell, who declined to return following a dispute over pay, or Arquette. Scream 7 began filming in January 2025, with Campbell reprising her role and Kevin Williamson directing. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan | Marshall McLuhan | Herbert Marshall McLuhan (, mə-KLOO-ən; July 21, 1911 – December 31, 1980) was a Canadian philosopher whose work is among the cornerstones of the study of media theory. Raised in Winnipeg, McLuhan studied at the University of Manitoba and the University of Cambridge. He began his teaching career as a professor of English at several universities in the United States and Canada before moving to the University of Toronto in 1946, where he remained for the rest of his life. He is known as "the father of media studies".
McLuhan coined the expression "the medium is the message" (in the first chapter of his Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man), as well as the term global village. He predicted the World Wide Web almost 30 years before it was invented. He was a fixture in media discourse in the late 1960s, though his influence began to wane in the early 1970s. In the years following his death, he continued to be a controversial figure in academic circles. However, with the arrival of the Internet and the World Wide Web, interest was renewed in his work and perspectives.
== Life and career ==
McLuhan was born on July 21, 1911, in Edmonton, Alberta, and was named "Marshall" from his maternal grandmother's surname. His brother, Maurice, was born two years later. His parents were both also born in Canada: his mother, Elsie Naomi (née Hall), was a Baptist school teacher who later became an actress; and his father, Herbert Ernest McLuhan, was a Methodist with a real-estate business in Edmonton. When the business failed at the start of World War I, McLuhan's father enlisted in the Canadian Army. After a year of service, he contracted influenza and remained in Canada, away from the front lines. After Herbert's discharge from the army in 1915, the McLuhan family moved to Winnipeg, Manitoba, where Marshall grew up and went to school, attending Kelvin Technical School before enrolling in the University of Manitoba in 1928.
=== Undergraduate education ===
After studying for one year as an engineering student in Winnipeg, McLuhan changed majors and earned a Bachelor of Arts degree (1933), winning a University Gold Medal in Arts and Sciences. He went on to receive a Master of Arts degree (1934) in English from the University of Manitoba as well. He had long desired to pursue graduate studies in England and was accepted by Trinity Hall, Cambridge, having failed to secure a Rhodes Scholarship to study at Oxford.
Though having already earned his BA and MA in Manitoba, Cambridge required him to enroll as an undergraduate "affiliated" student, with one year's credit towards a three-year bachelor's degree, before entering any doctoral studies. He went up to Cambridge in the autumn of 1934, studied under I. A. Richards and F. R. Leavis, and was influenced by New Criticism. Years afterward, upon reflection, he credited the faculty there with influencing the direction of his later work because of their emphasis on the "training of perception", as well as such concepts as Richards' notion of "feedforward". These studies formed an important precursor to his later ideas on technological forms. He received the required bachelor's degree from Cambridge in 1936 and entered their graduate program.
=== Conversion to Catholicism ===
At the University of Manitoba, McLuhan explored his conflicted relationship with religion and turned to literature to "gratify his soul's hunger for truth and beauty," later referring to this stage as agnosticism. While studying the trivium at Cambridge, he took the first steps toward his eventual conversion to Catholicism in 1937, founded on his reading of G. K. Chesterton. In 1935, he wrote to his mother:Had I not encountered Chesterton I would have remained agnostic for many years at least. Chesterton did not convince me of religious faith, but he prevented my despair from becoming a habit or hardening into misanthropy. He opened my eyes to European culture and encouraged me to know it more closely. He taught me the reasons for all that in me was simply blind anger and misery.At the end of March 1937, McLuhan completed what was a slow but total conversion process, when he was formally received into the Catholic Church. After consulting a minister, his father accepted the decision to convert. His mother, however, felt that his conversion would hurt his career and was inconsolable. McLuhan was devout throughout his life, but his religion remained a private matter. In his personal correspondence and private writings, he sometimes made connections between his religion and the media: for example, he compared satellite technology to the Star of Bethlehem. He had a lifelong interest in the number three (e.g., the trivium, the Trinity) and sometimes said that the Virgin Mary provided intellectual guidance for him.
=== Early career, marriage, and doctorate ===
Unable to find a suitable job in Canada, he went to the United States to take a job as a teaching assistant at the University of Wisconsin–Madison for the 1936–1937 academic year. From 1937 to 1944, he taught English at Saint Louis University (with an interruption from 1939 to 1940 when he returned to Cambridge). There he taught courses on Shakespeare, eventually tutoring and befriending Walter J. Ong, who would write his doctoral dissertation on a topic that McLuhan had called to his attention, as well as become a well-known authority on communication and technology.
McLuhan met Corinne Lewis in St. Louis, a teacher and aspiring actress from Fort Worth, Texas, whom he married on August 4, 1939. They spent 1939–1940 in Cambridge, where he completed his master's degree (awarded in January 1940) and began to work on his doctoral dissertation on Thomas Nashe and the verbal arts. While the McLuhans were in England, World War II had erupted in Europe. For this reason, he obtained permission to complete and submit his dissertation from the United States, without having to return to Cambridge for an oral defence. In 1940, the McLuhans returned to Saint Louis University, where they started a family as he continued teaching. He was awarded a Doctor of Philosophy degree in December 1943.
He next taught at Assumption College in Windsor, Ontario, from 1944 to 1946, then moved to Toronto in 1946 where he joined the faculty of St. Michael's College, a Catholic college of the University of Toronto, where Hugh Kenner would be one of his students. Canadian economist and communications scholar Harold Innis was a university colleague who had a strong influence on his work. McLuhan wrote in 1964: "I am pleased to think of my own book The Gutenberg Galaxy as a footnote to the observations of Innis on the subject of the psychic and social consequences, first of writing then of printing." Tom Cooper's Wisdom Weavers: The Lives and Thought of Harold Innis and Marshall McLuhan explores the relationship of Innis and McLuhan in depth.
=== Later career and reputation ===
In the early 1950s, McLuhan began the Communication and Culture seminars at the University of Toronto, funded by the Ford Foundation. As his reputation grew, he received a growing number of offers from other universities. During this period, he published his first major work, The Mechanical Bride (1951), in which he examines the effect of advertising on society and culture. Throughout the 1950s, he and Edmund Carpenter also produced an important academic journal called Explorations. McLuhan and Carpenter have been characterized as the Toronto School of communication theory, together with Harold Innis, Eric A. Havelock, and Northrop Frye. During this time, McLuhan supervised the doctoral thesis of modernist writer Sheila Watson on the subject of Wyndham Lewis. Hoping to keep him from moving to another institute, the University of Toronto created the Centre for Culture and Technology (CCT) in 1963.
From 1967 to 1968, McLuhan was named the Albert Schweitzer Chair in Humanities at Fordham University in the Bronx. While at Fordham, he was diagnosed with a benign brain tumour, which was treated successfully. He returned to Toronto where he taught at the University of Toronto for the rest of his life and lived in Wychwood Park, a bucolic enclave on a hill overlooking the downtown where Anatol Rapoport was his neighbour.
In 1970, he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada. In 1975, the University of Dallas hosted him from April to May, appointing him to the McDermott Chair. Marshall and Corinne McLuhan had six children: Eric, twins Mary and Teresa, Stephanie, Elizabeth, and Michael. The associated costs of a large family eventually drove him to advertising work and accepting frequent consulting and speaking engagements for large corporations, including IBM and AT&T.
=== Death ===
In September 1979, McLuhan suffered a stroke which affected his ability to speak. The University of Toronto's School of Graduate Studies tried to close his research centre shortly thereafter, but was deterred by substantial protests. McLuhan never fully recovered from the stroke and died in his sleep on December 31, 1980. He is buried at Holy Cross Cemetery in Thornhill, Ontario, Canada.
== Early works and influences ==
During his years at Saint Louis University (1937–1944), McLuhan worked concurrently on two projects: his doctoral dissertation and the manuscript that was eventually published in 1951 as a book, titled The Mechanical Bride: Folklore of Industrial Man, which included only a representative selection of the materials that McLuhan had prepared for it.
McLuhan's 1942 Cambridge University doctoral dissertation surveys the history of the verbal arts (grammar, logic, and rhetoric—collectively known as the trivium) from the time of Cicero down to the time of Thomas Nashe. In his later publications, McLuhan at times uses the Latin concept of the trivium to outline an orderly and systematic picture of certain periods in the history of Western culture. McLuhan suggests that the Late Middle Ages, for instance, were characterized by the heavy emphasis on the formal study of logic. The key development that led to the Renaissance was not the rediscovery of ancient texts, but a shift in emphasis from the formal study of logic to rhetoric and grammar. Modern life is characterized by the re-emergence of grammar as its most salient feature—a trend McLuhan felt was exemplified by the New Criticism of Richards and Leavis.
McLuhan also began the academic journal Explorations with anthropologist Edmund "Ted" Carpenter. In a letter to Walter Ong, dated 31 May 1953, McLuhan reports that he had received a two-year grant of $43,000 from the Ford Foundation to carry out a communication project at the University of Toronto involving faculty from different disciplines, which led to the creation of the journal.
In 1999, Tom Wolfe suggested that a major under-acknowledged influence on McLuhan's work is the Jesuit philosopher Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, whose ideas anticipated those of McLuhan, especially the evolution of the human mind into the "noosphere." In his early book The Gutenberg Galaxy, however, McLuhan warns against whole-heartedly accepting or outright dismissing Teilhard's observations.
This externalization of our senses creates what de Chardin [sic] calls the "noosphere" or a technological brain for the world. Instead of tending towards a vast Alexandrian library the world has become a computer, an electronic brain, exactly as in an infantile piece of science fiction. And as our senses have gone outside us, Big Brother goes inside. So, unless aware of this dynamic, we shall at once move into a phase of panic terrors, exactly befitting a small world of tribal drums, total interdependence, and super-imposed co-existence.
In his private life, McLuhan wrote to friends saying: "I am not a fan of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin. The idea that anything is better because it comes later is surely borrowed from pre-electronic technologies." Further, McLuhan noted to a Catholic collaborator: "The idea of a Cosmic thrust in one direction ... is surely one of the lamest semantic fallacies ever bred by the word 'evolution'.… That development should have any direction at all is inconceivable except to the highly literate community."
Some of McLuhan's main ideas were influenced or prefigured by anthropologists like Edward Sapir and Claude Lévi-Strauss, arguably with a more complex historical and psychological analysis. The idea of the retribalization of Western society by the far-reaching techniques of communication, the view on the function of the artist in society, and the characterization of means of transportation, like the railroad and the airplane, as means of communication, are prefigured in Sapir's 1933 article on Communication in the Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, while the distinction between "hot" and "cool" media draws from Lévi-Strauss' distinction between hot and cold societies.
== Major works ==
=== The Mechanical Bride (1951) ===
McLuhan's first book, The Mechanical Bride: Folklore of Industrial Man (1951), is a pioneering study in the field now known as popular culture. In the book, McLuhan turns his attention to analysing and commenting on numerous examples of persuasion in contemporary popular culture. This followed naturally from his earlier work as both dialectic and rhetoric in the classical trivium aimed at persuasion. At this point, his focus shifted dramatically, turning inward to study the influence of communication media independent of their content. His famous aphorism "the medium is the message" (elaborated in his Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man, 1964) calls attention to this intrinsic effect of communications media.
His interest in the critical study of popular culture was influenced by the 1933 book Culture and Environment by F. R. Leavis and Denys Thompson, and the title The Mechanical Bride is derived from a piece by the Dadaist artist Marcel Duchamp.
The Mechanical Bride is composed of 59 short essays that may be read in any order—what he styled the "mosaic approach" to writing a book. Each essay begins with a newspaper or magazine article, or an advertisement, followed by McLuhan's analysis thereof. The analyses bear on aesthetic considerations as well as on the implications behind the imagery and text. McLuhan chose these ads and articles not only to draw attention to their symbolism, as well as their implications for the corporate entities who created and disseminated them, but also to mull over what such advertising implies about the wider society at which it is aimed. Roland Barthes's 1957 essay Mythologies, echoes McLuhan's Mechanical Bride, as a series of exhibits of popular mass culture (like advertisements, newspaper articles and photographs) that are analyzed in a semiological way.
=== The Gutenberg Galaxy (1962) ===
Written in 1961 and first published by University of Toronto Press, The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (1962) is a pioneering study in the fields of oral culture, print culture, cultural studies, media ecology or media-adequacy.
Throughout the book, McLuhan makes efforts to reveal how communication technology (i.e., alphabetic writing, the printing press, and the electronic media) affects cognitive organization, which in turn has profound ramifications for social organization:
[I]f a new technology extends one or more of our senses outside us into the social world, then new ratios among all of our senses will occur in that particular culture. It is comparable to what happens when a new note is added to a melody. And when the sense ratios alter in any culture then what had appeared lucid before may suddenly become opaque, and what had been vague or opaque will become translucent.
==== Movable type ====
McLuhan's episodic history takes the reader from pre-alphabetic, tribal humankind to the electronic age. According to McLuhan, the invention of movable type greatly accelerated, intensified, and ultimately enabled cultural and cognitive changes that had already been taking place since the invention and implementation of the alphabet, by which McLuhan means phonemic orthography. (McLuhan is careful to distinguish the phonetic alphabet from logographic or logogramic writing systems, such as Egyptian hieroglyphs or ideograms.)
Print culture, ushered in by the advance in printing during the middle of the 15th century when the Gutenberg press was invented, brought about the cultural predominance of the visual over the aural/oral. Quoting (with approval) an observation on the nature of the printed word from William Ivins' Prints and Visual Communication, McLuhan remarks:
In this passage [Ivins] not only notes the ingraining of lineal, sequential habits, but, even more important, points out the visual homogenizing of experience of print culture, and the relegation of auditory and other sensuous complexity to the background.…The technology and social effects of typography incline us to abstain from noting interplay and, as it were, "formal" causality, both in our inner and external lives. Print exists by virtue of the static separation of functions and fosters a mentality that gradually resists any but a separative and compartmentalizing or specialist outlook.
The main concept of McLuhan's argument (later elaborated upon in The Medium Is the Massage) is that new technologies (such as alphabets, printing presses, and even speech) exert a gravitational effect on cognition, which in turn, affects social organization: print technology changes our perceptual habits—"visual homogenizing of experience"—which in turn affects social interactions—"fosters a mentality that gradually resists all but a…specialist outlook". According to McLuhan, this advance of print technology contributed to and made possible most of the salient trends in the modern period in the Western world: individualism, democracy, Protestantism, capitalism, and nationalism. For McLuhan, these trends all reverberate with print technology's principle of "segmentation of actions and functions and principle of visual quantification."
==== Global village ====
In the early 1960s, McLuhan wrote that the visual, individualistic print culture would soon be brought to an end by what he called "electronic interdependence" wherein electronic media replaces visual culture with aural/oral culture. In this new age, humankind would move from individualism and fragmentation to a collective identity, with a "tribal base." McLuhan's coinage for this new social organization is the global village.
The term is sometimes described as having negative connotations in The Gutenberg Galaxy, but McLuhan was interested in exploring effects, not making value judgments:
Instead of tending towards a vast Alexandrian library the world has become a computer, an electronic brain, exactly as an infantile piece of science fiction. And as our senses have gone outside us, Big Brother goes inside. So, unless aware of this dynamic, we shall at once move into a phase of panic terrors, exactly befitting a small world of tribal drums, total interdependence, and superimposed co-existence.… Terror is the normal state of any oral society, for in it everything affects everything all the time.…In our long striving to recover for the Western world a unity of sensibility and of thought and feeling we have no more been prepared to accept the tribal consequences of such unity than we were ready for the fragmentation of the human psyche by print culture.
Key to McLuhan's argument is the idea that technology has no per se moral bent—it is a tool that profoundly shapes an individual's and, by extension, a society's self-conception and realization:
Is it not obvious that there are always enough moral problems without also taking a moral stand on technological grounds?…Print is the extreme phase of alphabet culture that detribalizes or decollectivizes man in the first instance. Print raises the visual features of alphabet to highest intensity of definition. Thus, print carries the individuating power of the phonetic alphabet much further than manuscript culture could ever do. Print is the technology of individualism. If men decided to modify this visual technology by an electric technology, individualism would also be modified. To raise a moral complaint about this is like cussing a buzz-saw for lopping off fingers. "But", someone says, "we didn't know it would happen." Yet even witlessness is not a moral issue. It is a problem, but not a moral problem; and it would be nice to clear away some of the moral fogs that surround our technologies. It would be good for morality.
The moral valence of technology's effects on cognition is, for McLuhan, a matter of perspective. For instance, McLuhan contrasts the considerable alarm and revulsion that the growing quantity of books aroused in the latter 17th century with the modern concern for the "end of the book." If there can be no universal moral sentence passed on technology, McLuhan believes that "there can only be disaster arising from unawareness of the causalities and effects inherent in our technologies".
Though the World Wide Web was invented almost 30 years after The Gutenberg Galaxy, and 10 years after his death, McLuhan prophesied the web technology seen today as early as 1962:
The next medium, whatever it is—it may be the extension of consciousness—will include television as its content, not as its environment, and will transform television into an art form. A computer as a research and communication instrument could enhance retrieval, obsolesce mass library organization, retrieve the individual's encyclopedic function and flip into a private line to speedily tailored data of a saleable kind.
Furthermore, McLuhan coined and certainly popularized the usage of the term surfing to refer to rapid, irregular, and multidirectional movement through a heterogeneous body of documents or knowledge, e.g., statements such as "Heidegger surf-boards along on the electronic wave as triumphantly as Descartes rode the mechanical wave." Paul Levinson's 1999 book Digital McLuhan explores the ways that McLuhan's work may be understood better through using the lens of the digital revolution.
McLuhan frequently quoted Walter Ong's Ramus, Method, and the Decay of Dialogue (1958), which evidently had prompted McLuhan to write The Gutenberg Galaxy. Ong wrote a highly favourable review of this new book in America. However, Ong later tempered his praise, by describing McLuhan's The Gutenberg Galaxy as "a racy survey, indifferent to some scholarly detail, but uniquely valuable in suggesting the sweep and depth of the cultural and psychological changes entailed in the passage from illiteracy to print and beyond." McLuhan himself said of the book, "I'm not concerned to get any kudos out of [The Gutenberg Galaxy]. It seems to me a book that somebody should have written a century ago. I wish somebody else had written it. It will be a useful prelude to the rewrite of Understanding Media [the 1960 NAEB report] that I'm doing now."
McLuhan's The Gutenberg Galaxy won Canada's highest literary award, the Governor-General's Award for Non-Fiction, in 1962. The chairman of the selection committee was McLuhan's colleague at the University of Toronto and oftentime intellectual sparring partner, Northrop Frye.
=== Understanding Media (1964) ===
McLuhan's best-known work, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (1964), is a seminal study in media theory. Dismayed by the way in which people approach and use new media such as television, McLuhan famously argues that in the modern world "we live mythically and integrally…but continue to think in the old, fragmented space and time patterns of the pre-electric age."
McLuhan proposes that media themselves, not the content they carry, should be the focus of study—popularly quoted as "the medium is the message". His insight is that a medium affects the society in which it plays a role not by the content it delivers, but by its own characteristics. McLuhan points to the light bulb as a clear demonstration of this. A light bulb does not have content in the way that a newspaper has articles, or a television has programs, but it is a medium that has a social effect; that is, a light bulb enables people to create spaces at night that would otherwise be enveloped by darkness. He describes the light bulb as a medium without any content. McLuhan writes, "a light bulb creates an environment by its mere presence." More controversially, he postulates that content has little effect on society—for example, whether television broadcasts children's shows or violent programming, its effect on society is identical. He notes that all media have characteristics that engage the viewer in different ways; for instance, a passage in a book can be reread at will, but a movie must be screened again in its entirety to study any part of it.
==== "Hot" and "cool" media ====
In the first part of Understanding Media, McLuhan writes that different media invite different degrees of participation on the part of a person who chooses to consume a medium. Using terminology derived from French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss's distinction between hot and cold societies, McLuhan argues that a cool medium requires increased involvement due to decreased description, while a hot medium is the opposite, decreasing involvement and increasing description. In other words, a society that appears to be actively participating in streaming content but does not consider the tool's effects is not allowing an "extension of ourselves". A movie is thus said to be "high definition", demanding a viewer's attention, and a comic book "low definition", requiring much more conscious participation by the reader to extract value: "Any hot medium allows of less participation than a cool one, as a lecture makes for less participation than a seminar, and a book for less than a dialogue."
Some media, such as movies, are hot—that is, they enhance a single sense, in this case vision, in such a manner that a person does not need to exert much effort to perceive a detailed moving image. Hot media usually, but not always, provide complete involvement with considerable stimulus. In contrast, "cool" print may also occupy visual space, using visual senses, but require focus and comprehension to immerse readers. Hot media creation favour analytical precision, quantitative analysis and sequential ordering, as they are usually sequential, linear, and logical. They emphasize one sense (for example, of sight or sound) over the others. For this reason, hot media include film (especially silent films), radio, the lecture, and photography.
McLuhan contrasts hot media with cool—specifically, television [of the 1960s i.e. small black-and-white screens], which he claims requires more effort from the viewer to determine meaning; and comics, which, due to their minimal presentation of visual detail, require a high degree of effort to fill in details the cartoonist may have intended to portray. Cool media are usually, but not always, those that provide little involvement with substantial stimulus. They require more active participation on the part of the user, including the perception of abstract patterning and simultaneous comprehension of all parts. Therefore, in addition to television, cool media include seminars and cartoons. McLuhan describes the term cool media as emerging from jazz and popular music used, in this context, to mean "detached".
This appears to force media into binary categories, but McLuhan's hot and cool exist on a continuum: they are more correctly measured on a scale than as dichotomous terms.
==== Critiques of Understanding Media ====
Some theorists have attacked McLuhan's definition and treatment of the word "medium" for being too simplistic. Umberto Eco, for instance, contends that McLuhan's medium conflates channels, codes, and messages under the overarching term of the medium, confusing the vehicle, internal code, and content of a given message in his framework.
In Media Manifestos, Régis Debray also takes issue with McLuhan's envisioning of the medium. Like Eco, he is ill at ease with this reductionist approach, summarizing its ramifications as follows:
The list of objections could be and has been lengthened indefinitely: confusing technology itself with its use of the media makes of the media an abstract, undifferentiated force and produces its image in an imaginary "public" for mass consumption; the magical naivete of supposed causalities turns the media into a catch-all and contagious "mana"; apocalyptic millenarianism invents the figure of a homo mass-mediaticus without ties to historical and social context, and so on.
Furthermore, when Wired magazine interviewed him in 1995, Debray said he saw McLuhan "more as a poet than a historian, a master of intellectual collage rather than a systematic analyst.… McLuhan overemphasizes the technology behind cultural change at the expense of the usage that the messages and codes make of that technology."
Dwight Macdonald, in turn, reproached McLuhan for his focus on television and for his "aphoristic" prose style, which he believes leaves Understanding Media filled with "contradictions, non-sequiturs, facts that are distorted and facts that are not facts, exaggerations, and chronic rhetorical vagueness."
Brian Winston's Misunderstanding Media, published in 1986, chides McLuhan for what he sees as his technologically deterministic stances. Raymond Williams furthers this point of contention, claiming:
The work of McLuhan was a particular culmination of an aesthetic theory which became, negatively, a social theory ... It is an apparently sophisticated technological determinism which has the significant effect of indicating a social and cultural determinism.… For if the medium—whether print or television—is the cause, all other causes, all that men ordinarily see as history, are at once reduced to effects.
David Carr wrote that there has been a long line of "academics who have made a career out of deconstructing McLuhan’s effort to define the modern media ecosystem", whether it be due to what they see as McLuhan's ignorance of sociohistorical context or the style of his argument.
While some critics have taken issue with McLuhan's writing style and mode of argument, McLuhan himself urged readers to think of his work as "probes" or "mosaics" offering a toolkit approach to thinking about media. His eclectic writing style has also been praised for its postmodern sensibilities and suitability for virtual space.
=== The Medium Is the Massage (1967) ===
The Medium Is the Massage: An Inventory of Effects, published in 1967, was McLuhan's best seller, "eventually selling nearly a million copies worldwide." Initiated by Quentin Fiore, McLuhan adopted the term "massage" to denote the effect each medium has on the human sensorium, taking inventory of the "effects" of numerous media in terms of how they "massage" the sensorium.
Fiore, at the time a prominent graphic designer and communications consultant, set about composing the visual illustration of these effects which were compiled by Jerome Agel. Near the beginning of the book, Fiore adopted a pattern in which an image demonstrating a media effect was presented with a textual synopsis on the facing page. The reader experiences a repeated shifting of analytic registers—from "reading" typographic print to "scanning" photographic facsimiles—reinforcing McLuhan's overarching argument in this book: namely, that each medium produces a different "massage" or "effect" on the human sensorium.
In The Medium Is the Massage, McLuhan also rehashed the argument—which first appeared in the Prologue to 1962's The Gutenberg Galaxy—that all media are "extensions" of our human senses, bodies and minds.
Finally, McLuhan described key points of change in how man has viewed the world and how these views were changed by the adoption of new media. "The technique of invention was the discovery of the nineteenth [century]", brought on by the adoption of fixed points of view and perspective by typography, while "[t]he technique of the suspended judgment is the discovery of the twentieth century," brought on by the bard abilities of radio, movies and television.The past went that-a-way. When faced with a totally new situation we tend always to attach ourselves to the objects, to the flavor of the most recent past. We look at the present through a rear-view mirror. We march backward into the future. Suburbia lives imaginatively in Bonanza-land.An audio recording version of McLuhan's famous work was made by Columbia Records. The recording consists of a pastiche of statements made by McLuhan interrupted by other speakers, including people speaking in various phonations and falsettos, discordant sounds and 1960s incidental music in what could be considered a deliberate attempt to translate the disconnected images seen on TV into an audio format, resulting in the prevention of a connected stream of conscious thought. Various audio recording techniques and statements are used to illustrate the relationship between spoken, literary speech and the characteristics of electronic audio media. McLuhan biographer Philip Marchand called the recording "the 1967 equivalent of a McLuhan video.""I wouldn't be seen dead with a living work of art."—'Old man' speaking
"Drop this jiggery-pokery and talk straight turkey."—"Middle-aged man" speaking
=== War and Peace in the Global Village (1968) ===
In War and Peace in the Global Village, McLuhan used James Joyce's Finnegans Wake, an inspiration for this study of war throughout history, as an indicator as to how war may be conducted in the future.
Joyce's Wake is claimed to be a gigantic cryptogram that reveals a cyclic pattern for human history through its Ten Thunders. Each "thunder" below is a 100-character portmanteau of other words to create a statement McLuhan likens to an effect that each technology has on the society into which it is introduced. In order to glean the most understanding out of each, the reader must break the portmanteau into separate words (many of these themselves portmanteaus of words taken from multiple languages other than English) and speak them aloud for the spoken effect of each word. There is much dispute over what each portmanteau truly denotes.
McLuhan claims that the ten thunders in Wake represent different stages in the history of man:
Thunder 1: Paleolithic to Neolithic. Speech. Split of East/West. From herding to harnessing animals.
Thunder 2: Clothing as weaponry. Enclosure of private parts. First social aggression.
Thunder 3: Specialism. Centralism via wheel, transport, cities: civil life.
Thunder 4: Markets and truck gardens. Patterns of nature submitted to greed and power.
Thunder 5: Printing. Distortion and translation of human patterns and postures and pastors.
Thunder 6: Industrial Revolution. Extreme development of print process and individualism.
Thunder 7: Tribal man again. All characters end up separate, private man. Return of choric.
Thunder 8: Movies. Pop art, pop Kulch via tribal radio. Wedding of sight and sound.
Thunder 9: Car and Plane. Both centralizing and decentralizing at once create cities in crisis. Speed and death.
Thunder 10: Television. Back to tribal involvement in tribal mood-mud. The last thunder is a turbulent, muddy wake, and murk of non-visual, tactile man.
=== From Cliché to Archetype (1970) ===
Collaborating with Canadian poet Wilfred Watson in From Cliché to Archetype (1970), McLuhan approaches the various implications of the verbal cliché and of the archetype. One major facet in McLuhan's overall framework introduced in this book that is seldom noticed is the provision of a new term that actually succeeds the global village: the global theatre.
In McLuhan's terms, a cliché is a "normal" action, phrase, etc. which becomes so often used that we are "anesthetized" to its effects. McLuhan provides the example of Eugène Ionesco's play The Bald Soprano, whose dialogue consists entirely of phrases Ionesco pulled from an Assimil language book: "Ionesco originally put all these idiomatic English clichés into literary French which presented the English in the most absurd aspect possible."
McLuhan's archetype "is a quoted extension, medium, technology, or environment." Environment would also include the kinds of "awareness" and cognitive shifts brought upon people by it, not totally unlike the psychological context Carl Jung described.
McLuhan also posits that there is a factor of interplay between the cliché and the archetype, or a "doubleness":
Another theme of the Wake [Finnegans Wake] that helps in the understanding of the paradoxical shift from cliché to archetype is 'past time are pastimes.' The dominant technologies of one age become the games and pastimes of a later age. In the 20th century, the number of 'past times' that are simultaneously available is so vast as to create cultural anarchy. When all the cultures of the world are simultaneously present, the work of the artist in the elucidation of form takes on new scope and new urgency. Most men are pushed into the artist's role. The artist cannot dispense with the principle of 'doubleness' or 'interplay' because this type of hendiadys dialogue is essential to the very structure of consciousness, awareness, and autonomy.
McLuhan relates the cliché-to-archetype process to the Theatre of the Absurd:
Pascal, in the seventeenth century, tells us that the heart has many reasons of which the head knows nothing. The Theater of the Absurd is essentially a communicating to the head of some of the silent languages of the heart which in two or three hundred years it has tried to forget all about. In the seventeenth century world the languages of the heart were pushed down into the unconscious by the dominant print cliché.
The "languages of the heart", or what McLuhan otherwise defined as oral culture, were thus made archetype by means of the printing press, and turned into cliché.
According to McLuhan, the satellite medium encloses the Earth in a man-made environment, which "ends 'Nature' and turns the globe into a repertory theatre to be programmed." All previous environments (book, newspaper, radio, etc.) and their artifacts are retrieved under these conditions ("past times are pastimes"). McLuhan thereby meshes this into the term global theatre. This updates his concept of the global village, which, in its own definitions, can be said to be subsumed into the overall condition of the global theatre.
=== The Global Village (1989) ===
In his posthumous book, The Global Village: Transformations in World Life and Media in the 21st Century (1989), McLuhan, collaborating with Bruce R. Powers, provides a strong conceptual framework for understanding the cultural implications of the technological advances associated with the rise of a worldwide electronic network. This is a major work of McLuhan's as it contains the most extensive elaboration of his concept of acoustic space, and provides a critique of standard 20th-century communication models such as the Shannon–Weaver model.
McLuhan distinguishes between the existing worldview of visual space—a linear, quantitative, classically geometric model—and that of acoustic space—a holistic, qualitative order with an intricate, paradoxical topology: "Acoustic Space has the basic character of a sphere whose focus or center is simultaneously everywhere and whose margin is nowhere." The transition from visual to acoustic space was not automatic with the advent of the global network, but would have to be a conscious project. The "universal environment of simultaneous electronic flow" inherently favors right-brain Acoustic Space, yet we are held back by habits of adhering to a fixed point of view. There are no boundaries to sound. We hear from all directions at once. Yet Acoustic and Visual Space are inseparable. The resonant interval is the invisible borderline between Visual and Acoustic Space. This is like the television camera that the Apollo 8 astronauts focused on the Earth after they had orbited the Moon.
McLuhan illustrates how it feels to exist within acoustic space by quoting from the autobiography of Jacques Lusseyran, And There Was Light. Lusseyran lost his eyesight in a violent accident as a child, and the autobiography describes how a reordering of his sensory life and perception followed:When I came upon the myth of objectivity in certain modern thinkers, it made me angry. So, there was only one world for these people, the same for everyone. And all the other worlds were to be counted as illusions left over from the past. Or why not call them by their name—hallucinations? I had learned to my cost how wrong they were. From my own experience I knew very well that it was enough to take from a man a memory here, an association there, to deprive him of hearing or sight, for the world to undergo immediate transformation, and for another world, entirely different, but entirely coherent, to be born. Another world? Not really. The same world, rather, but seen from a different angle, and counted in entirely new measures. When this happened all the hierarchies they called objective were turned upside down, scattered to the four winds, not even theories but like whims.Reading, writing, and hierarchical ordering are associated with the left brain and visual space, as are the linear concept of time and phonetic literacy. The left brain is the locus of analysis, classification, and rationality. The right brain and acoustic space are the locus of the spatial, tactile, and musical. "Comprehensive awareness" results when the two sides of the brain are in true balance. Visual Space is associated with the simplified worldview of Euclidean geometry, the intuitive three dimensions useful for the architecture of buildings and the surveying of land. It is linearly rational and has no grasp of the acoustic. Acoustic Space is multisensory. McLuhan writes about robotism in the context of Japanese Zen Buddhism and how it can offer us new ways of thinking about technology. The Western way of thinking about technology is too related to the left brain, which has a rational and linear focus. What he called robotism might better be called androidism in the wake of Blade Runner and the novels of Philip K. Dick. Robotism-androidism emerges from the further development of the right brain, creativity and a new relationship to spacetime (most humans are still living in 17th-century classical Newtonian physics spacetime). Robots-androids will have much greater flexibility than humans have had until now, in both mind and body. Robots-androids will teach humanity this new flexibility. And this flexibility of androids (what McLuhan calls robotism) has a strong affinity with Japanese culture and life. McLuhan quotes from Ruth Benedict's The Chrysanthemum and the Sword an anthropological study of Japanese culture published in 1946:Occidentals cannot easily credit the ability of the Japanese to swing from one behavior to another without psychic cost. Such extreme possibilities are not included in our experience. Yet in Japanese life the contradictions, as they seem to us, are as deeply based in their view of life as our uniformities are in ours.The ability to live in the present and instantly readjust.
==== Beyond existing communication models ====
"All Western scientific models of communication are—like the Shannon–Weaver model—linear, sequential, and logical as a reflection of the late medieval emphasis on the Greek notion of efficient causality." McLuhan and Powers criticize the Shannon-Weaver model of communication as emblematic of left-hemisphere bias and linearity, descended from a print-era perversion of Aristotle's notion of efficient causality.
A third term of The Global Village that McLuhan and Powers develop at length is The Tetrad. McLuhan had begun development on the Tetrad as early as 1974. The tetrad is an analogical, simultaneous, fourfold pattern of transformation. "At full maturity the tetrad reveals the metaphoric structure of the artifact as having two figures and two grounds in dynamic and analogical relationship to each other." Like the camera focused on the Earth by the Apollo 8 astronauts, the tetrad reveals figure (Moon) and ground (Earth) simultaneously. The right-brain hemisphere thinking is the capability of being in many places at the same time. Electricity is acoustic. It is simultaneously everywhere. The Tetrad, with its fourfold Möbius topological structure of enhancement, reversal, retrieval and obsolescence, is mobilized by McLuhan and Powers to illuminate the media or technological inventions of cash money, the compass, the computer, the database, the satellite, and the global media network.
== Key concepts ==
=== Tetrad of media effects ===
In Laws of Media (1988), published posthumously by his son Eric, McLuhan summarized his ideas about media in a concise tetrad of media effects. The tetrad is a means of examining the effects on society of any technology (i.e., any medium) by dividing its effects into four categories and displaying them simultaneously. McLuhan designed the tetrad as a pedagogical tool, phrasing his laws as questions with which to consider any medium:
What does the medium enhance?
What does the medium make obsolete?
What does the medium retrieve that had been obsolesced earlier?
What does the medium flip into when pushed to extremes?
The laws of the tetrad exist simultaneously, not successively or chronologically, and allow the questioner to explore the "grammar and syntax" of the "language" of media. McLuhan departs from his mentor Harold Innis in suggesting that a medium "overheats," or reverses into an opposing form, when taken to its extreme.
Visually, a tetrad can be depicted as four diamonds forming an X, with the name of a medium in the centre. The two diamonds on the left of a tetrad are the Enhancement and Retrieval qualities of the medium, both Figure qualities. The two diamonds on the right of a tetrad are the Obsolescence and Reversal qualities, both Ground qualities.
Using the example of radio:
Enhancement (figure): What the medium amplifies or intensifies. Radio amplifies news and music via sound.
Obsolescence (ground): What the medium drives out of prominence. Radio reduces the importance of print and the visual.
Retrieval (figure): What the medium recovers which was previously lost. Radio returns the spoken word to the forefront.
Reversal (ground): What the medium does when pushed to its limits. Acoustic radio flips into audio-visual TV.
=== Figure and ground ===
McLuhan adapted the Gestalt psychology idea of a figure and a ground, which underpins the meaning of "the medium is the message." He used this concept to explain how a form of communications technology, the medium, or figure, necessarily operates through its context, or ground.
McLuhan believed that in order to grasp fully the effect of a new technology, one must examine figure (medium) and ground (context) together, since neither is completely intelligible without the other. McLuhan argued that we must study media in their historical context, particularly in relation to the technologies that preceded them. The present environment, itself made up of the effects of previous technologies, gives rise to new technologies, which, in their turn, further affect society and individuals.
All technologies have embedded within them their own assumptions about time and space. The message which the medium conveys can only be understood if the medium and the environment in which the medium is used—and which, simultaneously, it effectively creates—are analysed together. He believed that an examination of the figure-ground relationship can offer a critical commentary on culture and society.
=== Opposition between optic and haptic perception ===
In McLuhan's (and Harley Parker's) work, electric media have an affinity with haptic and hearing perception, while mechanical media have an affinity with visual perception. This opposition between optic and haptic had previously been formulated by art historians Alois Riegl in his 1901 Late Roman Art Industry, and by Erwin Panofsky, in his 1927 Perspective as Symbolic Form.
In his The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction (1935), Walter Benjamin observed how, in perceptions of modern Western culture, from about the 19th century a shift began from the optic toward the haptic. This shift is one of the main recurring topics in McLuhan's work, which McLuhan attributes to the advent of the electronic era.
== Legacy ==
=== Influence ===
After the publication of Understanding Media, McLuhan received an astonishing amount of publicity, making him perhaps the most-publicized 20th-century English teacher and arguably the most controversial. This publicity began with the work of two California advertising executives, Howard Gossage and Gerald Feigen, who used personal funds to fund their practice of "genius scouting". Much enamoured of McLuhan's work, Feigen and Gossage arranged for McLuhan to meet with editors of several major New York magazines in May 1965 at the Lombardy Hotel in New York. Philip Marchand reports that, as a direct consequence of these meetings, McLuhan was offered the use of an office in the headquarters of both Time and Newsweek anytime he wanted it.
In August 1965, Feigen and Gossage held what they called a "McLuhan festival" in the offices of Gossage's advertising agency in San Francisco. During this "festival", McLuhan met with advertising executives, members of the mayor's office, and editors from the San Francisco Chronicle and Ramparts magazine. More significant was the presence at the festival of Tom Wolfe, who wrote about McLuhan in a subsequent article, "What If He Is Right?", published in New York magazine and Wolfe's own The Pump House Gang. According to Feigen and Gossage, their work had only a moderate effect on McLuhan's eventual celebrity: they claimed that their work only "probably speeded up the recognition of his genius by about six months." In any case, McLuhan soon became a fixture of media discourse. Newsweek magazine did a cover story on him; articles appeared in Life, Harper's, Fortune, Esquire, and others. Cartoons about him appeared in The New Yorker. In 1969, Playboy magazine published a lengthy interview with him. In a running gag on the popular sketch comedy Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In, the "poet" Henry Gibson would randomly say, "Marshall McLuhan, what are you doin'?"
McLuhan was credited with coining the phrase Turn on, tune in, drop out by its popularizer, Timothy Leary, in the 1960s. In a 1988 interview with Neil Strauss, Leary said the slogan was "given to him" by McLuhan during a lunch in New York City. Leary said McLuhan "was very much interested in ideas and marketing, and he started singing something like, 'Psychedelics hit the spot / Five hundred micrograms, that’s a lot,' to the tune of a Pepsi commercial. Then he started going, 'Tune in, turn on, and drop out.'"
During his lifetime and afterward, McLuhan heavily influenced cultural critics, thinkers, and media theorists such as Neil Postman, Jean Baudrillard, Timothy Leary, Terence McKenna, William Irwin Thompson, Paul Levinson, Douglas Rushkoff, Jaron Lanier, Hugh Kenner, Joey Skaggs and John David Ebert, as well as political leaders such as Pierre Elliott Trudeau and Jerry Brown. Andy Warhol was paraphrasing McLuhan with his now famous "15 minutes of fame" quote. When asked in the 1970s for a way to sedate violence in Angola, he suggested a massive spread of TV devices. Douglas Coupland argued that McLuhan "was conservative, socially, but he never let politics enter his writing or his teaching".
=== Popular culture ===
Woody Allen's Oscar-winning Annie Hall (1977) featured McLuhan in a cameo as himself. In the film, a pompous academic is arguing with Allen in a cinema queue when McLuhan suddenly appears and silences him, saying, "You know nothing of my work."
The character "Brian O'Blivion" in David Cronenberg's 1983 film Videodrome is a "media oracle" based on McLuhan.
In 1991, McLuhan was named the "patron saint" of Wired magazine and a quote of his appeared on the masthead for the first ten years of its publication.
McLuhan's perspective on the cycle of cultural identity inspired Duke Ellington's album The Afro-Eurasian Eclipse.
He is mentioned by name in a Peter Gabriel–penned lyric in the song "Broadway Melody of 1974", on Genesis's concept album The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway: "Marshall McLuhan, casual viewin', head buried in the sand."
McLuhan is jokingly referred to in an episode of The Sopranos titled "House Arrest".
Despite his death in 1980, someone claiming to be McLuhan posted on a Wired mailing list in 1996. The information this person provided convinced one Wired writer that "if the poster was not McLuhan himself, it was a bot programmed with an eerie command of McLuhan's life and inimitable perspective."
McLuhan is the subject of the 1993 play The Medium, the first major work by the Saratoga International Theater Institute and director Anne Bogart. The play was revived by SITI Company for a farewell tour in 2022.
=== Recognition ===
A new centre known as the McLuhan Program in Culture and Technology, formed soon after his death in 1980, was the successor to McLuhan's Centre for Culture and Technology at the University of Toronto. Since 1994, it was part of the University of Toronto Faculty of Information. In 2008, the centre incorporated in the Coach House Institute, which was subsequently renamed The McLuhan Centre for Culture and Technology. In 2011, at the time of his centenary, the centre established a "Marshall McLuhan Centenary Fellowship" program in his honour. The centre closed in 2023. The Canadian Embassy in Manila awards a Marshall McLuhan Fellowship for "Excellence in Journalism ... that promotes professional, responsible and courageous media."
In Toronto, Marshall McLuhan Catholic Secondary School is named after him.
The media room at Canada House in Berlin is called the Marshall McLuhan Salon. It includes a multimedia information centre and an auditorium, and hosts a permanent exhibition dedicated to McLuhan, based on its collection of film and audio items by and about him.
In 2025, McLuhan's childhood home in Winnipeg was turned into a museum.
== Bibliography of major works ==
This is a partial list of works cited in this article.
1951. The Mechanical Bride: Folklore of Industrial Man (1st ed.). New York: Vanguard Press.
reissued by Gingko Press, 2002. ISBN 978-1-58423-050-2.
1962. The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man. (1st ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
reissued by Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 978-0-7100-1818-2.
1964. Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (1st ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
reissued by MIT Press, 1994, with introduction by Lewis H. Lapham; reissued by Gingko Press, 2003. ISBN 978-1-58423-073-1.
1967. The Medium Is the Massage: An Inventory of Effects (1st ed.), with Quentin Fiore, produced by Jerome Agel. Random House.
reissued by Gingko Press, 2001. ISBN 978-1-58423-070-0.
1968. War and Peace in the Global Village (1st ed.), with design/layout by Quentin Fiore, produced by Jerome Agel. New York: Bantam.
reissued by Gingko Press, 2001. ISBN 978-1-58423-074-8.
1970. From Cliché to Archetype, with Wilfred Watson. New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-33093-5.
1988. Laws of Media, edited by Eric McLuhan. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-5782-2.
2016 The Future of the Library: From Electronic Media to Digital Media, edited by Robert K. Logan. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-1-4331-3264-3.
== Discography ==
The Medium Is The Massage: With Marshall McLuhan (1967) Columbia – CS 9501 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greererpeton | Greererpeton | Greererpeton burkemorani ("crawler from Greer, West Virginia") is an extinct genus of colosteid stem-tetrapods from the Early Carboniferous period (late Viséan) of North America. Greererpeton was first described by famed vertebrate paleontologist Alfred S. Romer in 1969, based on a skull and partial skeleton from the Bluefield Formation. The skull was redescribed by Timothy R. Smithson in 1982, while postcranial remains were redescribed by Stephen J. Godfrey in 1989.
Greererpeton were probably aquatic, with an elongated body adapted for swimming. Adults have overall length of 1.0–1.4 metres (3.3–4.6 ft) or 1.5 metres (4.9 ft), similar in size to modern Asian giant salamanders (Andrias). The body was elongated, with about 40 vertebrae, while the flattened skull reached about 18 centimetres (7.1 in) long in adult specimens. The most complete adult specimen only preserved 12 tail vertebrae, only about a third the length of the body as in Andrias. However, smaller specimens have been found preserving over 30 vertebrae, so it is not inconceivable that a complete tail was approximately as long as the body. The limbs were short, though not vestigial; the fingers were still well-developed. Greererpeton were carnivores which probably lived in rivers and swamps.
== Paleobiology ==
There is a large amount of evidence that Greererpeton and other colosteids were completely aquatic animals. Grooves on the side of the skull indicate that Greererpeton had lateral lines, sensory organs commonly found only in fish and aquatic stem-tetrapods. The stapes bone at the rear of the skull is massive, probably used as a support for the skull. This contrasts with the stapes of terrestrial animals such as frogs, mammals, and lizards. In these groups the bone is thin and sensitive to vibration, so it is used for sensitive hearing. The thick stapes of Greererpeton is an indication that did not have good hearing like terrestrial animals. Greererpeton retains a postbranchial lamina on its shoulder blade, which may have been indicative of internal gills like those of fish. However, the erratic distribution of postbranchial laminae in aquatic and terrestrial fish and amphibians makes this conclusion questionable.
Godfrey (1989) considered Greererpeton to be biologically similar to the modern Asian giant salamanders (Andrias), the largest living amphibians. Preserved Greererpeton skeletons have their bodies lay completely flat, with their tails twisted over to lay flat perpendicular to the body. These preservational quirks may indicate that the body was flattened dorsoventrally (from top-to-bottom), while the tail was flattened mediolaterally (from side-to-side) into a fin-like structure used for swimming. Young Andrias congregate in shallow water while older individuals were bottom-dwelling predators preferring deeper rivers. Given that small Greererpeton skeletons have been found in groups while larger ones are solitary, it is presumable that Greererpeton behaved similarly.
== Footnotes == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_County,_Wisconsin | Wood County, Wisconsin | Wood County is a county located in the U.S. state of Wisconsin. As of the 2020 census, the population was 74,207. Its county seat is Wisconsin Rapids. The county is named after Joseph Wood, a member of the Wisconsin State Assembly. Wood County comprises the Wisconsin Rapids-Marshfield, WI Micropolitan Statistical Area and is included in the Wausau-Stevens Point-Wisconsin Rapids, WI Combined Statistical Area.
== Geography ==
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 809 square miles (2,100 km2), of which 793 square miles (2,050 km2) is land and 16 square miles (41 km2) (2.0%) is water. The geographic center of Wisconsin is in Wood County, nine miles southeast of Marshfield.
Wood County spans two of Wisconsin's five geographical regions. The northern part of the county is in the Northern Highlands, with mostly rich cropland with heavy clay soil, used for corn, soybeans, hay and dairy. In the northwest corner the Marshfield moraine runs from Marathon County through Marshfield, Bakerville and Nasonville into Clark County. The south and central areas from Babcock through Cranmoor and Wisconsin Rapids are in the Central Plain, flat and marshy - one of the major cranberry-producing centers of the United States. The Wisconsin River cuts across the southeast corner, a corridor of sand flats, islands and oxbows. The river falls about 120 feet as it flows through the county, driving several power dams (see Biron Flowage). The remainder of the county is drained by smaller streams and rivers, punctuated by isolated hills like Powers Bluff.
The flat, sandy southern third of the county was largely shaped by the last glacial advance. The ice didn't reach Wood County, but it approached from the east into Portage County and butted up against the Baraboo Hills to the south. This blocked the Wisconsin River, damming it so that it backed up, forming Glacial Lake Wisconsin, a frigid lake that stretched from the Baraboo Hills north to the sites of Babcock and Wisconsin Rapids, submerging that part of the county. This area is generally flat and marshy now because meltwater rivers from the glacier and streams from land to the north carried sand and silt out into the glacial lake, where the sediment settled beneath its still waters. After the glacial dam melted enough to drain Glacial Lake Wisconsin around 13,000 years ago, the Wisconsin River cut new channels through the lake-bottom sands in the southeast corner of the county. In a later dry period, wind blew the sand into dunes. One dune in the town of Saratoga is eight meters thick. Later still, the area became wet and peat formed in places on top of the sand. The first surveyors in 1852 found a great marsh, like a Wisconsin Everglades. Here is their description of what is now Cranmoor:
This Township is very nearly all covered either with Marsh or swamp there is not to exceed in the Township two Sections of land that would admit of cultivation... Timber on Swamp Tamarack & small Spruce(?) very thick. water from 6 to 20 inches deep, the marsh is covered with a light crop of grass, water from 12 to 40 inches deep, innumerable small Islands(?) interspered over this Town, the margins of which abound with Cranberries.
The north of the county was shaped by earlier glaciers, which deposited glacial till, the basis for the heavy soil there. The Marshfield moraine in the northwest corner is probably a terminal moraine from one of these earlier glaciers, or from a series of them. Its age is unclear, but its relatively smooth surface indicates that it has eroded for a much longer time than the choppy terminal moraines left 13,000 years ago, like the Perkinstown moraine near Medford.
Much of the county except for the northeast corner is underlain by a layer of Cambrian sandstone, formed long before the last ice age. Most of the original sandstone layer has been eroded away and the remainder is usually buried under glacial till, but it can be seen in gravel pits and a few bluffs. The Lindsey bluffs (a.k.a. the Marshfield School Forest) and Birch Bluff and South Bluff in the Town of Remington are hard spots in this sandstone which have resisted erosion.
Powers Bluff is different from the sandstone bluffs, much older, with a hard core of Precambrian quartzite and a peak of chert. A marker on the bluff says it is a "worn down peak of an ancient mountain range which once covered northern Wisconsin."
=== Adjacent counties ===
Marathon County - north
Portage County - east
Adams County - southeast
Juneau County - south
Jackson County - southwest
Clark County - northwest
=== Natural wildlife refuges ===
Mead Wildlife Area
== Demographics ==
=== 2020 census ===
As of the 2020 census, the county had a population of 74,207. The population density was 93.6 people per square mile (36.1 people/km2). There were 34,549 housing units at an average density of 43.6 units per square mile (16.8 units/km2).
The median age was 44.3 years. 21.1% of residents were under the age of 18 and 21.6% of residents were 65 years of age or older. For every 100 females there were 96.9 males, and for every 100 females age 18 and over there were 95.3 males age 18 and over.
The racial makeup of the county was 91.4% White, 0.8% Black or African American, 0.8% American Indian and Alaska Native, 1.9% Asian, <0.1% Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander, 1.3% from some other race, and 3.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino residents of any race comprised 3.2% of the population.
64.5% of residents lived in urban areas, while 35.5% lived in rural areas.
There were 32,238 households in the county, of which 24.7% had children under the age of 18 living in them. Of all households, 47.0% were married-couple households, 19.4% were households with a male householder and no spouse or partner present, and 25.6% were households with a female householder and no spouse or partner present. About 32.4% of all households were made up of individuals and 14.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.
There were 34,549 housing units, of which 6.7% were vacant. Among occupied housing units, 71.6% were owner-occupied and 28.4% were renter-occupied. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.2% and the rental vacancy rate was 7.5%.
=== 2000 census ===
As of the census of 2000, there were 75,555 people, 30,135 households, and 20,491 families residing in the county. The population density was 95 people per square mile (37 people/km2). There were 31,691 housing units at an average density of 40 units per square mile (15 units/km2). The racial makeup of the county was 96.43% White, 0.27% Black or African American, 0.70% Native American, 1.61% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.30% from other races, and 0.69% from two or more races. 0.94% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 50.8% were of German, 8.5% Polish, 6.2% Norwegian, 5.2% American and 5.1% Irish ancestry.
There were 30,135 households, out of which 32.20% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.70% were married couples living together, 8.00% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.00% were non-families. 27.20% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.40% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.47 and the average family size was 3.01.
In the county, the population was spread out, with 25.70% under the age of 18, 7.70% from 18 to 24, 28.40% from 25 to 44, 22.90% from 45 to 64, and 15.30% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females there were 96.10 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.00 males.
In 2017, there were 843 births, giving a general fertility rate of 69.1 births per 1000 women aged 15–44, the 19th highest rate out of all 72 Wisconsin counties. Of these, 16 of the births occurred at home. Additionally, there were 59 reported induced abortions performed on women of Wood County residence in 2017, a figure higher than the records for the preceding four years.
== Transportation ==
=== Major highways ===
=== Railroads ===
Canadian National
=== Buses ===
=== Airports ===
KMFI - Marshfield Municipal Airport
KISW - South Wood County Airport
== Government ==
Wood County has a 19-member board of supervisors, each member representing a district.
== Communities ==
=== Cities ===
Marshfield (partly in Marathon County)
Nekoosa
Pittsville
Wisconsin Rapids (county seat)
=== Villages ===
=== Towns ===
=== Census-designated places ===
Babcock
Ceex Haci
Lake Wazeecha
=== Unincorporated communities ===
== Politics ==
Wood County voted Republican in presidential elections from 1940 to 1992, the only exception being Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964. The county became competitive between 1988 and 2012, during which time Wisconsin as a whole voted Democratic in every presidential race. In 1996, Bill Clinton snapped a 28-year Republican streak in the county, taking 45.1% of the vote compared to Bob Dole's 39%, while the county gave 55% to Barack Obama in 2008. Since Donald Trump's 2016 win, in which Wood County gave him 56% of their votes, the county has reverted to its previous status as a more Republican county, as no Democratic presidential candidate has won more than 40% of the vote in the county since 2012. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orangutan | Orangutan | Orangutans are great apes native to the rainforests of Indonesia and Malaysia. They are now found only in parts of Borneo and Sumatra, but during the Pleistocene they ranged throughout Southeast Asia and South China. Classified in the genus Pongo, orangutans were originally considered to be one species. In 1996, they were divided into two species: the Bornean orangutan (P. pygmaeus, with three subspecies) and the Sumatran orangutan (P. abelii); a third species, the Tapanuli orangutan (P. tapanuliensis), was identified definitively in 2017. The orangutans are the only surviving members of the subfamily Ponginae, which diverged genetically from the other hominids (gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans) between 19.3 and 15.7 million years ago.
The most arboreal of the great apes, orangutans spend most of their time in trees. They have proportionally long arms and short legs, and have reddish-brown hair covering their bodies. Adult males weigh about 75 kg (165 lb), while females weigh about 37 kg (82 lb). Dominant adult males develop distinctive cheek pads or flanges and make long calls that attract females and intimidate rivals; younger subordinate males do not and more resemble adult females. Orangutans are the most solitary of the great apes: social bonds occur primarily between mothers and their dependent offspring. Fruit is the most important component of an orangutan's diet, but they will also eat vegetation, bark, honey, insects and bird eggs. They can live over 30 years, both in the wild and in captivity.
Orangutans are among the most intelligent primates. They use a variety of sophisticated tools and construct elaborate sleeping nests each night from branches and foliage. The apes' learning abilities have been studied extensively. There may be distinctive cultures within populations. Orangutans have been featured in literature and art since at least the 18th century, particularly in works that comment on human society. Field studies of the apes were pioneered by primatologist Biruté Galdikas and they have been kept in captive facilities around the world since at least the early 19th century.
All three orangutan species are considered critically endangered. Human activities have caused severe declines in populations and ranges. Threats to wild orangutan populations include poaching (for bushmeat and retaliation for consuming crops), habitat destruction and deforestation (for palm oil cultivation and logging), and the illegal pet trade. Several conservation and rehabilitation organisations are dedicated to the survival of orangutans in the wild.
== Etymology ==
Most Western sources attribute the name "orangutan" (also written orang-utan, orang utan, orangutang, and ourang-outang) to the Malay words orang, meaning 'person', and hutan, meaning 'forest'. The Malay used the term to indicate forest-dwelling humans; the first recorded Malay use of "orang-utan" referring to the ape identifies it as a Western term. There is, however, some evidence to suggest that the term may have been used in regard to apes in premodern Old Malay.
In Western sources, the first printed attestation of the word for the apes is in Dutch physician Jacobus Bontius's 1631 Historiae naturalis et medicae Indiae orientalis. He reported that Malays claimed that the ape could talk but preferred not to "lest he be compelled to labour". The word appeared in several German-language descriptions of Indonesian zoology in the 17th century. It has been argued that the word comes specifically from the Banjarese variety of Malay, but the age of the Old Javanese sources mentioned above makes Old Malay a more likely origin for the term. Cribb and colleagues (2014) suggest that Bontius's account referred not to apes (as this description was from Java where the apes were not known to be from) but to humans suffering some serious medical condition (most likely cretinism) and that his use of the word was misunderstood by Nicolaes Tulp, who was the first to use the term in a publication a decade later.
The word was first attested in English in 1693 by physician John Bulwer in the form Orang-Outang, and variants ending with -ng are found in many languages. This spelling (and pronunciation) has remained in use in English up to the present but has come to be regarded as incorrect. The loss of "h" in hutan and the shift from -ng to -n has been taken to suggest the term entered English through Portuguese. In Malay, the term was first attested in 1840, not as an indigenous name but referring to how the English called the animal. The word 'orangutan' in modern Malay and Indonesian was borrowed from English or Dutch in the 20th century—explaining the missing initial 'h' of 'hutan'.
The name of the genus, Pongo, comes from a 16th-century account by Andrew Battel, an English sailor held prisoner by the Portuguese in Angola, which describes two anthropoid "monsters" named Pongo and Engeco. He is now believed to have been describing gorillas, but in the 18th century, the terms orangutan and pongo were used for all great apes. French naturalist Bernard Germain de Lacépède used the term Pongo for the genus in 1799. Battel's "Pongo", in turn, is from the Kongo word mpongi or other cognates from the region: Lumbu pungu, Vili mpungu, or Yombi yimpungu.
== Taxonomy and phylogeny ==
The orangutan was first described scientifically in 1758 in the Systema Naturae of Carl Linnaeus as Homo troglodytes. It was renamed Simia pygmaeus in 1760 by his student Christian Emmanuel Hopp and given the name Pongo by Lacépède in 1799. The populations on the two islands were suggested to be separate species when P. abelii was described by French naturalist René Lesson in 1827. In 2001, P. abelii was confirmed as a full species based on molecular evidence published in 1996, and three distinct populations on Borneo were elevated to subspecies (P. p. pygmaeus, P. p. morio and P. p. wurmbii). The description in 2017 of a third species, P. tapanuliensis, from Sumatra south of Lake Toba, came with a surprising twist: it is more closely related to the Bornean species, P. pygmaeus than to its fellow Sumatran species, P. abelii.
The Sumatran orangutan genome was sequenced in January 2011. Following humans and chimpanzees, the Sumatran orangutan became the third species of great ape whose genome was sequenced. Subsequently, the Bornean species's genome was sequenced. Bornean orangutans (P. pygmaeus) exhibit less genetic diversity than Sumatran orangutans (P. abelii), despite the latter's population being six to seven times greater. The researchers hope these genetic data may help conservationists preserve the endangered ape, as well as learn more about human genetic diseases. Similarly to gorillas and chimpanzees, orangutans have 48 diploid chromosomes, in contrast to humans, which have 46.
According to molecular evidence, within apes (superfamily Hominoidea), the gibbons diverged during the early Miocene between 24.1 and 19.7 million years ago (mya), and the orangutans diverged from the African great ape lineage between 19.3 and 15.7 mya. Israfil and colleagues (2011) estimated based on mitochondrial, Y-linked, and X-linked loci that the Sumatran and Bornean species diverged 4.9 to 2.9 mya. By contrast, the 2011 genome study suggested that these two species diverged as recently as circa 400,000 years ago. The study also found that orangutans evolved at a slower pace than both chimpanzees and humans. A 2017 genome study found that the Bornean and Tapanuli orangutans diverged from Sumatran orangutans about 3.4 mya, and from each other around 2.4 mya. Millions of years ago, orangutans travelled from mainland Asia to Sumatra and then Borneo as the islands were connected by land bridges during the recent glacial periods when sea levels were much lower. The present range of Tapanuli orangutans is thought to be close to where ancestral orangutans first entered what is now Indonesia from mainland Asia.
=== Fossil record ===
The three orangutan species are the only extant members of the subfamily Ponginae. This subfamily also includes extinct apes such as Lufengpithecus, which occurred 8–2 mya in southern China and Thailand; Indopithecus, which lived in India from 9.2 to 8.6 mya; and Sivapithecus, which lived in India and Pakistan from 12.5 mya until 8.5 mya. These animals likely lived in drier and cooler environments than orangutans do today. Khoratpithecus piriyai, which lived 5–7 mya in Thailand, is believed to be the closest known relative of the living orangutans and inhabited similar environments. The largest known primate, Gigantopithecus, was also a member of Ponginae and lived in China, from 2 mya to 300,000 years ago.
The oldest known record of Pongo is from the Early Pleistocene of Chongzuo, consisting of teeth ascribed to extinct species P. weidenreichi. Pongo is found as part of the faunal complex in the Pleistocene cave assemblage in Vietnam, alongside Giganopithecus, though it is known only from teeth. Some fossils described under the name P. hooijeri have been found in Vietnam, and multiple fossil subspecies have been described from several parts of southeastern Asia. It is unclear if these belong to P. pygmaeus or P. abelii or, in fact, represent distinct species. In 2025, two other distinct species from Pleistocene deposists in the Làng Tráng and Kéo Lèng caves in Vietnam were described as P. grovesei and P. nguyenbinheri. During the Pleistocene, Pongo had a far more extensive range than at present, extending throughout Sundaland and mainland Southeast Asia and South China. Teeth of orangutans are known from Peninsular Malaysia that date to 60,000 years ago. The youngest remains from South China, which are teeth assigned to P. weidenreichi, date to between 66 and 57,000 years ago. The range of orangutans had contracted significantly by the end of the Pleistocene, most likely because of the reduction of forest habitat during the Last Glacial Maximum. They may have nevertheless survived into the Holocene in Cambodia and Vietnam.
== Characteristics ==
Orangutans display significant sexual dimorphism; females typically stand 115 cm (45 in) tall and weigh around 37 kg (82 lb), while adult males stand 137 cm (54 in) tall and weigh 75 kg (165 lb). The tallest orangutan recorded was a 180 cm (71 in). Compared to humans, they have proportionally long arms, a male orangutan having an arm span of about 2 m (6 ft 7 in), and short legs. They are covered in long reddish hair that starts out bright orange and darkens to maroon or chocolate with age, while the skin is grey-black. Though largely hairless, males' faces can develop some hair, giving them a beard.
Orangutans have small ears and noses; the ears are unlobed. The mean endocranial volume is 397 cm3. The cranium is elevated relative to the face, which is incurved and prognathous. Compared to chimpanzees and gorillas, the brow ridge of an orangutan is underdeveloped. Females and juveniles have relatively circular skulls and thin faces while mature males have a prominent sagittal crest, large cheek pads or flanges, extensive throat pouches and long canines. The cheek pads are made mostly of fatty tissue and are supported by the musculature of the face. The throat pouches act as resonance chambers for making long calls.
Orangutan hands have four long fingers but a dramatically shorter opposable thumb for a strong grip on branches as they travel high in the trees. The resting configuration of the fingers is curved, creating a suspensory hook grip. With the thumb out of the way, the fingers (and hands) can grip securely around objects with a small diameter by resting the tops of the fingers against the inside of the palm, thus creating a double-locked grip. Their feet have four long toes and an opposable big toe, giving them hand-like dexterity. The hip joints also allow for their legs to rotate similarly to their arms and shoulders.
Orangutans move through the trees by both vertical climbing and suspension. Compared to other great apes, they infrequently descend to the ground where they are more cumbersome. Unlike gorillas and chimpanzees, orangutans are not true knuckle-walkers, instead bending their digits and walking on the sides of their hands and feet.
Compared to their relatives in Borneo, Sumatran orangutans are more slender with paler and longer hair and a longer face. Tapanuli orangutans resemble Sumatran orangutans more than Bornean orangutans in body build and hair colour. They have shaggier hair, smaller skulls, and flatter faces than the other two species.
== Ecology and behaviour ==
Orangutans are mainly arboreal and inhabit tropical rainforest, particularly lowland dipterocarp and old secondary forest. Populations are more concentrated near riverside habitats, such as freshwater and peat swamp forest, while drier forests away from the flooded areas have fewer apes. Population density also decreases at higher elevations. Orangutans occasionally enter grasslands, cultivated fields, gardens, young secondary forest, and shallow lakes.
Most of the day is spent feeding, resting, and travelling. They start the day feeding for two to three hours in the morning. They rest during midday, then travel in the late afternoon. When evening arrives, they prepare their nests for the night. Potential predators of orangutans include tigers, clouded leopards and wild dogs. The most common orangutan parasites are nematodes of the genus Strongyloides and the ciliate Balantidium coli. Among Strongyloides, the species S. fuelleborni and S. stercoralis are reported in young individuals. Orangutans also use the plant species Dracaena cantleyi as an anti-inflammatory balm. Captive animals may suffer an upper respiratory tract disease.
=== Diet and feeding ===
Orangutans are primarily fruit-eaters, which can take up 57–80% of their foraging time. Even during times of scarcity, fruit is 16% of their feeding time. Fruits with soft pulp, arils or seed-walls are consumed the most, particularly figs but also drupes and berries. Orangutans are thought to be the sole fruit disperser for some plant species including the vine species Strychnos ignatii which contains the toxic alkaloid strychnine.
Orangutans also include leaves in their diet, which take up 25% of their average foraging time. Leaves are eaten more when fruit is less available, but even during times of fruit abundance, orangutans will eat leaves 11–20% of the time. They appear to depend on the leaf and stem material of Borassodendron borneensis during times of low fruit abundance. Other food items consumed by the apes include bark, honey, bird eggs, insects and small vertebrates including slow lorises.
In some areas, orangutans may practise geophagy, which involves consuming soil and other earth substances. They will uproot soil from the ground as well as eat shelter tubes from tree trunks. Orangutans also visit the sides of cliffs or earth depressions for their mineral licks. Orangutans may eat soils for their anti-toxic kaolin minerals, since their diet contains toxic tannins and phenolic acids.
=== Social life ===
The social structure of the orangutan can be best described as solitary but social; they live a more solitary lifestyle than the other great apes. Bornean orangutans are generally more solitary than Sumatran orangutans. Most social bonds occur between adult females and their dependent and weaned offspring. Resident females live with their offspring in defined home ranges that overlap with those of other adult females, which may be their immediate relatives. One to several resident female home ranges are encompassed within the home range of a resident male, who is their main mating partner. Interactions between adult females range from friendly to avoidance to antagonistic. Flanged males are often hostile to both other flanged males and unflanged males, while unflanged males are more peaceful towards each other.
Orangutans disperse and establish their home ranges by age 11. Females tend to live near their birth range, while males disperse farther but may still visit their birth range within their larger home range. They enter a transient phase, which lasts until a male can challenge and displace a dominant, resident male from his home range. Both resident and transient orangutans aggregate on large fruiting trees to feed. The fruits tend to be abundant, so competition is low and individuals may engage in social interactions. Orangutans will also form travelling groups with members moving between different food sources. They are often consortships between an adult male and a female. Social grooming is uncommon among orangutans.
=== Communication ===
Orangutans communicate with various vocals and sounds. Males will make long calls, both to attract females and to advertise themselves to other males. These calls have three components; they begin with grumbles, peak with pulses and end with bubbles. Both sexes will try to intimidate conspecifics with a series of low frequency noises known collectively as the "rolling call". When uncomfortable, an orangutan will produce a "kiss squeak", which involves sucking in air through pursed lips. Mothers produce throatscrapes to keep in contact with their offspring. Infants make soft hoots when distressed. When building a nest, orangutans will produce smacks or blow raspberries. Orangutan calls display consonant- and vowel-like components and they maintain their meaning over great distances. They also display recursion via three layers of rhythmic sounds.
Mother orangutans and offspring also use several different gestures and expressions such as beckoning, stomping, lower lip pushing, object shaking and "presenting" a body part. These communicate goals such as "acquire object", "climb on me", "climb on you", "climb over", "move away", "play change: decrease intensity", "resume play" and "stop that".
=== Reproduction and development ===
Males become sexually mature at around age 15. They may exhibit arrested development by not developing the distinctive cheek pads, pronounced throat pouches, long fur, or long calls until a resident dominant male is absent. The transformation from unflanged to flanged can occur quickly. Flanged males attract females in oestrous with their characteristic long calls, which may also suppress development in younger males.
Unflanged males wander widely in search of oestrous females and upon finding one, may force copulation on her; forced copulation by orangutans is unusually high among mammals. Females prefer to mate with the fitter flanged males, forming pairs with them and benefiting from their protection. Non-ovulating females do not usually resist copulation with unflanged males, as the chance of conception is low. Homosexual behaviour has been recorded in the context of both affiliative and aggressive interactions.
Unlike females of other non-human great ape species, orangutans do not exhibit sexual swellings to signal fertility. A female first gives birth around 15 years of age and they have a six- to nine-year interbirth interval, the longest among the great apes. Gestation is around nine months long and infants are born at a weight of 1.5–2 kg (3.3–4.4 lb). Usually only a single infant is born; twins are a rare occurrence. Unlike many other primates, male orangutans do not seem to practise infanticide. This may be because they cannot ensure they will sire a female's next offspring, because she does not immediately begin ovulating again after her infant dies. There is evidence that females with offspring under six years old generally avoid adult males.
Females do most of the caring of the young. The mother will carry the infant while travelling, suckle it and sleep with it. During its first four months, the infant is almost never without physical contact and clings to its mother's belly. In the following months, the amount of physical contact the infant has with its mother declines. When an orangutan reaches the age of one-and-a-half years, its climbing skills improve and it will travel through the canopy holding hands with other orangutans, a behaviour known as "buddy travel". After two years of age, juvenile orangutans will begin to move away from their mothers temporarily. They reach adolescence at six or seven years of age and are able to live alone but retain some connections with their mothers. Females may nurse their offspring for up to eight years, which is more than any other mammal. Typically, orangutans live over 30 years both in the wild and in captivity.
=== Nesting ===
Orangutans build nests specialised for either day or night use. These are carefully constructed; young orangutans learn from observing their mother's nest-building behaviour. In fact, nest-building allows young orangutans to become less dependent on their mother. From six months of age onwards, orangutans practise nest-building and gain proficiency by the time they are three years old.
Construction of a night nest is done by following a sequence of steps. Initially, a suitable tree is located. Orangutans are choosy about sites, though nests can be found in many tree species. To establish a foundation, the ape grabs the large branches under it and bends them so they join. The orangutan then does the same to smaller, leafier branches to create a "mattress". After this, the ape stands and braids the tips of branches into the mattress. Doing this increases the stability of the nest. Orangutans make their nests more comfortable by creating "pillows", "blankets", "roofs" and "bunk-beds".
== Intelligence ==
Orangutans are among the most intelligent non-human primates. Experiments suggest they can track the displacement of objects both visible and hidden. Zoo Atlanta has a touch-screen computer on which their two Sumatran orangutans play games. A 2008 study of two orangutans at the Leipzig Zoo showed orangutans may practise "calculated reciprocity", which involves an individual aiding another with the expectation of being paid back. Orangutans are the first nonhuman species documented to do so.
In a 1997 study, two captive adult orangutans were tested with the cooperative pulling paradigm. Without any training, the orangutans succeeded in pulling off an object to get food in the first session. Over the course of 30 sessions, the apes succeeded more quickly, having learned to coordinate. An adult orangutan has been documented to pass the mirror test, indicating self-awareness, while another test with a 2-year-old failed to reveal self-recognition.
Studies in the wild indicate that flanged male orangutans plan their movements in advance and signal them to other individuals. Experiments have also suggested that orangutans can communicate about things that are not present: mother orangutans remain silent in the presence of a perceived threat but when it passes, the mother produces an alarm call to their offspring to teach them about the danger. Orangutans and other great apes show laughter-like vocalisations in response to physical contact such as wrestling, play chasing or tickling. This suggests that laughter derived from a common origin among primate species and therefore evolved before the origin of humans. Orangutans can learn to mimic new sounds by purposely controlling the vibrations of their vocal folds, a trait that led to speech in humans. Bonnie, an orangutan at the US National Zoo, was recorded spontaneously whistling after hearing a caretaker. She appears to whistle without expecting a food reward.
=== Tool use and culture ===
Tool use in orangutans was observed by primatologist Biruté Galdikas in ex-captive populations. Orangutans in Suaq Balimbing were recorded to develop a tool kit for use in foraging which consisted of both insect-extraction sticks for use in the hollows of trees and seed-extraction sticks for harvesting seeds from hard-husked fruit. The orangutans adjusted their tools according to the task at hand, and preference was given to oral tool use. This preference was also found in an experimental study of captive orangutans. Orangutans have been observed to use sticks to poke at catfish, causing them to leap out of the water so the orangutan can grab them. Orangutan have also been documented to keep tools for later. When building a nest, orangutans appear to be able to determine which branches would better support their body weight.
Primatologist Carel P. van Schaik and biological anthropologist Cheryl D. Knott further investigated tool use in different wild orangutan populations. They compared geographic variations in tool use related to the processing of Neesia fruit. The orangutans of Suaq Balimbing were found to be avid users of insect and seed-extraction tools when compared to other wild orangutans. The scientists suggested these differences are cultural as they do not correlate with habitat. The orangutans at Suaq Balimbing are closely spaced and relatively tolerant of each other; this creates favourable conditions for the spreading of new behaviours. Further evidence that highly social orangutans are more likely to exhibit cultural behaviours came from a study of leaf-carrying behaviours of formerly captive orangutans that were being rehabilitated on the island of Kaja in Borneo.
Wild orangutans in Tuanan, Borneo, were reported to use tools in acoustic communication. They use leaves to amplify the kiss squeak sounds they produce. The apes may employ this method of amplification to deceive the listener into believing they are larger animals. In 2003, researchers from six different orangutan field sites who used the same behavioural coding scheme compared the behaviours of the animals from each site. They found each orangutan population used different tools. The evidence suggested the differences were cultural: first, the extent of the differences increased with distance, suggesting cultural diffusion was occurring, and second, the size of the orangutans' cultural repertoire increased according to the amount of social contact present within the group. Social contact facilitates cultural transmission.
During a field observation in 2022, a male Sumatran orangutan, known to researchers as Rakus, chewed Fibraurea tinctoria vine leaves and applied the mashed plant material to an open wound on his face. According to primatologists who had been observing Rakus at a nature preserve, "Five days later the facial wound was closed, while within a few weeks it had healed, leaving only a small scar".
=== Personhood ===
In June 2008, Spain would become the first country to recognise the rights of some non-human great apes, based on the guidelines of the Great Ape Project, which are that chimpanzees, bonobos, orangutans, and gorillas are not to be used for animal experiments. In December 2014, a court in Argentina ruled that an orangutan named Sandra at the Buenos Aires Zoo must be moved to a sanctuary in Brazil to provide her "partial or controlled freedom". Animal rights groups like Great Ape Project Argentina argued the ruling should apply to all species in captivity, and legal specialists from the Argentina's Federal Chamber of Criminal Cassatio considered the ruling applicable only to non-human hominids.
== Orangutans and humans ==
Orangutans were known to the native people of Sumatra and Borneo for millennia. The apes are known as maias in Sarawak and mawas in other parts of Borneo and in Sumatra. While some communities hunted them for food and decoration, others placed taboos on such practices. In central Borneo, some traditional folk beliefs consider it bad luck to look an orangutan in the face. Some folk tales involve orangutans mating with and kidnapping humans. There are even stories of hunters being captured by female orangutans.
Europeans became aware of the existence of the orangutan in the 17th century. Explorers in Borneo hunted them extensively during the 19th century. In 1779, Dutch anatomist Petrus Camper, who observed the animals and dissected some specimens, gave the first scientific description of the orangutan. Camper mistakenly thought that flanged and unflanged male orangutans were different species, a misconception corrected after his death.
Little was known about orangutan behaviour until the field studies of Biruté Galdikas, who became a leading authority on the apes. When she arrived in Borneo in 1971, Galdikas settled into a primitive bark-and-thatch hut at a site she dubbed Camp Leakey, in Tanjung Puting. She studied orangutans for the next four years and developed her PhD thesis for UCLA. Galdikas became an outspoken advocate for orangutans and the preservation of their rainforest habitat, which is rapidly being devastated by loggers, palm oil plantations, gold miners, and unnatural forest fires. Along with Jane Goodall and Dian Fossey, Galdikas is considered to be one of Leakey's Angels, named after anthropologist Louis Leakey.
=== In fiction ===
Orangutans first appeared in Western fiction in the 18th century and have been used to comment on human society. Written by the pseudonymous A. Ardra, Tintinnabulum naturae (The Bell of Nature, 1772) is told from the point of view of a human-orangutan hybrid who calls himself the "metaphysician of the woods". Around 50 years later, the anonymously written work The Orang Outang is narrated by a pure orangutan in captivity in the US, writing a letter critiquing Boston society to her friend in Java.
Thomas Love Peacock's 1817 novel Melincourt features Sir Oran Haut Ton, an orangutan who lives among English people and becomes a candidate for Member of Parliament. The novel satirises the class and political system of Britain. Oran's purity and status as a "natural man" stands in contrast to the immorality and corruption of the "civilised" humans. In Frank Challice Constable's The Curse of Intellect (1895), the protagonist Reuben Power travels to Borneo and captures an orangutan to train it to speak so he can "know what a beast like that might think of us". Orangutans are featured prominently in the 1963 science fiction novel Planet of the Apes by Pierre Boulle and the media franchise derived from it. They are typically portrayed as bureaucrats like Dr. Zaius, the science minister.
Orangutans are sometimes portrayed as antagonists, notably in the 1832 Walter Scott novel Count Robert of Paris and the 1841 Edgar Allan Poe short story The Murders in the Rue Morgue. Disney's 1967 animated musical adaptation of The Jungle Book added a jazzy orangutan named King Louie, who tries to get Mowgli to teach him how to make fire. The 1986 horror film Link features an intelligent orangutan which serves a university professor but has sinister motives; he plots against humanity and stalks a female student assistant. Other stories have portrayed orangutans helping humans, such as The Librarian in Terry Pratchett's fantasy novels Discworld and in Dale Smith's 2004 novel What the Orangutan Told Alice. More comical portrayals of the orangutan include the 1996 film Dunston Checks In.
=== In captivity ===
By the early 19th century, orangutans were being kept in captivity. In 1817, an orangutan joined several other animals in London's Exeter Exchange. He rejected the company of other animals, aside from a dog, and preferred to be with humans. He was occasionally taken on coach rides clothed in a smock-frock and hat and even given drinks at an inn where he behaved politely for the hosts. The London Zoo housed a female orangutan named Jenny who was dressed in human clothing and learned to drink tea. She is remembered for her meeting with Charles Darwin who compared her reactions to those of a human child.
Zoos and circuses in the Western world would continue to use orangutans and other simians as sources for entertainment, training them to behave like humans at tea parties and to perform tricks. Notable orangutan "character actors" include: Jacob and Rosa of the Tierpark Hagenbeck in Hamburg, Germany, in the early 20th century; Joe Martin of Universal City Zoo in the 1910s and 1920s; and Jiggs of the San Diego Zoo in the 1930s and 1940s. Animal rights groups have urged a stop to such acts, considering them abusive. Starting in the 1960s, zoos became more concerned with education and orangutans' exhibits were designed to mimic their natural environment and let them display their natural behaviours. Ken Allen, an orangutan of the San Diego Zoo, became world famous in the 1980s for multiple escapes from his enclosures. He was nicknamed "the hairy Houdini" and was the subject of a fan club, T-shirts, bumper stickers and a song titled The Ballad of Ken Allen.
Galdikas reported that her cook was sexually assaulted by a captive male orangutan. The ape may have suffered from a skewed species identity and forced copulation is a standard mating strategy for low-ranking male orangutans. American animal trafficker Frank Buck claimed to have seen human mothers acting as wet nurses to orphaned orangutan babies in hopes of keeping them alive long enough to sell to a trader, which would be an instance of human–animal breastfeeding.
== Conservation ==
=== Status and threats ===
All three species are critically endangered according to the IUCN Red List of mammals. They are legally protected from capture, harm or killing in both Malaysia and Indonesia, and are listed under Appendix I by CITES, which prohibits their unlicensed trade under international law. The Bornean orangutan range has become more fragmented, with few or no apes documented in the southeast. The largest remaining population is found in the forest around the Sabangau River, but this environment is at risk. The Sumatran orangutan is found only in the northern part of Sumatra, most of the population inhabiting the Leuser Ecosystem. The Tapanuli orangutan is found only in the Batang Toru forest of Sumatra.
Biruté Galdikas wrote that orangutans were already threatened by poaching and deforestation when she began studying them in 1971. By the 2000s, orangutan habitats decreased rapidly because of logging, mining and fragmentation by roads. A major factor has been the conversion of vast areas of tropical forest to palm oil plantations in response to international demand. Hunting is also a major problem, as is the illegal pet trade.
Orangutans may be killed for the bushmeat trade and bones are secretly sold in souvenir shops in several cities in Indonesian Borneo. Conflicts between locals and orangutans also pose a threat. Orangutans that have lost their homes often raid agricultural areas and end up being killed by villagers. Locals may also be motivated to kill orangutans for food or because of their perceived danger. Mother orangutans are killed so their infants can be sold as pets. Between 2012 and 2017, the Indonesian authorities, with the aid of the Orangutan Information Center, seized 114 orangutans, 39 of which were pets.
Estimates in the 2000s found that around 6,500 Sumatran orangutans and around 54,000 Bornean orangutans remain in the wild. A 2016 study estimates a population of 14,613 Sumatran orangutans in the wild, twice that of previous population estimates, while 2016 estimates suggest 104,700 Bornean orangutans exist in the wild. A 2018 study found that Bornean orangutans declined by 148,500 individuals from 1999 to 2015. Fewer than 800 Tapanuli orangutans are estimated to still exist, which puts the species among the most endangered of the great apes.
=== Conservation centres and organisations ===
Several organisations are working for the rescue, rehabilitation and reintroduction of orangutans. The largest of these is the Borneo Orangutan Survival (BOS) Foundation, founded by conservationist Willie Smits and which operates projects such as the Nyaru Menteng Rehabilitation Program founded by conservationist Lone Drøscher Nielsen.
A female orangutan was rescued from a village brothel in Kareng Pangi village, Central Kalimantan, in 2003. The orangutan was shaved and chained for sexual purposes. Since being freed, the orangutan, named Pony, has been living with the BOS. She has been re-socialised to live with other orangutans. In May 2017, the BOS rescued an albino orangutan from captivity in a remote village in Kapuas Hulu, on the island of Kalimantan in Indonesian Borneo. According to volunteers at BOS, albino orangutans are extremely rare (one in ten thousand). This is the first albino orangutan the organisation has seen in 25 years of activity.
Other major conservation centres in Indonesia include those at Tanjung Puting National Park, Sebangau National Park, Gunung Palung National Park and Bukit Baka Bukit Raya National Park in Borneo and the Gunung Leuser National Park and Bukit Lawang in Sumatra. In Malaysia, conservation areas include Semenggoh Wildlife Centre and Matang Wildlife Centre also in Sarawak, and the Sepilok Orang Utan Sanctuary in Sabah. Major conservation centres headquartered outside the orangutans' home countries include Frankfurt Zoological Society, Orangutan Foundation International, which was founded by Galdikas, and the Australian Orangutan Project. Conservation organisations such as the Orangutan Land Trust work with the palm oil industry to improve sustainability and encourages the industry to establish conservation areas for orangutans. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrash_metal | Thrash metal | Thrash metal (or simply thrash) is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal music characterized by its overall aggression and fast tempo. The songs usually use fast percussive beats and low-register guitar riffs, overlaid with shredding-style lead guitar work.
The genre emerged in the early 1980s as musicians began fusing the double bass drumming and complex guitar stylings of the new wave of British heavy metal (NWOBHM) with the speed and aggression of hardcore punk and speed metal and the technicality of progressive rock. Philosophically, thrash metal developed as a backlash against both the conservatism of the Reagan era and the much more moderate, pop-influenced, and widely accessible heavy metal subgenre of glam metal which also developed concurrently in the 1980s. Derived genres include crossover thrash, a fusion of thrash metal and hardcore punk.
The early thrash metal movement revolved around independent record labels, including Megaforce, Metal Blade, Combat, Roadrunner, and Noise, and the underground tape trading industry in both Europe and North America. The genre was commercially successful from approximately 1985 through 1991, bringing prominence to Metallica, Slayer, Megadeth, and Anthrax, all grouped together as the "Big Four" of U.S. thrash metal. Other bands, such as Overkill, Metal Church, Nuclear Assault, Flotsam and Jetsam, and Bay Area acts Exodus, Testament and Death Angel, never achieved the same level of success as the "Big Four" but had also developed a strong following in the metal community, through MTV's Headbangers Ball or otherwise. Some of the most popular international thrash metal bands from this era were Brazil's Sepultura, Canada's Voivod and Annihilator, Switzerland's Coroner, England's Onslaught, and the genre's German "Big Four": Kreator, Destruction, Sodom, and Tankard.
The thrash metal genre had declined in popularity by the mid-1990s, due to the commercial success of numerous genres such as alternative rock and grunge. In response, some bands had either disbanded or moved away from their thrash metal roots and more towards influences such as punk (or crossover thrash), progressive, groove metal, or alternative metal, and later industrial or nu metal. The genre has seen a resurgence in popularity since the 2000s, with the arrival of various bands such as Bonded by Blood, Evile, Hatchet, Havok, Lamb of God, Municipal Waste, and Warbringer, who have all been credited for leading the so-called "thrash metal revival" scene.
== Characteristics ==
Thrash metal generally features fast tempos, low-register, complex guitar riffs, high-register guitar solos, and double bass drumming. The rhythm guitar parts are played with heavy distortion, power chords and often palm muted to create a tighter and more precise sound. Vocally, thrash metal can employ anything from melodic singing to shouted or screamed vocals. Most guitar solos are played at high speed and technically demanding, as they are usually characterized by shredding, and use advanced techniques such as sweep picking, legato phrasing, alternate picking, tremolo picking, string skipping, and two-hand tapping.
David Ellefson, the original bassist of Megadeth, described thrash metal as "a combination of the attitude from punk rock but the riffs and complexities of traditional metal." On the origins of thrash metal, Dan Lilker (bassist and co-founding member of Anthrax, S.O.D. and Nuclear Assault) recalls: "Thrash was just what they called 'faster hardcore,' because you literally thrashed around when you were either playing it or reacting to it. And thrash metal was born because it was influenced by thrash hardcore, and they just thought it was more metal, so they said, 'Okay, this is thrash metal.'"
The guitar riffs often use chromatic scales and emphasize the tritone and diminished intervals, instead of using conventional single-scale-based riffing. For example, the intro riff of Metallica's "Master of Puppets" (the title track of the namesake album) is a chromatic descent, followed by an ascent based on the tritone.
Cymbal stops/chokes are often used to transition from one riff to another or to precede an acceleration in tempo.
To keep up with the other instruments, many bassists use a plectrum (pick). However, some prominent thrash metal bassists have used their fingers, most notably Frank Bello, Greg Christian, Steve Di Giorgio, Robert Trujillo, and Cliff Burton. Several bassists use a distorted bass tone, an approach popularized by Burton and Motörhead's Lemmy. Lyrical themes in thrash metal include warfare, corruption, injustice, murder, suicide, isolation, alienation, addiction, and other maladies that afflict the individual and society. In addition, politics, particularly pessimism and dissatisfaction towards politics, are common themes among thrash metal bands. Humor and irony can occasionally be found (Anthrax for example), but they are limited, and are an exception rather than a rule.
== Etymology ==
The term "thrash" originated as a way of referring to hardcore punk, as shown on the 1982 hardcore compilation album New York Thrash. By 1983, the term "thrash metal" had entered colloquial use as a way to denote the fusion of hardcore and metal. The 1983 debut issue of Metal Forces used the term to describe the bands on the first Metal Massacre and Mike Varney's first three U.S. Metal compilation albums. Later the same year, the thirteenth issue of Metal Mania used the term in an article, saying it was used synonymously with "heavy thrash" and "punk metal", going on to say acts in the genre included Tank, Metallica, MDC, GBH, Discharge and Crucifix. The term is sometimes incorrectly credited to a 1984 Kerrang! magazine article by journalist Malcolm Dome, who used the term in reference to the song "Metal Thrashing Mad" by Anthrax.
Around 1984, the most dominant name for what is now defined as thrash metal was "power metal", a name which eventually evolved to refer to the separate power metal genre. Similarly, for much of the 1980s, the names "thrash metal" and "speed metal" were generally used synonymously. The separate speed metal genre was defined retrospectively in the 1990s, to refer to 1980s bands who bridged the gap between thrash metal and power metal.
== History ==
=== Roots (1970s–early 1980s) ===
The term "proto-thrash" has been used to describe bands as having elements of speed metal or thrash metal before those genres came to prominence in the early-to-mid-1980s. Deep Purple's 1970 album Deep Purple in Rock is perhaps the earliest proto-thrash/speed metal album, as music journalist Martin Popoff noted, "It's really about the discipline and classical haughtiness of this record, as well as 'Hard Lovin' Man' which is a great contender for first proto-thrash song ever." Queen's 1974 song "Stone Cold Crazy" and Black Sabbath's "Symptom of the Universe", released the following year, have also been cited as examples of proto-thrash/speed metal; the latter of which was a direct inspiration for Diamond Head's pioneering song "Am I Evil?". The new wave of British heavy metal (NWOBHM) bands emerging from Britain in the late 1970s further influenced the development of early thrash. The early work of artists such as Diamond Head, Iron Maiden, Venom, Motörhead, Tygers of Pan Tang, Raven, Saxon and Angel Witch, among others, introduced the fast-paced and intricate musicianship that became core aspects of thrash. Phil Taylor's double-bass drumming featured in Motörhead's 1979 song "Overkill" has been acknowledged by many thrash drummers, most notably Lars Ulrich, as a primary influence on their playing. Thrash metal bands have also taken inspiration from Judas Priest, with Slayer guitarist Kerry King saying that, "There would be no Slayer without Priest." Metal Blade Records executive Brian Slagel played a key role in bringing the NWOBHM to a larger audience, as he was responsible for discovering both Metallica and Slayer and producing their earliest studio recordings.
Greg Prato of Ultimate Guitar notes, "Although the thrash movement seemed to have much more in common with punk than prog fashion-wise (leather jackets vs. capes), musically, there were certainly moments when thrash leaned more towards the prog side of things." Canadian progressive rock band Rush, for example, has been cited a formative influence on the thrash metal movement. In a 2013 interview with Rolling Stone, Anthrax drummer Charlie Benante said: "When I was first learning to play drums, I would strap on my headphones, play along with [Rush's live album All the World's a Stage] and be transformed. I remember talking with Cliff and Kirk back when we first met, and we all agreed how much of an influence Rush was on all of us."
The thrash metal genre is also strongly influenced by punk rock, drawing inspiration from sources ranging from traditional punk bands from the 1970s, including the New York Dolls, the Ramones, the Sex Pistols and the Dead Boys, to late 1970s/early 1980s hardcore punk bands Discharge, GBH, Black Flag, the Misfits, the Dead Kennedys, and Bad Brains. The Ramones' 1976 self-titled debut album in particular has been noted as a key influence on the genre, due to its sound, which introduced the three-chord thrash style of guitar. Void has been credited as one of the earliest examples of hardcore/heavy metal crossover, whose chaotic musical approach is often cited as particularly influential. Their 1982 split LP with fellow Washington band The Faith showed both bands exhibiting quick, fiery, high-speed punk rock. It has been argued that those recordings laid the foundation for early thrash metal, at least in terms of selected tempos, and that thrash is essentially hardcore punk with the technical proficiency missing from that genre. The crossover with hardcore punk has also been cited as important influence on thrash, especially the English hardcore punk band Discharge, whose "influence on heavy metal is incalculable and metal superstars such as Metallica, Anthrax, Machine Head, Sepultura, Soulfly, Prong and Arch Enemy have covered Discharge's songs in tribute." The eponymous debut albums by D.R.I. and Suicidal Tendencies, both released in 1983, have been credited for paving the way for thrashcore.
In Europe, the earliest band of the emerging thrash movement was Venom from Newcastle upon Tyne, formed in 1978. Their 1982 album Black Metal has been cited as a major influence on many subsequent genres and bands in the extreme metal world, such as Bathory, Hellhammer, Slayer, and Mayhem. The European scene was almost exclusively influenced by the most aggressive music Germany and England were producing at the time. British bands such as Tank and Raven, along with German bands Accept (whose 1982 song "Fast as a Shark" is often credited as one of the first-ever thrash/speed metal songs) and Living Death, motivated musicians from central Europe to start bands of their own, eventually producing groups such as Sodom, Kreator, and Destruction from Germany, as well as Switzerland's Celtic Frost (formed by two-thirds of Hellhammer), Coroner and Carrion (who later became Poltergeist) and Denmark's Artillery.
=== Thrash metal in the 1980s ===
==== Birth and underground expansion (1980–1983) ====
Critics argue over who can be thought of as the first thrash metal band to exist. Most credit either British band Venom or the genre's so-called "Big Four": Metallica, Slayer, Anthrax, and Megadeth, with commentators crediting Venom as the first thrash metal band and others tending to favor the "Big Four", though many give equal credit to all those five bands. The origins of thrash metal have also been traced to San Francisco Bay Area band Exodus, who formed in 1979 and is the fifth band in what is sometimes considered the "Big Five". The band released its first demo in 1982, simply titled Demo 1982, which was widely circulated in the tape trading community and is credited for paving the way for the 1980s Bay Area thrash metal scene. A few commentators argue for other bands, including Overkill and Metal Church (both of whom formed in 1980), as the earliest bands to play thrash metal before releasing albums.
In 1981, Los Angeles band Leather Charm wrote a song entitled "Hit the Lights". Leather Charm soon disbanded and the band's primary songwriter, vocalist/rhythm guitarist James Hetfield, met drummer Lars Ulrich through a classified advertisement. Together, Hetfield and Ulrich formed Metallica, one of the "Big Four" thrash bands, with lead guitarist Dave Mustaine, who would later form Megadeth, another of the "Big Four" originators of thrash, and bassist Ron McGovney. McGovney would be replaced by Cliff Burton (formerly of Trauma), and Mustaine was later replaced by Kirk Hammett of the then-unsigned Exodus, and at Burton's insistence, the band relocated to the San Francisco Bay Area. Before Metallica had even settled on a definitive lineup, Metal Blade Records executive Brian Slagel asked Hetfield and Ulrich (credited as "Mettallica") to record "Hit the Lights" for the first edition of his Metal Massacre compilation in 1982. A re-recorded version of "Hit the Lights" would later open their first studio album, Kill 'Em All, released in July 1983. Kill 'Em All is widely regarded as the first thrash metal album, and "Whiplash" from the album has been referred to as one of the first songs of the genre.
Another "Big Four" thrash band formed in Los Angeles in 1981, when guitarists Jeff Hanneman and Kerry King met while auditioning for the same band and subsequently decided to form a band of their own. Hanneman and King recruited vocalist/bassist Tom Araya and drummer Dave Lombardo, and Slayer was formed. Slayer was discovered by Metal Blade Records executive Brian Slagel, and they contributed "Aggressive Perfector" to Slagel's Metal Massacre III. In December 1983, five months after the release of Metallica's debut Kill 'Em All, Slayer released their debut album, Show No Mercy.
To the north, Canada produced influential thrash and speed metal bands such as Annihilator, Anvil, Exciter, Razor, Sacrifice, and Voivod.
==== Mainstream popularity (1984–1989) ====
===== First wave (1984–1986) =====
The popularity of thrash metal increased in 1984 with the release of Metallica's sophomore record Ride the Lightning, as well as Anthrax's debut Fistful of Metal and Metal Church's eponymous debut album. Slayer and Overkill released extended plays on independent labels during this era, Haunting the Chapel and Overkill respectively. This led to a heavier-sounding form of thrash, which was reflected in Exodus' debut album Bonded by Blood, Slayer's Hell Awaits and Anthrax's Spreading the Disease, all three released in 1985. Several other debut albums were released that same year, including Megadeth's Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!, Overkill's Feel the Fire, Kreator's Endless Pain, Destruction's Infernal Overkill, Possessed's Seven Churches, Celtic Frost's To Mega Therion, Watchtower's Energetic Disassembly and the Sepultura EP Bestial Devastation. Seven Churches and To Mega Therion are often credited for pioneering and popularizing the mid-1980s extreme metal scene (as well as the then-developing genres of death metal and black metal, respectively), while Energetic Disassembly has been cited as the first technical thrash metal album, and as "the recording most responsible for the development of the progressive metal genre".
The year 1986 is regarded as the flagship year for thrash metal, as a number of critically acclaimed and genre-defining albums were released. Metallica's major label debut Master of Puppets was released in March, becoming the first thrash album to be certified platinum, being certified 6× platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA); it would be the band's last album to feature bassist Cliff Burton, who was killed in a bus accident six months after its release. Kreator released Pleasure to Kill in April 1986, which would later be a major influence on the death metal scene. Megadeth released Peace Sells... but Who's Buying? in September, an album which proved to be the band's commercial and critical breakthrough and which AllMusic later cited as "a classic of early thrash". Slayer, regarded as one of the most sinister thrash metal bands of the early 1980s, released Reign in Blood in October, an album considered by some to have single-handedly inspired the death metal genre. Also in October, Nuclear Assault released their debut album Game Over, followed a month later by Dark Angel's Darkness Descends, which marked the debut of drummer Gene Hoglan. Flotsam and Jetsam's debut album Doomsday for the Deceiver (released on the Fourth of July in 1986) received some attention as well, due to the album being "the first of only a handful" to ever receive a 6K rating from Kerrang! magazine, and it is also notable for featuring a then-unknown Jason Newsted, who, not long after the album's release, joined Metallica as Burton's replacement.
Also during the mid-to-late 1980s, bands such as Suicidal Tendencies, D.R.I., S.O.D. (who featured three-fifths of Anthrax), and Corrosion of Conformity paved the way to what became known as crossover thrash, a fusion genre that lies on a continuum between heavy metal and hardcore punk, and is arguably faster and more aggressive than thrash metal.
===== Second wave (1987–1989) =====
By the mid-to-late 1980s, thrash metal began to achieve major mainstream success worldwide, with many bands of the genre receiving heavy rotation on MTV's Headbangers Ball, and radio stations such as KNAC in Long Beach and Z Rock in Dallas, as well as coverage on numerous publications, including Kerrang! and RIP Magazine. These outlets not only played a major role in the crossover success of thrash metal during this time, but helped push album sales of the genre's "Big Four" and similar bands or moved them from playing clubs to arenas and stadiums.
Anthrax made its mainstream breakthrough in 1987 with the release of their gold-certified album Among the Living, which borrowed elements from their two previous releases, with fast guitar riffs and pounding drums. Shortly after the release of Among the Living, three Bay Area bands, Testament, Death Angel and Heathen, respectively released their debut albums The Legacy, The Ultra-Violence and Breaking the Silence. All of the "Big Four" of Teutonic thrash metal also released albums in 1987: Kreator's Terrible Certainty, Destruction's Release from Agony, Sodom's Persecution Mania and Tankard's Chemical Invasion; those albums cemented their reputations as top-tier German thrash metal bands.
In response to thrash metal's growing popularity during this period, several hardcore punk bands began changing their style to a more heavier direction, including Venice, Los Angeles act Suicidal Tendencies, who are often considered to be one of the "fathers of crossover thrash", and became more recognized as a thrash metal band in the late 1980s (thanks in large part to the presence of guitarists Rocky George and Mike Clark); the band would reach new heights of success with their first two major-label albums, How Will I Laugh Tomorrow When I Can't Even Smile Today (1988) and Controlled by Hatred/Feel Like Shit... Déjà Vu (1989). D.R.I.'s music took a similar direction with their last three albums of the 1980s, Crossover (1987), 4 of a Kind (1988), and Thrash Zone (1989). This trend was expanded by many bands that came from a punk background, including UK acts Discharge and The Exploited, Los Angeles bands Wasted Youth, Cryptic Slaughter, Excel, Beowülf and No Mercy, and New York hardcore acts Agnostic Front, Murphy's Law, the Cro-Mags, M.O.D. (fronted by former S.O.D. singer Billy Milano), the Crumbsuckers, Ludichrist, Leeway, and Prong.
From 1987 to 1989, Overkill released Taking Over, Under the Influence, and The Years of Decay, three albums considered their best. Each of the "Big Four" of thrash metal bands released albums in 1988: Slayer released South of Heaven, Megadeth released So Far, So Good... So What!, Anthrax released State of Euphoria while Metallica's ...And Justice for All spawned the band's first video and Top 40 hit, the World War I-themed song "One". That same year, Metallica joined Van Halen, Scorpions, Dokken and Kingdom Come on the two-month-long arena and stadium tour Monsters of Rock in North America. In the spring of 1989, Anthrax teamed up with Exodus and Helloween on a US arena tour sponsored by Headbangers Ball.
Sepultura's third album, Beneath the Remains (1989), earned them some mainstream appeal as it was released by Roadrunner Records. Testament's second and third albums, The New Order (1988) and Practice What You Preach (1989), nearly gained them the same level of popularity as the "Big Four", while Exodus' third album Fabulous Disaster (1989) garnered the band their first music video and one of their most recognized songs, the mosh-pit anthem "The Toxic Waltz". Vio-lence, Forbidden, and Sadus, three relative latecomers to the Bay Area thrash metal scene, released their debut albums Eternal Nightmare, Forbidden Evil, and Illusions, respectively, in 1988; the latter album demonstrated a sound that was primarily driven by the fretless bass of Steve Di Giorgio. Also in 1988, Blind Illusion released its only studio album for more than two decades, The Sane Asylum, which received some particular attention as it was produced by Kirk Hammett, and is also notable for featuring bassist Les Claypool and former Possessed guitarist Larry LaLonde; after its release, the two would later team up together in Claypool's then-upcoming band Primus.
Canadian thrashers Annihilator released their highly technical debut Alice in Hell in 1989, which was praised for its fast riffs and extended guitar solos. In Germany, Sodom released Agent Orange, and Kreator would release Extreme Aggression. Several highly acclaimed albums associated with the subgenre of technical thrash metal were also released in 1989, including Coroner's No More Color, Dark Angel's Leave Scars, Toxik's Think This, and Watchtower's Control and Resistance, which has been recognized and acknowledged as one of the cornerstones of jazz-metal fusion and a major influence on the technical death metal genre, while Forced Entry's debut album Uncertain Future helped pioneer the late 1980s Seattle music scene.
=== Thrash metal in the 1990s ===
==== Continued popularity (1990–1991) ====
A number of more typical but technically sophisticated albums were released in 1990, including Megadeth's Rust in Peace, Anthrax's Persistence of Time, Slayer's Seasons in the Abyss, Suicidal Tendencies' Lights...Camera...Revolution!, Testament's Souls of Black, Kreator's Coma of Souls, Destruction's Cracked Brain, Forbidden's Twisted into Form, Exodus' Impact Is Imminent, Death Angel's Act III, Sanctuary's Into the Mirror Black, Annihilator's Never, Neverland, Sacred Reich's The American Way, Prong's Beg to Differ, Pantera's Cowboys from Hell and Exhorder's Slaughter in the Vatican; the latter three are often credited for being an integral part of the then-developing groove metal genre. All of those albums were commercial high points for the aforementioned artists. During this period, Megadeth and Slayer co-headlined one of the most successful tours in thrash metal history called the Clash of the Titans; the first leg in Europe included support from Testament and Suicidal Tendencies, while the second leg in North America had Anthrax and then-emerging Seattle band Alice in Chains, who were the supporting act.
Several albums, some of which had come to be known as technical thrash metal, were released in 1991, including Overkill's Horrorscope, Heathen's Victims of Deception, Dark Angel's Time Does Not Heal, Sepultura's Arise, Coroner's Mental Vortex, Prong's Prove You Wrong, Forced Entry's As Above, So Below and Wrathchild America's 3-D.
In 1991, Metallica released their eponymous fifth studio album, known as The Black Album. Produced by Bob Rock (who was then known for working with the likes of Mötley Crüe, Aerosmith, Bon Jovi and The Cult), the album marked a stylistic change in the band, eliminating much of the speed and longer song structures of the band's previous work, and instead focusing on more concise and heavier songs. The album was a change in Metallica's direction from the thrash metal style of the band's previous four studio albums towards a more contemporary heavy metal sound with original hard rock elements, but still had remnant characteristics of thrash metal. Metallica would go on to become the band's best-selling album and began a wave of thrash metal bands releasing more garage-oriented albums, or else more experimental ones.
==== Decline (1991–1999) ====
The era of 1991–1992 marked the beginning of the end of thrash metal's commercial peak, due to the rising popularity of the alternative metal and grunge movements (the latter spearheaded by Washington-based bands Nirvana, Soundgarden, Alice in Chains and Pearl Jam). In response to this climate change, many thrash metal bands that had emerged from the previous decade had called it quits or went on hiatus during the 1990s, while half of the "Big Four" and other veteran bands began changing to more accessible, radio-friendly styles. Metallica was a notable example of this shift, particularly with their mid-to-late 1990s albums Load, and ReLoad, which displayed minor blues and southern rock influences, and were seen as a major departure from the band's earlier sound. Megadeth took a more accessible heavy metal route starting with their 1992 album Countdown to Extinction. Testament, Exodus and Flotsam and Jetsam all took a melodic/progressive approach with the albums The Ritual, Force of Habit, and Cuatro, respectively. One of the pioneers of crossover thrash, Corrosion of Conformity, began changing their sound into a slower and Black Sabbath-influenced heavy metal direction with their post-1980s output, adapting influences and textures of sludge, doom metal, blues, and southern rock on several of their albums, including Blind (1991), Deliverance (1994) and Wiseblood (1996).
The remainder of the 1990s saw many thrash metal bands expand their sound by adding elements and influences from the groove metal genre, which was then popularized by Pantera, White Zombie and Machine Head. Anthrax, who had recently replaced Joey Belladonna with John Bush as their singer, began stepping away from their previously established thrash metal formula to a more accessible alternative/groove metal approach for the remainder of their 1990s output, starting with and including Sound of White Noise (1993). Sacred Reich, Overkill, Coroner, Prong, Testament, and Forbidden followed this trend with their respective albums Independent, I Hear Black, Grin, Cleansing, Low, and Distortion. Sepultura's 1993 album Chaos A.D. also marked the beginning of their transition away from death/thrash metal to groove metal which had influenced then-up-and-coming bands like Korn, who reciprocally became the inspiration behind the nu metal style of the band's next album Roots (1996). Roots would influence a generation of bands from Linkin Park to Slipknot, which during the 1990s meant the replacement of death, thrash, and speed, by nu metal and metalcore as popular epicenters of the hardest metal scene.
Staying away from this new commercial mainstream of groove metal, metalcore, and especially nu metal, the second wave of black metal emerged as an opposed underground music scene, initially in Norway. This crop of new bands differenced themselves from the "first wave" by totally distilling black metal from the combined origins with thrash metal, but they preserved from all these sub-genres the emphasis on atmosphere over rhythm.
As further extreme metal genres came to prominence in the 1990s (industrial metal, death metal, and black metal each finding their own fanbase), the heavy metal "family tree" soon found itself blending aesthetics and styles. For example, bands with all the musical traits of thrash metal began using death growls, a vocal style borrowed from death metal, while black metal bands often utilized the airy feel of synthesizers, popularized in industrial metal. Today the placing of bands within distinct sub-genres remains a source of contention for heavy metal fans, however, little debate resides over the fact that thrash metal is the sole proprietor of its respective spin-offs.
=== Revivals (2000–present) ===
A few thrash metal bands from the 1980s and early 1990s, particularly the genre's U.S. "Big Four", continued recording and touring with success in the 2000s. In 2003, Anthrax released their first studio album in five years We've Come for You All, followed a month later by Metallica's double platinum-certified album St. Anger. After experimenting further with a commercialized sound on their previous few albums, Megadeth returned to its heavier sound with their ninth album The World Needs a Hero (2001). It would be the band's final album before disbanding in the following year, due to an arm injury that had left Dave Mustaine unable to play guitar; he would eventually reform Megadeth for a handful of albums, including The System Has Failed (2004) which was originally going to be released as a solo album by him, before reuniting with co-founding member and bassist David Ellefson in 2010. Slayer released three albums in the 2000s: God Hates Us All (2001), which saw a return to their signature thrash metal sound, followed by Christ Illusion (2006) and World Painted Blood (2009), both of which marked their first studio albums with drummer Dave Lombardo in nearly two decades. Although their career had declined from its peak in the 1990s, Overkill was perhaps one of the most-active thrash metal groups outside of the "Big Four", having never disbanded or taken longer breaks in-between records, and by 2000's Bloodletting, they were the first band in the genre to release more than ten studio albums. Overkill's popularity was reignited in the 2010s, with three of their albums, The Electric Age (2012), White Devil Armory (2014) and The Grinding Wheel (2017), all entering the Top 100 on the Billboard charts.
The resurgence of interest in the thrash metal genre during the early 2000s was widely attributed to the Thrash of the Titans festival, which was held in August 2001 as a co-benefit concert for Testament singer Chuck Billy and Death's Chuck Schuldiner, who were both battling cancer. The show is also notable for seeing several of Testament's Bay Area thrash metal contemporaries reunite, including Exodus, Death Angel, Vio-lence, Forbidden Evil, Sadus and Legacy (a precursor to Testament). Many thrash metal bands outside of the Bay Area would subsequently reunite, including Anthrax (twice with Joey Belladonna and briefly with John Bush), Dark Angel, Nuclear Assault, Sacred Reich, UK bands Onslaught, Sabbat, and Xentrix, and Canada's Sacrifice, renewing interest in previous decades.
The term "thrash-revivalists" has been applied to such bands as Lamb of God, Municipal Waste, Evile, Havok, Warbringer, Vektor, Bonded by Blood, Hatchet, and Power Trip. Evile's 2007 debut album Enter the Grave, produced by former Metallica producer and engineer Flemming Rasmussen, received considerable praise for its sound, which combined elements of the sounds of Slayer and the Bay Area scene (particularly Exodus and Testament). Los Angeles-based bands Warbringer and Bonded by Blood took a similar approach on their respective debut albums, War Without End and Feed the Beast, both released in 2008. Perhaps the most commercially successful band from the 2000s and 2010s thrash metal revival movement is Lamb of God, who are also considered a key part of the new wave of American heavy metal movement, have received two gold-certified albums in the U.S., and have gone from playing small clubs to arenas and stadiums.
Notable bands returned to their roots with albums such as Kreator's Violent Revolution (2001), Metallica's Death Magnetic (2008), Megadeth's Endgame (2009), Slayer's World Painted Blood (2009), Exodus' Exhibit B: The Human Condition (2010), Overkill's Ironbound (2010), Anthrax's Worship Music (2011), Testament's Dark Roots of Earth (2012), and Flotsam and Jetsam's Ugly Noise (2012). More recent bands of the genre, such as Havok and Legion of the Damned have turned their focus towards a more aggressive rendition of thrash metal, incorporating elements of melodic death metal.
== Derivative forms ==
Thrash metal is directly responsible for the development of underground metal genres, such as death metal, black metal, and groove metal. In addition to this, metalcore, grindcore, and deathcore employ similar riffs in their composition, the former with more focus on melody rather than chromaticism. The blending of punk ethos and metal's brutal nature led to even more extreme, underground styles after thrash metal began gaining mild commercial success in the late 1980s.
With gorier subject matter, heavier down tuning of guitars, more consistent use of blast beat drumming, and darker, atonal death growls, death metal was established in the mid-1980s. Black metal, also related to thrash metal, emerged at the same time, with many black metal bands taking influence from thrash metal bands such as Venom. Black metal continued deviating from thrash metal, often providing more orchestral overtones, open tremolo picking, blast beat drumming, shrieked or raspy vocals and pagan or occult-based aesthetics to distinguish itself from thrash metal. Thrash metal would later combine with its spinoffs, thus giving rise to genres like blackened thrash metal and deathrash.
=== Crossover thrash ===
Thrash metal with stronger punk elements is called crossover thrash. Its overall sound is more punk-influenced than traditional thrash metal but has more heavy metal elements than hardcore punk and thrashcore.
=== Dream thrash ===
A fusion of thrash metal with shoegaze is called dream thrash. According to Emma Cownley of Metal Hammer, "Dream thrash combines the ethereal sounds of shoegaze with the distortion, blast beats and tremolo picking of thrash." One practitioner of this style is Astronoid.
=== Groove metal ===
Groove metal takes the intensity and sonic qualities of thrash metal and plays them at mid-tempo, with most bands making only occasional forays into fast tempo, but since the early 1990s, it started to favor a more death metal-derived sound.
=== Technical thrash metal ===
Technical thrash (also known as progressive thrash) is a "far more complex" variant of thrash metal that emphasizes "progressive" songwriting. The style is mostly combined with elements and influences from the styles of thrash metal, the New wave of British heavy metal (NWOBHM), progressive rock, avant-garde and jazz fusion. Watchtower are said to be pioneers of technical thrash metal, and their debut album Energetic Disassembly (1985) is widely regarded as the first album to mix thrash with progressive metal. Other practitioners of the style include Voivod, Coroner, Annihilator, Deathrow, Blind Illusion, Toxik, Artillery, Mekong Delta, Sadus, Heathen, Forced Entry and Anacrusis. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, several veteran thrash metal bands began to expand their sound with a combination of technical, complex and progressive structures; notable examples include Metallica's ...And Justice for All (1988), Annihilator's Alice in Hell (1989), Overkill's The Years of Decay (1989), Megadeth's Rust in Peace (1990), Dark Angel's Time Does Not Heal (1991), Heathen's Victims of Deception (1991), and much of Testament's late 1980s and 1990s output. Technical thrash metal is considered by some to be a precursor to technical death metal. Coroner guitarist Tommy Vetterli himself took credit for "co-invent[ing] the technical progressive thrash metal movement" in a 2026 interview with Metal Hammer.
== Regional scenes ==
Thrash metal emerged predominantly from a handful of regional scenes, each of which was generally distinguished by the unique characteristics of its bands.
Bay Area thrash metal, also known as West Coast thrash metal: In addition to being the most commercially successful, the West Coast's thrash metal (mostly centered in California) is the most progressive and technical of the major regional thrash scenes, being strongly NWOBHM-influenced. Metallica (originally from Los Angeles), Exodus, Testament, Metal Church, Possessed, Death Angel, Attitude Adjustment, Lȧȧz Rockit, Vio-lence, Forbidden, Defiance, Sadus, Mordred and Blind Illusion are prominent examples of bands to emerge from the Bay Area. Although Megadeth, Slayer, Dark Angel and Suicidal Tendencies were all technically from Los Angeles, those bands are often credited for popularizing and contributing to the thrash metal scene in Northern California during the 1980s by frequently playing shows there, especially early in their careers and/or before they received their first record deal.
East Coast thrash metal: Centered in New York and New Jersey, the East Coast's thrash metal tended to display a sound that incorporated a strong hardcore punk influence. An emphasis was placed on aggression and speed rather than technicality. Anthrax, Overkill, Carnivore, Nuclear Assault, Meanstreak, Warzone, Prong, Toxik, Whiplash, Wrathchild America and Demolition Hammer exemplified the style to emerge from this regional scene.
Gulf Coast thrash metal: While not as popular as the West Coast and East Coast regions, the Gulf Coast spawned at least three thrash metal scenes (including Texas, Louisiana and Florida) during the late 1980s and early 1990s, which saw a number of bands develop a style that was influenced by punk rock and/or the early-to-mid 1980s heavy metal scene. The most notable bands from the Gulf Coast are Atheist, Solstice, Juggernaut, Opprobrium (formerly named Incubus), Watchtower, Rigor Mortis, D.R.I., Absu, Nasty Savage, Verbal Abuse, Angkor Wat, Dead Horse, Pantera and Exhorder, the latter of the two (along with New York's Prong) are often credited for developing and popularizing the groove metal genre in the early 1990s.
British thrash metal: The British thrash scene originated from NWOBHM bands like Raven, Jaguar, Warfare and Dragonslayer (originally called Slayer) beginning to play accelerated heavy metal. This led to British thrash metal bands leaning towards a more traditional heavy metal approach, often heavier though less aggressive than their American counterparts. Additionally, crust punk is an integral part of the British thrash metal scene. The most notable bands from this scene are Onslaught, Cancer, Amebix, Sabbat, Detritus, Xentrix, Sacrilege, Nightlord, Atomkraft, Hellbastard, Cerebral Fix, Seventh Angel, Acid Reign and Lawnmower Deth.
Brazilian thrash metal: The Brazilian thrash scene is notable for producing a handful of bands that would become principal parts of thrash metal's prevalence in the early 1990s. There were three scenes where Brazilian thrash metal originated: Belo Horizonte (the most prominent), São Paulo, and Rio de Janeiro. The most notable bands from this scene are Sepultura, Dorsal Atlântica, Executer, Mutilator, Chakal, Korzus, Holocausto, Claustrofobia, Torture Squad, Ratos de Porão, Sagrado Inferno, Vulcano and Sarcófago.
Teutonic thrash metal: The German and Swiss regions have spawned dozens of bands since the mid-1980s that developed their own style. Their style was more aggressive than American and Canadian thrash. The most prominent bands from this scene are Kreator, Destruction, Sodom, Tankard, Celtic Frost, Holy Moses, Desaster, Coroner, Exumer, Despair, Paradox, Messiah, Assassin, Poltergeist, Living Death and Sieges Even (who were originally called Sodom).
Canadian thrash metal: The Canadian region has seen numerous thrash metal bands create a unique blend of speed metal, progressive and hardcore punk into their music, influenced by a variety of acts such as Rush, Iron Maiden, Judas Priest, Motörhead and D.R.I., as well as fellow U.S. thrash metal bands like Metallica and Slayer. Anvil and Exciter are considered to be the pioneers of this scene, while Voivod, Sacrifice, Razor, and Annihilator are often referred to as the country's "Big Four". Notable crossover bands from the hardcore punk scene include West Coast bands Death Sentence and Beyond Possession. Other notable Canadian thrash metal bands include Infernäl Mäjesty, Anonymus, Eudoxis, Piledriver, Slaughter, DBC and Obliveon.
Australian thrash metal: While not considered a "major" part of the worldwide thrash metal scene due to distance from the major Bay Area and Teutonic scenes, Australian thrash metal has had a fairly substantial following in overseas markets, while local audiences have always been difficult to gather. The most notable Australian thrash metal bands from the 1980s are Mortal Sin, Nothing Sacred and Hobbs' Angel of Death. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_London | City of London | The City of London (often known as the City or the Square Mile) is a city, ceremonial county and local government district in England. Established by the Romans around 47 AD as Londinium, it forms the historic centre of the wider London metropolis. Surrounded by the modern ceremonial county of Greater London, from which it remains separate, the City is a unique local authority area governed by the City of London Corporation, which is led by the Lord Mayor of London; although it forms part of the region governed by the Greater London Authority.
Nicknamed the Square Mile, the City of London has an area of 1.12 sq mi (716.80 acres; 2.90 km2), making it the smallest city in the United Kingdom by area. It had a population of 8,583 at the 2021 census, however over 500,000 people were employed in the area as of 2019.
Together with Canary Wharf and the West End, the City of London forms the primary central business district of London, which is one of the leading financial centres of the world. The Bank of England and the London Stock Exchange are both based in the City. The insurance industry also has a major presence in the area, and the presence of the Inns of Court on the City's western boundary has made it a centre for the legal profession.
The present City of London constituted the majority of London from its settlement by the Romans in the 1st century AD to the Middle Ages, with only areas within its boundaries being considered London until expansion. It contains several historic sites, including St Paul's Cathedral, the Royal Exchange, Mansion House, Guildhall, the Old Bailey, Smithfield Market, the Monument to the Great Fire of London, and the remains of the ancient London Wall.
== History ==
=== Origins ===
The Roman legions established a settlement known as "Londinium" on the current site of the City of London around AD 43. Its bridge over the River Thames turned the city into a road nexus and major port, serving as a major commercial centre in Roman Britain until its abandonment during the 5th century. Archaeologist Leslie Wallace notes that, because extensive archaeological excavation has not revealed any signs of a significant pre-Roman presence, "arguments for a purely Roman foundation of London are now common and uncontroversial."
At its height, the Roman city had a population of approximately 45,000–60,000 inhabitants. Londinium was an ethnically diverse city, with inhabitants from across the Roman Empire, including natives of Britannia, continental Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. The Romans built the London Wall some time between AD 190 and 225. The boundaries of the Roman city were similar to those of the City of London today, though the City extends further west than Londinium's Ludgate, and the Thames was undredged and thus wider than it is today, with Londinium's shoreline slightly north of the City's present shoreline. The Romans built a bridge across the river, as early as AD 50, near to today's London Bridge.
=== Decline ===
By the time the London Wall was constructed, the City's fortunes were in decline, and it faced problems of plague and fire. The Roman Empire entered a long period of instability and decline, including the Carausian Revolt in Britain. In the 3rd and 4th centuries, the City was under attack from Picts, Scots, and Saxon raiders. The decline continued, both for Londinium and the Empire, and in AD 410 the Romans withdrew entirely from Britain. Many of the Roman public buildings in Londinium by this time had fallen into decay and disuse, and gradually after the formal withdrawal the City became almost (if not, at times, entirely) uninhabited. The centre of trade and population moved away from the walled Londinium to Lundenwic ("London market"), a settlement to the west, roughly in the modern-day Strand/Aldwych/Covent Garden area.
=== Anglo-Saxon restoration ===
During the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy, the London area came in turn under the Kingdoms of Essex, Mercia, and later Wessex, though from the mid 8th century it was frequently under threat from raids by different groups including the Vikings.
Bede records that in AD 604 St Augustine consecrated Mellitus as the first bishop to the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of the East Saxons and their king, Sæberht. Sæberht's uncle and overlord, Æthelberht, king of Kent, built a church dedicated to St Paul in London, as the seat of the new bishop. It is assumed, although unproven, that this first Anglo-Saxon cathedral stood on the same site as the later medieval and the present cathedrals.
Alfred the Great, King of Wessex occupied and began the resettlement of the old Roman walled area, in 886, and appointed his son-in-law Earl Æthelred of Mercia over it as part of their reconquest of the Viking occupied parts of England. The refortified Anglo-Saxon settlement was known as ("London Fort", a borough). The historian Asser said that "Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the city of London splendidly ... and made it habitable once more." Alfred's "restoration" entailed reoccupying and refurbishing the nearly deserted Roman walled city, building quays along the Thames, and laying a new city street plan.
Alfred's taking of London and the rebuilding of the old Roman city was a turning point in history, not only as the permanent establishment of the City of London, but also as part of a unifying moment in early England, with Wessex becoming the dominant English kingdom and the repelling (to some degree) of the Viking occupation and raids. While London, and indeed England, were afterwards subjected to further periods of Viking and Danish raids and occupation, the establishment of the City of London and the Kingdom of England prevailed.
In the 10th century, Athelstan permitted eight mints to be established, compared with six in his capital, Winchester, indicating the wealth of the city. London Bridge, which had fallen into ruin following the Roman evacuation and abandonment of Londinium, was rebuilt by the Saxons, but was periodically destroyed by Viking raids and storms.
As the focus of trade and population was moved back to within the old Roman walls, the older Saxon settlement of Lundenwic was largely abandoned and gained the name of Ealdwic (the "old settlement"). The name survives today as Aldwych (the "old market-place"), a name of a street and an area of the City of Westminster between Westminster and the City of London.
=== Medieval era ===
Following the Battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror marched on London, reaching as far as Southwark, but failed to get across London Bridge or defeat the Londoners. He eventually crossed the River Thames at Wallingford, pillaging the land as he went. Rather than continuing the war, Edgar the Ætheling, Edwin of Mercia and Morcar of Northumbria surrendered at Berkhamsted. William granted the citizens of London a charter in 1075; the city was one of a few examples of the English retaining some authority. The city was not covered by the Domesday Book.
William built three castles around the city, to keep Londoners subdued:
Tower of London, which is still a major establishment.
Baynard's Castle, which no longer exists but gave its name to a city ward.
Montfichet's Tower or Castle on Ludgate Hill, which was dismantled and sold off in the 13th century.
Around 1132 the City was given the right to appoint its own sheriffs rather than having sheriffs appointed by the monarch. London's chosen sheriffs also served as the sheriffs for the county of Middlesex. This meant that the City and Middlesex were regarded as one administratively for addressing crime and keeping the peace (not that the county was a dependency of the city). London's sheriffs continued to serve Middlesex until the county was given its own sheriffs again following the Local Government Act 1888. By 1141 the whole body of the citizenry was considered to constitute a single community. This 'commune' was the origin of the City of London Corporation and the citizens gained the right to appoint, with the king's consent, a mayor in 1189, and to directly elect the mayor from 1215.
From medieval times, the City has been composed of 25 ancient wards, each headed by an alderman, who chairs Wardmotes, which still take place at least annually. A Folkmoot, for the whole of the City held at the outdoor cross of St Paul's Cathedral, was formerly also held. Many of the medieval offices and traditions continue to the present day, demonstrating the unique nature of the City and its Corporation.
In 1381, the Peasants' Revolt affected London. The rebels took the City and the Tower of London, but the rebellion ended after its leader, Wat Tyler, was killed during a confrontation that included Lord Mayor William Walworth. In 1450, rebel forces again occupied the City during Jack Cade's Rebellion before being ousted by London citizens following a bloody battle on London Bridge. In 1550, the area south of London Bridge in Southwark came under the control of the City with the establishment of the ward of Bridge Without.
The city was burnt severely on a number of occasions, the worst being in 1123 and in the Great Fire of London in 1666. Both of these fires were referred to as the Great Fire. After the fire of 1666, a number of plans were drawn up to remodel the city and its street pattern into a renaissance-style city with planned urban blocks, squares and boulevards. These plans were almost entirely not taken up, and the medieval street pattern re-emerged almost intact.
=== Early modern period ===
In the 1630s the Crown sought to have the Corporation of the City of London extend its jurisdiction to surrounding areas. In what is sometimes called the "great refusal", the Corporation said no to the King, which in part accounts for its unique government structure to the present.
By the late 16th century, London increasingly became a major centre for banking, international trade and commerce. The Royal Exchange was founded in 1565 by Sir Thomas Gresham as a centre of commerce for London's merchants, and gained Royal patronage in 1571. Although no longer used for its original purpose, its location at the corner of Cornhill and Threadneedle Street continues to be the geographical centre of the city's core of banking and financial services, with the Bank of England moving to its present site in 1734, opposite the Royal Exchange. Immediately to the south of Cornhill, Lombard Street was the location from 1691 of Lloyd's Coffee House, which became the world-leading insurance market. London's insurance sector continues to be based in the area, particularly in Lime Street.
In 1708, Christopher Wren's masterpiece, St Paul's Cathedral, was completed on his birthday. The first service had been held on 2 December 1697, more than 10 years earlier. It replaced the original St Paul's, which had been completely destroyed in the Great Fire of London, and is considered to be one of the finest cathedrals in Britain and a fine example of Baroque architecture.
=== Growth of London ===
The 18th century was a period of rapid growth for London, reflecting an increasing national population, the early stirrings of the Industrial Revolution, and London's role at the centre of the evolving British Empire. The urban area expanded beyond the borders of the City of London, most notably during this period towards the West End and Westminster.
Expansion continued and became more rapid by the beginning of the 19th century, with London growing in all directions. To the East the Port of London grew rapidly during the century, with the construction of many docks, needed as the Thames at the City could not cope with the volume of trade. The arrival of the railways and the Tube meant that London could expand over a much greater area. By the mid-19th century, with London still rapidly expanding in population and area, the City had already become only a small part of the wider metropolis.
=== 19th and 20th centuries ===
An attempt was made in 1894 with the Royal Commission on the Amalgamation of the City and County of London to end the distinction between the city and the surrounding County of London, but a change of government at Westminster meant the option was not taken up. The City as a distinct polity survived despite its position within the London conurbation and numerous local government reforms. Supporting this status, the city was a special parliamentary borough that elected four members to the unreformed House of Commons, who were retained after the Reform Act 1832; reduced to two under the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885; and ceased to be a separate constituency under the Representation of the People Act 1948. Since then the city is a minority (in terms of population and area) of the Cities of London and Westminster.
The City's population fell rapidly in the 19th century and through most of the 20th century, as people moved outwards in all directions to London's vast suburbs, and many residential buildings were demolished to make way for office blocks. Like many areas of London and other British cities, the City fell victim to large-scale and highly destructive aerial bombing during World War II, especially in the Blitz. Whilst St Paul's Cathedral survived the onslaught, large swathes of the area did not and the particularly heavy raids of late December 1940 led to a firestorm called the Second Great Fire of London.
There was a major rebuilding programme in the decades following the war, in some parts (such as at the Barbican) dramatically altering the urban landscape. But the destruction of the older historic fabric allowed the construction of modern and larger-scale developments, whereas in those parts not so badly affected by bomb damage the City retains its older character of smaller buildings. The street pattern, which is still largely medieval, was altered slightly in places, although there is a more recent trend of reversing some of the post-war modernist changes made, such as at Paternoster Square.
The City suffered terrorist attacks including the 1993 Bishopsgate bombing (IRA) and the 7 July 2005 London bombings (Islamist). In response to the 1993 bombing, a system of road barriers, checkpoints and surveillance cameras referred to as the "ring of steel" has been maintained to control entry points to the City.
The 1970s saw the construction of tall office buildings including the 600-foot (183 m), 47-storey NatWest Tower, the first skyscraper in the UK. By the 2010s, office space development had intensified in the City, especially in the central, northern and eastern parts, with skyscrapers including 30 St. Mary Axe ("the Gherkin"'), Leadenhall Building ("the Cheesegrater"), 20 Fenchurch Street ("the Walkie-Talkie"), the Broadgate Tower, the Heron Tower and 22 Bishopsgate.
The main residential section of the City today is the Barbican Estate, constructed between 1965 and 1976. The Museum of London was based there until December 2022 (it is due to reopen in West Smithfield in 2026), whilst a number of other services provided by the corporation are still maintained on the Barbican Estate.
== Governance ==
The City has a unique political status, a legacy of its uninterrupted integrity as a corporate city since the Anglo-Saxon period and its singular relationship with the Crown. Historically its system of government was not unusual, but it was not reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 and little changed by later reforms, so that it is the only local government in the UK where elections are not run on the basis of one vote for every adult citizen.
It is administered by the City of London Corporation, headed by the Lord Mayor of London (not to be confused with the separate Mayor of London, an office created only in the year 2000), which is responsible for a number of functions and has interests in land beyond the city's boundaries. Unlike other English local authorities, the corporation has two council bodies: the (now largely ceremonial) Court of Aldermen and the Court of Common Council. The Court of Aldermen represents the wards, with each ward (irrespective of size) returning one alderman. The chief executive of the Corporation holds the ancient office of Town Clerk of London.
The City is a ceremonial county which has a Commission of Lieutenancy headed by the Lord Mayor instead of a Lord-Lieutenant and has two Sheriffs instead of a High Sheriff (see list of Sheriffs of London), quasi-judicial offices appointed by the livery companies, an ancient political system based on the representation and protection of trades (craft guilds). Senior members of the livery companies are known as liverymen and form the Common Hall, which chooses the lord mayor, the sheriffs and certain other officers.
=== Wards ===
The City is made up of 25 wards. They are survivors of the medieval government system that allowed a very local area to exist as a self-governing unit within the wider city. They can be described as electoral/political divisions; ceremonial, geographic and administrative entities; sub-divisions of the city. Each ward has an Alderman, who until the mid-1960s held office for life but since put themselves up for re-election at least every six years, and are the only directly elected Aldermen in the United Kingdom. Wards continue to have a Beadle, an ancient position which is now largely ceremonial and whose main remaining function is the running of an annual Wardmote of electors, representatives and officials. At the Wardmote the ward's Alderman appoints at least one Deputy for the year ahead, and Wardmotes are also held during elections. Each ward also has a Ward Club, which is similar to a residents' association.
The wards are ancient and their number have changed three times:
in 1394 Farringdon was divided into Farringdon Within and Farringdon Without
in 1550 the ward of Bridge Without, south of the river, was created, the ward of Bridge becoming Bridge Within;
in 1978 these Bridge wards were merged as Bridge ward.
Following boundary changes in 1994, and later reform of the business vote in the City, there was a major boundary and electoral representation revision of the wards in 2003, and they were reviewed again in 2010 for change in 2013, though not to such a dramatic extent. The review was conducted by senior officers of the corporation and senior judges of the Old Bailey; the wards are reviewed by this process to avoid malapportionment. The procedure of review is unique in the United Kingdom as it is not conducted by the Electoral Commission or a local government boundary commission every eight to 12 years, which is the case for all other wards in Great Britain. Particular churches, livery company halls and other historic buildings and structures are associated with a ward, such as St Paul's Cathedral with Castle Baynard, and London Bridge with Bridge; boundary changes in 2003 removed some of these historic connections.
Each ward elects an alderman to the Court of Aldermen, and commoners (the City equivalent of a councillor) to the Court of Common Council of the corporation. Only electors who are Freemen of the City of London are eligible to stand. The number of commoners a ward sends to the Common Council varies from two to ten, depending on the number of electors in each ward. Since the 2003 review it has been agreed that the four more residential wards: Portsoken, Queenhithe, Aldersgate and Cripplegate together elect 20 of the 100 commoners, whereas the business-dominated remainder elect the remaining 80 commoners. Boundary changes in 2003 and 2013 have increased the residential emphasis of the mentioned four wards.
Census data provides eight nominal rather than 25 real wards, all of varying size and population. Being subject to renaming and definition at any time, these census 'wards' are notable in that four of the eight wards accounted for 67% of the 'square mile' and held 86% of the population, and these were in fact similar to and named after four City of London wards:
=== Elections ===
The City has a unique electoral system. Most of its voters are representatives of businesses and other bodies that occupy premises in the city. Its ancient wards have very unequal numbers of voters. In elections, both the businesses based in the city and the residents of the City vote.
The City of London Corporation was not reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, because it had a more extensive electoral franchise than any other borough or city; in fact, it widened this further with its own equivalent legislation allowing one to become a freeman without being a liveryman. In 1851, the city had a population of 127,869, but increasing development of the city as a central business district led to this falling to 26,923 in 1901 and to 5,234 in 1951. It has risen slightly to around 9,000 since, largely due to the development of the Barbican Estate. In 2009, the business vote was about 24,000, greatly exceeding residential voters. As the City of London Corporation has not been affected by other municipal legislation over the period of time since then, its electoral practice has become increasingly anomalous. Uniquely for city or borough elections, its elections remain independent-dominated.
The business or "non-residential vote" was abolished in other UK local council elections by the Representation of the People Act 1969, but was preserved in the City of London. The principal reason given by successive UK governments for retaining this mechanism for giving businesses representation, is that the City is "primarily a place for doing business". About 330,000 non-residents constitute the day-time population and use most of its services, far outnumbering residents, who number around 7,000 (2011). By contrast, opponents of the retention of the business vote argue that it is a cause of institutional inertia.
The City of London (Ward Elections) Act 2002 (c. vi), a local act of Parliament, reformed the voting system and greatly increased the business franchise, allowing many more businesses to be represented. Under the new system, the number of non-resident voters has doubled from 16,000 to 32,000. Previously disenfranchised firms (and other organisations) are entitled to nominate voters, in addition to those already represented, and all such bodies are now required to choose their voters in a representative fashion. Bodies employing fewer than 10 people may appoint one voter; those employing 10 to 50 people one voter for every five employees; those employing more than 50 people 10 voters and one additional voter for each 50 employees beyond the first 50. The Act also changed other aspects of an earlier act relating to elections in the City, from 1957.
=== The Temple ===
Inner Temple and Middle Temple (which neighbour each other) in the western ward of Farringdon Without are within the boundaries and liberties of the City, but can be thought of as independent enclaves. They are two of the few remaining liberties, an old name for a geographic division with special rights. They are extra-parochial areas, historically not governed by the City of London Corporation (and are today regarded as local authorities for most purposes) and equally outside the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Bishop of London.
=== Other functions ===
Within the City, the Corporation owns and runs both Smithfield Market and Leadenhall Market. It owns land beyond its boundaries, including open spaces (parks, forests and commons) in and around Greater London, including most of Epping Forest and Hampstead Heath. The Corporation owns Old Spitalfields Market and Billingsgate Fish Market, in the neighbouring London Borough of Tower Hamlets. It owns and helps fund the Old Bailey, the Central Criminal Court for England and Wales, as a gift to the nation, having begun as the City and Middlesex Sessions. The Honourable The Irish Society, a body closely linked with the Corporation, also owns many public spaces in Northern Ireland.
The City has its own independent police force, the City of London Police, the Common Council (the main body of the corporation) is the police authority. The corporation also run the Hampstead Heath Constabulary, Epping Forest Keepers and the City of London market constabularies (whose members are no longer attested as constables but retain the historic title). The majority of Greater London is policed by the Metropolitan Police Service, based at New Scotland Yard.
The City has one hospital, St Bartholomew's Hospital, also known as 'Barts'. Founded in 1123, it is located at Smithfield, and is undergoing a long-awaited regeneration after doubts as to its continuing use during the 1990s.
The City is the third largest UK patron of the arts. It oversees the Barbican Centre and subsidises several important performing arts companies.
The London Port Health Authority, which is the responsibility of the Corporation, is responsible for all port health functions on the tidal part of the Thames, including the Port of London and related seaports, and London City Airport. The Corporation oversees the Bridge House Estates, which maintains Blackfriars Bridge, Millennium Bridge, Southwark Bridge, London Bridge and Tower Bridge. The City's flag flies over Tower Bridge, although neither footing is in the City.
=== The boundary of the City ===
The size of the City was constrained by a defensive perimeter wall, known as London Wall, which was built by the Romans in the late 2nd century to protect their strategic port city. However the boundaries of the City of London no longer coincide with the old city wall, as the City expanded its jurisdiction slightly over time. During the medieval era, the City's jurisdiction expanded westwards, crossing the River Fleet, the historic western border of the original settlement, which was the along Fleet Street to Temple Bar. The City also took in the other "City bars" which were situated just beyond the old walled area, such as at Holborn, Aldersgate, West Smithfield, Bishopsgate and Aldgate. These were the important entrances to the City and their control was vital in maintaining the City's special privileges over certain trades.
Most of the wall has disappeared, but several sections remain visible. A section near what later became the Museum of London was revealed after the devastation of an air raid on 29 December 1940 at the height of the Blitz. Other visible sections are at St Alphage, and there are two sections near the Tower of London. The River Fleet was canalised after the Great Fire of 1666 and then in stages was bricked up and has been since the 18th century one of London's "lost rivers or streams", today underground as a storm drain.
The boundary of the City was unchanged until minor boundary changes on 1 April 1994, when it expanded slightly to the west, north and east, taking small parcels of land from the City of Westminster, the Camden, the Islington, the Hackney and the Tower Hamlets. The main purpose of these changes was to tidy up the boundary where it had been rendered obsolete by changes in the urban landscape. In this process the City also lost small parcels of land, though there was an overall net gain (the City grew from 1.05 to 1.12 square miles). Most notably, the changes placed the (then recently developed) Broadgate estate entirely within the City.
Southwark, to the south of the City on the other side of the Thames, was within the City between 1550 and 1899 as the Ward of Bridge Without, a situation connected with the Guildable Manor. The City's administrative responsibility there had in practice disappeared by the mid-Victorian period as various aspects of metropolitan government were extended into the neighbouring areas. Today it is part of the London Borough of Southwark. The Tower of London has always been outside the City and comes under the London Borough of Tower Hamlets.
=== Arms, motto and flag ===
The Corporation of the City of London has a full achievement of armorial bearings consisting of a shield on which the arms are displayed, a crest displayed on a helm above the shield, supporters on either side and a motto displayed on a scroll beneath the arms.
The coat of arms is "anciently recorded" at the College of Arms. The arms consist of a silver shield bearing a red cross with a red upright sword in the first quarter. They combine the emblems of the patron saints of England and London: the Cross of St George with the symbol of the martyrdom of Saint Paul. The sword is often erroneously supposed to commemorate the killing of Peasants' Revolt leader Wat Tyler by Lord Mayor of London William Walworth. However, the arms were in use some months before Tyler's death, and the tradition that Walworth's dagger is depicted may date from the late 17th century.
The Latin motto of the city is "Domine dirige nos", which translates as "Lord, direct us". It is thought to have been adopted in the 17th century, as the earliest record of it is in 1633.
A banner of the arms (the design on the shield) is flown as a flag.
== Geography ==
The City of London is the smallest ceremonial county of England by area and population, and the fourth most densely populated. Of the 326 English districts, it is the second smallest by population, after the Isles of Scilly, and the smallest by area. It is also the smallest English city by population (and in Britain, only two cities in Wales are smaller), and the smallest in the UK by area.
The elevation of the City ranges from sea level at the Thames to 21.6 metres (71 ft) at the junction of High Holborn and Chancery Lane. Two small but notable hills are within the historic core, Ludgate Hill to the west and Cornhill to the east. Between them ran the Walbrook, one of the many "lost" rivers or streams of London (another is the Fleet).
=== Boundary ===
Beginning in the west, where the City borders Westminster, the boundary crosses the Victoria Embankment from the Thames, passes to the west of Middle Temple, then turns for a short distance along the Strand and near Temple Bar then north up Chancery Lane, where it borders Camden. It turns east along Holborn to Holborn Circus and then goes northeast to Charterhouse Street. As it crosses Farringdon Road it becomes the boundary with Islington. It continues to Aldersgate, goes north, and turns east into some back streets soon after Aldersgate becomes Goswell Road, since 1994 embracing all of the corporation's Golden Lane Estate. Here, at Baltic Street West, is the most northerly extent. The boundary includes all of the Barbican Estate and continues east along Ropemaker Street and its continuation on the other side of Moorgate, becomes South Place. It goes north, reaching the border with Hackney, then east, north, east on back streets, with Worship Street forming a northern boundary, so as to include the Broadgate estate. The boundary then turns south at Norton Folgate and becomes the border with Tower Hamlets. It continues south into Bishopsgate, and takes some backstreets to Middlesex Street (Petticoat Lane) where it continues south-east then south. It then turns south-west, crossing the Minories so as to exclude the Tower of London, and then reaches the Thames.
The boundary then runs up the centre of the low-tide channel of the Thames, with the exception that Blackfriars Bridge (including the river beneath and land at its south end) is entirely part of the City, making the City and Borough of Richmond upon Thames the only London districts to span north and south of the river. The span and southern abutment of London Bridge is part of the city for some purposes (and as such is part of Bridge ward).
The boundaries are marked by black bollards bearing the city's emblem, and by dragon boundary marks at major entrances, such as Holborn and the south end of London Bridge. A more substantial monument marks the boundary at Temple Bar on Fleet Street.
In some places, the financial district extends slightly beyond the boundaries, notably to the north and east, into the London boroughs of Tower Hamlets, Hackney and Islington, and informally these locations are regarded as being part of the "Square Mile". Since the 1990s the eastern fringe, extending into Hackney and Tower Hamlets, has increasingly been a focus for large office developments due to the availability of large sites compared to within the city.
=== Gardens and public art ===
The city has no sizeable parks within its boundary, but does have a network of a large number of gardens and small open spaces, many of them maintained by the corporation. These range from formal gardens such as the one in Finsbury Circus, containing a bowling green and bandstand, to churchyards such as St Olave Hart Street, to water features and artwork in courtyards and pedestrianised lanes.
Gardens include:
Barber-Surgeon's Hall Garden, London Wall
Cleary Garden, Queen Victoria Street
Finsbury Circus, Blomfield Street/London Wall/Moorgate
Jubilee Garden, Houndsditch
Portsoken Street Garden, Portsoken Street/Goodman's Yard
Postman's Park, Little Britain
Seething Lane Garden, Seething Lane
St Dunstan-in-the-East, St Dunstan's Hill
St Mary Aldermanbury, Aldermanbury
St Olave Hart Street churchyard, Seething Lane
St Paul's churchyard, St Paul's Cathedral
West Smithfield Garden, West Smithfield
Whittington Gardens, College Street
There are a number of private gardens and open spaces, often within courtyards of the larger commercial developments. Two of the largest are those of the Inner Temple and Middle Temple Inns of Court, in the far southwest.
The Thames and its riverside walks are increasingly being valued as open space and in recent years efforts have been made to increase the ability for pedestrians to access and walk along the river.
=== Climate ===
The nearest weather station has historically been the London Weather Centre at Kingsway/ Holborn, although observations ceased in 2010. Now St. James Park provides the nearest official readings.
The city has an oceanic climate (Köppen "Cfb") modified by the urban heat island in the centre of London. This generally causes higher night-time minima than outlying areas. For example, the August mean minimum of 14.7 °C (58.5 °F) compares to a figure of 13.3 °C (55.9 °F) for Greenwich and Heathrow whereas is 11.6 °C (52.9 °F) at Wisley in the middle of several square miles of Metropolitan Green Belt. All figures refer to the observation period 1971–2000.
Accordingly, the weather station holds the record for the UK's warmest overnight minimum temperature, 24.0 °C (75.2 °F), recorded on 4 August 1990. The maximum is 37.6 °C (99.7 °F), set on 10 August 2003. The absolute minimum for the weather station is a mere −8.2 °C (17.2 °F), compared to readings around −15.0 °C (5.0 °F) towards the edges of London. Unusually, this temperature was during a windy and snowy cold spell (mid-January 1987), rather than a cold clear night, cold air drainage is arrested due to the vast urban area surrounding the city.
The station holds the record for the highest British mean monthly temperature, 24.5 °C (76.1 °F) (mean maximum 29.2 °C (84.6 °F), mean minimum 19.7 °C (67.5 °F) during July 2006). However, in terms of daytime maximum temperatures, Cambridge NIAB and Botanical Gardens with a mean maximum of 29.1 °C (84.4 °F), and Heathrow with 29.0 °C (84.2 °F) all exceeded this.
== Public services ==
=== Police and security ===
The city is a police area and has its own police force, the City of London Police, separate from the Metropolitan Police Service covering the majority of Greater London. The City Police previously had three police stations, at Snow Hill, Wood Street and Bishopsgate. They now only retain Bishopsgate along with an administrative headquarters at Guildhall Yard East. The force comprises 735 police officers including 273 detectives. It is the smallest territorial police force in England and Wales, in both geographic area and the number of police officers.
Where the majority of British police forces have silver-coloured badges, those of the City of London Police are black and gold featuring the City crest. The force has rare red and white chequered cap bands and unique red and white striped duty arm bands on the sleeves of the tunics of constables and sergeants (red and white being the colours of the city), which in most other British police forces are black and white. City police sergeants and constables wear crested custodian helmets whilst on foot patrol. These helmets do not feature either St Edward's Crown or the Brunswick Star, which are used on most other police helmets in England and Wales.
The city's position as the United Kingdom's financial centre and a critical part of the country's economy, contributing about 2.5% of the UK's gross national product, has resulted in it becoming a target for political violence. The Provisional IRA exploded several bombs in the early 1990s, including the 1993 Bishopsgate bombing.
The area is also spoken of as a possible target for al-Qaeda. For instance, when in May 2004 the BBC's Panorama programme examined the preparedness of Britain's emergency services for a terrorist attack on the scale of the 11 September 2001 attacks, they simulated a chemical explosion on Bishopsgate in the east of the city. The "Ring of Steel" was established in the wake of the IRA bombings to guard against terrorist threats.
=== Fire brigade ===
The city has fire risks in many historic buildings, including St Paul's Cathedral, Old Bailey, Mansion House, Smithfield Market, the Guildhall, and also in numerous high-rise buildings. There is one London Fire Brigade station in the city, at Dowgate, with one pumping appliance. The City relies upon stations in the surrounding London boroughs to support it at some incidents. The first fire engine is in attendance in roughly five minutes on average, the second when required in a little over five and a half minutes. There were 1,814 incidents attended in the City in 2006/2007, the lowest in Greater London.
=== Power ===
There is a power station located in Charterhouse Street that also provides heat to some of the surrounding buildings.
== Demography ==
The Office for National Statistics recorded the population in 2011 as 7,375; slightly higher than in the previous census, 2001, and estimates the population as at mid-2016 to be 9,401. At the 2001 census the ethnic composition was 84.6% White, 6.8% South Asian, 2.6% Black, 2.3% Mixed, 2.0% Chinese and 1.7% were listed as "other". The population was between 120,000 and 140,000 in the first half of the 19th century, decreasing dramatically from 1851 to 1991, with a small increase between 1991 and 2001. The only notable boundary change since the first census in 1801 occurred in 1994.
The city's full-time working residents have much higher gross weekly pay than in London and Great Britain (England, Wales and Scotland): £773.30 compared to £598.60 and £491.00 respectively. There is a large inequality of income between genders (£1,085.90 in men compared to £653.50 in women), and this can be explained by job type and length of employment respectively. The 2001 Census showed the city as a unique district amongst 376 districts surveyed in England and Wales. The city had the highest proportional population increase, one-person households, people with qualifications at degree level or higher and the highest indications of overcrowding. It recorded the lowest proportion of households with cars or vans, people who travel to work by car, married couple households and the lowest average household size: just 1.58 people. It also ranked highest within the Greater London area for the percentage of people with no religion and people who are employed.
=== Demographic Breakdown of the City of London (1981–2021) ===
== Economy ==
The City of London vies with New York City's Lower Manhattan for the distinction of the world's pre-eminent financial centre. The London Stock Exchange (shares and bonds), Lloyd's of London (insurance) and the Bank of England are all based in the city. Over 500 banks have offices in the city. The Alternative Investment Market, a market for trades in equities of smaller firms, is a recent development. In 2009, the City of London accounted for 2.4% of UK GDP.
London's foreign exchange market has been described by Reuters as 'the crown jewel of London's financial sector'. Of the $3.98 trillion daily global turnover, as measured in 2009, trading in London accounted for around $1.85 trillion, or 46.7% of the total. The pound sterling, the currency of the United Kingdom, is globally the fourth-most traded currency and the fourth most held reserve currency.
Canary Wharf, a few miles east of the City in Tower Hamlets, which houses many banks and other institutions formerly located in the Square Mile, has since 1991 become another centre for London's financial services industry. Although growth has continued in both locations, and there have been relocations in both directions, the Corporation has come to realise that its planning policies may have been causing financial firms to choose Canary Wharf as a location.
In 2022, 12.3% of City of London residents had been granted non-domicile status in order to avoid their paying tax in the UK.
=== Headquarters ===
Many major global companies have their headquarters in the city, including Aviva, BT Group, Lloyds Banking Group, Quilter, Prudential, Schroders, Standard Chartered, and Unilever.
A number of the world's largest law firms are headquartered in the city, including four of the Magic Circle law firms (Allen & Overy, Freshfields Bruckhaus Deringer, Linklaters and Slaughter & May), as well as other firms such as Ashurst, DLA Piper, Eversheds Sutherland, Herbert Smith Freehills and Hogan Lovells.
=== Other sectors ===
Whilst the financial sector, and related businesses and institutions, continue to dominate, the economy is not limited to that sector. The legal profession has a strong presence, especially in the west and north (i.e., towards the Inns of Court). Retail businesses were once important, but have gradually moved to the West End of London, though it is now Corporation policy to encourage retailing in some locations, for example at Cheapside near St Paul's. The city has a number of visitor attractions, mainly based on its historic heritage as well as the Barbican Centre and adjacent Museum of London, though tourism is not at present a major contributor to the city's economy or character. The city has many pubs, bars and restaurants, and the "night-time" economy does feature in the Bishopsgate area, towards Shoreditch. The meat market at Smithfield, wholly within the city, continues to be one of London's main markets (the only one remaining in central London) and the country's largest meat market. In the east is Leadenhall Market, a fresh food market that is also a visitor attraction.
=== Retail and residential ===
The trend for purely office development is beginning to reverse as the Corporation encourages residential use, albeit with development occurring when it arises on windfall sites. The city has a target of 90 additional dwellings per year. Some of the extra accommodation is in small pre-World War II listed buildings, which are not suitable for occupation by the large companies which now provide much of the city's employment. Recent residential developments include "the Heron", a high-rise residential building on the Milton Court site adjacent to the Barbican, and the Heron Plaza development on Bishopsgate is also expected to include residential parts.
Since the 1990s, the City has diversified away from near exclusive office use in other ways. For example, several hotels and the first department store opened in the 2000s. A shopping centre was more recently opened at One New Change, Cheapside (near St Paul's Cathedral) in October 2010, which is open seven days a week. However, large sections remain quiet at weekends, especially in the eastern section, and it is quite common to find shops, pubs and cafes closed on these days.
== Landmarks ==
=== Historic buildings ===
Fire, bombing and post-World War II redevelopment have meant that the city, despite its history, has fewer intact historic structures than one might expect. Nonetheless, there remain many dozens of (mostly Victorian and Edwardian) fine buildings, typically in historicist and neoclassical style. They include the Monument to the Great Fire of London ("the Monument"), St Paul's Cathedral, the Guildhall, the Royal Exchange, Dr. Johnson's House, Mansion House and a great many churches, many designed by Sir Christopher Wren, who also designed St Paul's.
Prince Henry's Room and 2 King's Bench Walk are notable historic survivors of heavy bombing of the Temple area, which has largely been rebuilt to its historic form. Another example of a bomb-damaged place having been restored is Staple Inn on Holborn. A few small sections of the Roman London Wall exist, for example near the Tower of London and in the Barbican area. Among the twentieth-century listed buildings are Bracken House, the first post World War II buildings in the country to be given statutory protection, and the whole of the Barbican and Golden Lane Estate.
The Tower of London is not in the city, but is a notable visitor attraction which brings tourists to the southeast of the city. Other landmark buildings with historical significance include the Bank of England, the Old Bailey, the Custom House, Smithfield Market, Leadenhall Market and St Bartholomew's Hospital. Noteworthy contemporary buildings include a number of modern high-rise buildings (see section below) as well as the Lloyd's building.
=== Skyscrapers and tall buildings ===
Completed
A growing number of tall buildings and skyscrapers are principally used by the financial sector. Almost all are situated in the eastern side around Bishopsgate, Leadenhall Street and Fenchurch Street, in the financial core of the city. In the north there is a smaller cluster comprising the Barbican Estate's three tall residential towers and the commercial CityPoint tower. In 2007, the 100 m (328 ft) tall Drapers' Gardens building was demolished and replaced by a shorter tower.
The city's buildings of at least 100 m (328 ft) in height are:
Timeline
The timeline of the tallest building in the city is as follows:
== Transport ==
=== Rail and Tube ===
The city is well served by the London Underground ("tube") and National Rail networks.
Seven London Underground lines serve the city; the underground stations include:
Aldgate
Bank and Monument
Barbican
Blackfriars
Cannon Street
Chancery Lane
Liverpool Street
Mansion House
Moorgate
St. Paul's
In addition, Aldgate East ( ), Farringdon ( ), Temple ( ) and Tower Hill ( ) tube stations are all situated within metres of the City of London boundary.
The Docklands Light Railway (DLR ) has two termini in the city: Bank and Tower Gateway. The DLR links the City directly to the East End. Destinations include Canary Wharf and London City Airport.
The Elizabeth line (constructed by the Crossrail project) runs east–west underneath the City of London. The line serves two stations in or very near the City – Farringdon and Liverpool Street – which additionally serves the Barbican and Moorgate areas. Elizabeth line services link the City directly to destinations such as Canary Wharf, Heathrow Airport, and the M4 Corridor high-technology hub (serving Slough and Reading).
The city is served by a frequent Thameslink rail service which runs north–south through London. Thameslink services call at Farringdon, City Thameslink, and London Blackfriars. This provides the city with a direct link to key destinations across London, including Elephant & Castle, London Bridge, and St Pancras International (for the Eurostar to mainland Europe). There are also regular, direct trains from these stations to major destinations across East Anglia and the South East, including Bedford, Brighton, Cambridge, Gatwick Airport, Luton Airport, and Peterborough.
There are several "London Terminals" in the city:
London Blackfriars – Thameslink services and some Southeastern services to South East London and Kent.
London Cannon Street – Southeastern services to South East London and Kent.
London Fenchurch Street – c2c services along the Thames Estuary towards East London, south Essex, and Southend.
London Liverpool Street – Greater Anglia and some c2c services towards destinations in East London and East Anglia, including Stratford, Cambridge, Chelmsford, Ipswich, Norwich, Southend, and Southend Airport. Stansted Express to Stansted Airport. London Overground () to destinations in north and east London including Hackney Downs, Seven Sisters, Walthamstow, Chingford, Enfield, and Cheshunt.
Moorgate – Great Northern towards Finsbury Park, Enfield, and other destinations in North London and Hertfordshire, including Hertford and Welwyn Garden City.
All stations in the city are in London fare zone 1.
=== Road ===
The national A1, A10 A3, A4, and A40 road routes begin in the city. The city is in the London congestion charge zone, with the small exception on the eastern boundary of the sections of the A1210/A1211 that are part of the Inner Ring Road. The following bridges, listed west to east (downstream), cross the River Thames: Blackfriars Bridge, Blackfriars Railway Bridge, Millennium Bridge (footbridge), Southwark Bridge, Cannon Street Railway Bridge and London Bridge; Tower Bridge is not in the city. The city, like most of central London, is well served by buses, including night buses. Two bus stations are in the city, at Aldgate on the eastern boundary with Tower Hamlets, and at Liverpool Street by the railway station.
However although the London Road Traffic Act 1924 removed from existing local authorities the powers to prevent the development of road passengers transport services within the London Metropolitan Area, the City of London retained most such powers. As a consequence, neither Trolleybus nor Green Line Coach services were permitted to enter the City to pick up or set down passengers. Hence the building of Aldgate (Minories) Trolleybus and Coach station as well as the complex terminal arrangements at Parliament Hill Fields. This restriction was removed by the Transport Act 1985.
=== Cycling ===
Cycling infrastructure in the city is maintained by the City of London Corporation and Transport for London (TfL).
Cycle Superhighway 1 runs from Tottenham to the city. It is a signposted cycle route, passing through Stoke Newington and Hackney before entering the City south of Old Street.
Cycle Superhighway 2 runs from Stratford to the city, via Bow, Mile End, and Whitechapel. The route enters the city near Aldgate. The route runs primarily on segregated cycle track.
Cycleway 3 is an east–west bike freeway through the city. The route runs along the southern rim of the city, following the route of the Thames. Eastbound, Cycleway 3 provides cyclists with a direct, signposted cycle link to Shadwell, Poplar and Canary Wharf, and Barking. The route runs Westbound on traffic-free track to Lancaster Gate via Parliament Square, Buckingham Palace, and Hyde Park.
Cycleway 6 runs north–south through the city on traffic-free cycle track. The track passes Farringdon Station, the Holborn Viaduct, Ludgate Circus, Blackfriars station, and Blackfriars Bridge. Northbound, the route passes through Clerkenwell, Bloomsbury, King's Cross, and Kentish Town. The route southbound carries cyclists to Elephant and Castle.
Cycle Superhighway 7 begins in the City at an interchange with Cycleway 3. It leaves the City over Southwark Bridge and provides cyclists with an unbroken, signposted route to Colliers Wood via Elephant and Castle, Clapham, and Tooting, amongst other destinations.
Quietway 11 is a northbound continuation of Cycleway 7. It is a signposted cycle route which runs from Southwark Bridge to Hoxton, via the Barbican and Moorgate.
The Sandander Cycles and Beryl bike sharing systems operate in the City of London.
=== River ===
One London River Services pier is on the Thames in the city, Blackfriars Millennium Pier, though the Tower Millennium Pier lies adjacent to the boundary near the Tower of London. One of the Port of London's 25 safeguarded wharves, Walbrook Wharf, is adjacent to Cannon Street station, and is used by the corporation to transfer waste via the river. Swan Lane Pier, just upstream of London Bridge, is proposed to be replaced and upgraded for regular passenger services, planned to take place in 2012–2015. Before then, Tower Pier is to be extended.
There is a public riverside walk along the river bank, part of the Thames Path, which opened in stages – the route within the city was completed by the opening of a stretch at Queenhithe in 2023. The walk along Walbrook Wharf is closed to pedestrians when waste is being transferred onto barges.
=== Travel to work (by residents) ===
According to a survey conducted in March 2011, the methods by which employed residents 16–74 get to work varied widely: 48.4% go on foot; 19.5% via light rail, (i.e. the Underground, DLR, etc.); 9.2% work mainly from home; 5.8% take the train; 5.6% travel by bus, minibus, or coach; and 5.3% go by bicycle; with just 3.4% commuting by car or van, as driver or passenger.
== Education ==
The city is home to a number of higher education institutions including: the Guildhall School of Music and Drama, the Cass Business School, The London Institute of Banking & Finance and parts of three of the universities in London: the Maughan Library of King's College London on Chancery Lane, the business school of London Metropolitan University, and a campus of the University of Chicago Booth School of Business. The College of Law has its London campus in Moorgate. Part of Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry is on the Barts hospital site at West Smithfield.
The city has only one directly maintained primary school, The Aldgate School (formerly Sir John Cass's Foundation Primary School) at Aldgate (ages 4 to 11). It is a Voluntary-Aided (VA) Church of England school, maintained by the Education Service of the City of London.
City residents send their children to schools in neighbouring Local Education Authorities, such as Islington, Tower Hamlets, Westminster and Southwark.
The City controls three independent schools, City of London School (a boys' school) and City of London School for Girls in the city, and the City of London Freemen's School (co-educational day and boarding) in Ashtead, Surrey. The City of London School for Girls and City of London Freemen's School have their own preparatory departments for entrance at age seven. It is the principal sponsor of The City Academy, Hackney, City of London Academy Islington, and City of London Academy, Southwark.
=== Public libraries ===
Libraries operated by the Corporation include three lending libraries; Barbican Library, Shoe Lane Library and Artizan Street Library and Community Centre. Membership is open to all – with one official proof of address required to join.
Guildhall Library, and City Business Library are also public reference libraries, specialising in the history of London and business reference resources.
== Money laundering ==
The City of London's role in illicit financial activity such as money laundering has earned the financial hub sobriquets such as 'The Laundromat' and 'Londongrad'.
In May 2024, the UK's then deputy foreign secretary, Andrew Mitchell, said that 40% of the dirty money in the world goes through London and crown dependencies. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlantic | The Atlantic | The Atlantic is an American magazine and multi-platform publisher based in Washington, D.C. It features articles on politics, foreign affairs, business and the economy, culture and the arts, technology, and science.
It was founded in 1857 in Boston as The Atlantic Monthly, a literary and cultural magazine that published leading writers' commentary on education, the abolition of slavery, and other major political issues of that time. Its founders included Francis H. Underwood and prominent writers W. E. B. Du Bois, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Harriet Beecher Stowe, and John Greenleaf Whittier. James Russell Lowell was its first editor. During the 19th and 20th centuries, the magazine also published the annual The Atlantic Monthly Almanac. The magazine was purchased in 1999 by businessman David G. Bradley, who fashioned it into a general editorial magazine primarily aimed at serious national readers and "thought leaders"; in 2017, he sold a majority interest in the publication to Laurene Powell Jobs's Emerson Collective.
The magazine was published monthly until 2001, when 11 issues were produced; since 2003, it has published 10 per year. It dropped "Monthly" from the cover with the January/February 2004 issue, and officially changed the name in 2007. In 2024, it announced that it will resume publishing monthly issues in 2025. In 2016, the periodical was named Magazine of the Year by the American Society of Magazine Editors. In 2022, its writers won Pulitzer Prizes for feature writing and, in 2022, 2023, and 2024 The Atlantic won the award for general excellence by the American Society of Magazine Editors. In 2024, it was reported that the magazine had crossed one million subscribers and become profitable, three years after losing $20 million in a single year and laying off 17% of its staff.
As of 2024, the website's executive editor is Adrienne LaFrance, the editor-in-chief is Jeffrey Goldberg, and the CEO is Nicholas Thompson. According to a 2025 Pew Research Center study on educational differences among audiences of 30 major U.S. news outlets, The Atlantic had the highest proportion of college-educated readers, with 62% of its audience holding at least a bachelor's degree.
== Founding ==
=== 19th century ===
In the autumn of 1857, Moses Dresser Phillips, a publisher from Boston, created The Atlantic Monthly. The plan for the magazine was launched at a dinner party at the Parker House Hotel in Boston, which was described in a letter by Phillips:
I must tell you about a little dinner-party I gave about two weeks ago. It would be proper, perhaps, to state the origin of it was a desire to confer with my literary friends on a somewhat extensive literary project, the particulars of which I shall reserve till you come. But to the Party: My invitations included only R. W. Emerson, H. W. Longfellow, J. R. Lowell, Mr. Motley (the 'Dutch Republic' man), O. W. Holmes, Mr. Cabot, and Mr. Underwood, our literary man. Imagine your uncle as the head of such a table, with such guests. The above named were the only ones invited, and they were all present. We sat down at three P.M., and rose at eight. The time occupied was longer by about four hours and thirty minutes than I am in the habit of consuming in that kind of occupation, but it was the richest time intellectually by all odds that I have ever had. Leaving myself and 'literary man' out of the group, I think you will agree with me that it would be difficult to duplicate that number of such conceded scholarship in the whole country besides... Each one is known alike on both sides of the Atlantic, and is read beyond the limits of the English language.
At that dinner he announced his idea for the magazine:
Mr. Cabot is much wiser than I am. Dr. Holmes can write funnier verses than I can. Mr. Motley can write history better than I. Mr. Emerson is a philosopher and I am not. Mr. Lowell knows more of the old poets than I. But none of you knows the American people as well as I do.
Harriet Beecher Stowe was invited to the dinner party but declined because it served alcohol. She signed the manifesto that set out the goals of the paper along with Herman Melville and Nathaniel Hawthorne, and The Atlantic today credits her as one of its founders.
The Atlantic's first issue was published in November 1857, and quickly gained notability as one of the finest magazines in the English-speaking world.
In 1878, the magazine absorbed The Galaxy, a competitor monthly magazine founded a dozen years previously by William Conant Church and his brother Francis P. Church; it had published works by Mark Twain, Walt Whitman, Ion Hanford Perdicaris and Henry James.
In 1879, The Atlantic had offices in Winthrop Square in Boston and at 21 Astor Place in New York City.
== Literary history ==
A leading literary magazine, The Atlantic has published many significant works and authors. It was the first to publish pieces by the abolitionists Julia Ward Howe ("Battle Hymn of the Republic" on February 1, 1862), and William Parker, whose slave narrative, "The Freedman's Story" was published in February and March 1866. It also published Charles W. Eliot's "The New Education", a call for practical reform that led to his appointment to the presidency of Harvard University in 1869, works by Charles Chesnutt before he collected them in The Conjure Woman (1899), and poetry and short stories, and helped launch many national literary careers. In 2005, the magazine won a National Magazine Award for fiction.
Editors have recognized major cultural changes and movements. For example, of the emerging writers of the 1920s, Ernest Hemingway had his short story "Fifty Grand" published in the July 1927 edition. Harking back to its abolitionist roots, in its August 1963 edition, at the height of the civil rights movement, the magazine published Martin Luther King Jr.'s defense of civil disobedience, "Letter from Birmingham Jail", under the headline "The Negro Is Your Brother".
The magazine has published speculative articles that inspired the development of new technologies. The classic example is Vannevar Bush's essay "As We May Think" (July 1945), which inspired Douglas Engelbart and later Ted Nelson to develop the modern workstation and hypertext technology.
The Atlantic Monthly founded the Atlantic Monthly Press in 1917; for many years, it was operated in partnership with Little, Brown and Company. Its published books included Drums Along the Mohawk (1936) and Blue Highways (1982). The press was sold in 1986; today it is an imprint of Grove Atlantic.
In addition to publishing notable fiction and poetry, The Atlantic has emerged in the 21st century as an influential platform for longform storytelling and newsmaker interviews. Influential cover stories have included Anne Marie Slaughter's "Why Women Still Can't Have It All" (2012) and Ta-Nehisi Coates's "A Case for Reparations" (2014). In 2015, Jeffrey Goldberg's "Obama Doctrine" was widely discussed by American media and prompted response by many world leaders.
As of 2022, writers and frequent contributors to the print magazine included James Fallows, Jeffrey Goldberg, Ta-Nehisi Coates, Caitlin Flanagan, Jonathan Rauch, McKay Coppins, Gillian White, Adrienne LaFrance, Vann R. Newkirk II, Derek Thompson, David Frum, Jennifer Senior, George Packer, Ed Yong, and James Parker.
On August 2, 2023, it was announced that Jeffrey Goldberg, who had served as editor-in-chief of The Atlantic since 2016, had been named as the tenth moderator of the PBS news program, Washington Week, and that the politics and culture publication would also enter into an editorial partnership with the television program – which was retitled accordingly as Washington Week with The Atlantic – similar to the earlier collaboration with the National Journal. The first episode under the longer title, and with Goldberg as moderator, was the one broadcast on August 11, 2023.
== Political viewpoint ==
In 1860, three years into publication, The Atlantic's then-editor James Russell Lowell endorsed Republican Abraham Lincoln for his first run for president and also endorsed the abolition of slavery.
In 1964, Edward Weeks wrote on behalf of the editorial board in endorsing Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson and rebuking Republican Barry Goldwater's candidacy.
In 2016, during the 2016 presidential campaign, the editorial board endorsed a candidate for the third time in the magazine's history, urging readers to support Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton in a rebuke of Republican Donald Trump's candidacy.
After Trump prevailed in the November 2016 election, the magazine became a strong critic of his. In March 2019, a cover article by editor Yoni Appelbaum called for the impeachment of Donald Trump: "It's time for Congress to judge the president's fitness to serve."
In September 2020, it published a story, citing several anonymous sources, reporting that Trump referred to dead American soldiers as "losers". Trump called it a "fake story", and suggested the magazine would soon be out of business.
In 2020, The Atlantic endorsed the Democratic presidential nominee Joe Biden in the 2020 presidential election, and urged its readers to oppose Trump's re-election bid. In early 2024, The Atlantic published a special 24-article issue titled "If Trump Wins," warning about a potential second term for Trump being worse than his first. In October, the publication endorsed Democratic nominee Kamala Harris in her presidential bid against Trump in the 2024 election.
== Format ==
=== Atlantic website access ===
The website is, as of 2025 a four tier freemium model. All paid subscribers get access to unlimited articles including the archives and narrated articles and various other features. The base paid model is "Digital" subscriber, the higher tier "Print & Digital" includes physical copies of the magazine, and the "Premium" subscription includes advertisement free access ($120 per year).
The Atlantic went on-line with AOL in 1993. They created an independent website The Atlantic Monthly on the Web in 1995, becoming "Atlantic Unbound" in 1997.
The Atlantic had a paywall, being only available to subscribers to the print edition, until January 2008, when they removed it, concomitant with a sponsorship from Goldman Sachs.
The website introduced "soft" limitations in October 2016, when free readers with adblockers were advised that they could turn off their adblocker, pay ($39.99 per year for advertising free access) or be blocked. Closing the warning window, however would allow reading the article, the block wasn't actually "hard" implemented until 10 April 2017.
A new paywall was expected to start trials in January 2018, but the project was delayed while platform improvements and staff recruitment were completed. The relaunch of the paywall was finally announced in August 2019.
In September 2019 the new paywall was imposed, "Digital" subscriptions were $49.99 per year, print and digital $59.99 and "Premium" $100. Free users are no longer permitted five articles per month. They can only read the first two paragraphs or so and are then presented a link to subscribe.
=== Aspen Ideas Festival ===
In 2005, The Atlantic and the Aspen Institute launched the Aspen Ideas Festival, a ten-day event in and around the city of Aspen, Colorado. The annual conference features 350 presenters, 200 sessions, and 3,000 attendees. The event has been called a "political who's who" as it often features policymakers, journalists, lobbyists, and think tank leaders.
On January 22, 2008, TheAtlantic.com dropped its subscriber wall and allowed users to freely browse its site, including all past archives. By 2011 The Atlantic's web properties included TheAtlanticWire.com, a news- and opinion-tracking site launched in 2009, and TheAtlanticCities.com, a stand-alone website started in 2011 that was devoted to global cities and trends. According to a Mashable profile in December 2011, "traffic to the three web properties recently surpassed 11 million uniques per month, up a staggering 2500% since The Atlantic brought down its paywall in early 2008."
=== The Atlantic Wire ===
In 2009, the magazine launched The Atlantic Wire as a stand-alone news aggregator site. It was intended as a curated selection of news and opinions from online, print, radio, and television outlets. At its launch, it published op-eds from across the media spectrum and summarized significant positions in each debate. It later expanded to feature news and original reporting.
Regular features in the magazine included "What I Read", describing the media diets of people from entertainment, journalism, and politics; and "Trimming the Times", the feature editor's summary of the best content in The New York Times. The Atlantic Wire rebranded itself as The Wire in November 2013, and was folded back into The Atlantic the following year.
In August 2011, it created its video channel. Initially created as an aggregator, The Atlantic's video component, Atlantic Studios, has since evolved in an in-house production studio that creates custom video series and original documentaries.
=== CityLab ===
In September 2011, The Atlantic launched CityLab, a separate website. Its co-founders included Richard Florida, urban theorist and professor. The stand-alone site has been described as exploring and explaining "the most innovative ideas and pressing issues facing today's global cities and neighborhoods." In 2014, it was rebranded as CityLab.com, and covers transportation, environment, equity, life, and design. Among its offerings are Navigator, "a guide to urban life"; and Solutions, which covers solutions to problems in a dozen topics.
In December 2011, a new Health Channel launched on TheAtlantic.com, incorporating coverage of food, as well as topics related to the mind, body, sex, family, and public health. Its launch was overseen by Nicholas Jackson, who had previously been overseeing the Life channel and initially joined the website to cover technology. TheAtlantic.com has also expanded to visual storytelling, with the addition of the "In Focus" photo blog, curated by Alan Taylor.
In 2015, TheAtlantic.com launched a dedicated Science section and in January 2016 it redesigned and expanded its politics section in conjunction with the 2016 U.S. presidential race.
In 2015, CityLab and Univision launched CityLab Latino, which features original journalism in Spanish as well as translated reporting from the English language edition of CityLab.com. The site has not been updated since 2018.
In early December 2019, Atlantic Media sold CityLab to Bloomberg Media, which promptly laid off half the staff. The site was relaunched on June 18, 2020, with few major changes other than new branding and linking the site with other Bloomberg verticals and its data terminal.
In September 2019, TheAtlantic.com introduced a digital subscription model, restricting unsubscribed readers' access to five free articles per month.
In June 2020, The Atlantic released its first full-length documentary, White Noise, a film about three alt-right activists.
== Praise, retractions, legal issues, and controversies ==
In June 2006, the Chicago Tribune named The Atlantic one of the top ten English-language magazines, describing it as the "150-year-old granddaddy of periodicals" because "it keeps us smart and in the know" with cover stories on the then-forthcoming fight over Roe v. Wade. It also lauded regular features such as "Word Fugitives" and "Primary Sources" as "cultural barometers".
On January 14, 2013, The Atlantic's website published "sponsor content" promoting David Miscavige, the leader of the Church of Scientology. While the magazine had previously published advertising looking like articles, this was widely criticized. The page comments were moderated by the marketing team, not by editorial staff, and comments critical of the church were being removed. Later that day, The Atlantic removed the piece from its website and issued an apology.
In 2019, the magazine published an expose on the allegations against movie director Bryan Singer that "sent Singer's career into a tailspin". It was originally contracted to Esquire magazine, but the writers moved it there due to what New York Times reporter Ben Smith described as Hearst magazines' "timid" nature. "There's not a lot of nuance here", Jeffrey Goldberg said. "They spiked a story that should have been published in the public interest for reasons unknown."
In June 2020, The Atlantic faced legal action in Japan that claimed defamation and invasion of privacy in the article "When the Presses Stop" by Molly Ball, published in the January/February 2018 edition, which led to numerous removals, corrections and clarifications after a settlement was reached in January 2024. The lawsuit highlighted fact-checking and ethical concerns, bringing attention to the magazine's editorial practices.
On November 1, 2020, The Atlantic retracted an article, "The Mad, Mad World of Niche Sports Among Ivy League–Obsessed Parents", after an inquiry by The Washington Post. An 800-word editor's note said, "We cannot attest to the trustworthiness and credibility of the author, and therefore we cannot attest to the veracity of the article." The note alleged that the article's author, freelancer Ruth Shalit Barrett, had left the staff of The New Republic in 1999 amid allegations of plagiarism. On January 7, 2022, Barrett sued the magazine for defamation. The lawsuit claimed The Atlantic misrepresented Barrett's background and destroyed her journalistic career through what it publicly said about her. In legal filings, Barrett argued that The Atlantic's handling of allegations and errors in another article written by Molly Ball demonstrated inconsistency in the magazine's editorial standards and accountability measures. Barrett asserted that the factual inaccuracies and ethical violations in Ball's piece, as highlighted by a separate defamation lawsuit that resulted in a settlement and numerous retractions and corrections to Ball's story, were "transgressions far more numerous and incomparably worse" than any mistakes attributed to her own work. In June 2025, after mediation, Barrett and The Atlantic reached a settlement and jointly moved to dismiss the case with prejudice. Court filings showed that on June 26 the magazine updated its online editor’s note to clarify that the pseudonymous source “Sloane” was anonymous, that Barrett says she elected to leave The New Republic, and that she did not ask the magazine to use a novel byline. The revision also changed a statement that she had encouraged “at least one source” to lie to “a source.” The following day, the parties filed their stipulation of dismissal in federal court. Although the settlement terms were not publicly disclosed in court, The New York Times reported that The Atlantic agreed to pay Barrett more than $1 million. TheWrap, citing the Times, also reported the payment. The story remains retracted and, according to an Atlantic spokesperson, the editor’s note will not be updated further.
On February 5, 2024, The Atlantic cut ties with contributor Yascha Mounk after he was accused of rape. He called the allegation "categorically untrue."
In 2025, national-security leaders in the Donald Trump administration accidentally included The Atlantic editor Jeffrey Goldberg in a group chat where they organized and strategized upcoming military strikes on the Houthis.
== Ownership and editors ==
By its third year, it was published by Boston publishing house Ticknor and Fields, which later became part of Houghton Mifflin, based in the city known for literary culture. The magazine was purchased in 1908 by editor at the time, Ellery Sedgwick, and remained in Boston.
In 1980, the magazine was acquired by Mortimer Zuckerman, property magnate and founder of Boston Properties, who became its chairman. On September 27, 1999, Zuckerman transferred ownership of the magazine to David G. Bradley, owner of the National Journal Group, which focused on Washington, D.C. and federal government news. Bradley had promised that the magazine would stay in Boston for the foreseeable future, as it did for the next five-and-a-half years.
In April 2005, however, the publishers announced that the editorial offices would be moved from their longtime home at 77 North Washington Street in Boston to join the company's advertising and circulation divisions in Washington, D.C. Later in August, Bradley told The New York Observer that the move was not made to save money—near-term savings would be $200,000–$300,000, a relatively small amount that would be swallowed by severance-related spending—but instead would serve to create a hub in Washington, D.C., where the top minds from all of Bradley's publications could collaborate under the Atlantic Media Company umbrella. Few of the Boston staff agreed to move, and Bradley then commenced an open search for a new editorial staff.
In 2006, Bradley hired James Bennet, the Jerusalem bureau chief for The New York Times, as editor-in-chief. Bradley also hired Jeffrey Goldberg and Andrew Sullivan as writers for the magazine.
In 2008, Jay Lauf joined the organization as publisher and vice-president; as of 2017, he was publisher and president of Quartz.
In early 2014, Bennet and Bob Cohn became co-presidents of The Atlantic, and Cohn became the publication's sole president in March 2016 when Bennet was tapped to lead The New York Times's editorial page. Jeffrey Goldberg was named editor-in-chief in October 2016.
On July 28, 2017, The Atlantic announced that Laurene Powell Jobs (the widow of former Apple Inc. chairman and CEO Steve Jobs) had acquired majority ownership through her Emerson Collective organization, with a staff member of Emerson Collective, Peter Lattman, being immediately named as vice chairman of The Atlantic. David G. Bradley and Atlantic Media retained a minority share position in this sale.
In the September 2017 issue of The Atlantic, Jean Twenge argued that smartphones were the most likely cause behind the sudden increases in mental health issues among teens after 2012.
In May 2019, technology journalist Adrienne LaFrance became executive editor.
In December 2020, former Wired editor-in-chief Nicholas Thompson was named CEO of The Atlantic.
In 2022, The Atlantic moved its offices to The Wharf in Washington, D.C.'s Southwest Waterfront neighborhood.
=== List of editors === |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabella_Rossellini | Isabella Rossellini | Isabella Fiorella Elettra Giovanna Rossellini (Italian: [izaˈbɛlla rosselˈliːni]; born 18 June 1952) is an Italian-American actress and model. The daughter of Swedish actress Ingrid Bergman and Italian film director Roberto Rossellini, she is noted for her successful tenure as a Lancôme model and an established career in American and European cinema. She has received nominations for an Academy Award, two Golden Globe Awards, a British Academy Film Award, and a Primetime Emmy Award.
After making her acting debut with A Matter of Time (1976), Rossellini had her breakthrough role in David Lynch's Blue Velvet (1986) for which she received the Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead. She had a minor role in the box office hit Death Becomes Her (1992), and had further roles in Cousins (1989), Wild at Heart (1990), Fearless (1993), Wyatt Earp (1994), Big Night (1996), Roger Dodger (2002), Infamous (2006), Two Lovers (2008), Enemy (2013), Joy (2015), and La chimera (2023). She also voiced roles in Incredibles 2 (2018) and Marcel the Shell with Shoes On (2021). For playing the nun Sister Agnes in Conclave (2024), she garnered a nomination for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress.
Rossellini received a Golden Globe Award nomination for the HBO film Crime of the Century (1996). She received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series nomination for Chicago Hope (1997). She also has guest starred in the sitcoms Friends and 30 Rock as well as the dramas Alias and The Blacklist. She portrayed Simone Beck in the HBO series Julia (2022).
== Early life ==
Rossellini was born in Rome, the daughter of Swedish actress Ingrid Bergman, who was of Swedish and German descent, and Italian director Roberto Rossellini, who was born in Rome from a family originally from Pisa, Tuscany. She has three siblings from her mother: her fraternal twin sister Isotta Ingrid Rossellini, who is an adjunct professor of Italian literature, a brother, Robertino Ingmar Rossellini; and a half-sister, Pia Lindström, who formerly worked on television and is from her mother's first marriage with Petter Lindström. She has four other siblings from her father's two other marriages: Romano (who died at age nine), Renzo, Gil, and Raffaella. Growing up, she received "a liberal Catholic education".
Rossellini was raised in Rome, as well as in Santa Marinella and Paris. She underwent an operation for appendicitis at the age of five. At 11, she was diagnosed with scoliosis. To correct it, she had to undergo an 18-month ordeal of painful stretchings, body casts and surgery on her spine using pieces of one of her shin bones. Consequently, she has incision scars on her back and shin.
At 19, she went to New York City, where she attended Finch College, while working as a translator and as a television reporter for RAI. She also appeared intermittently on L'altra Domenica (The Other Sunday), a TV show featuring Roberto Benigni. However, she decided not to stay full-time in New York until her marriage to Martin Scorsese (1979–1982), whom she met when she interviewed him for RAI.
== Career ==
=== Modeling ===
At the age of 28, her modeling career began, when she was photographed by Bruce Weber for British Vogue and by Bill King for American Vogue. During her career, she has also worked with many other renowned photographers, including Richard Avedon, Steven Meisel, Helmut Newton, Peter Lindbergh, Norman Parkinson, Eve Arnold, Francesco Scavullo, Annie Leibovitz, Denis Piel, and Robert Mapplethorpe. Her image has appeared on such magazines as Marie Claire, Harper's Bazaar, Vanity Fair, and Elle. In March 1988, an exhibition dedicated to photographs of her, called Portrait of a Woman, was held at the Musée d'Art Moderne de Paris.
Rossellini's modeling career led her into the world of cosmetics, when she became the exclusive spokesmodel for the French cosmetics brand Lancôme in 1982, replacing Nancy Dutiel in the United States and Carol Alt in Europe. At Lancôme, in 1990, she was involved in product development for the fragrance Trésor. In 1996, when she was 43, she was removed as the face of Lancôme for being "too old". In 2016, at the age of 63, she was rehired by Lancôme's new female CEO, Francoise Lehmann, as a global brand ambassador for the company.
In October 1992, Rossellini modelled for Madonna's controversial book Sex. Rossellini also appeared in Madonna's music video for her single "Erotica", released in autumn 1992.
Rossellini was the inaugural brand ambassador for the Italian Silversea Cruises company in 2004, and she appeared in print ads and on their website. Barbara Muckermann, the senior vice-president of worldwide marketing and communications in 2004, said at the time of the announcement, "Isabella is the ideal personification of Silversea's exclusive standard of elegance, glamour and sophistication."
=== Film and television ===
Rossellini made her film debut with a brief appearance as a nun opposite her mother in the 1976 film A Matter of Time. Her first role was the 1979 film The Meadow, and then in 1980 she appeared in Renzo Arbore's film In the Pope's Eye with her then husband Martin Scorsese.
Following her mother's death in 1982, Rossellini was cast in her first American film, White Nights (1985). This was followed by her notable role as the tortured nightclub singer Dorothy Vallens in the David Lynch film Blue Velvet, in which she also contributed her own singing, most notably covering "Blue Velvet" (1951). Other significant film roles during this period include her work in Cousins (1989), Death Becomes Her (1992), Fearless (1993), and Immortal Beloved (1994). In 1996, she appeared as herself in an episode of the TV series Friends called "The One with Frank Jr."
In 2003, Rossellini was a recurring character on the television series Alias. In that same year, she also appeared in the Canadian film The Saddest Music in the World, directed by Guy Maddin. In 2004, she played the High Priestess Thar in the Sci-Fi Channel miniseries Legend of Earthsea, and the director Robert Lieberman stated that Rossellini "brings a very big persona to the screen. She carries a great deal of beauty. We needed someone who had a feeling of authority to be this kind of mother superior type and at the same time not be totally dour and unattractive."
In 2006, Rossellini appeared in several television documentaries. First, she narrated a two-hour television special on Italy for the Discovery Channel's Discovery Atlas series. Then, alongside Segway PT inventor Dean Kamen, she spoke about her past and current activities on an episode of Iconoclasts, a series that featured on the Sundance Channel (known as SundanceTV from 2014 onwards), an independent film network founded by film industry veteran Robert Redford. The Sundance Channel then purchased the 2006 Guy Maddin-directed short film My Dad Is 100 Years Old, a tribute that Rossellini created for her father. In the film, she played almost every role, including Federico Fellini, Alfred Hitchcock and her mother, Ingrid Bergman. Rossellini's twin sister, Isotta Ingrid, criticized the short film, calling it an "inappropriate" tribute.
In 2007, Rossellini guest starred on two episodes of the television show 30 Rock, playing Alec Baldwin's character Jack Donaghy's ex-wife. Around the same time, Rossellini enrolled at New York University where she undertook an undergraduate degree in Art and Environmental Studies, and then pursued with a master's degree at Hunter College in New York to study animal behavior. Then the Sundance Channel commissioned her to contribute a short-film project to the environmental program The Green. Rossellini explained in a 2013 interview:
They contacted me again when they had allocated some money to experiment in making a web series. At first, I thought I didn't know what to say, I didn't know what to write and then thought it might be really fun to do little short films about animals. This is how the first three episodes of Green Porno came about. When I showed them the pilot, Sundance commissioned eight more. It was a huge hit!
Debuting in 2008, the first series of Green Porno had over 4 million views on YouTube and two further seasons were produced; there are 18 episodes in the series. Rossellini worked with a small budget for Green Porno and she was responsible for the scripts, helped to design the creatures, directed the episodes, and is the primary actor in the series. In each of the episodes, she acts out the mating rituals and reproductive behaviour of various animals while commentary is played.
Green Porno was followed by two other animal-themed television productions: Seduce Me: The Spawn of Green Porno and Mammas. Seduce Me: The Spawn of Green Porno is a five-episode online series that was premiered in mid-2010 and explores the topic of animal courtship. As with Green Porno, Rossellini wrote, directed and acted in the series; she is also a producer of the series. Rossellini explained in 2010, "I always wanted to make films about animals – there's not an enormous audience, but there's an enormous audience for sex."
Mammas debuted in the United States on 12 May 2013, Mother's Day weekend there, and is a celebration of the maternal aspects of the animal world. Rossellini is again the primary actor and plays the maternal versions of animals such as spiders and hamsters. Rossellini explained in a 2013 interview part of the research process for Mammas: "First of all it's about diversity. When talking about motherhood, I would find examples of ten different species that either don't get pregnant in the belly but in the mouth or back. Or species that abandon their children all-together so that I don't tell ten stories that are too similar."
After the completion of her Green Porno productions, Rossellini acted in the film Enemy, with Jake Gyllenhaal, which was shown at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF). Rossellini praised the film during a TIFF interview: "I love the subtlety of the film. It reminded me of Kafka. It's very metaphysical, but yet it's also a solid thriller. It made me leap up out of my seat at the end." Rossellini also played the silent film actor Rudolph Valentino's mother in Vladislav Alex Kozlov's Silent Life: The Story of the Lady in Black, a feature-length version of the director's silent, black-and-white short film Daydreams of Rudolph Valentino. Kozlov's film was due for release in 2012, but, as of February 2014, the film has not been officially released.
Rossellini was the president of the jury for the 61st Berlin International Film Festival in 2011. In April 2015, she was announced as the president of the jury for the Un Certain Regard section of the 2015 Cannes Film Festival.
In 2016, Rossellini was cast as Rita Marks, the matriarch of the Marks crime family in the Hulu original series, Shut Eye.
In 2023, Rossellini was honoured with Lifetime Achievement Award at the 18th Rome Film Festival.
In 2024, Rossellini received acclaim for her portrayal of Sister Agnes in the political drama, Conclave, opposite Ralph Fiennes, Stanley Tucci and John Lithgow, for which she received a Best Supporting Actress nomination at the 97th Academy Awards.
On February 15, 2025, it was announced that Rossellini would be joining the cast of Ryan Murphy's upcoming television series, The Beauty. On February 26, 2025, it was announced that she had been cast in Mike Newell's Wallis Simpson biopic, The Bitter End, playing opposite Joan Collins. Rossellini is also set to star in Jeremiah Zagar's upcoming film The Painted Bride, alongside actors Jeremy Allen White and Mandy Patinkin.
The distribution rights to a documentary starring Rossellini, A Season with Isabella Rossellini, were secured by Escapade Media in September 2025. The documentary, directed by Marian Lacombe, sees Rossellini reflecting on her life as a celebrated model as well as her colorful life.
Rossellini was cast in Marco Perego's film Petrichor shot in Italy over the summer of 2025.
== Stage and live performance ==
In 2004, Rossellini acted in an Off-Broadway production of Terrence McNally's The Stendhal Syndrome, with Richard Thomas.
Rossellini's friend, Carole Bouquet, also a model who later became an actress, suggested that Green Porno could be transformed into a lecture format with a longer duration. Bouquet then introduced Rossellini to the French filmmaker and screenwriter, Jean-Claude Carrière, and they created a 70-minute-long monologue that expands upon the Green Porno films. The structure of the performance is in accordance with the types of reproductive systems:
Some animals reproduce with male and female; some animals change sex – they start female and they end male or vice-versa. Some fish do that. Some animals are hermaphrodites – they don't need anybody, they have both vaginas and penises. Then we have animals that don't need sex at all, they just clone themselves.
In the live show, Rossellini explores the topics of homosexuality ("I think society has made the mistake of seeing the act of making love or mating as an act of reproduction, when actually it is used for other things, too. Animals use it for social events, bonding, solving conflict and so on.") and maternal instincts, and has explained that her research has influenced her perspective on societal notions of beauty: "If you look at nature, there is no perfection. Everything is always evolving and adapting according to whatever the environmental pressure. The more diversity there is, the more things are going to survive."
Rossellini debuted the live version of Green Porno at the Adelaide Festival of Arts on 15 March 2014 and was warmly received by the audience. The show was the first of the 2014 program to sell out. Much of the production and backstage documentary footage was shot and directed by her nephew, Tommaso Rossellini.
Rossellini's "smallest circus in the world", a stage play exploring the ability of animals to think, was premiered in May 2018, at the Jerome Robbins Theater of the Baryshnikov Arts Center. The play "addresses the scientific discoveries about animal minds, intelligence, and emotions. Joined onstage by various animals portrayed by Pan, her trained dog, Rossellini transforms herself into Aristotle, Descartes, B.F. Skinner, Charles Darwin, and more, to deliver a vivid monologue about the brilliance of the animal kingdom".
Rossellini performed "Link Link Circus" (as in Ring Ring) as a benefit for The Gateway Performing Arts Center of Suffolk County, in Bellport, New York, the south shore Long Island village where she is a local organic farmer. "Link Link Circus" is performed by Rossellini in a black and red ringmaster's tailcoat, with the assistance of her dog, Peter Pan, who performs a few tricks and is costumed as other animals including a chicken and a dinosaur. In addition to Rossellini and Pan, the production includes puppets, handled by puppeteer Schuyler Beeman, and still photos, home movies, animation and excerpts from her "Green Porno" film series projected on a large screen behind the set decorated with Rossellini's childhood toys, including a marionette stage and a toy upright piano, which Rossellini plays in the show. The set was designed by Andy Byers, who is also the costume designer and composer for the show. In promoting the show, which was performed twice at The Gateway, Rossellini appeared in Long Island's Newsday. Proceeds from The Gateway production of "Link Link Circus" also benefited The Plaza Cinema & Media Arts Center, a non-profit located near Rossellini's Bellport home in Patchogue, New York.
Rossellini has been a frequent guest narrator at Disney's Candlelight Processional at Walt Disney World, most recently appearing in the 2019 and 2022 seasons.
Rossellini is set to premiere a new one-woman show in March 2026. The show is expected to blend performance, personal storytelling, and reflections on art, nature, and identity.
== Activism ==
Rossellini is involved in conservation efforts. She is the president and director of the Howard Gilman Foundation – a leading institution focused on the preservation of wildlife, arts, photography and dance – and she has been a board member of the Wildlife Conservation Network. She received US$100,000 from Disney to help with her conservation efforts in those two organizations. She has also helped with the Central Park Conservancy, and is a major benefactor of the Bellport-Brookhaven Historical Society in Bellport, Long Island, where she is a part-time resident.
Rossellini is involved in training guide dogs for the blind. She is a former trustee of the George Eastman House and a 1997 George Eastman Award honoree for her support of film preservation. She is also a National Ambassador for the U.S. Fund for UNICEF.
== Personal life ==
Rossellini holds dual Italian and United States citizenship. She speaks Italian, French and English fluently. She is a naturalized American citizen.
Rossellini married filmmaker Martin Scorsese in 1979. After she and Scorsese divorced in 1982, Rossellini was married to Jon Wiedemann from 1983 to 1986. Rossellini has a daughter, Elettra Rossellini Wiedemann and an adopted son.
Filmmaker David Lynch and Rossellini were a couple from 1986 to 1991. She was also engaged to actor Gary Oldman from 1994 to 1996.
She has always lived near her twin sister Isotta Ingrid, while growing up in Rome or residing in New York City.
Rossellini raises and trains future guide dogs for the Guide Dog Foundation.
== Filmography ==
=== Film ===
=== Television ===
=== Video games ===
=== Music videos ===
== Awards and recognition ==
Also in 1997, Rossellini was awarded The George Eastman Award. In 1998, she received an Honourable Mention at the 48th Berlin International Film Festival for her role in the film Left Luggage. In 2013, she was awarded with the Berlinale Camera at the 63rd Berlin International Film Festival. In 2016, she was granted an honorary doctorate by the Université du Québec à Montréal. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldest_football_clubs | Oldest football clubs | The oldest football clubs trace their origins to the mid-19th century, a period when football evolved from being a casual pastime to an organised mainstream sport.
The identity of the oldest football clubs in the world, or even in a particular country, is often disputed or claimed by several clubs, across several codes of football. The Foot-Ball Club of Edinburgh is thought to be the earliest recorded football club in the world, with records going back to 1824. Rugby clubs also referred to themselves, or continue to refer to themselves, as simply a "football club", or as a "rugby football club". "Club" has always meant an independent entity and, during the historical period in question, very few high school or university teams were independent of the educational institutions concerned. Consequently, school and university football teams were seldom referred to as "clubs". That has always been the case, for example, in American football, which has always had ties to college sport in general. Conversely, however, the oldest still-existing "football club" with a well-documented, continuous history is Dublin University Football Club, a rugby union club founded in 1854 at Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland. There exists some record of Guy's Hospital Football Club being founded in London in 1843, through an 1883 fixture card referring to Guy's 40th season.
The world's oldest extant professional football club of any code of football is the Melbourne Football Club, founded in 1858. Melbourne play Australian Rules Football (Aussie Rules) in the Australian Football League (AFL) and were premiers as recently as 2021 after defeating the Western Bulldogs in the 2021 AFL Grand Final.
== Britain and Ireland ==
=== Defunct clubs ===
While the first clubs emerged in Britain, possibly as early as the fifteenth century, these are poorly-documented and defunct. For example, the records of the Brewers' Company of London between 1421 and 1423 mention the hiring out of their hall by the "football players" for "20 pence", under the heading "Trades and Fraternities". The listing of football players as a "fraternity" or a group of players meeting socially under this identity is the earliest allusion to what might be considered a football club. Other early sporting bodies dedicated to playing football include "The Gymnastic Society" of London which met regularly during the second half of the eighteenth century to pursue two sports: football and wrestling. The club played its matches – for example between London-based natives of Cumberland and Westmorland – at the Kennington Common from well before 1789 until about 1800.
The Foot-Ball Club (active 1824–41) of Edinburgh, Scotland, is the first documented club dedicated to football, and the first to describe itself as a football club. The only surviving club rules forbade tripping, but allowed pushing and holding and the picking up of the ball. Other documents describe a game involving 39 players and "such kicking of shins and such tumbling".
Other early clubs include the Great Leicestershire Cricket and Football Club present in 1840.
On Christmas Day 1841, an early documented match between two self-described "football clubs" took place. The Body-guard Club (of Rochdale) lost to the Fear-nought Club after using an ineligible player as a substitute. The complete rules used in this game are unknown, but they specified twelve players on each side, with each team providing its own umpire, and the game being started by the firing of a pistol.
A club for playing "cricket, quoits and football" was established in Newcastle upon Tyne in or before 1848. The Surrey Football Club was established in 1849 and published the first non-school football list of rules (which were probably based upon the eighteenth century Gymnastic Society cited above). Windsor Home Park F.C. was in existence as early as 1854, and would go on to compete in early editions of the FA Cup.
=== Continuous clubs ===
Supported by the Guinness Book of Records, and founded by staff at Guy's Hospital in London in 1843, the Guy's, Kings and St Thomas' RFC would be the oldest "football" club of any code. Nevertheless, the connection between the present club and the original "Guy's Hospital" formed in 1843 is still disputed, alleging that the present club is a modern amalgam of three formerly distinct hospital rugby clubs, starting with the Guy's Hospital and St Thomas' Hospital teams which were the first to merge following the union of their respective Medical Departments. The last department to merge was the King's College Hospital in 1999, although its club (founded in 1869) remained as a separate institution.
In Northern Ireland, the oldest football club is North of Ireland F.C., formed in 1868. It was the first rugby club formed in what is now Northern Ireland and only two other clubs - Dublin University and Wanderers - were formed earlier anywhere else in all Ireland.
It has been claimed that the present-day Barnes Rugby Football Club, from Barnes in London, is a continuation of the nineteenth-century Barnes Football Club, and moreover that the latter club was formed in 1839 and is thus the oldest club to have played football for its entire history. However, as of 2018, Barnes RFC's website claims only that the club was established in the 1920s, while alluding to "possibilities" that its history stretches back to 1862. In 2021, people with heritage and local enthusiasts revived the old Barnes Football Club, established in 1862.
Sheffield F.C. in England, is the world's oldest surviving independent open football club: that is, the oldest club not associated with an institution such as a school, hospital or university; and which was open to all to play. It was founded in 1857. Sheffield F.C. initially played Sheffield rules, a code of its own devising, although the club's rules influenced those of the England Football Association (FA) (1863) including handball, free kicks, corners and throw ins. While the international governing body of association football FIFA and the FA recognise Sheffield F.C. as the "world's oldest football club", and the club joined the FA in 1863, it continued to use the Sheffield rules. Sheffield F.C. did not officially adopt association football until 1877.
Notts County F.C. are officially the oldest professional football club in the world, formed in 1862, playing their first recorded match on 8 December 1864 at Nottingham's Meadows Cricket Ground against a team known as Trent Valley. Notts are thought to have mostly played under Sheffield Rules in their early days, though certain matches are recorded as being played according to "Nottingham Rules". A team from the same city, Nottingham Forest F.C. (initially a group of shinty players) are recognised as the second oldest professional football club in the world, having been formed in 1865.
Setting its birth date in 1856, Cambridge University A.F.C. has been described by the university as the oldest club now playing association football,. For example, : "Salopians formed a club of their own in the late 1830s/early 1840s but that was presumably absorbed by the Cambridge University Football Club that they were so influential in creating in 1846". According to Charles Astor Bristed, in the early 1840s at Cambridge, there were games played between clubs from colleges and houses. Football is documented as being played on the original club ground, Parker's Piece, as early as 1838. The earliest existing evidence of the Cambridge University Football Club comes from "The Laws of the University Football Club" dated 1856, and held at Shrewsbury School. The Cambridge rules of 1863 would provide the basis for the FA's original rules.
The only survivor among the FA's founding clubs still playing association football is Civil Service F.C. Six of the 18 founding members later adopted rugby exclusively. Cray Wanderers F.C., originally of St Mary Cray and currently playing in nearby Chislehurst, founded in 1860, is the oldest club now playing association football in Greater London. The code played by Cray Wanderers in its earliest years is unknown.
Liverpool Football Club (not to be confused with Liverpool F.C. of the Premier League), later known as Liverpool St Helens F.C., were formed in 1857, which claims to be the oldest open rugby club in the world. The club adopted the Rugby Union rules in 1872, never playing association rules.
==== Dublin University Team ====
The first known record of the club appears under the heading 'Trinity College' in the Dublin Daily Express of 1 December 1855 and is taken to show that it had then been in existence for at least a year:
FOOTBALL. - A match will be played in the College Park today (Saturday) between original and new members of the club. Play to commence at two o'clock College time.
The club had thus been founded by about 1854, and it has a well-documented, continuous history since then, which gives it a strong claim to be considered the world's oldest extant football club of any code. ('College time' was a practice at Trinity of having the clocks set 15 minutes behind local time to reduce lateness at lectures.)
== Australia ==
=== Australian rules football ===
The oldest Australian rules football club is the Melbourne Football Club, founded in 1858, which still plays professionally, making it the oldest extant professional football club of any football code in the world.
The origins of the club date back to 10 July 1858 with a letter published in Bell's Life in Victoria and Sporting Chronicle written by Tom Wills, captain of the Melbourne Cricket Club. He proposed a "foot-ball club" to keep Victorian cricketers fit in winter.
An informal and loosely organised Melbourne team, captained by Wills, played against other football enthusiasts in the winter and spring of 1858.
On August 7, 1858, in Melbourne, Victoria, students from Scotch College and Melbourne Grammar played the first recorded Australian Rules game against each other.
The Melbourne Football Club was formally established the following year on 14 May 1859. Three days later (17 May), four members codified the first laws of Australian Rules Football.
This makes Australian Rules the oldest of the football codes that are played today globally: association football was codified in 1863, American football in 1869, and the two Rugby codes were written in 1871 (for Rugby Union) and 1895 (for Rugby League).
1859 also saw the formation of two other clubs, Geelong, which still plays professionally today, and University, who played in the top level of Victorian senior football in 1885-1888 and 1908–1914.
Many more Australian Rules clubs were formed over the next few decades, including the following professional AFL clubs:
Carlton in 1864.
North Melbourne in 1869.
Port Adelaide in 1870.
Essendon in 1872.
St Kilda in 1873.
South Melbourne in 1874 (now Sydney after relocation in 1982).
Western Bulldogs (originally named Footscray) in 1877.
Fitzroy in 1883 (now the Brisbane Lions due to the merger between Fitzroy and the Brisbane Bears in 1996).
Richmond in 1885.
Collingwood in 1892.
Hawthorn in 1902.
The AFL was founded as the Victorian Football League (VFL) in 1897, comprising eight teams based in the state of Victoria that had broken away from the Victorian Football Association.
Over the next 115 years, a series of expansions, along with the relocation of South Melbourne to Sydney, a merger and a club's withdrawal saw the league expand outside of Victoria to a national competition, leading to the 18 professional teams that exist today (19 from 2028).
The expansion saw the formation of the following clubs:
Brisbane Bears in 1986 (merged with Fitzroy in 1996).
West Coast Eagles in 1986.
Adelaide in 1990.
Fremantle in 1994.
Brisbane Lions in 1996 (founded due to merger between Bisbane Bears and Fitzroy Lions).
Gold Coast Suns in 2009.
Greater Western Sydney in 2010.
Tasmania in 2023 (entering the league in 2028).
== Rest of the world ==
=== Continental Europe ===
==== Albania ====
The first football club to be founded in Albania was the Vllaznia Sport Club on 16 February 1919.
==== Austria ====
The oldest still active football club is the First Vienna Football Club founded on 22 August 1894. Their early rivals, the Vienna Cricket and Football-Club, was founded only one day later.
==== Belgium ====
Football Club Spa was founded by the Hunter-Blair family of Blairquhan, Ayrshire, Scotland, and was in operation in 1863. The fourth Baronet took his family there in order to economise. The oldest club still in existence today in Belgium is Royal Antwerp FC, founded in 1880.
==== Bosnia and Herzegovina ====
The oldest football club in Bosnia and Herzegovina is FK Sloboda founded in Novi Grad in 1910. The first club to be ever founded was Zrinjski Mostar in 1905, but it was inactive between 1945 and 1992.
==== Bulgaria ====
Botev Plovdiv is one of the oldest football club in Bulgaria founded in 1912.
==== Czech Republic ====
Oldest and second most successful Czech football club is Slavia Prague founded in 1892. The club still exists and plays Chance Liga, first division of Czech football.
==== Croatia ====
The oldest still active football club in Croatia is NK Rijeka, formed in 1904 and playing association football at the latest in 1906, currently competing in the first Croatian league. HNK Segesta, that plays in the third division, was possibly founded in 1906, but its first recorded match was held in 1909.
==== Cyprus ====
Anorthosis Famagusta FC founded in 1911 is the oldest club with a football team, however it was a reading club and the football division of the club started in 1929, the same year Omonia Aradippou was founded. The now defunct football division of Enosis Neon Trust founded in 1924 is therefore the oldest football club, however the club closed its football division in 1938. The oldest surviving football club is therefore APOEL founded in 1926. The same year the now defunct Keravnos Strovolou FC was founded. The now defunct Pezoporikos Larnaca FC was founded in 1927 first merging to form EPA Larnaca FC in 1930. AEL Limassol and Aris Limassol both founded in 1930 and one year after the Anorthosis football division are therefore old clubs as well. Olympiakos Nicosia and Digenis Akritas Morphou FC were both subsequently founded in 1931.
==== Denmark ====
Kjøbenhavns Boldklub is the oldest football club in Denmark and the oldest active club in continental Europe. The sports club was formed in 1876 and association football was first played two years later.
==== Estonia ====
Estonian Sports Association Kalev (Estonian: Eesti Spordiselts Kalev) is a sports association in Estonia, founded in 1901.
In nowadays Estonian state was the oldest formed club Tallinna Jalgpalliselts Meteor in 1908. It's defunct since 1911, but restored after First World War and Estonian War of Independence in 1926 under the name Tallinna SK Meteor which took action until 1937.
==== Finland ====
Helsingin Ponnistus is one of the oldest continuously active sports clubs and the oldest football club in Finland. It was founded in 1887. It started as a gymnastic club but got its football program in 1903.
==== France ====
The first football club in France was established in Paris in 1863 by English expatriates, as the following excerpt from a contemporary newspaper shows: "A number of English gentlemen living in Paris have lately organised a football club.... The football contests take place in the Bois de Boulogne, by permission of the authorities and surprise the French amazingly".
Le Havre AC was founded as an athletics and rugby club in 1872, making it the oldest surviving football club registered in France and continental Europe. They began playing association football on a regular basis in 1894. The English Taylors RFC, which was formed by British businessmen in Paris in 1877, was followed by Paris Football Club a year later. Racing Club de France was formed in 1882 and their rivals Stade Français in 1883. Technically AS Strasbourg could be considered the first French association football team, being established in 1890; they were however a German team at the time.
==== Georgia ====
FC Shevardeni-1906 Tbilisi was the first formal football club in Georgia, founded in 1906. Shevardeni started within the Sokol society after Czech sports figures helped introduce the game to the country. They played their first recorded match in October 1911. In May 2022, the club was involved in a match-fixing scandal, causing them to get expelled from the league. As a result, the club has ceased operations and has not played since.
The first documented, officially established and legally organized Georgian club was Komet FC, founded in 1907.
The oldest, still active Georgian club is FC Kolkheti-1913 Poti, founded in 1913. They currently play in the Erovnuli Liga 2, the second-highest tier of Georgian football.
==== Germany ====
The oldest surviving rugby football club is Heidelberger RK, which was founded on 9 May 1872 as a rowing and rugby club. The HRK has won 14 national titles 1927, 1928, 1971, 1973, 1976, 1986, 2010–2015, 2017 and 2018. The biggest success of the club was the qualification for the Rugby European Challenge Cup 2018/19 - only to be denied participation, because their main sponsor owns Stade Français. The second oldest still surviving rugby club is Hannover 1878 founded 1878 and winning 9 German championships. Both clubs still play in the 1. Bundesliga.
The first association football in Germany (and likely the first outside Great Britain) was Dresden English, founded on 18 March 1874. The club had over 70 members by then, primarily Englishmen working in Dresden, with its matches being attended by hundreds of spectators. Nevertheless, Dresden English was dissolved in 1898.
The oldest still active association football club is BFC Germania 1888 founded on 15 April 1888. They play in the 10th division as of season 2020/21 and never managed to win any national titles.
==== Greece ====
The oldest still active football club is Messiniakos F.C. founded in 1888. This club was founded in the city of Kalamata.
==== Hungary ====
The oldest still active football club in Hungary is Újpest Torna Egylet, founded in 1885. There are other old teams like Műegyetemi AFC founded in autumn 1897 as a proper football club and III. Kerületi TVE, which whose football section was founded officially in 1899 but stemmed from the 1897-founded Budai Football Csapat. The first ever football club to be founded in Hungary was Budapesti Torna Club having founded its football section in February 1897, dissolved in 1945–46.
==== Italy ====
In Italy, Genoa C.F.C. is the oldest active football club: it was founded by Charles De Grave Sells, S. Green, George Blake, W. Rilley, George Dormer Fawcus, H.M. Sandys, E. De Thierry, Johnathan Summerhill Sr., Johnathan Summerhill Jr. and Sir Charles Alfred Payton in Genoa on 7 September 1893. However, Genoa C.F.C. was not the first Italian football club, being Torino Football & Cricket Club (1887) but its history lasted only for 4 years. Founded by Edoardo Bosio (owner of Bosio & Caratsch, the earliest brewery in Italy), the team broke up in 1891. Older than Genoa and Torino is Associazione Sportiva Dilettantistica Fanfulla, a sports club founded in Lodi in 1873, but its football section was established thirty-five years later in 1908.
==== Latvia ====
Workers at the (British-owned) Salamandra metal factory in Riga founded the first football team in 1907: the British Football Club (later named Britannia).
==== Lithuania ====
The first inter-city football games are dating back to 1911. Shortly after gaining the independence in 1918, a Kybartai local of a German descent has purchased a ball, leveled out a football pitch, and gathered a team together. The team formed into a football club FK Sveikata in 1919. For the next three years the team was traveling to cities in East Prussia and Klaipėda Region to play games, as there were no other teams in Lithuania just yet. FK Sveikata is still a functioning club in Lithuania today.
==== Malta ====
The oldest football club in Malta is St.George's FC. Founded in 1890 in the city of Cospicua also known as Bormla.
==== Montenegro ====
The oldest football club in Montenegro is FK Lovćen founded in the town of Cetinje in 1913.
==== Netherlands ====
The oldest football (and oldest cricket) club in the Netherlands is Koninklijke UD from Deventer, founded in 1875 as a cricket club. In 1894, the club founded an association football section.
Koninklijke HFC was the first Dutch rugby club, established on 15 September 1879 by the 14-year-old Pim Mulier, who first encountered the sport in 1870. However, HFC switched to association football in 1883.
Utrechtse Sportvereniging Hercules (Utrecht Sports Association Hercules), also known as USV Hercules or Hercules Utrecht, is an amateur football club in Utrecht, established on 22 April 1882.
==== North Macedonia ====
The oldest football club in North Macedonia is FK Ljuboten, founded in 1919.
==== Norway ====
The first football team in Norway was probably started by a buekorps in Bergen, Nygaards Bataljon, in 1883. In 1885 the first Norwegian club however, Idrætsforeningen Odd, was founded in Skien. The footballing interest was very low, and was put on ice after a few months. However, the club Odd Grenland started up with football again in 1894, and are now Norway's oldest football club.
==== Poland ====
The oldest football club in Poland was either
Lechia Lwów, established in 1903, or
Czarni Lwów. This club is also believed to have been founded in 1903, but historical records are unclear as to the exact date of foundation.
When Lviv became a part of Ukraine (then part of the USSR) the clubs ceased to exist.
The oldest currently existing football club within Poland's current borders is widely considered to be Cracovia, but this is disputed by their Kraków arch-rivals Wisła Kraków; both clubs were founded in 1906, however there are multiple proofs that Wisła is younger. Resovia also lay claim to this distinction; the disputes centre around registration, continuity of a given team, and sources.
==== Portugal ====
In Portugal, Académica de Coimbra (football) is the oldest football club, founded in 1887.
==== Romania ====
The oldest football club in Romania is Fotbal Club Baia Mare, founded in 1896.
==== Serbia ====
The oldest club in Serbia is Subotičko sportsko društvo (Szabadkai Sport Egylet), founded in 1898.
==== Slovakia ====
The oldest football club in Slovakia is 1. FC Tatran Prešov, founded in 1898, that after many name changes plays in the Slovak first league.
==== Slovenia ====
The first football club was founded in 1900 by the German minority in Ljubljana, the Laibacher Sportverein and got discontinued in 1909, followed by the Hungarian minority Lendevai FE in 1903, and the German minority in Celje (Athletik SK in 1906). In 1911, the first Slovenian football club of the Slovenian minority opened in Ljubljana, Ilirija, followed by Slovan two years later. Ilirija is nowadays considered by the Slovenian FA as the oldest running football club in the country, because the Lendava-based club went bankrupt in 2012, although it got recreated right away.
==== Spain ====
Founded on 23 December 1889, Recreativo de Huelva is considered the oldest football club in Spain. Two Scots, Alexander Mackay and Robert Russell Ross, overseas workers at the Rio Tinto mines, founded Huelva Recreation Club to provide their employees with physical recreation. However, Sevilla FC should be considered the oldest Spanish football club, as Huelva was a mere recreation club, while Sevilla was founded as a Football Club, that being the oldest club specifically formed for football practice.
==== Sweden ====
The oldest active football club in Sweden is Örgryte IS, founded on 4 December 1887.
==== Switzerland ====
FC St. Gallen 1879 is the oldest active football club in Switzerland and the second oldest in continental Europe, founded on 19 April 1879 as FC St. Gallen.
==== Turkey ====
The first club founded within the present-day borders of Turkey was Panionios, founded in the city of Izmir in 1890. Being the club of the Greek community, it relocated to modern day Greece in 1922 after the population exchange between Greece and Turkey. The first Turkish sports club ever is Besiktas J.K. founded in 1903. Besiktas established their football branch in 1911. The first registered football club in the country was Galatasaray, founded in 1905.
=== Africa ===
==== Algeria ====
MC Algiers was founded in 1921. It is the oldest club in Algeria, and referred to as Le Doyen des clubs algerien (The Dean of Algerian Teams).
==== Egypt ====
Gezira SC was the oldest club in Egypt founded in 1882.
==== Ethiopia ====
Saint George S.C. was the oldest club in Ethiopia founded in 1935.
==== Ghana ====
Accra-based Hearts of Oak was founded in 1911. It is the oldest club in Ghana.
==== Morocco ====
Olympique Safi was founded in 1921. , the club has currently been playing in Botola since the 2004–05 season.
==== South Africa ====
Hamilton Rugby Football Club was founded in March 1875 in Cape Town, and states that it is the oldest Rugby union club in South Africa.
==== Sudan ====
Al-Merrikh Sporting Club, based in Omdurman, is the oldest football in Sudan. It was established in 1908 as Al-Masalma Sporting Club, before changing its name to Al-Merrikh in 1927.
==== Tanzania ====
Young Africans was founded in 1935. It is the oldest club in Tanzania.
==== Tunisia ====
Espérance Sportive de Tunis was founded in 1919. It is the oldest club in Tunisia.
=== Asia ===
==== Bangladesh ====
In 1898, after the discontinuation of Wellington Club, a few of its sports-loving members decided to form the Wari Club.
==== Hong Kong ====
Some of the oldest clubs in Hong Kong include St Joseph's (1880), Hong Kong Football Club (1886), Buffs (1886), all formed by Britons. The first club formed by locals was South China AA (1904).
==== India ====
In India, some of the oldest clubs are Calcutta Football Club (founded in 1872, later merged with Calcutta Cricket Club founded in 1792 to form Calcutta Cricket and Football Club), Sarada FC, Aryan FC (1884), Sovabazar FC (1886), Mohun Bagan (1889), Mohammedan SC (1891), and East Bengal (1920). All of these clubs are from Kolkata.
==== Indonesia ====
The oldest football club in Indonesia is Gymnastiek Vereeniging, founded in the City of Medan in 1887.
The oldest still active football club in Indonesia is UMS 1905, founded in 1905, currently competing in Liga 3 Jakarta. Several local clubs in the 1900s during the Dutch East Indies era that entered into internal teams such as Hercules, Vios Batavia (Persija internal); Sidolig, UNI Bandung (Persib internal) and others.
==== Iraq ====
Al-Quwa Al-Jawiya is a Baghdad-based men's club founded in 1931 in Kingdom of Iraq under British Administration. It plays within the Iraqi Premier League.
==== Yemen ====
Al-Tilal Sports Club (Arabic: نادي التلال) is a Yemeni multi-sports club based in Aden, Yemen. The club was founded in 1905, making it one of the oldest football clubs in the Middle East and the oldest in the Arabian Peninsula. Al-Tilal Sports Club is a Yemeni football team that plays in the Yemeni League, the country's top football league.
==== Japan ====
In Japan, the oldest rugby (1866) and association football club (1886) is Yokohama Country & Athletic Club.
The oldest continuing association football club is Tokyo Shukyu-Dan, founded in 1917.
==== Pakistan ====
The oldest continuing association football clubs for men of nowadays Pakistan are believed to be Karachi Port Trust and Pakistan Railways, both founded during the British Raj. Karachi Port Trust football team is believed to have been founded in 1887, the year the Karachi Port Trust itself was established. The Pakistan Railways football team was founded in the 1880s North-Western Railway Football Club, as representative of the North Western State Railway in football competitions in British India. The team has been recorded as playing in several football tournaments in the 1890s in Lahore.
For women, the oldest club is Diya W.F.C., established in Karachi in 2002.
=== North America ===
Although football variants have been played in North America since the 1820s, the claim of oldest continuous football club in North America is still a matter of debate.
Oneida Football Club of Boston, Massachusetts, established in 1862, was the first organised team to play any kind of football in the United States. The game played by the club, known as the "Boston game", was an informal local variant that predated the codification of rules for either association or American football. The team, which consisted of graduates of Boston's elite preparatory schools, played on Boston Common from 1862 to 1865, during which time they reportedly never lost a game or even gave up a single point.
In terms of gridiron football, the Hamilton Tiger-Cats of the Canadian Football League can trace their roots back to the Hamilton Football Club (nicknamed the Tigers) which formed in 1869, then later merged with the Hamilton Wildcats in 1950 to form the current franchise. Their rivals to the east, the Toronto Argonauts, were founded four years later, in 1873, and have a mostly unchanged franchise history. Both clubs began as rugby football clubs and only later adapted to the gridiron-style of play which would become known as Canadian football. The oldest continuous rugby club in North America which still plays rugby is the McGill University Rugby Football Club, which was established in 1863, although their first recorded game was not until 1865. The oldest independent (non-university) rugby club is the Westmount Rugby Club of Montreal, which formed in 1876.
In 1869, Rutgers University and Princeton University competed in the first US intercollegiate football game. According to U.S. Soccer, the rules of this game resembled rugby and association football more closely than gridiron football. However, university-affiliated teams competing in intercollegiate championships are not typically classified as "clubs".
In the United States, gridiron-based variants of the game did not distinguish themselves from existing codes until 1871, when Harvard University began playing the Boston Game invented by Oneida. Its rules allowed a player to pick up the ball and run with it if he were chased and it quickly spread, with innovations added by Yale University student Walter Camp. The oldest existing non-university semiprofessional football club is the Watertown Red & Black, which was founded in 1896. The Arizona Cardinals, founded as the Morgan Athletic Club in Chicago in 1898, are the oldest team in the National Football League.
One of the first teams to have played football under the association rules in the US was Fall River Rovers, founded in 1884. The club existed intermittently until 1921. The Milwaukee Wave of the American Indoor Soccer Association, a professional indoor soccer team based in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, was founded in 1984, and is the oldest continuously operating professional soccer team of any kind in the United States. Founded in 1993, both Charleston Battery and Richmond Kickers are considered the oldest continuously operating professional soccer clubs in the United States to date. The ten charter members of Major League Soccer were all new clubs created shortly before the league began play in 1996. Nine of those ten clubs are still in existence. In 2011, the league admitted the Vancouver Whitecaps, who had existed continuously since 1986, and who were a phoenix club of the North American Soccer League side of the same name who were founded in 1974. Aside from the arguable exception of the Whitecaps, all of the other NASL clubs folded when the league folded in 1984. There is one American soccer club from an earlier first-division league still in existence: the Kearny Scots of the semi-pro Eastern Premier Soccer League have been around since the 1930s, when they were a longtime member of the American Soccer League. They won the ASL league championship five years in a row from 1937 through 1941.
==== Mexico ====
In Mexico, the oldest Football club is Club de Fútbol Pachuca, based in Pachuca, Hidalgo, that competes in Liga MX. Founded by Cornish miners from Camborne and Redruth in 1901, it is one of the oldest football clubs in the Americas, and was one of the founding members of the Mexican Primera División.
=== South America ===
==== Argentina ====
Buenos Aires Cricket & Rugby Club claims to be the oldest club still in existence in Argentina. According to the club's website, the club was founded before 8 December 1864 as a cricket institution. The date of foundation has been recognised by the Buenos Aires Rugby Union. It is however believed that the club was founded in 1831, with existing documentary evidence about a cricket match played by Buenos Aires that same year. Nevertheless, the practise of any "football" code did not start until 1951 when the BACC merged with the Buenos Aires F.C. and rugby union was added.
Club Atlético del Rosario was officially established in 1867 as a cricket institution. The club soon added association football, being the first club from Rosario playing in the Primera División, the top division of Argentina. In rugby union, Rosario AC played the first inter-clubs match in the country on 28 June 1886, when the team faced Buenos Aires Football Club.
Having been established in 1875, Club Mercedes is considered the oldest association football club still in existence in Argentina. This places Mercedes above Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata and Quilmes, both founded in 1887.
==== Bolivia ====
Oruro Royal was founded on 26 May 1896 by the English workers hired by the Bolivian Government to build the national railways, becoming the first Bolivian football squad.
==== Brazil ====
São Paulo Athletic Club, founded on 13 May 1888 by English immigrants as a cricket club, could be considered the oldest Brazilian club to have played any code of "football", starting to play association football in 1898. After football retired from competitions in 1912, rugby union became the main sport of SPAC.
The oldest club to have been in continuous activity in association football is S.C. Rio Grande, founded in July 1900.
Clube Náutico Capibaribe, founded in April 1901, is the oldest in northeast region, and Fluminense Football Club, founded on 21 July 1902, is the oldest football club of Brazil with the word "football" in its name. It is also the first of the Brazilian big clubs.
São Paulo Railway Company and São Paulo Gaz Company, both established in 1895 (and then defunct) played the first football match in Brazil that same year.
==== Chile ====
Santiago Wanderers was founded on 15 August 1892 by Irish community and was the first football club in Chile.
==== Colombia ====
The defunct Barranquilla Football Club founded by British railway workers in 1908 was the first football club in Colombia.
Cali Football Club was formed in 1908 by students under the leadership of Nazario Lalinde, Juan Pablo Lalinde and Fidel Lalinde, who came back from Europe bringing football to the city of Cali, but in 1912 the students under the leadership of the three Lalinde brothers organized the team and renamed it as Deportivo Cali
==== Peru ====
Lima Cricket and Football Club claims to be the oldest football-practising club in Peru and the Americas, having been founded in 1859 by the city's British community.
==== Uruguay ====
In Uruguay, the Montevideo Cricket Club, established in 1861, has however been ranked as the oldest rugby union club outside Europe by the World Rugby Museum of Twickenham, although the first certain rugby match played by MVCC was in 1875.
=== Oceania ===
==== New Zealand ====
Christchurch Football Club, established in 1863, is the oldest football club of any code in New Zealand. The club initially played using its own rules, before converting to rugby football. Wellington Football Club, based in Hataitai, was established in 1870 and is the oldest continuous rugby football club in New Zealand. The honour of being the country's first organised association football club is likely to belong to Auckland's North Shore United, which was founded as North Shore in 1886. Two Dunedin-based clubs, Northern and Wakari, were officially founded in 1888, although it is possible that Northern had been playing as a team prior to this time.
== Oldest school football clubs ==
These are the earliest schools to have evidence of regular, organised football. Each school would originally have played its own code.
Aldenham School F.C. was reported in The Football Annual 1873 (Charles Alcock) to have been founded in 1825 but there are no primary sources to support this and it is disputed.
== Chronology of oldest clubs ==
=== Before 1860 ===
=== 1860–1869 ===
=== 1870–1879 ===
=== 1880–1889 === |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justice_Building | Justice Building | The Justice Building is an office hill on Parliament Hill in Ottawa. The building was designed by Thomas W. Fuller and is called the 'Justice Building' because it was previously home to the Department of Justice.
Originally called Block D, it was built from 1935 to 1938 for the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP). It was renovated in 1998–2001 and now houses some of the offices of members of Parliament.
The building is part of Gothic Revival architecture. Its design is similar to the Confederation Building located just east of it, which was also designed by Thomas W. Fuller.
In Ian Fleming's short story "For Your Eyes Only", James Bond visits the RCMP headquarters when it was located in this building, and the book contains a description of its structure. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actor | Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor | The Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor is an award presented annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS). It has been awarded since the 9th Academy Awards to an actor who has delivered an outstanding performance in a supporting role in a film released that year. The award is traditionally presented by the previous year's Best Supporting Actress winner. However, in recent years, it has shifted towards being presented by previous years' Best Supporting Actor winners instead. In lieu of the traditional Oscar statuette, supporting acting recipients were given plaques up until the 16th Academy Awards, when statuettes were awarded to each category instead.
The Best Supporting Actor award has been presented a total of 90 times, to 81 actors. The first winner was Walter Brennan for his role in Come and Get It (1936). The most recent winner is Sean Penn for One Battle After Another (2025). The record for most wins is three, held by Brennan–who won every other year within a succession of the first five years. Seven other actors have won twice. Brennan is also tied for receiving the most nominations in the category (with four altogether) along with Jeff Bridges, Robert Duvall, Arthur Kennedy, Jack Nicholson, Al Pacino, Claude Rains, and Mark Ruffalo. For his performance in The Dark Knight (2008), Heath Ledger became the first actor to win posthumously in this category—and second overall. Christopher Plummer is the oldest actor to receive a nomination in any category at age 88, for All the Money in the World (2017).
== Nominations process ==
Nominees are currently determined by single transferable vote within the actors branch of AMPAS; winners are selected by a plurality vote from the entire eligible voting members of the Academy.
== Winners and nominees ==
In the following table, the years are listed as per Academy convention, and generally correspond to the year of film release in Los Angeles County; the ceremonies are always held the following year. For the first five ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned twelve months, from August 1 to July 31. For the 6th ceremony held in 1934, the eligibility period lasted from August 1, 1932, to December 31, 1933. Since the 7th ceremony held in 1935, the period of eligibility became the full previous calendar year from January 1 to December 31.
=== 1930s ===
=== 1940s ===
=== 1950s ===
=== 1960s ===
=== 1970s ===
=== 1980s ===
=== 1990s ===
=== 2000s ===
=== 2010s ===
=== 2020s ===
== Multiple wins and nominations ==
The following individuals received two or more Best Supporting Actor awards:
The following individuals received two or more Best Supporting Actor nominations:
== Age superlatives ==
== Films with multiple Supporting Actor nominations ==
There have been 23 instances in which films have produced more than one nominee within this category. All resulted in two nominations, with the exceptions of On the Waterfront (1954), The Godfather (1972), and The Godfather Part II (1974), which each obtained three.
Winners are in bold.
Mr. Smith Goes to Washington (1939) – Harry Carey Sr. and Claude Rains
Quo Vadis (1951) – Leo Genn and Peter Ustinov
Shane (1953) – Brandon deWilde and Jack Palance
On the Waterfront (1954) – Lee J. Cobb, Karl Malden, and Rod Steiger
Peyton Place (1957) – Arthur Kennedy and Russ Tamblyn
Anatomy of a Murder (1959) – Arthur O'Connell and George C. Scott
The Hustler (1961) – Jackie Gleason and George C. Scott
Bonnie and Clyde (1967) – Gene Hackman and Michael J. Pollard
The Last Picture Show (1971) – Jeff Bridges and Ben Johnson
The Godfather (1972) – James Caan, Robert Duvall, and Al Pacino
The Godfather Part II (1974) – Robert De Niro, Michael V. Gazzo, and Lee Strasberg
Rocky (1976) – Burgess Meredith and Burt Young
Julia (1977) – Jason Robards and Maximilian Schell
Ordinary People (1980) – Judd Hirsch and Timothy Hutton
Terms of Endearment (1983) – John Lithgow and Jack Nicholson
Platoon (1986) – Tom Berenger and Willem Dafoe
Bugsy (1991) – Harvey Keitel and Ben Kingsley
Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri (2017) – Woody Harrelson and Sam Rockwell
The Irishman (2019) – Al Pacino and Joe Pesci
Judas and the Black Messiah (2020) – Daniel Kaluuya and LaKeith Stanfield
The Power of the Dog (2021) – Jesse Plemons and Kodi Smit-McPhee
The Banshees of Inisherin (2022) – Brendan Gleeson and Barry Keoghan
One Battle After Another (2025) – Benicio Del Toro and Sean Penn
== Multiple character nominations ==
Max "Pop" Corkle from Here Comes Mr. Jordan (James Gleason, 1941) and Heaven Can Wait (Jack Warden, 1978)
Thus far, this is the only instance of the same character producing two nominated performances within this particular same category. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mulona_lapidaria | Mulona lapidaria | Mulona lapidaria is a moth of the subfamily Arctiinae. It was described by Francis Walker in 1866. It is found on Haiti. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akira_Toriyama | Akira Toriyama | Akira Toriyama (Japanese: 鳥山明, Hepburn: Toriyama Akira; April 5, 1955 – March 1, 2024) was a Japanese manga artist and character designer. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential authors in the history of manga and created numerous highly influential and popular series, with his most famous being Dragon Ball.
Toriyama first achieved mainstream recognition for creating the manga series Dr. Slump, which was serialized in Shueisha's Weekly Shōnen Jump magazine. He earned the 1981 Shogakukan Manga Award for best shōnen/shōjo series. Dr. Slump went on to sell over 35 million copies in Japan. It was adapted into an anime, with a second series created in 1997, 13 years after the manga ended. Toriyama wrote and illustrated the Dragon Ball manga from 1984 to 1995. It became one of the best-selling manga series of all time, with 260 million copies sold worldwide, and is considered a key work in increasing manga circulation to its peak in the mid-1980s and mid-1990s. Overseas, Dragon Ball's anime adaptations have been more successful than the manga and similarly boosted anime's international popularity.
Beside his manga works, Toriyama acted as a character designer for numerous video games such as Square Enix's Dragon Quest series and Chrono Trigger, in addition to Blue Dragon.
In 2019, Toriyama was decorated a Chevalier of the French Ordre des Arts et des Lettres for his contributions to the arts. In October 2024, Toriyama was posthumously inducted into the Harvey Awards Hall of Fame.
== Early life ==
Akira Toriyama was born in the town of Kiyosu, Aichi Prefecture, Japan. He had a younger sister. Toriyama drew pictures since a young age, mainly of the animals and vehicles that he was fond of. He remembered being blown away after seeing One Hundred and One Dalmatians (1961), and said he was drawn deeper into the world of illustration by hoping to draw pictures that good. He was shocked again in elementary school when he saw the manga collection of a classmate's older brother, and again when he saw a television set for the first time at a neighbor's house. He cited Osamu Tezuka's Astro Boy (1952–1968) as the original source for his interest in manga. Toriyama recalled that when he was in elementary school all of his classmates drew imitating anime and manga, as a result of not having many forms of entertainment. He believed that he began to advance above everyone else when he started drawing pictures of his friends. Despite being engrossed with manga in elementary school, Toriyama said he took a break from it in middle school, probably because he became more interested in films and TV shows. When asked if he had any formative experiences with tokusatsu entertainment, Toriyama said he enjoyed the Ultraman TV show and Gamera series of kaiju films.
Toriyama said it was a "no-brainer" that he would attend a high school focused on creative design, but admitted he was more interested in having fun with friends. Although he still did not read much manga, he would draw one himself every once in a while. Despite his parents' strong opposition, Toriyama was confident about going into the work force upon graduation instead of continuing his education. He worked at an advertising agency in Nagoya designing posters for three years. Although Toriyama said he adapted to the job quickly, he admitted that he was often late because he was not a "morning person" and got reprimanded for dressing casually. Resenting the routine, he became sick of the environment and quit.
== Career ==
=== Early work and Dr. Slump (1978–1983) ===
After quitting his job at the age of 23 and asking his mother for money while unemployed, Toriyama entered the manga industry by submitting a work to an amateur contest in Kodansha's Weekly Shōnen Magazine, which he had randomly picked up in a coffee shop. The timing did not line up for that contest, but another manga magazine, Weekly Shōnen Jump, accepted submissions for their Newcomer Award every month. Kazuhiko Torishima, who would become his editor, read and enjoyed Toriyama's manga, but it was not eligible to compete because it was a parody of Star Wars instead of an original work. Torishima sent the artist a telegram and encouraged him to keep drawing and sending him manga. This resulted in Wonder Island, which became Toriyama's first published work when it appeared in Weekly Shōnen Jump in 1978. It finished last place in the readers survey. Toriyama later said that he had planned to quit manga after getting paid, but because Wonder Island 2 (1978) was also a "flop", his stubbornness would not let him and he continued to draw failed stories for a year; claiming around 500 pages' worth, including the published Today's Highlight Island (1979). He said he learned a lot during this year and even had some fun. When Torishima told him to draw a female lead character, Toriyama hesitantly created 1979's Tomato the Cutesy Gumshoe, which had some success. Feeling encouraged, he decided to draw another female lead and created Dr. Slump.
Dr. Slump, which was serialized in Weekly Shōnen Jump from 1980 to 1984, was a huge success and made Toriyama a household name. It follows the adventures of a perverted professor and his small but super-strong robot Arale. In 1981, Dr. Slump earned Toriyama the Shogakukan Manga Award for best shōnen or shōjo manga series of the year. An anime adaptation began airing that same year, during the prime time Wednesday 19:00 slot on Fuji TV. Adaptations of Toriyama's work would occupy this time slot continuously for 18 years—through Dr. Slump's original run, Dragon Ball and its two sequels, and finally a rebooted Dr. Slump concluding in 1999. By 2008, the Dr. Slump manga had sold over 35 million copies in Japan.
Although Dr. Slump was popular, Toriyama wanted to end the series within roughly six months of creating it, but publisher Shueisha would only allow him to do so if he agreed to start another serial for them shortly after. So he worked with Torishima on several one-shots for Weekly Shōnen Jump and the monthly Fresh Jump. In 1981, Toriyama was one of ten artists selected to create a 45-page work for Weekly Shōnen Jump's Reader's Choice contest. His manga Pola & Roid took first place. Toriyama was selected to participate in the contest again in 1982 and submitted Mad Matic. His one-shot Pink was published in the December issue of Fresh Jump. Selected to participate in Weekly Shōnen Jump's Reader's Choice contest for a third time, Toriyama had the bad luck of drawing the first slot and had to work over New Year's on 1983's Chobit. Angry that it was unpopular, he decided to try again and created Chobit 2 (1983).
An official Toriyama fan club, Akira Toriyama Hozonkai (鳥山明保存会; "Akira Toriyama Preservation Society"), was established in 1982. Its newsletters were called Bird Land Press and were sent to members until the club closed in 1987. Toriyama founded Bird Studio in the early 1980s, which is a play on his name; "tori" (鳥) meaning "bird". He began employing an assistant, mostly to work on backgrounds.
=== Dragon Ball and international success (1983–1997) ===
Torishima suggested that, as Toriyama enjoyed kung fu films, he should create a kung fu shōnen manga. This led to the two-part Dragon Boy, published in the August and October 1983 issues of Fresh Jump. It follows a boy, adept at martial arts, who escorts a princess on a journey back to her home country. Dragon Boy was well-received and evolved to become the serial Dragon Ball in 1984. But before that, The Adventure of Tongpoo was published in Weekly Shōnen Jump's 52nd issue of 1983 and also contained elements that would be included in Dragon Ball.
Serialized in Weekly Shōnen Jump from 1984 to 1995 and having sold 159.5 million tankōbon copies in Japan alone, Dragon Ball is one of the best-selling manga series of all time. It began as an adventure/gag manga but later turned into a martial arts fighting series, considered by many to be the "most influential shōnen manga". Dragon Ball was one of the main reasons for the magazine's circulation hitting a record high of 6.53 million copies (1995). At the series' end, Toriyama said that he asked everyone involved to let him end the manga, so he could "take some new steps in life". During that near-11-year period, he produced 519 chapters that were collected into 42 volumes. Moreover, the success of the manga led to five anime adaptations, several animated films, numerous video games, and mega-merchandise. Aside from its popularity in Japan, Dragon Ball was successful internationally as well, including Asia, Europe, and the Americas, with 300–350 million copies of the manga sold worldwide.
While Toriyama was serializing Dragon Ball weekly, he continued to create the occasional one-shot manga. In 1986, Mr. Ho was published in the 49th issue of Weekly Shōnen Jump. The following year saw publication of Young Master Ken'nosuke, which had a Japanese jidaigeki setting. Toriyama published two Weekly Shōnen Jump one-shots in 1988; The Elder and Little Mamejiro. Karamaru and the Perfect Day followed in issue #13 of 1989.
Also during Dragon Ball's serialization, Torishima recruited him to work as character designer for the 1986 role-playing video game Dragon Quest. The artist admitted he was pulled into it without even knowing what an RPG was and that it made his already busy schedule even more hectic, but he was happy to have been a part after enjoying the finished game. Toriyama continued to work on every installment in the Dragon Quest series until his death. He also served as the character designer for the Super Famicom RPG Chrono Trigger (1995) and for the fighting games Tobal No. 1 (1996) and Tobal 2 (1997) for the PlayStation.
The September 23, 1988, festival film Kosuke & Rikimaru: The Dragon of Konpei Island marked the first time Toriyama made substantial contributions to an animation. He came up with the original story idea, co-wrote the screenplay with its director Toyoo Ashida, and designed the characters. It was screened at the Jump Anime Carnival, which was held to commemorate the 20th anniversary of Weekly Shōnen Jump.
=== Short stories and other projects (1996–2011) ===
A third anime adaptation based on Dragon Ball, entitled Dragon Ball GT, began airing in 1996, though this was not based on Toriyama's manga directly. He was involved in some overarching elements, including the name of the series and designs for the main cast. Toriyama continued drawing manga in this period, predominantly one-shots and short (100–200-page) pieces, including Cowa! (1997–1998), Kajika (1998), and Sand Land (2000). On December 6, 2002, Toriyama made his only promotional appearance in the United States at the launch of Weekly Shōnen Jump's North American counterpart, Shonen Jump, in New York City. Toriyama's Dragon Ball and Sand Land were published in the magazine in the first issue, which also included an in-depth interview with him. Toriyama also wrote a short self-parody of Dragon Ball entitled Neko Majin, in the form of eight one-shots released sporadically from 1999 to 2005. The eight chapters were collected into a single volume and published in April 2005.
On March 27, 2005, CQ Motors began selling an electric car designed by Toriyama. The one-person QVOLT is part of the company's Choro-Q series of small electric cars, with only 9 being produced. It cost 1,990,000 yen (about $19,000 US), has a top speed of 30 km/h (19 mph) and was available in five colors. Toriyama stated that the car took over a year to design, "but due to my genius mini-model construction skills, I finally arrived at the end of what was a very emotional journey."
He worked on a 2006 one-shot called Cross Epoch, in cooperation with One Piece creator Eiichiro Oda. The story is a short crossover that presents characters from both Dragon Ball and One Piece. Toriyama was the character designer and artist for the 2006 Mistwalker Xbox 360 exclusive RPG Blue Dragon, working with Hironobu Sakaguchi and Nobuo Uematsu, both of whom he had previously worked with on Chrono Trigger. At the time, Toriyama felt the 2007 Blue Dragon anime might potentially be his final work in animation.
In 2008, he collaborated with Masakazu Katsura, his good friend and creator of I"s and Zetman, for the Jump SQ one-shot Sachie-chan Good!!. It was later published in North America in the free SJ Alpha Yearbook 2013, which was mailed out to annual subscribers of the digital manga magazine Shonen Jump Alpha in December 2012. The two worked together again in 2009, for the three-chapter one-shot Jiya in Weekly Young Jump.
Toriyama was engaged by 20th Century Fox as a creative consultant on Dragonball Evolution, an American live-action film adaptation of Dragon Ball. The film was released in 2009 and failed both critically and financially. Toriyama later stated in 2013 that he had felt the script did not "capture the world or the characteristics" of his series and was "bland" and not interesting, so he cautioned them and gave suggestions for changes. The film's producers did not heed his advice, "And just as I thought, the result was a movie I cannot call Dragon Ball." Avex Trax commissioned Toriyama to draw a portrait of pop singer Ayumi Hamasaki, and it was printed on the CD of her 2009 single "Rule", which was used as the theme song to the film.
Toriyama drew a 2009 manga titled Delicious Island's Mr. U for Anjō's Rural Society Project, a nonprofit environmental organization that teaches the importance of agriculture and nature to young children. They originally asked him to do the illustrations for a pamphlet, but Toriyama liked the project and decided to expand it into a story. It is included in a booklet about environmental awareness that is distributed by the Anjō city government. As part of Weekly Shōnen Jump's "Top of the Super Legend" project, a series of six one-shots by famed Jump artists, Toriyama created Kintoki for its November 15, 2010, issue. He collaborated with Weekly Shōnen Jump to create a video to raise awareness and support for those affected by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami on March 11, 2011.
=== Return to Dragon Ball (2012–2024) ===
In 2012, Dragon Ball Z: Battle of Gods was announced to be in development, with Toriyama involved in its creation. The film marked the series' first theatrical film in 17 years, and the first time Toriyama had been involved in one as early as the screenwriting stages. The film opened on March 30, 2013. A special "dual ticket" that could be used to see both Battle of Gods and One Piece Film: Z was created with new art by both Toriyama and Eiichiro Oda.
On March 27, 2013, the "Akira Toriyama: The World of Dragon Ball" exhibit opened at the Takashimaya department store in Nihonbashi, garnering 72,000 visitors in its first nineteen days. The exhibit was separated into seven areas. The first provided a look at the series' history, the second showed the 400-plus characters from the series, the third displayed Toriyama's manga manuscripts from memorable scenes, the fourth showed special color illustrations, the fifth displayed rare Dragon Ball-related materials, the sixth included design sketches and animation cels from the anime, and the seventh screened Dragon Ball-related videos. It was there until April 15, when it moved to Osaka from April 17 to 23, and ended in Toriyama's native Nagoya from July 27 to September 1.
To celebrate the 45th anniversary of Weekly Shōnen Jump, Toriyama launched a new manga series in its July 13, 2013, issue titled Jaco the Galactic Patrolman. Viz Media began serializing it in English in their digital Weekly Shonen Jump magazine, beginning just two days later. The final chapter reveals that the story is set before the events of Dragon Ball and features some of its characters. It would become the final manga that Toriyama wrote and illustrated himself.
The follow-up film to Battle of Gods, Resurrection 'F', released on April 18, 2015, features even more contributions from Toriyama, who personally wrote its original script. Toriyama provided the basic story outline and some character designs for Dragon Ball Super, which began serialization in V Jump in June 2015 with an anime counterpart following in July. Although the anime ended in 2018, he continued to provide story ideas for the manga while Toyotarou illustrated it. Dragon Ball Super: Broly, released in theaters on December 14, 2018, and Dragon Ball Super: Super Hero, released on June 11, 2022, continued Toriyama's deep involvement with the films, the latter being his final complete work on the Dragon Ball franchise.
In January 2024, a logo Toriyama designed to celebrate the 20th anniversary of his hometown of Kiyosu was unveiled. Toriyama created a new story arc for the 2024 original net animation adaptation of his manga Sand Land. He also created the story and character designs for the upcoming Dragon Ball Daima anime series. Toriyama's final contribution to Dragon Ball was directing Toyotarou to redraw the end of chapter 103 of Dragon Ball Super, so that a departing Piccolo appears to wave back at the reader. A short tribute was included at the bottom of the page when it was published on March 28, 2024.
On October 11, 2024, the Harvey Awards announced that Toriyama was one of five comics creators to be inducted into the Harvey Awards Hall of Fame at the 36th annual Harvey Awards ceremony on October 18 at the New York Comic Con. Acknowledging the accolade for Toriyama, Bird Studio Co., Ltd. and Capsule Corporation Tokyo issued a statement saying, "We are very honored to receive the news that Akira Toriyama has been selected for the prestigious Harvey Award Hall of Fame. As a creator, he had always said that his work says it all. We are especially grateful to the American fans for their long-standing enthusiasm and dedicated support. We hope you will continue to support his work for many years to come as we continue to develop and expand upon his masterpieces."
== Personal life and death ==
Toriyama married Yoshimi Katō on May 2, 1982. She is a former manga artist from Nagoya under the pen name Nachi Mikami, and occasionally helped Toriyama and his assistant on Dr. Slump when they were short on time. They had two children: a son named Sasuke (born 1987) and a daughter named Kikka (born 1990). Toriyama lived in his home studio in Kiyosu. He was a well-known recluse, who avoided appearing in public or media. In an extension to his shyness, Toriyama had used a robot avatar since 1980 to represent himself in manga and interviews.
Toriyama had a love of cars and motorcycles, something he inherited from his father who used to race motorbikes and operated an auto repair business for a brief time, although he did not understand the mechanics himself. He was an animal lover, and had kept birds, dogs, cats, fish, lizards, and bugs as pets since childhood. Some were used as models for characters he created such as Karin and Beerus. Toriyama had a lifelong passion for plastic models, and designed several for the Fine Molds brand. He also collected autographs of famous manga artists, having over 30 including Yudetamago and Hisashi Eguchi, a hobby he gave to the character Peasuke Soramame.
=== Death ===
On March 1, 2024, Toriyama died of an acute subdural hematoma, at the age of 68. A funeral was held privately with only his family in attendance. His death was announced by his production company Bird Studio one week later on March 8. According to sources close to Toriyama, he had planned to undergo surgery for a brain tumor in February 2024. The news of his death caused an outpouring of grief among admirers of his works, who took to social media to express their condolences and celebrate his legacy. Tributes to the artist were given by One Piece creator Eiichiro Oda, Naruto creator Masashi Kishimoto, Bleach creator Tite Kubo, My Hero Academia creator Kōhei Horikoshi, Yu Yu Hakusho and Hunter × Hunter creator Yoshihiro Togashi, Video Girl Ai creator Masakazu Katsura, and video game designer Yuji Horii, who worked with Toriyama on Dragon Quest and Chrono Trigger. In Tokyo, fans publicly mourned while visiting a life-sized statue of Dragon Ball protagonist Goku located outside the headquarters of toy manufacturer Bandai. Japan's Chief Cabinet Secretary Yoshimasa Hayashi credited Toriyama and his work with playing an "extremely important role in demonstrating Japan's soft power" around the world.
French President Emmanuel Macron shared a photo of an autographed illustration Toriyama gave him as a gift and paid tribute to him and his fans on social media. French Prime Minister Gabriel Attal also paid tribute and lamented that not even "the [Dragon Balls] and Shenron" could revive him. The foreign ministries of China and El Salvador issued statements of condolences over Toriyama's death. Justin Chatwin, who portrayed Goku in the live-action film Dragonball Evolution, paid respects to Toriyama and apologized for the quality of the film by posting on his Instagram story, "sorry we messed up that adaptation so badly". Several Mexican voice actors who dubbed Dragon Ball characters in Spanish for Latin America also lamented Toriyama's death via social media. A large gathering was held at the Plaza de la Constitución in Mexico City, where hundreds of fans did the Genki-dama hand motion (arms up, palm facing the zenith, pooling energy together) to honor the artist. During the 18th Seiyu Awards on March 9, a moment of silence was held for Toriyama and voice actress Tarako, who died on March 4, in recognition of their contributions to the anime industry. On March 10, in Argentina, thousands of fans gathered at the Obelisco monument to remember Toriyama. In Lima, Peru, over 40 artists led by "Peko" painted a mural tribute to Toriyama, which showcases characters from Dragon Ball as well as Toriyama himself, spanning six meters high and over 110 meters long.
== Style ==
Toriyama admired Osamu Tezuka's Astro Boy and was impressed by Walt Disney's One Hundred and One Dalmatians, which he remembered for its high-quality animation. He was a fan of Hong Kong martial arts films, especially Bruce Lee films such as Enter the Dragon (1973) and Jackie Chan films such as Drunken Master (1978), which went on to have a large influence on his later work. He also cited the science fiction films Alien (1979) and Galaxy Quest (1999) as influences. Toriyama stated he was influenced by animator Toyoo Ashida and the anime television series adaptation of his own Dragon Ball, from which he learned that separating colors instead of blending them makes the art cleaner and coloring illustrations easier.
It was Toriyama's sound effects in Mysterious Rain Jack that caught the eye of Kazuhiko Torishima, who explained that usually they are written in katakana, but Toriyama used the Roman alphabet, which he found refreshing. Torishima has stated that Toriyama aimed to be a gag manga artist because the competitions that he submitted to early on required entries in the gag category to only be 15 pages long, compared to story manga entries which had to be 31. In his opinion, Toriyama excelled in black and white, utilizing black areas as a result of not having had the money to buy screentone when he started drawing manga. He also described Toriyama as a master of convenience and "sloppy, but in a good way." For instance, in Dragon Ball, destroying scenery in the environment and giving Super Saiyans blond hair were done in order to have less work in drawing and inking. Torishima claimed that Toriyama drew what he found interesting and was not mindful of what his readers thought, nor did he get much inspiration from other comics, as he chose not to re-read previous works or read manga made by other artists, a practice that Torishima supported. Furthermore, the book A History of Modern Manga (2023) describes Toriyama as "a perfectionist at heart" who "didn't hesitate to redraw entire panels under the worried eye of his editor at Jump".
Dr. Slump is mainly a comedy series, filled with puns, toilet humor, and sexual innuendos. But it also contained many science fiction elements: aliens, anthropomorphic characters, time travel, and parodies of works such as Godzilla, Star Wars, and Star Trek. Toriyama also included many real-life people in the series, such as his assistants, wife, and colleagues (such as Masakazu Katsura), but most notably his editor Kazuhiko Torishima as the series' main antagonist, Dr. Mashirito. A running gag in Dr. Slump that utilizes feces has been reported as an inspiration for the Pile of Poo emoji.
When Dragon Ball began, it was loosely based on the classic Chinese novel Journey to the West, with Goku being Sun Wukong and Bulma as Tang Sanzang. It was also inspired by Hong Kong martial arts films, particularly those of Jackie Chan, and was set in a fictional world based on Asia, taking inspiration from several Asian cultures including Japanese, Chinese, Indian, Central Asian, Arabic, and Indonesian cultures. Toriyama continued to use his characteristic comedic style in the beginning, but over the course of serialization this slowly changed, with him turning the series into a "nearly-pure fighting manga" later on. He did not plan out in advance what would happen in the series, instead choosing to draw as he went. This, coupled with him simply forgetting things he had already drawn, caused him to find himself in situations that he had to write himself out of.
Toriyama was commissioned to illustrate the characters and monsters for the first Dragon Quest video game (1986) in order to separate it from other role-playing games of the time. He worked on every installment in the series until he died. For each game Yuji Horii first sends rough sketches of the characters with their background information to Toriyama, who then re-draws them. Lastly, Horii approves the finished work. Toriyama explained in 1995 that for video games, because the sprites are so small, as long as they have a distinguishing feature so people can tell which character it is, he can make complex designs without concern of having to reproduce it like he usually would in manga. Besides the character and monster designs, Toriyama also does the games' packaging art and, for Dragon Quest VIII, the boats and ships. In 2016, Toriyama revealed that because of the series' established time period and setting, his artistic options are limited, which makes every iteration harder to design for than the last. The series' Slime character, which has become a mascot for the franchise, is considered to be one of the most recognizable figures in gaming.
Manga critic Jason Thompson declared Toriyama's art influential, saying that his "extremely personal and recognizable style" was a reason for Dragon Ball's popularity. He points out that the popular shōnen manga of the late 1980s and early 1990s had "manly" heroes, such as City Hunter and Fist of the North Star, whereas Dragon Ball starred the cartoonish and small Goku, thus starting a trend that Thompson says continues to this day. Toriyama himself said he went against the normal convention that the strongest characters should be the largest in terms of physical size, designing many of the series' most powerful characters with small statures. Thompson concluded his analysis by saying that only Akira Toriyama drew like this at the time and that Dragon Ball is "an action manga drawn by a gag manga artist." James S. Yadao, author of The Rough Guide to Manga, points out that an art shift does occur in the series, as the characters gradually "lose the rounded, innocent look that [Toriyama] established in Dr. Slump and gain sharper angles that leap off the page with their energy and intensity."
== Legacy and accolades ==
Patrick St. Michel of The Japan Times compared Toriyama to animator Walt Disney and Marvel Comics creator Stan Lee: "All three of these individuals, Toriyama included, had a personal artistic style that has become the shorthand for their respective media." Speaking of Dragon Ball, David Brothers of ComicsAlliance wrote that: "Like Osamu Tezuka and Jack Kirby before him, Toriyama created a story with his own two hands that seeped deep into the hearts of his readers, creating a love for both the cast and the medium at the same time." Thompson stated in 2011 that "Dragon Ball is by far the most influential shonen manga of the last 30 years, and today, almost every Shōnen Jump artist lists it as one of their favorites and lifts from it in various ways." Patrick W. Galbraith, an associate professor at the School of International Communication at Senshu University, similarly said, "One can sense the DNA of Toriyama's work in all subsequent shōnen releases."
In a rare 2013 interview, commenting on Dragon Ball's global success, Toriyama admitted, "Frankly, I don't quite understand why it happened. While the manga was being serialized, the only thing I wanted as I kept drawing was to make Japanese boys happy." He had previously stated in 2010, "The truth is, I didn't like being a manga artist very much. It wasn't until relatively recently that I realized it's a wonderful job." Many artists have named Toriyama and Dragon Ball as influences, including One Piece author Eiichiro Oda, Naruto creator Masashi Kishimoto, Fairy Tail and Rave author Hiro Mashima, Boruto: Naruto Next Generations illustrator Mikio Ikemoto, Venus Versus Virus author Atsushi Suzumi, Bleach creator Tite Kubo, Black Cat author Kentaro Yabuki, and Mr. Fullswing author Shinya Suzuki. German comic book artist Hans Steinbach was strongly influenced by Toriyama, and Thai cartoonist Wisut Ponnimit cited Toriyama as one of his favorite cartoonists. St. Michel wrote that the impact Toriyama and Dragon Ball had extends beyond inspiring newer artists, "he influenced the style of anime as a whole and revealed new economic potential, as the comic series mutated into an anime, video games and infinite merchandise." Ian Jones-Quartey, a producer of the American animated series Steven Universe, is a fan of both Dragon Ball and Dr. Slump, and uses Toriyama's vehicle designs as reference for his own. He also stated that "We're all big Toriyama fans on [Steven Universe], which kind of shows a bit." French director Pierre Perifel cited Toriyama and Dragon Ball as influences on his DreamWorks Animation film The Bad Guys.
In 2008, Oricon conducted a poll of people's favorite manga artists, with Toriyama coming in second, behind only Nana author Ai Yazawa. He was number one among male respondents and among those over 30 years of age. They held a poll on the Mangaka that Changed the History of Manga in 2010, mangaka being the Japanese word for a manga artist. Toriyama came in second, after only Osamu Tezuka, due to his works being highly influential and popular worldwide. Toriyama won the Special 40th Anniversary Festival Award at the 2013 Angoulême International Comics Festival, honoring his years in cartooning. He actually received the most votes for the festival's Grand Prix de la ville d'Angoulême award that year, though the selection committee chose Willem as the recipient. In a 2014 NTT Docomo poll for the manga artist that best represents Japan, Toriyama came in third place. That same year, entomologist Enio B. Cano named a new species of beetle, Ogyges toriyamai, after Toriyama, and another, Ogyges mutenroshii, after the Dragon Ball character Muten Roshi. Toriyama was decorated a Chevalier or "Knight" of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French government on May 30, 2019, for his contributions to the arts. He was also a 2019 nominee for entry into the Will Eisner Hall of Fame. Toriyama was honored with a Lifetime Achievement Award at the 2024 Tokyo Anime Awards Festival. Due to his video game design work, IGN named Toriyama number 74 on their list of the Top 100 Game Creators of All Time.
== Works ==
Besides Dr. Slump (1980–1984) and Dragon Ball (1984–1995), Toriyama predominantly drew one-shot manga and short (100–200-page) pieces, including Pink (1982), Go! Go! Ackman (1993–1994), Cowa! (1997–1998), Kajika (1998), Sand Land (2000) and Jaco the Galactic Patrolman (2013). Many of his one-shots were collected in his three-volume anthology series, Akira Toriyama's Manga Theater (1983–1997). He also collaborated with other manga artists, such as Katsura and Oda, to produce one-shots and crossover shorts.
Toriyama also created many character designs for various video games such as the Dragon Quest series (1986–2023), Chrono Trigger (1995), Blue Dragon (2006), and some Dragon Ball video games. He also designed several characters and mascots for various manga magazines property of Shueisha, his career-long employer and Japan's largest publishing company.
Besides manga-related works, Toriyama also created various illustrations, album and book covers, model kits, mascots and logos. For example, he sketched several versions of the Dragon Ball Z logo, which Toei Animation then refined into a definitive design.
== Explanatory notes == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennessee_Centennial_and_International_Exposition | Tennessee Centennial and International Exposition | The Tennessee Centennial and International Exposition was an exposition held in Nashville from May 1 – October 31, 1897 in what is now Centennial Park. A year late, it celebrated the 100th anniversary of Tennessee's entry into the union in 1796. President William McKinley officially opened the event from the White House, where he pressed a button that started the machinery building at the fair; he would visit in person a month later.
== Description ==
The Exposition grounds covered about 200 acres and was located on the western fringe of the city, with access to the streetcar line. The landscape plan featured the notable blue grass of the region planted in lawn areas. The more than 100 buildings included those devoted to agriculture, commerce, education, fine arts, history, machinery, minerals and forestry, and transportation. Others had special exhibits related to children, women and the United States Government. Many cities and organizations built buildings and exhibit halls on the Exposition grounds. Foreign nations also were represented here.
The Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis Railroad played a central role in the promotion and success of the Tennessee Centennial Exposition, and carried tourists to the event. John W. Thomas, who was president of the Railroad at the time, served as president of the Tennessee Centennial Exposition. Major Eugene Castner Lewis, who was the chief civil engineer for the Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis Railroad, served as the director general of the Exposition. Lewis had suggested that a reproduction of the Parthenon be built in Nashville as the centerpiece of Tennessee’s Centennial Celebration to highlight the city as the "Athens of the South".
The City of Memphis featured a large pyramid in its exhibit, in honor of its Egyptian name. The Parthenon and the Pyramid were located next to each other on the shore of Lake Wautaga. Both the exhibits were lit at night. The separate Egyptian Pavilion featured popular belly dancers. During the exposition, Italian-style gondolas plied the lake, carrying tourists by water between exhibits.
Also located along Lake Watauga, the Negro Building was designed in a Spanish Renaissance style. Exhibits came from numerous cities, and Fisk University and Tuskegee Institute had their own exhibits. Booker T. Washington, president of the latter, was a featured speaker on Emancipation Day.
The total attendance was 1,786,714, of which the total paid attendance was 1,166,692. The total receipts were $1,101,285 (equivalent to $35.6 million in 2024), and the disbursements $1,101,246 (equivalent to $35.6 million in 2024).
The Parthenon was so popular that it was kept after most buildings and exhibits were dismantled. The original exposition grounds were adapted as Centennial Park for the city. Lake Watauga was also retained in the city park. The Centennial Exposition was a great success and is still considered one of the most notable events ever to be held in the state. Unlike most World's Fairs, it did not lose money, but the final accounting showed a direct profit of less than $50.
== Later developments ==
The fair remains a great source of civic pride for Nashvillians. Today the fairgrounds survive as Centennial Park, the flagship park managed by the Metropolitan Nashville Parks and Recreation Department.
The Parthenon replica built for the exhibition was made of temporary materials. Because of its popularity, it was reconstructed using permanent materials in a project lasting from 1920 to 1931. Today it is used as an art museum. Among its exhibits is Alan LeQuire's 1990 re-creation of the Athena Parthenos statue.
Nearly a century later, the United States held the 1982 World's Fair in Knoxville, Tennessee. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minardi_M194 | Minardi M194 | The Minardi M194 was a Formula One car designed by Aldo Costa and Gustav Brunner and built by Minardi for the 1994 season. It was introduced at that year's Canadian Grand Prix to replace the Minardi M193B. The car was again powered by the Ford HBD V8 engine.
Minardi team drivers during 1994 were Pierluigi Martini and former Grand Prix winner Michele Alboreto. The team's test driver was Luca Badoer.
The M194 would only score two points during its 11 races, both when Martini finished in 5th place at the car's second race, the French Grand Prix. The team in fact scored more points in 1994 (3 points) using the M193B than with the M194. The combined 5 point total saw Minardi only finish tenth in the Constructors' Championship.
The M194 was replaced for the 1995 season by the Minardi M195. Alboreto retired and was replaced by test driver Badoer.
== Livery ==
The M194 had a blue, orange and white livery, with main sponsorship from Lucchini and Beta Tools.
During the British Grand Prix, the car ran with the words "Italia IN - Ireland OUT", in response to the elimination of Ireland from the 1994 FIFA World Cup and the provocation from Eddie Jordan in the previous race.
== Race results ==
(key)
* 3 points scored using Minardi M193B |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Wonderful_Story_of_Henry_Sugar_(film) | The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar (film) | Roald Dahl's The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar, or simply The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar, is a 2023 American fantasy short film written, co-produced, and directed by Wes Anderson, based on the 1977 short story "The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar" by Roald Dahl. It is the second film adaptation of a Dahl work directed by Anderson, following Fantastic Mr. Fox (2009). It stars Benedict Cumberbatch as the titular character alongside Ralph Fiennes, Dev Patel, Ben Kingsley, and Richard Ayoade. The story sees a rich man learning about a clairvoyant guru who could see without using his eyes through the power of a particular form of Yoga, then setting out to master the skill in order to cheat at gambling.
The film is the first of a four-part series of shorts adapted from Dahl's short stories, including "The Swan", "The Rat Catcher", and "Poison". Development on the project began in January 2022, with most of the cast signed on. Principal photography took place in London that month. The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar was originally reported to be a feature film until Anderson clarified in June 2023 that it would be one of a collection of short films.
The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar premiered at the 80th Venice International Film Festival on September 1, 2023, and received a limited theatrical release on September 20, 2023, followed by being released on Netflix on September 27, 2023. The other three Anderson shorts based on Dahl stories premiered on Netflix on succeeding days: The Swan on September 28, The Rat Catcher on September 29, and Poison on September 30. On March 15, 2024, the film was released in a feature length film anthology along with the other three shorts titled The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar and Three More.
It received positive reviews critics and won the Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film at the 96th Academy Awards.
== Plot ==
The story is presented as a telefilm that aired in the United Kingdom on the fictitious Channel 7 in 1978.
Henry Sugar is the pseudonym of a bachelor who uses his inherited fortune to fund his gambling habits. One day, he comes across a book of a doctor's report of Imdad Khan, a man who claimed he could see and interact without using his eyes. After watching Imdad perform even greater feats in his own circus act, the doctor interviewed Imdad, and he tells him his life history. As a young runaway in a traveling circus, he sought out a guru known as The Great Yogi, who could meditate while levitating his own body. Reluctantly, the Great Yogi taught Imdad his meditation method, which granted Imdad his abilities, though he died overnight before the doctors could further study him.
By practising Imdad's meditations of staring into a candle flame at eye level while picturing the face of the person he loves most in the world, Henry manages to see through the backs of playing cards to read the face value after three years of practice, something that Imdad had been told that only one in a billion would be able to do in a short amount of time. Henry uses his ability at a casino and makes £30,000 at blackjack. Unsatisfied with his ease in earning money, he throws the money off his balcony into the streets of London. After he nearly causes a riot, a police officer suggests that he find a more effective form of charity. Henry decides to travel worldwide, winning money from casinos with his ability under varying disguises and establishing a network of successful hospitals and orphanages. Two decades later, Henry dies from a pulmonary embolism which he knew would cause his death, being able to see the clot through his skin. His accountant commissions Roald Dahl to write his story under the condition his identity remain confidential.
== Cast ==
Benedict Cumberbatch as
Henry Sugar
Max Engelman
Ralph Fiennes as
Roald Dahl
The Policeman
The Rat Man
Dev Patel as
Dr. Chatterjee
John Winston
Ben Kingsley as
Imdad Khan
The Dealer
Richard Ayoade as
Dr. Marshall
The Great Yogi
David Gant as Casino Croupier
Jarvis Cocker cameos as
a casino receptionist
several friends of Henry Sugar
== Production ==
In September 2021, Netflix acquired the Roald Dahl Story Company for $686 million. The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar project was confirmed on January 7, 2022, the day after it was reported that Wes Anderson was set to write and direct the film adaptation, with Netflix distributing. It was announced that Benedict Cumberbatch would star as Sugar, with Ralph Fiennes, Dev Patel and Ben Kingsley in supporting roles. Rupert Friend and Richard Ayoade later joined the cast.
Principal photography began at The Maidstone Studios in Kent, England, in January 2022.
The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar was originally reported to be a feature film, but Anderson clarified in June 2023 that it would be one of a collection of short films.
== Release ==
The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar premiered out-of-competition at the 80th Venice International Film Festival on September 1, 2023. It had a limited theatrical release on September 20, only in New York and California. It was initially set for a streaming release on October 13, 2023, but was released on Netflix on September 27. The short was repackaged as an anthology movie with the three other shorts and released on Netflix on March 15, 2024.
== Reception ==
On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 95% based on 98 reviews with an average rating of 8.4/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "With The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar, Wes Anderson returns to the world of Roald Dahl—and proves his distinctive style is a comfortable fit for one of the author's sweetest stories." On Metacritic, the film holds a weighted average score of 85 out of 100 based on 31 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".
In Variety, Peter Debruge called the film "delightfully tight" and added that Dahl's short story "proves a good match for Anderson's intricate approach". Similarly, Leslie Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter wrote: "The Wonderful Story of Henry Sugar is a perfectly well-balanced reduction. It’s got most of Anderson's signature flavor notes but in healthy, clarified stock". David Ehrlich of IndieWire called it "the most visually inventive film that Anderson has made thus far" and added: "Its presentation is something we’ve never really seen before, either from Anderson or anyone else, but its ethos couldn’t be more familiar to anyone who’s followed his work". Glenn Kenny from RogerEbert.com gave the film a 4 out of 4 stars and wrote that, "It’s disarming and lovely to see a spiritual growth parable rendered in Anderson’s jewel-box style. His delivery here is not willfully eccentric but gorgeously centered. Form underscores content in Henry Sugar in a most delightful way."
=== Accolades === |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tranmere_Rovers_F.C. | Tranmere Rovers F.C. | Tranmere Rovers Football Club are a professional association football club based in Birkenhead, Merseyside, England. The team competes in EFL League Two, the fourth level of the English football league system.
Founded in 1884 as Belmont Football Club, they adopted their current name in 1885. Tranmere's regular kit is an all-white strip with blue, or occasionally blue and green trim which have been their main colours since 1962. The club moved to its current home, Prenton Park, in 1912. In 1995, the ground had a major redevelopment in response to the Taylor Report. It now seats 16,567 in four stands: the Main Stand, the Kop, the Johnny King Stand and the Cowshed.
Tranmere played in regional leagues until they were invited to become a founder member of Football League Third Division North in 1921. They finished as champions for the 1937–38 season, though were relegated out of the Second Division the following year. They dropped into the Fourth Division in 1961, before winning promotion back to the third tier at the end of the 1966–67 season. Relegation in 1975 was followed by an immediate promotion in 1975–76 under the stewardship of manager John King, and this time they survived for just three seasons in the third tier until being relegated once again in 1979. During the 1980s, they were beset by financial problems and, in 1987, went into administration. However John King returned to manage the club for a second spell and guided Rovers to promotion in 1988–89, which they followed up by winning the Associate Members' Cup in 1990 and then promotion out of the play-offs in 1991.
The 1990s would prove to be the most successful period in the club's history as Tranmere remained in the second tier, and came close to reaching the Premier League with three consecutive play-off campaigns at the start of the decade. Under King's successor, John Aldridge, Tranmere experienced a number of cup runs, most notably reaching the 2000 League Cup final. They were finally relegated in 2001 and then spent 13 seasons in the third tier, before back-to-back relegations saw them drop out of the Football League after an 94-year stay. Tranmere spent three seasons in the National League and then returned to the third tier of the Football League via successive play-off campaigns in 2018 and 2019. They were demoted from League One in 2020 after clubs voted to end the season early due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
== History ==
=== Formative years ===
Tranmere Rovers were, initially, formed as Belmont Football Club when the football arms of two cricket clubs – Lyndhurst Wanderers and Belmont – came together in 1884. On 15 November 1884, they won their first game 4–0 against Brunswick Rovers. This was a friendly match, as there were no leagues until 1888. With James McGaul as their president, the team completed their inaugural season, losing only one of their fifteen matches. An unrelated, disbanded side had played under the name "Tranmere Rovers Cricket Club (Association football section)" in 1881–82. On 16 September 1885, before their second season began, Belmont F.C. adopted this name Tranmere Rovers. Tranmere was historically a large township that was subsumed within the later expansion of the town of Birkenhead.
Tranmere played their first matches at Steeles Field in Birkenhead. In 1887, they bought Ravenshaws Field from Tranmere Rugby Club. In 1895, their ground was renamed Prenton Park, although it was 25 years later that the team moved into the current stadium of the same name. Tranmere first wore a kit of blue shirts, white shorts and blue socks. In 1889 they adopted orange and maroon shirts, but in 1904 returned to wearing their original kit.
In 1886, Tranmere entered their first competition: the Liverpool and District Challenge Cup; in 1889, they entered the West Lancashire League. They joined the Combination, a much stronger league, in 1897, and won the championship in 1908. In 1910, continuing their movement through the leagues, they entered the Lancashire Combination and in 1912 moved to the present Prenton Park site, with an 800-seat stand. Tranmere won the Lancashire Combination Championship in 1914, and Stan Rowlands became the first Tranmere player to receive an international cap when he was selected to play for Wales.
Rovers continued to play throughout the First World War, although their players were criticised for avoiding military service, despite being employed in the local shipyards.
=== Inter-war years ===
Following the expulsion of Leeds City Reserves in 1919, Tranmere were able to enter the Central League. Their timing was excellent as the following season, four Central League clubs – including Tranmere – were invited to join the new Division Three North. On 27 August 1921, they won their first Football League match 4–1 against Crewe Alexandra at Prenton Park. At this time the team were managed by Bert Cooke, who did so for 23 years in total, the club record for longest serving manager.
In 1924, local boy Dixie Dean made his debut aged 16 years 355 days. He played 30 games for Rovers, scoring 27 goals, before being transferred to Everton for £3,000. In the 1927–28 season, Dean scored a record 60 League goals for Everton. After Dean's departure, several talented young players also left for Division One clubs, leading to Cooke's reputation as a shrewd businessman. Among those sold was Pongo Waring who – having scored six goals in the 11–1 victory over Durham City – went to Aston Villa for £4,700. As of 2010, Waring retains the record of scoring most goals for Villa in a single season.
In 1934, an FA Cup tie between Rovers and Liverpool was watched at Anfield by 61,036 fans, a then-record crowd for Tranmere. A year later, Bunny Bell netted 40 goals during the 1935–36 season, including nine goals in the 13–4 Boxing Day 1935 victory over Oldham Athletic. As of 2011, the aggregate of 17 goals in one game remained a league record.
During this same period, Tranmere made several appearances in the Welsh Cup, reaching the final on two occasions. In 1934, they lost 3–0 to Bristol City in a replay, after a 1–1 draw. The following season, they went one better by beating local rivals Chester 1–0.
Rovers won their first championship in the Football League in 1938, with victory in Division Three North, earning promotion to Division Two for the first time. As of 2025, this remains Rovers's only championship in the Football League. However, they were relegated the next season, winning only six matches – the record for the worst performance of any team in Division Two.
=== Creation of the Superwhites ===
While the Borough Road stand received some damage, Prenton Park emerged from the Second World War largely unscathed. Tranmere rejoined the peacetime Football League in Division Three North, and stayed there until the 1958 restructuring of the football league's lower divisions. Manager Peter Farrell led Tranmere to finish 11th in the final season of the Northern Section, securing a place in the new national Division Three, where they were, again, founder members. The final match against Wrexham, also fighting for a place in the higher league, attracted a crowd of 19,615, which, as of 2010, remained the highest ever attendance at a Prenton Park league match.
In 1961, Tranmere's inspirational captain Harold Bell left the club. Bell had been picked in the first game after the Second World War in the 1946 season, and did not miss a match until he was dropped on 30 August 1955, a total of 459 consecutive appearances for a British team, a record he still holds. Rovers certainly missed their captain, and were relegated to Division Four for the first time in 1961.
The club brought in Dave Russell as manager, and Russell made some changes. Tranmere had worn a kit of blue shirts, white shorts and blue socks since 1904 – the same colours as local rivals, Division One club Everton. Russell introduced an all-white strip to set the teams apart, and white has remained the primary colour on Tranmere's shirts ever since. Russell also developed a successful youth policy, with future England international Roy McFarland among its graduates. Russell guided Rovers back to Division Three in 1967, a year before a new 4,000-seater main stand was opened, and Rovers reached the fifth round of the FA Cup for the first time. Three years later the club's record attendance at Prenton Park was established, with 24,424 supporters watching the Rovers draw 2–2 with Stoke City in the FA Cup.
In 1972, Ron Yeats was installed as player-manager. He strengthened Tranmere's connections with local rivals Liverpool by recruiting several former teammates such as Ian St John, and bringing in Bill Shankly in a consultancy role. This team saw one of the most memorable Rovers results of all time when, in a League Cup tie in 1973, Tranmere beat First Division Arsenal 1–0 at their former Highbury home. However, Tranmere returned to the Fourth Division in 1975. The following decade was among the bleakest times in the club's history, with the team usually in the lower reaches of the Fourth Division, beset by financial problems, and attaining crowds of less than 2,000.
In 1979, Steve Mungall joined Tranmere from Motherwell. He went on to make more than 600 appearances for Rovers over a 17-year period. This spell saw Rovers rise up the league and make several appearances at Wembley. He remained with the club, on the coaching staff, until October 2000, when he left to pursue business interests.
Another relegation to Division Four in 1979 put the club in financial difficulties. Debts mounted throughout the 1980s, with insolvency forestalled through a series of friendly fixtures, contributions from fans and a £200,000 loan from Wirral Council. The partnership with Wirral Council proved an enduring one, with their logo appearing on the shirts until 2013. In July 1984, the club was sold to a Californian attorney, making Tranmere one of the first English clubs to be bought by a foreign owner. However, in 1987, the club become the first English football team to enter administration.
=== Johnny King era ===
Local businessman Peter Johnson took over the club. This proved to be a turning point in Tranmere's history, the club under his ownership experiencing by far the most successful period in its history, in which manager John King took the team from the bottom of Division Four to the brink of English football's top league. King's first task was to avoid the team finishing bottom of Division Four, which would have resulted in their relegation from the football league. Safety was guaranteed in the last game of the season, with a 1–0 home win over Exeter City on the last day of the season.
The first full season (1987–88) of King's second managerial spell in charge saw Tranmere make their first appearance at Wembley Stadium, when a good mid-season run of form saw them qualify for the Football League Centenary Tournament. Tranmere defeated Division One clubs Wimbledon and Newcastle United, before losing on penalties to eventual winner Nottingham Forest. The following season, King guided Tranmere to promotion as Division Four runner-up. Their final game played to secure promotion was against Crewe Alexandra, with both teams needing a point to gain promotion. The first half was contested as usual, but, in the second half, with the score at 1–1, neither team targeted the goal of the other, leading to combined celebrations when the game had concluded. Earlier that season, they had won several games in the League Cup, including against Division One Middlesbrough, in between wins against fellow Division Four club Stockport County and Division 3 club Blackpool, ultimately losing to Bristol City of Division 3.
At the end their first season in Division Three, Tranmere almost secured promotion to Division 2, losing 2–0 in the play-off final to Notts County, a week after a 2–1 victory over Bristol Rovers at Wembley Stadium in the final of the Leyland DAF Trophy had secured the club's first major trophy. The form of striker Ian Muir was key to Tranmere's success during this period. He joined the club in 1985, and scored 180 goals in eleven seasons. He became the club's record scorer, and, in 2012, the first inductee to their hall of fame. Fellow hall of fame member John Morrissey joined the club in 1985. The winger spent 14 seasons at the club, making 585 appearances.
In the 1990–91 season, Tranmere won promotion to Division Two for the first time since the 1930s, with a 1–0 play-off win over local rivals Bolton Wanderers. Once again, Rovers made an appearance in the Leyland DAF Trophy final, this time losing 3–2 to Birmingham City. This made the play-off victory over Bolton Wanderers Tranmere's fourth appearance in a Wembley Stadium final in just over a year.
In summer 1991, former Liverpool player John Aldridge joined Tranmere Rovers, signing from Spanish club Real Sociedad for a fee of £250,000; he would remain on the club's payroll for the next 10 years, scoring 170 times to put him behind only Ian Muir in the all-time scoring charts. Aldridge also received 30 caps for the Republic of Ireland, and was the first Tranmere player to score at a World Cup. In 1992, Scotland international Pat Nevin joined the team, forming a four-man attack alongside Aldridge, Chris Malkin and Morrissey. In three successive seasons, Tranmere reached the play-off semi-finals, missing out on promotion to the newly formed Premier League through defeat to Swindon Town in 1993, Leicester City in 1994, and Reading in 1995. 1994 also saw Tranmere progress to the League Cup semi-final, where they faced Aston Villa over two legs. The home leg was won 3–1 by Tranmere, with Villa scoring their only goal in the 94th minute. The score in the away leg was 2–1 in favour of Villa until the 88th minute when Villa scored again to win the game 3–1, so the match went to extra-time and penalties. With Tranmere one kick away from the final, Mark Bosnich saved Liam O'Brien's sudden death penalty, and Tranmere eventually lost 5–4.
A reconstructed Prenton Park was opened in March 1995, with the all-seater stadium then holding just under 17,000 supporters. In April 1996, with Rovers struggling for form in the league, chairman Frank Corfe appointed John Aldridge as player-manager, and King was "moved upstairs" to become Director of football. They finished the 1995–96 campaign in 13th position.
=== 2000 and beyond ===
In the 1999–2000 season, victories over Premiership sides including West Ham United and Sunderland, and First Division club Fulham led, not only to a place in the sixth round of the FA Cup, but also a place in the 2000 Football League Cup final against Leicester City – the first time in the club's history that Rovers had reached the final of one of England's two most important trophies. Matt Elliott scored Leicester's opening goal, before Tranmere's Clint Hill was sent off for a second bookable offence. Despite being reduced to ten men, David Kelly equalised; however, Elliot scored Leicester's second goal three minutes later, and Tranmere lost the match 2–1. This was the last League Cup game held at the original Wembley stadium.
In 2000, Tranmere Rovers had another cup competition run, beating local Premier League rival Everton 3–0 at Goodison Park, then Southampton 4–3 (after being 0–3 down), before exiting after a loss to another local rival, Premier League club Liverpool. However, despite their cup success, Rovers struggled in the league. Aldridge quit as manager before Tranmere's relegation to Division Two, which ended a spell of ten years in Division One.
The club hired Brian Little as manager in 2003. He took Rovers to a play-off semi-final in 2004–05, and equaled their greatest ever FA Cup performance, losing to eventual finalists Millwall in a sixth round replay. At the end of the 2005–06 season, Little left the club and was replaced by former player Ronnie Moore. In Moore's three seasons in charge, the club finished 9th, 11th and 7th, narrowly missing out on qualification for in the play-offs in his final season. Moore was sacked in 2009, with former England winger John Barnes, whose only previous domestic managerial experience was with Celtic 10 years earlier, replacing him. It was during Barnes's time as manager that long-serving kitman, Mark Trevor, ended his 12-year "Labour of Love", washing the kit of his local team. Having been at the club since 1997, he washed his last kit in August 2009, ahead of the club's home game against Charlton Athletic. Barnes's term as manager lasted considerably less time, and it was a five months before long-serving club physiotherapist Les Parry was given temporary charge. Rovers finished the season in 19th place in League One, avoiding relegation on the final day of the season, thanks to a 3–0 victory at Stockport County. In June 2010, Parry was given the manager's job on a permanent basis. He was sacked on 4 March 2012, after a 1–0 defeat by Chesterfield left the club only one point above the relegation zone, and replaced by Ronnie Moore for the remainder of the season. Moore won six of his thirteen games in charge at the end of the season, guiding Tranmere to a mid-table position, as they finished the season in the top half for the first time since his initial departure. In April 2012, Moore signed a new one-year deal with Tranmere, keeping him at the club until the end of the 2012–13 season.
Towards the end of the 2013–14 season, Moore admitted breaking the Football Association's betting rules, and Tranmere sacked him when the club were just clear of the relegation zone. Assistant John McMahon took over as caretaker manager, but Tranmere were relegated to League Two in the final game of the season on the final day of the season. Rob Edwards was subsequently appointed as new manager.
On 11 August 2014, it was announced that former player and Football Association chief executive Mark Palios and his wife Nicola were taking a controlling interest in the club from outgoing chairman Peter Johnson. Mark Palios would become executive chairman of the club, with Johnson becoming its honorary president.
After a poor start to the season, a home loss to Plymouth Argyle on 11 October 2014 saw Tranmere in last place in the Football League. Edwards was sacked as manager on 13 October. Mickey Adams took over a week later, with the aim of saving the club from relegation to the Conference. However, on 25 April 2015, after another defeat to Plymouth Argyle in the reverse fixture, Tranmere were relegated, ending their 94-year stay in the Football League.
=== Non-League years ===
Gary Brabin was appointed as manager on 5 May 2015. It was a season of ups and downs, with poorer home form than away form. It took a while for Rovers to adjust to life in the non-league, with erratic form during the season. Tranmere finished sixth, one place outside the play-off zone, in Gary Brabin's first season.
Tranmere started the 2016–17 season well, sitting at the top of the non-league table at the end of August, after which Brabin received an award for manager of the month. Form later dipped, with the club scoring only one goal scored in the next four games. Following a 1–0 defeat to Sutton United, Brabin left his role as manager on 18 September 2016. Assistant manager, ex-Southport boss Paul Carden took over on an interim basis. On 6 October 2016, former Tranmere player Micky Mellon was appointed permanent manager. His first game in charge was against cross-border rivals Wrexham, and ended with a 2–0 victory for Tranmere. Despite a 2nd-place finish and a 95-point haul, this still was not enough to gain automatic promotion back to the league. Tranmere faced Aldershot Town in the play-offs. A goal from James Norwood and a brace from Cole Stockton in the first leg away at the Recreation Ground saw Rovers take a 3–0 lead back to Prenton Park for the second leg, which ended in a 2–2 draw, Norwood and Stockton once again on the scoresheet. This gave Tranmere a 5–2 aggregate win and their first Wembley appearance in 17 years. However, they were beaten 3–1 in the 2017 National League play-off final by Forest Green Rovers.
Tranmere's 2017–18 season got off to a poor start, with 3 wins from the first 12 games. Tranmere slipped to 18th in the table, their lowest ever league position. A spectacular winter turnaround saw Tranmere move into the play-off spots, where they remained for the rest of the season. This turnaround included a record-breaking run of 9 consecutive home league wins, which was ended in February with a 4–1 defeat to eventual title winner Macclesfield Town. Tranmere responded to this defeat by winning 8 out of their next 9 games, finishing the season as National League runners-up for the second time in as many years, qualifying for the play-offs. In the play-off semi-final, Tranmere met Ebbsfleet United at home. Tranmere came from behind twice to take the game to extra time before prevailing 4–2 after extra time, a result which sent Tranmere to Wembley Stadium for the National League play-off final. On 12 May 2018, a crowd of 16,306 were at Wembley for the final against Boreham Wood. Tranmere were 2–1 victors, their first trophy in 27 years, and were promoted back to the Football League.
=== Return to the Football League ===
Under the chairmanship of Mark Palios and the management of Micky Mellon, Tranmere played in League Two for the 2018–19 season, finishing 6th and thereby reaching the play-offs. On 25 May 2019, Tranmere secured back-to-back promotions, beating Newport County 1–0 at Wembley Stadium. They did so with a goal from Connor Jennings in the 119th minute, thus securing their spot in League One for the 2019–20 season.
By March 2020, the team were within the relegation zone, but with a game in hand on their nearest rivals and on a run of three successive victories. The cancellation of fixtures due to the COVID-19 pandemic meant that the season could not be completed, and a vote was taken by League One clubs on 9 June to resolve promotion and relegation issues on a points per game (PPG) basis. This meant that Tranmere would be demoted to League Two for the 2020–21 season. Club chairman Mark Palios said that the decision was unfair and that he was considering legal action as a result. He also announced that 20 members of staff would have to be made redundant.
With the team back in League Two, Mike Jackson was named as manager of Tranmere on 18 July 2020. He was sacked on 31 October 2020. Keith Hill succeeded temporary manager Ian Dawes on 21 November 2020. He was sacked on 11 May 2021, after the side reached the play-offs, but before the play-off matches had started. Morecambe defeated Tranmere in the play-off semi-final. At the end of May 2021, Tranmere announced that Micky Mellon was returning to the club as manager, having spent the season apart in charge of Dundee United. Despite a strong start to the season, Tranmere sacked Mellon on 19 March 2023, following results that included a total of six wins since mid-October 2022. Dawes oversaw seven games as caretaker manager before being appointed the permanent manager, but Tranmere sacked him in early September 2023 after six consecutive defeats; Tranmere appointed their technical director Nigel Adkins as interim manager. Adkins was appointed permanent manager on 2 November 2023, signing a contract until the end of 2025–26 season. On 26 February 2025, Adkins left Tranmere by mutual agreement following a ten-game winless run in the league which culminated in a home defeat to Accrington Stanley which left Tranmere two points above the relegation zone. He was replaced by assistant manager Andy Crosby until the end of the season.
== Colours and crest ==
Belmont F.C., the forerunners of today's Rovers, wore blue shirts and white shorts, as did the early Rovers, until a radical change in 1889, when a combination of maroon and orange shirts and navy blue shorts was introduced to "dazzle" their opponents in the West Lancashire League. These were abandoned in 1904 in favour of the earlier blue and white colours which have, in some form or other, remained until the present day. In 1962, Dave Russell introduced a white strip with blue trim, saying "Tranmere Rovers should have a specific identity of its own, so on Merseyside there's now Liverpool's red, Everton's blue and Tranmere's white". Since then, the team have worn varying combinations of blue and white, moving back towards a more predominantly white kit in 2000. The team's colours are reflected in their nickname of the "Superwhites".
Tranmere first introduced a badge on their shirt in 1962, wearing the coat of arms of the borough of Birkenhead, along with adopting their motto "Ubi fides ibi lux et robur", meaning "Where there is faith there is light and strength". The crest was replaced in 1972 by a monogram, and, in 1981, by a simplified blue and white shield. In 1987, a complex heraldic crest was introduced, adapting the Birkenhead crest through the inclusion of a football and a TRFC logo. The simpler badge was adopted in 1997, and modified slightly in 2009 to mark the club's 125-year anniversary. The blue and white crest incorporated simplified elements of the Birkenhead civic coat of arms: the crosier and lion originally formed part of the Birkenhead Priory seal; the oak tree was a symbol of the Tranmere Local Board; the star or starfish represents Bebington; the two lions represent Oxton; and the crescents may represent the Laird family.
For the 2021–22 season, Tranmere reverted to their pre-1997 badge.
== Stadium ==
Rovers played their first matches at Steeles Field in Birkenhead but, in 1887, they bought a new site from Tranmere Rugby Club. The ground was variously referred to as the "Borough Road Enclosure", "Ravenshaw's Field" and "South Road". The name "Prenton Park" was adopted in 1895 as a result of a suggestion in the letters page of the Football Echo. Because the land was required for housing and a school, Tranmere were forced to move and the name went with them. The present Prenton Park was opened on 9 March 1912. There were stands (also known as bleachers) on both sides of the pitch, a paddock and three open terraces, the general format which remained until 1994.
Many improvements to the ground were driven by changes in legislation. The biggest change of all took place during 1994 and 1995. The Taylor Report suggested that all stadia in the top two divisions of English football should no longer permit standing. The club's response was to redevelop three sides of the ground with entirely new all-seater stands created – the Borough Road Stand (now the Johnny King Stand), the Cowshed and the new Kop, with the existing Main Stand remaining. Capacity in the ground thus increased from 14,200 to the 16,567 of today. On 11 March 1995, having been built at a cost of £3.1 million, the new ground was officially opened.
Attendances at the ground have fluctuated over its hundred-year history. Around 8,000 visitors watched the first game at the stadium, as Tranmere beat Lancaster Town 8–0. Prenton Park's largest-ever crowd was 24,424 for a 1972 FA Cup match between Tranmere and Stoke City. Average attendances since the renovation range from just above 5000 in the early 2010s and the Non-League years, to the upper 8000s in the 90s, during the First Division years. In the 2020s, attendances have remained mostly in the low to mid 6000s.
== Supporters and rivalries ==
Tranmere Rovers had an average home attendance of 6,398 during the 2024–25 season, making them the 10th best supported club in League Two. The club has a number of supporters' groups, including the Tranmere Rovers Supporters Trust and the Tranmere Rovers Official Supporters Club. In 2010, the trust raised £12,500 for the club to sign Andy Robinson on loan. Tranmere Rovers have been the subject of an independent supporters' fanzine Give Us an R since the 1990s.
Despite being geographically closest to Everton and Liverpool, Tranmere's time in the lower leagues has meant that they have rarely met either club and have built up traditional rivalries with near neighbours Wrexham and Chester. According to a survey entitled 'The League of Love and Hate' conducted in August 2019, Tranmere fans listed the more distant Bolton Wanderers and Oldham Athletic as their biggest rivals, followed by Everton, Liverpool and Crewe Alexandra, although the census did not contain non-league clubs (Chester and, and that time, Wrexham). Tranmere also had a fierce rivalry with Wallasey-based near neighbour New Brighton, until that club failed to be re-elected to the Football League in 1951.
As of the end of the 2022–23 season, Tranmere had met the following teams most times in the Football League:
== Tranmere Rovers Ladies ==
Tranmere Rovers Ladies Football Club were founded in 1990. Based on the Wirral, they are affiliated with the men's team and play most of their home games at Ellesmere Port Sports Village. Between 1996 and 2004 they competed in the FA Premier League National Division, then the top tier of the English women's football pyramid. As of 2025, they play in the North West Regional League, Premier Division.
== Players ==
=== First-team squad ===
As of 2 February 2026
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules; some limited exceptions apply. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
=== Former players ===
As part of the club's 125th anniversary celebrations in 2010, a hall of fame was announced, initially honouring seven former players and managers: Ian Muir, John Aldridge, John King, Ray Mathias, Steve Mungall, John Morrissey, and Pat Nevin. Harold Bell holds the record for the most consecutive league appearances for a British team. He was picked for the first game after the Second World War in the 1946–47 season and did not miss a match until 30 August 1955, a total of 401 consecutive matches in the Third Division North.
== Officials ==
=== Coaching staff ===
As of 10 March 2026
=== Managers ===
By the start of the 2024–25 season, the club had employed 40 managers. The first man to hold this position was Bert Cooke, appointed in 1912. He oversaw the club's entry into the Football League, and remained in charge for 23 years, the longest spell of any manager at the club. Major changes were not seen until businessman Dave Russell took over in 1961. His introductions included the team's current all-white kit and regularly arranged floodlit home fixtures on Friday evenings rather than the usual Saturday afternoon. Rock band and Tranmere fans Half Man Half Biscuit described the practice in their song "Friday Night And The Gates Are Low".
Tranmere's most successful period came at the end of the twentieth century. John King returned for his third spell at the club in 1987, having previously both played for and managed the team. He led them to a victory in the League Trophy, and from the bottom of the Fourth Division to, on three occasions, reach the semi-finals in play-offs that had as their prize a promotion to the Premier League. Under King's replacement, John Aldridge, Tranmere appeared in the 2000 Football League Cup final. From 2009, they were managed by former club physiotherapist, Les Parry, until he was sacked on 4 March 2012, and replaced by Ronnie Moore. In February 2014, media reports suggested Moore was under investigation by The Football Association, for breaching its rules against betting on competitions in which his club were involved. Three days later, Tranmere suspended Moore, and then sacked him on 9 April 2014, after he conceded that the FA's charges were valid.
On 27 May 2014, the club announced that Rob Edwards had been appointed as their new manager. Tranmere sacked Edwards on 13 October 2014. Moving quickly to arrest the decline which had seen Tranmere slump to the bottom of League Two, Tranmere announced former Port Vale manager Micky Adams's appointment as Edwards's successor on 16 October 2014. He left the club by mutual consent on 19 April 2015, when the club were bottom of the league with two matches remaining. Gary Brabin, whose contract was in turn ended in September 2016, replaced Adams. Tranmere appointed Micky Mellon as manager the following month, and he led the team to a pair of consecutive play-off final victories in the 2017–18 and 2018–19 seasons, the last of which brought a return to League One for the club. After four years at Tranmere, Mellon moved to Dundee United on 6 July 2020.
On 18 July 2020, Mellon's former assistant manager Mike Jackson was appointed as manager, however his tenure was short-lived. After only two league wins in his first 10 games Jackson was sacked on 31 October 2020 following a 1–0 home defeat to Morecambe. Keith Hill replaced Jackson as first team manager on 21 November. Hill's first game ended in a 1–0 victory against Carlisle United. His side were top of the form table (after 20 games) in February, the team's spine spearheaded by Scott Davies, Peter Clarke, Manny Monthé, Jay Spearing, Paul Lewis and James Vaughan. Hill was sacked in May 2021, after the team had reached the League Two play-offs, but before the play-off matches took place. At the end of May 2021, Micky Mellon returned to Tranmere for a second spell as manager.
Full time managers are shown below (excluding caretaker managers).
== Honours ==
Source:
League
Third Division North / Third Division (level 3)
Champions: 1937–38
Play-off winners: 1991
Fourth Division / League Two (level 4)
Runners-up: 1988–89
Promoted: 1966–67, 1975–76
Play-off winners: 2019
National League (level 5)
Play-off winners: 2018
The Combination
Champions: 1907–08
Lancashire Combination
Champions: 1913–14
Lancashire Combination Division Two
Promoted: 1911–12
Cup
Football League Cup
Runners-up: 1999–2000
Associate Members' Cup / Football League Trophy / EFL Trophy
Winners: 1989–90
Runners-up: 1990–91, 2020–21
Welsh Cup
Winners: 1934–35
== Records ==
Highest league finish: 4th in First Division (level 2), 1992–93
Best FA Cup performance: Quarter-finals, 1999–2000, 2000–01, 2003–04
Best League Cup performance: Runners-up, 1999–2000
Best League Trophy performance: Winners, 1989–90
Best FA Trophy performance: Semi-finals, 2016–17
Record win:
13–4, against Oldham Athletic, 26 December 1935 The aggregate of 17 goals in one game remains a league record.
9–0 against Solihull Moors, 8 April 2017
Record defeat:
1–9 against Tottenham Hotspur, FA Cup 3rd round replay, 14 January 1953
Highest home attendance: 24,424, against Stoke City, 5 February 1972, FA Cup
Most goals (total): Ian Muir, 180
Most goals in a season: Bunny Bell (1934–35) and John Aldridge (1991–92)
Most appearances: Ray Mathias, 637 |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disneynature#Filmography | Disneynature#Filmography | Disneynature is an American independent film studio that specializes in the production of nature documentary films for Walt Disney Studios, a division of Disney Entertainment, which is owned by The Walt Disney Company. Disneynature was founded on April 21, 2008, and is headquartered in Burbank, California.
The company's nature films are consistently budgeted between $5 million to $10 million, with their distribution and marketing handled by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. The label's event films are released on Earth Day and have a conservation campaign based on the feature of the film with an appropriate conservation charity receiving donations based on tickets sold, at a pace of one per year. The eight Disneynature theatrical films have a gross of $328.3 million at the worldwide box office, from a combined total budget of $162 million, with Earth the top earner at $109 million.
== Background ==
Disney had a background in making nature films prior to the creation of Disneynature; Bambi (1942) featured forest life and was a hit. From 1948 through 1960, the company produced the True-Life Adventures series, which won several Academy Awards and was involved in the release of Hugo van Lawick's Serengeti Symphony in the Netherlands in 1998. Outside of film work, Disney parks were involved. Disneyland in 1955 opened the Jungle Cruise ride. Walt Disney World includes Disney's Animal Kingdom, which is a theme park crossed with a zoo. Animal Kingdom has contributed to conservation causes by nursing endangered sea turtles back to health, returning white rhinos to Africa and conducting a census of cotton-top tamarins, a monkey species native to Colombia. In addition, since its creation in 1995, the Disney Wildlife Conservation Fund has given over $11 million to 650 conservation projects in 110 countries.
After a long absence from nature documentaries, Disney decided to get back into the market after the French release of March of the Penguins. The film was given U.S. distribution through Warner Independent Pictures in 2005. Made on an $8 million budget, it grossed almost 10 times its budget at the U.S. box office and won the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature in 2006. Jean-Francois Camilleri, head of Buena Vista International France at the time, had the company acquire the film for the French market. Buena Vista International France also managed to obtain a 20% ownership stake in the French version of the film, but Buena Vista Pictures Distribution's bid to distribute the film in the U.S. ultimately failed. Disney CEO Bob Iger, in consideration of Disney's past efforts, felt that Penguins "should have been a Disney film worldwide". This was the impetus behind the creation of Disneynature. The film's 2007 follow-up was Arctic Tale, which only took in $1.8 million worldwide. Paul Baribault, Vice President of Disney Studios Marketing, led the US efforts for Disneynature from 2008 forward, overseeing all marketing, production, brand development, and conservation programmatic efforts for the label. He was eventually named general manager of Disneynature.
== History ==
Disneynature was announced on April 21, 2008, a day before Earth Day, with a starting slate of seven films. Camilleri was set to head the new division. A multi-film production agreement was made with Alastair Fothergill, BBC's Planet Earth series producer, for three scheduled films: Earth (2009), African Cats (2011) and Chimpanzee (2012). The other announced slate films and their release years were: The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos (2008), Oceans (2010), Orangutans: One Minute to Midnight (2010) and Wings of Life (2011). Original announced plans had the division releasing two films per year, which was curtailed by April 2009 due to a nature film's long period needed to film wildlife. No decision was made at that time as to whether the studio would donate the films' proceeds to conservation causes.
The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos was the first film produced for Disneynature. The first film released domestically under the new label was Earth, opening on April 22, 2009, in the US. In 2012, a Disneynature TV cable channel was launched in France. It is currently carried by France Telecom.
Animal Planet pick up for a two-year period three Disneynature films, Oceans, African Cats, and The Crimson Wing: Mystery of the Flamingos, in April 2012 from Disney-ABC Domestic Television. In April 2014, Jane Goodall was named Disneynature ambassador.
Disneynature has recently expanded to China with the production of Born in China. The production was made possible due to an expansion of Disney's relationship with Shanghai Media Group starting in 2014. Following Born in China, Ghost of the Mountains and Expedition China were released to Netflix to reflect the incredible journeys involved in creating these films. In 2016, the company released its first compilation film, Growing Up Wild, direct-to-video (Blu-ray and DVD) and video on demand.
Paul Baribault, vice president of studio marketing and Disneynature, was appointed general manager of Disneynature officially in 2018, after having been operating in the capacity for several years. Camilleri resigned his posts with Disney in March 2019. Helene Etzi was appointed to take over his responsibility as head of Disney's French operations. The unit's first streaming films for Disney+ were Dolphin Reef and Elephant.
== Filmography == |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lottie_Alter | Lottie Alter | Charlotte Alice Alter (January 16, 1871 – December 25, 1924) was an American actress on stage and in silent films.
== Early life ==
Alter was born in La Crosse, Wisconsin on January 16, 1871, the daughter of Frederick Pernal Alter and Ida Alter (née Soplitt).
== Career ==
Alter began acting in the American midwest by 1890, playing soubrette roles in touring companies managed by Henrietta Crosman, Joseph Jefferson, and Charles Frohman, in such shows as The Cricket on the Hearth, Beside the Bonnie Brier Bush, The Country Circus, Fifi, The Shadows of a Great City, The Girl I Left Behind Me, and Hearts are Trumps. On Broadway, she acted in To Have and to Hold (1901), The Vinegar Buyer (1903), The Trifler (1905) with Esme Beringer, Charley's Aunt (1906), and Excuse Me (1911) by Rupert Hughes. Of her work in Excuse Me, critic George Jean Nathan wrote that she was among "the best in a generally capable cast."
She toured Australia and Great Britain in Mrs. Wiggs of the Cabbage Patch. In 1916 she was leading her own company in vaudeville.
Silent film appearances by Alter included roles in the film shorts Advertising for a Wife (1910) and An Arizona Romance (1910), and the feature films The Eternal City (1915) alongside Pauline Frederick and Thomas Holding, and The Lottery Man (1916) with Oliver Hardy and Thurlow Bergen.
== Personal life ==
Alter married a fellow actor, Harry C. Bradley, in 1923.
She died in Beechhurst, Queens, New York, in 1924 of pneumonitis. She was buried at Flushing Cemetery. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Redfield | Chris Redfield | Chris Redfield is a character in Resident Evil (Biohazard in Japan), a survival horror series created by the Japanese company Capcom. He was introduced as one of the two playable characters of the original Resident Evil (1996), alongside his partner Jill Valentine, as a member of the Raccoon Police Department's Special Tactics and Rescue Service (S.T.A.R.S.) unit. Chris and Jill fight against the Umbrella Corporation, a pharmaceutical company whose bioterrorism creates zombies and other bio-organic weapons. Later, the pair became founding members of the United Nations' Bioterrorism Security Assessment Alliance (BSAA).
Chris is the protagonist in several Resident Evil games, novels, and films, and has also appeared in other game franchises, including Marvel vs. Capcom, Project X Zone, and Dead by Daylight. In later games, such as Resident Evil 7: Biohazard (2017) and Resident Evil Village (2021), his features were based on New Zealand model Geordie Dandy. Several actors have portrayed Chris, including Wentworth Miller and Robbie Amell in the Resident Evil live-action films.
Critics have been polarized in their critiques of the character, with a focus on the frequent modifications and inconsistency in his design. Several publications have referred to Chris as one of the sexiest video game characters. Some critics have referred to a scene of his punching a boulder in Resident Evil 5 (2009), which became an internet meme, as one of the most memorable within the Resident Evil series.
== Concept and design ==
Chris was introduced as one of the two playable protagonists, alongside his partner Jill Valentine, in Capcom's 1996 survival horror video game Resident Evil. He was created by director Shinji Mikami and designer Isao Ohishi. Designer Hideki Kamiya described Chris as a "blunt, tough-guy type", admitting that he was a fan of this archetype. Of white American descent, Chris served in the United States Air Force and later joined the Special Tactics and Rescue Service (S.T.A.R.S.), a special operations unit of the Raccoon Police Department. Although their storylines progress similarly, the gameplay differs for Jill and Chris; Chris cannot carry as many items in his inventory, but he can run quicker and withstand more damage.
Chris continued to be redesigned over the course of the series. In Resident Evil 5 (2009), modeler Yosuke Yamagata said that they "made a new design that retained their signature color—green for Chris, blue for Jill—to carry over the same look from the past". The character's facial features are mainly based on the visuals in the 2002 remake of Resident Evil, with various details added to arrive at a "realistic structure". The game features Chris as a protagonist; designers opted to focus on how the character had aged since the original game. His increased muscle mass was to show that he had trained intensely to fight the series' powerful villain, Albert Wesker, bare-handed. Resident Evil 5's producer Jun Takeuchi said that the series' fans want a video game featuring both Leon S. Kennedy and Chris as the protagonists at the same time, due to their popularity. Takeuchi opined that it would be "pretty dramatic" if the two characters never met before the series ended; the meeting happened in Resident Evil 6 (2012), where Chris has a slightly disheveled look due to his alcoholism and post-traumatic amnesia. Character designer Tsutomu Kawade noted that the team was aware of Chris' powerful arms being his most distinctive feature. Their design thus accentuated his arms, with attire in blue-tinted green that continued his concept color.
For Resident Evil 7: Biohazard (2017), Takeuchi said Chris was being proposed as the main character at the time and had to be developed into a hero since this was the first time we had seen him in a long time. Looking back, Takeuchi realized that developing a Resident Evil game isn't the same as creating a hero character like Chris. According to producer Masachika Kawata, the main playable character would be "totally new" rather than a "macho superhero" like Chris from Resident Evil 5. Director Kōshi Nakanishi thought that Chris' appearance in Resident Evil 6 would be "not suitable for Resident Evil 7's game engine or aesthetic". Nakanishi reasoned that "[a]lthough it is a fairly realistic impression, even if it mixes with the character of 7, it seems that a sense of incongruity will come out." Producers wanted to give the character a more "photorealistic depiction" with an entirely new design. Nakanishi felt that if Chris looked the same as in previous titles, players would get a sense of "incongruity", although commentators and players held that the changes made the character unrecognizable.
Chris appears as a major supporting character in Resident Evil Village (2021); however, he is instead shown as more nefarious in the game's trailers due to killing protagonist Ethan Winters' wife Mia Winters and kidnapping his daughter Rosemary Winters, which surprised longtime fans. Chris' actions served as a major mystery to the game before its release, which director Morimasa Sato felt was an opportunity to showcase the character's progression to fans who were already familiar with him. His appearance was again redesigned, with a new outfit incorporating a coat.
=== Voice-over and live-action actors ===
In the original Resident Evil, which uses live-action cinematics, Chris is played by Charlie Kraslavsky. Scott McCulloch voiced Chris in the original Resident Evil; Michael Filipowich voiced him in Resident Evil – Code: Veronica; Joe Whyte in the 2002 remake of Resident Evil; Kevin Dorman in Resident Evil: The Umbrella Chronicles, Resident Evil: Vendetta, and Resident Evil: Death Island; and Roger Craig Smith in Resident Evil 5 and Resident Evil 6. David Vaughn voiced him in Resident Evil 7, while Jeff Schine took the role in Resident Evil: Village. In Japanese, Subaru Kimura voiced Chris in Resident Evil: Welcome to Raccoon City.
Reuben Langdon performed Chris' motion capture in Resident Evil 5 and Resident Evil 6, while Geordie Dandy acted as Chris for motion capture in Resident Evil 7 and Village. Wentworth Miller portrayed him in Resident Evil: Afterlife, while Robbie Amell played him in Resident Evil: Welcome to Raccoon City.
== Appearances ==
=== In the Resident Evil series ===
Every game in the series is set in the fictional American metropolitan area of Raccoon City until its destruction at the end of Resident Evil 3: Nemesis. Subsequent games featuring Chris take place on an international scale, namely in Russia, Antarctica, China, Louisiana, Romania, Africa, and the Mediterranean Sea. The original game is set in July 1998 in a mansion on the outskirts of Raccoon City, which Chris and his team enter while searching for lost colleagues. Working with fellow S.T.A.R.S. member Rebecca Chambers, Chris discovers the property is a façade for a biological warfare laboratory operated by the Umbrella Corporation, and its undead occupants are the scientists who developed the T-virus mutagen. His commander, Albert Wesker, is revealed to be a double agent for Umbrella. Chris and Jill are among the five survivors of the incident, who form a strong friendship and become passionate opponents of bioterrorism.
Chris did not appear in Resident Evil 2 (1998), as the production team used new protagonists (Leon S. Kennedy and Claire Redfield) to preserve the original game's horror elements. Mikami believed Chris and Jill would be too experienced to be scared by the events in the sequel. Set three months after the events of Resident Evil 2, Resident Evil – Code: Veronica (2000) sees Chris return as the protagonist in the second half of the game. He attempts to rescue his younger sister, Claire, from the Umbrella Corporation's research facilities on Rockfort Island, a fictional island in the South Pacific Ocean. Upon discovering she is in Antarctica, Chris is briefly confronted by Wesker, who is revealed to have survived the events of the first game and also to have gained enhanced strength, speed, and agility. Eventually, Chris defeats antagonist Alexia Ashford and escapes with Claire before the Antarctic facility self-destructs. After that, the siblings vow to put an end to the Umbrella Corporation.
The Umbrella Chronicles occurs in 2003, when Chris and Jill join a private organization to expose Umbrella's biological warfare activities and ultimately destroy Umbrella's only remaining research facility. After the fall of the corporation, the pair become founding members of the United Nations' Bioterrorism Security Assessment Alliance (BSAA). In Revelations – set two years later – Jill and her new partner Parker Luciani are sent on a mission to rescue Chris, who is allegedly being held hostage on a ghost ship in the Mediterranean. Jill and Chris then unravel a political conspiracy involving an earlier mutagenic outbreak and a botched investigation by a rival agency.
Resident Evil 5 takes place in 2009 in the fictional African town of Kijuju, where terrorists are turning local residents into zombies. Chris is the protagonist and is sent to Africa by the BSAA. In the game, he investigates while looking for Jill, who is missing and declared dead. Over the course of the investigation, he finds that she has been taken hostage by Wesker, who used her as a test subject in his biological experiments. Accompanying Chris is his new partner, Sheva Alomar. Working together, the two manage to find and free Jill, and ultimately defeat and destroy Wesker, who was planning to spread the Uroboros virus across the world.
In Resident Evil 6 (2012), Chris leads a squad of BSAA soldiers to investigate a bioterrorism attack in Edonia, a fictional country in Eastern Europe. Ambushed by Carla Radames, posing as Ada Wong, they suffer severe casualties, with Chris and Piers Nivans the only survivors. They travel to China to investigate bio-terror activity and find themselves in another C-virus outbreak. While attempting to work with Jake Muller, the illegitimate son of Albert Wesker, who possesses the antibodies needed to stop the outbreak, Chris and Piers encounter Haos, a powerful bioweapon. Piers is grievously injured during the battle and injects himself with the C-virus to gain superhuman powers. He saves Chris, but sacrifices himself to ensure Haos is destroyed.
At the end of Resident Evil 7: Biohazard (2017), a man identifying as "Redfield" arrives to rescue Ethan. While the credits refer to the character as Chris Redfield, the helicopter he arrives in is branded with the Umbrella Corporation logo. This initially caused people to question the person's identity; Capcom later confirmed him to be Chris, albeit with a noticeable change in appearance. Chris appeared in the downloadable content campaign Not a Hero. This subchapter focuses on Chris and his team attempting to apprehend antagonist Lucas Baker, and although he fails to save his squad, he confronts and kills Lucas.
Chris returned for the eighth main installment in the series, titled Resident Evil Village (2021). During the events of Village, Chris and his Hound Wolf squad learn that antagonist Mother Miranda is capable of shape-shifting and had posed as Mia. They promptly shoot her to protect Ethan and the Winters' daughter Rosemary, though these efforts are foiled. After revealing the nature of his mission to Ethan, Chris saves the real Mia, learns Miranda's connection to the late Oswell E. Spencer – the founder of the Umbrella Corporation – and helps plant a bomb to destroy the infested village. During extraction, a dying Ethan gives the recently rescued Rosemary to Chris before sacrificing himself to ensure the village's destruction. Mia and Rosemary are rescued, and Chris and his team head to the BSAA's European headquarters to demand explanations for the BSAA's using bio-organic weapons as frontline soldiers.
=== Other appearances ===
Chris features in several Resident Evil films. In the rejected Resident Evil film script written by George A. Romero in 1998, Chris is a Native American civilian and ultimately one of the few survivors. In director Paul W. S. Anderson's live-action Resident Evil film series, Chris appears in Resident Evil: Afterlife (2010), where he is found trapped in a maximum security cell in Los Angeles. Wentworth Miller said that he requested that the filmmakers put together a montage of noteworthy video-game scenes that elaborated on Chris' experiences and background, as this would help him understand the character. In the reboot film Resident Evil: Welcome to Raccoon City (2021), Chris is played by Robbie Amell. Chris also appears in the animated adult Resident Evil films, which, unlike the live-action films, are continuations of the games. Chris is one of the main characters in Resident Evil: Vendetta (2017). He is asking Rebecca and Leon for assistance in preventing a psychopath from spreading "The Trigger Virus" throughout New York City. Chris returns in the sequel, Resident Evil: Death Island (2023). He is a BSAA agent who investigates an outbreak of zombies in San Francisco caused by a new strain of virus.
Chris is a playable character in several non-canonical Resident Evil games. The character appears in a number of Resident Evil mobile games. He appears in three games in the Marvel vs. Capcom franchise and the crossover tactical role-playing game Project X Zone 2 (2015). He is a playable character in the digital collectible card game Teppen (2019) and State of Survival (2019). He is an alternate skin in the asymmetric online multiplayer game Dead by Daylight (2016), Tom Clancy's The Division 2 (2019), and in the Dead Rising Deluxe Remaster (2024) for Frank West. He has a non-playable cameo in the Fortnite Battle Royale (2017), Nintendo crossover video game Super Smash Bros. Ultimate (2018) as one of the 'Spirit' power-ups, Dying Light 2 (2022), and a robot dressed as Chris in Astro's Playroom (2020) and Astro Bot (2024).
Chris features in novels of the films and games and plays a main role in the third novel in a series by S. D. Perry, Resident Evil: City of the Dead (1999). Additionally, he makes an appearance in the prequel manga for Resident Evil 6, which describes Chris' activities prior to the events of that game. Several comic books based on the games were released, and he is a character in Bandai's Resident Evil Deck Building Card Game (2011) and Steamforged Games' Resident Evil 3: The Board Game (2021). The character was featured in a Resident Evil–themed attraction at Universal Studios Japan's Halloween Horror Nights. Merchandise featuring Chris includes outfits, perfumes, gun replicas, watches, and figurines.
== Critical reception ==
Chris has received criticism for inconsistent design and characteristics. Several game publications have noted the character's lack of consistent visual design throughout the Resident Evil franchise. Other critics have suggested that Chris used steroids. Polygon's Cass Marshall noted his variations in body mass throughout the games repeatedly changing from lean to muscular and back again. GameSpy compared his design in Resident Evil 5 and said that "he look[s] a little bit like a cross between Colin Farrell and Hugh Jackman". Several Kotaku writers have referred to Chris as one of the worst of the Resident Evil heroes, calling him "bland" and "boring", and criticizing the majority of his redesigns, while Ian Walker from Kotaku compared his appearances in Resident Evil 7 and Resident Evil Village as "transition[ing] from global bio-terrorism agent to [...] someone's henchman in a British crime comedy written and directed by Guy Ritchie." According to digital media scholars Matthew Wysocki and Steffi Shook, as we reach the end of the Resident Evil game, the return of long-time hero Chris, who is an ambiguously good or evil character, serves as part of his absolution because he is portrayed as a soldier who is performing the proverbial act of "just following orders." They additionally pointed out that he is a "lone hero of hegemonic masculinity". Rather, Chris' masculinity is capitulating, especially in the presence of strong women.
Chris has also been praised by gaming journalists. He has been named by IGN and in a Famitsu reader survey as one of the popular Resident Evil characters. His professional relationship with Jill was celebrated for its basis in loyalty rather than romance. Noting previous criticism for being a "one-dimensional" character, PC Gamer's Andy Kelly praised Chris as "finally a person" in Village, opining that, as a result of the game's design, he has been "given some depth".
Chris has often been recognized for his sex appeal, particularly since his more muscular appearance debuted in Resident Evil 5. Some critics have described him as one of the sexiest video game characters. Video game critic Veerender Singh Jubbal stated in a Kotaku interview that Chris, as he appears in Resident Evil 5, "allowed [him] to understand [his] bisexuality" better; noting that his design was "different than previous iterations", Jubbal described Chris as a "large muscle-bound hunk [and] something [he] was attracted to".
Near the climax of Resident Evil 5, Chris punches a large boulder until it falls into lava. The scene became recognized as one of the most memorable within the Resident Evil series, largely due to its ridiculousness. The scene inspired fans to create internet memes that highlighted Chris' masculinity and strength. Wes Fenlon of PC Gamer said that Chris punching a boulder inside an active volcano "gave us what is truly one of the greatest moments in the history of video games" and "as a quick time event. It is perfect." In Resident Evil Village, antagonist Karl Heisenberg calls Chris a "boulder-punching asshole" during his boss fight, a reference to the aforementioned scene. |
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1936_Summer_Olympics | 1936 Summer Olympics | The 1936 Summer Olympics (German: Olympische Sommerspiele 1936), officially the Games of the XI Olympiad (German: Spiele der XI. Olympiade) and officially branded as Berlin 1936, were an international multi-sport event held from 1 to 16 August 1936 in Berlin, the capital of Germany. Berlin won the bid to host the Games over Barcelona at the 29th International Olympic Committee meeting on 26 April 1931. The 1936 Games marked the second and most recent time the IOC gathered to vote in a city bidding to host those Games. Later rule modifications forbade cities hosting the bid vote from being awarded the games.
To outdo the 1932 Los Angeles Games, Adolf Hitler had a new 100,000-seat track and field stadium built, as well as six gymnasiums and other smaller arenas. The Games were the first to be televised, with radio broadcasts reaching 41 countries. Filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl was commissioned by the German Olympic Committee to film the Games for $7 million. Her film, titled Olympia, pioneered many of the techniques now common in the filming of sports.
Hitler saw the 1936 Games as an opportunity to promote his government and ideals of racial supremacy and antisemitism, and the official Nazi Party paper, the Völkischer Beobachter, wrote in the strongest terms that Jews should not be allowed to participate in the Games. German Jewish athletes were barred or prevented from taking part in the Games by a variety of methods, although some female swimmers from the Jewish sports club Hakoah Vienna did participate. Jewish athletes from other countries were said to have been sidelined to avoid offending the Nazi regime. Lithuania was expelled from the Olympic Games due to Berlin's position regarding Lithuanian anti-Nazi policy, particularly because of the 1934–35 Trial of Neumann and Sass in Klaipėda.
Total ticket revenues were 7.5 million Reichsmark (equivalent to €17.4 million in 2021), for a profit of over one million ℛ︁ℳ︁. The official budget did not include outlays by the city of Berlin (which issued an itemized report detailing its costs of 16.5 million R.M.) or the outlays of the German national government (which did not make its costs public, but is estimated to have spent US$30 million).
Jesse Owens of the United States won four gold medals in the sprint and long jump events, and became the most successful athlete to compete in Berlin, while Germany was the most successful country overall with 101 medals (38 of them gold); the United States placed a distant second with 57 medals. These were the final Olympic Games under the IOC presidency of Henri de Baillet-Latour. For the next 12 years, no Olympic Games were held due to the immense world disruption caused by the Second World War. The next Olympic Games were held in 1948 (the Winter Games in St. Moritz, Switzerland, and then the Summer Games in London, England).
== Host city selection ==
At the 28th IOC Session, held in May 1930 in Berlin, 14 cities announced their intention to bid to host the 1936 Summer Olympic Games. By the time of the 29th IOC Session in Barcelona in April 1931, only Barcelona and Berlin were left in contention. The other cities that announced an intention to hold the games, but withdrew from the race, were Alexandria, Budapest, Buenos Aires, Cologne, Dublin, Frankfurt, Helsinki, Lausanne, Montevideo, Nuremberg, Rio de Janeiro, and Rome. Helsinki, Rome, Barcelona, and Rio de Janeiro would go on to host the Olympic Games in 1952, 1960, 1992, and 2016, respectively. Rome withdrew on the eve of the 1931 Session.
The city of Barcelona held a multi-sport festival at the same time as the 1931 IOC Session. This included a football match between Spain and the Irish Free State, which was watched by 50,000 spectators. The political uncertainty around the declaration of the Second Spanish Republic, which had happened days before the IOC Session, was likely a great factor in the decision taken by delegates regarding the host city for 1936.
The games were the first for which the host was decided by a vote of each individual IOC member. The deadline for votes was 13 May 1931, two weeks after the Barcelona Session. Of the 67 voting IOC members, 19 submitted ballots during the Session, and 40 by post to the IOC headquarters in Lausanne; the other 8 abstained. The vote was 43 for Berlin, and 16 for Barcelona.
After the Nazis took control of Germany and began instituting anti-Semitic policies, the IOC held private discussions among its delegates about changing the decision to hold the Games in Berlin. However, Hitler's regime gave assurances that Jewish athletes would be allowed to compete on a German Olympic team. One year before the games, the American Olympic Association suggested to change the venue to Rome; they saw Rome as a good replacement because Rome was originally selected to hold the 1908 Summer Olympics. The proposal was not seriously discussed.
== Organization ==
Hans von Tschammer und Osten, as Reichssportführer (head of the National Socialist League of the Reich for Physical Exercise (Deutscher Reichsbund für Leibesübungen, DRL) and the Reich Sports Office) played a major role in the structure and organisation of the Olympics. He promoted the idea that the use of sports would harden the German spirit and instill unity among German youth. At the same time, he also believed that sports was a "way to weed out the weak, Jewish, and other undesirables".
Von Tschammer entrusted the details of the organisation of the Games to the president of the German Olympic Committee, Theodor Lewald, and Carl Diem, the former president and secretary of the DRL, the forerunner of the Reich Sports Office. Among Diem's ideas for the Berlin Games was the introduction of the Olympic torch relay between Greece and the host nation. Lewald would be replaced, owing to his paternal grandmother's Jewish roots, by Von Tschammer himself.
=== Torch Relay ===
The 1936 Summer Olympics torch relay was the first of its kind, following on from the reintroduction of the Olympic Flame at the 1928 Games. It pioneered the modern convention of moving the flame via a relay system from Greece to the Olympic venue. Leni Riefenstahl filmed the relay for the 1938 film Olympia.
The sportive, knightly battle awakens the best human characteristics. It doesn't separate but unites the combatants in understanding and respect. It also helps to connect the countries in the spirit of peace. That's why the Olympic Flame should never die.
=== Broadcasting ===
The games were the first to have live television coverage in black-and-white. The German Post Office, using equipment from Telefunken, broadcast over 70 hours of coverage to special viewing rooms throughout Berlin and Potsdam and a few private TV sets, transmitting from the Paul Nipkow TV Station. They used three different types of TV cameras, so blackouts would occur when changing from one type to another. The Games were also the first photographed and filmed in color using newly invented Agfacolor.
=== Olympic Village ===
The 1936 Olympic village was located at Elstal in Wustermark (at 52°32′10.78″N 13°0′33.20″E), on the western edge of Berlin. The site, which is 30 kilometres (19 mi) from the centre of the city, consisted of one and two-floor dormitories, a large dining hall, Dining Hall of the Nations, a swimming facility, a gymnasium, track, and other training facilities. Its layout was designed and construction was overseen by the appointed village commander Hauptmann Wolfgang Fürstner beginning in 1934. Less than two months before the start of the Olympic Games, Fürstner was abruptly demoted to vice-commander, and replaced by Oberstleutnant Werner von Gilsa, commander of the Berlin Guard-Regiment. The official reason for the replacement was that Fürstner had not acted "with the necessary energy" to prevent damage to the site as 370,000 visitors passed through it between 1 May and 15 June. However, this was just a cover story to explain the sudden demotion of the half-Jewish officer. The 1935 Nuremberg Laws, passed during the period Fürstner was overseeing the Olympic Village, had classified him as a Jew, and as such, the career officer was to be expelled from the Wehrmacht. Two days after the conclusion of the Berlin Olympics, vice-commander Fürstner had been removed from active Wehrmacht duty, and committed suicide a day later because he realised he had no future under the Nazis.
After the completion of the Olympic Games, the village was repurposed for the Wehrmacht into the Olympic Döberitz Hospital (German: Olympia-Lazarett Döberitz), and Army Infantry School (German: Heeres-Infanterieschule), and was used as such through the Second World War. In 1945 it was taken over by the Soviet Union and became a military camp of the Soviet occupation forces. Late 20th-century efforts were made to restore parts of the former village, but little progress was made. More recently, the vast majority of the land of the Olympic Village has been managed by the DKB Foundation, with more success; efforts are being made to restore the site into a living museum. The dormitory building used by Jesse Owens, Meissen House, has been fully restored, with the gymnasium and swimming hall partially restored. Seasonally, tours are given daily to small groups and students.
The site remains relatively unknown even in Germany, but some tournaments are held at the site to boost knowledge of the venues.
== Venues ==
Twenty-two venues were used for the 1936 Summer Olympics. Many were located in the Reich Sportsfeld complex.
Sailing was held in the Bay of Kiel, which would serve as the same sporting venue for the 1972 Summer Olympics held in Munich. The Olympic Stadium would later be part of two FIFA World Cups and then host an IAAF World Championships in Athletics along with undergoing a renovation in the early 2000s to give new life to the stadium. Avus Motor Road (AVUS) was started in 1907, but was not completed until 1921 due to World War I. The track was rebuilt for the 1936 Games. AVUS continued being used after World War II though mainly in Formula 2 racing. The German Grand Prix was last held at the track in 1959. Dismantling of the track first took place in 1968 to make way for a traffic crossing for touring cars that raced there until 1998.
BSV 92 Field was first constructed in 1910 for use in football, handball, athletics, and tennis. The Reich Sports Field, which consisted of the Olympic Stadium, the Dietrich Eckert Open-Air Theatre, the Olympic Swimming Stadium, Mayfield, the Hockey Stadiums, the Tennis Courts, and the Haus des Deutschen Sports, was planned for the aborted 1916 Summer Olympics, but was not completed until 1934. Mayfield was the last venue completed prior to the 1936 Games in April 1936. Deutschland Hall was opened in 1935. Mommenstadion opened in 1930. Basketball was held outdoors at the request of the International Basketball Federation (FIBA). The tennis courts were used, which turned to mud during heavy rain at the final. The K-1 1000 m canoeing final was also affected by heavy rain at Grünau that included thunder and lightning. During World War II, Deutschlandhalle in Berlin, suffered heavy aerial bombing damage. After the war, the hall was reconstructed and expanded. The Deutschlandhalle was used as a venue, but was increasingly closed for repairs, last in 2009. It was demolished in December 2011. The Mommsenstadion was renovated in 1987 and was still in use as of 2010.
The Olympic Stadium was used as an underground bunker in World War II as the war went against Nazi Germany's favor. The British reopened the Stadium in 1946 and parts of the stadium were rebuilt by the late 1950s. As a host venue for the 1974 FIFA World Cup, the stadium had its roof partially covered on the North and South Stands. British occupation of the stadium ended in 1994. Restoration was approved in 1998 with a contractor being found to do the work in 2000. This restoration ran from 2000 to 2004. The modernized Stadium reopened in 2004, with a capacity of 74,228 people. The seating has been changed greatly, especially the sections that were reserved for German and international political leaders. The stadium now plays host to Hertha BSC (1963–present), and is expected to remain the home of the team for years to come. For the 2006 FIFA World Cup, the venue was where the final took place between Italy and France. Three years later, the venue hosted the World Athletics Championships.
== Games ==
=== Opening ceremony ===
The opening ceremony was held at the Berlin Olympic Stadium on 1 August 1936. A flyover by the German airship Hindenburg flying the Olympic flag behind it was featured early in the opening ceremonies. After the arrival of Hitler and his entourage, the parade of nations proceeded, each nation with its own unique costume. As the birthplace of the Olympics, Greece entered the stadium first. The host nation, Germany, entered last. Some nations' athletes purposefully gave the Nazi salute as they passed Hitler. Others gave the Olympic salute (a similar one, given with the same arm), or a different gesture entirely, such as hats-over-hearts, as the United States, India, and China did. All nations lowered their flags as they passed the Führer, save the United States, the United Kingdom, Switzerland and the Commonwealth of the Philippines. (The United States doing this was explained later as an army regulation, and the country traditionally avoids dipping its flag at the Olympics.) Writer Thomas Wolfe, who was there, described the opening as an "almost religious event, the crowd screaming, swaying in unison and begging for Hitler. There was something scary about it; his cult of personality."
After a speech by the president of the German Olympic Committee, the games were officially declared open by Adolf Hitler who quoted (in German): "I proclaim open the Olympic Games of Berlin, celebrating the Eleventh Olympiad of the modern era." This sentence was written by IOC President Baillet-Latour as part of a compromise the IOC struck to prevent Hitler from turning the speech into a propaganda event, and he was to follow it strictly, to which Hitler reportedly joked "Count, I'll take the trouble to learn it by heart". Hitler opened the games from his own box, on top of others. Writer David Wallechinsky has commented on the event, saying, "This was his event, he wanted to be glorified."
Although the Olympic flame was first introduced in the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam, this was the first instance of the torch relay. The Germans invented the concept of the torch run from ancient Olympia to the host city. Thus as swimmer Iris Cummings later related, "once the athletes were all in place, the torch bearer ran in through the tunnel to go around the stadium". A young man chosen for this task ran up the steps all the way up to the top of the stadium there to light a cauldron which would start this eternal flame that would burn through the duration of the games.
U.S. distance runner Louis Zamperini, one of the athletes present, related a particular moment during the opening ceremony on camera:
They released 25,000 pigeons, the sky was clouded with pigeons, the pigeons circled overhead, and then they shot a cannon, and they scared the poop out of the pigeons, and we had straw hats, flat straw hats, and you could heard the pitter-patter on our straw hats, but we felt sorry for the women, for they got it in their hair, but I mean there were a mass of droppings, and I say it was so funny...
=== Events ===
129 events in 25 disciplines, comprising 19 sports, were part of the Olympic program in 1936. The number of events in each discipline is noted in parentheses.
Basketball, canoeing, and handball made their debut at the Olympics. Handball did not appear again on the program until the next German summer Olympic games in Munich in 1972. There were two demonstration sports: baseball and gliding. Art competitions for medals were also held, and medals were awarded at the closing ceremony for feats of alpinism and aeronautics. Unofficial exhibition events included Indian sports, wushu and motor racing.
=== Notable achievements ===
Germany had a successful year in the equestrian events, winning individual and team gold in all three disciplines, as well as individual silver in dressage. In the cycling match sprint finals, German Toni Merkens fouled Arie van Vliet of the Netherlands. Instead of being disqualified, he was fined 100 ℛℳ and kept his gold. German gymnasts Konrad Frey and Alfred Schwarzmann both won three gold medals.
American Jesse Owens won four gold medals in the sprint and long jump events. His German competitor Luz Long offered Owens advice after he almost failed to qualify in the long jump. Mack Robinson, brother of Jackie Robinson, won the 200-meter sprint silver medal behind Owens by 0.4 seconds. Although he did not win a medal, future American war hero Louis Zamperini, lagging behind in the 5,000-meter final, made up ground by clocking a 56-second final lap. In one of the most dramatic 800-meter races in history, American John Woodruff won gold after slowing to jogging speed in the middle of the final to free himself from being boxed in. Glenn Edgar Morris, a farm boy from Colorado, won gold in the decathlon. British rower Jack Beresford won his fifth Olympic medal in the sport, and his third gold medal. The U.S. eight-man rowing team from the University of Washington won the gold medal, coming from behind to defeat the Germans and Italians with Hitler in attendance. 13-year-old American sensation Marjorie Gestring won the women's 3 meter diving event.
Jack Lovelock of New Zealand won the 1500 m gold medal, coming through a strong field to win in the world record time of 3:47.8.
In the marathon, the ethnic Koreans Sohn Kee-chung and Nam Sung-yong won one gold and one bronze medal; as Korea was annexed by Japan at the time, they were running for Japan.
India won the gold medal in the field hockey event once again (they won the gold in all Olympics from 1928 to 1956), defeating Germany 8–1 in the final. Indians were considered Indo-Aryans by the German authorities and there was no controversy regarding the victory.
Rie Mastenbroek of the Netherlands won three gold medals and a silver in swimming. Estonian heavyweight wrestler Kristjan Palusalu won two gold medals, and he became the first and only wrestler in Olympic history ever to win both the Greco-Roman and freestyle heavyweight events. Berlin 1936 marked the last time Estonia competed as an independent nation in the Olympics until 1992.
After winning the middleweight class, the Egyptian weightlifter Khadr El Touni continued to compete for another 45 minutes, finally exceeding the total of the German silver medalist by 35 kg. The 20-year-old El Touni lifted a total of 387.5 kg, crushing two German world champions and breaking the then-Olympic and world records, while the German lifted 352.5 kg. Furthermore, El Touni had lifted 15 kg more than the light-heavyweight gold medalist, a feat only El Touni has accomplished. El Touni's new world records stood for 13 years. Fascinated by El Touni's performance, Adolf Hitler rushed down to greet this human miracle. Prior to the competition, Hitler was said to have been sure that Rudolf Ismayr and Adolf Wagner would embarrass all other opponents. Hitler was so impressed by El Touni's domination in the middleweight class that he ordered a street named after him in Berlin's Olympic village. The Egyptian held the No. 1 position on the IWF list of history's 50 greatest weightlifters for 60 years, until the 1996 Games in Atlanta where Turkey's Naim Süleymanoğlu surpassed him to top the list.
Italy's football team continued their dominance under head coach Vittorio Pozzo, winning the gold medal in these Olympics between their two consecutive World Cup victories (1934 and 1938). Much like the successes of German athletes, this triumph was claimed by supporters of Benito Mussolini's regime as a vindication of the superiority of the fascist system. Austria won the silver; a controversial win after Hitler called for a rematch of the quarterfinals match to discount Peru's 4–2 win over Austria. The Peruvian national Olympic team refused to play the match again and withdrew from the games. In the quarter-finals of the football tournament, Peru beat Austria 4–2 in extra-time. Peru had rallied from a two-goal deficit in the final 15 minutes of normal time. During extra-time, Peruvian fans allegedly ran onto the field and attacked an Austrian player. In the chaos, Peru scored twice and won, 4–2. However, Austria protested and the International Olympic Committee ordered a replay without any spectators. The Peruvian government refused and their entire Olympic squad left in protest as did Colombia.
A remarkable story from the track and field competition was the gold medal won by the US women's 4 × 100 m relay team. The German team were the heavy favourites, but dropped the baton at one hand-off. Of notable interest on the US team was Betty Robinson. She was the first woman ever awarded an Olympic gold medal for track and field, winning the women's 100 m event at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam. In 1931, Robinson was involved in a plane crash, and was severely injured. Her body was discovered in the wreckage and it was wrongly thought that she was dead. She was placed in the trunk of a car and taken to an undertaker, where it was discovered that she was not dead, but in a coma. She awoke from the coma seven months later, although it was another six months before she could get out of a wheelchair, and two years before she could walk normally again. Due to the length of her recovery, she had to miss participating in the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, in her home country.
== Participating nations ==
A total of 49 nations attended the Berlin Olympics, up from 37 in 1932. Five nations made their first official Olympic appearance at these Games: Afghanistan, Bermuda, Bolivia, Costa Rica and Liechtenstein.
The nations that returned to the games were Bulgaria, Chile, Egypt, Iceland, Luxembourg, Malta, Monaco, Peru, Romania and Turkey.
The nations that participated in the previous games in Los Angeles in 1932 but were absent in Berlin in 1936 were Ireland and Spain.
At the time, Australia and New Zealand were dominions of the British Empire. Both nations had not yet ratified the Statute of Westminster 1931. India and Bermuda were also part of the British Empire, but were not dominions. And Philippines was an unincorporated territory and commonwealth of the United States.
Haiti, also took part in the Opening Ceremony, but its only athlete (a weightlifter) did not compete.
=== Number of athletes by National Olympic Committee ===
== Medal count ==
The twelve nations that won the most medals at the 1936 Games.
* Host nation (Germany)
== Political aspects ==
Hitler saw the Games as an opportunity to promote his government and ideals of Aryan racial supremacy. The official Nazi party paper, the Völkischer Beobachter, wrote in the strongest terms that Jewish and black people should not be allowed to participate in the Games. However, when threatened with a boycott of the Games by other nations, Hitler relented and allowed black and Jewish people to participate, and added one token participant to the German team—Helene Mayer, a woman of Jewish descent. Hitler was an adroit player of sexual affairs and he used his liaison with Unity Mitford to good advantage in the public sphere, for example when he gave her a private Olympic stadium box, to which she invited her connections in British high society. In an attempt to "clean up" the host city, the German Ministry of the Interior authorized the chief of police to arrest all Romani and keep them in a "special camp", the Berlin-Marzahn concentration camp. The 'Jews Not Welcome' signs were removed for the duration of the Olympics.
=== On the Olympic stage ===
American Olympic Committee president Avery Brundage became a main supporter of the Games being held in Germany, arguing that "politics has no place in sport", despite having initial doubts.
French Olympians gave a Roman salute at the opening ceremony: known as the salut de Joinville per the battalion, Bataillon de Joinville, the Olympic salute was part of the Olympic traditions since the 1924 games. However, due to the different context this action was mistaken by the crowd for a support to fascism, and the Olympic salute was discarded after 1946.
Although Haiti attended only the opening ceremony, an interesting vexillological fact was noticed: its flag and the flag of Liechtenstein were coincidentally identical, and this was not discovered until then. The following year, a crown was added to Liechtenstein's to distinguish one flag from the other.
Marty Glickman and Sam Stoller were originally slated to compete in the American 4x100 relay team but were replaced by Jesse Owens and Ralph Metcalfe prior to the start of the race. There were speculations that their Jewish heritage contributed to the decision "not to embarrass the German hosts"; however, given that African-Americans were also heavily disliked by the Nazis, Glickman and Stoller's replacement with black American athletes does not support this theory. Others said that they were in a better physical condition, and that was the main reason behind the replacement.
=== Domestic antisemitism ===
The German Olympic Committee, in accordance with Nazi directives, virtually barred Germans who were Jewish or Roma or had such an ancestry from participating in the Games (Helene Mayer, who had one Jewish parent, was the only German Jew to compete at the Berlin Games). This decision meant exclusion for many of the country's top athletes such as shotputter and discus thrower Lilli Henoch, who was a four-time world record holder and 10-time German national champion, and Gretel Bergmann who was suspended from the German team just days after she set a record of 1.60 meters in the high jump. Daniel Prenn, Erich Seelig and Johann Trollmann were also excluded.
=== Boycott debate ===
Prior to and during the Games, there was considerable debate outside Germany over whether the competition should be allowed or discontinued. Berlin had been selected by the IOC as the host city in 1931 during the Weimar Republic, but after Adolf Hitler's rise to power in 1933, observers in many countries began to question the morality of going ahead with an Olympic Games hosted by the Nazi regime. A number of brief campaigns to boycott or relocate the Games emerged in the United Kingdom, France, Sweden, Czechoslovakia, the Netherlands, and the United States. Exiled German political opponents of Hitler's regime also campaigned against the Berlin Olympics through pro-Communist newspapers such as the Arbeiter-Illustrierte-Zeitung.
The protests were ultimately unsuccessful; forty-nine teams from around the world participated in the 1936 Games, the largest number of participating nations of any Olympics to that point.
==== France ====
Fencer Albert Wolff qualified for the French Olympic Team but boycotted the 1936 Summer Olympics, withdrawing from France's national team on principle because he was Jewish. He said: "I cannot participate in anything sponsored by Adolf Hitler, even for France."
==== South Africa ====
Individual Jewish athletes from several countries chose to boycott the Berlin Olympics, including South African Sid Kiel.
==== Spain ====
The Spanish government led by the newly elected left-wing Popular Front boycotted the Games and the Government of Catalonia organized the People's Olympiad as a parallel event in Barcelona. Some 6,000 athletes from 49 countries registered. However, the People's Olympiad was aborted because of the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War just one day before the event was due to start.
==== Soviet Union ====
The Soviet Union had not participated in international sporting events since the 1920 Summer Olympics. The Soviet government was not invited to the 1920 Games, with the Russian Civil War still raging, and they did not participate in the 1924 Summer Olympics and forward on ideological grounds. Instead, through the auspices of the Red Sport International, it had participated in a left-wing workers' alternative, the Spartakiad, since 1928. The USSR had intended to attend the People's Olympiad in Barcelona until it was cancelled; the Soviets did attend the Spartakiad-sponsored 1937 Workers' Summer Olympiad in Antwerp, Belgium. The Soviet Union started competing in the Olympics in 1952, when Joseph Stalin realized that they could use the event to fulfil their political and ideological agenda.
==== Turkey ====
Halet Çambel and Suat Fetgeri Așani, the first Turkish and Muslim women athletes to participate in the Olympics (fencing), refused an offer by their guide to be formally introduced to Adolf Hitler, saying they would not shake hands with him due to his approach to Jews, as stated by Çambel in a Milliyet newspaper interview in 2000.
==== United States ====
Traditionally, the United States sent one of the largest teams to the Olympics, and there was a considerable debate over whether the nation should participate in the 1936 Games. Americans Milton Green and Norman Cahners refused to attend, and the American Jewish Congress and the Jewish Labor Committee supported a boycott.
Those involved in the debate on whether to boycott the Olympics included Ernest Lee Jahncke, Judge Jeremiah T. Mahoney, and future IOC President Avery Brundage. Some within the United States considered requesting a boycott of the Games, as to participate in the festivity might be considered a sign of support for the Nazi regime and its antisemitic policies. However, others such as Brundage (see below) argued that the Olympic Games should not reflect political views, but rather should be strictly a contest of the greatest athletes.
Brundage, then of the American Olympic Committee, opposed the boycott, stating that Jewish athletes were being treated fairly and that the Games should continue. Brundage asserted that politics played no role in sports, and that they should never be entwined. Brundage also believed that there was a "Jewish-Communist conspiracy" that existed to keep the United States from competing in the Olympic Games. Somewhat ironically, Brundage would be later accused of being a Soviet dupe for his controversial stance on the Soviet sports system that allowed them to circumvent the amateur rules. On the subject of Jewish discrimination, he stated, "The very foundation of the modern Olympic revival will be undermined if individual countries are allowed to restrict participation by reason of class, creed, or race."
During a trip to Germany in 1934 to ascertain whether German Jews were being treated fairly, Brundage found no discrimination when he interviewed Jews and his Nazi handlers translated for him, and he commiserated with his hosts that he belonged to a sports club in Chicago that did not allow Jews entry, either.
Unlike Brundage, Mahoney supported a boycott of the Games. Mahoney, the president of the Amateur Athletic Union, led newspaper editors and anti-Nazi groups to protest against American participation in the Berlin Olympics. He contested that racial discrimination was a violation of Olympic rules and that participation in the Games was tantamount to support for the Third Reich.
Most African-American newspapers supported participation in the Olympics. The Philadelphia Tribune and the Chicago Defender both agreed that black victories would undermine Nazi views of Aryan supremacy and spark renewed African-American pride. American Jewish organizations, meanwhile, largely opposed the Olympics. The American Jewish Congress and the Jewish Labor Committee staged rallies and supported the boycott of German goods to show their disdain for American participation. The JLC organized the World Labor Athletic Carnival, held on 15 and 16 August at New York's Randall's Island, to protest the holding of the 1936 Olympics in Nazi Germany.
Eventually, Brundage won the debate, convincing the Amateur Athletic Union to close a vote in favor of sending an American team to the Berlin Olympics. Mahoney's efforts to incite a boycott of the Olympic games in the United States failed, although some athletes like Harvard University track star Milton Green chose to sit at home.
US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt and his administration did not become involved in the debate, due to a tradition of allowing the US Olympic Committee to operate independently of government influence. However, several American diplomats including William E. Dodd, the American ambassador to Berlin, and George Messersmith, head of the US legation in Vienna, deplored the US Olympic Committee's decision to participate in the games.
=== Aftermath ===
In 1937, 20th Century Fox released the film Charlie Chan at the Olympics. The plot concerned members of the Berlin police force helping the Chinese detective apprehends a group of spies (of unnamed nationality) trying to steal a new aerial guidance system. Despite pertaining to the Berlin Olympics, actual Games' footage used by the filmmakers was edited to remove any Nazi symbols.
After the Olympics, Jewish participation in German sports was further limited, and persecution of Jews started to become ever more lethal. The Olympic Games provided a nine-month period of relative calmness.
At least two Polish Jewish Olympians (Roman Kantor and Ilia Szrajbman) who attended the 1936 Games later died in Majdanek concentration camp as part of the Holocaust.
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