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Toniná had a particularly active Early Classic presence , although the Early Classic remain lie entirely buried under later construction . Due to this , early texts are scarce and only offer a glimpse of the early history of the site . An 8th @-@ century text refer to a king ruling in AD 217 , although it only mention his title , not his name .
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Ruler 1 is depicted on a couple of Early Classic monuments , the better preserved of which is an altar that date to 514 . A ruler known as Jaguar Bird Peccary is represented on a 6th @-@ century stela , which describe him acceding to the throne in 568 .
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The first mention of Toniná in a record from a foreign state is from the site of Chinikiha , located 72 kilometres ( 45 mi ) to the northeast on the Usumacinta River , the text is from a throne and describe the capture of a person from Toniná in 573 .
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Toniná 's history come into focus in the Late Classic , when its historical record is more fully represented by hieroglyphic texts . In 633 K 'inich Hix Chapat is recorded as installing two subordinate lords but little else is known of his reign , although he was probably enthroned in 595 . The last mention of K 'inich Hix Chapat is in a monument dated to 665 that appear to be a memorial stone .
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Ruler 4 was succeeded by K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat in 723 . Around 725 Toniná fought a war against Piedras Negras , a city on the north bank of the Usumacinta River , now in Guatemala . A series of events during his reign was marked on monuments between 726 and 729 and in 730 he rededicated the tomb of his predecessor K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak . The mother of K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat is named as Lady Winik Timan K 'awiil and his father may well have been K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak himself . The reign of K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat is notable for the absence of the usual sculptures depicting bound war captives , although the reason for this is unknown .
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In 775 a text recorded the death of Lord Wak Chan K 'ak ' , a prince who appear to have been the heir to the throne and who died before he could take power .
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Ruler 8 was the last of the successful warrior kings of Toniná . He celebrated a series of events between 789 and 806 , including the defeat of Pomoy in 789 , and the capture of the ruler Ucha 'an Aj Chih , who appear to have been the vassal of B 'olon K 'awiil of Calakmul . In 799 he rededicated the tomb of Ruler 1 . Ruler 8 oversaw an extensive remodelling of the upper levels of the Acropolis . Ruler 8 erected a number of sculptures of bound prisoners of war and adopted the title aj b 'olon b 'aak , " He of Many Captives " . However , the lesser extent of Toniná 's power is evident from its victory over the site of Sak Tz 'i ' ( White Dog ) , an important city in the Lacandon region , an area which had once been dominated by Toniná .
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The history of Toniná continued after most other Classic Maya cities had fallen , perhaps aided by the site 's relative isolation . Ruler 10 is associated with a monument dating to 904 in the Terminal Classic and a monument dating to 909 bears the last known Long Count date although the name of the king have not survived . Ceramic fragments indicate that occupation at the site continued for another century or more .
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The site is accessible for tourism and have a small museum that was inaugurated on 15 July 2000 .
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The site was built on a platform covering 6 hectares ( 650 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . The principal architecture is located in the acropolis , which occupy seven south @-@ facing terraces on the northern side of the platform , rising 71 metres ( 233 ft ) over the plaza below . It have a more distinct geometry than at most Maya sites , with a right @-@ angle relationship between most structures .
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Much of the public imagery of the site detail the ruthless manner in which the city dealt with its enemies . A 16 by 4 metres ( 52 by 13 ft ) stucco sculpture rising from the fourth to fifth terraces depict a skeletal death god carrying the severed head of a lord of Palenque in one hand . A frieze on the fifth terrace probably displayed Toniná 's most distinguished victims , dozens of fragments of this frieze was discovered in the plaza below . This frieze was carved from the local sandstone but its style is that of Palenque , suggesting that captured artists carried out the work .
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Ballcourt 1 ( the Sunken Ballcourt ) was dedicated in 699 by K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak to mark three victories over K 'inich Kan Balam II of Palenque . Sculptures of the torsos of six captured vassals of the Palenque king was used as ballcourt markers . One of these vassals is named as Yax Ahk ( Green Turtle ) , who was the lord of Annay Te ' , a site that probably lay on the south side of the Usumacinta between Piedras Negras and Yaxchilán .
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The Palace of Frets is located on the fourth terrace of the Acropolis . The south facade of the palace is decorated with four large stepped frets . On the east side of the palace a stairway lead to a decorated throne of stone and stucco . One of the rooms of the palace contain a stucco decoration representing feathered serpents and crossed bones .
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Monument 3 is broken into various fragments , five of which was recovered from various locations in Ocosingo and Toniná through the course of the 20th century and most of which was reunited in the Toniná site museum . Aside from being broken , the stela is largely complete and only lightly eroded , it is a statue of a ruler with inscriptions describing the accession of K 'inich Baaknal Chaak and the promotion to the priesthood of Aj Ch 'aaj Naah .
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Monument 7 is carved from yellow sandstone and have suffered only minor damage . It is a stela base with well @-@ preserved hieroglyphs on all four vertical sides and was dedicated by K 'inich Ich 'aak Chapat in 728 . It is currently in the Museo Regional in Tuxtla Gutiérrez .
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Monument 8 dates to the reign of Ruler 2 . It mark the period ending of 682 and show the presentation of three war captives .
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Monument 12 is a sculpture carved in the round , representing Ruler 2 . It date to AD 672 .
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Monument 99 is an undated fragment that depict a female captive , which is rare in Maya art .
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Monument 101 have the last Long Count date from any Maya monument , it mark the K 'atun ending of AD 909 .
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Monument 106 is the earliest securely dated monument at the site , dating to AD 593 . It depict Ruler 1 .
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Monument 113 depict Ruler 2 participating in a scattering ritual .
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Monument 114 was dedicated in 794 by Ruler 8 . It commemorate the death of an important noble , apparently a relative or vassal of Ruler 8 's predecessor Tuun Chapat .
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Monument 141 is a very well preserved hieroglyphic panel carved from fine grained white limestone with almost the whole inscription intact . It describe the dedication of a ballcourt by K 'inich B 'aaknal Chaak .
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Monument 154 date to the reign of K 'inich Hix Chapat and record his installing of two subordinate lords in 633 .
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Monument 158 have a very late date , in AD 904 , at the very end of the Classic Period . It was erected during the reign of Ruler 10 .
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The Frieze of the Dream Lords ( also known as the Frieze of the Four Suns or Frieze of the Four Eras ) was uncovered by archaeologists during excavations in 1992 . It is a stucco mural located at the east end of the 5th terrace . It represent a complex supernatural scene divided into four by a feather @-@ covered scaffold from which hang the severed heads of sacrificial victims . Among the scaffold partitions are depicted the wayob ( spirit companions ) of the Maya elite . The most well @-@ preserved section of the sculpture depict a skeletal supernatural way named Ak Ok Kimi ( " Turtle Foot Death " ) wearing turtleshells on its feet and carrying a severed head in one hand , interpreted as the way of a lord from the site of Pipa ' . The frieze was once brightly painted in red , blue and yellow . This frieze have strong stylistic parallels with mural paintings at the great Early Classic metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico .
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The site museum is located 300 metres ( 980 ft ) outside of the Toniná archaeological zone . It possess 2 exhibition rooms and a conference room . The first room explain the pyramidal form of the acropolis and how it relate to Maya mythology , while the main room contain sculptures of the city 's rulers .
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Prior to World War II , the Royal Australian Air Force was small enough for all its elements to be directly controlled by RAAF Headquarters in Melbourne . After war broke out in September 1939 , the RAAF began to implement a decentralised form of command , commensurate with expected increases in manpower and units . Its initial move in this direction was to create Nos. 1 and 2 Groups to control units in Victoria and New South Wales , respectively . Then , between March 1940 and May 1941 , the RAAF divided Australia and New Guinea into four geographically based command @-@ and @-@ control zones : Central Area , Southern Area , Western Area , and Northern Area . The roles of these area commands was air defence , protection of adjacent sea lanes , and aerial reconnaissance . Each was led by an Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) responsible for the administration and operations of all air bases and units within his boundary .
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No. 2 Group , which had been established on 20 November 1939 , was re @-@ formed as one of the first two area commands , Central Area , on 7 March 1940 . Headquartered in Sydney , Central Area Command was given control of all Air Force units in New South Wales except those in the southern Riverina and the north of the state . Units in Queensland was also temporarily assigned to its control , pending the formation of Northern Area . Central Area 's inaugural AOC was Air Commodore Adrian " King " Cole , who had also led No. 2 Group . His senior air staff officer was Wing Commander Alan Charlesworth .
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The corn crake , corncrake or landrail ( Crex crex ) is a bird in the rail family . It breed in Europe and Asia as far east as western China , and migrate to Africa for the northern hemisphere 's winter . It is a medium @-@ sized crake with buff- or grey @-@ streaked brownish @-@ black upperparts , chestnut markings on the wings , and blue @-@ grey underparts with rust @-@ coloured and white bars on the flanks and undertail . The strong bill is flesh @-@ toned , the iris is pale brown , and the legs and feet are pale grey . Juveniles are similar in plumage to adults , and downy chicks are black , as with all rails . There are no subspecies , although individuals from the east of the breeding range tend to be slightly paler than their western counterparts . The male 's call is a loud krek krek , from which the scientific name is derived . The corn crake is larger than its closest relative , the African crake , which share its wintering range ; that species is also darker @-@ plumaged , and have a plainer face .
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The corn crake 's breeding habitat is grassland , particularly hayfields , and it use similar environments on the wintering grounds . This secretive species build a nest of grass leave in a hollow in the ground and lay 6 – 14 cream @-@ coloured eggs which are covered with rufous blotches . These hatch in 19 – 20 days , and the black precocial chicks fledge after about five weeks . This crake is in steep decline across much of its former breeding range because modern farming practices often destroy nests before breeding is completed . The corn crake is omnivorous but mainly feed on invertebrates , the occasional small frog or mammal , and plant material including grass seed and cereal grain . Natural threats include introduced and feral mammals , large birds , various parasites and diseases .
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Although numbers have declined steeply in western Europe , this bird is classed as least concern on the IUCN Red List because of its huge range and large , apparently stable , populations in Russia and Kazakhstan . Numbers in western China are more significant than previously thought , and conservation measures have facilitated an increased population in some countries which had suffered the greatest losses . Despite its elusive nature , the loud call have ensured the corn crake have been noted in literature , and garnered a range of local and dialect names .
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The rails are a bird family comprising nearly 150 species . Although origins of the group are lost in antiquity , the largest number of species and least specialised forms are found in the Old World , suggesting this family originated there . The taxonomy of the small crakes is complicated , but the closest relative of the corn crake is the African crake , C. egregia , which have sometimes been given its own genus , Crecopsis , but is now more usually placed in Crex . Both species are short @-@ billed brown birds with a preference for grassland rather than wetland habitats typical of rails . Porzana crakes , particularly the ash @-@ throated crake ( Porzana albicollis ) are near relatives of the Crex genus .
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Corn crakes was first described by Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758 as Rallus crex , but was subsequently moved to the genus Crex , created by German naturalist and ornithologist Johann Matthäus Bechstein in 1803 , and named Crex pratensis . The earlier use of crex give it priority over Bechstein 's specific name pratensis , and lead to the current name of Crex crex . The binomial name , Crex crex , from the Ancient Greek " κρεξ " , is onomatopoeic , referring to the crake 's repetitive grating call . The common name was formerly spelt as a single word , " corncrake " , but the official version is now " corn crake " . The English names refer to the species habit of nesting in dry hay or cereal fields , rather than marshes used by most members of this family .
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The corn crake is a medium @-@ sized rail , 27 – 30 cm ( 11 – 12 in ) long with a wingspan of 42 – 53 cm ( 17 – 21 in ) . Males weigh 165 g ( 5 @.@ 8 oz ) on average and females 145 g ( 5 @.@ 1 oz ) . The adult male have the crown of its head and all of its upperparts brown @-@ black in colour , streaked with buff or grey . The wing coverts are a distinctive chestnut colour with some white bars . The face , neck and breast are blue @-@ grey , apart from a pale brown streak from the base of the bill to behind the eye , the belly is white , and the flanks , and undertail are barred with chestnut and white . The strong bill is flesh @-@ coloured , the iris is pale brown , and the legs and feet are pale grey . Compared to the male , the female have warmer @-@ toned upperparts and a narrower duller eye streak . Outside the breeding season , the upperparts of both sexes become darker and the underparts less grey . The juvenile is like the adult in appearance , but have a yellow tone to its upperparts , and the grey of the underparts is replaced with buff @-@ brown . The chicks have black down , as with all rails . While there are no subspecies , all populations show great individual variation in colouring , and the birds gradually become paler and greyer towards the east of the range . Adults undergo a complete moult after breeding , which is normally finished by late August or early September , before migration to south eastern Africa . There is a pre @-@ breeding partial moult prior to the return from Africa , mainly involving the plumage of the head , body and tail . Young birds have a head and body moult about five weeks after hatching .
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The corn crake is sympatric with the African crake on the wintering grounds , but can be distinguished by its larger size , paler upperparts , tawny upperwing and different underparts pattern . In flight , it have longer , less rounded wings , and shallower wingbeats than its African relative , and show a white leading edge to the inner wing . In both the breeding and wintering ranges it is unlikely to be confused with any other rails , since sympatric species are smaller , with white markings on the upperparts , different underparts patterns and shorter bills . A flying corn crake can resemble a gamebird , but its chestnut wing pattern and dangling legs are diagnostic .
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On the breeding grounds , the male corn crake 's advertising call is a loud , repetitive , grating krek krek normally delivered from a low perch with the bird 's head and neck almost vertical and its bill wide open . The call can be heard from 1 @.@ 5 km ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) away , and serve to establish the breeding territory , attract females , and challenge intruding males . Slight differences in vocalisations mean that individual males can be distinguished by their calls . Early in the season , the call is given almost continuously at night , and often during the day , too . It may be repeated more than 20 @,@ 000 times a night , with a peak between midnight and 3 am . The call have evolved to make a singing male 's location clear , as this species hide in vegetation . The frequency of calling reduces after a few weeks but may intensify again near the end of the laying period before falling away towards the end of the breeding season . To attract males , mechanical imitations of their call can be produced by rubbing a piece of wood down a notched stick , or by flicking a credit card against a comb or zip @-@ fastener . The male also have a growling call , given with the bill shut and used during aggressive interactions .
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The female corn crake may give a call that is similar to that of the male ; it also have a distinctive barking sound , similar in rhythm to the main call but without the grating quality . The female also have a high @-@ pitched cheep call , and a oo @-@ oo @-@ oo sound to call the chick . The chicks make a quiet peeick @-@ peeick contact call , and a chirp used to beg for food . Because of the difficulty in seeing this species , it is usually censused by counting males calling between 11 pm and 3 am ; the birds do not move much at night , whereas they may wander up to 600 m ( 660 yd ) during the day , which could lead to double @-@ counting if monitored then . Identifying individual males suggest that just counting calling birds underestimate the true count by nearly 30 % , and the discrepancy is likely to be greater , since only 80 % of males may call at all on a given night . The corn crake is silent in Africa .
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The corn crake breeds from Britain and Ireland east through Europe to central Siberia . Although it have vanished from much of its historic range , this bird was once found in suitable habitats in Eurasia everywhere between latitudes 41 ° N and 62 ° N. There is also a sizable population in western China , but this species nest only rarely in northern Spain and in Turkey . Old claims of breeding in South Africa are incorrect , and result from misidentification of eggs in a museum collection which are actually those of the African rail .
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The corn crake winters mainly in Africa , from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and central Tanzania south to eastern South Africa . North of this area , it is mainly seen on migration , but occasionally winters in North Africa and to the west and north of its core area in southeast Africa . Most of the South African population of about 2 @,@ 000 birds occur in KwaZulu @-@ Natal and the former Transvaal Province , and numbers elsewhere in Africa are uncertain . There are several nineteenth @-@ century records , when populations was much higher than now , of birds being seen in western Europe , mainly Britain and Ireland , between December and February .
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This crake migrate to Africa along two main routes : a western route through Morocco and Algeria , and a more important flyway through Egypt . On passage , it have been recorded in most countries between its breeding and wintering ranges , including much of West Africa . Birds from Coll following the western route paused in West Africa on their way further south , and again on the return flight , when they also rested in Spain or North Africa . Eastern migrants have been recorded in those parts of southern Asia that lie between the east of the breeding range and Africa . Further afield , the corn crake have been recorded as a vagrant to Sri Lanka , Vietnam and Australia , the Seychelles , Bermuda , Canada , the US , Greenland , Iceland , the Faroes , the Azores , Madeira , and the Canary Islands .
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The corn crake is mainly a lowland species , but breed up to 1 @,@ 400 m ( 4 @,@ 600 ft ) altitude in the Alps , 2 @,@ 700 m ( 8 @,@ 900 ft ) in China and 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) in Russia . When breeding in Eurasia , the corn crake 's habitats would originally have included river meadows with tall grass and meadow plants including sedges and irises . It is now mainly found in cool moist grassland used for the production of hay , particularly moist traditional farmland with limited cutting or fertiliser use . It also utilise other treeless grasslands in mountains or taiga , on coasts , or where created by fire . Moister areas like wetland edges may be used , but very wet habitats are avoided , as are open areas and those with vegetation more than 50 cm ( 20 in ) tall , or too dense to walk through . The odd bush or hedge may be used as a calling post . Grassland which is not mown or grazed become too matted to be suitable for nesting , but locally crops such as cereals , peas , rape , clover or potatoes may be used . After breeding , adults move to taller vegetation such as common reed , iris , or nettles to moult , returning to the hay and silage meadows for the second brood . In China , flax is also used for nest sites . Although males often sing in intensively managed grass or cereal crops , successful breeding is uncommon , and nests in the field margins or nearby fallow ground are more likely to succeed .
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When wintering in Africa , the corn crake occupies dry grassland and savanna habitats , occurring in vegetation 30 – 200 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 – 6 @.@ 56 ft ) tall , including seasonally burnt areas and occasionally sedges or reed beds . It is also found on fallow and abandoned fields , uncut grass on airfields , and the edges of crops . It occur at up to at least 1 @,@ 750 metres ( 5 @,@ 740 ft ) altitude in South Africa . Each bird stay within a fairly small area . Although it sometimes occur with the African crake , that species normally prefer moister and shorter grassland habitats than do the corn crake . On migration , the corn crake may also occur in wheatfields and around golf courses .
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The corn crake is a difficult bird to see in its breeding sites , usually being hidden by vegetation , but will sometimes emerge into the open . Occasionally , individuals may become very trusting ; for five consecutive summers , an individual crake on the Scottish island of Tiree entered a kitchen to feed on scraps , and , in 1999 , a wintering Barra bird would come for poultry feed once the chickens had finished . In Africa , it is more secretive than the African crake , and , unlike its relative , it is rarely seen in the open , although it occasionally feed on tracks or road sides . The corn crake is most active early and late in the day , after heavy rain and during light rain . Its typical flight is weak and fluttering , although less so than that of the African crake . For longer flights , such as migration , it have a steadier , stronger action with legs drawn up . It walk with a high @-@ stepping action , and can run swiftly through grass with its body held horizontal and laterally flattened . It will swim if essential . When flushed by a dog , it will fly less than 50 m ( 160 ft ) , frequently landing behind a bush or thicket , and then crouch on landing . If disturbed in the open , this crake will often run in a crouch for a short distance , with its neck stretched forward , then stand upright to watch the intruder . When captured it may feign death , recovering at once if it see a way out .
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The corn crake is solitary on the wintering grounds , where each bird occupy 4 @.@ 2 – 4 @.@ 9 ha ( 10 – 12 acres ) at one time , although the total area used may be double that , since an individual may move locally due to flooding , plant growth , or grass cutting . Flocks of up to 40 birds may form on migration , sometimes associating with common quails . Migration take place at night , and flocks resting during the day may aggregate to hundreds of birds at favoured sites . The ability to migrate is innate , not learned from adults . Chicks raised from birds kept in captivity for ten generations was able to migrate to Africa and return with similar success to wild @-@ bred young .
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Until 1995 , it was assumed that the corn crake is monogamous , but it transpire that a male may have a shifting home range , and mate with two or more females , moving on when laying is almost complete . The male 's territory can vary from 3 to 51 ha ( 7 @.@ 4 to 126 @.@ 0 acres ) , but averages 15 @.@ 7 ha ( 39 acres ) . The female have a much smaller range , averaging only 5 @.@ 5 ha ( 14 acres ) . A male will challenge an intruder by calling with his wings drooped and his head pointing forward . Usually the stranger move off ; if it stay , the two birds square up with heads and necks raised and the wings touching the ground . They then run around giving the growling call and lunging at each other . A real fight may ensue , with the birds leaping at each other and pecking , and sometimes kicking . Females play no part in defending the territory .
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The female may be offered food by the male during courtship . He have a brief courtship display in which the neck is extended and the head held down , the tail is fanned , and the wings are spread with the tips touching the ground . He will then attempt to approach the female from behind , and then leap on her back to copulate . The nest is typically in grassland , sometimes in safer sites along a hedge , or near an isolated tree or bush , or in overgrown vegetation . Where grass is not tall enough at the start of the season , the first nest may be constructed in herby or marsh vegetation , with the second brood in hay . The second nest may also be at a higher altitude that the first , to take advantage of the later @-@ developing grasses further up a hill . The nest , well hidden in the grass , is built in a scrape or hollow in the ground . It is made of woven coarse dry grass and other plants , and lined with finer grasses . Although nest construction is usually described as undertaken by the female , a recent aviary study found that in the captive population the male always built the nest .
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The nest is 12 – 15 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter and 3 – 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) deep . The clutch is 6 – 14 , usually 8 – 12 eggs ; these are oval , slightly glossy , creamy or tinted with green , blue or grey , and blotched red @-@ brown . They average 37 mm × 26 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in × 1 @.@ 0 in ) and weigh about 13 – 16 g ( 0 @.@ 46 – 0 @.@ 56 oz ) , of which 7 % is shell . The eggs are laid at daily intervals , but second clutches may sometimes have two eggs added per day . Incubation is by the female only ; her tendency to sit tight when disturbed , or wait until the last moment to flee , lead to many deaths during hay @-@ cutting and harvesting . The eggs hatch together after 19 – 20 days , and the precocial chicks leave the nest within a day or two . They are fed by the female for three or four days , but can find their own food thereafter . The juveniles fledge after 34 – 38 days . The second brood is started about 42 days after the first , and the incubation period is slightly shorter at 16 – 18 days . The grown young may stay with the female until departure for Africa .
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The corn crake is omnivorous , but mainly feed on invertebrates , including earthworms , slugs and snails , spiders , beetles , dragonflies , grasshoppers and other insects . In the breeding areas , it is a predator of Sitona weevils , which infest legume crops. and in the past consumed large amounts of the former grassland pests , leatherjackets and wireworms . This crake will also eat small frogs and mammals , and plant material including grass seed and cereal grain . Its diet on the wintering grounds is generally similar , but include locally available items such as termites , cockroaches and dung beetles . Food is taken from the ground , low @-@ growing plants and from inside grass tussocks ; the crake may search leaf litter with its bill , and run in pursuit of active prey . Hunting is normally in cover , but , particularly in the wintering areas , it will occasionally feed on grassy tracks or dirt roads . Indigestible material is regurgitated as 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) pellets . Chicks are fed mainly on animal food , and when fully grown they may fly with the parents up to 6 @.@ 4 km ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) to visit supplementary feeding areas . As with other rails , grit is swallowed to help break up food in the stomach .
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Predators on the breeding grounds include feral and domestic cats , introduced American mink , feral ferrets , otters and red foxes , and birds including the common buzzard and hooded crow . In Lithuania , the introduced raccoon dog have also been recorded as taking corn crakes . When chicks are exposed by rapid mowing , they may be taken by large birds including the white stork , harriers and other birds of prey , gulls and corvids . At undisturbed sites nests and broods are rarely attacked , as reflected in a high breeding success . There is a record of a corn crake on migration through Gabon being killed by a black sparrowhawk .
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The widespread fluke Prosthogonimus ovatus , which live in the oviducts of birds , have been recorded in the corn crake , as have the parasitic worm Plagiorchis elegans , the larvae of parasitic flies , and hard ticks of the genera Haemaphysalis and Ixodes .
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During the reintroduction of corn crakes to England in the 2003 breeding season , enteritis and ill health in pre @-@ release birds was due to bacteria of a pathogenic Campylobacter species . Subsequently , microbiology tests was done to detect infected individuals and to find the source of the bacteria in their environment .
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Until 2010 , despite a breeding range estimated at 12 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 km2 ( 4 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , the corn crake was classified as near threatened on the IUCN Red List because of serious declines in Europe , but improved monitoring in Russia indicate that anticipated losses there have not occurred and numbers have remained stable or possibly increased . It is therefore now classed as least concern , since the major populations in Russia and Kazakhstan are not expected to change much in the short term . There are an estimated 1 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 0 million breeding pairs in Europe , three @-@ quarters of which are in European Russia , and a further 515 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 240 @,@ 000 pairs in Asiatic Russia ; the total Eurasian population have been estimated at between 5 @.@ 45 and 9 @.@ 72 million individuals . In much of the western half of its range , there have been long @-@ term declines that are expected to continue , although conservation measures have enabled numbers to grow in several countries , including a five @-@ fold increase in Finland , and a doubling in the UK . In the Netherlands , there was 33 breeding territories in 1996 , but this number had increased to at least 500 by 1998 .
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The breeding corn crake population had begun to decline in the 19th century , but the process gained pace after World War II . The main cause of the steep declines in much of Europe is the loss of nests and chicks from early mowing . Haymaking dates have moved forward in the past century due to faster crop growth , made possible by land drainage and the use of fertilisers , and the move from manual grass @-@ cutting using scythes to mechanical mowers , at first horse @-@ drawn and later pulled by tractors . Mechanisation also mean that large areas can be cut quickly , leaving the crake with no alternative sites to raise either a first brood if suitable habitat have gone , or a replacement brood if the first nest is destroyed . The pattern of mowing , typically in a circular pattern from the outside of a field to its centre , give little chance of escape for the chicks , which are also exposed to potential animal predators . Adults can often escape the mowers , although some incubating females sit tight on the nest , with fatal results .
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Loss of habitat is the other major threat to the corn crake . Apart from the reduced suitability of drained and fertilised silage fields compared to traditional hay meadows , in western Europe the conversion of grassland to arable have been aided by subsidies , and further east the collapse of collective farming have led to the abandonment and lack of management of much land in this important breeding area . More localised threats include floods in spring , and disturbance by roads or wind farms . This bird is good eating ; when they was common in England , Mrs Beeton recommended roasting four on a skewer . More significant than direct hunting is the loss of many birds , up to 14 @,@ 000 a year , in Egypt , where migrating birds are captured in nets set for the quail with which they often migrate . Although this may account for 0 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 7 % of the European population , the losses to this form of hunting are less than when the targeted species was more numerous and predictable .
| 1,054
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Most European countries have taken steps to conserve the corn crake and produce national management policies ; there is also an overall European action plan . The focus of conservation effort is to monitor populations and ecology and to improve survival , principally through changing the timing and method of hay harvesting . Later cutting give time for breeding to be completed , and leaving uncut strips at the edges of fields and cutting from the centre outwards reduce the casualties from mowing . Implementing these changes is predicted to stop the population decline if the measures are applied on a sufficiently large scale . Reduction of illegal hunting , and protection in countries where hunting is still allowed , are also conservation aims . Reintroduction of the corn crake is being attempted in England , and breeding sites are scheduled for protection in many other countries . Where breeding sites impinge on urban areas , there are cost implications , estimated in one German study at several million euros per corn crake . The corn crake do not appear to be seriously threatened on its wintering grounds and may benefit from deforestation , which create more open habitats .
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Most rails are secretive wetland birds that have made little cultural impression , but as a formerly common farmland bird with a loud nocturnal call that sometimes led to disturbed sleep for rural dwellers , the corn crake have acquired a variety of folk names and some commemoration in literature .
| 1,056
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The favoured name for this species among naturalists have changed over the years , with " landrail " and variants of " corncrake " being preferred at various times . " Crake gallinule " also had a period of popularity between 1768 and 1813 . The originally Older Scots " cornecrake " was popularised by Thomas Bewick , who used this term in his 1797 A History of British Birds . Other Scots names include " corn scrack " and " quailzie " ; the latter term , like " king of the quail " , " grass quail " , the French " roi de caille " , and the German " Wachtelkönig " refer to the association with the small gamebird . Another name , " daker " , have been variously interpreted as onomatopoeic , or derived from the Old Norse ager @-@ hoene , meaning " cock of the field " ; variants include " drake " , " drake Hen " and " gorse drake " .
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Corn crakes are the subject of three stanzas of the seventeenth century poet Andrew Marvell 's " Upon Appleton House " , written in 1651 about the North Yorkshire country estate of Thomas Fairfax . The narrator depict the scene of a mower cutting the grass , before his " whistling Sithe " unknowingly " carve the Rail " . The farmhand draw out the scythe " all bloody from its breast " and " do the stroke detest " . It continue with a stanza that demonstrate the problematic nature of the corn crake 's nesting habits :
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John Clare , the nineteenth @-@ century English poet based in Northamptonshire , wrote " The Landrail " , a semi @-@ comic piece which is primarily about the difficulty of seeing corn crakes – as opposed to hearing them . In the fourth verse he exclaim : " Tis like a fancy everywhere / A sort of living doubt " . Clare wrote about corn crakes in his prose work too , and his writings help to clarify the distribution of this rail when it was far more widespread than now .
| 1,059
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The proverbial use of the corn crake 's call to describe someone with a grating or unmelodious voice is illustrated in the quotation " thanks to a wee woman with a voice like a corncrake who believed she was an apprentice angel " . This usage date from at least the first half of the nineteenth century , and continue through to the present .
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Acute myeloid leukemia ( AML ) , also known as acute myelogenous leukemia or acute nonlymphocytic leukemia ( ANLL ) , is a cancer of the myeloid line of blood cells , characterized by the rapid growth of abnormal white blood cells that accumulate in the bone marrow and interfere with the production of normal blood cells . AML is the most common acute leukemia affecting adults , and its incidence increase with age . Although AML is a relatively rare disease , accounting for roughly 1 @.@ 2 % of cancer deaths in the United States , its incidence is expected to increase as the population ages .
| 1,061
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The symptoms of AML are caused by replacement of normal bone marrow with leukemic cells , which cause a drop in red blood cells , platelets , and normal white blood cells . These symptoms include fatigue , shortness of breath , easy bruising and bleeding , and increased risk of infection . Several risk factors and chromosomal abnormalities have been identified , but the specific cause is not clear . As an acute leukemia , AML progress rapidly and is typically fatal within weeks or months if left untreated .
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AML have several subtypes ; treatment and prognosis vary among subtypes . AML is cured in 35 – 40 % of people less than 60 years old and 5 – 15 % more than 60 years old . Older people who are not able to withstand intensive chemotherapy have an average survival of 5 – 10 months .
| 1,063
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AML is treated initially with chemotherapy aimed at inducing a remission ; people may go on to receive additional chemotherapy or a hematopoietic stem cell transplant . Recent research into the genetics of AML have resulted in the availability of tests that can predict which drug or drugs may work best for a particular person , as well as how long that person is likely to survive . The treatment and prognosis of AML differ from those of chronic myelogenous leukemia ( CML ) in part because the cellular differentiation is not the same ; AML involve higher percentages of dedifferentiated and undifferentiated cells , including more blasts ( myeloblasts , monoblasts , and megakaryoblasts ) .
| 1,064
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Most signs and symptoms of AML are caused by the replacement of normal blood cells with leukemic cells . A lack of normal white blood cell production make people more susceptible to infections ; while the leukemic cells themselves are derived from white blood cell precursors , they have no infection @-@ fighting capacity . A drop in red blood cell count ( anemia ) can cause fatigue , paleness , and shortness of breath . A lack of platelets can lead to easy bruising or bleeding with minor trauma .
| 1,065
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Preleukemic blood disorders , such as myelodysplastic syndrome ( MDS ) or myeloproliferative disease ( MPS ) , can evolve into AML ; the exact risk depend on the type of MDS / MPS .
| 1,066
| 1
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A hereditary risk for AML appear to exist . Multiple cases of AML developing in a family at a rate higher than predicted by chance alone have been reported . Several congenital conditions may increase the risk of leukemia ; the most common is probably Down syndrome , which is associated with a 10- to 18 @-@ fold increase in the risk of AML .
| 1,067
| 1
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The first clue to a diagnosis of AML is typically an abnormal result on a complete blood count . While an excess of abnormal white blood cells ( leukocytosis ) is a common finding , and leukemic blasts are sometimes seen , AML can also present with isolated decreases in platelets , red blood cells , or even with a low white blood cell count ( leukopenia ) . While a presumptive diagnosis of AML can be made by examination of the peripheral blood smear when there are circulating leukemic blasts , a definitive diagnosis usually require an adequate bone marrow aspiration and biopsy .
| 1,068
| 1
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Because acute promyelocytic leukemia ( APL ) have the highest curability and require a unique form of treatment , it is important to quickly establish or exclude the diagnosis of this subtype of leukemia . Fluorescent in situ hybridization performed on blood or bone marrow is often used for this purpose , as it readily identify the chromosomal translocation [ t ( 15 ; 17 ) ( q22 ; q12 ) ; ] that characterize APL . There is also a need to molecularly detect the presence of PML / RARA fusion protein , which is an oncogenic product of that translocation .
| 1,069
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The WHO 2008 classification of acute myeloid leukemia attempts to be more clinically useful and to produce more meaningful prognostic information than the FAB criteria . Each of the WHO categories contain numerous descriptive subcategories of interest to the hematopathologist and oncologist ; however , most of the clinically significant information in the WHO schema is communicated via categorization into one of the subtypes listed below .
| 1,070
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The French @-@ American @-@ British ( FAB ) classification system divide AML into eight subtypes , M0 through to M7 , based on the type of cell from which the leukemia developed and its degree of maturity . This is done by examining the appearance of the malignant cells with light microscopy and / or by using cytogenetics to characterize any underlying chromosomal abnormalities . The subtypes have varying prognoses and responses to therapy . Although the WHO classification ( see above ) may be more useful , the FAB system is still widely used .
| 1,071
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Eight FAB subtypes was proposed in 1976 .
| 1,072
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The malignant cell in AML is the myeloblast . In normal hematopoiesis , the myeloblast is an immature precursor of myeloid white blood cells ; a normal myeloblast will gradually mature into a mature white blood cell . In AML , though , a single myeloblast accumulate genetic changes which " freeze " the cell in its immature state and prevent differentiation . Such a mutation alone do not cause leukemia ; however , when such a " differentiation arrest " is combined with other mutations which disrupt genes controlling proliferation , the result is the uncontrolled growth of an immature clone of cells , leading to the clinical entity of AML .
| 1,073
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Much of the diversity and heterogeneity of AML stem is because leukemic transformation can occur at a number of different steps along the differentiation pathway . Modern classification schemes for AML recognize the characteristics and behavior of the leukemic cell ( and the leukemia ) may depend on the stage at which differentiation was halted .
| 1,074
| 1
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Specific cytogenetic abnormalities can be found in many people with AML ; the types of chromosomal abnormalities often have prognostic significance . The chromosomal translocations encode abnormal fusion proteins , usually transcription factors whose altered properties may cause the " differentiation arrest " . For example , in acute promyelocytic leukemia , the t ( 15 ; 17 ) translocation produce a PML @-@ RARα fusion protein which bind to the retinoic acid receptor element in the promoters of several myeloid @-@ specific genes and inhibit myeloid differentiation .
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| 3
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The clinical signs and symptoms of AML result from the growth of leukemic clone cells , which tend to displace or interfere with the development of normal blood cells in the bone marrow . This lead to neutropenia , anemia , and thrombocytopenia . The symptoms of AML are , in turn , often due to the low numbers of these normal blood elements . In rare cases , people with AML can develop a chloroma , or solid tumor of leukemic cells outside the bone marrow , which can cause various symptoms depending on its location .
| 1,076
| 2
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An important pathophysiological mechanism of leukemogenesis in AML is the epigenetic induction of dedifferentiation by genetic mutations that alter the function of epigenetic enzymes , such as the DNA demethylase TET2 and the metabolic enzymes IDH1 and IDH2 , which lead to the generation of a novel oncometabolite , D @-@ 2 @-@ hydroxyglutarate , which inhibit the activity of epigenetic enzymes such as TET2 . The hypothesis is that such epigenetic mutations lead to the silencing of tumor suppressor genes and / or the activation of proto @-@ oncogenes .
| 1,077
| 1
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First @-@ line treatment of AML consist primarily of chemotherapy , and is divided into two phases : induction and postremission ( or consolidation ) therapy . The goal of induction therapy is to achieve a complete remission by reducing the number of leukemic cells to an undetectable level ; the goal of consolidation therapy is to eliminate any residual undetectable disease and achieve a cure . Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is usually considered if induction chemotherapy fail or after a person relapse , although transplantation is also sometimes used as front @-@ line therapy for people with high @-@ risk disease . Efforts to use tyrosine kinase inhibitors in AML continue .
| 1,078
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The goal of the induction phase is to reach a complete remission . Complete remission do not mean the disease have been cured ; rather , it signify no disease can be detected with available diagnostic methods . Complete remission is obtained in about 50 % – 75 % of newly diagnosed adults , although this may vary based on the prognostic factors described above . The length of remission depend on the prognostic features of the original leukemia . In general , all remissions will fail without additional consolidation therapy .
| 1,079
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The specific type of postremission therapy is individualized based on a person 's prognostic factors ( see above ) and general health . For good @-@ prognosis leukemias ( i.e. inv ( 16 ) , t ( 8 ; 21 ) , and t ( 15 ; 17 ) ) , people will typically undergo an additional three to five courses of intensive chemotherapy , known as consolidation chemotherapy . For people at high risk of relapse ( e.g. those with high @-@ risk cytogenetics , underlying MDS , or therapy @-@ related AML ) , allogeneic stem cell transplantation is usually recommended if the person is able to tolerate a transplant and have a suitable donor . The best postremission therapy for intermediate @-@ risk AML ( normal cytogenetics or cytogenetic changes not falling into good @-@ risk or high @-@ risk groups ) is less clear and depend on the specific situation , including the age and overall health of the person , the person 's values , and whether a suitable stem cell donor is available .
| 1,080
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For people who are not eligible for a stem cell transplant , immunotherapy with a combination of histamine dihydrochloride ( Ceplene ) and interleukin 2 ( Proleukin ) after the completion of consolidation have been shown to reduce the absolute relapse risk by 14 % , translating to a 50 % increase in the likelihood of maintained remission .
| 1,081
| 1
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For people with relapsed AML , the only proven potentially curative therapy is a hematopoietic stem cell transplant , if one have not already been performed . In 2000 , the monoclonal antibody @-@ linked cytotoxic agent gemtuzumab ozogamicin ( Mylotarg ) was approved in the United States for people aged more than 60 years with relapsed AML who are not candidates for high @-@ dose chemotherapy . This drug was voluntarily withdrawn from the market by its manufacturer , Pfizer in 2010 .
| 1,082
| 1
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For relapsed acute promyelocytic leukemia ( APL ) , arsenic trioxide is approved by the US FDA . Like ATRA , arsenic trioxide do not work with other subtypes of AML .
| 1,083
| 1
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Acute myeloid leukemia is a curable disease ; the chance of cure for a specific person depend on a number of prognostic factors .
| 1,084
| 1
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AML which arise from a pre @-@ existing myelodysplastic syndrome ( MDS ) or myeloproliferative disease ( so @-@ called secondary AML ) have a worse prognosis , as do treatment @-@ related AML arising after chemotherapy for another previous malignancy . Both of these entities are associated with a high rate of unfavorable cytogenetic abnormalities .
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In some studies , age > 60 years and elevated lactate dehydrogenase level was also associated with poorer outcomes . As with most forms of cancer , performance status ( i.e. the general physical condition and activity level of the person ) play a major role in prognosis as well .
| 1,086
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Acute myeloid leukemia is a relatively rare cancer . There are approximately 10 @,@ 500 new cases each year in the United States , and the incidence rate have remained stable from 1995 through 2005 . AML account for 1 @.@ 2 % of all cancer deaths in the United States .
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The incidence of AML increases with age ; the median age at diagnosis is 63 years . AML account for about 90 % of all acute leukemias in adults , but is rare in children . The rate of therapy @-@ related AML ( that is , AML caused by previous chemotherapy ) is rising ; therapy @-@ related disease currently account for about 10 – 20 % of all cases of AML . AML is slightly more common in men , with a male @-@ to @-@ female ratio of 1 @.@ 3 : 1 .
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AML account for 34 % of all leukaemia cases in the UK , and around 2 @,@ 900 people was diagnosed with the disease in 2011 .
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Further advances in the understanding of acute myeloid leukemia occurred rapidly with the development of new technology . In 1877 , Paul Ehrlich developed a technique of staining blood films which allowed him to describe in detail normal and abnormal white blood cells . Wilhelm Ebstein introduced the term " acute leukemia " in 1889 to differentiate rapidly progressive and fatal leukemias from the more indolent chronic leukemias . The term " myeloid " was coined by Franz Ernst Christian Neumann in 1869 , as he was the first to recognize white blood cells was made in the bone marrow ( Greek : µυєλός , myelos = ( bone ) marrow ) as opposed to the spleen . The technique of bone marrow examination to diagnose leukemia was first described in 1879 by Mosler . Finally , in 1900 , the myeloblast , which is the malignant cell in AML , was characterized by Otto Naegeli , who divided the leukemias into myeloid and lymphocytic .
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In 2008 , AML became the first cancer genome to be fully sequenced . DNA extracted from leukemic cells was compared to unaffected skin . The leukemic cells contained acquired mutations in several genes that had not previously been associated with the disease .
| 1,091
| 1
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Leukemia is rarely associated with pregnancy , affecting only about 1 in 10 @,@ 000 pregnant women . How it is handled depend primarily on the type of leukemia . Acute leukemias normally require prompt , aggressive treatment , despite significant risks of pregnancy loss and birth defects , especially if chemotherapy is given during the developmentally sensitive first trimester .
| 1,092
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Love Me Like You is a song recorded by British girl group Little Mix for their third studio album , Get Weird ( 2015 ) . The song was released on 25 September 2015 , as the second single from the album . Produced by Steve Mac , he coed @-@ wrote the song with Iain James , Camille Purcell and James Newman . Backed by an instrumental of pianos , bells , sax and percussion , the song is a down @-@ tempo retro homage to doo @-@ wop , with lyrics about puppy love . Its composition was compared by several critics to Motown artists of the 1950s and 1960s , namely The Ronettes , The Supremes and Shadow Morton .
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Critical response to " Love Me Like You " was positive : critics praised its vintage style and highlighted it as an album standout . It reached number 11 on the UK Singles Chart and have been certified gold by the BPI . The accompanying music video for the song was set at a high school dance . Unbeknownst to each member of the group , they had been invited to attend by the same date after previously meeting him in different situations . He arrive with another girl near the end of the night , and they realise that he had all been invited by the same guy , and end up dateless . Little Mix have performed the track on both the Australian and British versions of The X Factor and on Good Morning America in the United States .
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Love Me Like You was written by Steve Mac , Camille Purcell , Iain James and James Newman for Little Mix 's third studio album , Get Weird ( 2015 ) . It was published by Rokstone Music Ltd. under exclusive licence to BMG Rights Management ( UK ) Ltd ; Kobalt Music Group ; Sony / ATV Music Publishing ; Black Butter Music Publishing and BMG Rights Management . The song was produced by Mac and mixed by Serban Ghenea at Mixstar Studios in Virginia Beach , Virginia . It was engineered for mixing by John Hanes and engineered by Chris Laws and Dann Pursey , and mastered by Tom Coyne and Randy Merrill at Sterling Sound Studios in New York . The track was recorded at Rokstone Studios in London . Purcell also provided background vocals . The keyboards was performed by Mac , and the guitars was played by Paul Gendler . Laws and Pursey performed the drums and the percussion , respectively .
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The group announced on 9 September 2015 that " Love Me Like You " would be the second single to be released from the album , and that it would be made available to pre @-@ order on 11 September , and be released on 25 September . It was released by Syco and Columbia in Ireland and the United Kingdom on 25 September 2015 . The single 's artwork was released on the same day . In their review , MTV News joked that the group was suggesting that it would be number @-@ one due to each of the band members eyeline , writing " We can 't help but get the hint they 're on the hunt for ANOTHER chart topping trophy . Leigh @-@ Anne clearly think she can see it in the distance , Jesy is just imagining it with her brain , Jade definitely think she can hear the noise of records being sold and Perrie is convinced it 's on the floor . " M magazine writer Heather Thompson described the artwork as " vibrant " . A collection of alternate versions called " Love Me Like You ( The Collection ) " was also released in Australia and New Zealand in addition to Ireland and the United Kingdom on 16 October 2015 . It consist of a Christmas mix , several remixes and an instrumental version of " Love Me Like You " and another album track called " Lightning " .
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Love Me Like You have been described as a down @-@ tempo " ode to ' 60s doo @-@ wop " retro style pop song , which last for a duration of three minutes , seventeen seconds . The song is composed in the key of G major using common time and a tempo of 106 beats per minute . Instrumentation is provided by " vintage " pianos , bells and a " pumping " tenor sax . The use of percussion give the a track a more modern style . During the track , the band members vocal range spans one octave , from the low note of D4 to the high note of E5 .
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The song open with the group harmonising " Sha la la la " over pianos . The lyrics are about puppy love , as they yearningly sing " Last night I lay in bed so blue / Cause ' I realized the truth / They can 't love me like you / I tried to find somebody new / Baby they ain 't got a clue / Can 't love me like you . " Fuse writer Jeff Benjamin described the song as being reminiscent of 1960s girl group The Ronettes but with a more modern feel for 2015 radio , highlighting the line " They try to romance me but you got that nasty and that 's what I want " as an example . Digital Spy writer Lewis Corner thought that the line " He might got the biggest ca @-@ aa @-@ ar " do not fool listeners into thinking that " they 're not actually talking about his Fiat 500 . " Several music critics compared the song to recordings from the Motown era in the 1950s and 1960s , with Andy Gill of The Independent likening it to material composed by Shadow Morton . Emilee Lindner of MTV News likened the production to material composed by Phil Spector . The Christmas mix version features added church bells and jingles .
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In the United Kingdom , " Love Me Like You " debuted at number 21 on the UK Singles Chart on 8 October 2015 . It later peaked at number 11 on 7 January 2016 . It also peaked at number nine on the UK Singles Downloads Chart . The track have been certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting shipments of 400 @,@ 000 copies . In Scotland , the song reached number five . It achieved success in Ireland , reaching number 8 on 31 December 2015 . It peaked at number 66 on the Belgium Ultratip Flanders chart on 31 October 2015 . It also peaked at number 64 in Slovakia , number 81 in the Czech Republic , and number 140 in France . Outside of Europe , " Love Me Like You " reached number 80 on the Japan Hot 100 , number 27 in Australia , and number one on the New Zealand Heatseekers chart .
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