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E3S Web Conf.
Volume 51, 20182018 3rd International Conference on Advances on Clean Energy Research (ICACER 2018)
|Number of page(s)||5|
|Section||Environmental Remediation and Quality Assessment|
|Published online||24 August 2018|
Production of Hydrogen by Steam Methane Reformation Process
Assistant Professor, Szabist,
Karachi and 75600,
2 Student, Szabist, Karachi and 75600, Pakistan
* Corresponding author: email@example.com
Upcoming hydrogen economy is on rise on political agenda due to growing need of hydrogen. Natural occurrence of hydrogen cannot satisfy the present need of hydrogen. It produces a wide gap between current hydrogen requirement and amount of hydrogen present in earth. To counter this problem, hydrogen is produced commercially in industries through various methods. Among all these methods, SMR (Steam Methane Reforming) process is considered most feasible for being economically cheap as compared to other methods. Being economical does not necessarily mean being eco-friendly. Industrialist does not switch on alternative methods and continue using SMR process which is producing a devastating impact on atmosphere by increasing the amount of CO2 (carbon dioxide). Greenhouse effect of carbon dioxide makes it one of the primary sources of increasing global warming in earth's atmosphere. Apart of other uses, Hydrogen can also be used as eco-friendly energy source as compared to fossil fuel used as energy source. In this paper, the procedure of production of hydrogen through SMR process is reviewed in detail and its pros and cons are discussed.
© The authors, published by EDP Sciences, 2018
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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The task of deciding between financial needs and wants can be difficult; however it is extremely helpful, especially when itâs time to manage your budget. In some cases, it can be easy to identify the difference between a need and a want. However, there are certain expenses that arenât as black and white. Discover an easy way to differentiate the two so you can find a healthy financial balance, and reduce your stress and anxiety of trying to make ends meet.
Separating Needs From Wants When Creating a Budget
The simplest way to identify the difference between needs and wants is to think of a need as something that supports your daily existence and a want as something that brings you happiness and fulfillment.
Thriving on basic needs (food, shelter, clothing, protection) alone is unrealistic though. When creating a budget, you need to consider expenses which support the primary needs, as well as those which you have to pay for to avoid bankruptcy, eviction, or any other related financial loss. These can be identified as your necessary monthly expenses.
Letâs get started!
Grab a piece of paper and write down the amounts you spend per month on the following typical primary necessary expenses. (NOTE: it helps to have a calculator or additional paper to add up individual entries):
- Rent or Mortgage
- Utilities (electric, gas, water, sewer, trash removal)
- Groceries (food and household supplies)
- Personal items (toiletries, dry cleaning, haircuts)
- Transportation (auto loan, public transportation)
Now list the secondary necessary expenses (which are related to the primary expenses):
- Renters or home owners insurance
- Home furnishings
- Cell Phone
- TV / Internet
- Gas and auto insurance (if applicable)
- Health Insurance (including extra costs for medications, therapy, etc.)
- Pet expenses (having a pet is typically a âwantâ but feeding them and caring for them is a necessity!)
Other required expenses (if they apply):
- Student Loans
- Credit Card payments
- Life Insurance
- Other debts
Now list on a second page, list your wants, or things referred to as desired monthly expenses such as:
- Dining out
- Entertainment (movies, golfing, bowling, concerts, museums/touring, etc.)
NOTE: For those first 2 items, list the average cost of each activity and number of times per month or year that you like to do them, such as: movies for 2 = $60 x twice a month = $120 per month.
- Pets and related expenses (food, veterinary care, supplies â see necessities list)
- Gym/health memberships
- Spa treatments (manicures, pedicures, etc.)
- Travel / Vacation plans
- Retirement Savings
- Gifts (holidays, birthdays, Motherâs/Fatherâs Day, Valentineâs Day, etc.)
And lastly, add to one of your pages an Emergency Fund (for home repairs, car repairs, appliance or electronic repairs, etc). Some consider this a need and some consider it a want, but either way, you need to think about the impact having an emergency fund or not having one would have on your total budget and lifestyle.
Identifying a Surplus or Shortfall
After noting dollar amounts for needs and wants, add your necessary monthly expenses to your desired monthly expenses. Take that sum and subtract it from your after-tax income. Do you have a surplus or a shortfall?
If you have a surplusâŠcongratulations! Keep up the good work. Donât forget to check your credit yearly to ensure you in optimal financial health. Consider looking at ways to invest the extra money such as share certificates and IRAs.
If you fall shortâŠdonât despair! There are many ways to find the financial balance you need. Look at ways to cut down on both sides. This is typically harder for necessary expenses, but can include researching a better deal on your insurance plans or shopping around for a more attractive phone / internet /cable package. You might also consider refinancing your mortgage or consolidating your loans.
Then look at your desired expenses sheet. Where can you cut back? Can you limit your movies at the theatre to once a month? Can you skip the manicures and do your own nails? Can you take the kids to local community fairs instead of the big amusement parks?
Having a budget in place can reduce stress and anxiety, and promote good financial health! Do you need a little assistance with managing your budget? Diamond can help! Use our series of Personal Finance Calculators to figure out ways to save money and reduce debt, or stop into any branch to discuss how Diamond can help you live a more financially balanced life. |
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Kashmir, Durand Line, Baluchestan, north of Yemen, Persian Gulf islands, border between Azerbaijan and Armenia and Kurdistan are among many border making policy by colonizers like UK and France at which we see endless fights and confrontations.
Kashmir is a region in Middle Asia after Second World War and UK ended colonization in India which is always a high tension issue between Pakistan, India and China.
After Second World War and UK leaving India there were two options regarding the area:
1. United India, 2. Dividing India to Indians (India) and Pakistan (Muslims).
Finally by UKâs intrigue Pakistan was separated from India and separatist states had the right to coalesce with India or Pakistan based on the location, peopleâs voting and religion.
Hari Singh, governor of Kashmir did not accept joining Pakistan, in despite of Muslim majority in Kashmir and people mostly demanded to join Pakistan. He first showed interest in Independence but later to gain power over Muslim majority and also Pakistanâs supporting them, he asked India for military support and signed Union Treaty with India.
This issue resulted in three wars so far between India and Pakistan which resulted in the division of the area between Pakistan, India and China.
â First war:
After UK leaving and Pakistan independence from India, there was a war between India and Pakistan from October 1947 to January 1949 which was ended by UN mediation as follows: Hindu regions joining India, Muslim regions joining Pakistan and other parts by voting. No vote ever done in Kashmir. So Pakistan claimed one third of Kashmir as âAzad(free) Kashmirâ and India claimed its claimed region as âJammu and Kashmirâ.
â Second war:
From 1965 to January 1966 which ended by Russiaâs mediation.
â Third war:
In 1971 Kashmirâs people uprising resulted in separation of Azad Kashmir and also Eastern Pakistan (Bangladesh) from India.
Aksai Chin region was also claimed by China in a war between India and China in 1962.
At the moment north and west of Kashmir (Azad Kashmir, Gilgit and Baltistan) under control by Pakistan, south and center of it (Jammu, Kashmir, Ladakh and Siachen) under control by India and east of it (Aksai Chin) under control by China. |
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UCSB Researchers Publish Findings in Online Scientific Journal PLOS ONE
UCSB researchers recently published a study on the relationship between racial categorization and peaceful cooperation in the academic journal PLOS ONE, with the paperâs findings suggesting that different groups of people â if cooperating peacefully â can be united across social and racial boundaries to form alliances.
The study, titled The Content of Our Cooperation, Not the Color of Our Skin: An Alliance Detection System Regulates Categorization by Coalition and Race, but Not Sex, was authored by former UCSB graduate student David Pietraszewski â who is now a postdoctoral scholar at Yale University â as well as UCSB anthropology professor John Tooby and psychology professor Leda Cosmides. The researchers examined how individuals form cooperative alliances and found that peaceful cooperation allows alliances to form, regardless of the racial makeup of the group.
Participants were asked to view a conversation between eight people and pay attention to what was said. After the conversation was over, participants were shown a series of photographs of the eight conversers and snippets from the conversation. They were then asked to match who said what; mistakes made by the participants were indicative of how they categorized the eight people they were asked to view.
Based on the results, Tooby, Cosmides and Pietraszewski proposed that human beings have evolved with an innate âalliance detection system,â which determines who is working together in a group in order to identify potential allies that might be needed in the future. They found that when common threats or potential projects arise that require cooperative action, the ethnicity of potential collaborators is not considered, thus indicating that race may not be as deeply entrenched in human psyche and decision-making as has been previously thought.
According to Cosmides, real-world scenarios will not necessarily provide visual information on someoneâs alliances. Cosmides said race becomes less important if other factors play a part in how individuals assess alliances within groups of people.
âThatâs how our mind treats race â as a cue to alliances. When the alliances seem to be predicted by other factors, your mind decreases the extent to which it retrieves peopleâs race,â Cosmides said. âItâs not that youâre not seeing it on their faces; itâs that when youâre asked who said what, and youâre trying to remember who said what. Your mind is not retrieving the racial categories.â
Pietraszewski said individuals are not necessarily âlockedâ into racist thought, but rather this thought is a product of concrete life experiences.
âIf the mind attends to these physical features for social reasons, then you have the potential to change racial boundaries by changing social boundaries,â Pietraszewski said. âThese results suggest that we are not locked into racial categorization and racism ⊠they are product of specific, and addressable, social experiences.â
According to Tooby, evidence for the arbitrary nature of race can be found when examining children. He said that research has found that when children see a group of people, they do not see race as a relevant feature.
âYoung children are often surprised when adults explain that there are different races on their favorite team. They donât really understand that. The team is the coalition,â Tooby said. âAnd yet, their not-seeing-race doesnât predict the team membership. They donât see it. A friend of mineâs young son was really surprised to learn that Michael Jordan was black.â
According to Pietraszewski, the researchers exposed the studyâs participants to situations that âcross-cut racial boundaries.â In these situations, participants categorized other people in a way that did not account for race.
âThey began to abandon categorizing the people by their race, and instead, began to categorize them based on their cooperative social relationships,â Pietraszewski said. âThis also tells us something fundamental about why the mind creates the experience of social category âraceâ. It demonstrates that there is not machinery or software in the mind for attending to race per se.â
Since the mind is not naturally programmed to consider race, Pietraszewski said the mind must think of physical features when noticing and considering race.
â[It is] because of social expectations that these physical features tend to predict patterns of interactions, association and the way people will treat one another,â Pietraszewski said. âSo when we show that these features no longer map onto these kinds of relationships, the implicit categorization of people by these features begins to go away.â
A version of this story appeared on page 4 of Thursday, February 13, 2014â²s print edition of the Daily Nexus. A previous version of this article incorrectly paraphrased a quote by Pietraszewski to say âracism is not ânatureâ but rather ânurtureâ: in other words, it is a result of social and cultural life experiences.â This is not what Pietraszewski meant by his quoted statement, and the article has been changed accordingly. |
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ABA therapy is not just for autism. It is also for reducing anxiety, improving behavior, and teaching social skills.
Checkout this video:
ABA is a treatment derived from the principles of behaviorism. It is a science that applies these principles to understanding and changing behavior. ABA therapy is not only for autism, but it is also for other disorders and problems.
ABA is short for Applied Behavior Analysis ABA is a scientific approach to understanding behavior and how it is influenced by the environment. ABA focuses on changing specific behaviors to improve a personâs overall quality of life.
ABA therapy is based on the premise that all behavior has meaning and purpose. Behavior is a form of communication, and ABA therapy strives to teach new skills and replace problem behaviors with more appropriate ones.
ABA therapy is individualized, meaning it is tailored to the unique needs of each person. The therapist works with the individual to identify specific goals and then develops a treatment plan to help the individual reach those goals.
ABA therapy has been proven to be effective in treating a variety of conditions, including autism spectrum disorder intellectual disability, ADHD, anxiety, and depression.
The three main goals of ABA
The three main goals of ABA are to:
1. Increase desired behaviors â This could include behaviors such as eye contact, communication, and social interaction.
2. Decrease undesired behaviors â This could include behaviors such as self-injury, aggression, and property destruction.
3. Teach new skills â This could include academic skills such as reading and math, or daily living skills such as personal hygiene and cooking.
ABA for Autism
ABA therapy has been shown to be an effective treatment for autism spectrum disorders. However, ABA therapy can also be used to treat other conditions, such as ADHD, anxiety, and depression.
How ABA is used to treat autism
ABA therapy is most commonly associated with autism treatment, but it can be used to treat a variety of other conditions as well. ABA therapy has been shown to be effective in treating:
-attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
-obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)
The evidence for ABA as an effective treatment for autism
ABA therapy is the most commonly used behavior intervention for autism. ABA has been found to be an effective treatment for reducing problem behaviors and teaching new skills in people with autism.
One of the most important things to remember about ABA is that it is not only for people with autism. ABA can be used to help people with other developmental disabilities, as well as people with ADHD, OCD, and other conditions.
The evidence for ABA as an effective treatment for autism comes from many sources, including research studies, clinical observations, and individual programs. In addition, there are a number of organizations that support the use of ABA therapy for autism, including the Autism Society of America and the Autism Science Foundation.
ABA for other conditions
ABA, or applied behavior analysis, is a science that has been shown to be effective in helping people with autism improve their skills and quality of life. However, ABA is not just for people with autism. ABA has also been used to help people with other conditions, such as Down syndrome, ADHD, and even depression.
ABA for ADHD
ABA therapy can also help those with ADHD. It has been shown to be effective in reducing symptoms and improving functioning in school and at home. ABA can help with impulsivity, hyperactivity, and inattention. It can also help with academic skills and behavior regulation.
ABA for OCD
ABA therapy can also be successful in treating Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD). OCD is an anxiety disorder that is characterized by repetitive, unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and/or behaviors (compulsions). People with OCD often feel that they have to perform certain rituals or routines in order to avoid a bad outcome. For example, someone with OCD may feel that they have to wash their hands over and over again in order to avoid getting sick.
ABA therapy can help people with OCD learn to manage their symptoms by teaching them how to better deal with their obsessions and compulsions. ABA therapists will often use exposure and response prevention (ERP) techniques in order to help people with OCD. ERP involves exposing someone to their fear or anxiety-provoking obsessiou (e.g., touching a doorknob) and then teaching them how to better cope with the anxiety or fear that this exposure produces.
ABA for depression
A 2016 study showed that ABA may be an effective treatment for depression in adolescents. In the study, 30 participants between the ages of 13 and 18 were given either ABA therapy or cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). After 12 weeks, the participants who received ABA therapy had a significantly lower score on the Childrenâs Depression Rating Scale than those who received CBT.
ABA has also been shown to be effective in treating depression in adults. A small study published in 2012 found that ABA was more effective than CBT in reducing depressive symptoms in adults with major depressive disorder. And a 2013 study found that ABA was more effective than CBT in reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety in adults with mixed anxiety and depression disorder.
ABA in the classroom
ABA is a common therapy for autism, but it is not the only thing that it can be used for. ABA can also be used in the classroom to help students with ADHD, anxiety, and other behavioral disorders. Letâs talk about how ABA can be used in the classroom to help students with ADHD.
ABA as an effective teaching methodology
Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is a scientific discipline that involves applying principles of behavior to problems of social significance. It is a process for systematically observing, measuring, and changing behavior. ABA has been shown to be an effective teaching methodology for children with autism and other developmental disabilities.
ABA therapy is not just for autism. It can be used to treat a variety of behavioral problems. ABA can be used to help children with ADHD, anxiety disorders, OCD, and other mental health disorders. ABA can also be used to help people with substance abuse problems, eating disorders, and other addictive behaviors.
The benefits of ABA in the classroom
Applied behavior analysis (ABA) therapy is a type of treatment that can be very beneficial for children with autism, but it can also be helpful for children with other developmental disabilities or behavioral issues. ABA therapy focuses on changing behavior through positive reinforcement and rewards. It has been shown to be an effective treatment for many different types of issues, and it can be adapted to meet the needs of each individual child.
There are many different ways that ABA therapy can be used in the classroom. Some of the most common ways include using visual aids to help children stay on task, breaking down tasks into smaller steps so that children can better understand them, and using rewards to encourage desired behavior. ABA therapy can also be used to teach social skills, communication skills, and self-care skills. Many teachers who use ABA therapy in their classrooms have seen great results, including improved behavior and increased academic achievement.
ABA at home
ABA at home is a great way to get started with ABA therapy. You can find a therapist to come to your home, or you can do it yourself. There are many benefits of ABA therapy, and it can be used for more than just autism. ABA therapy can be used for a wide variety of disorders, and it is a great way to get started with therapy.
ABA as a treatment for autism at home
ABA is a therapy that attempts to change behavior patterns in order to improve learning and communication abilities. It is mostly used to treat autism, but can be effective in treating other conditions as well. ABA therapy can be done in a clinical setting, but it can also be done at home.
One of the benefits of ABA therapy is that it can be customized to each individualâs needs. In a clinical setting, therapists will often use a one-size-fits-all approach, which may not be effective for everyone. When ABA is done at home, however, it can be tailored specifically to the individualâs needs. This allows for a more customized and effective treatment.
Another benefit of ABA therapy is that it can be done in short bursts throughout the day. In a clinical setting, ABA sessions may last for several hours at a time. This can be exhausting for both the child and the parents. When ABA is done at home, however, shorter sessions can be spread out throughout the day. This can make the treatment more manageable for both the child and the parents.
ABA therapy has been shown to be an effective treatment for autism. If you are considering ABA therapy for your child, you should talk to your doctor about whether or not it would be a good fit for your family.
ABA as a treatment for other conditions at home
ABA has also been found to be effective in treating anxiety, depression, eating disorders, and substance abuse. ABA techniques can be used in one-on-one therapy or in group settings. Because ABA focuses on changing behavior, it can be used to treat a wide variety of conditions.
Janice is a Board Certified Behavior Analyst. She graduated from the University of British Columbia with a Bachelor of Arts in Psychology and Special Education. She also holds a Master of Science in Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA) from Queenâs University, Belfast. She has worked with and case managed children and youth with autism and other intellectual and/or developmental disabilities in home and residential setting since 2013. |
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Genome analysis with near-complete privacy possible
Stanford researchers used cryptography to cloak irrelevant genetic information in individualsâ genomes while revealing disease-associated mutations. They say the technique could vastly improve patient privacy.
It is now possible to scour complete human genomes for the presence of disease-associated genes without revealing any genetic information not directly associated with the inquiry, say Stanford University researchers.
This âgenome cloakingâ technique, devised by biologists, computer scientists and cryptographers at the university, ameliorates many concerns about genomic privacy and potential discrimination based on an individualâs genome sequence.
Using the technique, the researchers were able to identify the responsible gene mutations in groups of patients with four rare diseases; pinpoint the likely culprit of a genetic disease in a baby by comparing his DNA with that of his parents; and determine which out of hundreds of patients at two individual medical centers with similar symptoms also shared gene mutations. They did this all while keeping 97 percent or more of the participantsâ unique genetic information completely hidden from anyone other than the individuals themselves.
âWe now have the tools in hand to make certain that genomic discrimination doesnât happen,â said Gill Bejerano, PhD, associate professor of developmental biology, of pediatrics and of computer science. âThere are ways to simultaneously share and protect this information. Now we can perform powerful genetic analyses while also completely protecting our participantsâ privacy.â
Bejerano shares senior authorship of the research, which was published Aug. 18 in Science, with Dan Boneh, PhD, professor of computer science and of electrical engineering. Graduate students Karthik Jagadeesh and David Wu share lead authorship of the study.
Applying cryptography techniques
The researchers hope that routine implementation of their technique will help individuals overcome any qualms about privacy that may keep them from sharing their genome sequences. In particular, people may be concerned that DNA sequences or genetic variants currently unassociated with diseases may in the future be linked with as-yet-unidentified increases in risk.
âThese are techniques that the cryptography community has been developing for some time,â said Boneh, who is the Rajeev Motwani Professor in the School of Engineering. âNow we are applying them to biology. Basically, if you have 1 million people with genomic data they would like to keep private, this approach lets researchers analyze the data in aggregate and only report on findings that are pertinent. An individual might have dozens of anomalous genes, but the researchers and clinicians will only learn about the genes relevant to the study, and nothing else.â
When the human genome was fully sequenced in 2001, it was hailed as a remarkable achievement. For the first time, the 3 billion nucleotides that encode the approximately 20,000 genes that keep our bodies running smoothly were tidily listed as a string of letters. But every human has many variations from the published, consensus sequence. These individual differences are what make us unique, but they can also confer increased risk of genetic diseases.
More than 7,000 diseases are caused by variations in the sequence of a single gene. But in order to determine which variations cause the condition, it has been necessary until now to compare the genetic sequences of hundreds or thousands of individuals with and without the disease, letter by letter. Geneticists (or their computer software) then make a list of all the differences and identify which are found primarily in people with the disease under study but rarely in any unaffected people. Those variations are then considered to be prime disease-causing suspects.
âThere is a general conception that we can only find meaningful differences by surveying the entire genome,â said Bejerano. âBut these meaningful differences make up only a very tiny proportion of our DNA. There are now amazing tools in computer science and cryptography that allow researchers to pinpoint only these differences while keeping the remainder of the genome completely private.â
In 2008, President George W. Bush signed the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act, which prohibits discrimination in matters of health insurance and employment based on an individualâs genetic information. But there are many other arenas in which such discrimination could potentially occur, including the purchase of life or disability insurance or in the application for a loan.
Giving power to the individual
Jagadeesh and Wu worked together to adapt a cryptographic approach known as Yaoâs protocol and cloud computing for use with human genomes. A key component of the technique is the involvement of the individual whose genome is to be studied. In particular, each individual encrypts their genome (with the help of a simple algorithm on their own computer or smart phone) into a linear series of values describing the presence or absence of the gene variants under study, without revealing any other information about their genetic sequence. The encrypted information is uploaded into the cloud and the researchers then use a secure, multi-party computation (a cryptographic technique that ensures the input data remain private) to conduct the analysis and reveal only those gene variants likely to be pertinent to the investigation.
We now have the tools in hand to make certain that genomic discrimination doesnât happen.
âIn this way, no person or computer, other than the individuals themselves, has access to the complete set of genetic information,â said Bejerano. In each case, the analysis was performed within seconds or minutes with moderate computing power. They hope to extend the technique to include diseases caused by combinations of multiple genetic variants or to handle tens of thousands of sequences such as those found in genomewide association studies.
Ultimately the goal is to find the best way to both share the genetic information with researchers while also protecting each patientâs privacy in order to advance medical knowledge.
âOften people who have diseases, or those who know that a particular genetic disease runs in their family, are the most reluctant to share their genomic information because they know it could potentially be used against them in some way,â said Bejerano. âThey are missing out on helping themselves and others by allowing researchers and clinicians to learn from their DNA sequences.â
Another Stanford study co-author is graduate student Johannes Birgmeier.
The study was funded by Stanford University fellowship grants, the National Science Foundation, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, Microsoft and the Simons foundation.
Stanford Medicine integrates research, medical education and health care at its three institutions - Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford Health Care (formerly Stanford Hospital & Clinics), and Lucile Packard Children's Hospital Stanford. For more information, please visit the Office of Communication & Public Affairs site at http://mednews.stanford.edu. |
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The National Telecommunications and Information Administration has done a highly detailed analysis of broadband deployment in the U.S. -â looking at broadband availability by speed, by technology, by state, by county, and by various combinations of these factors. The upshot, the NTIA said, is that although the U.S. continues to make progress on broadband deployment and speeds, gaps between rural and metro areas persist.
The report notes, for example, that almost 100% of urban residents have access to download speeds of at least 6 Mbps but only 82% of rural communities can access these speeds. And while almost 88% of urban residents have access to speeds of 25 Mbps, only 41% of rural residents have the same access.
One of the most interesting charts in the report was one showing the percentage of counties where people can get broadband at various speeds ranging from basic 3 Mbps downstream service to high-speed 100 Mbps downstream service. In the chart, reproduced here, each speed level has a low and a high mark. The high mark shows the percentage of counties where 25% of the population can get broadband at a certain speed, while the low mark shows the percentage of counties where 95% of the population can get service at that speed.
The chart shows, for example, that 5% of the people in 41% of U.S. counties lack even basic 3 Mbps broadband. And 75% of the people in just under 2% of U.S. counties lack broadband at that speed.
At the 6 Mbps level, 5% of the people in 62% of U.S. counties cannot get service. And 75% of the people in 4.5% of U.S. counties canât get 6 Mbps broadband.
Other interesting report findings:
- The states that have the highest percentage of people who can get broadband at download speeds of 10 Mbps or greater are either more densely populated than the nationwide average or are more urbanized. Utah, for example, is more sparsely populated than average but a large percentage of its total population lives in urban areas.
- States with the lowest availability of higher-speed broadband (10 Mbps downstream or greater) all fall below the nationwide average on population density. In addition, all but one fall into the bottom half on urbanization.
- Approximately 81% of Americans can access mobile wireless download speeds of 6 Mbps or greater.
âAlthough the data show that industry has made significant progress in expanding broadband availability over the past two years, it is important to note the inconsistency of availability across the country,â the NTIA writes in the conclusion to the report. âEven for basic speeds, gaps still persist between rural and urban communities. These gaps between rural and urban broadband availability become larger as speeds increase.â
The NTIA report does not offer recommendations about how to address the rural-urban broadband gap. |
TESTS OF THE CONVENTIONAL WISDOM in VISION
PROCESSES IN BIOLOGICAL VISION
Date: 02 JULY 2009
[1.3.1] Some Simple Reality Checks
Before going too far, exploring some simple arm chair experiments in human vision
is useful. This will better enable the reader to evaluate some statements of
folklore, found in both the popular and scientific literature, that have risen
to the level of an axiom.
[220.127.116.11] Adaptation--There is frequent reference to the synchronous adaptation
of both eyes in response to a change in light level to either eye. While in a
dimly lit room, less than one-half moon outside, close one eye and turn a light
on for a few seconds to a minute. Turn off the light. Now observe how much
detail you can see with the open eye. Close the first eye and open the other eye.
Observe how much detail is visible. Alternate eyes a few times. The level of
adaptation is clearly quite different in the two eyes; although looking in a
mirror will confirm that the irises of both eyes have contracted to the level
established by the eye open to the higher light level. Conclusion, the irises
of both eyes normally operate in synchronism, however, the major adaptation
process in vision operates individually in each eye and is independent of the iris.
[18.104.22.168] Peripheral Color Vision--Look straight ahead while bringing a reasonably
large (1/2 inch square) object of red or blue from behind you into your peripheral
field of view. Note the angle when you first see the color of the object. This
experiment should clearly show you have color vision at angles greater than 60
degrees from the optical axis, the area limited to "rod" vision in both the
scientific and popular literature. The status of "rods" will be developed later.
[22.214.171.124] Foveal vs peripheral night vision--On a clear night, take your star map
and go outside to look at the stars. It is best to be thoroughly dark adapted
(at least 20 minutes to be fair). However, the point can be made with less dark
adaptation. Our object is to see how much more sensitive our peripheral vision
is to our foveal vision. The most sensitive part of our field of view is about
five degrees temporally (toward our ears in the horizontal plane) from our point
of fixation. This is the location of the optical axis of the eye. The
photoreceptors located there are about 50% larger in diameter than in the fovea.
Our object is to see what is the dimmest known star we can see using our most
sensitive area and using our fovea. Don't use a red star in this initial
experiment. Most people will find the difference in stellar magnitude between
these two stars is less than one. One stellar magnitude is a factor of 2.5:1.
This is a difficult experiment because of the small difference in sensitivity
actually involved. Try using the stars of Ursa Major (the big dipper). Can
you see all four stars forming the cup of the dipper with both your foveal and
your most sensitive vision.
Clearly, our night foveal vision is not limited by "cones" in the fovea, with
a sensitivity 1000 times less than "rods," as frequently stated in the literature.
It is limited by the smaller cross-sectional area of the photoreceptors in the
fovea and the poorer performance of the elliptical lenses of the eye five
degrees from the optical axis when the iris is fully opened (related to the
Stiles-Crawford Effect). The first cause introduces a factor of about 2:1
and the second cause accounts for a factor of less than 1.5:1.
[126.96.36.199] Night Color Vision--Step outside on any clear night and look up at the
stars. Do you see any colored planets or stars? Mars, "the red planet", should
be easy to see somewhere along the ecliptic if it is in the sky. There are
many colored stars, and many of these have names given to them in ancient times.
According to the Field Book of the Skies, "There is a wide variety of tints
easily seen with the unaided eye." These usually range from green to yellow
to red. Can you recognize the color of a star while looking directly at it?
Do you have color vision under low light conditions in your fovea?
[188.8.131.52] Eye as a Camera--While looking straight ahead and without moving your
head, note closely the field of view you perceive. Without moving your head or
blinking, move your line of sight 5-10 degrees to either side and back. Try up
and down by 5-10 degrees. Did the overall scene that you perceive move? Would
you expect this result if you took a picture with a camera and then took a second
picture with the camera turned 5-10 degrees? The process of detecting and
perceiving information by the eye will be addressed later.
[184.108.40.206] Eye as a Change Detector--During your next eye examination, while
sitting at the Visual Field Analyzer --a device that presents a uniform white
field to the eye-- repeat a simple experiment fully explored by Yarbus in the
1950's. Before the technician inserts a stimulus into this uniform white field,
note that in the absence of any blinking or head movement, you begin to observe
a darkening of your field of view after 1-3 seconds. If carefully done, you
will become completely blind during this experiment. This is not the normal
result obtained with a camera. It is the normal response expected of a sensor
that is a "change detector."
[220.127.116.11] Bright Adaptation as opposed to Dark Adaptation--After
attending an afternoon movie and becoming fully dark adapted, walk quickly out
of the lobby of a small theater (or out the emergency exit) into the bright
sunlight. Neglecting the pain for the moment, how long does it take before you
can see effectively? It probably takes a few seconds, the period required for
"Bright Adaptation." Both "Bright" and "Dark" adaptation need to be considered,
explained and quantified.
[18.104.22.168] Noise Limited performance-- [[or photon noise limited performance ]]
These simple experiments will be addressed later to help the reader put into
perspective and better understand some of the results presented.
The numbers in [brackets] refer to the paragraph numbers in the main text. |
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Global average temperatures last year were tied for the hottest on record, capping what was also the planetâs hottest decade ever recorded, according to new data analysis released Friday.
The last six years are now the hottest six on record, with 2020 on par with 2016 as the hottest year ever recorded.
The new analysis comes from the European Unionâs Copernicus Climate Change Service, one of several datasets which track global temperatures and climate change impacts.
Last yearâs temperatures were 0.6 degrees Celsius (1.08 degrees Fahrenheit) warmer than the 1981 to 2010 average, and 1.25 degrees Celsius (2.25 degrees Fahrenheit) above the pre-industrial average.
Global warming has brought the planet ever closer to the 1.5 degree Celsius warming threshold, which scientists have warned will increase the risk for more extreme wildfires, droughts, floods and food shortages potentially impacting hundreds of millions of people.
However, it was abundantly clear in 2020 that the world is already seeing worsening disasters from climate change.
It began in January, when heat and drought stoked unprecedented wildfires across Australia. When the flames were finally extinguished, the fires had charred an area larger than the state of Florida. An analysis last year found that climate change made the fires at least 30% more likely.
Then came the Atlantic hurricane season, which saw a record-breaking 30 named storms, 12 of which made landfall in the US. Many of those storms carried the fingerprints of climate change, which scientists say is making hurricanes more destructive.
Extremely hot and dry conditions also fueled the worst wildfire season ever recorded in the Western US, which engulfed an estimated 10.3 million acres in flames.
And in the Arctic, some of the most extreme temperatures anywhere on Earth were observed in 2020, as the region continues to warm more than twice as fast as the rest of the planet.
Huge parts of the Arctic saw temperatures more than 3 degrees Celsius (5.4 degrees Fahrenheit) above average, and some locations saw average temperatures more than 6 degrees Celsius (10.8 degrees Fahrenheit) above normal for the year.
To illustrate how enormous a 6 degree Celsius difference can be â during the last ice age, which occurred around 20,000 years ago and featured much of North America covered in ice, the planetâs average temperature was about 6 degrees Celsius cooler than it is today.
â2020 stands out for its exceptional warmth in the Arctic and a record number of tropical storms in the North Atlantic,â said Carlo Buontempo, the director of the Copernicus Climate Change Service, in a news release. âIt is no surprise that the last decade was the warmest on record, and is yet another reminder of the urgency of ambitious emissions reductions to prevent adverse climate impacts in the future.â
La Niña fails to cool the planet down
Making the heat in 2020 all the more startling is the fact that the year featured La Niña, a naturally occurring climate cycle characterized by cooler than normal temperatures in the Pacific Ocean. The large expanse of cooler ocean water and the resulting impacts on the global climate act like a natural air conditioner for the planet, and La Niña years tend to make the planet cooler than years without a La Niña or the opposite phase of the cycle, called El Niño.
El Niño, which features warmer than average ocean temperatures in the Pacific, adds large amounts of excess heat released into the atmosphere and tends to make those years warmer.
It is no surprise that 2016, which had previously been the hottest year on record, featured a strong El Niño for the first half of the year. It is remarkable, however, that even with the cooling effects of La Niña present, that 2020 would feature the same amount of global heat.
This provides yet another yardstick to measure the impact that human-caused global warming is having on the planetâs climate.
Greenhouse gas levels rise despite Covid lockdowns
2020 set another record according to Copernicus Climate Change Service, with carbon dioxide concentrations reaching a maximum of 413 parts per million (ppm) during May.
It may seem counterintuitive that a year dominated by Covid-related shutdowns and a halt to global production and transportation would have the highest CO2 levels of any on record. But the fact is that until fossil fuel production reaches net-zero, or carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere on a major, globally-coordinated scale, each year will likely see higher carbon dioxide levels than the last.
The increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration in 2020 was slightly less than what was seen in each of the past two years (2.3 ppm vs 2.5 and 2.4 in 2019 and 2018, respectively).
This could partly be the result of Covid-related shutdowns, which some estimates show reduced human CO2 emissions in 2020 by around 7%, according to the Global Carbon Project. However, more research is needed to determine exactly how big of a role the pandemic played in cutting emissions last year. |
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For at least 2,400 years, philosophers and economists knew the benefits of specialization, also known as division of labor. Xenophon wrote in the 4th century BC, âhe who pursues a very specialized task will do it best.â Adam Smith greatly elaborated on this, as did many others.
Today, however, we are starting to see a trend away from specialization toward âdo it yourself.â Hereâs an example:
Do-it-yourself trend growing
People stretch dollars by doing their own chores
Across the country, people are taking on chores that only a year ago were hired out to someone else. Theyâre dyeing their own hair, shoveling their own snow, washing their own cars and taking up paint brushes to brighten their living room walls.
This trend toward âdo it yourselfâ is partly caused by the high rates of taxation in the United States. Iâll give you an example:
If I need a plumber to come fix my sink, first I have to earn the money and give 40% or so to the government in taxes.
Using the money I just earned, or the 60% that remain, I hire a plumber. The plumber knows that he needs X dollars per hour for his work. But because he has to give 40% of his income to the government, he actually charges 67% more than he receives after taxes (ie. he needs $60, but charges $100 with $40, a 67% increase in price, going to the government).
So to pay for $60 of plumbing work, I actually have to earn $167 ($167 â 40% of $167 is $100 to pay the plumberâs $100 so he can keep $60).
Thus, the cost of hiring somebody to do a $60 repair is $167. Even if it takes me three hours to do the repair instead of 1 hour, it just about pays to do it myself instead of hiring somebody.
The result of our high rates of taxation is a terrible choice. The homeowner can either hire a plumber to do the work for him, but with a 40% tax on income, he must earn nearly three times the amount of the plumberâs after-tax income to pay him for his work. Or he can do it himself, in which case the plumber loses income and the homeowner loses both time and income he could have made working at his job. |
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Use of precorrection strategies to enhance reading performance of students with learning and behavior problems.This study investigates the effectiveness of a precorrection procedure in teaching decoding de·code
tr.v. de·cod·ed, de·cod·ing, de·codes
1. To convert from code into plain text.
2. To convert from a scrambled electronic signal into an interpretable one.
3. skills to students with learning and behavior problems. Six students with learning and behavior problems from a public school in southeast Alabama Southeast Alabama is the term used to identify the southeastern counties in the state of Alabama. Other names for the area are The Wiregrass and Lower Alabama. The area includeds the Counties of Dale, Pike, Houston, Coffee, Henry, Geneva, Barbour, Crenshaw and Covington. participated in the study. A multiple-baseline single subject research method was used. In the baseline The horizontal line to which the bottoms of lowercase characters (without descenders) are aligned. See typeface.
baseline - released version phase, Direct Instruction (DI) was the primary teaching method. In the treatment phase, precorrection was added to evaluate the effects of precorrection on accuracy in reading on acquisition, retention, and on-task behavior. Experimentation lasted for 21 days. The results indicate that using precorrection as an intervention A procedure used in a lawsuit by which the court allows a third person who was not originally a party to the suit to become a party, by joining with either the plaintiff or the defendant. improves students' accuracy in reading sounds and words, and increases on-task behavior. The investigators recommended further studies using greater numbers of students over longer periods of time.
Students who have early reading problems are likely to continue experiencing reading difficulties as well as face other academic challenges as they move through the school years. Chard and Kameenui (2000), for example, stated that children who are poor in reading skills in first-grade have an approximately 90% chance of remaining poor readers after 3-years of schooling. In addition, Slavin, Karweit, Wasik, Madden mad·den
v. mad·dened, mad·den·ing, mad·dens
1. To make angry; irritate.
2. To drive insane.
To become infuriated. and Dolan Dolan is a surname, and the following people:
Being endangered, as from exposure to disease or from a lack of parental or familial guidance and proper health care: efforts to make the vaccine available to at-risk groups of children. beginning readers as they work toward mastering the skill of reading (Rabren, 1994).
The beginning reading stage refers to "the period when students are learning to decode (1) To convert coded data back into its original form. Contrast with encode.
(2) Same as decrypt. See cryptography.
(cryptography) decode - To apply decryption. the first several hundred words presented in the classroom program" (Carnine, Silbert, & Kameenui, 1997, p. 54). After conducting a comprehensive and technical synthesis of a multi-disciplinary review of beginning reading research, Adams Adams, town (1990 pop. 9,445), Berkshire co., NW Mass., in the Berkshires, on the Hoosic River; inc. 1778. Its manufactures include chemicals, textiles, and paper products. The Berkshire region attracts tourists year-round. (1990) argued that phonics phonics
Method of reading instruction that breaks language down into its simplest components. Children learn the sounds of individual letters first, then the sounds of letters in combination and in simple words. is a key element in beginning reading instruction for all students. In addition, Adams found that children' s knowledge of letters of the alphabet alphabet [Gr. alpha-beta, like Eng. ABC], system of writing, theoretically having a one-for-one relation between character (or letter) and phoneme (see phonetics). Few alphabets have achieved the ideal exactness. and their ability to distinguish phonemes (i.e. letter sounds) are reasonably accurate predictors of students' first-year adj. 1. Being in the first year of an experience especially in a U. S. high school or college; - of a person.
Adj. 1. first-year - used of a person in the first year of an experience (especially in United States high school or college); "a reading performance. Through her analysis, Adams also concluded that reading methods, including phonics instruction on isolated letter sounds and blending sounds into words, result in higher first-grade achievement in word recognition and spelling. Early phonemic pho·ne·mic
1. Of or relating to phonemes.
2. Of or relating to phonemics.
3. Serving to distinguish phonemes or distinctive features. training benefits were examined in a study with 90 kindergarteners (Ball & Blachman, 1991). The children were divided into three groups: (a) a phonemic awareness Phonemic Awareness is a subset of phonological awareness in which listeners are able to distinguish phonemes, the smallest units of sound that can differentiate meaning. For example, a listener with phonemic awareness can break the word "Cat" into three separate phonemes: /k/, /a/, group, who received instruction in segmenting phonemes and in letter-name and letter-sound correspondence; (b) a language activities group, who were provided instruction in various language activities and letter-name and letter sound correspondence; and (c) a control group who received no intervention. The phoneme phoneme
Smallest unit of speech distinguishing one word (or word element) from another (e.g., the sound p in tap, which differentiates that word from tab and tag). The term is usually restricted to vowels and consonants, but some linguists include differences of pitch, awareness group performed significantly higher than the language activities group and the control group on a phoneme segmentation posttest post·test
A test given after a lesson or a period of instruction to determine what the students have learned. . There was no significant difference, however, on phoneme awareness between the language activities group and the control group. These results suggest that specific training in phonemic awareness has a positive effect on early reading development
A more recent study examined the effects of phonological pho·nol·o·gy
n. pl. pho·nol·o·gies
1. The study of speech sounds in language or a language with reference to their distribution and patterning and to tacit rules governing pronunciation.
2. skill development and letter knowledge of at-risk kindergarteners. Shneider, Roth, and Ennemoser (2000) compared the effects of intervention programs on groups of kindergarteners at-risk for dyslexia dyslexia (dÄslÄk`sÄÉ), in psychology, a developmental disability in reading or spelling, generally becoming evident in early schooling. To a dyslexic, letters and words may appear reversed, e.g. . These 138 children were randomly assigned as·sign
tr.v. as·signed, as·sign·ing, as·signs
1. To set apart for a particular purpose; designate: assigned a day for the inspection.
2. to 1 of 3 groups, with the following training procedures: (a) letter-sound training, (b) phonological awareness Phonological awareness is the conscious sensitivity to the sound structure of language. It includes the ability to auditorily distinguish parts of speech, such as syllables and phonemes. training, (c) combined letter-sound and phonological awareness training. Results of this study indicate that combined letter-sound and phonological awareness training had the strongest effects on reading and spelling during grades 1 and 2. This study suggests that while all three methods have positive effects, the combined approach is more effective in early reading development.
While most students adequately learn early reading skills (such as phonemic awareness and letter-sound correspondence), others have great difficulty in acquiring such entry level decoding skills (Beck & Juel, 1995). An increasing proportion of children in American schools have been diagnosed as having a learning disability, and the vast majority of them are identified as such because of difficulties in reading (Snow, Burns & Griffin, 1998). In a longitudinal study longitudinal study
a chronological study in epidemiology which attempts to establish a relationship between an antecedent cause and a subsequent effect. See also cohort study. , conducted by Shaywitz and Shaywitz (1996), the authors estimated that 17.5 % of the school children in primary and middle schools have reading disabilities. In the report of the National Assessment of Educational Progress The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), also known as "the Nation's Report Card," is the only nationally representative and continuing assessment of what America's students know and can do in various subject areas. (1997), it was estimated that 40%, 30%, and 25% of fourth-, eighth-, and twelfth-graders, respectively, were reading below grade level.
Reading difficulties, in part, can be due to either biological deficits or poor reading instruction (Snow, et al., 1998). Poor readers sometimes have phonological processing problems caused by underdevelopment underdevelopment
an error in x-ray film developing procedure. Causes the production of a flat film with poor contrast; the unexposed background is gray instead of black. of the brain system (DeFries & Alarcon, 1996). But for those children without biological deficits, difficulties in reading may be due to inappropriate reading instruction. As such, explicit instruction may be one alternative to teach reading to students with learning and behavior problems.
Direct Instruction is an explicit rule-based instructional approach. Specific features of Direct Instruction (DI) are described by Darch (1993): (a) "presentation of an explicit problem-solving strategy, (b) mastery teaching of each step in the strategy, (c) development of specific correction procedures for student errors, (d) a gradual switch from teacher-directed to independent work, and (f) built-in cumulative review of previously taught concepts" (p.89). An impressive body of research has supported DI as an effective approach for teaching academic skills and strategies to students with learning and behavior problems (Tarver, 1996).
Swanson (1999) examined the effects of interventions in reading for students with learning and behavior problems. The two general models he compared are general strategy instruction and DI. He was interested in determining whether certain models of instruction have broad effects across word-recognition and comprehension comprehension
Act of or capacity for grasping with the intellect. The term is most often used in connection with tests of reading skills and language abilities, though other abilities (e.g., mathematical reasoning) may also be examined. measures, or are specific to one domain. Swanson concluded that the combination of strategy and DI positively influences reading comprehension Reading comprehension can be defined as the level of understanding of a passage or text. For normal reading rates (around 200-220 words per minute) an acceptable level of comprehension is above 75%. , while DI improves word recognition.
Swanson's study also summarized the important instructional components for teaching word recognition. These components include sequencing, segmentation, and use of advanced organizers during comprehension instruction. Sequencing refers to "breaking down the tasks, fading fading
fading skin coloring. See Arabian fading syndrome (below). Declining in body condition, general health, activity and productivity.
Arabian fading syndrome
general health is unimpaired. of prompts or cues, matching the difficulty level of the task to the students, sequencing short activities and/or using step-by-step prompts" (p. 522). Segmentation means breaking down the words into small units (individual letter or letter combinations). Advanced organizers refer to directing children to look over material prior to instruction. In the DI decoding program, these components are organized into comprehensive teaching lessons.
Specified error correction procedures is another feature of DI reading that researchers are now beginning to investigate. Teachers are directed to use different correction procedures to correct various categories of reading errors. If a student makes an error with a word in story reading, for example, the teacher will immediately say "stop," model that word, and ask the whole group to read and spell that word Until firm. Lastly the teacher will ask that student to read from the beginning of that sentence.
Compared with correction, precorrection is proactive and may be a beneficial instructional strategy to more effectively teach students with learning and behavior problems to read (Colvin, Sugai, & Patching, 1993). Precorrection is defined as "an antecedent ANTECEDENT. Something that goes before. In the construction of laws, agreements, and the like, reference is always to be made to the last antecedent; ad proximun antecedens fiat relatio. instructional event designed to prevent the occurrence of predictable problem behavior and to facilitate the occurrence of more appropriate replacement behavior" (Colvin, Sugai, Good & Lee, 1997). It is comprised of the following steps: (a) identifying the predictable problem, (b) making clear the expected behavior, (c) adjusting the context, (d) modeling the expected behavior, (e) strongly reinforcing the expected behaviors, (f) motivating the expected behaviors, and (g) closely monitoring the students' performance. Most researchers focused on using precorrection to manage behavior problems (e.g., Colvin et al., 1993, & Colvin et al., 1997).
The precorrection strategy may have effective application to reading instruction with students with learning and behavior problems, but to our knowledge, no studies have been reported that evaluated the effects of precorrection during beginning reading instruction with students with learning and behavior problems. Thus, the focus of this study is to determine the effects of precorrection on the reading and behavior of students during Direct Instruction reading instruction. Specifically, this study will examine whether using precorrection during decoding instruction increases reading accuracy for students with disabilities during beginning reading instruction. Students' abilities to learn sounds and read words will be measured. In addition, this study will determine if precorrection is helpful in increasing students' on-task behavior during reading instruction.
Subject Selection and Setting
Six first-graders with mild disabilities were selected as subjects. All subjects were eligible for special education services. Subject 1 was seven years old and was placed in an English as Second Language program. Her full-scale IQ score as measured by the WISC-III WISC-III Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children, 3rd Edition was 70. She was receiving instruction in reading and language. Subject 2, a seven-year-old female, was identified as having mental retardation mental retardation, below average level of intellectual functioning, usually defined by an IQ of below 70 to 75, combined with limitations in the skills necessary for daily living. . Her full-scale IQ score of WISC-III was 64. Subject 3, a seven-year-old male, was identified as having a developmental delay developmental delay
A chronological delay in the appearance of normal developmental milestones achieved during infancy and early childhood, caused by organic, psychological, or environmental factors. . His full-scale IQ score was 70. Subject 4, a seven-year-old female, was diagnosed with mental retardation. Her full-scale IQ score of WISC-III was 71. Subject 5 was eight years old and was identified as having multiple disabilities. Her reading score of Woodcock-Johnson Reading Mastery Test placed her at the primer prim·er
A segment of DNA or RNA that is complementary to a given DNA sequence and that is needed to initiate replication by DNA polymerase. reading level. Subject 6, a female, was classified as developmentally delayed with a full scale IQ of 65.
The six subjects were randomly assigned to one of three instructional groups, each with two students. Daily instructional lessons for all three groups lasted approximately 25 minutes, and occurred in the subjects' assigned special education resource room. The order in which groups received instruction was counter balanced; that is, the order in which group was taught was randomly assigned each day.
The instructional program used for this study was the Reading Mastery Series published by Science Research Associates (Engleman, Bruner, Hanner, Osborn, Osborn, & Zoref, 1995). Reading Mastery is a complete basal basal /ba·sal/ (baŽs'l) pertaining to or situated near a base; in physiology, pertaining to the lowest possible level.
1. reading program for students in the first- through sixth- grades and is adaptable a·dapt·a·ble
Capable of adapting or of being adapted.
a·dapta·bil for students in special education. Reading lessons last approximately 45 minutes. Phonics is an integral part of the program instructional plan to teach decoding. Reading comprehension also is specifically taught from the very first lesson. Reading Mastery emphasizes the teaching of thinking skills and the acquisition of background knowledge. Reading Mastery I (First-grade level) was used for this study. Reading Mastery I contains 160 daily lessons that teach basic decoding and comprehension skills. Decoding is taught through explicit phonics method that stresses letter sound correspondences and blending. Students practice decoding by reading word lists and stories, both aloud and silently. The Reading Mastery program is scripted and requires teachers to carefully implement sequenced reading activities.
The independent variable for this study was the application of a precorrection strategy used for teaching decoding skills to students with mild learning and behavior problems. The precorrection strategy adapted for this study was incorporated into the daily 25-minute reading lessons designed to manage persistent academic errors and social behavior In biology, psychology and sociology social behavior is behavior directed towards, or taking place between, members of the same species. Behavior such as predation which involves members of different species is not social. problems. For this study, precorrection strategy adapted for use included having the teacher (a) identify the context and the predictable academic problems, (b) specify expected behaviors, (c) systematically modify the context, (d) conduct behavior rehearsals, (e) provide strong reinforcement reinforcement /re·in·force·ment/ (-in-forsŽment) in behavioral science, the presentation of a stimulus following a response that increases the frequency of subsequent responses, whether positive to desirable events, or for expected behaviors, (f) prompt expected behaviors, and (g) monitor the plan (Colvin et al., 1993).
There were three dependent variables used in this study. Each is described below.
Percentage of Correct Responses (Sounds and Words)
The first dependent variable was percentage of correct responding during reading instruction. Students' responses were recorded as correct when they provided the correct phonetic pho·net·ic
1. Of or relating to phonetics.
2. Representing the sounds of speech with a set of distinct symbols, each designating a single sound. sound to individual letters. Also, students' responses were recorded as correct when they either phonetically pho·net·ic
1. Of or relating to phonetics.
2. Representing the sounds of speech with a set of distinct symbols, each designating a single sound: phonetic spelling.
3. sounded out words, or read the words correctly as sight-words. Percentage of correct responses was calculated by dividing the number of opportunities available to respond to a teacher's question or direction by the number of correct answers provided by the subjects. If a subject didn't correctly respond within one second following the teacher's signal, the response was marked as incorrect. In order for a student's response to be considered correct, the student had to voice the answer loudly enough to be heard by the observer, who was seated approximately four feet away. Data were taken during both group responses and individual turns.
Maintenance Test of Reading Words
The purpose of the maintenance test was to evaluate students' ability to recall the decoding skills previously taught. Subjects were asked to read a list of words taught in previous lessons. Subjects were required to read words as sight words, without vocally sounding them out. The maintenance test was administered individually to students. It is important to note that the maintenance test was administered after each teaching session during baseline and intervention.
On-task behavior was measured to determine the levels of participation during baseline and intervention conditions. On-task behavior was defined as the percentage of coded intervals that were recorded. On-task behavior was operationally defined according to according to
1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians.
2. In keeping with: according to instructions.
3. what was appropriate behavior for each particular portion of the reading instruction class. Therefore, during the lesson, eyes on the teacher when she presented or eyes on the materials being presented was defined as on-task during reading instruction. During any individual reading part of the lesson, on-task behavior was defined as keeping eyes turned toward the speaker, raising hands to answer questions, and waiting to be called on by the teacher before responding.
A multiple-baseline design across three groups was used to evaluate the effects of the precorrection intervention relative to baseline performance. This design relies on the repeated measurement of targeted behaviors and the controlled replication In database management, the ability to keep distributed databases synchronized by routinely copying the entire database or subsets of the database to other servers in the network.
There are various replication methods. of effects across baseline (non-intervention) and intervention to support statements about a possible functional relationship between the independent (precorrection) and dependent variables (Colvin et al., 1997).
During the baseline phase, the researcher identified three consistent errors the six subjects madein reading sounds and words. The two errors made by subjects in all three instructional groups when they read sounds were (a) confusing con·fuse
v. con·fused, con·fus·ing, con·fus·es
a. To cause to be unable to think with clarity or act with intelligence or understanding; throw off.
b. the visually similar sounds such as b and p, and (b) identifying and discriminating dis·crim·i·nat·ing
a. Able to recognize or draw fine distinctions; perceptive.
b. Showing careful judgment or fine taste: the vowel sounds Noun 1. vowel sound - a speech sound made with the vocal tract open
speech sound, phone, sound - (phonetics) an individual sound unit of speech without concern as to whether or not it is a phoneme of some language . The most frequent error students made when reading words was stopping between the sounds when subjects attempted to sound out words.
The first step in baseline was to take repeated measures of performance concurrently on the dependent variables with each group of students in the absence of the precorrection strategy. During the baseline phase, the first author taught reading to the groups using the Direct Instruction Reading Mastery Program. Direct Instruction includes explicit, skill-based, teacher- directed instruction on individual reading skills. In addition, phonetically regular, predictable texts to prompt application of newly acquired skills are used (Carnine et al., 1997). Also as mentioned previously, the Reading Mastery Level I program was used for all these instructional groups. All groups received one lesson each day.
During the treatment phase, the researchers sequentially introduced the precorrection strategy to each of the three experimental groups by implementing the following teaching steps.
Precorrection strategy 1: Reading visually similar sounds.
For this precorrection strategy, the experimental teacher modeled the correct sounds for the most difficult discriminations in the lesson (e.g., b/d, and p/q) for the students before the actual lesson began. After the precorrection strategy was completed, the students received Direct Instruction for that part of the lesson.
Precorrection strategy 2: Reading vowel sounds.
The experimental teacher instructed students to carefully look at each vowel sound presented in the reading task and then provided a clear model for each vowel sound prior to students reading the list of words. Particular attention was paid to helping students correctly discriminate dis·crim·i·nate
v. dis·crim·i·nat·ed, dis·crim·i·nat·ing, dis·crim·i·nates
a. between long and short vowel sounds (e.g., a/a, and e/e). For example, before they read vowel sound "a", the experimental teacher prompted by saying "Remember, there is a line over the sound which makes it long. It is not "a"(saying the short vowel sound)."
Precorrection strategy 3: Stopping between sounds when reading words.
For this precorrection strategy, the experimental teacher reminded the subjects not to stop between the sounds when blending the sounds in the word. The teacher modeled how to sound out words and blend the sounds without stopping between sounds. The precorrection strategy focused on words that were difficult to sound out. Specifically, words that began with stop sounds (e.g., tap, bat, cup and etc.) were targeted.
Once the baseline rate for each dependent variable with each group was stable, precorrection was applied to Group 1 while maintaining baseline conditions for the other two groups. When evidence of clear and stable improvement was noted in the first group's performance on each of the three dependent measures, precorrection was next provided to both the first and the second group simultaneously. Group 3 continued in baseline. Once the response of the second group improved and stabilized sta·bi·lize
v. sta·bi·lized, sta·bi·liz·ing, sta·bi·liz·es
1. To make stable or steadfast.
2. , the precorrection procedure was administrated to the third experimental group. The logic of this design is based on the premise that if each group improves when precorrection is applied to them and the improvement is maintained, it is likely that precorrection caused or was functionally related to the improvement on students' performance on each of the dependent measures.
Data Collection Procedure
The first author and one observer served as primary data collectors for this study. An observer collected data on each of the dependent measures on 10 instructional sessions to determine reliability. Data on all dependent measures were collected daily, across both baseline and intervention conditions.
Percentage of Correct Responses (Sounds)
Subjects' responses to individual reading tasks were recorded daily for five consecutive sound identification-tasks. Students were asked to identify individual letter-sound correspondence from a group of 10-15 letters. Students responded as a group and individually. The criteria used for correct responses were (a) students gave the correct phonetic sound to individual letters, and (b) students responded on the teacher' s signal in individual and group reading formats. Students' responses were recorded daily during baseline and intervention for all groups. A typical lesson required students to respond to 15 sound/symbol presentation.
Percentage of Correct Responses (Words)
Subjects' responses to reading words lists of 10-15 words were also recorded daily. For this measure, subjects were required to sound out each word and read words presented in list format. For responses to be considered correct, students were required to sound out words correctly including not stopping between sounds, and accurately identify each word as a sight word. This measure was recorded daily across baseline and intervention.
Maintenance Test (Words)
Maintenance tests were administered to the subjects to measure their ability to retain previously taught material. The researcher identified 10 words previously taught in the instructional program that were not presented during the day' s lesson. These words were placed in a list and students, at the end of each instructional session, were asked to read the list as sight words. This measure was implemented daily at the end of the scripted teaching Scripted teaching or scripted instruction refers to commercial reading programs that have highly structured lessons, often with specific time allotments for teaching specific skills, and often word-for-word scripts of what the teacher is to say. lesson during baseline and intervention. A typical test required students to read 10 words.
The observer coded on-task behavior using a 10-second time-sampling technique; he observed the students for 9 seconds and recorded the student's behavior during the tenth second. If the student was engaged in appropriate behavior for the assigned tasks in the entire nine seconds, the observer recorded a slash (/) in the appropriate interval on the data sheet. If the student was engaged in any inappropriate behavior during the nine seconds, the observer recorded 0 in the specific interval In diatonic set theory a specific interval is the shortest possible clockwise distance between pitch classes on the chromatic circle (interval class), in other words the number of half steps between notes. . A different student was coded each 10-second interval. The observer systematically coded the two subjects in each group in a predetermined pre·de·ter·mine
v. pre·de·ter·mined, pre·de·ter·min·ing, pre·de·ter·mines
1. To determine, decide, or establish in advance: order; therefore, the observer recorded the same subject at the end of each 10-second interval. One complete rotation through the two subjects in a group took 20 seconds. The process was then repeated continuously for the duration of the session.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of precorrection when teaching decoding skills to students with mild disabilities. A multiple-baseline single-subject research Single Subject Research Designs
aka small-n research designs, quasi-experimental research designs.
This group of research methods is used extensively in the experimental analysis of behavior in both basic and applied settings with both human and non-human design was used for this study. Six first graders with mild disabilities served as subjects. They were randomly assigned to one of three groups. Every group received Direct Instruction (DI) in the baseline phase and DI plus precorrection in the treatment phase. Results on the three dependent measures are discussed in the sections below.
Group Percentage of Correct Responses on Sound/Symbol Relationship
The results on the percentage of correct sound/symbol identification for sounds for each group are shown in Figure 1. As can be noted, each group performed over 50% correct during the baseline conditions. Group 1 had an average of 69% of correct responding while Group 2 and Group 3 averaged 67% and 54% respectively. With the introduction of precorrection in conjunction with DI, each of the three groups increased in accuracy of sound-symbol identification. As can be found in Figure 1, Group 1 averaged 93 % of correct responses during the DI plus precorrection phase. Group 2 averaged 90% correct during the intervention phase while Group 3 averaged 79% correct. These results indicated that DI paired with precorrection significantly improved students' academic accuracy in reading sounds. The data pattern in the treatment phase showed that students' performance increased immediately with the introduction of the precorrection strategy and maintained at high levels of accuracy throughout the intervention.
[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]
Group Percentage of Correct Responses of Reading Words
The results of the percentage of correct word reading for each group during the baseline and the intervention phase are shown in Figure 2. In the baseline phase, all the three groups performed poorly on the word reading tasks, specifically, 55% correct responses for Group 1, 39% correct for Group 2, and 36% correct for Group 3. For each of the three instructional groups, stopping between the sounds when asked to sound out words was the most frequent reading error. Students also had difficulty discriminating correct sounds that were visually and auditorily similar (e.g., e vs. i). After precorrection was introduced to each of the three groups sequentially, their word reading accuracy improved dramatically. Group 1 had the most gain. They went from 55% correct during the baseline condition to 86% of correct responses in reading words during intervention. Group 2 averaged of 81% of correct responses and Group 3 had an average of 64% word reading accuracy during the precorrection intervention.
[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]
Group Percent Correct on Maintenance Test
Figure 3 provides readers with the performance of the three groups on the maintenance test for baseline and intervention phases. The average performance for Group 1 on the maintenance measure was 46% correct. As can be noted, Group 1 doubled their percentage of correct responding during the precorrection treatment phase of this study. Similar results were found for the other two groups. Group 2, for example, increased their average reading performance on the maintenance measure from 20% correct to a level of 52 % correct. Group 3 has the lowest performance of the maintenance measure (10% correct). During the intervention phase Group 3 performed at 34% reading accuracy on the maintenance test.
[FIGURE 3 OMITTED]
Group Percent of On-Task Behavior
Figure 4 presents the results of students' on-task behavior across baseline and intervention for all three instructional groups. As can be noted, the percentage of on-task behavior increased with the introduction of DI plus precorrection for each group. In the baseline phase, Group 1 and Group 2 had moderate percentages of on-task behavior, with an average on-task level of 51% and 55% respectively. Students in Group 3 were less attentive at·ten·tive
1. Giving care or attention; watchful: attentive to detail.
2. Marked by or offering devoted and assiduous attention to the pleasure or comfort of others. during baseline (on-task level 39%). In the treatment phase, all three groups had significantly higher on-task behavior levels. Group 1 increased their level of on-task behavior to 79% while Groups 2 and 3 increased levels of on-task behavior to 74% and 53% respectively. However, it is important to note that for groups who were exhibiting higher levels of off-task behavior, precorrection is not a powerful intervention strategy for these types of behavior problems.
[FIGURE 4 OMITTED]
The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of a Direct Instruction reading program that included a precorrection strategy when teaching decoding skills to students with mild to moderate learning and behavior problems. The results of this study suggest that precorrection used with Direct Instruction teaching methodology can be an effective and efficient intervention for teaching beginning reading skills to students with learning and behavior problems. The results of this study have important implications for teachers since the three precorrection strategies used were easy to implement and fostered increased decoding performance across all three instructional groups.
The precorrection strategies when paired with Direct Instruction teaching methods improved students' accuracy of reading sounds and words. This is an important finding since many students with learning and behavior problems have early reading difficulty when learning sound-symbol relationships and basic word reading. Specifically, each of the three groups increased their accuracy in identifying sounds by approximately 25% during the intervention phase of the study. A similar pattern of results occurred when students were evaluated on their ability to read individual words. Group 2, for example, increased most in their accuracy, resulting in an increase of almost 42%. Group 1 and Group 3 increased word reading accuracy approximately 30% during the intervention phase.
It was also found that precorrection was an effective strategy with subjects with various learning and behavior problems. Every subject increased their accuracy of reading sounds and words, regardless of their disability. The average increase across subjects was 16% correct in reading sounds. The average increase in reading words was 17%. Results further suggest that precorrection is effective in increasing the percentage of on-task behavior. The results showed that students' on-task behavior increased in each group during the intervention phase of the study. Group 1 increased on-task level 28% while Group 2 and Group 3 increased on-task levels 19% and 14% respectively.
As this study shows, when teachers implemented precorrection with Direct Instruction, increases in reading performance and on-task behavior occurred. This study presents further evidence that teachers can effectively manage students' academic and behavior problems by preteaching difficult content. In fact, as Kameenui & Darch (1995) argued, most mild forms of disruptive disruptive /dis·rup·tive/ (-tiv)
1. bursting apart; rending.
2. causing confusion or disorder. behavior can be managed with effective instruction. This study also illustrates the importance of correction procedures when teaching beginning reading to students with learning and behavior problems. Providing precise instructional support when students are learning entry level reading skills will result in improved performance.
While this study provides initial evidence that can be effective in improving students' performance, the small scale of this study presents obvious limitation. Six first-graders with learning and behavior problems served as subjects in this study, thus the results of present study are limited to students with similar learning histories. The small number of subjects also limits the generalization gen·er·al·i·za·tion
1. The act or an instance of generalizing.
2. A principle, a statement, or an idea having general application. of those findings. Finally, because the intervention period of this study was relatively short, 21 instructional days, future studies need to be completed to determine the effectiveness of teaching various students over longer periods of time.
Adams, M. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT MIT - Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press.
Ball, E. W. & Blachman, B. A. (1991). Does phoneme awareness training in kindergarten kindergarten [Ger.,=garden of children], system of preschool education. Friedrich Froebel designed (1837) the kindergarten to provide an educational situation less formal than that of the elementary school but one in which children's creative play instincts would be make a difference in early word recognition and developmental spelling? Reading Research Quarterly, 26, 49-66.
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That can be stated or predicated: a predicable conclusion.
1. Something, such as a general quality or attribute, that can be predicated.
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Defies, J. C., & Aaron, M. (1996). Genetics genetics, scientific study of the mechanism of heredity. While Gregor Mendel first presented his findings on the statistical laws governing the transmission of certain traits from generation to generation in 1856, it was not until the discovery and detailed study of of specific reading disability. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities developmental disabilities (DD),
n.pl the pathologic conditions that have their origin in the embryology and growth and development of an individual. DDs usually appear clinically before 18 years of age. Research Reviews, 2, 39-47.
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NAEP National Association of Environmental Professionals
NAEP National Association of Educational Progress
NAEP National Agricultural Extension Policy
NAEP Native American Employment Program 1996 trends in academic progress. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), as part of the U.S. Department of Education's Institute of Education Sciences (IES), collects, analyzes, and publishes statistics on education and public school district finance information in the United States; conducts studies .
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pertaining to or emanating from the nervous system or from neurology.
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n. Abbr. EI
A process of assessment and therapy provided to children, especially those younger than age 6, to facilitate normal cognitive and emotional development and to prevent developmental disability or delay. . In R. E. Slavin, N. L. Karweit, & B. A. Wasik, (Eds.), Preventing early school failure (pp. 175-205). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
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Tarver, S. G. (1996). Direct Instruction. In W. Stainback, & S. Stainback (Eds.), Controversial issues confronting special education: Divergent di·ver·gent
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3. Differing from another: a divergent opinion.
4. perspectives (2nd ed., pp. 143-154). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Yu Miao, Doctoral Student, Department of Rehabilitation and Special Education. Dr. Craig Darch, Human-Germany-Sherman Distinguished Professor of Special Education. Dr. Karen Rabren, Assistant Professor of Special Education.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Craig Darch, 1228 Haley Center, Auburn University, Alabama Alabama, indigenous people of North America
Alabama (ÄlÉbÄm`É), indigenous people of North America whose language belongs to the Muskogean branch of the Hokan-Siouan linguistic stock (see Native American languages). 36849-5226; darchb@auburn Auburn (ÃŽ`bÉrn).
1 City (1990 pop. 33,830), Lee co., E Ala.; inc. 1839. The city's economy centers around Auburn Univ.; there is some manufacturing.
2 City (1990 pop. 24,309), seat of Androscoggin co. .edu |
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Most of us think of poverty as an economic problem. Poor people are people who donât have enough money to live. And this is true, poverty certainly has an economic side. But the most significant issue of poverty is not economic, but social. If a person is unacceptable to society, they will never obtain economic increase. If a person is a serious criminal, or mentally ill, or is of the wrong ethnic group or has an irritating personality, they will almost never be able to create a sustainable income. Most people think of the poor as being lazy or simply unlucky. And while these factors may be involved, more likely the poor are those who have been deemed unacceptable by one standard or another.
If a woman is mentally ill, it doesnât matter that she grew up in a wealthy household, she will not be cared for by her family. She will be institutionalized just as much as if she had been born in a middle class family. If a man is convicted for murder, even if he is innocent, and even if the verdict is overturned, his economic viability is over because no one would want to take a chance on him. If a person has a lot of money in the bank, but no one wishes to speak to him, then he is poor, although rich. Another person can be wealthy, but if no one will take her money because she has some unacceptable disease, then she might as well be completely impoverished.
The worst kind of poverty is separation from oneâs fellow human beings. And ultimately, the worst of poverty is characterized by this. Those who end up on the street are those who have no family or friends to support them. The deepest poverty in Africa are not communities in poverty, but those who are alone, desperate, without help. And often communities of poverty grow because of the isolation of those who become poor. When people are separated from their support network and hit a tough spot, they look for others to help them. And some of the most generous communities in the world arenât benefactors or philanthropists or Christian communities. They are the communities of those who are struck with poverty. |
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Some people chew sugar-free gum as a weight loss strategy, but does it work? An recent online study in the journal Obesity finds that chewing gum daily may have no effect on losing weight.
The eight-week study included 201 overweight or obese adults, about half of whom were randomly put in an intervention group and told to chew gum daily for at least 90 minutes at specific times throughout the day. The others were part of a control group that did not chew gum. Both groups were given nutritional information and told to continue their regular activity programs.
By the end of the study there were no significant changes in weight or body mass index in either group. Waist circumference and blood pressure decreased slightly in both groups, but by about the same amount. In a questionnaire taken by those in the gum group, there was moderate agreement that chewing gum diminished snack cravings and helped them stay on their diets and cut back on eating after meals and late at night.
In the study, which was funded by a grant from the Wrigley Science Institute, the authors noted that longer studies may be needed to see if gum chewing has any âlikely subtle effectsâ on body weight and other markers of weight loss and health. |
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Two faculty members from Joyner Library have produced a new digital resource targeted to help students successfully complete research assignments.
Information Literacy Concepts, an open educational resource created by David Hisle, learning technologies librarian, and Katy Kavanagh Webb, head of research and instructional services, introduces high school, community college and college students to information literacy topics and gives them an overview of how to conduct their own research.
Open educational resources (OERs) are free to access and are openly licensed text, media and other digital assets used for teaching, learning, assessing and research. They also are commonly used in distance education and open and distance learning.
âBy choosing to publish their textbook as an OER, Hisle and Webb have not only created a clearly-written, well-organized and thorough text that that can be used in multiple educational settings to teach information literacy concepts, but also one that can be freely customized or modified by other instructors to suit their teaching styles and their studentsâ learning needs,â said Jan Lewis, director of Joyner Library.
According to its introductory framework, âStudents have a greater role and responsibility in creating new knowledge, in understanding the contours and the changing dynamics of the world of information, and in using information, data and scholarship ethically.â
âWe want to prepare our students for todayâs rapidly changing information landscape,â said Hisle. âInformation literacy skills are essential not just in the work they do as student researchers, but also as college graduates who will need to know how to find and evaluate information to meet their real-world information needs.â
Intended learners for this resource include students in their final year of high school as well as those in the first year or two of college. Specifically, these are learners encountering college-level research assignments for the first time.
Because these students are likely unfamiliar with many basic research concepts, this OER will guide them to fulfill the universityâs expectations for conducting research and locating high-quality sources for their research-based assignments.
Content includes chapters stemming from navigating search engines, library databases and discovery tools, to evaluating source credibility and recognizing fake news.
âThis freely available e-textbook will be a critical supplement for librarians at ECU (and beyond) to give a big-picture view of the skills that students will need to engage in to produce their own high-quality research,â said Webb. âWe have tried to write the book in a way that it would be applicable to students in a variety of contexts, whether they are completing assignments for a writing composition course, in their majors or in a semester-long research skills course.â
Information Literacy Concepts is available at http://media.lib.ecu.edu/DE/tutorial/OER/Information_Literacy_Concepts.pdf.
-by Kelly Rogers Dilda, University Communications |
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Writer and anti-racist trainer Robin DiAngelo first coined the term "white fragility" in 2011 to describe the ways in which many white people react emotionally and defensively when confronted with issues of race. DiAngelo told MPR News host Kerri Miller that for white people like her, it's easy to go through life without having to discuss issues of race.
"Day in and day out I move through a world in which I'm racially comfortable," DiAngelo said. "It's rare for me to be outside my racial comfort zone, and generally, that's a situation that I can choose, and in both implicit and explicit ways all my life have been warned not to choose to be outside of my racial comfort zone."
DiAngelo has devoted her career to educating people about race, racism and how generations of American history have led to deep racial divisions that many white people are not used to confronting, but need to be. And this includes white progressives, who DiAngelo says, can be the slowest to engage in self-reflection around racism. And DiAngelo should know â she identifies as a progressive white person.
"So white progressives, we tend to put our energy on, when the topic comes up, establishing our credentials as 'not racist,'" DiAngelo said. "What we need to be doing is engaging in ongoing, critical self-reflection and knowledge, relationship-building, mistake-making, ongoing education, risk-taking, strategic, intentional action. Not just 'Hey, I'm good to go because I'm a nice person.'"
DiAngelo's new book is called "White Fragility: Why It's So Hard To Talk To White People About Racism." |
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