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66362039039625daf5d04db058cfb8a10c450309 | Ras | WikiDoc | # Activated and inactivated forms
RAS is a G protein (specifically a small GTPase): a regulatory GTP hydrolase that cycles between two conformations – an activated or inactivated form, respectively RAS-GTP and RAS-GDP.
It is activated by guanine exchange factors (GEFs, eg. CDC25, SOS1 and SOS2, SDC25 in yeast), which are themselves activated by mitogenic signals and through feedback from Ras itself. A GEF usually heightens the dissociation rate of the nucleotide – while not changing the association rate (effectively lower the affinity of the nucleotide) – thereby promoting its exchange. The cellular concentration of GTP is much higher than that of GDP so the exchange is usually GDP vs. GTP.
It is inactivated by GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs, the most frequently cited one being RasGAP), which increase the rate of GTP hydrolysis, returning RAS to its GDP-bound form, simultaneously releasing an inorganic phosphate. | 1 |
66362039039625daf5d04db058cfb8a10c450309 | Ras | WikiDoc | # Attachments
Ras is attached to the cell membrane by prenylation, and in health is a key component in many pathways which couple growth factor receptors to downstream mitogenic effectors involved in cell proliferation or differentiation. The C-terminal CaaX box of Ras first gets farnesylated at its Cys residue in the cytosol and then inserted into the membrane of the endoplasmatic reticulum. The Tripeptid (aaX) is then cleaved from the C-terminus by a specific prenyl-protein specific endoprotease, the new C-terminus is the methylated by a methyltransferase. The so processed Ras is now transported to the plasma membrane. Most Ras forms are now further palmityolated, while K-Ras with its long positively charged stretch interacts electrostaticly with the membrane.
# Ras in cancer
Mutations in the Ras family of proto-oncogenes (comprising H-Ras, N-Ras and K-Ras) are very common, being found in 20% to 30% of all human tumours. | 2 |
66362039039625daf5d04db058cfb8a10c450309 | Ras | WikiDoc | # Ras in cancer
Mutations in the Ras family of proto-oncogenes (comprising H-Ras, N-Ras and K-Ras) are very common, being found in 20% to 30% of all human tumours.
## Inappropriate activation of the gene
Inappropriate activation of the gene has been shown to play a key role in signal transduction, proliferation and malignant transformation.
Mutations in a number of different genes as well as RAS itself can have this effect. Oncogenes such as p210BCR-ABL or the growth receptor erbB are upstream of Ras, so if they are constitutively activated their signals will transduce through Ras.
The tumour suppressor gene NF1 encodes a Ras-GAP – its mutation in neurofibromatosis will mean that Ras is less likely to be inactivated. Ras can also be amplified, although this only occurs occasionally in tumours.
Finally, Ras oncogenes can be activated by point mutations so that its GTPase reaction can no longer be stimulated by GAP – this increases the half life of active Ras-GTP mutants. | 3 |
66362039039625daf5d04db058cfb8a10c450309 | Ras | WikiDoc | ## Constitutively active Ras
Constitutively active Ras (RasD) is one which contains mutations that prevent GTP hydrolysis, thus locking Ras in a permanently 'On' state.
The most common mutations are found at residue G12 in the P-loop and the catalytic residue Q61.
- The glycine to valine mutation at residue 12 renders the GTPase domain of Ras insensitive to activation by GAP and thus stuck in the "on state". Ras requires a GAP for inactivation as it is a relatively poor catalyst on its own, as opposed to other G-domain-containing proteins such as the alpha subunit of heterotrimeric G proteins.
- Residue 61 is responsible for stabilizing the transition state for GTP hydrolysis. Because enzyme catalysis in general is achieved by lowering the energy barrier between substrate and product, mutation of Q61 necessarily reduces the rate of intrinsic Ras GTP hydrolysis to physiologically meaningless levels.
See also "dominant negative" mutants such as S17N and D119N. | 4 |
66362039039625daf5d04db058cfb8a10c450309 | Ras | WikiDoc | # Human proteins containing Ras domain
ARHE; ARHGAP5; CDC42; DIRAS1; DIRAS2; DIRAS3; ERAS; GEM;
GRLF1; HRAS; KRAS; LOC393004; MRAS; NKIRAS1; NRAS; RAB10;
RAB11A; RAB11B; RAB12; RAB13; RAB14; RAB15; RAB17; RAB18;
RAB19; RAB1A; RAB1B; RAB2; RAB20; RAB21; RAB22A; RAB23;
RAB24; RAB25; RAB26; RAB27A; RAB27B; RAB28; RAB2B; RAB30;
RAB31; RAB32; RAB33A; RAB33B; RAB34; RAB35; RAB36; RAB37;
RAB38; RAB39; RAB39B; RAB3A; RAB3B; RAB3C; RAB3D; RAB40A;
RAB40AL; RAB40B; RAB40C; RAB41; RAB42; RAB43; RAB4A; RAB4B;
RAB5A; RAB5B; RAB5C; RAB6A; RAB6B; RAB6C; RAB7A; RAB7B;
RAB7L1; RAB8A; RAB8B; RAB9; RAB9B; RABL2A; RABL2B; RABL4;
RAC1; RAC2; RAC3; RALA; RALB; RAN; RANP1; RAP1A; | 5 |
66362039039625daf5d04db058cfb8a10c450309 | Ras | WikiDoc | RAB7L1; RAB8A; RAB8B; RAB9; RAB9B; RABL2A; RABL2B; RABL4;
RAC1; RAC2; RAC3; RALA; RALB; RAN; RANP1; RAP1A;
RAP1B; RAP2A; RAP2B; RAP2C; RASD1; RASD2; RASEF; RASL11A;
RASL12; RBJ; REM1; REM2; RERG; RHEB; RHEBL1; RHOA;
RHOB; RHOBTB1; RHOBTB2; RHOC; RHOD; RHOF; RHOG; RHOH;
RHOJ; RHOQ; RHOU; RHOV; RIT1; RIT2; RND1; RND2;
RND3; RRAD; RRAS; RRAS2; TC4; | 6 |
a6dfc173c286a4b78e0e5a563538df0e8394a0e7 | Rue | WikiDoc | Rue
Rue (Ruta) is a genus of strongly scented evergreen subshrubs 20-60 cm tall, in the family Rutaceae, native to the Mediterranean region, Macronesia and southwest Asia. Different authors accept between 8-40 species in the genus. The most well-known species is the Common Rue.
The leaves are bipinnate or tripinnate, with a feathery appearance, and green to strongly glaucous blue-green in colour. The flowers are yellow, with 4-5 petals, about 1 cm diameter, and borne in cymes. The fruit is a 4-5 lobed capsule, containing numerous seeds.
It was used extensively in Middle Eastern cuisine in olden days, as well as in many ancient Roman recipes (according to Apicius), but because it is very bitter, it is usually not suitable for most modern tastes. However, it is still used in certain parts of the world, particularly in northern Africa. | 0 |
a6dfc173c286a4b78e0e5a563538df0e8394a0e7 | Rue | WikiDoc | # Literary references
Rue has sometimes been called "herb-of-grace" in literary contexts. It is one of the flowers distributed by the mad Ophelia in William Shakespeare's Hamlet (IV.5):
It was also planted by the gardener in Shakespeare's Richard II to mark the spot where the Queen wept upon hearing news of Richard's capture (III.4.104-105):
In a song named Her Ghost in the Fog by the black metal band, Cradle of Filth on their Midian album.
The progressive metal band Symphony X named a song "Absinthe and Rue" on their first album, Symphony X.
Many traditional English folk songs use rue to symbolise regret. Often it is paired with thyme: thyme used to symbolise virginity, and rue the regret supposed to follow its loss.
Rue is considered a national herb of Lithuania and it is the most frequently referred herb in Lithuanian folk songs, as an attribute of young girls, associated with virginity and maidenhood. | 1 |
a6dfc173c286a4b78e0e5a563538df0e8394a0e7 | Rue | WikiDoc | # Side effects
Fresh rue contains volatile oils that can damage the kidneys or liver. Deaths have been attributed to the use of fresh rue.
Rue is probably best known for its effects on the female reproductive tract. Chemicals in rue may stimulate muscles in the uterus, which, in turn, may initiate menstrual periods, act as contraceptive agents, and promote abortion. Rue is thought to contain chemicals that may decrease fertility and may also block the implanting of a fertilized egg. In male laboratory animals, oral doses of rue decreased the movement and number of sperm and reduced the desire for sexual activity. Even though rue is a mainstay of midwives in many developing countries, its risks generally outweigh any benefits it might have for contraception or abortion. Deaths have been reported due to uterine hemorrhaging caused by repeated doses of rue. Taking it orally is strongly discouraged. | 2 |
a6dfc173c286a4b78e0e5a563538df0e8394a0e7 | Rue | WikiDoc | Occasionally, rue oil is applied to the skin to relieve arthritis pain and also for treating soft tissue injuries such as bruises and sprains. Rue may contain chemicals that interrupt the body’s release of nitric oxide and cyclooxygenase II (which are involved in producing inflammation), so it may have limited usefulness. Prescription anti-inflammatory drugs are more effective and safer, however. The source from this ,3923,552392%7CRuda,00.html | 3 |
a6dfc173c286a4b78e0e5a563538df0e8394a0e7 | Rue | WikiDoc | # Songs associated with rue
Chervona Ruta (Червона Рута) Red Rue - A song, written by Volodymyr Ivasyuk - a popular Ukrainian poet and composer. | 4 |
2629d687aa05bf2802e602f2d2b95a677655c9da | SK3 | WikiDoc | SK3
SK3 (small conductance calcium-activated potassium channel 3) also known as KCa2.3 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the KCNN3 gene.
SK3 is a small-conductance calcium-activated potassium channel partly responsible for the calcium-dependent after hyperpolarisation current (IAHP). It belongs to a family of channels known as small-conductance potassium channels, which consists of three members – SK1, SK2 and SK3 (encoded by the KCNN1, 2 and 3 genes respectively), which share a 60-70% sequence identity. These channels have acquired a number of alternative names, however a NC-IUPHAR has recently achieved consensus on the best names, KCa2.1 (SK1), KCa2.2 (SK2) and KCa2.3 (SK3). Small conductance channels are responsible for the medium and possibly the slow components of the IAHP. | 0 |
2629d687aa05bf2802e602f2d2b95a677655c9da | SK3 | WikiDoc | # Structure
KCa2.3 contains 6 transmembrane domains, a pore-forming region, and intracellular N- and C- termini and is readily blocked by apamin. The gene for KCa2.3, KCNN3, is located on chromosome 1q21. | 1 |
2629d687aa05bf2802e602f2d2b95a677655c9da | SK3 | WikiDoc | # Expression
KCa2.3 is found in the central nervous system (CNS), muscle, liver, pituitary, prostate, kidney, pancreas and vascular endothelium tissues. KCa2.3 is most abundant in regions of the brain, but has also been found to be expressed in significant levels in many other peripheral tissues, particularly those rich in smooth muscle, including the rectum, corpus cavernosum, colon, small intestine and myometrium. | 2 |
2629d687aa05bf2802e602f2d2b95a677655c9da | SK3 | WikiDoc | The expression level of KCNN3 is dependent on hormonal regulation, particularly by the sex hormone estrogen. Estrogen not only enhances transcription of the KCNN3 gene, but also affects the activity of KCa2.3 channels on the cell membrane. In GABAergic preoptic area neurons, estrogen enhanced the ability of α1 adrenergic receptors to inhibit KCa2.3 activity, increasing cell excitability. Links between hormonal regulation of sex organ function and KCa2.3 expression have been established. The expression of KCa2.3 in the corpus cavernosum in patients undergoing estrogen treatment as part of gender reassignment surgery was found to be increased up to 5-fold. The influence of estrogen on KCa2.3 has also been established in the hypothalamus, uterine and skeletal muscle. | 3 |
2629d687aa05bf2802e602f2d2b95a677655c9da | SK3 | WikiDoc | # Physiology
KCa2.3 channels play a major role in human physiology, particularly in smooth muscle relaxation. The expression level of KCa2.3 channels in the endothelium influences arterial tone by setting arterial smooth muscle membrane potential. The sustained activity of KCa2.3 channels induces a sustained hyperpolarisation of the endothelial cell membrane potential, which is then carried to nearby smooth muscle through gap junctions. Blocking the KCa2.3 channel or suppressing KCa2.3 expression causes a greatly increased tone in resistance arteries, producing an increase in peripheral resistance and blood pressure.
# Pathology
Mutations in KCa2.3 are suspected to be a possible underlying cause for several neurological disorders, including schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, Alzheimer's disease, anorexia nervosa and ataxia as well as myotonic muscular dystrophy. | 4 |
f984994e0eb60c813c553dfe5708b43f9fd32410 | SRY | WikiDoc | SRY
# Overview
SRY (Sex-determining Region Y) is a sex-determining gene on the Y chromosome in humans and other primates.
The SRY gene encodes the testis determining factor, which is also referred to as the SRY protein.
This intronless gene encodes a transcription factor that is a member of the high mobility group (HMG)-box family of DNA-binding proteins. This protein is the testis-determining factor (TDF), which initiates male sex determination. Mutations in this gene give rise to XY females with gonadal dysgenesis (Swyer syndrome); translocation of part of the Y chromosome containing this gene to the X chromosome causes XX male syndrome. | 0 |
f984994e0eb60c813c553dfe5708b43f9fd32410 | SRY | WikiDoc | # Impact upon anatomical sex
Since its discovery, the importance of the SRY gene in sex determination has been extensively documented:
- Humans with one Y chromosome and multiple X chromosomes (XXY, XXXY etc.) are usually males.
- Individuals with a male phenotype and an XX (female) genotype have been observed; these males have the SRY gene in one or both X chromosomes, moved there by chromosomal translocation. (However, these males are infertile.)
- Similarly, there are females with an XXY or XY genotype. These females have no SRY gene in their Y chromosome, or the SRY gene exists but is defective (mutated). | 1 |
f984994e0eb60c813c553dfe5708b43f9fd32410 | SRY | WikiDoc | # SRY and the Olympics
One of the most controversial uses of this discovery was as a means for gender verification at the Olympic Games, under a system implemented by the International Olympic Committee in 1992. Athletes with a SRY gene were not permitted to participate as females, although all athletes in whom this was "detected" at the 1996 Summer Olympics were ruled false positives and were not disqualified. In the late 1990s, a number of relevant professional societies in United States called for elimination of gender verification, including the American Medical Association, the American Academy of Pediatrics, the American College of Physicians, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, the Endocrine Society and the American Society of Human Genetics, stating that the method used was uncertain and ineffective. The screening was eliminated as of the 2000 Summer Olympics. | 2 |
f984994e0eb60c813c553dfe5708b43f9fd32410 | SRY | WikiDoc | # SRY-related diseases and defects
Individuals with XY genotype and functional SRY gene can have a female phenotype, where the underlying cause is androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS).
SRY has been linked to the fact that men are more likely than women to develop dopamine-related diseases such as schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease. SRY makes a protein that controls concentrations of dopamine, the neurotransmitter that carries signals from the brain that control movement and coordination. | 3 |
5fa8051d57dcd24d7d826a2af4645892428efbf3 | Set | WikiDoc | Set
A set is a collection of distinct objects considered as a whole. Sets are one of the most fundamental concepts in mathematics. The study of the structure of sets, set theory, is rich and ongoing. Having only been invented at the end of the 19th century, set theory is now a ubiquitous part of mathematics education, being introduced from primary school in many countries. Set theory can be viewed as a foundation from which nearly all of mathematics can be derived.
In philosophy, sets are ordinarily considered to be abstract objects
the physical tokens of which are, for instance; three cups on a table when spoken of together as "the cups", or the chalk lines on a board in the form of the opening and closing curly bracket symbols along with any other symbols in between the two bracket symbols. However, proponents of mathematical realism including Penelope Maddy have argued that sets are concrete objects. | 0 |
5fa8051d57dcd24d7d826a2af4645892428efbf3 | Set | WikiDoc | # Definition
At the beginning of his Beiträge zur Begründung der transfiniten Mengenlehre, Georg Cantor, the principal creator of set theory, gave the following definition of a set:
By a "set" we mean any collection M into a whole of definite, distinct objects m (which are called the "elements" of M) of our perception or of our thought.
The elements of a set, also called its members, can be anything: numbers, people, letters of the alphabet, other sets, and so on. Sets are conventionally denoted with capital letters. The statement that sets A and B are equal means that they have precisely the same members (i.e., every member of A is also a member of B and vice versa).
Unlike a multiset, every element of a set must be unique; no two members may be identical. All set operations preserve the property that each element of the set is unique. The order in which the elements of a set are listed is irrelevant, unlike a sequence or tuple. | 1 |
5fa8051d57dcd24d7d826a2af4645892428efbf3 | Set | WikiDoc | # Describing sets
There are two ways of describing, or specifying the members of, a set. One way is by intensional definition, using a rule or semantic description. See this example:
The second way is by extension, that is, listing each member of the set. An extensional definition is notated by enclosing the list of members in braces:
The order in which the elements of a set are listed in an extensional definition is irrelevant, as are any repetitions in the list. For example,
are equivalent, because the extensional specification means merely that each of the elements listed is a member of the set.
For sets with many elements, the enumeration of members can be abbreviated. For instance, the set of the first thousand positive whole numbers may be specified extensionally as: | 2 |
5fa8051d57dcd24d7d826a2af4645892428efbf3 | Set | WikiDoc | For sets with many elements, the enumeration of members can be abbreviated. For instance, the set of the first thousand positive whole numbers may be specified extensionally as:
where the ellipsis ("...") indicates that the list continues in the obvious way. Ellipses may also be used where sets have infinitely many members. Thus the set of positive even numbers can be written as {2, 4, 6, 8, ... }.
The notation with braces may also be used in an intensional specification of a set. In this usage, the braces have the meaning "the set of all ..." So E = {playing-card suits} is the set whose four members are ♠, ♦, ♥, and ♣. A more general form of this is set-builder notation, through which, for instance, the set F of the twenty smallest integers that are four less than perfect squares can be denoted: | 3 |
5fa8051d57dcd24d7d826a2af4645892428efbf3 | Set | WikiDoc | In this notation, the colon (":") means "such that", and the description can be interpreted as "F is the set of all numbers of the form n2 − 4, such that n is a whole number in the range from 0 to 19 inclusive." Sometimes the vertical bar ("|") is used instead of the colon.
One often has the choice of specifying a set intensionally or extensionally. In the examples above, for instance, A = C and B = D. | 4 |
5fa8051d57dcd24d7d826a2af4645892428efbf3 | Set | WikiDoc | # Membership
If something is or is not an element of a particular set then this is symbolised by ∈ and ∉ respectively. So, with respect to the sets defined above:
- 4 ∈ A and 285 ∈ F (since 285 = 17² − 4); but
- 9 ∉ F and green ∉ B. | 5 |
5fa8051d57dcd24d7d826a2af4645892428efbf3 | Set | WikiDoc | # Cardinality
The cardinality |S| of a set S is "the number of members of S." For example, since the French flag has three colors, |B| = 3.
There is a set with no members and zero cardinality, which is called the empty set (or the null set) and is denoted by the symbol ø. For example, the set A of all three-sided squares has zero members (|A| = 0), and thus A = ø. Though, like the number zero, it may seem trivial, the empty set is quite important in mathematics. The existence of this set is one of the fundamental concepts of axiomatic set theory. | 6 |
5fa8051d57dcd24d7d826a2af4645892428efbf3 | Set | WikiDoc | Some sets have infinite cardinality. The set N of natural numbers, for instance, is infinite. Some infinite cardinalities are greater than others. For instance, the set of real numbers has greater cardinality than the set of natural numbers. However, it can be shown that the cardinality of (which is to say, the number of points on) a straight line is the same as the cardinality of any segment of that line, of an entire plane, and indeed of any Euclidean space. | 7 |
5fa8051d57dcd24d7d826a2af4645892428efbf3 | Set | WikiDoc | # Subsets
If every member of set A is also a member of set B, then A is said to be a subset of B, written A \subseteq B (also pronounced A is contained in B). Equivalently, we can write B \supseteq A, read as B is a superset of A, B includes A, or B contains A. The relationship between sets established by \subseteq is called inclusion or containment.
If A is a subset of, but not equal to, B, then A is called a proper subset of B, written A \subsetneq B (A is a proper subset of B) or B \supsetneq A (B is proper superset of A).
Note that the expressions A\subset B and A\supset B are used differently by different authors; some authors use them to mean the same as A\subseteq B (respectively A\supseteq B), whereas other use them to mean the same as A\subsetneq B (respectively A\supsetneq B).
Example:
- The set of all men is a proper subset of the set of all people.
- \{1,3\} \subsetneq \{1,2,3,4\}
- \{1, 2, 3, 4\} \subseteq \{1,2,3,4\}. | 8 |
5fa8051d57dcd24d7d826a2af4645892428efbf3 | Set | WikiDoc | Example:
- The set of all men is a proper subset of the set of all people.
- \{1,3\} \subsetneq \{1,2,3,4\}
- \{1, 2, 3, 4\} \subseteq \{1,2,3,4\}.
The empty set is a subset of every set and every set is a subset of itself:
- \emptyset \subseteq A
- A \subseteq A. | 9 |
5fa8051d57dcd24d7d826a2af4645892428efbf3 | Set | WikiDoc | ## Power set
The power set of a set S can be defined as the set of all subsets of S. This includes the subsets formed from the members of S and the empty set. If a finite set S has cardinality n then the power set of S has cardinality 2n. If S is an infinite (either countable or uncountable) set then the power set of S is always uncountable. The power set can be written as 2S.
As an example, the power set 2{1, 2, 3} of {1, 2, 3} is equal to the set {{1, 2, 3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1}, {2}, {3}, ø}. The cardinality of the original set is 3, and the cardinality of the power set is 23, or 8. This relationship is one of the reasons for the terminology power set. Similarly, its notation is an example of a general convention providing notations for sets based on their cardinalities. | 10 |
5fa8051d57dcd24d7d826a2af4645892428efbf3 | Set | WikiDoc | # Special sets
There are some sets which hold great mathematical importance and are referred to with such regularity that they have acquired special names and notational conventions to identify them. One of these is the empty set. Many of these sets are represented using Blackboard bold typeface. Special sets of numbers include:
- \mathbb{P}, denoting the set of all primes.
- \mathbb{N}, denoting the set of all natural numbers. That is to say, \mathbb{N} = {1, 2, 3, ...}.
- \mathbb{W}, denoting the set of all whole numbers. That is to say, \mathbb{W} = {0, 1, 2, 3, ...}.
- \mathbb{Z}, denoting the set of all integers (whether positive, negative or zero). So \mathbb{Z} = {..., -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ...}. | 11 |
5fa8051d57dcd24d7d826a2af4645892428efbf3 | Set | WikiDoc | - \mathbb{Z}, denoting the set of all integers (whether positive, negative or zero). So \mathbb{Z} = {..., -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ...}.
- \mathbb{Q}, denoting the set of all rational numbers (that is, the set of all proper and improper fractions). So, \mathbb{Q} = \left\{ \begin{matrix}\frac{a}{b} \end{matrix}: a,b \in \mathbb{Z}, b \neq 0\right\}. For example, \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{4} \end{matrix} \in \mathbb{Q} and \begin{matrix}\frac{11}{6} \end{matrix} \in \mathbb{Q}. All integers are in this set since every integer a can be expressed as the fraction \begin{matrix} \frac{a}{1} \end{matrix}.
- \mathbb{R}, denoting the set of all real numbers. This set includes all rational numbers, together with all irrational numbers (that is, numbers which cannot be rewritten as fractions, such as \pi, e, and √2).
- \mathbb{C}, denoting the set of all complex numbers. | 12 |
5fa8051d57dcd24d7d826a2af4645892428efbf3 | Set | WikiDoc | - \mathbb{C}, denoting the set of all complex numbers.
Each of these sets of numbers has an infinite number of elements, and \mathbb{P} \subsetneq \mathbb{N} \subsetneq \mathbb{W} \subsetneq \mathbb{Z} \subsetneq \mathbb{Q} \subsetneq \mathbb{R} \subsetneq \mathbb{C}. The primes are used less frequently than the others outside of number theory and related fields. | 13 |
5fa8051d57dcd24d7d826a2af4645892428efbf3 | Set | WikiDoc | # Basic operations
## Unions
There are ways to construct new sets from existing ones.
Two sets can be "added" together. The union of A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of all things which are members of either A or B.
Examples:
- {1, 2} ∪ {red, white} = {1, 2, red, white}
- {1, 2, green} ∪ {red, white, green} = {1, 2, red, white, green}
Some basic properties of unions are:
- A ∪ B = B ∪ A
- A ⊆ (A ∪ B)
- A ∪ A = A
- A ∪ ø = A
- A ⊆ B if and only if A ∪ B = B.
## Intersections
A new set can also be constructed by determining which members two sets have "in common". The intersection of A and B, denoted by A ∩ B, is the set of all things which are members of both A and B. If A ∩ B = ø, then A and B are said to be disjoint.
Examples:
- {1, 2} ∩ {red, white} = ø
- {1, 2, green} ∩ {red, white, green} = {green}
Some basic properties of intersections:
- A ∩ B = B ∩ A
- A ∩ B ⊆ A
- A ∩ A = A
- A ∩ ø = ø
- A ⊆ B if and only if A ∩ B = A. | 14 |
5fa8051d57dcd24d7d826a2af4645892428efbf3 | Set | WikiDoc | ## Complements
Two sets can also be "subtracted". The relative complement of A in B (also called the set theoretic difference of B and A), denoted by B \ A, (or B − A) is the set of all elements which are members of B, but not members of A. Note that it is valid to "subtract" members of a set that are not in the set, such as removing green from {1,2,3}; doing so has no effect.
In certain settings all sets under discussion are considered to be subsets of a given universal set U. In such cases, U \ A, is called the absolute complement or simply complement of A, and is denoted by A′.
Examples:
- {1, 2} \ {red, white} = {1, 2}
- {1, 2, green} \ {red, white, green} = {1, 2}
- If U is the set of integers, E is the set of even integers, and O is the set of odd integers, then the complement of E in U is O, or equivalently, E′ = O.
Some basic properties of complements:
- A ∪ A′ = U
- A ∩ A′ = ∅
- (A′ )′ = A
- A \ A = ∅
- A \ B = A ∩ B′. | 15 |
5fa8051d57dcd24d7d826a2af4645892428efbf3 | Set | WikiDoc | ## Cartesian product
A new set can be constructed by associating every element of one set with every element of another set. The Cartesian product of two sets A and B, denoted by A × B is the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) such that a is a member of A and b is a member of B.
Examples:
- {1, 2} × {red, white} = {(1,red), (1,white), (2,red), (2,white)}
- {1, 2, green} × {red, white, green} = {(1,red), (1,white), (1,green), (2,red), (2,white), (2,green), (green,red), (green,white), (green,green)}
Some basic properties of cartesian products:
- A × ∅ = ∅
- A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C)
- |A × B| = |A| × |B| | 16 |
5fa8051d57dcd24d7d826a2af4645892428efbf3 | Set | WikiDoc | # Applications
Set theory is seen as the foundation from which virtually all of mathematics can be derived. For example, structures in abstract algebra, such as groups, fields and rings, are sets closed under one or more operations.
One of the main applications of naive set theory is constructing relations. A relation from a domain A to a codomain B is nothing but a subset of A × B. Given this concept, we are quick to see that the set F of all ordered pairs (x, x2), where x is real, is quite familiar. It has a domain set \mathbb{R} and a codomain set that is also \mathbb{R}, because the set of all squares is subset of the set of all reals. If placed in functional notation, this relation becomes f(x) = x2. The reason these two are equivalent is for any given value, y that the function is defined for, its corresponding ordered pair, (y, y2) is a member of the set F. | 17 |
5fa8051d57dcd24d7d826a2af4645892428efbf3 | Set | WikiDoc | # Axiomatic set theory
Although initially the naive set theory, which defines a set merely as any well-defined collection, was well accepted, it soon ran into several obstacles. It was found that this definition spawned several paradoxes, most notably:
- Russell's paradox - It shows that the "set of all sets which do not contain themselves," i.e. the "set" \left \{ x: x\mbox{ is a set and }x\notin x \right \} does not exist.
- Cantor's paradox - It shows that "the set of all sets" cannot exist.
The reason is that the phrase well-defined is not very well-defined. It was important to free set theory of these paradoxes because nearly all of mathematics was being redefined in terms of set theory. In an attempt to avoid these paradoxes, set theory was axiomatized based on first-order logic, and thus the axiomatic set theory was born.
For most purposes however, the naive set theory is still useful. | 18 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | SnS
- -itis
- Aaron's sign
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- Abdominal angina
- Abdominal angina (patient information)
- Abdominal bruit
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- Abnormal posturing
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- Absence seizure
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- Acute brachial neuritis diagnosis
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- Acute brachial neuritis medical therapy
- Acute brachial neuritis natural history
- Acute brachial neuritis overview
- Acute brachial neuritis pathophysiology
- Acute brachial neuritis physical examination
- Acute brachial neuritis risk factors | 0 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Acute brachial neuritis overview
- Acute brachial neuritis pathophysiology
- Acute brachial neuritis physical examination
- Acute brachial neuritis risk factors
- Acute brachial neuritis surgery
- Acute lumbar syndrome
- Acute muscle soreness
- Adenomyomatous hyperplasia
- Adhesion (medicine)
- Adson's sign
- Adynamia
- Ageusia
- Agonal respiration
- Air crescent sign
- Air hunger
- Airway obstruction
- Alexia (disorder)
- Alexithymia
- All signs and symptoms
- Allen's test
- Allodynia
- Alogia
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- Anterior drawer test
- Anxiety
- Aortic insufficiency physical examination
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- Aphasia
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- Apnea
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- Apraxia
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- Apyrexy | 1 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Aortic stenosis
- Aortic stenosis physical examination
- Aphasia
- Aphasia (patient information)
- Apnea
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- Apraxia
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- Bleeding gums
- Blepharospasm | 2 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo
- Bertolotti's syndrome
- Bezold-Jarisch reflex
- Biliary colic
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- Cachexia
- Café au lait spot
- Canga's bead symptom
- Caput medusae
- Cardarelli's sign
- Cardiac disease in pregnancy physical examination
- Cardiac dysrhythmias
- Carotid bruit | 3 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Cabot's ring
- Cachexia
- Café au lait spot
- Canga's bead symptom
- Caput medusae
- Cardarelli's sign
- Cardiac disease in pregnancy physical examination
- Cardiac dysrhythmias
- Carotid bruit
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- Central neurogenic hyperventilation
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- Chancre
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- Chemical colitis
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- Cheyne-Stokes respiration
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- Chvostek's sign
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- Clitorism
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- Cluster headache
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- Colic
- Collapse (medical)
- Collapsing pulse
- Comet tail sign
- Complex partial seizure | 4 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Clubbing
- Cluster headache
- Coated tongue
- Coccydynia
- Coffee ground vomiting
- Coital cephalalgia
- Colic
- Collapse (medical)
- Collapsing pulse
- Comet tail sign
- Complex partial seizure
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- Confusion
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- Congenital insensitivity to pain
- Congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis
- Constipation
- Coprolalia
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- Cough
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- Delusion
- Delusional parasitosis
- Dementia
- Depigmentation
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- Dermatological lesions
- Dermatomyositis
- Developmental milestones
- Diaphoresis
- Diaphragmatic breathing | 5 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Delusional parasitosis
- Dementia
- Depigmentation
- Depression (mood)
- Dermatitis
- Dermatological lesions
- Dermatomyositis
- Developmental milestones
- Diaphoresis
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- Discitis
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- Dix-Hallpike test
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- Dizziness (patient information)
- Dock's murmur
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- Drooling
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- Dry eyes
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- Duct ectasia of breast
- Duroziez sign
- Dysarthria
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- Dysuria
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- Epilepsy
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- Erythema chronicum migrans | 6 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Dysuria
- Edema
- Egophony
- Elbow pain
- Emetophobia
- Encephalopathy
- Enophthalmos
- Eosinophiluria
- Epilepsy
- Epistaxis
- Erectile dysfunction
- Erythema chronicum migrans
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- Galactorrhea
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- Gallop rhythm
- Gangrene
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- Gastrointestinal bleeding | 7 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Focal seizures
- Football sign
- Fremitus
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- Gaenslen's test
- Galactorrhea
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- Gallop rhythm
- Gangrene
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- Headache
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- Hearing impairment
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- Heberden's node
- Hegar's sign
- Hemarthrosis
- Hematemesis
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- Hematuria | 8 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Headache attributed to infection
- Hearing impairment
- Heart murmur
- Heart rate
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- Heberden's node
- Hegar's sign
- Hemarthrosis
- Hematemesis
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- Hoarseness
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- Hydrocephalus
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- Hyperprolactinaemia
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- Hyperpyrexia
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- Hypersomnia
- Hypersomnia (patient information)
- Hypertrophic gums
- Hypertrophy (medical) | 9 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Hyperostosis
- Hyperpathia
- Hyperprolactinaemia
- Hyperprolactinemia
- Hyperpyrexia
- Hyperreflexia
- Hypersomnia
- Hypersomnia (patient information)
- Hypertrophic gums
- Hypertrophy (medical)
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- Hyperventilation
- Hypesthesia
- Hypoalgesia
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- Hypogonadism
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- Hypophysitis
- Hypopnea
- Hyporeflexia
- Hyposmia
- Hypotension
- Hypothenar Hammer Syndrome
- Hypothermia
- Hypoventilation
- Hypovolemia
- Ictal
- Ictal headache
- Iminoaciduria
- Impaired wound healing
- Inappetence
- Incontinence
- Increased bowel sounds
- Indigestion
- Inferior vena cava syndrome
- Inguinodynia
- Inner bone pain
- Insomnia
- Internal hernia
- Internuclear ophthalmoplegia
- Intracranial calcification
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- Intraocular hemorrhage
- Irregular heart rhythms
- Isaac's syndrome
- Itchy nipple
- Ivory vertebra sign
- Janeway lesions
- Jaundice
- Jaw claudication
- Jaw pain/swelling
- Job's syndrome | 10 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Intraocular hemorrhage
- Irregular heart rhythms
- Isaac's syndrome
- Itchy nipple
- Ivory vertebra sign
- Janeway lesions
- Jaundice
- Jaw claudication
- Jaw pain/swelling
- Job's syndrome
- Joint hypermobility
- Jugular venous pressure
- Karnofsky performance scale
- Keratoconjunctivitis
- Keratoderma
- Kerley lines
- Kernig's sign
- Knee pain/swelling
- Koilonychia
- Kussmaul's sign
- Landolfi sign
- Leg length discrepancy
- Leg pain
- Leg swelling
- Leg ulcer
- Leopold's maneuvers
- Lethargy
- Leukoplakia
- Lightheadedness and vertigo
- Lighthouse sign
- Limp
- Lincoln sign
- Linea negra
- Low back pain
- Low-grade fever
- Lucid interval
- Lymph node metastases
- Lymphadenopathy
- Macroglossia
- Macular edema
- Magnetism (neurological sign)
- Malassimilation
- Male pseudohermaphroditism
- Mania
- Mann syndrome
- Manning criteria
- Mass effect (medicine)
- Mayen sign
- McGill pain index
- Mediastinal mass
- Melasma suprarenale
- Melena
- Meningism
- Mesenteric cyst | 11 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Mania
- Mann syndrome
- Manning criteria
- Mass effect (medicine)
- Mayen sign
- McGill pain index
- Mediastinal mass
- Melasma suprarenale
- Melena
- Meningism
- Mesenteric cyst
- Metabolic encephalopathy
- Metatarsalgia
- Microstomia
- Microtia
- Migraine
- Migraine (patient information)
- Miosis
- Monoarthritis
- Mood congruence
- Mucopurulent discharge
- Mucosa hemorrhage
- Muehrcke's lines
- Muscle atrophy
- Muscle weakness
- Muscle weakness (patient information)
- Muscular atrophy of the hand
- Myalgia
- Mydriasis
- Myerson's sign
- Myocarditis
- Myocarditis history and symptoms
- Myofascial pain syndrome
- Myoglobinuria
- Myokmia
- Müller sign
- NICE guidelines for management of chest pain
- NICE guidelines for the management of patients with acute chest pain
- NICE guidelines for the management of patients with stable chest pain
- Nail changes
- Nasal congestion
- Nausea and Vomiting
- Neck masses
- Neck stiffness/pain
- Neck stiffness/pain (patient information) | 12 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Nail changes
- Nasal congestion
- Nausea and Vomiting
- Neck masses
- Neck stiffness/pain
- Neck stiffness/pain (patient information)
- Necrolytic migratory erythema
- Nocturia
- Nocturia (patient information)
- Nodular lesions
- Non ST elevation myocardial infarction pathophysiology & etiology
- Obdormition
- Obstructive sleep apnea
- Obstructive sleep apnea overview
- Obturator sign
- Occult blood
- Odynophagia
- Oligoarthritis
- Oliguria
- Oliguria (patient information)
- Oliver's sign
- Opioid-induced hyperalgesia
- Opisthotonus
- Oral candidiasis
- Oral lesions
- Oral ulcer
- Orchialgia
- Organomegaly
- Orthopnea
- Oscillopsia
- Osler nodes
- Osler's node
- Osler's sign
- Osteolysis
- Otalgia
- Otorrhea
- Overeating
- Pain
- Pain and nociception
- Pain asymbolia
- Pain withdrawal reflex
- Palindromic rheumatism
- Pallor
- Palmar erythema
- Palpitation
- Palpitation (patient information)
- Pancreatic trauma
- Papilledema
- Papulosquamous lesions
- Parageusia
- Paralysis | 13 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Palindromic rheumatism
- Pallor
- Palmar erythema
- Palpitation
- Palpitation (patient information)
- Pancreatic trauma
- Papilledema
- Papulosquamous lesions
- Parageusia
- Paralysis
- Paraphimosis (patient information)
- Parodontosis
- Paronychia
- Parosmia
- Parotid gland enlargement
- Parrot's sign
- Paruresis
- Patrick's test
- Pedal edema
- Pelvic masses
- Pelvic myoneuropathy
- Pelvic pain
- Pemberton's sign
- Penile discharge
- Pericardial friction rub
- Periorbital edema
- Peritonitis
- Perseveration
- Petechia
- Phantom pain
- Pharyngitis
- Pharyngitis causes
- Pharyngitis differential diagnosis
- Pharyngitis history and symptoms
- Pharyngitis medical therapy
- Pharyngitis natural history
- Pharyngitis overview
- Pharyngitis pathophysiology
- Pharyngitis primary prevention
- Pharyngitis risk factors
- Phlebitis
- Photophobia
- Photopsia
- Pica
- Pigmented lesions
- Piskacek's sign
- Platypnea
- Pleural friction rub
- Pleural friction rubs
- Pleurisy | 14 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Pharyngitis risk factors
- Phlebitis
- Photophobia
- Photopsia
- Pica
- Pigmented lesions
- Piskacek's sign
- Platypnea
- Pleural friction rub
- Pleural friction rubs
- Pleurisy
- Pleurisy (patient information)
- Pneumatosis intestinalis
- Pneumaturia
- Pneumomediastinum
- Pneumonia severity index
- Pneumoperitoneum
- Pneumothorax (patient information)
- Pollakisuria
- Polyarthritis
- Polydipsia
- Polydipsia (patient information)
- Polyphagia
- Polyuria
- Post-vasectomy pain syndrome
- Posterior drawer test
- Postoperative fever
- Priapism (patient information)
- Proteinuria
- Pruritis
- Pruritis (patient information)
- Pseudoathetosis
- Pseudodiarrhea
- Psoas sign
- Psychalgia
- Psychedelic experience
- Psychomotor retardation
- Ptosis
- Ptosis (eyelid)
- Pubertal delay
- Puddle sign
- Pulmonary edema
- Pulmonary edema cardiac catheterization
- Pulmonary edema causes
- Pulmonary edema chest x ray
- Pulmonary edema differential diagnosis
- Pulmonary edema echocardiography | 15 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Pulmonary edema
- Pulmonary edema cardiac catheterization
- Pulmonary edema causes
- Pulmonary edema chest x ray
- Pulmonary edema differential diagnosis
- Pulmonary edema echocardiography
- Pulmonary edema history and symptoms
- Pulmonary edema laboratory tests
- Pulmonary edema medical therapy
- Pulmonary edema overview
- Pulmonary edema pathophysiology
- Pulmonary edema physical examination
- Pulmonary edema risk factors
- Pulmonary embolism physical examination
- Pulse pressure
- Pulsus
- Pulsus alternans
- Pulsus bigeminus
- Pulsus bisferiens
- Pulsus paradoxus
- Pulsus parvus et tardus
- Pungency
- Pupillary constriction
- Pupillary dilation
- Purpura
- Purpura (patient information)
- Pyuria
- Quincke sign
- Radial neuropathy
- Radiculopathy
- Radiologic sign
- Rales
- Rash
- Rash with fever
- Rebound headache
- Rebound tenderness
- Rectal masses
- Rectal pain
- Red eye
- Red eye (medicine)
- Red face
- Red palms
- Red tongue
- Red wine headache | 16 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Rales
- Rash
- Rash with fever
- Rebound headache
- Rebound tenderness
- Rectal masses
- Rectal pain
- Red eye
- Red eye (medicine)
- Red face
- Red palms
- Red tongue
- Red wine headache
- Reduced respiratory displacement
- Referred pain
- Renal colic
- Respiratory sounds
- Respiratory splinting
- Retching
- Rhonchi
- Right heart failure
- Right heart failure history and symptoms
- Rigler's sign
- Rigor
- Romana's sign
- Rosenbach sign
- Rovsing's sign
- Rug burn
- Salivary gland enlargement
- Satiety
- Scalp rash
- Schizophasia
- Schmidt Sting Pain Index
- Scrotal masses
- Scrotal swelling
- Scrotal swelling (patient information)
- Seizure
- Seizure (patient information)
- Sensorineural hearing loss
- Sensory ataxia
- Septic arthritis
- Shallow breathing
- Shallow water blackout
- Sherman sign
- Shifting dullness
- Shoulder arthritis
- Side stitch
- Simmonds' test
- Sister Mary Joseph nodule
- Skin changes
- Skin crepitation
- Skipped beat
- Sleep Apnea Epidemiology | 17 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Sherman sign
- Shifting dullness
- Shoulder arthritis
- Side stitch
- Simmonds' test
- Sister Mary Joseph nodule
- Skin changes
- Skin crepitation
- Skipped beat
- Sleep Apnea Epidemiology
- Sleep Apnea Overview
- Sleep apnea
- Sleep apnea causes
- Sleep apnea history and symptoms
- Sleep apnea home oximetry
- Sleep apnea medical treatment
- Sleep apnea natural history
- Sleep apnea natural history, complications and prognosis
- Sleep apnea other treatment
- Sleep apnea polysomnography
- Sleep apnea risk factors
- Sleep apnea surgical treatment
- Smoker's cough
- Snoring
- Snoring (patient information)
- Solitary pulmonary nodule
- Somatization disorder
- Spasm
- Splenomegaly
- Splinter hemorrhage
- Sputum
- Starr sting pain scale
- Steeple sign
- Stenosing tenosynovitis
- Stomatitis
- Straight leg raise
- Strangury
- Striae
- Stridor
- Stupor
- Stupor (patient information)
- Stye (patient information)
- Subcutaneous emphysema
- Sulcus sign
- Superior limbic keratoconjunctivitis | 18 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Straight leg raise
- Strangury
- Striae
- Stridor
- Stupor
- Stupor (patient information)
- Stye (patient information)
- Subcutaneous emphysema
- Sulcus sign
- Superior limbic keratoconjunctivitis
- Superior vena cava syndrome
- Suspension trauma
- Swimmer's itch
- Swinging-flashlight test
- Swollen face
- Syncope
- Syncope (patient information)
- Synovitis
- T-shaped uterus
- Tabes Dorsalis CT
- Tabes Dorsalis MRI
- Tabes Dorsalis causes
- Tabes Dorsalis chest x ray
- Tabes Dorsalis classification
- Tabes Dorsalis cost-effectiveness of therapy
- Tabes Dorsalis dietary management
- Tabes Dorsalis differential diagnosis
- Tabes Dorsalis echocardiography or ultrasound
- Tabes Dorsalis electrocardiogram
- Tabes Dorsalis epidemiology and demographics
- Tabes Dorsalis future or investigational therapies
- Tabes Dorsalis historical perspective
- Tabes Dorsalis history and symptoms
- Tabes Dorsalis laboratory tests
- Tabes Dorsalis medical therapy | 19 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Tabes Dorsalis future or investigational therapies
- Tabes Dorsalis historical perspective
- Tabes Dorsalis history and symptoms
- Tabes Dorsalis laboratory tests
- Tabes Dorsalis medical therapy
- Tabes Dorsalis natural history, complications, and prognosis
- Tabes Dorsalis other diagnostic studies
- Tabes Dorsalis other imaging findings
- Tabes Dorsalis overview
- Tabes Dorsalis pathophysiology
- Tabes Dorsalis physical examination
- Tabes Dorsalis primary prevention
- Tabes Dorsalis risk factors
- Tabes Dorsalis screening
- Tabes Dorsalis secondary prevention
- Tabes Dorsalis surgery
- Tabes dorsalis
- Tachycardia
- Tachypnea
- Tactile fremitus
- Tardive dyskinesia
- Tardive dyskinesia (patient information)
- Tarsal coalition
- Tears
- Telangiectasia
- Tennis elbow
- Tenosynovitis
- Tension headache
- Terminal burrowing
- Testicular pain
- Tetanic contraction
- Tetany
- Tetany (medical sign)
- Thermoregulation
- Thought disorder
- Thrombophlebitis
- Thumbprint sign | 20 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Tension headache
- Terminal burrowing
- Testicular pain
- Tetanic contraction
- Tetany
- Tetany (medical sign)
- Thermoregulation
- Thought disorder
- Thrombophlebitis
- Thumbprint sign
- Thunderclap headache
- Thyromegaly
- Thyroxin binding globulin
- Tic
- Tinnitus
- Toddler fracture
- Toe pain and swelling
- Toe-Brachial Index
- Tongue pain
- Tongue swelling
- Tonic-clonic seizure
- Tonsillitis
- Tonsillitis causes
- Tonsillitis history and symptoms
- Tonsillitis medical therapy
- Tonsillitis natural history
- Tonsillitis overview
- Tonsillitis surgery
- Tooth loss
- Tooth squeeze
- Toothache
- Tourettism
- Toxic headache
- Toxic leukoencephalopathy
- Transmarginal inhibition
- Traube sign
- Traube's space
- Traveler's diarrhea
- Trepopnea
- Trigeminal neuralgia
- Trigger finger
- Trigonitis
- Trousseau sign of malignancy
- Tubulointerstitial diseases of the kidney
- Tumorlet
- Twitching
- Ulcerative colitis
- Unequal pulses
- Unicornuate uterus | 21 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Trigger finger
- Trigonitis
- Trousseau sign of malignancy
- Tubulointerstitial diseases of the kidney
- Tumorlet
- Twitching
- Ulcerative colitis
- Unequal pulses
- Unicornuate uterus
- Unstable angina / non ST elevation myocardial infarction
- Unstable angina / non ST elevation myocardial infarction ACC/AHA guidelines for early risk stratification
- Unstable angina / non ST elevation myocardial infarction ACC/AHA guidelines for risk stratification before discharge
- Unstable angina / non ST elevation myocardial infarction natural history, complications and prognosis
- Unstable angina / non ST elevation myocardial infarction overview
- Unstable angina / non ST elevation myocardial infarction risk stratification and prognosis
- Unstable angina / non ST elevation myocardial infarction symptoms
- Unstable angina / non ST elevation myocardial infarction treatment
- Unstable angina pathophysiology & etiology
- Unterberger test
- Upper airway resistance syndrome
- Upper back pain | 22 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Unstable angina / non ST elevation myocardial infarction treatment
- Unstable angina pathophysiology & etiology
- Unterberger test
- Upper airway resistance syndrome
- Upper back pain
- Upper motor neuron lesion
- Uremia
- Urethritis
- Urethritis causes
- Urethritis history and symptoms
- Urethritis laboratory tests
- Urethritis medical therapy
- Urethritis overview
- Urinary incontinence
- Urinary retention
- Urinary urgency
- Urine calcium
- Urine catecholamines
- Urine osmolality
- Urine pH
- Uveitis
- Uveoparotitis
- VLDL hyperlipidemia
- Vaginal bleeding
- Vaginal discharge
- Vaginitis
- Vascular headache
- Vasculitis
- Vasogenic edema
- Vasomotor rhinitis
- Venous insufficiency
- Vertigo
- Vertigo (medical)
- Vesicular and bullous lesions
- Vesicular breathing
- Virchow's node
- Vision loss
- Vital signs
- Vitamin B12
- Vocal cord paresis
- Vocal fremitus
- Volvulus
- Vulvar pruritus
- Vulvitis
- Vulvodynia
- Waddell's signs
- Walking ghost phase
- Watson's water hammer pulse | 23 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Vital signs
- Vitamin B12
- Vocal cord paresis
- Vocal fremitus
- Volvulus
- Vulvar pruritus
- Vulvitis
- Vulvodynia
- Waddell's signs
- Walking ghost phase
- Watson's water hammer pulse
- Waxy flexibility
- Webbed neck
- Webbed toes
- Wegener's granulomatosis
- Wegener's granulomatosis CT
- Wegener's granulomatosis differential diagnosis
- Wegener's granulomatosis epidemiology and demographics
- Wegener's granulomatosis historical perspective
- Wegener's granulomatosis history and symptoms
- Wegener's granulomatosis medical therapy
- Wegener's granulomatosis natural history
- Wegener's granulomatosis other imaging findings
- Wegener's granulomatosis overview
- Wegener's granulomatosis pathophysiology
- Wegener's granulomatosis secondary prevention
- Wegener's granulomatosis surgery
- Weight and height percentile
- Weight gain
- Weight loss
- Westermark sign
- Wheeze
- Wheeze causes
- Wheeze differential diagnosis
- Wheeze medical therapy
- Wheeze overview
- Wheeze pathophysiology | 24 |
393e291fc33539df91eafbfd620c23e9df501a25 | SnS | WikiDoc | - Weight gain
- Weight loss
- Westermark sign
- Wheeze
- Wheeze causes
- Wheeze differential diagnosis
- Wheeze medical therapy
- Wheeze overview
- Wheeze pathophysiology
- White hand sign
- White out of the hemithorax
- Wide pulse pressure
- Widened mediastinum
- Wrist and hand pain
- Wrist drop
- Xanthelasma
- Xanthoma
- Xeroderma
- Xerophthalmia
- Xerosis
- Xerostomia
- Xiphodynia
- Yellow sclera
- Category:Abdominal pain
- Category:Abnormal respiration
- Category:Chronic pain syndromes
- Category:Digestive disease symptoms
- Category:Headaches
- Category:Migraine
- Category:Pain
- Category:Pain scales
- Category:Vomiting | 25 |
6668b9f9ed6510ee195949c27619bddd0897313c | Sss | WikiDoc | Sss
# Disclaimer
WikiDoc MAKES NO GUARANTEE OF VALIDITY. WikiDoc is not a professional health care provider, nor is it a suitable replacement for a licensed healthcare provider. WikiDoc is intended to be an educational tool, not a tool for any form of healthcare delivery. The educational content on WikiDoc drug pages is based upon the FDA package insert, National Library of Medicine content and practice guidelines / consensus statements. WikiDoc does not promote the administration of any medication or device that is not consistent with its labeling. Please read our full disclaimer here.
# Overview
Sss is {{{aOrAn}}} {{{drugClass}}} that is FDA approved for the {{{indicationType}}} of {{{indication}}}. Common adverse reactions include {{{adverseReactions}}}.
# Adult Indications and Dosage
## FDA-Labeled Indications and Dosage (Adult)
Condition 1
- Dosing Information
## Off-Label Use and Dosage (Adult)
# Pediatric Indications and Dosage | 0 |
6668b9f9ed6510ee195949c27619bddd0897313c | Sss | WikiDoc | # Adult Indications and Dosage
## FDA-Labeled Indications and Dosage (Adult)
Condition 1
- Dosing Information
## Off-Label Use and Dosage (Adult)
# Pediatric Indications and Dosage
## FDA-Labeled Indications and Dosage (Pediatric)
There is limited information regarding Sss FDA-Labeled Indications and Dosage (Pediatric) in the drug label.
## Off-Label Use and Dosage (Pediatric)
# Contraindications
There is limited information regarding Sss Contraindications in the drug label.
# Warnings
There is limited information regarding Sss Warnings' in the drug label.
# Adverse Reactions
## Clinical Trials Experience
There is limited information regarding Sss Clinical Trials Experience in the drug label.
## Postmarketing Experience
There is limited information regarding Sss Postmarketing Experience in the drug label.
# Drug Interactions
There is limited information regarding Sss Drug Interactions in the drug label.
# Use in Specific Populations | 1 |
6668b9f9ed6510ee195949c27619bddd0897313c | Sss | WikiDoc | # Drug Interactions
There is limited information regarding Sss Drug Interactions in the drug label.
# Use in Specific Populations
### Pregnancy
Pregnancy Category (FDA):
There is no FDA guidance on usage of Sss in women who are pregnant.
Pregnancy Category (AUS):
There is no Australian Drug Evaluation Committee (ADEC) guidance on usage of Sss in women who are pregnant.
### Labor and Delivery
There is no FDA guidance on use of Sss during labor and delivery.
### Nursing Mothers
There is no FDA guidance on the use of Sss in women who are nursing.
### Pediatric Use
There is no FDA guidance on the use of Sss in pediatric settings.
### Geriatic Use
There is no FDA guidance on the use of Sss in geriatric settings.
### Gender
There is no FDA guidance on the use of Sss with respect to specific gender populations.
### Race
There is no FDA guidance on the use of Sss with respect to specific racial populations. | 2 |
6668b9f9ed6510ee195949c27619bddd0897313c | Sss | WikiDoc | ### Gender
There is no FDA guidance on the use of Sss with respect to specific gender populations.
### Race
There is no FDA guidance on the use of Sss with respect to specific racial populations.
### Renal Impairment
There is no FDA guidance on the use of Sss in patients with renal impairment.
### Hepatic Impairment
There is no FDA guidance on the use of Sss in patients with hepatic impairment.
### Females of Reproductive Potential and Males
There is no FDA guidance on the use of Sss in women of reproductive potentials and males.
### Immunocompromised Patients
There is no FDA guidance one the use of Sss in patients who are immunocompromised.
# Administration and Monitoring
### Administration
There is limited information regarding Sss Administration in the drug label.
### Monitoring
There is limited information regarding Sss Monitoring in the drug label.
# IV Compatibility
There is limited information regarding the compatibility of Sss and IV administrations. | 3 |
6668b9f9ed6510ee195949c27619bddd0897313c | Sss | WikiDoc | ### Monitoring
There is limited information regarding Sss Monitoring in the drug label.
# IV Compatibility
There is limited information regarding the compatibility of Sss and IV administrations.
# Overdosage
There is limited information regarding Sss overdosage. If you suspect drug poisoning or overdose, please contact the National Poison Help hotline (1-800-222-1222) immediately.
# Pharmacology
There is limited information regarding Sss Pharmacology in the drug label.
## Mechanism of Action
There is limited information regarding Sss Mechanism of Action in the drug label.
## Structure
There is limited information regarding Sss Structure in the drug label.
## Pharmacodynamics
There is limited information regarding Sss Pharmacodynamics in the drug label.
## Pharmacokinetics
There is limited information regarding Sss Pharmacokinetics in the drug label.
## Nonclinical Toxicology
There is limited information regarding Sss Nonclinical Toxicology in the drug label. | 4 |
6668b9f9ed6510ee195949c27619bddd0897313c | Sss | WikiDoc | ## Nonclinical Toxicology
There is limited information regarding Sss Nonclinical Toxicology in the drug label.
# Clinical Studies
There is limited information regarding Sss Clinical Studies in the drug label.
# How Supplied
There is limited information regarding Sss How Supplied in the drug label.
## Storage
There is limited information regarding Sss Storage in the drug label.
# Images
## Drug Images
## Package and Label Display Panel
# Patient Counseling Information
There is limited information regarding Sss Patient Counseling Information in the drug label.
# Precautions with Alcohol
Alcohol-Sss interaction has not been established. Talk to your doctor regarding the effects of taking alcohol with this medication.
# Brand Names
There is limited information regarding Sss Brand Names in the drug label.
# Look-Alike Drug Names
There is limited information regarding Sss Look-Alike Drug Names in the drug label.
# Drug Shortage Status
# Price | 5 |
1ece4736301816cd4e63705156c0af65343a544a | Syk | WikiDoc | Syk
Spleen tyrosine kinase, also known as Syk, is an enzyme which in humans is encoded by the SYK gene.
# Function
SYK, along with Zap-70, is a member of the Syk family of tyrosine kinases. These non-receptor cytoplasmic tyrosine kinases share a characteristic dual SH2 domain separated by a linker domain. However, activation of SYK relies less on phosphorylation by Src family kinases than Zap-70.
While Syk and Zap-70 are primarily expressed in hematopoietic tissues, there is expression of Syk in a variety of tissues. Within B and T cells respectively, Syk and Zap-70 transmit signals from the B-Cell receptor and T-Cell receptor. Syk plays a similar role in transmitting signals from a variety of cell surface receptors including CD74, Fc Receptor, and integrins. | 0 |
1ece4736301816cd4e63705156c0af65343a544a | Syk | WikiDoc | ## Function during development
Mice that lack Syk completely (Syk−/−, Syk-knockout) die during embryonic development around midgestation. They show severe defects in the development of the lymphatic system. Normally, the lymphatic system and the blood system are strictly separated from each other. However, in Syk deficient mice the lymphatics and the blood vessels form abnormal shunts, leading to leakage of blood into the lymphatic system. The reason for this phenotype was identified by a genetic fate mapping approach, showing that Syk is expressed in myeloid cells which orchestrate the proper separation of lymphatics and blood system during embryogenesis and beyond. Thus, Syk is an essential regulator of the lymphatic system development in mice. | 1 |
1ece4736301816cd4e63705156c0af65343a544a | Syk | WikiDoc | # Clinical significance
Abnormal function of Syk has been implicated in several instances of hematopoeitic malignancies including translocations involving Itk and Tel. Constitutive Syk activity can transform B cells. Several transforming viruses contain "Immunoreceptor Tyrosine Activation Motifs" (ITAMs) which lead to activation of Syk including Epstein Barr virus, bovine leukemia virus, and mouse mammary tumor virus. | 2 |
1ece4736301816cd4e63705156c0af65343a544a | Syk | WikiDoc | ## SYK inhibition
Given the central role of SYK in transmission of activating signals within B-cells, a suppression of this tyrosine kinase might aid in the treatment of B cell malignancies and autoimmune diseases.
Syk inhibition has been proposed as a therapy for both lymphoma and chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Syk inhibitors are in clinical development, including cerdulatinib and entospletinib. Other inhibitors of B-cell receptor (BCR) signaling including ibrutinib (PCI-32765) which inhibits BTK, and idelalisib (PI3K inhibitor - CAL-101 / GS-1101) showed activity in the diseases as well.
The orally active SYK inhibitor fostamatinib (R788) in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.
The Syk inhibitor nilvadipine has been shown to regulate amyloid-β production and Tau phosphorylation and hence has been proposed as a treatment for Alzheimer's Disease and has entered phase III clinical trials. | 3 |
1ece4736301816cd4e63705156c0af65343a544a | Syk | WikiDoc | ## Epithelial malignancies
The role of Syk in epithelial malignancies is controversial. Several authors have suggested that abnormal Syk function facilitates transformation in Nasopharyngeal carcinoma and head and neck cancer while other authors have suggested a tumor suppressor role in breast and gastric cancer.
Without Syk, the protein it makes, and genetic disruption in a panel of 55 genes thought also to be controlled by Syk, breast ductal carcinoma in situ (breast DCIS, which can become invasive), it is believed that the cancer has a markedly increased tendency to invade and metastasize.
# Interactions
Syk has been shown to interact with:
- Cbl gene
- CRKL,
- FCGR2A,
- FYN,
- Grb2,
- Lck,
- LYN,
- PTK2,
- PTPN6, and
- VAV1. | 4 |
38c0515277b9313d699c3070280f338428ae2b14 | TLX | WikiDoc | TLX
Nuclear receptor TLX (homologue of the Drosophila tailless gene) also known as NR2E1 (Nuclear receptor subfamily 2 group E member 1) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the NR2E1 gene. TLX is a member of the nuclear receptor family of intracellular transcription factors. | 0 |
38c0515277b9313d699c3070280f338428ae2b14 | TLX | WikiDoc | # Function
TLX regulates the expression of another nuclear receptor, RAR.
TLX also is essential for normal brain-eye coordination and appears to play a role in control of aggressive behavior.
Adult neural stem cells are nuclear receptor TLX-positive and TLX expression in these cells is crucial in maintaining their undifferentiated state. Furthermore, TLX regulates adult neural stem cell proliferation. Removal of TLX from the adult mouse brain resulted in a reduction of stem cell proliferation and spatial learning.
Tlx-positive cells of the subventricular zone of adult mouse brain are self-renewing stem cells. Mutation of the Tlx gene in adult mouse brain leads to complete loss of neurogenesis in the subventricular zone. Tlx is also required for transition from radial glial cells to astrocyte-like neural stem cells. | 1 |
237278cb7d12a4a6b9b36754ab70696783b1c1e2 | TNM | WikiDoc | TNM
# Overview
TNM Classification of Malignant Tumours (TNM) is the cancer staging system developed and maintained by the International Union Against Cancer (UICC) to achieve consensus on one globally recognised standard for classifying the extent of spread of cancer. The TNM classification is also used by the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) and the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO). In 1987, the UICC and AJCC staging systems were unified into a single staging system.
# Broad outline
Each tumor has its own TNM classification. Not all tumors have TNM classifications, but most do. For instance, there is no TNM classification for brain tumors.
The general outline for the TNM classification is below. The values given in parenthesis give a range of what can be used for all cancer types, but not all cancers use this full range. | 0 |
237278cb7d12a4a6b9b36754ab70696783b1c1e2 | TNM | WikiDoc | ## Mandatory parameters ('T', 'N', and 'M')
- T (a,is,(0),1-4): size or direct extent of the primary tumour
- N (0-3): spread to regional lymph nodes
- M (0/1): distant metastasis
Use of an "X" instead of a number or other suffix means that the parameter was not assessed.
## Other parameters
- G (1-4): the grade of the cancer cells (i.e. they are "low grade" if they appear similar to normal cells, and "high grade" if they appear poorly differentiated)
- R (0/1/2): the completeness of the operation (resection-boundaries free of cancer cells or not)
- L (0/1): invasion into lymphatic vessels
- V (0/1): invasion into vein
- C (1-4): a modifier of the certainty (quality) of the last mentioned parameter | 1 |
237278cb7d12a4a6b9b36754ab70696783b1c1e2 | TNM | WikiDoc | ## Prefix modifiers
- c: stage given by clinical examination of a patient. The c-prefix is implicit in absence of the p-prefix
- p: stage given by pathologic examination of a surgical specimen
- y: stage assessed after neoadjuvant therapy
For the T, N and M parameters exist subclassifications for some cancer-types (e.g. T1a, Tis, N1i) | 2 |
237278cb7d12a4a6b9b36754ab70696783b1c1e2 | TNM | WikiDoc | # Examples
- Small, low grade cancer, no metastasis, no spread to regional lymph nodes, cancer completely removed, resection material seen by pathologist - pT1 pN0 M0 R0 G1; this grouping of T, N, and M would be considered Stage I
- Large, high grade cancer, with spread to regional lymph nodes and other organs, not completely removed, seen by pathologist - pT4 pN2 M1 R1 G3; this grouping of T, N, and M would be considered Stage IV
Most Stage I tumors are curable; most Stage IV tumors are inoperable.
- N0 tumor cells absent from regional lymph nodes
- N1 tumor cells spread to closest or small number of regional lymph nodes
- N3 tumor cells spread to most distant or numerous regional lymph nodes
- M0 no distant metastasis
- M1 metastasis to distant organs (beyond regional lymph nodes) | 3 |
237278cb7d12a4a6b9b36754ab70696783b1c1e2 | TNM | WikiDoc | # Uses and aims
Some of the aims for adopting a global standard are to:
- Aid medical staff in staging the tumour helping to plan the treatment.
- Give an indication of prognosis.
- Assist in the evaluation of the results of treatment.
- Enable facilities around the world to collate information more productively.
Since the number of combinations of categories is high, combinations are grouped to stages for better analysis.
# Versions
The current version of TNM is TNM6, released in 2002. However, some still prefer TNM5, and recommend its continued use. | 4 |
ec407ef51d76bcd42e4ad55a73d159a728abd4c0 | Tar | WikiDoc | Tar
Sometimes used as a street name for heroin.
Tar is a viscous black liquid derived from the destructive distillation of organic matter. Most tar is produced from coal as a byproduct of coke production, but it can also be produced from petroleum, peat or wood.
# Types of tar
## General
The word "tar" is used to describe several distinct substances. Naturally occurring "tar pits" (e.g. the La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles) actually contain asphalt, not tar, and are more accurately known as asphalt pits. Tar sand deposits contain various mixtures of sand (or rock) with bitumen or heavy crude oil rather than tar, as does the Tar Tunnel in Shropshire. "Rangoon tar", also known as "Burmese Oil" or "Burmese Naphtha", is actually petroleum. "Tar" and "pitch (resin)" are sometimes used interchangeably; however, pitch is considered more solid while tar is more liquid. | 0 |
ec407ef51d76bcd42e4ad55a73d159a728abd4c0 | Tar | WikiDoc | ## Coal
In English and French, "tar" is a substance primarily derived from coal. It was formerly one of the products of a gasworks. Tar made from coal or petroleum is considered toxic and carcinogenic because of its high benzene content, however, coal tar in low concentrations is used as a topical medicine. Coal and petroleum tar has a pungent odor.
## Wood
In Northern Europe, the word "tar" refers primarily to a substance derived from wood, which is used even as an additive in the flavoring of candy and other foods. Wood tar is microbicidial and has a pleasant odor.
The heating (dry distilling) of pine wood causes tar and pitch to drip away from the wood and leave behind charcoal. Birchbark is used to make particularly fine tar (tökötti). The by-products of wood tar are turpentine and charcoal. When deciduous tree woods are subjected to destructive distillation the by-products are methanol (wood alcohol) and charcoal. | 1 |
ec407ef51d76bcd42e4ad55a73d159a728abd4c0 | Tar | WikiDoc | # Uses
Tar is used in treatment of the skin-disease psoriasis, where coal tar is the most effective. Tar is also a general disinfectant. Petroleum tar was also used in ancient Egyptian mummification circa 1000 BC.
Tar was a vital component of the first sealed, or "tarmac", roads. It was also used as seal for roofing shingles and to seal the hulls of ships and boats. For millennia wood tar was used to waterproof sails and boats, but today sails made from inherently waterproof synthetic substances have negated the need for tar. Wood tar is still used to seal traditional wooden boats and the roofs of historical shingle-roofed churches, as well painting exterior walls of log buildings.
In Finland wood tar was once considered a panacea reputed to heal "even those cut in twain through their midriff". A Finnish proverb states that if sauna, vodka and tar won't help, the disease is fatal. The use of wood tar in traditional Finnish medicine is because of its microbicidial properties. | 2 |
ec407ef51d76bcd42e4ad55a73d159a728abd4c0 | Tar | WikiDoc | Wood tar is also available diluted as tar water, which has numerous uses:
- As a flavoring for candies (e.g. Terva Leijona) and alcohol (Terva Viina)
- As a spice for food, like meat
- As a scent for saunas. Tar water is mixed into water that is turned to steam to the air
- As an anti-dandruff agent in shampoo
- As a component of cosmetics
Mixing tar with linseed oil varnish produces tar paint. Tar paint has a translucent brownish hue, and can be used to saturate and tone wood and protect it from weather. Tar paint can also be toned with various pigments, producing translucent colours and preserving the wood texture. Because of its paint-like properties, wet tar should not be touched with bare skin, as it can dry to produce a stain, though paint thinner is effective in removing it.
Coal tar is listed at number 1999 in the United Nations list of dangerous goods. | 3 |
9b750408a21dbb924ffefc74298fabcc7ffc2ddb | Tic | WikiDoc | Tic
# Overview
A tic is a sudden, repetitive, stereotyped, nonrhythmic movement (motor tic) or sound (phonic tic) that involves discrete groups of muscles. Tics can be invisible to the observer (e.g.; abdominal tensing or toe crunching). Movements of other movement disorders (e.g.; chorea, dystonia, myoclonus) must be distinguished from tics. Other conditions (e.g.; autism, stereotypic movement disorder) also include movements which may be confused with tics. Tics must also be distinguished from compulsions of OCD and seizure activity. | 0 |
9b750408a21dbb924ffefc74298fabcc7ffc2ddb | Tic | WikiDoc | # Description and classification
Tics are classified as motor vs. phonic, and simple vs. complex.
Motor tics are movement-based tics affecting discrete muscle groups.
Phonic tics are involuntary sounds produced by moving air through the nose, mouth, or throat. They may be alternately referred to as verbal tics or vocal tics, but most diagnosticians prefer the term phonic tics to reflect the notion that the vocal cords are not involved in all tics that produce sound. | 1 |
9b750408a21dbb924ffefc74298fabcc7ffc2ddb | Tic | WikiDoc | Tics may increase as a result of stress, tiredness, or high energy emotions, which can include negative emotions, such as anxiety, but positive emotions as well, such as excitement or anticipation. Relaxation may result in a tic decrease or a tic increase (for instance, watching television or using a computer), while concentration in an absorbing activity often leads to a decrease in tics. Neurologist and writer Oliver Sacks describes a physician with severe Tourette syndrome, (Canadian Mort Doran, M.D., a pilot and surgeon in real life, although a pseudonym was used in the book), whose tics remit almost completely while he is performing surgery. | 2 |
9b750408a21dbb924ffefc74298fabcc7ffc2ddb | Tic | WikiDoc | Immediately preceding tic onset, most individuals are aware of an urge that is similar to the need to yawn, sneeze, blink, or scratch an itch. Individuals describe the need to tic as a buildup of tension which they consciously choose to release, as if they "had to do it". Examples of this premonitory urge are the feeling of having something in one's throat, or a localized discomfort in the shoulders, leading to the need to clear one's throat or shrug the shoulders. The actual tic may be felt as relieving this tension or sensation, similar to scratching an itch. Another example is blinking to relieve an uncomfortable sensation in the eye. | 3 |
9b750408a21dbb924ffefc74298fabcc7ffc2ddb | Tic | WikiDoc | Tics are described as semi-voluntary or "unvoluntary", because they are not strictly involuntary—they may be experienced as a voluntary response to the unwanted, premonitory urge. A unique aspect of tics, relative to other movement disorders, is that they are suppressible yet irresistible; they are experienced as an irresistible urge that must eventually be expressed. Some people with tics may not be aware of the premonitory urge. Children may be less aware of the premonitory urge associated with tics than are adults, but their awareness tends to increase with maturity. | 4 |
9b750408a21dbb924ffefc74298fabcc7ffc2ddb | Tic | WikiDoc | ## Simple tics
Simple motor tics are typically sudden, brief, meaningless movements, such as eye blinking or shoulder shrugging. Motor tics can be of an endless variety and may include such movements as hand-clapping, neck stretching, mouth movements, head, arm or leg jerks, and facial grimacing.
A simple phonic tic can be almost any possible sound or noise, with common vocal tics being throat clearing, coughing, sniffing, or grunting. | 5 |
9b750408a21dbb924ffefc74298fabcc7ffc2ddb | Tic | WikiDoc | ## Complex tics
Complex motor tics are typically more purposeful-appearing and of a longer nature. Examples of complex motor tics are pulling at clothes, touching people, touching objects, echopraxia and copropraxia.
Complex phonic tics may fall into various categories, including echolalia (repeating words just spoken by someone else), palilalia (repeating one's own previously spoken words), lexilalia (repeating words after reading them) and coprolalia (the spontaneous utterance of socially-objectionable or taboo words or phrases). Coprolalia is a highly-publicized symptom of Tourette syndrome; however, according to the Tourette Syndrome Association, Inc. (TSA), fewer than 15% of TS patients exhibit coprolalia.
Complex tics are rarely seen in the absence of simple tics. Tics "may be challenging to differentiate from compulsions", as in the case of klazomania (compulsive shouting). | 6 |
9b750408a21dbb924ffefc74298fabcc7ffc2ddb | Tic | WikiDoc | # Tic disorders
Tic disorders occur along a spectrum, ranging from mild to more severe, and are classified according to duration and severity (transient tics, chronic tics, or Tourette syndrome). Tourette syndrome is the more severe expression of a spectrum of tic disorders, which are thought to be due to the same genetic vulnerability. Nevertheless, most cases of Tourette syndrome are not severe. The treatment for the spectrum of tic disorders is similar to the treatment of Tourette syndrome. | 7 |
9b750408a21dbb924ffefc74298fabcc7ffc2ddb | Tic | WikiDoc | # Controversy and confusion
There is some confusion in media portrayals of tics. For example, in comedies, a person with muscle tics may haplessly raise their hand at an obviously inappropriate time and suffer the consequences. This is implausible: tics are semi-voluntary actions to alleviate the feeling of an unwanted, premonitory urge. One would not thrust his or her arm in the air as in Alien hand syndrome.
Tics must be distinguished from fasciculations. Small twitches of the upper or lower eyelid, for example, are not tics because they don't involve a whole muscle. They are twitches of a few muscle fibre bundles, which you can feel but barely see.
### Contraindicated medications
Motor tic is considered an absolute contraindication to the use of the following medications:
- Methylphenidate | 8 |
077487b57636f6b8c13462903f9d5794ac961cd2 | UXT | WikiDoc | UXT
Protein UXT (Ubiquitously eXpressed Transcript protein) also known as androgen receptor trapped clone 27 (ART-27) protein is a protein that in humans is encoded by the UXT gene. | 0 |
077487b57636f6b8c13462903f9d5794ac961cd2 | UXT | WikiDoc | # Function
UXT interacts with the N-terminus of the androgen receptor and plays a role in facilitating receptor-induced transcriptional activation. It is also likely to be involved in tumorigenesis as it is abundantly expressed in tumor tissues. This gene is part of a gene cluster on chromosome Xp11.23. Alternative splicing results in 2 transcript variants encoding different isoforms. | 1 |
077487b57636f6b8c13462903f9d5794ac961cd2 | UXT | WikiDoc | Transcript variant 2 is 575 bp in length, and it codes for a polypeptide sequence that is 157 amino acids long (~ 18 kDa). It has been shown to interact with two AR N-terminal activation domains that are both required for full transcriptional activation. In addition, it is largely localized to the nucleus and is highly expressed in human prostate epithelial cells as well as breast tissues. ART-27 likely serves to link AR to a larger transcription factor complex as evidenced by its association with a number of proteins including RNA pol II subunit 5, a pair of prefoldin β-subunits, and TATA-binding protein-interacting proteins. It also shows homology to prefoldins which are small molecular weight proteins that assemble into molecular chaperone complexes to affect protein folding. | 2 |
077487b57636f6b8c13462903f9d5794ac961cd2 | UXT | WikiDoc | ART-27 is shown to be subject to both cell type and developmental regulation in humans. Its expression is associated with an abundance of differentiated prostate epithelial cells, and regulated expression in prostate cancer cells results in decreased cell proliferation. Significantly, because decreased levels of ART-27 are consistently found in prostate cancer cells, it likely plays a role in promoting epithelial differentiation via suppression of proliferative pathways. More recent studies have more definitively identified ART-27 as a corepressor of AR. The fact that the increase in gene transcription exhibited upon ART-27 depletion requires the presence of AR implies that it specifically functions as a corepressor of this receptor. Despite the lack of information regarding its mechanisms of suppression, ART-27 likely plays multiple roles that inhibit AR-mediated transcription. In the absence of androgens, ART-27 may bind the AR N terminus and thereby prevent AR-dependent | 3 |