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[ { "content": "Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''", "qid": "3062", "docid": "James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)", "rank": 1, "score": 152212 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 2, "score": 147478 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Sea_level_rise", "rank": 3, "score": 122704 }, { "content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Ice2sea", "rank": 4, "score": 109408 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Tuvalu Content: Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Tuvalu", "rank": 5, "score": 109102 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level Content: Mean sea level ( MSL ) ( abbreviated simply sea level ) is an average level of the surface of one or more of Earth 's oceans from which heights such as elevations may be measured . MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardised geodetic reference pointthat is used , for example , as a chart datum in cartography and marine navigation , or , in aviation , as the standard sea level at which atmospheric pressure is measured in order to calibrate altitude and , consequently , aircraft flight levels . A common and relatively straightforward mean sea-level standard is the midpoint between a mean low and mean high tide at a particular location . Sea levels can be affected by many factors and are known to have varied greatly over geological time scales . The careful measurement of variations in MSL can offer insights into ongoing climate change , and sea level rise has been widely quoted as evidence of ongoing global warming . The term above sea level generally refers to above mean sea level ( AMSL ) .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Sea_level", "rank": 6, "score": 105336 }, { "content": "Title: EL/M-2106 Content: The EL/M -2106 ATAR ( Advanced Tactical Acquisition Radar ) is a solid state L band medium range tactical 3D radar with active electronically scanned array ( AESA ) in elevation . The radar detects a wide variety of low RCS target such as : low velocity ultra-lights and UAVs . The radar can track up to 500 targets simultaneously , has 360 ° operation and all-weather day and night ability and includes advanced electronic counter-countermeasures ( ECCM ) to operate in dense hostile electronic warfare environments . It is a field proven design that has operated in undesirable environments . The range of detection for a fighter aircraft is 70 -- 110 km . It can detect hovering helicopters at a range of 40 km and UAVs at 40 -- 60 km . Used on the SPYDER air defense system .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "EL/M-2106", "rank": 7, "score": 104024 }, { "content": "Title: Storm tides of the North Sea Content: A storm tide is a tide with a high flood period caused by a storm . Storm tides can be a severe danger to the coast and the people living along the coast . The water level can rise to more than 5 metres ( 17 ft ) above the normal tide . The North Sea , especially the Netherlands , northern Germany and Denmark is particularly susceptible to storm tides . The coastline of the German Bight forms an L-shape facing northwest . Also vulnerable is the southern North Sea between England and the Netherlands , where the sea shallows and is funnelled between the land . For the protection of the low-lying areas along the coast , long and high dike systems have been built . Storm tides are a regular occurrence in these areas ; usually , there are several storm tides each winter . Most of them do not cause significant damage .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Storm_tides_of_the_North_Sea", "rank": 8, "score": 101868 }, { "content": "Title: Tide gauge Content: A tide gauge ( also known as mareograph or marigraph , as well as sea-level recorder ) is a device for measuring the change in sea level relative to a datum . Sensors continuously record the height of the water level with respect to a height reference surface close to the geoid . Water enters the device by the bottom pipe ( far end of the tube , see picture ) , and electronic sensors measure its height and send the data to a tiny computer . Historical data are available for about 1,450 stations worldwide , of which about 950 provided updates to the global data center since January 2010 . At some places records cover centuries , for example in Amsterdam where data dating back to 1700 is available . When it comes to estimating the greater ocean picture , new modern tide gauges can often be improved upon by using satellite data . Tide gauges are used to measure tides and quantify the size of tsunamis . The measurements make it possible to derive the mean sea level . Using this method , sea level slopes up to several 0.1 m/1000 km and more have been detected . A tsunami can be detected when the sea level begins to rise , although warnings from seismic activity can be more useful .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Tide_gauge", "rank": 9, "score": 101780 }, { "content": "Title: Metres above the Adriatic Content: Metres above the Adriatic ( Metri sopra l'Adriatico , Meter über Adria , Metara iznad Jadrana ) is the mean sea level datum used in Austria and some other Central and Southeast European countries to measure elevation referring to the average water level of the Adriatic Sea at the Sartorio mole in the Port of Trieste .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Metres_above_the_Adriatic", "rank": 10, "score": 100909 }, { "content": "Title: Sea Level Datum of 1929 Content: The Sea Level Datum of 1929 was the vertical control datum established for vertical control surveying in the United States of America by the General Adjustment of 1929 . The datum was used to measure elevation ( altitude ) above , and depression ( depth ) below , mean sea level ( MSL ) . Mean sea level was measured at 26 tide gauges : 21 in the United States and 5 in Canada . The datum was defined by the observed heights of mean sea level at the 26 tide gauges and by the set of elevations of all bench marks resulting from the adjustment . The adjustment required a total of 66,315 miles ( 106,724 km ) of leveling with 246 closed circuits and 25 circuits at sea level . Since the Sea Level Datum of 1929 was a hybrid model , it was not a pure model of mean sea level , the geoid , or any other equipotential surface . Therefore , it was renamed the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 ( NGVD 29 ) in 1973 . NGVD29 was superseded by the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 ( NAVD 88 ) , based upon an equipotential definition and a readjustment , although many cities and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers projects with established data continued to use the older datum .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Sea_Level_Datum_of_1929", "rank": 11, "score": 100030 }, { "content": "Title: Draupner wave Content: The Draupner wave or New Year 's wave was the first rogue wave to be detected by a measuring instrument , occurring at the Draupner platform in the North Sea off the coast of Norway on 1 January 1995 . In an area with significant wave height of approximately 12 m , a freak wave with a maximum wave height of 25.6 m occurred ( peak elevation above still water level was 18.5 m ) . Prior to that measurement , no instrument-recorded evidence for rogue waves existed -- just anecdotal evidence provided by those who had encountered them at sea , although ships such as the British Ocean Weather Reporter had recorded very large waves that did not differ quite enough from their neighbors to be considered rogue . Minor damage was inflicted on the platform during this event , confirming the validity of the reading made by a downwards-pointing laser sensor .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Draupner_wave", "rank": 12, "score": 100015 }, { "content": "Title: Surface pressure Content: In atmospheric science , surface pressure is the atmospheric pressure at a location on Earth 's surface . It is directly proportional to the mass of air over that location . For numerical reasons , atmospheric models such as general circulation models ( GCMs ) usually predict the nondimensional logarithm of surface pressure . The average value of surface pressure on Earth is 985hPa . This is in contrast to mean sea-level pressure , which involves the extrapolation of pressure to sea-level for locations above or below sea-level . The average pressure at mean sea-level ( MSL ) in the International Standard Atmosphere ( ISA ) is 1013.25 hPa , or 1 atmosphere ( Atm ) , or 29.92 inches of mercury . Pressure ( P ) , mass ( m ) , and the acceleration due to gravity ( g ) , are related by P = F/A = ( m * g ) / A , where A is surface area . Atmospheric pressure is thus proportional to the weight per unit area of the atmospheric mass above that location .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Surface_pressure", "rank": 13, "score": 98793 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Tuvalu", "rank": 14, "score": 97973 }, { "content": "Title: Metres above sea level Content: Redirected here : feet above sea level ; AMSL means `` above mean sea level '' , and may be used for heights specified in any units . Metres above mean sea level ( MAMSL ) or simply metres above sea level ( MASL or m a.s.l. ) is a standard metric measurement in metres of the elevation or altitude of a location in reference to a historic mean sea level . Mean sea levels are affected by climate change and other factors and change over time . For this and other reasons , recorded measurements of elevation above sea level might differ from the actual elevation of a given location over sea level at a given moment .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Metres_above_sea_level", "rank": 15, "score": 97682 }, { "content": "Title: Peermade Content: Peermade , also spelt Peerumedu is a hill station in the state of Kerala , India . It lies 915 m above sea level in the Western Ghats ( Sahyadri ) some 85 km east of Kottayam on the way to Thekkady through the nearby city of Kanjirappally .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Peermade", "rank": 16, "score": 96576 }, { "content": "Title: Altitude diving Content: Altitude diving is underwater diving using scuba or surface supplied diving equipment where the surface is 300 meters ( 1,000 feet ) or more above sea level ( for example , a mountain lake ) . The U.S. Navy tables recommend that no alteration be made for dives at altitudes lower than 91 meters ( 300 feet ) and dives between 91 meters and 300 meters correction is required for dives over 44 meters sea water ( 145 feet sea water ) . Altitude is significant in diving because the depths and decompression used for dives at altitude are different from those used for the same dive profile at sea level .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Altitude_diving", "rank": 17, "score": 96176 }, { "content": "Title: Thiel Trough Content: Thiel Trough is a submarine trough trending NE-SW with depths reaching to 1,500 metres below sea level . The trough extends southwest from about 7630S , 3500W , in the Weddell Sea ; underlies Filchner Ice Shelf and the south part of Ronne Ice Shelf , south of Henry Ice Rise ; and continues west to about 8300S , 8500W , near Martin Hills . The portion northeast of the Henry Ice Rise was discovered in 1957-58 by a U.S. traverse party from Ellsworth Station and named `` Crary Trough '' after Albert P. Crary , chief scientist with the United States Antarctic Research Program ( USARP ) . The southwest portion was traced by U.S. seismic traverse parties , 1958 -- 64 , and the whole delineated in greater detail by the Scott Polar Research Institute ( SPRI ) - National Science Foundation ( NSF ) - Technical University of Denmark ( TUD ) airborne radio echo sounding program , 1967-79 . The name `` Crary Trough '' was later set aside by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) at the suggestion of Dr. Crary , who recommended that the entire trough be named after Dr. Edward C. Thiel ( 1928 -- 61 ) . Dr Thiel was chief seismologist at Ellsworth Station 1956 -- 58 , the leader of the traverse party that discovered this feature and died in an air-crash at Wilkes Station Antarctica . Category : Oceanic basins of the Southern Ocean Category : Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Thiel_Trough", "rank": 18, "score": 95897 }, { "content": "Title: Equilibrium level Content: In meteorology , the equilibrium level ( EL ) , or level of neutral buoyancy ( LNB ) , or limit of convection ( LOC ) , is the height at which a rising parcel of air is at the same temperature as its environment . This means that unstable air is now stable when it reaches the equilibrium level and convection stops . This level is often near the tropopause and can be indicated as near where the anvil of a thunderstorm because it is where the thunderstorm updraft is finally cut off , except in the case of overshooting tops where it continues rising to the maximum parcel level ( MPL ) due to momentum . More precisely , the cumulonimbus will stop rising around a few kilometres prior to reaching the level of neutral buoyancy and on average anvil glaciation occurs at a higher altitude over land than over sea ( despite little difference in LNB from land to sea ) .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Equilibrium_level", "rank": 19, "score": 95389 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level (disambiguation) Content: Sea level is the average height of the ocean . Sea level can also refer to :", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Sea_level_(disambiguation)", "rank": 20, "score": 93719 }, { "content": "Title: Ice rise Content: An ice rise is a clearly defined elevation of the otherwise totally flat ice shelf , typically dome-shaped and rising 100 to 200 metres above the surrounding ice shelf . An ice rise forms where the ice shelf touches the rocky seabed because of an elevation in the seabed that remains below sea level . ( In contrast , an elevation in the seabed that extends above sea level is defined as an island ) . The ice shelf flows over the seabed elevation , completely covering it with ice , thereby forming an ice rise . The resulting tension forms crevasses around the ice rise . An island within and totally covered by the ice shelf , may appear the exactly the same as an ice rise . Elaborate measurements may be required to distinguish between these two geographic features . Although ice rises are typically located within the ice shelf area , they can partially face the open sea . Ice rises are found only on the ice shelves of Antarctica . The largest ice rises exceed dimensions of 50 by 200 km , or 10 000 km ² in area . Some ice rises are incorrectly called islands , but also a few totally ice-covered islands within an ice shelf are also called ice rises . Ice rises , grouped by ice shelf , clockwise starting in East Antarctica : Brunt Ice Shelf McDonald Ice Rumples Riiser-Larsen Ice Shelf Lyddan Island King Baudouin Ice Shelf Derwael Ice Rise Amery Ice Shelf Budd Ice Rumples IR1 to IR5 near the ice front Shackleton Ice Shelf Green Ice Rises ( the northernmost ice rise , at 66 ° 21 'S ) Harrisson Ice Rises Ross Ice Shelf Crary Ice Rise ( the southernmost ice rise , at 82 ° 56 'S ) Crosson Ice Shelf Davis Ice Rise Bach Ice Shelf Burgess Ice Rise Dvořák Ice Rise Ives Ice Rise Landy Ice Rises George VI Ice Shelf Martin Ice Rise Wilkins Ice Shelf Petrie Ice Rises Schaus Ice Rises Vere Ice Rise Wordie Ice Shelf Coker Ice Rise Linchpin Ice Rise Miller Ice Rise Napier Ice Rise Reynolds Ice Rise Wade Ice Rise Müller Ice Shelf Humphreys Ice Rise Larsen-C Ice Shelf Bawden Ice Rise Gipps Ice Rise Tharp Ice Rise Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf Berkner Island Korff Ice Rise Henry Ice Rise Fowler Ice Rise Skytrain Ice Rise Doake Ice Rumples Dott Ice Rise Fletcher Ice Rise Hemmen Ice Rise Kealey Ice Rise Kershaw Ice Rumples Henry and Korff Ice Rises are the largest ice rises , with areas of roughly 1 500 to 1 600 km ² .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Ice_rise", "rank": 21, "score": 93718 }, { "content": "Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Meltwater_pulse_1A", "rank": 22, "score": 93489 }, { "content": "Title: Ieodo Ocean Research Station Content: Ieodo Ocean Research Station is an ocean platform constructed by South Korea and placed on the submerged Socotra Rock in the East China Sea . The stated purpose of the platform is the collection of meteorological data , provision for maritime safety , and fisheries monitoring . However , as South Korea and China both claim that Socotra Rock lies in their respective Exclusive Economic Zones , the platform does have strategic implications . The platform was officially opened in June 2003 . The platform has a helipad a couple of lower decks for equipment and workspace . Although the station has residential facilities that can comfortably accommodate 8 people for 15 days , the station is typically uninhabited and operated remotely . While Socotra Rock rises to a maximum of 4.6 m below sea level , the platform is founded on a portion of the rock that is substantially deeper at 40m below sea level . As a result , the platform is approximately 700m from the rock 's `` peak . '' The platform rises approximately 36m from sea level .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Ieodo_Ocean_Research_Station", "rank": 23, "score": 93386 }, { "content": "Title: Seamount Content: A seamount is a mountain rising from the ocean seafloor that does not reach to the water 's surface ( sea level ) , and thus is not an island . Seamounts are typically formed from extinct volcanoes that rise abruptly and are usually found rising from the seafloor to 1000 - in height . They are defined by oceanographers as independent features that rise to at least 1000 m above the seafloor , characteristically of conical form . The peaks are often found hundreds to thousands of meters below the surface , and are therefore considered to be within the deep sea . During their evolution over geologic time , the largest seamounts may reach the sea surface where wave action erodes the summit to form a flat surface . After they have subsided and sunk below the sea surface such flat-top seamounts are called `` guyots '' or `` tablemounts '' A total of 9,951 seamounts and 283 guyots , covering a total of 8,796,150 km2 have been mapped but only a few have been studied in detail by scientists . Seamounts and guyots are most abundant in the North Pacific Ocean , and follow a distinctive evolutionary pattern of eruption , build-up , subsidence and erosion . In recent years , several active seamounts have been observed , for example Loihi in the Hawaiian Islands . Because of their abundance , seamounts are one of the most common marine ecosystems in the world . Interactions between seamounts and underwater currents , as well as their elevated position in the water , attract plankton , corals , fish , and marine mammals alike . Their aggregational effect has been noted by the commercial fishing industry , and many seamounts support extensive fisheries . There are ongoing concerns on the negative impact of fishing on seamount ecosystems , and well-documented cases of stock decline , for example with the orange roughy ( Hoplostethus atlanticus ) . 95 % of ecological damage is done by bottom trawling , which scrapes whole ecosystems off seamounts . Because of their large numbers , many seamounts remain to be properly studied , and even mapped . Bathymetry and satellite altimetry are two technologies working to close the gap . There have been instances where naval vessels have collided with uncharted seamounts ; for example , Muirfield Seamount is named after the ship that struck it in 1973 . However , the greatest danger from seamounts are flank collapses ; as they get older , extrusions seeping in the seamounts put pressure on their sides , causing landslides that have the potential to generate massive tsunamis .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Seamount", "rank": 24, "score": 92287 }, { "content": "Title: Metres above the Sea (Switzerland) Content: Metres above the Sea ( German : Meter über Meer ( m ü . M. ) ) is the elevation reference system used in Switzerland . Both the system and the term are also used in the Principality of Liechtenstein .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Metres_above_the_Sea_(Switzerland)", "rank": 25, "score": 91175 }, { "content": "Title: National Tidal and Sea Level Facility Content: Established in 2002 , The National Tidal and Sea Level Facility is responsible for monitoring sea levels in the UK . The NTSLF comprises the UK National Tide Gauge Network , geodetic networks , and gauges in the British Dependent Territories of the South Atlantic and Gibraltar . Data collected is used to create tidal predictions , monitor climate change and determine extreme sea levels for navigation and coastal engineering design . The Network is funded by the UK Environment Agency . Associated scientific research is funded by the Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC ) and the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "National_Tidal_and_Sea_Level_Facility", "rank": 26, "score": 91036 }, { "content": "Title: Metre sea water Content: The metre ( or meter ) sea water ( msw ) is a unit of pressure used in underwater diving . It is defined as one tenth of a bar . The equivalent U.S. customary unit is the foot sea water ( fsw ) . One fsw equals 0.30643 msw ; 33.066 fsw is approximately 1 atm . The msw and fsw are the conventional units for measurement of diver pressure exposure used in decompression tables and the unit of calibration for pneumofathometers and hyperbaric chamber pressure gauges .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Metre_sea_water", "rank": 27, "score": 90375 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Height Datum Content: The Australian Height Datum is a geodetic datum for altitude measurement in Australia . According to Geoscience Australia , `` In 1971 the mean sea level for 1966-1968 was assigned the value of 0.000 m on the Australian Height Datum at thirty tide gauges around the coast of the Australian continent . The resulting datum surface , with minor modifications in two metropolitan areas , has been termed the Australian Height Datum ( AHD ) and was adopted by the National Mapping Council as the datum to which all vertical control for mapping ( and other surveying functions ) is to be referred . ''", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Australian_Height_Datum", "rank": 28, "score": 90108 }, { "content": "Title: Seabee Heights Content: Seabee Heights is a rugged snow-covered heights rising to 3400 m in the Queen Maud Mountains . The heights are about 15 nmi long and 5 nmi wide and are bounded by the flow of the DeGanahl , LaVergne and Liv Glaciers . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for the U.S. Navy Construction Battalions ( Seabees ) which have played a significant role in the building of U.S. Antarctic stations .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Seabee_Heights", "rank": 29, "score": 89936 }, { "content": "Title: Annual cycle of sea level height Content: The annual cycle of sea level height ( or seasonal cycle or annual harmonic ) describes the variation of sea level that occurs with a period of one year . Historically , analysis of the annual cycle has been limited by locations with tide gauge records , i.e. , coastlines and some islands in the deep ocean , and by sparse records in the Southern Hemisphere . Since 1992 , satellite-based altimeters have provided near global coverage of sea level variability , allowing for a more thorough understanding of the annual cycle both in the deep ocean and in coastal margins .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Annual_cycle_of_sea_level_height", "rank": 30, "score": 89925 }, { "content": "Title: Hypsometry Content: Hypsometry ( from Greek ὕψος , hupsos , `` height '' and μέτρον , metron , `` measure '' ) is the measurement of land elevation relative to sea level . Bathymetry is the underwater equivalent . A hypsometer is an instrument used in hypsometry , which estimates the elevation by boiling water -- water boils at different temperatures depending on the air pressure , and thus altitude . On Earth , the elevations can take on either positive or negative ( below sea level ) values , and are bimodal due to the contrast between the continents and oceans . On other planets within this solar system , elevations are typically unimodal , owing to the lack of oceans on those bodies .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Hypsometry", "rank": 31, "score": 89654 }, { "content": "Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Past_sea_level", "rank": 32, "score": 88251 }, { "content": "Title: South Tasman Rise Content: The South Tasman Rise is an area of seafloor that lies 550 km south of Hobart , Tasmania in the Southern Ocean where water depths are about 1,500 metres . The South Tasman Rise is also known as the Tasmania Ridge or South Tasmania Ridge .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "South_Tasman_Rise", "rank": 33, "score": 88180 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of high altitude on humans Content: The effects of high altitude on humans are considerable . The percentage oxygen saturation of hemoglobin determines the content of oxygen in blood . After the human body reaches around 2,100 m ( 7,000 feet ) above sea level , the saturation of oxyhemoglobin begins to plummet . However , the human body has both short-term and long-term adaptations to altitude that allow it to partially compensate for the lack of oxygen . Athletes use these adaptations to help their performance . There is a limit to the level of adaptation ; mountaineers refer to the altitudes above 8000 m as the `` death zone '' , where it is generally believed that no human body can acclimatize .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Effects_of_high_altitude_on_humans", "rank": 34, "score": 87953 }, { "content": "Title: Extreme points of Antarctica Content: The tallest mountain in Antarctica is Mount Vinson rising 4,892 metres ( 16,050 feet ) above sea level . The lowest point in Antarctica is within the Bentley Subglacial Trench , which reaches 2,555 metres below sea level . This is also the lowest place on Earth not covered by ocean ( although it is covered by ice ) . The lowest accessible point in Antarctica is the shore of Deep Lake , Vestfold Hills , which is 50 m beneath sea level . The point on land farthest from any coastline on the Antarctic Continent is located at . This is also known as the South Pole of inaccessibility . Antarctica is the southernmost land mass on Earth . The Geographical South Pole lies on the Polar Plateau at . It is here that the southernmost human habitation on Earth is located : Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station ( U.S. Administered Base ) . Vostok Station is the most isolated research base on the continent ( located at ) , and it is situated over the southernmost lake in the world , Lake Vostok , a subglacial lake 4,000 metres ( 13,000 feet ) under the surface of the ice where the station sits . Formerly administrated by the Soviets , it is now operated by Russia . The southernmost volcano on the planet -- Mount Erebus -- is in Antarctica on the world 's southernmost island reachable from the sea : Ross Island . The southernmost island is Berkner Island . It is embedded in the ice shelf , fully covered by ice and fully below sea level . The Ross Sea is the southernmost sea in the world , with its southernmost extremity ( Gould Coast ) at the foot of the Horlick Mountains approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) from the Geographic South Pole . However , this area is covered by the Ross Ice Shelf . The southernmost open sea is also part of Ross Sea , namely Bay of Whales at 78 ° 30 'S , at the edge of Ross Ice Shelf . The northernmost extremity of the Antarctic mainland ( without nearshore islands ) is Prime Head , at the northern tip of the Trinity Peninsula at . The Antarctic Peninsula is the largest contiguous part of the continent projecting north of the Antarctic Circle and thus has many of the continent 's research bases . Prime Head is 609 mi ( 980 km ) from Cape Horn . The northernmost research base on the mainland is Esperanza Base .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Extreme_points_of_Antarctica", "rank": 35, "score": 87617 }, { "content": "Title: Common metre Content: Common metre or common measure -- abbreviated as C. M. or CM -- is a poetic metre consisting of four lines which alternate between iambic tetrameter ( four metrical feet per line , with each foot consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable ) and iambic trimeter ( three metrical feet per line , with each foot consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable ) . The metre is denoted by the syllable count of each line , i.e. 8.6.8.6 , 86.86 , or 86 86 , depending on style , or by its shorthand abbreviation `` CM '' . It has historically been used for ballads such as `` Tam Lin '' , and hymns such as `` Amazing Grace '' and the Christmas carol `` O Little Town of Bethlehem '' . The upshot of this commonality is that lyrics of one song can be sung to the tune of another ; for example , `` Advance Australia Fair '' , the national anthem of Australia , can be sung to the tune of `` House of the Rising Sun '' .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Common_metre", "rank": 36, "score": 87614 }, { "content": "Title: João Valente (reef) Content: João Valente is a reef located nearly between the islands of Boa Vista ( 20 nmi , 35 km ) and Maio ( 25 mmi , 45 km ) . The reef 's lowest point is about 100 meters above sea level . The seamount is about 1,000 meters tall . The highest point is 14 meters below sea level and dominates the area of about 1,000 to 2,000 km2 , probably and erosion affected the volcano ( Guyot ) . The reef is partly visible during low tide . During the Ice Age , it was a larger island that once included Boa Vista and Maio , it was in the middle part and had two isthmus connecting the former Boa Vista and the Southern peninsulas . Around 7,000 to 6,000 BC , the isthmus were flooded and separated Boa Vista and Maio to form its own islands . João Valente was a flat island until around 4,000 to 3,000 BC when a rise in sea level flooded the whole island and became a reef . In about 2000 to 1000 BC , the elevation was about ten meters below sea level . The reef was mentioned as `` Baixa '' ( Portuguese for lower as being underwater and a submerged rocky area ) in a 1598 map titled Insulae Capitis Viridis which is now at the National Library of France . In a map from 1747 by Jacques-Nicolas Bellin , the reef was mentioned as a submerged rock named Jean Letton ( Roche de Jean Letton , Middle Dutch : Rotz van Jean Letton , Portuguese : Rochas de João Leitão ) . On April 20 , 1806 , the English ship The Lady Burgess sank into the reef . The high biodiversity of fishes in the reef along with other seamounts discovered in 1981 , ichthyofauna has been studied . Also it is the area where other sealife including coral are founded and may be Cape Verde 's most abundant including the waters surrounding Boa Vista .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "João_Valente_(reef)", "rank": 37, "score": 86428 }, { "content": "Title: Toli Pir Content: Toli Pir ( also spelled Tolipeer , Tauli Pir , Tooli Pir , Tolipir , or Toli Peer ) ( -LSB- ) is a hilltop area situated in Tehsil Rawalakot in the Poonch District of Azad Kashmir . Its approximate elevation is about 8800 ft above sea level . It is about 30 km , or a 45-minute drive , from Rawalakot in Azad Kashmir . Abbaspur , Bagh and Poonch River can be viewed from Toli Pir . Toli Pir is the highest mountainous location in the northeastern area of Rawalakot ; it is the point of origin of three different mountain ridges . The tourist rest house on the way to Toli Pir is also situated in a scenic location . There are some remains of an old mazar on the highest hilltop . Toli Pir is most accessible during the summer months ; the weather generally becomes colder from October through March .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Toli_Pir", "rank": 38, "score": 86117 }, { "content": "Title: Seagaia Ocean Dome Content: The , was one of the world 's largest indoor waterparks , located in Miyazaki , Miyazaki , Japan . The Polynesia-themed Ocean Dome , which was a part of the Sheraton Seagaia Resort , measured 300 metres in length and 100 metres in width , and was listed on the Guinness World Records . It opened in 1993 , and visitor numbers peaked in 1995 at 1.25 million a year . Depending on the season , entrance cost was ¥ 2600 ( $ 21.17 ) for an adult and ¥ 1600 ( $ 13.03 ) for a child . The Ocean Dome was officially closed on October 1 , 2007 as part of a renovation and partial re-branding of the resort . The roof of the structure was retractable in four sections . The Ocean Dome sported a simulated flame-spitting volcano , artificial sand and the world 's largest retractable roof , which provided a permanently blue sky even on a rainy day . The air temperature was always held at around 30 C and the water at around 28 C.", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Seagaia_Ocean_Dome", "rank": 39, "score": 86030 }, { "content": "Title: Atacama Pathfinder Experiment Content: The Atacama Pathfinder Experiment ( APEX ) is a radio telescope 5,100 meters above sea level , at the Llano de Chajnantor Observatory in the Atacama desert in northern Chile , 50 km east of San Pedro de Atacama built and operated by 3 European research institutes . The main dish has a diameter of 12 m and consists of 264 aluminium panels with an average surface accuracy of 17 micrometres ( rms ) . The telescope was officially inaugurated on September 25 , 2005 . The APEX telescope is a modified ALMA ( Atacama Large Millimeter Array ) prototype antenna and is at the site of the ALMA observatory . APEX is designed to work at sub-millimetre wavelengths , in the 0.2 to 1.5 mm range -- between infrared light and radio waves -- and to find targets that ALMA will be able to study in greater detail . Submillimetre astronomy provides a window into the cold , dusty and distant Universe , but the faint signals from space are heavily absorbed by water vapour in the Earth 's atmosphere . Chajnantor was chosen as the location for such a telescope because the region is one of the driest on the planet and is more than 750 m higher than the observatories on Mauna Kea and 2400 m higher than the Very Large Telescope ( VLT ) on Cerro Paranal . APEX is a collaboration between the German Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy ( MPIfR ) at 50 % , the Swedish Onsala Space Observatory ( OSO ) at 23 % , and the European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere ( ESO ) at 27 % . The telescope was designed and constructed by the German firm VERTEX Antennentechnik GmbH , under contract by MPIfR . The operation of APEX on Chajnantor is entrusted to ESO .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Atacama_Pathfinder_Experiment", "rank": 40, "score": 85779 }, { "content": "Title: Orthometric height Content: The orthometric height of a point is the distance H along a plumb line from the point to the geoid . Orthometric height is for practical purposes `` height above sea level '' but the current NAVD88 datum is tied to a defined elevation at one point rather than to any location 's exact mean sea level . Orthometric heights are usually used in the US for engineering work , although dynamic height may be chosen for large-scale hydrological purposes . Heights for measured points are shown on National Geodetic Survey data sheets , data that was gathered over many decades by precise spirit leveling over thousands of miles . Since gravity is not constant over large areas the orthometric height of a level surface is not constant , and NGS orthometric heights are corrected for that effect . For example , gravity is 0.1 % stronger in the northern United States than in the southern , so a level surface that has an orthometric height of 1000 meters in Montana will be 1001 meters high in Texas . Practical applications must use a model rather than measurements to calculate the change in gravitational potential versus depth in the earth , since the geoid is below most of the land surface ( e.g. , the Helmert Orthometric heights of NAVD88 ) . GPS measurements give earth-centered coordinates , usually displayed as height above the reference ellipsoid , which can not be related accurately to orthometric height above the geoid without accurate gravity data for that location . NGS is undertaking the GRAV-D ten-year program to obtain such data . Alternatives to orthometric height include dynamic height and normal height .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Orthometric_height", "rank": 41, "score": 85124 }, { "content": "Title: Josh Willis Content: Joshua `` Josh '' K. Willis is an oceanographer at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . His area of expertise is current sea level rise , as well as measuring ocean temperatures . When sea level fell from 2010 to 2011 , Willis stated that this was due to an unusually large La Niña transferring more rainfall over land rather than over the ocean as usually happens . In addition , Willis is the project scientist for Jason-3 .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Josh_Willis", "rank": 42, "score": 84660 }, { "content": "Title: Mariana Trench Content: The Mariana Trench or Marianas Trench is the deepest part of the world 's oceans . It is located in the western Pacific Ocean , an average of 200 km to the east of the Mariana Islands , in the Western Pacific East of Philippines . It is a crescent-shaped scar in the Earth 's crust , and measures about 2550 km long and 69 km wide on average . It reaches a maximum-known depth of 10994 m ( ± 40 m ) at a small slot-shaped valley in its floor known as the Challenger Deep , at its southern end , although some unrepeated measurements place the deepest portion at 11034 m . If Mount Everest were dropped into the trench at this point , its peak would still be over 1 mile underwater . At the bottom of the trench the water column above exerts a pressure of 1086 bar , more than 1,000 times the standard atmospheric pressure at sea level . At this pressure , the density of water is increased by 4.96 % , so that 95 litres of water under the pressure of the Challenger Deep would contain the same mass as 100 litres at the surface . The temperature at the bottom is 1 to . The trench is not the part of the seafloor closest to the center of the Earth . This is because the Earth is not a perfect sphere ; its radius is about 25 km less at the poles than at the equator . As a result , parts of the Arctic Ocean seabed are at least 13 km closer to the Earth 's center than the Challenger Deep seafloor . Xenophyophores have been found in the trench by Scripps Institution of Oceanography researchers at a record depth of 10.6 km below the sea surface . On 17 March 2013 , researchers reported data that suggested microbial life forms thrive within the trench .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Mariana_Trench", "rank": 43, "score": 84429 }, { "content": "Title: High-altitude football controversy Content: The high-altitude football controversy arose in May 2007 when FIFA introduced a temporary ban on international matches at more than 2500 m above sea level , citing concerns about players ' health and the `` unfair '' advantage to acclimatised home teams . The ruling meant that Bolivia , Ecuador and Colombia would be prevented from hosting FIFA World Cup qualifiers in their own capital cities . The ban was revoked in May 2008 .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "High-altitude_football_controversy", "rank": 44, "score": 84241 }, { "content": "Title: Trölladyngja Content: Situated in the Ódáðahraun lava field , Trölladyngja is the biggest of the Icelandic shield volcanoes , reaching a height of 1468 m above sea level , and rising almost 600 metres above the surrounding desert and lava fields . It is about 10 kilometres in diameter and its inclination is 4 to 5 ° in the lower slopes , but 6 to 8 ° at higher elevations . Its oblong crater is about 1,200 to 1,500 metres in length , 500 metres broad , and about 100 metres deep . Most of its lava fields have flowed in a northerly direction , with one branch of it reaching the valley of Bárðardalur , a distance of roughly 100 km .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Trölladyngja", "rank": 45, "score": 84076 }, { "content": "Title: Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level Content: The Permanent Service for Mean Sea Level is a repository for tide gauge data used in the measurement of long-term sea level change . The PSMSL is based at the National Oceanography Centre in Liverpool , England . It was founded in 1933 as the IUGG Mean Sea Level Committee , and adopted as a Permanent Service of the International Council for Science in 1958 . The tide gauge data are freely accessible by all , and consist predominantly of monthly-mean and annual-mean sea levels . The primary , `` Revised Local Reference '' data set has a continuous history of benchmark surveys for each gauge , ensuring that sea level is measured relative to a known land-based datum . There is also a `` Metric '' data set without such datum control , and a set of hourly and daily ocean bottom pressure data from the open ocean . The latter has no datum control , and the instruments are prone to calibration drift , so the bottom pressure data are useful only for oscillations with periods significantly shorter than the length of an individual instrument deployment ( typically 1 year ) . The PSMSL is financially supported by the UK Natural Environment Research Council , the International Council for Science World Data System , and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Permanent_Service_for_Mean_Sea_Level", "rank": 46, "score": 83923 }, { "content": "Title: Lord Howe Rise Content: The Lord Howe Rise is a deep sea plateau which extends from south west of New Caledonia to the Challenger Plateau , west of New Zealand in the south west of the Pacific Ocean . To its west is the Tasman Basin and to the east is the New Caledonia Basin . Lord Howe Rise has a total area of about 1,500,000 square km , and generally lies about 750 to 1,200 metres under water . It is part of Zealandia , a much larger continent that is now mostly submerged , and so is composed of continental crust .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Lord_Howe_Rise", "rank": 47, "score": 83497 }, { "content": "Title: DSV Sea Cliff Content: DSV-4 ( ex-Sea Cliff ) is a 25-ton , manned deep-ocean research submersible owned by the United States Navy , now known only by its hull number , not by its former name . DSV-4 is an Alvin-class Deep Submergence Vehicle ( DSV ) . a sister ship to DSV Turtle ( DSV-3 ) and DSV Alvin ( DSV-2 ) . The Alvin-class DSVs were designed to replace older DSVs , such as the less-maneuverable Trieste-class bathyscaphes.DSV-4 originally had a maximum dive depth of 6,500 feet ( 2,000 meters ) , as all Alvin-class DSVs did at first . It was redesigned to dive to 20,000 feet ( 6,096 meters ) and refitted in 1984 . With the refit of DSV-4 , the bathyscaphe DSV-1 ( ex-Trieste II ) was retired from service . DSV-4 has a plug hatch 2 feet ( 0.61 meter ) in diameter , held in place mechanically with hatch dogs and , while submerged , by the pressure of the water above it . DSV-4 can dive 5,000 feet ( 1,524 meters ) deeper than the famed Alvin ; however , the Super Alvin-class replacement for DSV-2 is designed to dive to 22,000 feet ( 6,705 meters ) . Sea Cliff was retired from active service in 1998 and subsequently given to Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution . The Naval Vessel Register shows DSV-4 was returned to active U.S Navy service on 30 September 2002 in the custody of Woods Hole -LSB- -RSB- , but a New York Times article indicates that it was cannibalized for parts for DSV Alvin .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "DSV_Sea_Cliff", "rank": 48, "score": 82916 }, { "content": "Title: Jiaolong (submersible) Content: Jiaolong ( flood dragon ) is a Chinese manned deep-sea research submersible that can dive to a depth of over 7,000 m . It has the greatest depth range of any manned research vehicle in the world , the only manned expeditions to have gone deeper were the dives of the Trieste bathyscaphe ( 10,916 m ) in 1960 and the dive of the Deepsea Challenger ( 10,898 m ) in 2012 , both diving to Challenger Deep . The general designer is Xu Qinan , a former professor of School of Naval Architecture , Ocean and Civil Engineering of Shanghai Jiao Tong University ( SJTU ) , who also designed many other Chinese submersibles and unmanned underwater vehicles . Xu is now an academician for the Chinese Academy of Engineering . The first deputy general designer is Cui Weicheng , and the deputy general designer was Zhu Weiqing . On June 27 , 2012 , the Jiaolong with two oceanauts reached a depth of 7,062 meters ( 23,169 feet ) in the Mariana Trench in the western Pacific Ocean . Previously on June 19 , 2012 , the Jiaolong reached a depth of 6,965 metres ( 22,851 feet ) . It had its first test in South China Sea between May 31 and July 18 , 2010 , reaching a depth of 3,759 m with three crew . On July 22 , 2011 , Jiaolong reached a depth of 4,027.31 m in northeastern Pacific . The five-hour mission included chemical , physical and biological research . 17 dives have been completed . Besides China , other countries that have developed deep-water technology include the United States , France , Russia and Japan .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Jiaolong_(submersible)", "rank": 49, "score": 82910 }, { "content": "Title: Naugaja Peer Content: Naugaja Peer was a saint whose height was 9 `` gaj '' which in Indian metric units equals 8 meters and 36 inches or 27 feet . His name was Syed Ibrahim Badshah , who is believed to ensure safe journeys and completion of all works in time . There are many shrines of Naugaja Peer in the Punjab region which form part of Punjabi folk religion . The shrine is regularly visited by passers by and from people from the Punjab region .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Naugaja_Peer", "rank": 50, "score": 82735 }, { "content": "Title: African superswell Content: The African superswell is a region including the Southern and Eastern African plateaus and the Southeastern Atlantic basin where exceptional tectonic uplift has occurred , resulting in terrain much higher than its surroundings . The average elevation of cratons is about 400 -- 500 meters above sea level . Southern Africa exceeds these elevations by more than 500 m , and stands at over 1 km above sea level . The Southern and Eastern African plateaus show similar uplift histories , allowing them to be considered as one topographic unit . When considered this way , the swell is one of the largest topographic anomalies observed on any continent , and spans an area of over 10 million km2 . Uplift extends beyond the continents into the Atlantic ocean , where extremely shallow ocean depths are visible through bathymetric survey . The region can indeed be considered as one large swell because the bathymetric anomaly to the southwest of Africa is on the same order as the topographic anomaly of the plateaus ( approximately 500 m ) . The superswell is a relatively recent phenomenon , probably beginning between 5 and 30 million years ago .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "African_superswell", "rank": 51, "score": 82497 }, { "content": "Title: General circulation model Content: A general circulation model ( GCM ) is a type of climate model . It employs a mathematical model of the general circulation of a planetary atmosphere or ocean . It uses the Navier -- Stokes equations on a rotating sphere with thermodynamic terms for various energy sources ( radiation , latent heat ) . These equations are the basis for computer programs used to simulate the Earth 's atmosphere or oceans . Atmospheric and oceanic GCMs ( AGCM and OGCM ) are key components along with sea ice and land-surface components . GCMs and global climate models are used for weather forecasting , understanding the climate and forecasting climate change . Versions designed for decade to century time scale climate applications were originally created by Syukuro Manabe and Kirk Bryan at the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in Princeton , New Jersey . These models are based on the integration of a variety of fluid dynamical , chemical and sometimes biological equations .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "General_circulation_model", "rank": 52, "score": 82197 }, { "content": "Title: Sea Trek (diving system) Content: In 1999 Sub Sea Systems , Inc. , introduced Sea Trek , an underwater helmet diving system . Sub Sea Systems is certified by ship building societies such as Bureau Veritas , American Bureau of Shipping , and Korean Registry of Shipping . Current Sea Trek operations vary in depth from 3 to 10 meters . The maximum depth is not a function of the system 's ability to provide air supply ( operating pressure of 80 p.s.i. ) , rather a function of what is a safe operating depth for nonswimmers in case of emergency . Air can be provided from one of three options : Surface supply from an electrically driven compressor system with backup supply from high pressure cylinders via a floating manifold , through 60 ft buoyant hoses . Self contained high pressure cylinder carried by the diver on a stainless steel backplate ( scuba system ) , The `` POD '' system uses two air cylinders supported by a float at the surface connected to up to two helmets by 20 ft buoyant air lines . The surface supplied compressor air delivery is controlled by a microprocessor digital control system ( A/C & D/C ) , providing the following primary functions : Independent monitoring of input and output power to each compressor motor Automatic compressor selection and control Emergency tank activation Primary air tank pressure monitoring Downstream system pressure monitoring Low-pressure and power failure alarm ( visual and audible ) .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Sea_Trek_(diving_system)", "rank": 53, "score": 82196 }, { "content": "Title: Chatham Rise Content: The Chatham Rise is an area of ocean floor to the east of New Zealand , forming part of the Zealandia continent . It stretches for some 1000 km from near the South Island in the west , to the Chatham Islands in the east . It is New Zealand 's most productive and important fishing ground , as well as important habitat for whales . Relative to the rest of the Pacific Ocean waters around New Zealand , the Chatham Rise is relatively shallow , no more than 1000 m deep at any point . This shallowness is made more remarkable by the depth of the ocean immediately to the north and south . To the northeast , the Hikurangi Trench , an extension of the much deeper Kermadec Trench , drops to below 3000 m close to the New Zealand coast , and further from the coast the Rise borders on the Hikurangi Plateau . To the south , similar depths are achieved in the Bounty Trough . Past the eastern end of the rise , the sea floor drops away to the abyssal plain .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Chatham_Rise", "rank": 54, "score": 81612 }, { "content": "Title: Llano del Hato National Astronomical Observatory Content: The Llano del Hato National Astronomical Observatory ( OAN de Llano del Hato , or Observatorio Astronómico Nacional de Llano del Hato ) is an astronomical observatory in Venezuela ( IAU code 303 ) . It is 3600 meters above sea level and is the country 's main observatory . It is situated above the village of Llano del Hato in the Venezuelan Andes , not far from Apartaderos which lies about 50 kilometers north-east of Mérida , Mérida State . This facility is the closest major optical observatory to the equator lying at 8 degrees and 47.51 minutes north . It therefore has access to most parts of both the northern and southern skies . It benefits from a very dark site , and its altitude of 3,600 meters ( 12,000 feet ) above sea level means atmospheric turbulence is greatly reduced . The observatory is under the auspices of the Centro de Investigaciones de Astronomia ( CIDA ) , the main astronomical research body in Venezuela . CIDA conducts many projects in collaboration with other research organizations , academic institutions and international bodies . It also conducts valuable research in its own right and has a record that includes several important discoveries . There are four large optical telescopes , each in its own cupola or dome : an 1-m Askania Schmidt camera ( one of the largest telescopes of this type in the world ) , a 65-cm Zeiss refractor , a 1-m Zeiss reflector and a 50-cm Askania double astrograph . These instruments were acquired by the Venezuelan government 1954 and installed at Llano del Hato in the early 1970s . The observatory also has a museum and exhibition centre where visitors can learn about the work of the observatory and CIDA as well as astronomy in general . The Quasar Equatorial Survey Team ( QUEST ) project is a joint venture between Yale University , Indiana University , and CIDA to photographically survey the sky . It now uses the 48 inch ( 1.22-m ) aperture Samuel Oschin telescope at the Palomar Observatory with a digital camera , an array of 112 charge-coupled devices . Previously , it used the 1.0-metre Schmidt telescope of the Llano del Hato National Astronomical Observatory .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Llano_del_Hato_National_Astronomical_Observatory", "rank": 55, "score": 81461 }, { "content": "Title: Seahpo Peak Content: Seahpo Peak is a subsidiary peak of Mount Shuksan , which rises in the U.S. state of Washington . It is located about 2 mi east of the main peak of Shuksan and rises to about 7441 ft. It is located in North Cascades National Park and is part of the North Cascades range . Connected to the main peak by the roughly 7000 ft-high Jagged Ridge , Seahpo Peak stands to the north at the headwaters of a headstream of Sulphide Creek , a tributary of the Baker River . Several waterfalls tumble off its flanks , including Seahpo Peak Falls and Cloudcap Falls . ( Seahpo Peak is sometimes referred to as Cloudcap Peak . ) The mountain is also on the south side of the Nooksack Cirque , which forms the headwaters of the Nooksack River . It is bordered by the East Nooksack Glacier to the north and a few smaller unnamed glaciers to the south . It is also connected to Icy Peak by another unnamed ridge . The mountain derives its name from a French word , chapeau , meaning `` hat '' .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Seahpo_Peak", "rank": 56, "score": 81409 }, { "content": "Title: Flight level Content: In aviation and aviation meteorology , a flight level ( FL ) is defined as a vertical altitude at standard pressure , nominally expressed in hundreds of feet . The pressure is computed assuming an International standard sea-level pressure datum of 1013.2 hPa ( 29.92 inHg ) , and therefore is not necessarily the same as the aircraft 's actual altitude either above mean sea level or above ground level .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Flight_level", "rank": 57, "score": 81366 }, { "content": "Title: Barometric formula Content: The barometric formula , sometimes called the exponential atmosphere or isothermal atmosphere , is a formula used to model how the pressure ( or density ) of the air changes with altitude . The pressure drops approximately by 11.3 Pa per meter in first 1000 meters above sea level .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Barometric_formula", "rank": 58, "score": 81247 }, { "content": "Title: Cerro de Punta Content: Cerro de Punta or just Cerro Punta is the highest peak in Puerto Rico , rising to 1338 m above sea level.As of February , 1981 , the US Geological Survey reports the height as 1,328 meters . ( See : Geographic Names Information System : Feature Query Results . United States Geological Survey . 13-FEB-1981 . Retrieved 22 August 2013 . ) However , Gousha ( 1995 ) and Metrodata ( 1998 ) report the height as 1,338 meters . ( See : Las cumbres más altas de Puerto Rico . Universidad Interamericana de Puerto Rico en Bayamon . Departamento de Ciencias Naturales y Matematicas . Retrieved 22 August 2013 . ) The mountain is part of the Cordillera Central and is located in the municipality of Ponce .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Cerro_de_Punta", "rank": 59, "score": 81173 }, { "content": "Title: Meter water equivalent Content: In physics , the meter water equivalent ( often m.w.e. or mwe ) is a standard measure of cosmic ray attenuation in underground laboratories . A laboratory at a depth of 1000 m.w.e is shielded from cosmic rays equivalent to a lab 1000 m below the surface of a body of water . Because laboratories at the same depth ( in meters ) can have greatly varied levels of cosmic ray penetration , the m.w.e. provides a convenient and consistent way of comparing cosmic ray levels in different underground locations . Cosmic ray attenuation is dependent on the density of the material of the overburden , so the m.w.e. is defined as the product of depth and density ( also known as an interaction depth ) . Because the density of water is 1 g/cm3 , 1 m of water gives an interaction depth of 1 hectogram per square centimeter ( hg/cm2 ) . Some publications use hg/cm2 instead of m.w.e. , although the two units are equivalent . Another factor that must be accounted for is the shape of the overburden . While some laboratories are located beneath a flat ground surface , many are located in tunnels in mountains . Thus , the distance to the surface in directions other than straight up is less than it would be assuming a flat surface .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Meter_water_equivalent", "rank": 60, "score": 80858 }, { "content": "Title: Lifted condensation level Content: The lifted condensation level or lifting condensation level ( LCL ) is formally defined as the height at which the relative humidity ( RH ) of an air parcel will reach 100 % when it is cooled by dry adiabatic lifting . The RH of air increases when it is cooled , since the amount of water vapor in the air ( i.e. , its specific humidity ) remains constant , while the saturation vapor pressure decreases almost exponentially with decreasing temperature . If the air parcel is lifting further beyond the LCL , water vapor in the air parcel will begin condensing , forming cloud droplets . ( In the real atmosphere , it is usually necessary for air to be slightly supersaturated , normally by around 0.5 % , before condensation occurs ; this translates into about 10 meters or so of additional lifting above the LCL . ) The LCL is a good approximation of the height of the cloud base which will be observed on days when air is lifted mechanically from the surface to the cloud base ( e.g. , due to convergence of airmasses ) .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Lifted_condensation_level", "rank": 61, "score": 80839 }, { "content": "Title: Lysocline Content: The lysocline is the depth in the ocean below which the rate of dissolution of calcite increases dramatically . Shallow marine waters are generally supersaturated in calcite , CaCO3 , so as marine organisms ( which often have shells made of calcite or its polymorph , aragonite ) die , they will tend to fall downwards without dissolving . As depth and pressure increases within the water column , the corresponding calcite saturation of seawater decreases and the shells start to dissolve . The reaction involved , though more complex , can be thought of as : CaCO3 ( s ) + H2O + CO2 → Ca2 + ( aq ) + 2HCO3 − ( aq ) . At the lysocline , the rate of dissolution increases dramatically . Below this , there exists a depth known as the carbonate compensation depth ( CCD ) below which the rate of supply of calcite equals the rate of dissolution , such that no calcite is deposited . This depth is the equivalent of a marine snow-line , and averages about 4,500 meters below sea level . Hence , the lysocline and CCD are not equivalent . The lysocline and compensation depth occur at greater depths in the Atlantic ( 5000-6000 m ) than in the Pacific ( 4000 - 5000 m ) , and at greater depths in equatorial regions than in polar regions . The depth of the CCD varies as a function of the chemical composition of the seawater and its temperature . Specifically , it is the deep waters that are undersaturated with calcium carbonate primarily because its solubility increases strongly with increasing pressure and salinity and decreasing temperature . Furthermore , it is not constant over time , having been globally much shallower in the Cretaceous through to Eocene . If the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide continues to increase , the CCD can be expected to rise , along with the ocean 's acidity .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Lysocline", "rank": 62, "score": 80569 }, { "content": "Title: List of places on land with elevations below sea level Content: This is a list of places below mean sea level that are on land . Places in tunnels , mines , basements , dug holes ( also with open sky ) , under water , under ice , or existing temporarily as a result of ebbing of sea tide etc. are not included . Places where seawater and rainwater is pumped away are included . Fully natural places below sea level require a dry climate , otherwise rain would exceed evaporation and fill the area . All figures are in meters below sea level , arranged by depth , lowest first :", "qid": "3062", "docid": "List_of_places_on_land_with_elevations_below_sea_level", "rank": 63, "score": 80541 }, { "content": "Title: Dvořák Ice Rise Content: Dvořák Ice Rise is an ice rise 1.5 nmi in extent , rising above the ice of Mendelssohn Inlet in the southwest part of Alexander Island , Antarctica . It was first mapped , from air photos taken by the Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition , 1947 -- 48 , by D. Searle of the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey in 1960 , and was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee after Antonín Dvořák , the Czech composer . ( 1841-1904 ) .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Dvořák_Ice_Rise", "rank": 64, "score": 80530 }, { "content": "Title: List of Ultras of the Caribbean Content: The following sortable table comprises the seven ultra-prominent summits on the islands of the Caribbean Sea . Each of these peaks has at least 1500 m of topographic prominence . Five of these peaks rise on the island of Hispaniola and one each on Jamaica and Cuba . Topographic elevation is the vertical distance above the reference geoid , a mathematical model of the Earth 's sea level as an equipotential gravitational surface . The topographic prominence of a summit is the elevation difference between that summit and the highest or key col to a higher summit . The topographic isolation of a summit is the minimum great-circle distance to a point of equal elevation . This article defines a significant summit as a summit with at least 100 m of topographic prominence , and a major summit as a summit with at least 500 m of topographic prominence . An ultra-prominent summit is a summit with at least 1500 m of topographic prominence . If an elevation or prominence is calculated as a range of values , the arithmetic mean is shown .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "List_of_Ultras_of_the_Caribbean", "rank": 65, "score": 80326 }, { "content": "Title: List of mountains in Norway by height Content: There are 291 peaks in Norway with elevations over sea level of 2000 m or more and that have a topographic prominence of more than 10 meters . The following list includes those 186 that have a topographic prominence of 50 meters or more . The Topographic isolation refers to the shortest horizontal distance one would have to travel to find a higher summit .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "List_of_mountains_in_Norway_by_height", "rank": 66, "score": 80268 }, { "content": "Title: Windy Hill (Pennines) Content: Windy Hill in the South Pennines within the Metropolitan Borough of Rochdale in Greater Manchester , England , rises to 389 metres above sea level . The hill is located west of the A672 road and south west of Junction 22 on the M62 motorway . Windy Hill cutting is up to 120 feet deep and the longest on the M62 . A pedestrian footbridge , 320 feet long and 65 feet above the carriageways , carries the Pennine Way above Windy Hill cutting . Its parabolic arch and splayed legs are designed to withstand wind speeds up to 120 mph . Snow lies on Windy Hill for an average of 35 days annually and the area is prone to fog or low cloud . The boundary stone between Greater Manchester and West Yorkshire is in the cutting . The Longden End Brook rises between the hill and the motorway and the Piethorne Brook drains to reservoirs to the southwest . A radio transmitter is located to the east .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Windy_Hill_(Pennines)", "rank": 67, "score": 80128 }, { "content": "Title: Wind profiler Content: A wind profiler is a type of weather observing equipment that uses radar or sound waves ( SODAR ) to detect the wind speed and direction at various elevations above the ground . Readings are made at each kilometer above sea level , up to the extent of the troposphere ( i.e. , between 8 and 17 km above mean sea level ) . Above this level there is inadequate water vapor present to produce a radar `` bounce . '' The data synthesized from wind direction and speed is very useful to meteorological forecasting and timely reporting for flight planning . A twelve-hour history of data is available through NOAA websites .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Wind_profiler", "rank": 68, "score": 79926 }, { "content": "Title: 80-meter band Content: The 80 meter or 3.5 MHz band is a band of radio frequencies allocated for amateur radio use , from 3.5 to 4.0 MHz in IARU Region 2 , and generally 3.5 to 3.8 or 3.9 MHz in Regions 1 and 3 respectively . The upper portion of the band , which is usually used for phone ( voice ) , is sometimes referred to as 75 meters . In Europe 75m is a shortwave broadcast band , with a number of national radio services operating between 3.9 & 4.0 MHz . Because of high D layer absorption , 80 meters is less reliable for over intercontinental distances , but is the most popular band for regional communications networks through the late afternoon and night time hours . It is usually reliable for short to medium distance contacts , with average distances ranging from local contacts within 200 miles/300 km out to a distance of 1,000 miles/1 ,600 km or more , depending on atmospheric and ionospheric conditions .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "80-meter_band", "rank": 69, "score": 79833 }, { "content": "Title: Four-thousander Content: A four-thousander is a mountain summit that is at least 4,000 metres above sea level . Because the highest peaks in Europe fall into this category , the summits of four-thousanders are popular in Europe with climbers and mountaineers as climbing goals . Although climbing these peaks does not require an expedition to be mounted , unlike the highest peaks in other continents , knowledge and experience of high altitude climbing is a pre-requisite for attempting these peaks .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Four-thousander", "rank": 70, "score": 79783 }, { "content": "Title: QNH Content: QNH is a Q code indicating the atmospheric pressure adjusted to sea level . It is a pressure setting used by pilots , air traffic control ( ATC ) , and low frequency weather beacons to refer to the barometric setting which , when set on an aircraft 's altimeter , will cause the altimeter to read altitude above mean sea level within a certain defined region . Within United Kingdom airspace , these are known as Altimeter Setting Regions ( ASRs ) ; these regions may be large areas , or apply only to the airfield for which the QNH was given . An airfield QNH will cause the altimeter to show airfield altitude , that is , the altitude of the centre point of the main runway above sea level on landing , irrespective of the temperature . In the United Kingdom the lowest forecast value of QNH for an altimeter setting region is called the `` Regional Pressure Setting '' and may be used to ensure safe terrain separation when cruising at lower altitudes . In some parts of the world a similar procedure is adopted and this is known as `` Regional QNH '' however this name has been modified to the above in the UK to avoid ambiguity .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "QNH", "rank": 71, "score": 79760 }, { "content": "Title: Sonny Bono Salton Sea National Wildlife Refuge Content: The Sonny Bono Salton Sea National Wildlife Refuge is located 40 mi north of the Mexican border at the southern end of the Salton Sea in California 's Imperial Valley . Situated along the Pacific Flyway , the Refuge is the only one of its kind , located 227 ft below sea level . Because of its southern latitude , elevation and location in the Colorado Desert , the Refuge experiences some of the highest temperatures in the nation . Daily temperatures from May to October generally exceed 100 ° F with temperatures of 116 ° -- 120 ° F recorded yearly .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Sonny_Bono_Salton_Sea_National_Wildlife_Refuge", "rank": 72, "score": 79538 }, { "content": "Title: Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research Content: Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) is a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . OAR is also referred to as NOAA Research . NOAA Research is the research and development arm of NOAA and is the driving force behind NOAA environmental products and services aimed at protecting life and property and promoting sustainable economic growth . Research , conducted by programs within NOAA and through collaborations outside NOAA , focuses on enhancing the understanding of environmental phenomena such as tornadoes , hurricanes , climate variability , changes in the ozone layer , El Niño / La Niña events , fisheries productivity , ocean currents , deep sea thermal vents , and coastal ecosystem health . The origins of NOAA Research date back more than 200 years with the creation of the Survey of the Coast in 1807 by Thomas Jefferson . The Coast Survey , which became the U.S. Lake Survey office in 1841 , was developed to undertake `` a hydrographic survey of northwestern -LSB- Great -RSB- lakes . '' Research executed by the scientists of this group was innovative and holistic : the first current meters were developed to understand water flow rates , and forecasting techniques were greatly enhanced to predict water levels and the relationship to lakefront property . The same traits of world class , long-term research continue to define NOAA Research today . The science and technology that NOAA Research produces is not only relevant to society , it anticipates and responds to partners ' needs to demonstrates the value of technologies so that partners can deploy them into their applications . OAR works with end-users to integrate mature technologies ( and associated expertise ) into larger systems , either in NOAA operations or partner applications , via testbeds , patents , etc. .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Office_of_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Research", "rank": 73, "score": 79470 }, { "content": "Title: Undulation of the geoid Content: Undulation of the geoid is the mathematical process of determining the height in metres above the geoid ( relative to the mean sea level ) from the height provided by the GPS system which uses the ( WGS84 ) ellipsoid as reference . In maps and common use the height over the mean sea level is used to indicate the height of elevations while the ellipsoidal height results from the restrictions that apply for the GPS system . The process of the undulation is not standardised , as different countries use different mean sea levels as reference but mostly refers to the EGM96 geoid . Calculating the undulation factor is mathematically challenging . This is why many handheld GPS receivers have built-in undulation lookup tables to determine the height above sea level . The deviation between the ellipsoidal height and the orthometric height can be calculated by Likewise , the deviation between the ellipsoidal height and the normal height can be calculated by", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Undulation_of_the_geoid", "rank": 74, "score": 79451 }, { "content": "Title: Barmsteine Content: The Barmsteine are two rock towers , 841 and 851 metres above sea level , in the northernmost part of the Hasel Mountains in the Bavarian Alps . They rise above the Austrian town of Hallein , and lie on the border between Salzburger Land in Austria and Berchtesgadener Land in Germany .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Barmsteine", "rank": 75, "score": 79322 }, { "content": "Title: Sea Towers Content: The Sea Towers is a mixed-use skyscraper complex in Gdynia , Poland . Construction commenced on 10 May 2006 and was completed on 28 February 2009 . At 143.6 meters , Sea Towers is the 12th tallest building in Poland and the second tallest residential building in the country .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Sea_Towers", "rank": 76, "score": 79293 }, { "content": "Title: Normalhöhennull Content: Normalhöhennull ( `` standard elevation zero '' ) or NHN is a standard reference level , the equivalent of sea level , used in Germany to measure height . In geographical terms , NHN is the reference plane for the normal height of a topographical eminence height above mean sea level used in the 1992 German Mean Height Reference System ( Deutsches Haupthöhennetz ) . The plane is in the shape of a quasi-geoid . The reference height is a geodetic , fixed point on the New Church of St. Alexander at Wallenhorst in the German state of Lower Saxony . The geopotential height of this point was calculated in 1986 as part of the United European Levelling Network ( UELN ) , based on the Amsterdam Ordnance Datum , which represents the average level of the North Sea .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Normalhöhennull", "rank": 77, "score": 79291 }, { "content": "Title: Altimeter setting Content: Altimeter setting is the value of the atmospheric pressure used to adjust the sub-scale of a pressure altimeter so that it indicates the height of an aircraft above a known reference surface . This reference can be the mean sea level pressure ( QNH ) , the pressure at the nearby surface airport or the pressure level of 1013.25 hPa which gives the standard flight levels The altimeter setting QNH is one of the data included in METAR messages from weather stations in addition to the surface pressure . An alternative setting is QFE : QNH is the barometric altimeter setting that causes an altimeter to read airfield elevation above mean sea level when on the airfield . In ISA temperature conditions the altimeter will read altitude above mean sea level in the vicinity of the airfield . QFE is the barometric altimeter setting that causes an altimeter to read zero when at the reference datum of a particular airfield ( in practice , the reference datum is either an airfield center or a runway threshold ) . In ISA temperature conditions the altimeter will read height above the airfield/runway threshold in the vicinity of the airfield . QNH and QFE are arbitrary Q codes rather than abbreviations , but the mnemonics `` nautical height '' ( for QNH ) and `` field elevation '' ( for QFE ) are often used by pilots to distinguish between them .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Altimeter_setting", "rank": 78, "score": 79287 }, { "content": "Title: Besh Barmag Mountain Content: Besh Barmag ( Beş Barmaq ) literally translated as Five Finger Mountain , is in Siazan District of Azerbaijan , not far from the Caspian Sea . It rises to 382 m above the sea level overlooking the Baku-Quba Highway . The mountain is a solid rock and is one of the most famous mountains in the Caucasus , known for its mythical stories . It is a sacred place for regular visitation by pilgrims . Tide marks on the mount attest to meltwater inundation from the northern glacial ice caps and date back to the end of the last ice age . The tidelines confirm the theory of a Holocene outflow of meltwater from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea , rather than a direct incursion of sea water into the Black Sea as a result of global sea level rise . Estimates of the increase in Caspian Sea level height are between + 20 and 30 meters .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Besh_Barmag_Mountain", "rank": 79, "score": 79266 }, { "content": "Title: Kuttikkanam Content: Kuttikkanam , is a hill station in Idukki district , Kerala , southern India . It is 3500 ft above sea level and surrounded by lush green tea plantations . It is within the territory of Peermade . Kanjirappally and Mundakkayam are the nearest towns .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Kuttikkanam", "rank": 80, "score": 79086 }, { "content": "Title: Maximum parcel level Content: The maximum parcel level ( MPL ) is the highest level in the atmosphere that a moist convectively rising air parcel will reach after ascending from the level of free convection ( LFC ) through the free convective layer ( FCL ) and reaching the equilibrium level ( EL ) , near the tropopause . As the parcel rises through the FCL it expands adiabatically causing its temperature to drop , often below the temperature of its surroundings , and eventually lose buoyancy . Because of this , the EL is approximately the region where the distinct flat tops ( called anvils ) often observed on cumulonimbus clouds form . If the air parcel ascended quickly enough then it retains momentum after it has cooled and continues rising past the EL , ceasing at the MPL ( visually represented by the overshooting top , above the anvil ) .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Maximum_parcel_level", "rank": 81, "score": 78995 }, { "content": "Title: Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes Content: The fifteen volcanoes that make up the eight principal islands of Hawaii are the youngest in a chain of more than 129 volcanoes that stretch 5800 km across the North Pacific Ocean , called the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain . Hawaii 's volcanoes rise an average of 4572 m to reach sea level from their base . The largest and most famous , Mauna Loa , has built itself up to a height of 4169 m . As shield volcanoes , they are built by accumulated lava flows , growing no more than 3 m at a time to form a broad and gently sloping shape . Hawaiian volcanoes all follow a specific pattern of eruption , building , and erosion . Hawaiian islands undergo a systematic pattern of submarine and subaerial growth that is followed by erosion . An island 's stage of development reflects its distance from the Hawaii hotspot .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Evolution_of_Hawaiian_volcanoes", "rank": 82, "score": 78985 }, { "content": "Title: East Pacific Rise Content: The East Pacific Rise is a mid-oceanic ridge , a divergent tectonic plate boundary located along the floor of the Pacific Ocean . It separates the Pacific Plate to the west from ( north to south ) the North American Plate , the Rivera Plate , the Cocos Plate , the Nazca Plate , and the Antarctic Plate . It runs from south from the Gulf of California in the Salton Sea basin in southern California to a point near 55 ° S , 130 ° W where it joins the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge trending west-southwest towards Antarctica near New Zealand ( though in some uses the PAR is regarded as the southern section of the EPR ) . Much of the rise lies about 3200 km ( 2000 mi ) off the South American coast and rises about 1,800 -- 2,700 m ( 6,000 -- 9,000 ft ) above the surrounding seafloor .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "East_Pacific_Rise", "rank": 83, "score": 78888 }, { "content": "Title: List of highest railways in Europe Content: This is a list of highest passenger railways in operation in Europe . It only includes non-cable railways whose culminating point is over 1,000 metres above sea level . Most of them are located in the Alps , where two railways , the Jungfrau and Gornergrat railways , exceed 3,000 metres . The Pyrenees , which come second in height , include several railways above 1,500 metres . Because of the harsh weather conditions that prevail at higher altitudes ( the climatic snow line lies at about 3,000 metres in the Alps and 2,000 metres in Scandinavia ) , some railways were built partially underground , notably the Jungfrau and Zugspitze railways . Lines that are both adhesion and standard gauge railways and part of the main European rail network are boldfaced in the list . Countries where the line is below 1,000 metres are indicated in small letters .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "List_of_highest_railways_in_Europe", "rank": 84, "score": 78881 }, { "content": "Title: Irminger Sea Content: The Irminger Sea is a marginal sea of the North Atlantic Ocean . It is 480 km long and 290 km wide at its narrowest . The northern limit is the Greenland-Iceland Rise on the bottom of the Denmark Strait between Iceland and East Greenland , which connects to the Greenland Sea . To the southwest , it reaches to Cape Farvel , the southern tip of Greenland , and meets the Labrador Sea at this point . South of this point is the open North Atlantic Ocean . The sea floor of the Irminger Sea is largely part of the Irminger Basin , a northeastern continuation of the maximally 4600 m deep Labrador Basin , which on the east is bordered by the Reykjanes Ridge . This delineation is oceanographic only and does not represent any official borders . The Irminger Sea is one of the main fishing areas of the Rose fish . The Irminger Sea was named after Danish vice-admiral Carl Ludvig Christian Irminger ( 1802 -- 1888 ) , after whom also the Irminger Current was named .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Irminger_Sea", "rank": 85, "score": 78806 }, { "content": "Title: Bashang Plateau Content: Bashang Plateau covers about 16000 km2 of northwest Hebei . It is on average 1,300 - 1,600 meters above sea level and is part of the Inner Mongolia . Though the plateau itself is high it does not have tall mountain peaks nor depressions . From a distance it appears to be hills , but appears mostly flat land when there . The plateau is dotted with hills and many lakes . The largest lake , Angulinuo Lake is 47.6 km2 in area and 2 -- 6 meters in depth . Average annual temperature on the plateau is 2.6 ° C , and the lowest recorded temperature is -34.8 ° C . The average length of frost free period is 110 days , with a minimum of 70 days . Water resources are few ; most of the supply comes from wells . The area supports dry land agriculture , with limited areas of irrigation using ground water . Soil conditions are poor but the plateau is covered mostly by vast natural grasslands , a good environment for animal husbandry . There are four counties located on the Bashang plateau : Zhangbei , Guyuan , Kangbao and Shangyi .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Bashang_Plateau", "rank": 86, "score": 78781 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 87, "score": 78781 }, { "content": "Title: Seaquist Peak Content: Seaquist Peak is a peak , 800 m , surmounting the northwest end of the Meyer Hills in the Heritage Range . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from surveys and U.S. Navy air photos from 1961-66 . It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for Larry R. Seaquist , a United States Antarctic Research Program ( USARP ) meteorologist at Ellsworth Station in 1961 . Category : Mountains of Ellsworth Land", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Seaquist_Peak", "rank": 88, "score": 78778 }, { "content": "Title: List of Ultras of the United States Content: The following sortable table comprises the 128 ultra-prominent summits of the United States of America . Each of these peaks has at least 1500 m of topographic prominence . The summit of a mountain or hill may be measured in three principal ways : The topographic elevation of a summit measures the height of the summit above a geodetic sea level . The topographic prominence of a summit is a measure of how high the summit rises above its surroundings . The topographic isolation ( or radius of dominance ) of a summit measures how far the summit lies from its nearest point of equal elevation . Denali is one of only three summits on Earth with more than 6000 meters ( 19,685 feet ) of topographic prominence . Three summits of the United States exceed 4000 meters ( 13,123 feet ) , six exceed 3500 meters ( 11,483 feet ) , ten exceed 3000 meters ( 9843 feet ) , 19 exceed 2500 meters ( 8202 feet ) , 45 exceed 2000 meters ( 6562 feet ) , the following 128 ultra-prominent summits exceed 1500 meters ( 4921 feet ) , and 264 major summits exceed 1000 meters ( 3281 feet ) of topographic prominence . __ TOC __", "qid": "3062", "docid": "List_of_Ultras_of_the_United_States", "rank": 89, "score": 78631 }, { "content": "Title: Stamukha Content: A stamukha ( plural : stamukhi ) is a grounded accumulation of sea ice rubble that typically develops along the boundary between fast ice and the drifting pack ice , or becomes incorporated into the fast ice . It is a pressure ridge . Wind , currents and tides contribute to this phenomenon . Stamukhi tend to occur in belts that are parallel to the shoreline , along coastal shoals , at water depths of about 20 m ( 65 ft ) , but that can reach 50 m ( 160 ft ) . They can build up to heights 10 m or more above the waterline . Although they remain pinned to the seabed , these features can be subject to small displacements , either due to thermal expansion or to the pressure exerted by the drifting pack ice onto the fast ice . Because stamukhi tend to be deeply grounded , they may occur as isolated ice features in the open sea during the summer season , after the surrounding ice has melted away . Since stamukhi extend downward into the seabed , they present a risk to submarine pipelines and telecommunications cables that cross the shoreline . Seabed penetration by the ice can reach a depth of 5 m.", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Stamukha", "rank": 90, "score": 78091 }, { "content": "Title: Sea Pole-class bathyscaphe Content: The Sea Pole ( Hai Ji , or ) class bathyscaphe is a class of bathyscaphe of the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) . They are capable of diving up to 7,000 meters , covering 99.8 % of the oceanic floor of the world . Two units of this class are planned , with derivatives to follow and are used by both the civilian and military establishments in China .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Sea_Pole-class_bathyscaphe", "rank": 91, "score": 78023 }, { "content": "Title: Density altitude Content: Density altitude is the altitude relative to the standard atmosphere conditions ( ISA ) at which the air density would be equal to the indicated air density at the place of observation . In other words , density altitude is air density given as a height above mean sea level . `` Density altitude '' can also be considered to be the pressure altitude adjusted for non-standard temperature . Both an increase in temperature , decrease in atmospheric pressure , and , to a much lesser degree , increase in humidity will cause an increase in density altitude . In hot and humid conditions , the density altitude at a particular location may be significantly higher than the true altitude . In aviation , the density altitude is used to assess the aircraft 's aerodynamic performance under certain weather conditions . The lift generated by the aircraft 's airfoils and the relation between indicated and true airspeed are also subject to air density changes . Furthermore , the power delivered by the aircraft 's engine is affected by the air density and air composition .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Density_altitude", "rank": 92, "score": 77949 }, { "content": "Title: 1872 Baltic Sea flood Content: The 1872 Baltic Sea flood ( Ostseesturmhochwasser 1872 ) , often referred to as a storm flood , ravaged the Baltic Sea coast from Denmark to Pomerania in the night of 12/13 November 1872 and was , until then , the worst storm surge in the Baltic . The highest recorded peak water level was about 3.3 m above sea level ( NN ) .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "1872_Baltic_Sea_flood", "rank": 93, "score": 77787 }, { "content": "Title: Evolution on Gardiner Content: Evolution on Gardiner is a high-rise residential building and the tallest structure in Darwin , Northern Territory . It is located on the eastern part of the Darwin CBD on Knuckey Street . The roof of the tower is 100 metres above ground , reaching Darwin 's maximum height limit of 120 meters above sea level . The project was designed by architectural firm Burling Brown Architects and was built by Darwin-based Sunbuild . When first proposed in 2004 , the project faced opposition from the Department of Defence , who control the airspace over the city . Defence objected to the height of the tower which would be more than twice the height of any other building in Darwin at the time , calling for it to be reduced to 28 stories . Sunbuild successfully lobbied the department to have the height restriction raised in order to ensure the project 's viability and secure construction . The building will contain five commercial suites on the ground floor , 104 apartments , and two penthouse units . Construction began on Evolution in July 2006 and was completed in July 2008 . The building contains 1500 m ² of floor area . Evolution will comprise three high-speed lifts .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Evolution_on_Gardiner", "rank": 94, "score": 77736 }, { "content": "Title: Black Sea deluge hypothesis Content: The Black Sea deluge is a hypothesized catastrophic rise in the level of the Black Sea circa 5600 BC from waters from the Mediterranean Sea breaching a sill in the Bosphorus strait . The hypothesis was headlined when The New York Times published it in December 1996 . It was later published in an academic journal in April 1997 . While it is agreed that the sequence of events described by the hypothesis occurred , there is significant debate over the suddenness , dating and magnitude of the events . Over geological eras , water has flowed in and out of the Black Sea basin . This hypothesis concerns the occurrence of the last inflow and the primary point of controversy is whether the event was gradual or catastrophic .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Black_Sea_deluge_hypothesis", "rank": 95, "score": 77625 }, { "content": "Title: Drying height Content: On a nautical chart , the drying height is the vertical distance of the seabed that is exposed by the tide , above the level of the sea at the lowest astronomical tide . On admiralty charts a drying height is distinguished from a depth by being underlined . Category : Cartography", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Drying_height", "rank": 96, "score": 77490 }, { "content": "Title: List of mountains by elevation Content: This is an incomplete list of mountains on Earth , arranged by elevation in metres above sea level . For a complete list of mountains over 7200 m high , with at least 500 m of prominence , see List of highest mountains . See also a list of mountains ranked by prominence .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "List_of_mountains_by_elevation", "rank": 97, "score": 77473 }, { "content": "Title: Tryvannstårnet Content: Tryvannstårnet is an 118-metre ( 387 feet ) tall broadcasting tower near Oslo , located 529 metres ( 1,736 feet ) above mean sea level on the summit of Tryvannshøyden hill overlooking lake Tryvann . Tryvannstårnet was built in 1962 and has an observation deck at a height of 60 metres ( 197 feet ) , from which , weather conditions permitting , the view extends to the border with Sweden and Gaustatoppen mountain . The observation deck was closed in 2005 because of new fire safety regulations which would have required expensive modifications which coincided with rapidly declining visitor numbers . In the 1980s and 1990s annual visitor numbers averaged 100,000 , but in the last year it was open to the public , only 25,000 . There is a large underground shelter beneath Tryvannstårnet .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Tryvannstårnet", "rank": 98, "score": 77326 }, { "content": "Title: Chongqing101 Content: Chongqing 101 is 431 meters , 680 meters above sea level super skyscraper . It is located in the core of the central business district of Chongqing Liberation Monument , as a key project in Chongqing , committed to creating a beautiful dream project , bearing the image of Chongqing as a function of China 's five major urban centers , international business and financial functions , the goal is to build the West Chinese landmarks .", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Chongqing101", "rank": 99, "score": 77305 }, { "content": "Title: Adriatic Basin Content: The Adriatic Abyssal Plain , more commonly referred to as the Adriatic Basin , is an oceanic basin under the Adriatic Sea . The Adriatic Sea 's average depth is 252.5 m , and its maximum depth is 1233 m ; however , the North Adriatic basin rarely exceeds a depth of 100 m.", "qid": "3062", "docid": "Adriatic_Basin", "rank": 100, "score": 77256 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm", "rank": 1, "score": 101710 }, { "content": "Title: Comedown (drugs) Content: Comedown or crashing is the deterioration in mood that happens as a psychoactive drug , typically a stimulant , is either decreasing or is cleared from the blood and thus the cerebral circulation . The improvement and deterioration of mood ( euphoria and dysphoria ) are represented in the cognitive schema #Noun as high and low elevations ; thus , after the drug has elevated the mood ( a state known as a high ) , there follows a period of coming back down , which often has a distinct character from withdrawal in stimulants . Generally , a comedown ( `` down , '' `` low , '' sometimes `` crash '' ) can happen to anyone as a transient symptom , but in people who are dependent on the drug ( especially those addicted to it ) , it is an early symptom of withdrawal and thus can be followed by others . Various drug classes , most especially stimulants and to a lesser degree opioids and sedatives , are subject to comedowns . A milder analogous mood cycle can happen even with blood sugar levels ( thus sugar highs and sugar lows ) , which is especially relevant to people with diabetes mellitus and to parents and teachers managing children 's behavior , as well as in adults with ADHD . Stimulant comedowns are unique in that they often appear very abruptly after a period of focus or high , and are typically the more intensely dysphoric phase of withdrawal than that following complete elimination from the bloodstream . Besides general dysphoria , this phase can be marked by frustration , anger , anhedonia , social withdrawal , and other symptoms characteristic to a milder mixed episode in Bipolar Disorder . Alertness and other general stimulant effects are still present .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Comedown_(drugs)", "rank": 2, "score": 101222 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Turkey Content:", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Turkey", "rank": 3, "score": 87232 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming taxes Content:", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Global_warming_taxes", "rank": 4, "score": 82637 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Global_warming_hiatus", "rank": 5, "score": 81201 }, { "content": "Title: Crash (Decyfer Down album) Content: Crash is the second album by the North Carolina rock band , Decyfer Down . It is also their first album with the new lead vocalist , TJ Harris .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Crash_(Decyfer_Down_album)", "rank": 6, "score": 78726 }, { "content": "Title: Howard Friel Content: Howard Friel is a U.S. independent scholar and author who wrote The Lomborg Deception : Setting the Record Straight About Global Warming ( Yale University Press , 2010 , ISBN 978-0-300-16103-8 ) , a critique of Bjørn Lomborg 's books The Skeptical Environmentalist and Cool It : The Skeptical Environmentalist 's Guide to Global Warming . He also co-authored Israel-Palestine on Record : How the New York Times Misreports Conflict in the Middle East with Richard Falk ( Verso , 2007 ) . He co-authored The Record of the Paper : How the New York Times Misreports US Foreign Policy with Richard Falk ( Verso , 2004 , ISBN 978-1-84467-019-2 ) . In 1995 , Friel edited Guns and the Constitution : The Myth of Second Amendment Protection for Firearms in America with Dennis Henigan .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Howard_Friel", "rank": 7, "score": 78479 }, { "content": "Title: Harbinger Down Content: Harbinger Down ( also known as Inanimate in the United Kingdom ) is a 2015 Russian-American independent science-fiction monster horror film written and directed by Alec Gillis and produced by Tom Woodruff , Jr. ; the founders of the special effects company StudioADI . The plot of the film follows a group of graduate students aboard the eponymous fishing trawler Harbinger who are studying the effects of global warming on a pod of Belugas in the Bering Sea . When the ship 's crew discover a block of ice that is infected with alien bacteria , they are attacked by shapeshifting alien monsters . Funded by fan donations through Kickstarter , the film predominantly features practical creature effects created by ADI through the use of animatronics , prosthetic makeup , stop motion and miniature effects , with limited use of computer generated imagery , used only to enhance creature effects ( such as to digitally erase wires and gimbals used to articulate the creatures ) . Harbinger Down is streaming on Netflix from November 1 , 2015 .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Harbinger_Down", "rank": 8, "score": 77607 }, { "content": "Title: World Coming Down Content: For the song by Billy Idol , see Devil 's Playground . World Coming Down is the fifth album by the Brooklyn band Type O Negative . It is considered to be the darkest of the band 's albums , having been written after a series of deaths in frontman Peter Steele 's family .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "World_Coming_Down", "rank": 9, "score": 77076 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on South Asia Content:", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_South_Asia", "rank": 10, "score": 75513 }, { "content": "Title: Shutdown of thermohaline circulation Content: A shutdown or slowdown of the thermohaline circulation is an effect of global warming on a major ocean circulation . Data from 2010 NASA suggested that the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation has not slowed down , but may have actually sped up slightly in the recent past . However , this has been superseded by a 2015 study that suggests ` that the Gulf Stream has weakened by 15-20 % '", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation", "rank": 11, "score": 75135 }, { "content": "Title: The Global Minotaur Content: The Global Minotaur : America , Europe and the Future of the Global Economy is a book by economist and former Minister of Finance for Greece Yanis Varoufakis , first published in 2011 by Zed Books . A second edition was released in 2015 with the updated subtitle America , the True Causes of the Financial Crisis and the Future of the World Economy and a substantially rewritten new chapter . The book seeks to explain the origins of 2008 financial crash through an analogy of the story of the Minotaur from Greek mythology . Specifically he argues that since the 1970s the United States have played the role of a Global Minotaur , consuming surplus capital from the rest of the global economy , and maintaining global economic stability in the process . He argues the 2008 crash can be understood as resulting from a potentially fatal wound inflicted on the Minotaur by the collapse of the banking system .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "The_Global_Minotaur", "rank": 12, "score": 73069 }, { "content": "Title: Hurricane Katrina and global warming Content: The tremendous destruction caused by recent Atlantic Ocean tropical cyclones , such as Hurricanes Katrina , Wilma , and Sandy caused a substantial upsurge in interest in the subject of global warming by news media and the wider public , and concerns that global climatic change may have played a significant role in those events . Time Magazine , for example , published an article titled , `` Is Global Warming Fueling Katrina ? '' -- however , the article itself addressed hurricanes in general , rather than Katrina specifically , and was inconclusive . Shortly after the hurricane , former Boston Globe reporter Ross Gelbspan wrote an op-ed piece for the Globe titled , `` Katrina 's Real Name '' , declaring that the hurricane 's `` real name is global warming . '' Gelbspan went on to assert : `` Although Katrina began as a relatively small hurricane that glanced off south Florida , it was supercharged with extraordinary intensity by the relatively blistering sea surface temperatures in the Gulf of Mexico . '' Gelbspan did not single out Katrina from other recent storms in that regard ; in the article he went on to attribute other major weather events over the preceding year to global warming , including a blizzard in Los Angeles , high winds in Scandinavia , wildfires in Spain , and a drought centered in Missouri . Britain 's then deputy prime minister , John Prescott , has linked Katrina with global warming , and statements made shortly after the hurricane by Germany 's environment minister , Jürgen Trittin , indicate he believes that global warming is responsible for an increase in the frequency of destructive natural events . Kerry Emanuel had recently published a paper in the journal Nature that found a good correlation between hurricane intensity and sea surface temperatures . Some journalists have claimed Emanuel 's paper concludes that the recent increase in intense Atlantic storms is due to global warming , but Emanuel stated that `` it would be absurd to attribute the Katrina disaster to global warming '' . The Internet blog RealClimate has written that `` there is no way to prove that Katrina either was , or was not , affected by global warming '' .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Hurricane_Katrina_and_global_warming", "rank": 13, "score": 72714 }, { "content": "Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Global_dimming", "rank": 14, "score": 71166 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Global_warming_(disambiguation)", "rank": 15, "score": 70831 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming (Sonny Rollins album) Content: Global Warming is an album by jazz saxophonist Sonny Rollins , released on the Milestone label in 1998 , featuring performances by Rollins with Stephen Scott , Bob Cranshaw , Idris Muhammad , Clifton Anderson , Victor See Yuen and Perry Wilson .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Global_Warming_(Sonny_Rollins_album)", "rank": 16, "score": 70707 }, { "content": "Title: A*G*A*P*I (Crashing Down) Content: `` A * G * A * P * I ( Crashing Down ) '' ( Greek : Α * Γ * Α * Π * Η ; English : L-O-V-E ) is the debut single by the Greek Cypriot singer Ivi Adamou from her first album Kalokairi Stin Kardia , written by Leo Chantzaras , Keely Hawkes , Bruce Howell and Giannis Doxas . It was released on January 25 , 2010 .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "A*G*A*P*I_(Crashing_Down)", "rank": 17, "score": 70454 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 18, "score": 70407 }, { "content": "Title: Early 1990s recession Content: The recession of the early 1990s describes the period of economic downturn affecting much of the world in the late 1980s and early 1990s . The global recession came swiftly after the Black Monday of October 1987 , resulting from a stock collapse of unprecedented size which saw the Dow Jones Industrial Average fall by 22.6 % . This collapse , larger than the stock market crash of 1929 , was handled effectively by the global economy , and the stock market began to quickly recover . However , in North America , the lumbering savings and loans industry was facing decline which eventually led to a savings and loan crisis which compromised the wellbeing of millions of Americans . The following recession thus impacted the many countries closely linked to the United States .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Early_1990s_recession", "rank": 19, "score": 70247 }, { "content": "Title: Crashings Content: Crashings is the debut full-length album by Falling Up . It generally has a heavy rock sound ; however , during songs like `` Jacksonfive '' and `` Falling In Love '' , it draws upon hip hop and soft piano ( respectively ) . `` Broken Heart '' , `` Escalates '' , and `` Bittersweet '' were released as singles , and all three hit No. 1 on the Christian rock charts . The album reached the Billboard Top Heatseekers albums chart peaking at No. 42 and it also reached Billboard Top Christian albums chart peaking at No. 32 . The album has sold over 50,000 worldwide .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Crashings", "rank": 20, "score": 70179 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming (Pitbull album) Content: Global Warming is the seventh studio album recorded by American rapper Pitbull . It was released on November 16 , 2012 . A teaser to accompany the release of Global Warming was first released onto Pitbull 's official Facebook and YouTube channel on September 17 , 2012 .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Global_Warming_(Pitbull_album)", "rank": 21, "score": 69873 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming Tour Content: The Global Warming Tour was a concert tour by American hard rock band Aerosmith that included 67 concert performances across North America , Oceania , Asia and Latin America . Prior to the first leg of the tour , the band played a private event for Walmart shareholders . The first leg of the tour included 23 performances and lasted from late May through early August 2012 . The second leg included 14 performances in November and December 2012 . Before the second leg of the tour , the band performed a brief set at the iHeartRadio Music Festival in mid September . Also prior to the second leg , to promote the release of their new album in early November , the band made three special nationally-televised performances in New York City and also did a special performance in front of their old Boston apartment . The performances on the first two legs of the tour were held primarily in indoor arenas , with a couple outdoor shows and a few festival dates on the first leg , including three festivals in eastern Canada and Milwaukee 's Summerfest . The third leg of the tour ran from late April to mid May 2013 and saw Aerosmith playing their first shows in Australia since 1990 , as well as their first-ever shows in New Zealand and the Philippines . On May 30 , the band performed as part of the `` Boston Strong '' charity concert for victims of the Boston Marathon bombings . In July 2013 , the band played at the Greenbrier Classic in West Virginia and at Foxwoods Resort Casino in Connecticut . In August 2013 , the band performed four concerts in Japan , but their first-ever shows in China and Taiwan were cancelled due to poor ticket sales . The band also performed in August at the Harley-Davidson 110th anniversary concert series in Milwaukee . Concerts were planned for Latin America in September and October , including their first-ever shows in Uruguay , Guatemala and El Salvador . Cheap Trick was the opening act for all dates in the first two legs except for a few festival shows . The Dead Dasies , a supergroup featuring Jon Stevens and Richard Fortus , were the opening act for the Australia/New Zealand leg . The tour is in promotion of Aerosmith 's new album Music from Another Dimension ! , released on November 6 , 2012 . In addition to many of their biggest hits and a few choice album cuts , the band has so far performed four new songs from Music from Another Dimension on this tour , three of them regularly ( `` Oh Yeah '' , `` Legendary Child '' , and `` Lover Alot '' ) , with the potential for more songs to be played in the 2013 leg . During the South America leg , specifically in Argentina and Brazil , Aerosmith toured with Whitesnake , including performances at the Personal Fest in Buenos Aires and at the Monsters of Rock in São Paulo . On May 5 , 2013 , the band announced they had cancelled their first-ever show in Jakarta due to safety concerns . In 2014 , Aerosmith played 17 concerts across Europe from May 14 to July 2 . A new tour , the Let Rock Rule Tour , was scheduled to follow in July , August , and September 2014 that saw Aerosmith play several dates in North America . This tour featured Slash ( with Myles Kennedy and the Conspirators ) as the opening act . Full details of the tour were announced on April 8 , 2014 . On May 14 , 2014 , the band announced that they had cancelled their concert in Istanbul after Turkey declared a three-day mourning for the victims of Soma mine disaster . July 2 , 2014 concert in Kiev was cancelled due to civil unrest in Ukraine .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Global_Warming_Tour", "rank": 22, "score": 69531 }, { "content": "Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Hypercane", "rank": 23, "score": 69491 }, { "content": "Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2", "rank": 24, "score": 69463 }, { "content": "Title: Power Down: Options and Actions for a Post-Carbon World Content: Power Down : Options and Actions for a Post-Carbon World ( ISBN 978-0865715103 ) is a 2004 book by Richard Heinberg in which Heinberg discusses peak oil and its attendant implications for the global economy . Due to the dependence of industrialized society on cheap and readily available petroleum ( fossil fuel oil ) , Heinberg argues that the post-peak period of global history is likely to be characterized by social and economic turmoil , disruption of trade , declining standard of living , and warfare . Heinberg outlines four possible strategies nations could employ to respond to the economic challenges associated with declining oil production : Last One Standing : Global competition for remaining resources Powerdown : Global cooperation in reducing energy usage , conservation , resource management , and reducing population Denial : Waiting , and hoping that some unforeseen element will solve the problem Building Lifeboats : Preparing local areas to be sustainable in the event that the global economic project collapses Heinberg fleshes out each of these strategies in detail and describes the current political and economic environment in terms of these elements .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Power_Down:_Options_and_Actions_for_a_Post-Carbon_World", "rank": 25, "score": 68829 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Tuvalu", "rank": 26, "score": 68595 }, { "content": "Title: World Upside Down Content: World Upside Down is the fifth studio album ( second since the reunion ) , by House of Lords , released on May 23 , 2006 . The album features founding member James Christian once again with an all-new line-up , as he is the only one of the original members left on the line-up . Still , founding member Gregg Giuffria , who was not reunited with the original line-up for the 2004 album The Power and the Myth , is featured on the album as a guest keyboardist . Collaborator and producer Jeff Kent played bass and keyboards on the album , as the band was without a bassist at the time .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "World_Upside_Down", "rank": 27, "score": 68559 }, { "content": "Title: 1973–74 stock market crash Content: The 1973 -- 1974 bear market was a bear market that lasted between January 1973 and December 1974 . Affecting all the major stock markets in the world , particularly the United Kingdom , it was one of the worst stock market downturns in modern history . The crash came after the collapse of the Bretton Woods system over the previous two years , with the associated ` Nixon Shock ' and United States dollar devaluation under the Smithsonian Agreement . It was compounded by the outbreak of the 1973 oil crisis in October of that year . It was a major event of the 1970s recession .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "1973–74_stock_market_crash", "rank": 28, "score": 68515 }, { "content": "Title: Drawdown (climate) Content: Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis . Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures . Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Drawdown_(climate)", "rank": 29, "score": 68233 }, { "content": "Title: Sun Come Up (film) Content: Sun Come Up is a 2010 documentary film on the effect of global warming on the Carteret Islands . The film showed at the 2010 Full Frame Documentary Film Festival on April 8 . It was named as a nominee for the Academy Award for Best Documentary ( Short Subject ) at the 83rd Academy Awards on January 25 , 2011 but lost to Strangers No More .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Sun_Come_Up_(film)", "rank": 30, "score": 68162 }, { "content": "Title: Global stilling Content: Global stilling is the decrease of wind speed observed near the Earth ´ s surface ( ~ 10-meter height ) over the last three decades ( mainly since the 1980s ) , originally termed `` stilling '' . This slowdown of surface winds has mainly affected mid-latitude regions of both hemispheres , with a global average reduction of -0.140 m s-1 dec-1 ( meters per second per decade ) or between 5 and 15 % over the past 50-years . The weakening of winds has mainly occurred over continental surfaces , whereas winds has tended to strengthen over ocean regions . In the last few years , a break in this decrease of wind speed has been detected with a recovery at global scales since 2013 . The exact causes of the global stilling are uncertain and has been mainly attributed to two major drivers : ( i ) changes in large scale atmospheric circulation , and ( ii ) an increase of surface roughness due to e.g. forest growth , land use changes , and urbanization . Under a global warming scenario , changes in wind speed are currently a potential concern for the society , due to their impacts on a wide array of spheres , such as wind power generation , ecohydrological implications for agriculture and hydrology , wind-related hazards and catastrophes , or air quality and human health , among many others .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Global_stilling", "rank": 31, "score": 67922 }, { "content": "Title: Taken by Storm Content: Taken By Storm : The Troubled Science , Policy and Politics of Global Warming is a 2002 book about the global warming controversy by Christopher Essex and Ross McKitrick . The authors argue that politicians and others claim far more certainty than is justified by the science . The authors also argue that public policy discussions have abandoned science and resorted to ad hominem attacks . Taken by Storm was one of two runners up for the 2002 Donner Prize for the best book on Canadian public policy .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Taken_by_Storm", "rank": 32, "score": 67896 }, { "content": "Title: Global catastrophic risk Content: A global catastrophic risk is a hypothetical future event that has the potential to damage human well-being on a global scale . Some events could cripple or destroy modern civilization . Any event that could cause human extinction is known as an existential risk . Potential global catastrophic risks include anthropogenic risks ( technology risks , governance risks ) and natural or external risks . Examples of technology risks are hostile artificial intelligence , biotechnology risks , or nanotechnology weapons . Insufficient global governance creates risks in the social and political domain ( potentially leading to a global war with or without a nuclear holocaust , bioterrorism using genetically modified organisms , cyberterrorism destroying critical infrastructures like the electrical grid , or the failure to manage a natural pandemic ) as well as problems and risks in the domain of earth system governance ( with risks resulting from global warming , environmental degradation , mineral resource exhaustion , fossil energy exhaustion , or famine as a result of non-equitable resource distribution , human overpopulation , crop failures and non-sustainable agriculture ) . Examples for non-anthropogenic risks are an asteroid impact event , a supervolcanic eruption , a lethal gamma-ray burst , a geomagnetic storm destroying all electronic equipment , natural long-term climate change , or extraterrestrial life impacting life on Earth .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Global_catastrophic_risk", "rank": 33, "score": 67419 }, { "content": "Title: When Forever Comes Crashing Content: When Forever Comes Crashing is the third studio album by American metalcore band Converge , on April 14 , 1998 through Equal Vision Records .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "When_Forever_Comes_Crashing", "rank": 34, "score": 67204 }, { "content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster", "rank": 35, "score": 67123 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans", "rank": 36, "score": 66993 }, { "content": "Title: World Jump Day Content: The World Jump Day was an event scheduled for July 20 , 2006 at 11:39.13 UTC , at which time the organization claimed to have 600 million people from the western hemisphere jump simultaneously . They claimed this would move the Earth out of its orbit , and into a new one , one that would not cause global warming . The site was a hoax , an art installation by Torsten Lauschmann ( claiming to be a Professor Hans Peter Niesward from the Institute for Gravitational Physics in Munich ) , and in no way serious . The German student association Lambda Omega Lambda provided hosting and programming services .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "World_Jump_Day", "rank": 37, "score": 66716 }, { "content": "Title: John C. Edmunds Content: John C. Edmunds is Professor of Finance and Research Director of the Institute for Latin American Business Studies at Babson College . Edmunds has been described as an advocate of the financial expansion that reached a maximum in 2008 and then came crashing down . His article `` Securities : The New World Wealth Machine '' came out in the magazine Foreign Policy in 1996 , and has since been cited as the most clear statement of the rationale for the financial expansion . His books , including Brave New Wealthy World ( Pearson Prentice Hall 2003 ) have been praised and criticized for their advocacy of financial expansion .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "John_C._Edmunds", "rank": 38, "score": 66612 }, { "content": "Title: Discover the Trees Again: The Best of Falling Up Content: Discover the Trees Again : The Best of Falling Up is a best-of compilation album by experimental rock band Falling Up . It comprises tracks from their four previous albums , Crashings , Dawn Escapes , Exit Lights , and Captiva .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Discover_the_Trees_Again:_The_Best_of_Falling_Up", "rank": 39, "score": 66542 }, { "content": "Title: Black Monday (2011) Content: In finance and investing , Black Monday 2011 refers to August 8 , 2011 , when US and global stock markets crashed following the Friday night credit rating downgrade by Standard and Poor 's of the United States sovereign debt from AAA , or `` risk free '' , to AA + . It was the first time in history the United States was downgraded . Moody 's issued a report during morning trading which said their AAA rating of U.S. credit was in jeopardy , this after issuing a negative outlook in the previous week . By market close , the Dow Jones Industrial Average lost 634.76 points ( -5.55 % ) to close at 10,809.85 , making it the 6th largest drop of the index in history . Black Monday 2011 followed just one trading day behind the 10th largest drop of the Dow Jones Index , a 512.76 ( -4.31 % ) drop on August 4 , 2011 .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Black_Monday_(2011)", "rank": 40, "score": 66438 }, { "content": "Title: When the World Comes Down Content: When the World Comes Down is the third studio album by American rock band The All-American Rejects , released December 16 , 2008 by Interscope Records . Produced by Eric Valentine , the album was recorded in 2008 at Barefoot Studios in Los Angeles , California . Following on from touring and promotion for their previous album , The All-American Rejects began writing for their follow-up in late 2006 .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "When_the_World_Comes_Down", "rank": 41, "score": 66331 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming conspiracy theory Content: A global warming conspiracy theory invokes claims that scientific consensus on global warming is based on conspiracies to produce false data or suppress dissent . It is one of a number of tactics used in climate change denial to legitimize political controversy disputing this consensus . Global warming conspiracy theorists typically allege that , through worldwide acts of professional and criminal misconduct , the science behind global warming has been invented or distorted for ideological or financial reasons , or both .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Global_warming_conspiracy_theory", "rank": 42, "score": 65993 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 43, "score": 65683 }, { "content": "Title: Nine Miles Down Content: Nine Miles Down is a 2009 horror film based on the Well to Hell hoax , a widespread urban myth ( started in the early 1990s ) that Russian scientists in Siberia had drilled so deep that they had broken through into hell and recorded the screams of the damned emanating from the borehole . It was the last feature film credit for writer Everett de Roche .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Nine_Miles_Down", "rank": 44, "score": 65675 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 45, "score": 65641 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 46, "score": 65585 }, { "content": "Title: Crashing (UK TV series) Content: Crashing is a British comedy drama series commissioned by Channel 4 and produced by Big Talk Productions . The six-part series premiered on 11 January 2016 .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Crashing_(UK_TV_series)", "rank": 47, "score": 65517 }, { "content": "Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming", "rank": 48, "score": 65447 }, { "content": "Title: Crashing (U.S. TV series) Content: Crashing is an American television comedy series created by Pete Holmes , and executive produced by Holmes and occasional series director Judd Apatow . The first season aired on the HBO network in the United States from February 19 to April 9 , 2017 . The semi-autobiographical show revolves around Holmes ' character Pete , a young comedian who pursues a career in stand-up comedy after his wife cheats on him , leaving him homeless . Several comedians play themselves in recurring roles including Artie Lange and T. J. Miller , while others have guest appearances . After Holmes successfully pitched the idea of the show to Apatow , he completed a script of its pilot episode which HBO picked up for filming in September 2015 , with Apatow as director . The success of the pilot led HBO to give the green-light to the first season in January 2016 . After four episodes had aired , HBO renewed the series for a second season .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Crashing_(U.S._TV_series)", "rank": 49, "score": 65093 }, { "content": "Title: Adaptation to global warming in Australia Content:", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Adaptation_to_global_warming_in_Australia", "rank": 50, "score": 64647 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 51, "score": 64507 }, { "content": "Title: The World Turned Upside Down Content: `` The World Turned Upside Down '' is an English ballad . It was first published on a broadside in the middle of the 1640s as a protest against the policies of Parliament relating to the celebration of Christmas . Parliament believed the holiday should be a solemn occasion , and outlawed traditional English Christmas celebrations . There are several versions of the lyrics . It is sung to the tune of another ballad , `` When the king enjoys his own again '' . According to American legend , the British army band under Lord Cornwallis played this tune when they surrendered after the Siege of Yorktown ( 1781 ) . Customarily , the British army would have played an American or French tune in tribute to the victors , but General Washington refused them the honours of war and insisted that they play `` a British or German march . '' Although American history textbooks continue to propagate the legend , the story may have been apocryphal as it was added a century after the surrender .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "The_World_Turned_Upside_Down", "rank": 52, "score": 64503 }, { "content": "Title: Coming Down Again Content: `` Coming Down Again '' is a song by The Rolling Stones featured on their 1973 album Goats Head Soup . It is sung as a duet by Keith Richards and Mick Jagger . Credited to Jagger/Richards , `` Coming Down Again '' is largely the work of Richards , who went as far as to say , `` Coming Down Again ' is my song , '' at the time of its release . A slower ballad similar in mood to another track on the album , `` Angie '' , the lyrics tell of Richards ' relationship with then-girlfriend Anita Pallenberg , who had chosen to abandon her romantic liaison with his friend and bandmate Brian Jones in favour of one with Richards . The song opens with Stones recording veteran Nicky Hopkins playing keyboards front and center alongside a fluid , prominent bassline performed by Mick Taylor . Guitars are performed by Richards , who uses the wah-wah pedal for much of the song ( an effect used often on Goats Head Soup ) , as well as Leslie speakers . Charlie Watts performs a `` trademark start-stop drum arrangement ... that by now had become a familiar device . '' Bobby Keys performs a saxophone solo near the middle of the song . The session guitarist Miles Miller is thought to have laid down guitar lines that did n't make it onto the final album version . Jagger gives support to Richards on backing vocals . Recorded in Kingston 's Dynamic Sound Studios in November and December , 1972 , `` Coming Down Again '' is regarded as one of Richards ' best lead vocal performances . Despite some popularity , Richards has never performed the song live on tour with the Rolling Stones .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Coming_Down_Again", "rank": 53, "score": 64353 }, { "content": "Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Runaway_climate_change", "rank": 54, "score": 64278 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 55, "score": 64231 }, { "content": "Title: Global Catastrophic Risks (book) Content: Global Catastrophic Risks ( 2011 ) is a non-fiction book edited by philosopher Nick Bostrom and astronomer Milan M. Ćirković . The book is about issues such as asteroid impacts , gamma-ray bursts , Earth-based natural catastrophes , nuclear war , terrorism , global warming , biological weapons , totalitarianism , advanced nanotechnology , artificial general intelligence , and social collapse . The book also addresses overarching issues such as policy responses and methods for predicting and managing catastrophes .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Global_Catastrophic_Risks_(book)", "rank": 56, "score": 64123 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Russia Content: Global warming in Russia describes the global warming related issues in Russia . This includes climate politics , contribution to global warming and the influence of global warming on Russia . In 2009 Russia was ready to reduce emissions 20 -- 25 % from its 1990 emission levels by the year 2020 .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Russia", "rank": 57, "score": 63434 }, { "content": "Title: Knokk 'Em Down Content: `` Knokk 'Em Down '' is a 2005 single by Swedish glam metal band Crashdïet . This was the second single for the band and it appears on their 2005 debut album , Rest in Sleaze . A music video was shot for the song . The song debuted at # 57 on the Swedish singles chart .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Knokk_'Em_Down", "rank": 58, "score": 63433 }, { "content": "Title: The Greenhouse Conspiracy Content: The Greenhouse Conspiracy is a documentary film broadcast by Channel 4 in the United Kingdom on 12 August 1990 , as part of the Equinox series , which criticised the theory of global warming and asserted that scientists critical of global warming theory were denied funding . It is one of the earliest instances of the suggestion of a conspiracy to promote false claims supporting global warming . Although the title of the program implied the existence of a conspiracy , when interviewed on the program Patrick Michaels played down the idea , saying , `` It may not quite add up to a conspiracy , but certainly a coalition of interests has promoted the greenhouse theory : scientists have needed funds , the media a story , and governments a worthy cause '' .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "The_Greenhouse_Conspiracy", "rank": 59, "score": 63282 }, { "content": "Title: Steuart Campbell Content: Steuart Campbell ( born 1937 ) is an Edinburgh-based sceptic and investigative science writer born in Birmingham . Campbell trained as an architect and worked as one until the mid-1970s . He then gained a degree in mathematics and science from the Open University ( BA , 1983 ) . He has written books on science and pseudoscience-related matters : ( Prometheus . 1997 . ) , ( Birlinn . 2002 . ) . Debunking belief in the Loch Ness Monster by analysis of all the main evidence , including the various photographs , eye-witness reports and sonar evidence of the `` monster '' . A critical examination of UFO reports and their explanation in terms of meteorological and astronomical phenomena . ( WPS . 2009 . Revised ed . ) . Examines the Jesus myth and the origins of Christianity . An examination of the crash of RAF Chinook helicopter ZD576 on the Mull of Kintyre . Campbell is the Treasurer of the Edinburgh Secular Society . He is also the author of over 100 articles on superstitions ( religious and non-religious ) , language problems , genealogy , scientific beliefs , optical phenomena ( astronomical and meteorological ) , electricity generation and global warming .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Steuart_Campbell", "rank": 60, "score": 63250 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming Policy Foundation Content: The Global Warming Policy Foundation ( GWPF ) is a think tank in the United Kingdom , whose stated aims are to challenge `` extremely damaging and harmful policies '' envisaged by governments to mitigate anthropogenic global warming . It promotes climate change denial . In 2014 , when the Charity Commission ruled that the GWPF had breached rules on impartiality , a non-charitable organisation called the `` Global Warming Policy Forum '' or `` GWPF '' was created as a wholly owned subsidiary , to do lobbying that a charity could not . The GWPF website carries an array of articles `` sceptical '' of scientific findings of anthropogenic global warming and its impacts .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Global_Warming_Policy_Foundation", "rank": 61, "score": 63149 }, { "content": "Title: The Great Global Warming Swindle Content: The Great Global Warming Swindle is a polemical documentary film that suggests that the scientific opinion on climate change is influenced by funding and political factors , and questions whether scientific consensus on global warming exists . The program was formally criticised by Ofcom , the UK broadcasting regulatory agency , which upheld complaints of misrepresentation made by David King . The film , made by British television producer Martin Durkin , presents scientists , economists , politicians , writers , and others who dispute the scientific consensus regarding anthropogenic global warming . The programme 's publicity materials assert that man-made global warming is `` a lie '' and `` the biggest scam of modern times . '' Its original working title was `` Apocalypse my arse '' , but the title The Great Global Warming Swindle was later adopted as an allusion to the 1980 mockumentary The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle about British punk band the Sex Pistols . The UK 's Channel 4 premiered the documentary on 8 March 2007 . The channel described the film as `` a polemic that drew together the well-documented views of a number of respected scientists to reach the same conclusions . This is a controversial film but we feel that it is important that all sides of the debate are aired . '' According to Hamish Mykura , Channel 4 's head of documentaries , the film was commissioned `` to present the viewpoint of the small minority of scientists who do not believe global warming is caused by anthropogenic production of carbon dioxide . '' Although the documentary was welcomed by global warming sceptics , it was criticised by scientific organisations and individual scientists ( including one of the scientists interviewed in the film and one whose research was used to support the film 's claims ) . The film 's critics argued that it had misused and fabricated data , relied on out-of-date research , employed misleading arguments , and misrepresented the position of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Later broadcasts corrected three errors in the original film .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "The_Great_Global_Warming_Swindle", "rank": 62, "score": 63068 }, { "content": "Title: Crashing Hollywood (1931 film) Content: Crashing Hollywood is a 1931 American pre-Code comedy film directed by Fatty Arbuckle .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Crashing_Hollywood_(1931_film)", "rank": 63, "score": 62981 }, { "content": "Title: Crashing Hollywood (1938 film) Content: Crashing Hollywood is a 1938 American comedy film directed by Lew Landers and written by Paul Yawitz and Gladys Atwater . The film stars Lee Tracy , Joan Woodbury , Paul Guilfoyle , Lee Patrick and Bradley Page . The film was released on January 7 , 1938 , by RKO Pictures .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Crashing_Hollywood_(1938_film)", "rank": 64, "score": 62953 }, { "content": "Title: World Falling Down Content: World Falling Down is the fourth solo album for music artist Peter Cetera , released in July 1992 , and his third album since leaving the group Chicago .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "World_Falling_Down", "rank": 65, "score": 62704 }, { "content": "Title: Crashing Content: Crashing may refer to :", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Crashing", "rank": 66, "score": 62699 }, { "content": "Title: World Wide Views on Global Warming Content: World Wide Views on Global Warming : A global project initiated by The Danish Board of Technology on the occasion of the United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP15 ) held in Copenhagen December 2009 . World Wide Views on Global Warming ( or just WWViews ) was an international citizens involvement project based on methods developed by The Danish Board of Technology for the purpose of involving citizens in the political decision-making processes .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "World_Wide_Views_on_Global_Warming", "rank": 67, "score": 62697 }, { "content": "Title: Extinction risk from global warming Content: The extinction risk of global warming is the risk of species becoming extinct due to the effects of global warming .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Extinction_risk_from_global_warming", "rank": 68, "score": 62412 }, { "content": "Title: Get It Started Content: `` Get It Started '' is a song recorded by American rapper Pitbull for his seventh studio album Global Warming . It was released on June 28 , 2012 as the second single from the album by RCA Records . The song features guest vocals from Colombian singer-songwriter Shakira , marking the fourth time they have collaborated on a song together , the others being an official remix to the Spanish version of `` Did it Again '' , `` Lo Hecho Está Hecho '' , and the English version of `` Rabiosa '' . The artists co-wrote the song with its producers , DJ Buddha , Sidney Samson , Marc Kinchen , Develop , with additional writing from Durrell `` Tank '' Babbs and Kris Stephens . It is a dance-pop song that `` blends a dance beat and up-tempo verses with a slowed-down , piano-driven pop chorus '' .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Get_It_Started", "rank": 69, "score": 62181 }, { "content": "Title: Crashed Ice Content: Crashed Ice ( Red Bull Crashed Ice ) is a world tour in the winter extreme sporting event , ice cross downhill ( or downhill ice cross ) , which involves downhill skating in an urban environment , on a track which includes steep turns and high vertical drops . The series was created and is managed by energy drinks company Red Bull . It is similar to ski cross and snowboard cross , except with ice skates on an ice track , instead of skis or snowboards on a snow track . Competitors , having advanced from one of the tryouts in the prior months , race in heats of four skaters , with the top two advancing from each heat . Racers , typically ice hockey players , outfitted as such , speed down the course 's turns , berms , and jumps .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Crashed_Ice", "rank": 70, "score": 62098 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming: The Signs and The Science Content: Global Warming : The Signs and The Science is a 2005 documentary film on global warming made by ETV , the PBS affiliate in South Carolina , and hosted by Alanis Morissette . The documentary examines the science behind global warming and pulls together segments filmed in the United States , Asia and South America and shows how people in these different locales are responding in different ways to the challenges of global warming to show some of the ways that the world can respond .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Global_Warming:_The_Signs_and_The_Science", "rank": 71, "score": 61961 }, { "content": "Title: Crashing Hollywood Content: Crashing Hollywood can refer to : Crashing Hollywood ( 1931 film ) , a 1931 film directed by Fatty Arbuckle Crashing Hollywood ( 1938 film ) , a 1938 film directed by Lew Landers", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Crashing_Hollywood", "rank": 72, "score": 61901 }, { "content": "Title: Stock market downturn of 2002 Content: In 2001 , stock prices took a sharp downturn ( some say `` stock market crash '' or `` the Internet bubble bursting '' ) in stock markets across the United States , Canada , Asia , and Europe . After recovering from lows reached following the September 11 attacks , indices slid steadily starting in March 2002 , with dramatic declines in July and September leading to lows last reached in 1997 and 1998 . The dollar declined steadily against the euro , reaching a 1-to-1 valuation not seen since the euro 's introduction .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Stock_market_downturn_of_2002", "rank": 73, "score": 61884 }, { "content": "Title: Beyond the Crash Content: Beyond the Crash : Overcoming the first crisis of globalisation is a 2010 book by former UK prime minister Gordon Brown . The work argues that the only way to fully overcome the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2010 is with further coordinated global action . Brown states that a shared `` global compact '' on jobs and growth should be central to effective action , with different regions called on in different ways to contribute to rebalancing the global economy while boosting growth . The book includes first-hand accounts of events leading to previous successful cases of international collaboration on economic affairs . There are specific suggestions about the different ways in which the world 's nations and regions can help secure global growth , jobs and poverty reduction . A secondary theme of the work is that better global oversight is needed for the international financial system . Brown suggests that to function at their best , banks and markets need shared morals . Brown started writing the book at the end of May 2010 , completing it 14 weeks later while still attending to his work as an MP .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Beyond_the_Crash", "rank": 74, "score": 61871 }, { "content": "Title: Climatic Research Unit documents Content: Climatic Research Unit documents including thousands of e-mails and other computer files were stolen from a server at the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia in a hacking incident in November 2009 . The documents were redistributed first through several blogs of global warming skeptics , and allegations were made that they indicated misconduct by leading climate scientists . A series of investigations rejected these allegations , while concluding that CRU scientists should have been more open with distributing data and methods on request . Precisely six committees investigated the allegations and published reports , finding no evidence of fraud or scientific misconduct . The scientific consensus that global warming is occurring as a result of human activity remained unchanged by the end of the investigations . The incident occurred shortly before the opening December 2009 Copenhagen global climate summit . It has prompted general discussion about increasing the openness of scientific data ( though the majority of climate data have always been freely available ) . Scientists , scientific organisations , and government officials have stated that the incident does not affect the overall scientific case for climate change . Andrew Revkin reported in the New York Times that `` The evidence pointing to a growing human contribution to global warming is so widely accepted that the hacked material is unlikely to erode the overall argument . ''", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Climatic_Research_Unit_documents", "rank": 75, "score": 61795 }, { "content": "Title: Pandora's Promise Content: Pandora 's Promise is a 2013 documentary film about the nuclear power debate , directed by Robert Stone . Its central argument is that nuclear power , which still faces historical opposition from environmentalists , is a relatively safe and clean energy source which can help mitigate the serious problem of anthropogenic global warming . In fact , according to records at the Paul Scherrer Institut in Basel , Switzerland , nuclear power has never caused a death in an OECD country . According to the report that UNSCEAR presented to the UN General Assembly in 2011 , concerning Chernobyl , that accident was responsible for 46 deaths . So nuclear power is not just `` relatively safe , '' it is the safest-ever way to make electricity , by a very wide margin . The title is derived from the ancient Greek myth of Pandora , who released numerous evils into the world , yet as the movie 's tagline recalls : `` At the bottom of the box she found hope . ''", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Pandora's_Promise", "rank": 76, "score": 61634 }, { "content": "Title: Impact winter Content: An impact winter is a hypothesized period of prolonged cold weather due to the impact of a large asteroid or comet on the Earth 's surface . If an asteroid were to strike land or a shallow body of water , it would eject an enormous amount of dust , ash , and other material into the atmosphere , blocking the radiation from the sun . This would cause the global temperature to decrease drastically . If an asteroid or comet with the diameter of about 5 km or more were to hit in a large deep body of water or explode before hitting the surface , there would still be an enormous amount of debris ejected into the atmosphere . It has been proposed that an impact winter could lead to mass extinction , wiping out many of the world 's existing species .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Impact_winter", "rank": 77, "score": 61629 }, { "content": "Title: Dawn Escapes Content: Dawn Escapes is the second album by Christian rock band Falling Up released in 2005 on the Tooth & Nail Records imprint , BEC Recordings . The album charted better than their last album Crashings . The album reached the Billboard 200 albums chart peaking at No. 170 , becoming the only album by the band to make that chart . The album also charted on Billboard Top Christian albums chart and peaked at No. 13 and reached Billboard Top Heatseekers albums chart peaking at No. 4 . Dawn Escapes is the band 's best-selling album to date , selling over 100,000 copies worldwide . Although the album keeps the same nu metal-influenced sound heard on Crashings , it adds in more experimental rock and hard rock elements , resulting in a more experimental yet ultimately heavier sound . This would be the last Falling Up album to feature this sound before the group started to evolve into the more experimental rock sound heard on their later albums . It is also the final album to feature original guitarists Tom Cox and Joseph Kisselburgh , and the band 's last as a six-piece .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Dawn_Escapes", "rank": 78, "score": 61537 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.", "qid": "3063", "docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves", "rank": 79, "score": 61511 }, { "content": "Title: Another Fine Myth Content: Another Fine Myth is a 1978 novel by Robert Lynn Asprin , and is the first book in the Myth Adventures series .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Another_Fine_Myth", "rank": 80, "score": 61442 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 81, "score": 61415 }, { "content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)", "rank": 82, "score": 61376 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 83, "score": 61254 }, { "content": "Title: Downend air crash Content: The Downend air crash occurred on 6 November 1957 when a prototype Bristol Britannia aircraft crashed in woods near Overndale Road in Downend , a suburb of Bristol , England , on its landing approach at Filton airport during a test flight . All fifteen on board , four crew and 11 technicians , died in the crash . A memorial service was held at Bristol Cathedral on 19 November 1957 . A memorial plaque at the crash site , now called Britannia Wood , was unveiled on 3 November 2007 by the widow of the aircraft 's pilot .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Downend_air_crash", "rank": 84, "score": 61214 }, { "content": "Title: 2014–16 El Niño event Content: The 2014 -- 16 El Niño was a warming of the eastern equatorial Pacific Ocean that resulted in unusually warm waters developing between the coast of South America and the International Date Line . These unusually warm waters influenced the world 's weather in a number of ways , which in turn significantly affected various parts of the world . These included drought conditions in Venezuela , Australia and a number of Pacific islands while significant flooding was also recorded . During the event more tropical cyclones than normal occurred within the Pacific Ocean , while fewer than normal occurred in the Atlantic Ocean .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "2014–16_El_Niño_event", "rank": 85, "score": 61201 }, { "content": "Title: Down Another Road Content: Down Another Road is an album by composer/bassist Graham Collier recorded in 1969 and originally released on the British Fontana label .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Down_Another_Road", "rank": 86, "score": 61028 }, { "content": "Title: The Path to Degrowth in Overdeveloped Countries Content: The Path to Degrowth in Overdeveloped Countries is the second chapter of the Worldwatch Institute 's State of the World ( book series ) 2012 : Moving Toward Sustainable Prosperity ( ISBN 978-1-61091-037-8 ) by Erik Assadourian . It is available for free online , along with these other chapters from the report : Making the Green Economy Work for Everybody by Michael Renner Nine Population Strategies to Stop Short of 9 Billion by Robert Engelman Biodiversity : Combating the Sixth Mass Extinction by Bo Normander In his chapter of the report , Assadourian defines degrowth as an `` essential and urgent '' economic strategy to pursue in countries entrenched in overdevelopment ( such as the United States ) in order for those countries to be truly sustainable and adapt to `` The rapidly warming Earth and the collapse of ecosystem services '' . Furthermore , he hopes to dispel `` the myth that perpetual pursuit of growth is good for economies or the societies of which they are a part '' for the well-being of the planet , of underdeveloped populations , and of the sick , stressed , and overweight populations of overdeveloped countries . Assadourian argues via the principle of plenitude that degrowth will inevitably occur whether we want it to or not because -- on a planet of finite resources -- economies and populations can not grow infinitely , and overdeveloped countries are still pursuing more economic growth and overconsuming resources . Assadourian outlines four policies overdeveloped nations could employ to sufficiently facilitate a planned and controlled contraction of the economy so as to get back in line with planetary boundaries . Each of these , in unison , will eventually foster the creation of a steady-state economy that is in balance with Earth 's limits : Reduce Overall Consumption by Overconsumers Distribute Tax Burdens More Equitably Share Work Hours Better Cultivate a Plenitude Economy : `` informalize '' certain sectors of the economy Assadourian also wrote a 2-page policy brief on the chapter highlighting the key messages of , the problem regarding , and points to keep in mind moving forward on our path to degrowth .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "The_Path_to_Degrowth_in_Overdeveloped_Countries", "rank": 87, "score": 60967 }, { "content": "Title: Stars Crash Down Content: Stars Crash Down is a 1991 album by Hue & Cry .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Stars_Crash_Down", "rank": 88, "score": 60865 }, { "content": "Title: Crash! Boom! Bang! Tour Content: The `` Crash ! Boom ! Bang ! World Tour '' was the third concert tour by Swedish pop music duo Roxette , launched in support of their fifth studio album Crash ! Boom ! Bang ! ( 1994 ) .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Crash!_Boom!_Bang!_Tour", "rank": 89, "score": 60806 }, { "content": "Title: Crashing Las Vegas Content: Crashing Las Vegas is a 1956 film starring the comedy team of The Bowery Boys . The film was released on April 22 , 1956 by Allied Artists and is the forty-first film in the series . It was the last film in the series to star Leo Gorcey .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Crashing_Las_Vegas", "rank": 90, "score": 60758 }, { "content": "Title: October 27, 1997, mini-crash Content: The October 27 , 1997 , mini-crash is the name of a global stock market crash that was caused by an economic crisis in Asia or Tom Yum Goong crisis ; Thai : วิกฤตต้มยำกุ้ง . The point loss that the Dow Jones Industrial Average suffered on this day still ranks as the eighth biggest point loss and 15th biggest percentage loss since its creation in 1896 . This crash is considered a `` mini-crash '' because the percentage loss was relatively small compared to some other notable crashes . But after the crash , the markets still remained positive for 1997 , though the `` mini-crash '' may be considered as the beginning of the end of the 1990s economic boom in the United States and Canada , as both consumer confidence and economic growth were mildly severed during the winter of 1997 -- 98 ( with neither being strongly affected , compared to the rest of the world ) , and when both returned to pre-October levels , they began to grow at an even slower pace than before the crash .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "October_27,_1997,_mini-crash", "rank": 91, "score": 60681 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Antarctica Content: The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Antarctica", "rank": 92, "score": 60646 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 93, "score": 60631 }, { "content": "Title: Þrymheimr Content: In Norse mythology , Þrymheimr ( Old Norse `` crash-home , '' `` Thunder Home , '' or `` noisy-home '' ) ( anglicized as Thrymheim ) was the abode of Þjazi , a jötunn , located in Jötunheimr . Þjazi once abducted the goddess Iðunn , and in Þrymheimr he held her , causing the gods to age until her rescue , in turn resulting in the death of Þjazi . After the death of Þjazi , his daughter -- the goddess Skaði -- inhabits the location . During Skaði 's marriage to the god Njörðr , the two split over Skaði 's preference for her home in Þrymheimr . Manuscripts of the Prose Edda contain the spellings Þrumheimr and Þruþheimr . Rudolf Simek translates Þruþheimr as `` power house '' and notes that the variant is also a fitting name for a jötunn .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Þrymheimr", "rank": 94, "score": 60624 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 95, "score": 60619 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming: What You Need to Know Content: Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Global_Warming:_What_You_Need_to_Know", "rank": 96, "score": 60508 }, { "content": "Title: Global cascades model Content: Global cascades models are a class of models aiming to model large and rare cascades that are triggered by exogenous perturbations which are relatively small compared with the size of the system . The phenomenon occurs ubiquitously in various systems , like information cascades in social systems , stock market crashes in economic systems , and cascading failure in physics infrastructure networks . The models capture some essential properties of such phenomenon .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Global_cascades_model", "rank": 97, "score": 60506 }, { "content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming", "rank": 98, "score": 60335 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka", "rank": 99, "score": 60305 }, { "content": "Title: How Global Warming Works Content: How Global Warming Works is a website developed by Michael Ranney , a professor of cognitive psychology at the University of California , Berkeley in Berkeley , California , United States . The stated goal of the website is to educate the public on the mechanisms of global warming , which was motivated by research Ranney and colleagues conducted on attitudes towards and understanding of global warming .", "qid": "3063", "docid": "How_Global_Warming_Works", "rank": 100, "score": 60284 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Sea_level_rise", "rank": 1, "score": 152881 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 2, "score": 143246 }, { "content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Ice2sea", "rank": 3, "score": 137949 }, { "content": "Title: Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Content: The retreat of glaciers since 1850 affects the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use , mountain recreation , animals and plants that depend on glacier-melt , and , in the longer term , the level of the oceans . Studied by glaciologists , the temporal coincidence of glacier retreat with the measured increase of atmospheric greenhouse gases is often cited as an evidentiary underpinning of global warming . Mid-latitude mountain ranges such as the Himalayas , Alps , Rocky Mountains , Cascade Range , and the southern Andes , as well as isolated tropical summits such as Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa , are showing some of the largest proportionate glacial losses . Glacier mass balance is the key determinant of the health of a glacier . If the amount of frozen precipitation in the accumulation zone exceeds the quantity of glacial ice lost due to melting or in the ablation zone a glacier will advance ; if the accumulation is less than the ablation , the glacier will retreat . Glaciers in retreat will have negative mass balances , and if they do not find an equilibrium between accumulation and ablation , will eventually disappear . The Little Ice Age was a period from about 1550 to 1850 when the world experienced relatively cooler temperatures compared to the present . Subsequently , until about 1940 , glaciers around the world retreated as the climate warmed substantially . Glacial retreat slowed and even reversed temporarily , in many cases , between 1950 and 1980 as global temperatures cooled slightly . Since 1980 , a significant global warming has led to glacier retreat becoming increasingly rapid and ubiquitous , so much so that some glaciers have disappeared altogether , and the existences of many of the remaining glaciers are threatened . In locations such as the Andes of South America and Himalayas in Asia , the demise of glaciers in these regions has the potential to affect water supplies in those areas . The retreat of mountain glaciers , notably in western North America , Asia , the Alps and tropical and subtropical regions of South America , Africa and Indonesia , provide evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century . The acceleration of the rate of retreat since 1995 of key outlet glaciers of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets may foreshadow a rise in sea level , which would affect coastal regions .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850", "rank": 4, "score": 134832 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 5, "score": 129936 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 6, "score": 129749 }, { "content": "Title: List of glaciers in Glacier National Park (U.S.) Content: There are at least 35 named glaciers in Glacier National Park ( U.S. ) . In 1850 , the area now comprising the national park had 150 glaciers . There are 25 active glaciers remaining in the park today . Since the ice ages stopped 10,000 years ago , there have been many slight climate shifts causing periods of glacier growth or melt-back . The glaciers are currently being studied to see the effect of global warming It is estimated that if current warming trends continue , there will be no glaciers left in the park by 2030 .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "List_of_glaciers_in_Glacier_National_Park_(U.S.)", "rank": 7, "score": 124421 }, { "content": "Title: Heard Island glaciers Content: The Heard Island glaciers covered 79 percent of Heard Island itself , in 1947 , covering 288 km2 ; by 1988 , this had decreased by 11 percent to 257 km2 . The glaciers fall under the Antarctic Environmental Gradient , which spans 30 degrees of latitude and includes a range of macro-climatic zones from cool temperate islands to the frigid and arid Antarctic continent . Glaciers extend from 2745 m to sea level , with ice up to 150 m deep.The geologic movement of the glaciers can appear fast-flowing due to the steep slope and high precipitation , and are particularly sensitive to climatic fluctuations . Measurements between 1947 and 1980 show glacial retreat , particularly on the eastern flanks , is correlated with changes in weather patterns . A 29 % reduction in area of the Brown Glacier from 1947-2003 was observed . The volcano Big Ben , from which all the glaciers drain , has shown no sign of changing geothermal output to cause the melting ; a 1 degree Celsius warming has occurred over the same time period . Glaciologists continue to study the Brown Glacier , detailing surveys of the glacier 's snout and surface , which determine if glacial retreat is rapid or punctuated . Measurements on the mass balance of the glacier , as well as more detailed ice thickness measurements using a portable radar echo sounder , were undertaken . Monitoring of climatic conditions continues , with emphasis on the impact of Foehn winds on glacier mass balance . An expedition by scientists from the Australian Antarctic Division recently visited the volcanic island in 2009 , observing glaciers that had retreated 50 metres in three years . Repairs were made to an automatic weather station established in November 2000 . Glaciologist Dr. Ian Allison cites that the latest aerial surveys that show continuous rapid melt and that satellite imagery shows the island double in size due to volcanic activity .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Heard_Island_glaciers", "rank": 8, "score": 121849 }, { "content": "Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Deglaciation", "rank": 9, "score": 121645 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline", "rank": 10, "score": 120958 }, { "content": "Title: Mark Meier Content: Mark F. Meier ( 1925 -- November 25 , 2012 ) was an American glaciologist who was considered a leading expert on the study of rising sea levels due to the melting of glaciers . Meier was the Director of the Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research ( INSTAAR ) from 1985 to 1994 and remained the institute 's director emeritus until his death in 2012 . He was also a professor of geological sciences at the University of Colorado - Boulder . Meier was born and raised in Iowa . He resided in Boulder , Colorado , since 1985 . In 1956 , Meier founded the U.S. Geological Survey 's department of glaciology . He obtained doctorate in 1957 from the California Institute of Technology . Meier served as the director of the U.S. Geological Survey 's Project Office of Glaciology in Tacoma , Washington , until he became the director of INSTAAR in 1985 . Meier was one of the first glaciologists to use remote sensing to study glaciers and rates of melting . He headed several studies of tidewater glacier dynamics in the U.S. state of Alaska . Meier organized the systematic measurement and assessment of glacier mass balance within North America to mark the International Geophysical Year and International Hydrological Decade , which was observed from 1965 to 1975 . His numerous recognitions and awards included the Seligman Crystal from the International Glaciological Society in 1993 , the Robert E. Horton Medal in 1996 , three medals from the USSR Academy of Sciences ( now the Russian Academy of Sciences ) and the United States Department of the Interior 's Distinguished Service Award . Meier died in Boulder , Colorado , on November 25 , 2012 , at the age of 86 . He is survived by his wife , Barbara , his children , Lauren Meier , Gretchen Meier , and Mark S. Meier , and his seven grandchildren .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Mark_Meier", "rank": 11, "score": 119478 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska", "rank": 12, "score": 118682 }, { "content": "Title: Mingyong Glacier Content: Mingyong Glacier is located in the Yunnan Province , People 's Republic of China , The glacier retreated 200 meters ( 656 feet ) in four years . The region has also seen a rising tree line and these events are believed to be associated with global warming . The glacier is sacred to the local peoples . The glacier is fed by snows which fall on 6,740 m ( 22,107 ft ) Mount Meili , also known as the Meili Snow Mountain . Glaciers in China 's Tibetan region are melting at 7 percent annually . At 28.5 degrees north and an elevation of 2,700 meters ( 8,858 ft ) , the glacier is located at the lowest latitude and elevation of any glacier in China .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Mingyong_Glacier", "rank": 13, "score": 117373 }, { "content": "Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Ice-albedo_feedback", "rank": 14, "score": 115348 }, { "content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Climate_inertia", "rank": 15, "score": 114766 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal", "rank": 16, "score": 114650 }, { "content": "Title: Melt pond Content: Melt ponds are pools of open water that form on sea ice in the warmer months of spring and summer . The ponds are also found on glacial ice and ice shelves . Ponds of melted water can also develop under the ice . Melt ponds are usually darker than the surrounding ice , and their distribution and size is highly variable . They absorb solar radiation rather than reflecting it as ice does and , thereby , have a significant influence on Earth 's radiation balance . This differential , which had not been scientifically investigated until recently , has a large effect on the rate of ice melting and the extent of ice cover . Melt ponds can melt through to the ocean 's surface . Seawater entering the pond increases the melt rate because the salty water of the ocean is warmer than the fresh water of the pond . The increase in salinity also depresses the water 's freezing point . Water from melt ponds over land surface can run into crevasses or moulins -- tubes leading under ice sheets or glaciers -- turning into meltwater . The water may reach the underlying rock . The effect is an increase in the rate of ice flow to the oceans , as the fluid behaves like a lubricant in the basal sliding of glaciers .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Melt_pond", "rank": 17, "score": 114467 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 18, "score": 113682 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 19, "score": 113547 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment", "rank": 20, "score": 112448 }, { "content": "Title: Konrad Steffen Content: Konrad `` Koni '' Steffen ( born 1952 ) is a glaciologist and the former director of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder , a position he held from 2005 until he took office as the director of the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest , Snow and Landscape Research on July 1 , 2012 . He is known for his research into Arctic sea ice and the glaciers of Greenland , and how they are affected by global warming . He has often traveled to Greenland to study these glaciers firsthand ; for example , when studying Petermann Glacier for three weeks in 2004 , Steffen did so from a camp set up 4,000 feet up the flanks of the glacier 's ice cap . He also operates a network of 20 weather stations on the Greenland ice sheet , the first of which , Swiss Camp , he established in 1990 . He has argued that due to this ice sheet melting faster than anticipated , sea levels could rise by about 3 feet by 2100 , considerably higher than the IPCC 's upper limit of 59 cm , and that Greenland might lose all its ice in 10,000 years , but Antarctica would take considerably longer , since it is so much bigger .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Konrad_Steffen", "rank": 21, "score": 110480 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic sea ice Content: Antarctic sea ice is the sea ice of the Southern Ocean . It extends far north in winter and retreats almost to the coastline each summer . Sea ice is frozen seawater that is usually less than a few meters thick . This is in contrast to ice shelves , which are formed by glaciers , float in the sea , and are up to a kilometer thick . There are two subdivisions of sea ice : fast ice , which is attached to land ; and ice floes , which are not . Sea ice in the Southern Ocean melts from the bottom instead of from the surface like Arctic ice because it is covered in snow . As a result , melt ponds are rarely observed . On average , Antarctic sea ice is younger , thinner , warmer , saltier , and more mobile than Arctic sea ice . Due to its inaccessibility , it is not as well-studied as Arctic ice .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Antarctic_sea_ice", "rank": 22, "score": 109884 }, { "content": "Title: Bukkehåmmårtjørna Content: Bukkehåmmårtjørna is a small lake in eastern Jotunheimen . This is the highest lake that has been investigated as a climate archive in southern Norway , being situated 1594 m above sea level . A small glacier , Bukkehåmmårbreen , is draining meltwater into the lake at present . This glacier reformed just short of 6,000 years ago following the Holocene climate optimum and has existed continuously since . After growing gradually towards 4,000 years before present ( BP ) the glacier has been of near present size over the last 4,000 years , growing slightly larger over the last 2-2 ,500 years . Prior to the climate optimum and following the deglaciation the glacier melted some 10,000 years before present . The flat valley-shoulder that the lake is eroded into is locally known as a `` fly '' . This particular level at about 1600 m a.s.l. and is believed to have been formed between 100 and 85 million years ago during the Cretaceous period . Standing on the shore-line of Bukkehåmmårtjørna thus means that you are standing on the remnants of a landscape that the Dinosaurs ruled . The small lake existed prior to the Last Glacial Maximum since it contains organic material older than 30,000 years old . Currently being reassessed , growing evidence now indicates that much of the landscape that can be seen from this site is practically unchanged since the age of the Mammoth who lived on the wide plateaus more than 40,000 years ago . The view from the lake , or higher up on the mountain-peak Høgdebrotet therefore includes a view into the landscapes of the distant past , including the landscape of the dinosaurs , the pre-ice age landscape , the landscape of the Mammoth during the last glacial period . By squinting your eyes and imagining the present forest-limit below , located some 300 m higher than at present and by imagining the glaciers of Leirungsalpene being absent you can also see the landscape as it was 7,000 years ago .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Bukkehåmmårtjørna", "rank": 23, "score": 107499 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 24, "score": 106306 }, { "content": "Title: James O'Brien (oceanographer) Content: James O'Brien ( born August 10 , 1935 , died September 20 , 2016 ) is the emeritus Robert O. Lawton Professor of Meteorology and Oceanography at Florida State University . He believes sea levels are rising but predicts a more modest 18 in rise instead of 6 ft by 2100 targeted by some other scientists . He stated that `` sea level in Florida is going to continue to rise period . Unless we go back into an Ice age , we will continue to rise at over 8 in in 10 year . That 's without any global warming . ''", "qid": "3064", "docid": "James_O'Brien_(oceanographer)", "rank": 25, "score": 105254 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic ice sheet Content: The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Antarctic_ice_sheet", "rank": 26, "score": 104604 }, { "content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Cap_carbonate", "rank": 27, "score": 103878 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Ocean Conference Content: The inaugural Arctic Ocean Conference was held in Ilulissat , Greenland May 27 -- May 29 , 2008 . Five countries , Canada , Denmark , Norway , Russia and the United States , discussed key issues relating to the Arctic Ocean . The meeting was significant because of its plans for environmental regulation , maritime security , mineral exploration , polar oil oversight , and transportation . Before the conclusion of the conference , the attendees announced the Ilulissat Declaration . The conference was the first ever held at the ministerial level that included the five regional powers . It came at the invitation of Per Stig Møller , Denmark 's Foreign Minister , and Hans Enoksen , Greenlandic Premier in 2007 after several territorial disputes in the Arctic . States Møller , `` We must continue to fulfill our obligations in the Arctic area until the UN decides who will have the right to the sea and the resources in the region . We must agree on the rules and what to do if climate changes make more shipping possible . '' `` We need to send a common political signal to both our own populations and the rest of the world that the five coastal states will address the opportunities and challenges in a responsible manner . '' Ilulissat 's melting glacier was an appropriate backdrop for the landmark conference . The key ministry level attendees were : Canada : Gary Lunn , Canadian Minister for Nature Resources Denmark : Per Stig Møller ; Hans Enoksen Norway : Jonas Gahr Støre , Norwegian Minister for Foreign Affairs Russia : Sergey Lavrov , Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs United States : John D. Negroponte , Deputy Secretary of State", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Arctic_Ocean_Conference", "rank": 28, "score": 103829 }, { "content": "Title: Meltwater pulse 1A Content: Meltwater pulse 1A ( MWP1a ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of rapid post-glacial sea level rise during which global sea level rose between 16 m and 25 m in about 400 -- 500 years , giving mean rates of roughly 40 -- 60 mm/yr . Meltwater pulse 1A is also known as catastrophic rise event 1 ( CRE1 ) in the Caribbean Sea . The rates of sea level rise associated with meltwater pulse 1A are the highest known rates of post-glacial , eustatic sea level rise . Meltwater pulse 1A is also the most widely recognized and least disputed of the named , postglacial meltwater pulses . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwater pulse 19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1B , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Meltwater_pulse_1A", "rank": 29, "score": 103471 }, { "content": "Title: Meltwater Content: Meltwater is water released by the melting of snow or ice , including glacial ice , tabular icebergs and ice shelves over oceans . Meltwater is often found in the ablation zone of glaciers , where the rate of snow cover is reducing . Meltwater can be produced during volcanic eruptions , in a similar way in which the more dangerous lahars form . When meltwater pools on the surface rather than flowing , it forms melt ponds . As the weather gets colder meltwater will often re-freeze . Meltwater can collect or melt under the ice 's surface . These pools of water , known as subglacial lakes can form due to geothermal heat and friction .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Meltwater", "rank": 30, "score": 102106 }, { "content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming", "rank": 31, "score": 101163 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic ice pack Content: The Arctic ice pack is the ice cover of the Arctic Ocean and its vicinity . The Arctic ice pack undergoes a regular seasonal cycle in which ice melts in spring and summer , reaches a minimum around mid-September , then increases during fall and winter . Summer ice cover in the Arctic is about 50 % of winter cover . Some of the ice survives from one year to the next . Currently 28 % of Arctic basin sea ice is multi-year ice , thicker than seasonal ice : up to 3 - thick over large areas , with ridges up to 20 m thick . As well as the regular seasonal cycle there has been an underlying trend of declining sea ice in the Arctic in recent decades .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Arctic_ice_pack", "rank": 32, "score": 101155 }, { "content": "Title: Meltwater pulse 1B Content: Meltwater pulse 1B ( MWP1b ) is the name used by Quaternary geologists , paleoclimatologists , and oceanographers for a period of either rapid or just accelerated post-glacial sea level rise that occurred at the beginning of the Holocene and after the end of the Younger Dryas . Meltwater pulse 1B is also known as catastrophic rise event 2 ( CRE2 ) in the Caribbean Sea . Other named , postglacial meltwater pulses are known most commonly as meltwater pulse 1A0 ( meltwaterpulse19ka ) , meltwater pulse 1A , meltwater pulse 1C , meltwater pulse 1D , and meltwater pulse 2 . It and these other periods of proposed rapid sea level rise are known as meltwater pulses because the inferred cause of them was the rapid release of meltwater into the oceans from the collapse of continental ice sheets .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Meltwater_pulse_1B", "rank": 33, "score": 100861 }, { "content": "Title: Glaciers of Bhutan Content: The glaciers of Bhutan , which covered about 10 percent of the total surface area in the 1980s , are an important renewable source of water for Bhutan 's rivers . Fed by fresh snow each winter and slow melting in the summer , the glaciers bring millions of litres of fresh water to Bhutan and downriver areas each year . Glacial melt also adds to monsoon-swollen rivers which may be a contributing factor to flooding . Where glacial movement temporary blocks riverflows , downstream areas may be threatened by glacial lake outburst flood ( `` GLOFs '' ) . Although GLOFs are not a new phenomenon in Bhutan , their frequency has risen in the past three decades . Significant GLOFs occurred in 1957 , 1960 , 1968 and 1994 , devastating lives and property downstream . According to the Bhutan Department of Energy however , the majority of rivers in Bhutan are more susceptible to fluctuation with changing rainfall patterns than to flooding directly attributable to glacier or snow melt .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Glaciers_of_Bhutan", "rank": 34, "score": 100381 }, { "content": "Title: Glacier mass balance Content: Crucial to the survival of a glacier is its mass balance or surface mass balance ( SMB ) , the difference between accumulation and ablation ( sublimation and melting ) . Climate change may cause variations in both temperature and snowfall , causing changes in the surface mass balance . Changes in mass balance control a glacier 's long-term behavior and are the most sensitive climate indicators on a glacier . From 1980 -- 2012 the mean cumulative mass loss of glaciers reporting mass balance to the World Glacier Monitoring Service is − 16 m . This includes 23 consecutive years of negative mass balances . A glacier with a sustained negative balance is out of equilibrium and will retreat , while one with a sustained positive balance is out of equilibrium and will advance . Glacier retreat results in the loss of the low elevation region of the glacier . Since higher elevations are cooler than lower ones , the disappearance of the lowest portion of the glacier reduces overall ablation , thereby increasing mass balance and potentially reestablishing equilibrium . However , if the mass balance of a significant portion of the accumulation zone of the glacier is negative , it is in disequilibrium with the local climate . Such a glacier will melt away with a continuation of this local climate . The key symptom of a glacier in disequilibrium is thinning along the entire length of the glacier . For example , Easton Glacier ( pictured below ) will likely shrink to half its size , but at a slowing rate of reduction , and stabilize at that size , despite the warmer temperature , over a few decades . However , the Grinnell Glacier ( pictured below ) will shrink at an increasing rate until it disappears . The difference is that the upper section of Easton Glacier remains healthy and snow-covered , while even the upper section of the Grinnell Glacier is bare , melting and has thinned . Small glaciers with shallow slopes such as Grinnell Glacier are most likely to fall into disequilibrium if there is a change in the local climate . In the case of positive mass balance , the glacier will continue to advance expanding its low elevation area , resulting in more melting . If this still does not create an equilibrium balance the glacier will continue to advance . If a glacier is near a large body of water , especially an ocean , the glacier may advance until iceberg calving losses bring about equilibrium .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Glacier_mass_balance", "rank": 35, "score": 100145 }, { "content": "Title: Vashon Glaciation Content: The Vashon Glaciation or Vashon Stade was the most recent period of very cold climate in which glaciers existed at elevations at and near sea level in the western part of present-day Washington state . It occurred during a colder than present part of the current ice age . The Vashon Glaciation lasted from about 19,000 - 16,000 BP ( Before Present - present defined as January 1 , 1950 for this scale ) . The Cordilleran Ice Sheet was an ice sheet that covered present-day southern Alaska and parts of western Canada . During the Vashon Glaciation , the Cordilleran Ice Sheet advanced into the Puget Sound region .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Vashon_Glaciation", "rank": 36, "score": 100111 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 37, "score": 99796 }, { "content": "Title: Weddell Polynya Content: The Weddell Polynya or Weddell Sea Polynya is a polynya or irregular area of open water surrounded by sea ice in the Weddell Sea of the Southern Ocean off Antarctica and near the Maud Rise . The size of New Zealand , it re-occurred each winter between 1974 and 1976 . These were the first three austral winters observed by the Nimbus-5 Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer ( ESMR ) . Since 1976 , the polynya has never been seen again . Since the 1970s , the polar Southern Ocean south of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current has freshened and stratified , likely a result of anthropogenic climate change . Such stratification may be responsible for suppressing the return of the Weddell Sea polynya .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Weddell_Polynya", "rank": 38, "score": 99386 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Antarctica Content: The effects of global warming in Antarctica may include rising temperatures and increasing snow melt .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Antarctica", "rank": 39, "score": 98395 }, { "content": "Title: Paleoflooding Content: The phenomenon of paleoflooding is apparent in the geologic record over various spatial and temporal scales . It often occurred on a large scale , and was the result of either glacial ice melt causing large outbursts of freshwater , or high sea levels breaching bodies of freshwater . If a freshwater outflow event was large enough that the water reached the ocean system , it caused changes in salinity that potentially affected ocean circulation and global climate . Freshwater flows could also accumulate to form continental glacial lakes , and this is another indicator of large-scale flooding . In contrast , periods of high global sea level ( often during interglacials ) could cause marine water to breach natural dams and flow into bodies of freshwater . Changes in salinity of freshwater and marine bodies can be detected from the analysis of organisms that inhabited those bodies at a given time , as certain organisms are more suited to live in either fresh or saline conditions .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Paleoflooding", "rank": 40, "score": 98198 }, { "content": "Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Past_sea_level", "rank": 41, "score": 98194 }, { "content": "Title: Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 Content: The Great Arctic Cyclone , or `` Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 , '' was an extratropical cyclone which centered on the Arctic Ocean in early August , 2012 . Such storms are rare in the Arctic summer , although common in the winter . The Great Arctic Cyclone was the strongest summer storm and the 13th strongest storm observed at any time since satellite observations began in 1979 . Although the Great Arctic Cyclone did not cause the record melting of sea ice which occurred in 2012 , turbulence resulting from the storm is believed to have contributed to melting of sea ice due to the rise of warmer saltier water from below .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Great_Arctic_Cyclone_of_2012", "rank": 42, "score": 98107 }, { "content": "Title: Last Glacial Maximum Content: The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE . Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Last_Glacial_Maximum", "rank": 43, "score": 97958 }, { "content": "Title: Neoglaciation Content: The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Neoglaciation", "rank": 44, "score": 97393 }, { "content": "Title: List of glaciers Content: A glacier ( -LSB- ˈɡleɪʃər -RSB- ) or ( -LSB- ˈɡlæsiə -RSB- ) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight ; it forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation ( melting and sublimation ) over many years , often centuries . Glaciers slowly deform and flow due to stresses induced by their weight , creating crevasses , seracs , and other distinguishing features . Because glacial mass is affected by long-term climate changes , e.g. , precipitation , mean temperature , and cloud cover , glacial mass changes are considered among the most sensitive indicators of climate change .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "List_of_glaciers", "rank": 45, "score": 97315 }, { "content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Duncan_Wingham", "rank": 46, "score": 96356 }, { "content": "Title: Cold blob (North Atlantic) Content: The cold blob in the North Atlantic describes a cold temperature anomaly of ocean surface waters , affecting the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation ( AMOC ) which is part of the thermohaline circulation , possibly related to global warming-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Cold_blob_(North_Atlantic)", "rank": 47, "score": 96308 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Arctic_geoengineering", "rank": 48, "score": 96306 }, { "content": "Title: David Vaughan (glaciologist) Content: David Glyn Vaughan OBE is a climate scientist at the British Antarctic Survey . His research focus is the role of ice sheets in the Earth system and the societal threat of climate change and rising sea levels . He is a co-ordinating Lead Author of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . His research work includes the mapping of the bed under Pine Island Glacier and the discovery of a subglacial volcano . Vaughan was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 2017 New Year Honours for services to glaciology .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "David_Vaughan_(glaciologist)", "rank": 49, "score": 95711 }, { "content": "Title: 2013 extreme weather events Content: The 2013 extreme weather events included several all-time temperature records in Northern and Southern Hemisphere . The February extent of snow cover in Eurasia and North America was above average , while the extent of Arctic ice in the same month was 4,5 % below the 1981 -- 2010 average . The Northern Hemisphere weather extremes have been linked to the melting of Arctic sea ice , which alters atmospheric circulation in a way that leads to more snow and ice . By January 11 , 233 weather-related deaths were reported in India . Elsewhere , particularly in Russia , the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom , low temperatures affected wildlife , delaying bird breeding and disrupting the bird migration . On January 10 Bangladesh faced the lowest temperature since country 's independence , at 3.0 ° C in Saidpur . While Finland and most of Northern European countries got the record high , and even the highest temperatures at Europe during May and June , Western - and Middle Europe faced much cooler weather and even their wettest May and June ever . During summer prolonged heat waves in the Northern Hemisphere set new record high temperatures . On March 24 , 2014 , the secretary-general of the World Meteorological Organization Michel Jarraud announced that `` many of the extreme events of 2013 were consistent with what we would expect as a result of human-induced climate change '' .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "2013_extreme_weather_events", "rank": 50, "score": 95487 }, { "content": "Title: Noll Glacier Content: Noll Glacier is a glacier , nearly 20 nautical miles ( 37 km ) long , draining northeast from Jones Nunatak in central Wilson Hills . The glacier turns northwest at Wegert Bluff and enters the lower part of Tomilin Glacier before the latter debouches into the sea . Mapped by United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from surveys and U.S. Navy air photos , 1960-64 . Named by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for Maj. Edmund P. Noll , United States Marine Corps ( USMC ) , Cargo Officer and LC-130 Aircraft Commander with U.S. Navy Squadron VX-6 during Operation Deep Freeze 1968 . Returning from the war in Vietnam in June of 1966 he deployed to Antarctica in October that year completing deployments with VX6 for the 1966-67 and 1967-68 season on the ice . He commanded the winter fly-in in 1967 and was co-pilot on the rescue flight from the U , S , base at McMurdo to Haley Bay , the British base across the continent for which he was awarded a single mission AIR Medal . Major Noll completed his military service retiring in 1988 as a Colonel . . Category : Glaciers of Oates Land", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Noll_Glacier", "rank": 51, "score": 94754 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic dipole anomaly Content: The Arctic dipole anomaly is a pressure pattern characterized by high pressure on the arctic regions of North America , and a low pressure on the Eurasia region . This pattern sometimes replaces the Arctic oscillation and the North Atlantic Oscillation . It was observed for the first time in the first decade of 2000s and is perhaps linked to recent climate change . The Arctic dipole lets more southern winds into the Arctic ocean resulting in more ice melting . The summer 2007 event played an important role in the record low sea ice extent which was recorded in September . The Arctic dipole has also been linked to changes in arctic circulation patterns that cause drier winters in Northern Europe , but much wetter winters in Southern Europe and colder winters in East Asia , Europe and the eastern half of North America .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Arctic_dipole_anomaly", "rank": 52, "score": 94195 }, { "content": "Title: Late Glacial Content: The Late Glacial ( c. 13,000 -- 10,000 years ago ) , or Tardiglacial ( `` Late Glacial '' ) , is defined primarily by the beginning of the modern warm period , in which climates in the Northern Hemisphere warmed substantially , causing a process of accelerated deglaciation following the Last Glacial Maximum ( c. 25,000 -- 13,000 years ago ) . At this time , human populations , previously forced into refuge areas as a result of Last Glacial Maximum climatic conditions , gradually begin to repopulate the Northern Hemisphere 's Eurasian landmass and eventually populate North America via Beringia for the first time . Evidence for its occurrence stems from two main types of analysis . The first is the use of oxygen isotope stages ( OIS ) gathered from stratified deep-sea sediment cores . Samples are gathered and measured for change in isotope levels to determine temperature fluctuation for given periods of time . The second is a proxy measurement , the observation of certain reappearing fauna and flora fossils that can survive only in temperate climates , thus indicating warming trends for a given geographic area . Archaeological evidence of settlement and resettlement in certain areas by humans also serve as proxy measurements . Towards the end of OIS 2 in which the Late Glacial Maximum occurs , the deep-sea sediment cores indicate a gradually warming climate , and the reappearance of certain warm-weather flora and fauna remains throughout the Northern Hemisphere correlate with that trend . A period of relatively brief cold oscillation , referred to as the Younger Dryas , is detected during OIS 2 , as can be inferred from an increase in isotope weight .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Late_Glacial", "rank": 53, "score": 94190 }, { "content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm", "rank": 54, "score": 94174 }, { "content": "Title: Hirnantian Content: The Hirnantian is the seventh and final internationally recognized stage of the Ordovician Period of the Paleozoic Era . It was of short duration , lasting about 1.9 million years , from to Ma ( million years ago ) . The early part of the Hirnantian was characterized by cold temperatures , major glaciation , and a severe drop in sea level . In the latter part of the Hirnantian , temperatures rose , the glaciers melted , and sea level returned to the same or to a slightly higher level than it had been prior to the glaciation . Most scientists believe that this climatic oscillation caused the major extinction event that took place during this time . In fact , the Hirnantian ( also known as the End Ordovician and the Ordovician-Silurian ) mass extinction event represents the second largest such event in geologic history . Approximately 85 % of marine ( sea-dwelling ) species died . Only the End Permian mass extinction was larger . Unlike many smaller extinction events , however , the long-term consequences of the End Ordovician event were relatively small . Following the climatic oscillation , the climate returned to its previous state , and the species that survived soon ( within two or three million years ) evolved into species very similar to the ones that existed before .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Hirnantian", "rank": 55, "score": 93851 }, { "content": "Title: Ritacuba Blanco Content: Ritacuba Blanco is the highest peak of Cordillera Oriental , in the Andes Mountains of Colombia . It 's also named Ritak ` uwa , an ancient name from the U'wa indigenous people that live in the lowlands of the National Park Sierra Nevada del Cocuy y Güicán , where the Ritacuba Blanco is located . The summit is accessible from the west via the town of El Cocuy , the village of Güicán and the hamlet of Las Cabañas . The hike is fairly easy , but weather is not reliable , and a glacier must be crossed . Because of global warming , its glacier is melting at very high rates , backing down 25 linear mts per year ; same is happening at amazing speeds to all other snow-covered tropical mountains in Colombia . In 1950 , Ritacuba Blanco 's glacier extended down to 4,500 m above sea level ; in January 2007 its lowest point was at 4,800 m above sea level . If this melting rate continues , the glacier is expected to disappear before 2025 .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Ritacuba_Blanco", "rank": 56, "score": 93366 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature's Rising Content: Temperature 's Rising is a compilation album released in 1995 by the Canadian rock band Loverboy . The album was the third compilation by the band , but this particular compilation aimed at the more rarely heard songs by the band , and the minor hits that the previous compilations did not cover .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Temperature's_Rising", "rank": 57, "score": 93309 }, { "content": "Title: Marine transgression Content: A marine transgression is a geologic event during which sea level rises relative to the land and the shoreline moves toward higher ground , resulting in flooding . Transgressions can be caused either by the land sinking or the ocean basins filling with water ( or decreasing in capacity ) . Transgressions and regressions may be caused by tectonic events such as orogenies , severe climate change such as ice ages or isostatic adjustments following removal of ice or sediment load . During the Cretaceous , seafloor spreading created a relatively shallow Atlantic basin at the expense of deeper Pacific basin . This reduced the world 's ocean basin capacity and caused a rise in sea level worldwide . As a result of this sea level rise , the oceans transgressed completely across the central portion of North America and created the Western Interior Seaway from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean . The opposite of transgression is regression , in which the sea level falls relative to the land and exposes former sea bottom . During the Pleistocene Ice Ages , so much water was removed from the oceans and stored on land as year-round glaciers that the ocean regressed 120 m , exposing the Bering land bridge between Alaska and Asia .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Marine_transgression", "rank": 58, "score": 93253 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic resources race Content: The Arctic resources race refers to the competition between global entities for newly available natural resources in the Arctic . As the ice in the Arctic melts at a record rate and the sea ice extent continues to decrease due to global climate change , the Arctic waters become more navigable and Arctic resources -- such as oil and gas , minerals , fish , as well as tourism and new trade routes -- are becoming more accessible . Under the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea , five nations have the legal right to exploit the Arctic 's natural resources within their exclusive economic zones : Canada , Russia , Denmark , Norway , and the United States ( though the U.S. has yet to ratify the treaty , it considers the treaty to be customary international law and abides by it ) . The Arctic region and its resources have recently been at the center of controversy and pose potential conflicts between nations that have differing opinions of how to manage the area , including conflicting territorial claims . In addition , the Arctic region is home to an estimated 400,000 indigenous people . If the ice continues to melt at the current rate , then these indigenous people are at risk of being displaced . The acceleration of ice depletion will contribute to climate change as a whole : melting ice releases methane , ice reflects incoming solar radiation , and without it will cause the ocean to absorb more radiation ( albedo effect ) , heating up the water causing more ocean acidification , and melting ice will cause a rise in sea level .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Arctic_resources_race", "rank": 59, "score": 93067 }, { "content": "Title: Fisheries and climate change Content: Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems . Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species . This has impacts on the sustainability of fisheries and aquaculture , on the livelihoods of the communities that depend on fisheries , and on the ability of the oceans to capture and store carbon ( biological pump ) . The effect of sea level rise means that coastal fishing communities are in the front line of climate change , while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland ( freshwater ) fisheries and aquaculture .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Fisheries_and_climate_change", "rank": 60, "score": 92876 }, { "content": "Title: Lednia Content: Lednia is a monotypic genus , containing the single species Lednia tumana ( the meltwater stonefly ) -- a rare , alpine , aquatic insect that is endangered due to likely loss of glaciers and snowpacks in the Glacier National Park and other habitat in the Rocky Mountains due to climate change . The insect lives in the coldest streams just downstream of the glacier or snowbank sources and is considered as an early warning indicator species of climate warming in mountain ecosystems . The Fisheries and Wildlife Service isbeing petitioned to protect the species under the U.S. . Endangered Species Act .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Lednia", "rank": 61, "score": 91822 }, { "content": "Title: North American blizzard of 1996 Content: The Blizzard of 1996 was a severe nor'easter that paralyzed the U.S. East Coast with up to 4 ft of wind-driven snow from January 6 to January 8 , 1996 . It was followed by another storm , an Alberta Clipper , on January 12 , then unusually warm weather and torrential rain which caused rapid melting and river flooding . Along with the March Superstorm of 1993 , it is one of only two snowstorms to receive the top rating of 5 , or `` Extreme '' , on the Northeast Snowfall Impact Scale ( NESIS ) .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "North_American_blizzard_of_1996", "rank": 62, "score": 91414 }, { "content": "Title: Columbia Glacier (Washington) Content: See also Columbia Glacier ( Alaska ) . Columbia Glacier is a glacier located in the Henry M. Jackson Wilderness in the U.S. state of Washington . It descends from 5600 ft to 4700 ft above sea level . It is surrounded by Columbia Peak , Monte Cristo Peak , and Kyes Peak and is a source of water for Blanca Lake and Troublesome Creek , a tributary of the North Fork Skykomish River . The glacier retreated 278 ft between 1979 and 2004 . The retreat is due to recent reduced winter snowpack and more summer melting leading to negative mass balance . The glacier is in disequilibrium with climate and will continue to thin and retreat .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Columbia_Glacier_(Washington)", "rank": 63, "score": 91296 }, { "content": "Title: Exodus (Bertagna novel) Content: Exodus is a science fiction novel written for teens to young adults by Julie Bertagna , published in August 2002 . The story is set on an island faced with the problem of a rising sea level , caused by melting ice caps and other forms of global warming . Mara must think of a way to save herself , the other villagers and , most importantly , the world . The book was short-listed for the Whitbread Children 's Book of the Year in 2002 . Exodus is part of a trilogy ; the sequel to the book is Zenith , published in 2007 , followed by Aurora , published in 2011 . Julie Bertagna was inspired to write this book in 1999 , when she learned of two South Pacific Islands being engulfed by the sea as a result of global warming , forcing the people to find higher land . Bertagna started to investigate into the topic of global warming and the stories inspired her to write Exodus and its sequel Zenith . The purpose of the book is to inform young readers about global warming and convince them that something must be done about it .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Exodus_(Bertagna_novel)", "rank": 64, "score": 90768 }, { "content": "Title: Starvation (glaciology) Content: In glaciology , starvation occurs when a glacier retreats , not because of temperature increases , but due to precipitation so low that the ice flow downward into the zone of ablation exceeds the replenishment from snowfall . Eventually , the ice will move so far down that it either calves into the ocean or melts . When starvation does occur , however , it can almost always be reversed by slight changes in precipitation , such as are brought about by mountain ranges . Thus , even if glaciers do not cover a lowland due to low precipitation , glaciation is almost certain to occur at higher elevations .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Starvation_(glaciology)", "rank": 65, "score": 90559 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Tuvalu Content: Global warming (recent climate change) is particularly threatening in Tuvalu. This is because the average height of the islands is less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) above sea level, with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 metres (15 ft) above sea level. Between 1971 and 2014, during a period of global warming, Tuvalu islands have increased in size, according to aerial photography and satellite imagery. Over four decades, there was a net increase in land area in Tuvalu of 73.5 ha (2.9%), although the changes were not uniform, with 74% of land increasing in size and 27% of land decreasing in size. The sea level at the Funafuti tide gauge has risen at 3.9 mm per year, which is approximately twice the global average.Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to be significantly impacted by rising sea levels. Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut, pulaka, and taro. Research from the University of Auckland suggests that Tuvalu may remain habitable over the next century. However, as of March 2018, Prime Minister Enele Sopoaga stated that Tuvalu is not expanding and has gained no additional habitable land. Sopoaga has also said that evacuating the islands is the last resort.", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Tuvalu", "rank": 66, "score": 90519 }, { "content": "Title: Shafat Glacier Content: The Shafat Glacier is a 14 km long glacier in the north eastern Himalayan Range situated 85 km south from Kargil and 294 km east from Srinagar on the right side of Kargil Zanskar Road in the state of Jammu and Kashmir . The Shafat Glacier gives rise to the two mountain peaks of Nun and Kun which have the elevation of more than 6800 meters , and it provides a base to climb these mountain peaks . It lies at an average elevation of 4400 meters . The melt waters add to the flow of the Suru River which is a tributary of the Indus River . The Shafat Glacier is a broken , ice falling glacier melting at an alarming rate due to the Global warming ,", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Shafat_Glacier", "rank": 67, "score": 90349 }, { "content": "Title: Waterworld Content: Waterworld is a 1995 American post-apocalyptic science fiction action film directed by Kevin Reynolds and co-written by Peter Rader and David Twohy . It was based on Rader 's original 1986 screenplay and stars Kevin Costner , who also produced it with Charles Gordon and John Davis . It was distributed by Universal Pictures . The setting of the film is in the distant future . Although no exact date was given in the film itself , it has been suggested that it takes place in 2500 . The polar ice caps have completely melted , and the sea level has risen over 7,600 m ( 25,000 feet ) , covering nearly all of the land . The film illustrates this with an unusual variation on the Universal logo , which begins with the usual image of Earth , but shows the planet 's water levels gradually rising and the polar ice caps melting until nearly all the land is submerged . The plot of the film centers on an otherwise nameless antihero , `` The Mariner '' , a drifter who sails the Earth in his trimaran . The most expensive film ever made at the time , Waterworld was released to mixed reviews , praising the futuristic setting and premise but criticizing the characterization and acting performances . The film also was unable to recoup its massive budget at the box office ; however , the film did later become profitable due to video and other post-cinema sales . The film was also nominated for an Academy Award in the category Best Sound at the 68th Academy Awards . The film 's release was accompanied by a tie-in novel , video game , and three themed attractions at Universal Studios Hollywood , Universal Studios Singapore , and Universal Studios Japan called Waterworld : A Live Sea War Spectacular , which are all still running as of 2017 . Universal Studios Hollywood had closed it down for refurbishment , but had it re-opened in April 2017 .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Waterworld", "rank": 68, "score": 90191 }, { "content": "Title: Younger Dryas Content: The Younger Dryas is a geological period from c. 12,900 to c. 11,700 calendar years ago ( BP ) . It is named after an indicator genus , the alpine-tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala . Leaves of Dryas octopetala are occasionally abundant in the Late Glacial , often minerogenic-rich , like the lake sediments of Scandinavian lakes . The Younger Dryas saw a sharp decline in temperature over most of the northern hemisphere , at the end of the Pleistocene epoch , immediately before the current warmer Holocene . It was the most recent and longest of several interruptions to the gradual warming of the Earth 's climate since the severe Last Glacial Maximum , c. 27,000 to 24,000 calendar years BP . The change was relatively sudden , taking place in decades , and resulted in a decline of 2 to 6 degrees Celsius , advances of glaciers and drier conditions , over much of the temperate northern hemisphere . It is thought to have been caused by a decline in the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation , which transports warm water from the equator towards the North Pole , and which in turn is thought to have been caused by an influx of fresh cold water from North America into the Atlantic . The Younger Dryas was a period of climatic change , but the effects were complex and variable . In the southern hemisphere , and some areas of the north such as southeastern North America , there was a slight warming . The presence of a distinct cold period at the end of the Late Glacial interval has been known for a long time . Paleobotanical and lithostratigraphic studies of Swedish and Danish bog and lake sites , e.g. the Allerød clay pit in Denmark , first recognized and described the Younger Dryas . The Younger Dryas is the youngest and longest of three stadials that resulted from typically abrupt climatic changes that took place over the last 16,000 calendar years . Within the Blytt-Sernander classification of north European climatic phases , the prefix ` Younger ' refers to the recognition that this original ` Dryas ' period was preceded by a warmer stage , the Allerød oscillation , which in turn was preceded by the Older Dryas around 14,000 calendar years BP . This is not securely dated , and estimates vary by 400 years , but it is generally accepted that it lasted around 200 years . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and more extensive than during the Younger Dryas . The Older Dryas , in turn , is preceded by another warmer stage , the Bølling oscillation that separates it from a third and even older stadial . This stadial is often , but not always , known as the Oldest Dryas . The Oldest Dryas occurred approximately 1,770 calendar years before the Younger Dryas and lasted about 400 calendar years . According to the GISP2 ice core from Greenland , the Oldest Dryas occurred between about 15,070 and 14,670 calendar years BP . In Ireland , the Younger Dryas has also been known as the Nahanagan Stadial , while in Great Britain it has been called the Loch Lomond Stadial . In the Greenland Summit ice core chronology , the Younger Dryas corresponds to Greenland Stadial 1 ( GS-1 ) . The preceding Allerød warm period ( interstadial ) is subdivided into three events : Greenland Interstadial-1c to 1a ( GI-1c to GI-1a ) .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Younger_Dryas", "rank": 69, "score": 89949 }, { "content": "Title: Nymark Content: Nymark ( Norwegian : `` new ground '' ) was the name that artist Alex Hartley gave to a small island he discovered in the arctic archipelago of Svalbard , a Norwegian territory , in 2004 . It is officially named Nyskjæret by the Name Committee for Norwegian Polar Regions ( skjer = skerry ) . It is a small island in the Barents Sea , 500 miles off the coast of Norway . It emerged from the now melted portion of a retreating glacier and is around the size of a football field . As part of the London 2012 Cultural Olympiad , Hartley toured a scaled version of Nyskjæret round the South West coast of England as nowhereisland . According to its website , it provided a platform to engage with issues raised by the project , exploring a sense of place through an epic , nomadic sculpture and how we can respond to the issue of global warming . The island was discovered during a Cape Farewell expedition of scientists and artists , collaborating on a cultural response to global warming and the retreating Arctic ice pack . A large wall exhibit made from framed rock samples , letters , maps , photographs , and other documentation materials forms part of Cape Farewell - Art and Climate Change , and appeared in the National Conservation Centre in Liverpool as part of the 2006 biennial .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Nymark", "rank": 70, "score": 89537 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Antarctica Content: The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth . Antarctica 's lowest air temperature record was set on 21 July 1983 , with − 89.2 C at Vostok Station . Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures , down to − 93.2 C at the cloud free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010 . It is also extremely dry ( technically a desert ) , averaging 166 mm of precipitation per year . On most parts of the continent the snow rarely melts and is eventually compressed to become the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet . Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent , because of the katabatic winds . Most of Antarctica has an ice cap climate ( Köppen EF ) with very cold , generally extremely dry weather .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Climate_of_Antarctica", "rank": 71, "score": 89527 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Ocean Content: The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world 's five major oceans . The International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) recognizes it as an ocean , although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea , classifying it a mediterranean sea or an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean . Alternatively , the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean . Located mostly in the Arctic north polar region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere , the Arctic Ocean is almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America . It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter . The Arctic Ocean 's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes ; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans , due to low evaporation , heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams , and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities . The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50 % . The US National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Arctic_Ocean", "rank": 72, "score": 89438 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Tuvalu Content: Global warming is a concern in Tuvalu since the average height of the islands is less than 2 m above sea level , with the highest point of Niulakita being about 4.6 m above sea level . Tuvalu could be one of the first nations to experience the effects of sea level rise . Not only could parts of the island be flooded but the rising saltwater table could also destroy deep rooted food crops such as coconut , pulaka , and taro .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Tuvalu", "rank": 73, "score": 89224 }, { "content": "Title: Champlain Sea Content: The Champlain Sea was a temporary inlet of the Atlantic Ocean , created by the retreating glaciers during the close of the last ice age . The Sea once included lands in what are now the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario , as well as parts of the American states of New York and Vermont . The mass of ice from the continental ice sheets had depressed the rock beneath it over millennia . At the end of the last ice age , while the rock was still depressed , the Saint Lawrence and Ottawa River valleys , as well as modern Lake Champlain , were below sea level and flooded with rising worldwide sea levels , once the ice no longer prevented the ocean from flowing into the region . As the land gradually rose again , in the process known as isostatic rebound , the sea coast gradually retreated to its current location . The sea lasted from about 13,000 years ago to about 10,000 years ago and was continuously shrinking during that time , since the rebounding continent was slowly rising above sea level . At its peak , the sea extended inland as far south as Lake Champlain and somewhat farther west than the city of Ottawa , Ontario , and farther up the Ottawa River past Pembroke . The remaining glaciers fed the sea during that time , making it more brackish than typical seawater . It is estimated that the sea was as much as 150 m above the level of today 's Saint Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers . The best evidence of this former sea is the vast clay plain deposited along the Ottawa and St. Lawrence Rivers . This resulted in distinctive forest types , and large wetlands . Other modern evidence of the sea can be seen in the form of whale fossils , ( belugas , fin whales , and bowhead whales ) and marine shells that have been found near the cities of Ottawa , Ontario , and Montreal , Quebec . There are also fossils of oceanic fish such as capelin . The Sea also left ancient raised shorelines in the former coastal regions , and the Leda clay deposits in areas of deeper water . The northern shore of the lake was in southern Quebec where outcrops of the Canadian shield form the Eardley Escarpment . This escarpment still has distinctive plants that may date back to the sea . The Eardley Escarpment is known locally as the Gatineau Hills ; part of the Mattawa fault at the southeastern edge of the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben , in Eastern Ontario and the Outaouais region of Quebec , more commonly known as the Ottawa Valley .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Champlain_Sea", "rank": 74, "score": 89141 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Peter_Doran", "rank": 75, "score": 88930 }, { "content": "Title: Flandrian interglacial Content: The Flandrian interglacial or stage is the name given by geologists and archaeologists in the British Isles to the first , and so far only , stage of the Holocene epoch ( the present geological period ) , covering the period from around 12,000 years ago , at the end of the last glacial period to the present day . As such , it is in practice identical in span to the Holocene . Present climatological theory ( based on analysis of Milankovitch cycles ) forecasts that the present Flandrian climate should decline in temperature towards a global climate similar to that of the ice age . Less orbital eccentricity may have the effect of moderating this temperature downturn . The Flandrian began as the relatively short-lived Younger Dryas climate downturn came to an end . This formed the last gasp of the Devensian glaciation , the final stage of the Pleistocene epoch and is traditionally seen as the latest warm interglacial in a series that has been occurring throughout the Quaternary geological period . The first part of the Flandrian , known as the Younger Atlantic , was a period of fairly rapid sea level rise , known as the Flandrian transgression and associated with the melting of the Fenno-Scandian , Scottish , Laurentide and Cordilleran glaciers . Fjords were formed during the Flandrian transgression when U-shaped glaciated valleys were inundated with water .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Flandrian_interglacial", "rank": 76, "score": 88637 }, { "content": "Title: Premelting Content: Premelting ( also surface melting ) describes the fact that , even below its melting point , quasi-liquid films can be observed on crystalline surfaces . The thickness of the film is temperature dependent . This effect is common for all crystalline materials . Premelting shows its effects in e.g. frost heave , the growth of snowflakes and , taking grain boundary interfaces into account , maybe even in the movement of glaciers . Considering a solid-vapour interface , complete and incomplete premelting can be distinguished . During a temperature rise from below to above , in the case of complete premelting , the solid melts homogeneously from the outside to the inside ; in the case of incomplete premelting , the liquid film stays very thin during the beginning of the melting process , but droplets start to form on the interface . In either case , the solid always melts from the outside inwards , never from the inside .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Premelting", "rank": 77, "score": 88014 }, { "content": "Title: Josh Willis Content: Joshua `` Josh '' K. Willis is an oceanographer at NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory . His area of expertise is current sea level rise , as well as measuring ocean temperatures . When sea level fell from 2010 to 2011 , Willis stated that this was due to an unusually large La Niña transferring more rainfall over land rather than over the ocean as usually happens . In addition , Willis is the project scientist for Jason-3 .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Josh_Willis", "rank": 78, "score": 87831 }, { "content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer", "rank": 79, "score": 87812 }, { "content": "Title: Glacial period Content: A glacial period ( alternatively glacial or glaciation ) is an interval of time ( thousands of years ) within an ice age that is marked by colder temperatures and glacier advances . Interglacials , on the other hand , are periods of warmer climate between glacial periods . The last glacial period ended about 15,000 years ago . < ref name = `` Severinghaus1999 '' > </ref> The Holocene epoch is the current interglacial . A time when there are no glaciers on Earth is considered a greenhouse climate state .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Glacial_period", "rank": 80, "score": 87669 }, { "content": "Title: Heinrich event Content: A Heinrich event is a natural phenomenon in which large armadas of icebergs break off from glaciers and traverse the North Atlantic . First described by marine geologist Hartmut Heinrich ( Heinrich , H. , 1988 ) , they occurred during five of the last seven glacial periods or `` ice ages '' over the past 640,000 years ( Hodell , et al. , 2008 ) . Heinrich events are particularly well documented for the last glacial period but notably absent from the penultimate glaciation ( Obrochta et al. , 2014 ) . The icebergs contained rock mass , which has been eroded by the glaciers , and as they melted , this matter was dropped onto the sea floor as ice rafted debris ( abbreviated to `` IRD '' ) . The icebergs ' melting caused extensive amounts of fresh water to be added to the North Atlantic . Such inputs of cold and fresh water may well have altered the density-driven , thermohaline circulation patterns of the ocean , and often coincide with indications of global climate fluctuations . Various mechanisms have been proposed to explain the cause of Heinrich events , most of which imply instability of the massive Laurentide ice sheet , a continental glacier covering North America during the last glacial period . Other northern hemisphere ice sheets were potentially involved as well ( Scandinavia , Iceland , Greenland ) . However , the initial cause of this instability is still debated .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Heinrich_event", "rank": 81, "score": 87584 }, { "content": "Title: Skuleskogen National Park Content: Skuleskogen National Park ( Skuleskogens nationalpark ) is a Swedish national park in Västernorrland County , on the coast of the Baltic Sea , in northern Sweden . It covers 30.62 km , constituting the eastern part of the Forest of Skule . The park is characterized by a very rough topology with many rocky peaks , of which the highest is Slåttdalsberget , 280 m in altitude , rising directly from the sea . The topography is also marked by the presence of deep crevasses and caves . This particular topology can be found throughout the entire High Coast ( Swedish : Höga kusten ) , a region of Sweden so named because it constitutes the highest section of the coast of the Baltic Sea . This region is in our day principally known as a favored site for the observation of the phenomenon of post-glacial rebound . Most of the region was under the sea less than 10,000 years ago , after the ice sheet that blanketed it melted . But thanks to the melting of this mass of ice that had been pressing down upon it , the ground is rising year by year , at a current speed of 8 mm per year . Humans have left their mark upon the park , although they probably never established themselves there in great numbers . Numerous Bronze Age funerary cairns are still visible along the ancient coastline . Later , the forest was mainly used as pasture . Things changed in the middle of the 19th century when the logging industry spread throughout Sweden , affecting almost all the forest of the park . This exploitation ceased , however , at the end of that century , so that the current forest is dominated by trees more than 100 years old . This forest has thus been able to recover a part of its ancestral richness , and so contains an important fauna and flora , with several endangered species , such as the lichen Dolichousnea longissima , which is the park 's symbol . This geological and biological richness led to the creation of a national park in 1984 , followed by the inclusion of the park with the rest of the High Coast in 2000 in the UNESCO World Heritage List . Today , despite its distance from areas of dense human population , the park is a relatively important site of tourism with 20,000 visitors per year . The principal attraction of the park is the 40 m deep crevasse of Slåttdalskrevan , which is easily accessible by numerous hiking trails , including the Höga Kustenleden , which goes along the whole of the High Coast .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Skuleskogen_National_Park", "rank": 82, "score": 87435 }, { "content": "Title: November Storm of 1995 Content: The November Storm of 1995 ( Novemberstormen 1995 ) was a snowstorm , coming from the North Sea in mid November 1995 . Beginning on Thursday evening , 16 November 1995 , the storm culminated on Friday morning , 17 November , striking against the southern and western parts of Sweden . The snowstorm decreased during the Friday afternoon , disappearing from Sweden . Gothenburg with neighbouring places as the strong winds destroyed what had been cleared , creating giant snowdrifts . It was n't until Tuesday , 21 November 1995 , traffic conditions were back to ordinary .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "November_Storm_of_1995", "rank": 83, "score": 87398 }, { "content": "Title: Chasing Ice Content: Chasing Ice is a 2012 documentary film about the efforts of nature photographer James Balog and his Extreme Ice Survey ( EIS ) to publicize the effects of climate change , directed by Jeff Orlowski . It was released in the United States on November 16 , 2012 . The documentary includes scenes from a glacier calving event that took place at Jakobshavn Glacier in Greenland , lasting 75 minutes , the longest such event ever captured on film . Two EIS videographers waited several weeks in a small tent overlooking the glacier , and were finally able to witness 7.4 km3 of ice crashing off the glacier . `` The calving of a massive glacier believed to have produced the ice that sank the Titanic is like watching a city break apart . ''", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Chasing_Ice", "rank": 84, "score": 87004 }, { "content": "Title: Uunartoq Qeqertaq Content: Uunartoq Qeqertaq , Greenlandic for `` The Warming Island '' , is an island off the east central coast of Greenland , 550 km north of the Arctic Circle . It became recognised as an island only in September 2005 , by US explorer Dennis Schmitt . It was attached to the mainland of Liverpool Land by glacial ice even in 2002 , when the ice shelves began retreating rapidly in this area , so that by 2005 it was no longer attached to the mainland . Members of the scientific community believe this newly discovered island is a direct result of global warming . The island has three large peninsulas , and thus resembles the letter W , or the Chinese character 山 .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Uunartoq_Qeqertaq", "rank": 85, "score": 86627 }, { "content": "Title: Mendenhall Glacier Content: Mendenhall Glacier ( also Sitaantaagu ) is a glacier about 13.6 miles long located in Mendenhall Valley , about 12 mi from downtown Juneau in the southeast area of the U.S. state of Alaska . The glacier and surrounding landscape is protected as part of the 5,815-acre Mendenhall Glacier Recreation Area , a federally designated unit of the Tongass National Forest . The Juneau Icefield Research Program has monitored the outlet glaciers of the Juneau Icefield since 1942 , including Mendenhall Glacier . The glacier has also retreated 1.75 mi since 1929 , when Mendenhall Lake was created , and over 2.5 mi since 1500 . The end of the glacier currently has a negative glacier mass balance and will continue to retreat in the foreseeable future . Given that average yearly temperatures are currently increasing , and the outlook is for this trend to continue , it is actually possible that the glacier might experience a period of stabilization or slight advance during its retreating march . This is because increasing amounts of warm , moist air will be carried up to the head of the icefield , where colder ambient temperatures will cause it to precipitate as snow . The increased amount of snow will feed the icefield , possibly enough to offset the continually increasing melting experienced at the glacier 's terminus . However , this interesting phenomenon will fade away if temperatures continue to climb , since the head of the glacier will no longer have cold enough ambient temperatures to cause snow to precipitate .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Mendenhall_Glacier", "rank": 86, "score": 86626 }, { "content": "Title: Winter of 1894–95 in the United Kingdom Content: The winter of 1894 -- 95 was severe for the British Isles with a CET of 1.27 C . Many climatologists have come to view this winter as the end of the Little Ice Age and the culmination of a decade of harsh winters in Britain . Whereas the average CET for the ten winters from 1885 -- 86 to 1894 -- 95 was 2.87 C , no winter with a CET under 3.0 C followed for twenty-two years and no month as cold as February or January 1895 until 1940 . In contrast , between 1659 and 1894 no spell with every winter CET above 3.0 C had lasted longer than twelve winters . Although this winter -- which featured the lowest North Atlantic Oscillation index between 1882 and 1962 with lower values recorded only in 1880/1881 , 1962/1963 and 1968/1969 -- affected most of Europe and North America very severely , the difficulties Britain had coping with it vis-à-vis the United States and Germany is seen as marking a beginning in the decline of British hegemony in global affairs . The severe winter led to mass unemployment and severe disruptions to shipping on the River Thames , which froze for the last time on record . Because mass political activism had not yet created the welfare state , most workers were left without sustenance and in industrial centres large soup kitchens were widespread to feed these people . There were also numerous skating festivals organised to take advantage of the unusually cold and sunny weather , with up to fifty thousand people skating on The Serpentine in London 's Hyde Park and speed skating races being widely popular and generating money to be used for relief of the poor , and in some cases to provide them with temporary work as vendors for spectators . Coal supplies dwindled as transporting coal by river was impossible , whilst many recently introduced exotic plants were killed by the cold .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Winter_of_1894–95_in_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 87, "score": 86611 }, { "content": "Title: Cryoseism Content: A cryoseism , also known as an ice quake or a frost quake , is a seismic event that may be caused by a sudden cracking action in frozen soil or rock saturated with water or ice . As water drains into the ground , it may eventually freeze and expand under colder temperatures , putting stress on its surroundings . This stress builds up until relieved explosively in the form of a cryoseism . Another type of cryoseism is a non-tectonic seismic event caused by sudden glacial movements . This movement has been attributed to a veneer of water which may pool underneath a glacier sourced from surface ice melt . Hydraulic pressure of the liquid can act as a lubricant , allowing the glacier to suddenly shift position . This type of cryoseism can be very brief , or may last for several minutes . The requirements for a cryoseism to occur are numerous ; therefore , accurate predictions are not entirely possible and may constitute a factor in structural design and engineering when constructing in an area historically known for such events . Speculation has been made between global warming and the frequency of cryoseisms .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Cryoseism", "rank": 88, "score": 86541 }, { "content": "Title: Canadian Arctic Archipelago Content: The Canadian Arctic Archipelago , also known as the Arctic Archipelago , is a group of islands north of the Canadian mainland . Situated in the northern extremity of North America and covering about 1424500 km2 , this group of 36,563 islands in the Arctic Sea comprises much of the territory of Northern Canada -- most of Nunavut and part of the Northwest Territories . The Canadian Arctic Archipelago is showing some effects of global warming , with some computer estimates determining that melting there will contribute 3.5 cm to the rise in sea levels by 2100 .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Canadian_Arctic_Archipelago", "rank": 89, "score": 86429 }, { "content": "Title: Pine Island Glacier Content: Pine Island Glacier ( PIG ) is a large ice stream glacier , and the fastest melting glacier in Antarctica , responsible for about 25 % of Antarctica 's ice loss . The glacier ice streams flow west-northwest along the south side of the Hudson Mountains into Pine Island Bay , Amundsen Sea , Antarctica . It was mapped by the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) from surveys and United States Navy ( USN ) air photos , 1960 -- 66 , and named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) in association with Pine Island Bay . The area drained by Pine Island Glacier comprises about 10 % of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet . Satellite measurements have shown that the Pine Island Glacier Basin has a greater net contribution of ice to the sea than any other ice drainage basin in the world and this has increased due to recent acceleration of the ice stream . The ice stream is extremely remote , with the nearest continually occupied research station at Rothera , nearly 1300 km away . The area is not claimed by any nations and the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any new claims while it is in force .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Pine_Island_Glacier", "rank": 90, "score": 86346 }, { "content": "Title: Berkner Island Content: Berkner Island or Berkner Ice Rise or Hubley Island is an ice rise , where bedrock below sea level makes the ice dome upward . If the ice cap melted , it would be under water . Berkner `` Island '' is high and completely ice-covered and about 320 km long and 150 km wide , with an area of 44000 km2 . Berkner is surrounded by the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf . The northernmost point of the Berkner is about 20 km from the open sea . It lies in the overlapping portion of the Argentine and the British claims . The island rises to 869 m ( 975 m according to other sources ) and separates Ronne Ice Shelf from the Filchner Ice Shelf . It is characterized by two domes , Reinwarthhöhe in the north ( 698 m ) , at , and Thyssenhöhe in the south ( 869 m ) , at . It is indented by three bays on the eastern side , which are from north to south : McCarthy Inlet , Roberts Inlet , and Spilhouse Inlet . Gould Bay is on the north coast . Berkner Island is about 150 km west of Luitpold Coast , Coats Land , the closest mainland of Eastern Antarctica . 17 km off the northwest corner of Berkner Island is Hemmen Ice Rise . Berkner Island was discovered by members of the United States-International Geophysical Year ( US-IGY ) party at Ellsworth Station under the leadership of Capt. Finn Ronne , United States Navy Reserve ( USNR ) , during the 1957-1958 season . Berkner Island was named by the United States Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names ( US-ACAN ) for American physicist Lloyd Berkner , engineer with the Byrd Antarctic Expedition ( 1928 -- 1930 ) . Since 1990 , Berkner Island has been a jumping off point for a number of long distance polar expeditions . Ben Saunders has planned an unsupported journey from the island to the South Pole and back . It was the start point of Henry Worsley 's attempt to cross the Antarctic in 2015/16 . In the 1994/1995 field season the British Antarctic Survey , Alfred Wegener Institute and the Forschungsstelle für Physikalische Glaziologie of the University of Münster cooperated in a project drilling ice cores on the North and South Domes of Berkner Island .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Berkner_Island", "rank": 91, "score": 86242 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Climate_change_in_New_York_City", "rank": 92, "score": 86208 }, { "content": "Title: Extreme Ice Survey Content: The Extreme Ice Survey ( EIS ) , based in Boulder , Colorado , uses time-lapse photography , conventional photography and video to document the effects of global warming on glacial ice . It is the most wide-ranging glacier study ever conducted using ground-based , real-time photography . Starting in 2007 the EIS team installed as many as 43 time-lapse cameras at a time at 18 glaciers in Greenland , Iceland , Alaska , Canada , the Nepalese Himalaya ( where cameras were installed at Mount Everest in 2010 ) , and the Rocky Mountains of the U.S. . The cameras shoot year-round , every half hour of daylight . The team supplements the time-lapse record by occasionally repeating shots at fixed locations in Iceland , Bolivia , the Canadian province of British Columbia and the French and Swiss Alps . Collected images are being used for scientific evidence and as part of a global outreach campaign aimed at educating the public about the effects of climate change . EIS imagery has appeared in time-lapse videos displayed in the terminal at Denver International Airport ; in media productions such as the 2009 NOVA Extreme Ice documentary on PBS ; and is the focus of the feature-length film Chasing Ice , directed by Jeff Orlowski , which premiered at the Sundance film festival in Utah on January 23 , 2012 . Major findings were published in 2012 in Ice : Portraits of the World 's Vanishing Glaciers by James Balog ( Rizzoli Publishing ) .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Extreme_Ice_Survey", "rank": 93, "score": 85923 }, { "content": "Title: John H. Mercer Content: John H. Mercer ( Cheltenham , England , 19 October 1922 -- Columbus , Ohio 3 July 1987 ) was a glaciologist , chiefly known for his theoretical work on , and field studies of Antarctic ice streams , especially in the Transantarctic Mountains and in West Antarctica . Following John T. Hollin 's work ( 1962 ) suggesting that climatic warming and rising sea-level cause Antarctic ice shelves to retreat , Mercer postulated that the West Antarctic ice sheet , being grounded well below sea-level and terminating in floating ice shelves , was vulnerable to these changes and may have collapsed altogether during the last interglacial when Antarctica may have been warmer and sea-level may have been higher . In 1978 , in the science magazine Nature , Mercer pointed out that `` green-house '' warming from burning fossil fuel could have the same effect during the present interglacial . Two studies published 12 May 2014 confirm Mercer 's assumption . Climate scientist James Hansen has coined the term , `` John Mercer effect . '' After Mercer published his paper suggesting that the West Antarctic ice sheet could collapse in response to warming , he struggled to get funding . Others , including Hansen , had similar problems . Many climate scientists censor their own work to avoid losing funding , especially regarding prospects for limiting warming to 2 ° C above pre-industrial temperatures . John H. Mercer was the third child of Harriet and John W. Mercer . He was educated at private schools in Cheltenham and , later , at Gordonstoun in Scotland . During World War II he served in the British Merchant Marines ( 1940 -- 46 ) as a radio man . After the war he went to University of Cambridge and studied geography . At that time he came under the influence of William Vaughan Lewis . After finishing his B.A. in 1949 Mercer went to Canada , where he received his PhD in geography from McGill University in 1954 . He was a Research Scholar from 1954 to 1956 at the Australian National University in Canberra , where he studied land use and population in western Samoa . He returned to Canada and worked in the Canadian Hydro-graphic Office in Ottawa as a geographer in 1957 and 1958 . During 1959 -- 60 , 1961 -- 62 , 1964 , and 1966 , the American Geographical Society employed him at its World Data Center A for Glaciology in New York . The turning point in his career as a glaciologist was in 1960 , when he became a Research Associate at The Ohio State University , in the Institute of Polar Studies ( renamed the Byrd Polar Research Center ) . He remained at The Ohio State University until his death , becoming its first Senior Research Scientist .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "John_H._Mercer", "rank": 94, "score": 85743 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of the Arctic Content: The climate of the Arctic is characterized by long , cold winters and short , cool summers . There is a large amount of variability in climate across the Arctic , but all regions experience extremes of solar radiation in both summer and winter . Some parts of the Arctic are covered by ice ( sea ice , glacial ice , or snow ) year-round , and nearly all parts of the Arctic experience long periods with some form of ice on the surface . Average January temperatures range from about − 34 ° C to 0 ° C ( − 40 to +32 ° F ) , and winter temperatures can drop below − 50 ° C ( − 58 ° F ) over large parts of the Arctic . Average July temperatures range from about − 10 to +10 ° C ( 14 to 50 ° F ) , with some land areas occasionally exceeding 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in summer . The Arctic consists of ocean that is largely surrounded by land . As such , the climate of much of the Arctic is moderated by the ocean water , which can never have a temperature below − 2 ° C ( 28 ° F ) . In winter , this relatively warm water , even though covered by the polar ice pack , keeps the North Pole from being the coldest place in the Northern Hemisphere , and it is also part of the reason that Antarctica is so much colder than the Arctic . In summer , the presence of the nearby water keeps coastal areas from warming as much as they might otherwise .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Climate_of_the_Arctic", "rank": 95, "score": 85607 }, { "content": "Title: Fahrenheit Content: Fahrenheit is a temperature scale based on one proposed in 1724 by Amsterdam-based physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit ( 1686 -- 1736 ) , after whom the scale is named . It uses the degree Fahrenheit ( symbol ° F ) as the unit . Several accounts of how he originally defined his scale exist . The lower defining point , 0 ° F , was established as the temperature of a solution of brine made from equal parts of ice and salt . Further limits were established as the melting point of ice ( 32 ° F ) and his best estimate of the average human body temperature ( 96 ° F , about 2.6 ° F less than the modern value due to a later redefinition of the scale ) . The scale is now usually defined by two fixed points : the temperature at which water freezes into ice is defined as 32 ° F , and the boiling point of water is defined to be 212 ° F , a 180 ° F separation , as defined at sea level and standard atmospheric pressure . By the end of the 20th century , Fahrenheit was used as the official temperature scale only in the United States ( including its unincorporated territories ) , its freely associated states in the Western Pacific ( Palau , the Federated States of Micronesia and the Marshall Islands ) , the Bahamas , Belize , and the Cayman Islands . All other countries in the world now use the Celsius scale , defined since 1954 by absolute zero being − 273.15 ° C and the triple point of water being at 0.01 ° C.", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Fahrenheit", "rank": 96, "score": 85465 }, { "content": "Title: West Svartisen Ice-cap Content: The West Svartisen Ice-cap is an ice cap glacier , occupying 201 km2 of the coastal area of central Norway , just inside the Arctic Circle . Most of the glacier is around 1000 metres above sea level on a high plateau . The ice-cap owes its existence to the high snowfall rates in the region , rather than the cold temperatures , similar to other glacier close by such as the Jostedalsbreen glacier . The surface on the top of the plateau feeds many outlet glaciers , including the Engabreen glacier . The status of the glacier is unknown , although some of the outlet glaciers are advancing and gaining ice mass .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "West_Svartisen_Ice-cap", "rank": 97, "score": 85386 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of the Alps Content: The climate of the Alps is the climate , or average weather conditions over a long period of time , of the exact middle Alpine region of Europe . As air rises from sea level to the upper regions of the atmosphere the temperature decreases . The effect of mountain topography on prevailing winds is to force warm air from the lower region into an upper zone where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of heat , often accompanied by the precipitation of moisture in the form of snow , rain or hail . The position of the Alps in the central European continent profoundly affects the climate of all the surrounding regions . The accumulation of vast masses of snow , which have gradually been converted into permanent glaciers , maintains a gradation of very different climates within the narrow space that intervenes between the foot of the mountains and their upper ridges ; it cools breezes that waft to the plains on either side , but its most important function is to regulate the water supply of the large region which is traversed by the streams of the Alps . Nearly all the moisture that is precipitated during fall , winter , and spring is stored in the form of snow and gradually diffused in the course of the succeeding summer ; even in the hottest and driest seasons the reserves accumulated during a long preceding period of years in the form of glaciers are available to maintain the regular flow of the greater streams . Nor is this all ; the lakes that fill several of the main valleys on the southern side of the Alps are somewhat above the level of the plains of Lombardy and Venetia , and afford an inexhaustible supply of water , which , from a remote period , has been used for that system of irrigation to which they owe their proverbial fertility . Six regions or zones , which are best distinguished by their characteristic vegetation , are found in the Alps . It is an error to suppose that these are indicated by absolute height above sea level . Local conditions of exposure to the Sun , protection from cold winds , or the reverse , are of primary importance in determining the climate and the corresponding vegetation .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Climate_of_the_Alps", "rank": 98, "score": 85360 }, { "content": "Title: 2009 Alaska floods Content: The 2009 Alaska floods were a series of natural disasters taking place in the United States state of Alaska during April and May 2009 . The floods are a result of heavier-than-typical winter snowfall and above-average spring temperatures that resulted in rapid melting of the winter snowfall . The resulting high water levels were aggravated in places by the development of ice dams that caused catastrophic flooding . The record-breaking flood that affected Eagle , Alaska in early May is the best example of an ice dam causing flooding beyond the norm .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "2009_Alaska_floods", "rank": 99, "score": 85277 }, { "content": "Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .", "qid": "3064", "docid": "Clathrate_gun_hypothesis", "rank": 100, "score": 84778 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Alternative medicine Content: Alternative medicine -- or fringe medicine -- includes practices claimed to have the healing effects of medicine but which are disproven , unproven , impossible to prove , or are excessively harmful in relation to their effect ; and where the scientific consensus is that the therapy does not , or can not , work because the known laws of nature are violated by its basic claims ; or where it is considered so much worse than conventional treatment that it would be unethical to offer as treatment . Alternative therapies or diagnoses are not part of medicine or science-based healthcare systems . Alternative medicine consists of a wide variety of practices , products , and therapies -- ranging from those that are biologically plausible but not well tested , to those with known harmful and toxic effects . Contrary to popular belief , significant expense is paid to test alternative medicine , including over $ 2.5 billion spent by the United States government . Almost none show any effect beyond that of false treatment . Perceived effects of alternative medicine may be caused by placebo ; decreased effect of functional treatment ( and therefore potentially decreased side effects ) ; and regression toward the mean where improvement that would have occurred anyway is credited to alternative therapies ; or any combination of the above . Alternative treatments are neither the same as experimental medicine , nor traditional medicine -- although the latter , when used today may be considered alternative . Alternative medicine has grown in popularity and is used by a significant percentage of the population in many countries . While it has extensively rebranded itself : from quackery to complementary or integrative medicine -- it promotes essentially the same practices . Newer proponents often suggest alternative medicine be used together with functional medical treatment , in a belief that it `` complements '' ( improves the effect of , or mitigates the side effects of ) the treatment . There is no evidence showing they do so , and significant drug interactions caused by alternative therapies may instead negatively influence treatments , making them less effective , notably cancer therapy . Despite being illegal to market alternative therapies for cancer treatment in most of the developed world , many cancer patients use them . Alternative medical diagnoses and treatments are not taught as part of science-based curricula in medical schools , and are not used in any practice where treatment is based on scientific knowledge or proven experience . Alternative therapies are often based on religion , tradition , superstition , belief in supernatural energies , pseudoscience , errors in reasoning , propaganda , fraud , or lies . Regulation and licensing of alternative medicine and health care providers varies between and within countries . Alternative medicine is criticized for being based on misleading statements , quackery , pseudoscience , antiscience , fraud , or poor scientific methodology . Promoting alternative medicine has been called dangerous and unethical . Testing alternative medicine that has no scientific basis has been called a waste of scarce research resources . Critics state `` there is really no such thing as alternative medicine , just medicine that works and medicine that does n't '' , and the problem with the idea of `` alternative '' treatments in this sense is that the `` underlying logic is magical , childish or downright absurd '' . It has been strongly suggested that the very idea of any alternative treatment that works is paradoxical , as any treatment proven to work is by definition `` medicine '' .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Alternative_medicine", "rank": 1, "score": 119598 }, { "content": "Title: Free energy suppression conspiracy theory Content: Free energy suppression ( or new energy suppression ) is a conspiracy theory that technologically viable , pollution-free , no-cost energy sources are being suppressed by government , corporations , or advocacy groups . Devices allegedly suppressed include perpetual motion machines , cold fusion generators , torus-based generators , reverse-engineered extraterrestrial technology and other generally unproven , low-cost energy sources . The alleged suppression ( or weakening ) is claimed to have occurred since the mid-19th century and allegedly perpetrated by various government agencies , corporate powers , special interest groups , and fraudulent inventors . The special interest groups are usually claimed to be associated with the fossil fuel or nuclear industry , whose business model would be threatened . Claims of suppression include : The claim that the scientific community has controlled and suppressed research into alternative avenues of energy generation via the institutions of peer review and academic pressure . The claim that devices exist which are capable of extracting significant and usable power from pre-existing unconventional energy reservoirs , such as the quantum vacuum zero point energy , for little or no cost , but are being suppressed . The claim that more efficient versions of renewable energy technologies ( such as solar cells and biofuels ) and energy-consuming technologies ( such as electric vehicles ) are being suppressed . Some examples of individuals who were allegedly suppressed , harassed or killed for their research are : Thomas Henry Moray , Stanley Meyer and Eugene Mallove .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Free_energy_suppression_conspiracy_theory", "rank": 2, "score": 115432 }, { "content": "Title: North East of England Process Industry Cluster Content: The North East of England Process Industry Cluster ( NEPIC ) is an economic cluster created following the industrial cluster ideas and strategy of Michael Porter . This Process Industry Cluster has been created by the chemistry using industries based in North East England where more than 1400 companies are based in the supply chain of the sector . The sector has over 35,000 direct employees and some 190,000 indirect employees in the northeast of England and together they represent over one third of the industrial economy of the region . Companies in the Cluster manufacture 50 % of the UK 's Petrochemicals and 35 % of the UK 's Pharmaceuticals and they significantly contribute towards making the region the only net exporting region of the UK . The region has over # 13 billion of exports . NEPIC was created in 2004 by the leaders of local chemistry based process industry companies that are based in the northeast of England . The aim of the organisation being to represent and coordinate industry 's collaborative activities on the wide ranging issues that impact on the future and performance of the energy intensive process sector , which includes petrochemicals ; specialty chemicals ; polymers ; pharmaceuticals ; biotechnology and renewables . These issues include renewable and more sustainable energy opportunities , innovation and R&D interests , energy pricing capacity and availability , carbon taxation and carbon emission reduction technologies such as carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) , graduate and technician skills for the sector and industry growth to ensure that the region remains a globally important location for the chemical industry . NEPIC has been recognised by the Chemical Industries Association ( CIA ) in the UK for its work in informing stakeholders about the sector and by the professional institutions in the UK for its engagement and representation of industry issues . The Northeast of England is recognised and promoted by the Department for International Trade ( DIT ) ( formerly UK Trade and Investment ( UKTI ) ) arm of the UK Government as a leading location in the UK for Foreign Direct Investment ( FDI ) into the chemistry using industries . Since its formation NEPIC has participated in European Cluster development programmes . During 2012 NEPIC was initially audited by the European Secretariat for Cluster Analysis ( ESCA ) and in March 2014 achieved the Gold Label standard for Cluster management under this quality management scheme . NEPIC is classified by ESCA as a manufacturing and innovation cluster and was the first UK cluster to achieve this Gold Label status and the 37th Cluster to do so in Europe . By March 2014 there were 490 EU Cluster organisations accredited by ESCA . By September 2014 the European Secretariat for Cluster Analysis reported that more than 600 Clusters had been audited and in their report , entitled `` Cluster Organisations in Europe - insights from Bronze and Gold Label Assessments '' , cited the NEPIC Members Directory as best practice as a Cluster global marketing tool . On 20 October 2014 at the European Commission 's Bi-annual European Cluster Conference , policy makers , analysts and Cluster managers , from all business and industry sectors across Europe , named Dr Stan Higgins , NEPIC CEO , as European Cluster Manager of the Year 2014 . NEPIC was reassessed by ESCA during 2016 and is validated as a Gold Label Cluster until February 2019 when the Cluster 's management organisation has to undergo its next quality assessment . By March 2017 986 Clusters had been awarded Bronze , Silver and Gold Labels from 40 countries . 81 of which are Gold Label . NEPIC is led by industry through its Industry Leadership Team . These industry leaders at intervals of their choosing elect a person to be the Chair of NEPIC . Since its inception the cluster has been Chaired by Ian Shott CBE , Robert Coxon OBE , Paul Booth MBE and most recently former MP Ian Swales who is the current chair person . Dr Stan Higgins has been NEPIC 's Chief Executive Officer ( CEO ) since its formation in 2004 . Dr Higgins announced that he is to retire during 2017 .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "North_East_of_England_Process_Industry_Cluster", "rank": 3, "score": 108483 }, { "content": "Title: New Energy for America Content: New Energy for America is a plan led by Barack Obama and Joe Biden to invest in renewable energy sources , reduce reliance on foreign oil , address global warming issues , and create jobs for Americans .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "New_Energy_for_America", "rank": 4, "score": 107072 }, { "content": "Title: Alternative fuel Content: Alternative fuels , known as non-conventional and advanced fuels , are any materials or substances that can be used as fuels , other than conventional fuels like ; fossil fuels ( petroleum ( oil ) , coal , and natural gas ) , as well as nuclear materials such as uranium and thorium , as well as artificial radioisotope fuels that are made in nuclear reactors . Some well-known alternative fuels include biodiesel , bioalcohol ( methanol , ethanol , butanol ) , refuse-derived fuel , chemically stored electricity ( batteries and fuel cells ) , hydrogen , non-fossil methane , non-fossil natural gas , vegetable oil , propane and other biomass sources .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Alternative_fuel", "rank": 5, "score": 104347 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of the energy industry Content: The environmental impact of the energy industry is diverse . Energy has been harnessed by human beings for millennia . Initially it was with the use of fire for light , heat , cooking and for safety , and its use can be traced back at least 1.9 million years . In recent years there has been a trend towards the increased commercialization of various renewable energy sources . Consumption of fossil fuel resources leads to global warming and climate change . In most parts of the world little change is being made to slow these changes . If the peak oil theory proves true , and more explorations of viable alternative energy sources are made , our impact could be less hostile to our environment . Rapidly advancing technologies can achieve a transition of energy generation , water and waste management , and food production towards better environmental and energy usage practices using methods of systems ecology and industrial ecology .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry", "rank": 6, "score": 103735 }, { "content": "Title: Alternative energy indexes Content: The principle governing alternative energy indexes , apart from a regional or global focus , is that some focus on clean energy technologies while others focus on the broader alternative energy transition . Other factors which differentiate the indices are whether they : focus on pure play companies -- that is on companies which are principally engaged in the field of alternative energy and excludes those companies for which alternative energy is peripheral to their main business . use a rule-based approach -- that is a clearly defined rules-based methodology , usually overseen by an impartial Index Committee , employing a pre-defined screening methodology ensures that the process is consistent and transparent . are inclusive -- that is strives to include all companies that are principally engaged in the field of alternative energy within a given market , a given region , or globally . Some indexes set a liquidity or market capitalization filter while others track just a predetermined number of companies ( i.e. the top 15 or the top 20 ) .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Alternative_energy_indexes", "rank": 7, "score": 102049 }, { "content": "Title: Energy development Content: Energy development is the field of activities focused on obtaining sources of energy from natural resources . These activities include production of conventional , alternative and renewable sources of energy , and for the recovery and reuse of energy that would otherwise be wasted . Energy conservation and efficiency measures reduce the demand for energy development , and can have benefits to society with improvements to environmental issues . Societies use energy for transportation , manufacturing , illumination , heating and air conditioning , and communication , for industrial , commercial , and domestic purposes . Energy resources may be classified as primary resources , where the resource can be used in substantially its original form , or as secondary resources , where the energy source must be converted into a more conveniently usable form . Non-renewable resources are significantly depleted by human use , whereas renewable resources are produced by ongoing processes that can sustain indefinite human exploitation . Thousands of people are employed in the energy industry . The conventional industry comprises the petroleum industry , the natural gas industry , the electrical power industry , and the nuclear industry . New energy industries include the renewable energy industry , comprising alternative and sustainable manufacture , distribution , and sale of alternative fuels .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Energy_development", "rank": 8, "score": 99739 }, { "content": "Title: Energy industry Content: The energy industry is the totality of all of the industries involved in the production and sale of energy , including fuel extraction , manufacturing , refining and distribution . Modern society consumes large amounts of fuel , and the energy industry is a crucial part of the infrastructure and maintenance of society in almost all countries . In particular , the energy industry comprises : the petroleum industry , including oil companies , petroleum refiners , fuel transport and end-user sales at gas stations the gas industry , including natural gas extraction , and coal gas manufacture , as well as distribution and sales the electrical power industry , including electricity generation , electric power distribution and sales the coal industry the nuclear power industry the renewable energy industry , comprising alternative energy and sustainable energy companies , including those involved in hydroelectric power , wind power , and solar power generation , and the manufacture , distribution and sale of alternative fuels traditional energy industry based on the collection and distribution of firewood , the use of which , for cooking and heating , is particularly common in poorer countries", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Energy_industry", "rank": 9, "score": 97734 }, { "content": "Title: Alternative cancer treatments Content: Alternative cancer treatments are alternative or complementary treatments for cancer that have not been approved by the government agencies responsible for the regulation of therapeutic goods . They include diet and exercise , chemicals , herbs , devices , and manual procedures . The treatments are not supported by evidence , either because no proper testing has been conducted , or because testing did not demonstrate statistically significant efficacy . Concerns have been raised about the safety of some of them . Some treatments that have been proposed in the past have been found in clinical trials to be useless or unsafe . Some of these obsolete or disproven treatments continue to be promoted , sold , and used . Promoting or marketing such treatments is illegal in most of the developed world including the United States and European Union . A distinction is typically made between complementary treatments which do not disrupt conventional medical treatment , and alternative treatments which may replace conventional treatment . Alternative cancer treatments are typically contrasted with experimental cancer treatments -- which are treatments for which experimental testing is underway -- and with complementary treatments , which are non-invasive practices used alongside other treatment . All approved chemotherapeutic cancer treatments were considered experimental cancer treatments before their safety and efficacy testing was completed . Since the 1940s , medical science has developed chemotherapy , radiation therapy , adjuvant therapy and the newer targeted therapies , as well as refined surgical techniques for removing cancer . Before the development of these modern , evidence-based treatments , 90 % of cancer patients died within five years . With modern mainstream treatments , only 34 % of cancer patients die within five years . However , while mainstream forms of cancer treatment generally prolong life or permanently cure cancer , most treatments also have side effects ranging from unpleasant to fatal , such as pain , blood clots , fatigue , and infection . These side effects and the lack of a guarantee that treatment will be successful create appeal for alternative treatments for cancer , which purport to cause fewer side effects or to increase survival rates . Alternative cancer treatments have typically not undergone properly conducted , well-designed clinical trials , or the results have not been published due to publication bias ( a refusal to publish results of a treatment outside that journal 's focus area , guidelines or approach ) . Among those that have been published , the methodology is often poor . A 2006 systematic review of 214 articles covering 198 clinical trials of alternative cancer treatments concluded that almost none conducted dose-ranging studies , which are necessary to ensure that the patients are being given a useful amount of the treatment . These kinds of treatments appear and vanish frequently , and have throughout history .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Alternative_cancer_treatments", "rank": 10, "score": 95988 }, { "content": "Title: New energy Content: New energy may refer to : Alternative energy , any energy source other than fossil fuels Perpetual motion or `` free energy '' , an elusive energy source which would violate the laws of thermodynamics Renewable energy , energy from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale , such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , waves , and geothermal heat", "qid": "3066", "docid": "New_energy", "rank": 11, "score": 95681 }, { "content": "Title: Kivalina v. ExxonMobil Corp. Content: __ NOTOC __ Kivalina v. ExxonMobil Corporation , et al. is a lawsuit filed on February 26 , 2008 , in a United States district court . The suit , based on the common law theory of nuisance , claims monetary damages from the energy industry for the destruction of Kivalina , Alaska by flooding caused by climate change . The damage estimates made by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Government Accountability Office are placed between $ 95 million and $ 400 million . This lawsuit is an example of greenhouse gas emission liability . The suit was dismissed by the United States district court on September 30 , 2009 , on the grounds that regulating greenhouse emissions was a political rather than a legal issue and one that needed to be resolved by Congress and the Administration rather than by courts . An appeal was filed with the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals in November 2009 . In September 2012 , the panel of appeals judges decided not to reinstate the case . The city appealed the court of appeals decision to the U.S. Supreme Court and on May 20 , 2013 the Supreme Court justices decided not hear the case , effectively ending the city 's legal claim .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Kivalina_v._ExxonMobil_Corp.", "rank": 12, "score": 95464 }, { "content": "Title: David L. Birch Content: David L. Birch ( born 1937 ) is an American economist known for his pioneering work on small businesses . Birch was working as a director at MIT in 1979 when he published his report The Job Creation Process , in which he showed that , contrary to the prevailing conventional wisdom , most new jobs in the US are created by small companies . This study caught the attention of politicians at home and abroad . Birch followed in 1987 with the book Job creation in America : how our smallest companies put the most people to work . Birch 's work has been heavily criticized but is nevertheless considered groundbreaking as it opened the field for the study of small businesses , which had been so far disregarded by economists . The Birch index , an economic indicator of employment , was developed by Birch . It multiplies absolute job growth by relative job growth , which reveals the employment-creation power of differently sized enterprises .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "David_L._Birch", "rank": 13, "score": 94683 }, { "content": "Title: Demand destruction Content: Demand destruction is a permanent downward shift on the demand curve in the direction of lower demand of a commodity , such as energy products , induced by a prolonged period of high prices or constrained supply . In the context of the oil industry , `` demand '' generally refers to the quantity consumed ( see for example the output of any major industry organization such as the International Energy Agency ) , rather than any measure of a demand curve as used in mainstream economics .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Demand_destruction", "rank": 14, "score": 94644 }, { "content": "Title: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy Content: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy or MNRE is a ministry of the Government of India . The ministry is currently headed by Piyush Goyal , a cabinet minister . The ministry was established as the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources in 1992 . It adopted its current name in October 2006 . The Ministry is mainly responsible for research and development , intellectual property protection , and international cooperation , promotion , and coordination in renewable energy sources such as wind power , small hydro , biogas , and solar power . The broad aim of the ministry is to develop and deploy new and renewable energy for supplementing the energy requirements of India . The ministry is headquartered in Lodhi Road , New Delhi . According to the Ministry 's 2012-2013 annual report , India has made significant advances in several renewable energy sectors which include , solar energy , wind power , and hydroelectricity .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Ministry_of_New_and_Renewable_Energy", "rank": 15, "score": 94343 }, { "content": "Title: RMS Titanic alternative theories Content: The loss of the Titanic in 1912 , with about 1500 lives , attracted so much controversy that several alternative theories about its sinking have gained support . One version suggests that the sunken ship was actually the Olympic , near-identical sister-ship of the Titanic , which was the subject of a large insurance claim , and that the two vessels were secretly switched before the voyage . Another was that the Titanic 's owner , J.P. Morgan , wanted to eliminate several prominent bankers who were opposing his plan for the creation of a U.S. central bank .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "RMS_Titanic_alternative_theories", "rank": 16, "score": 92902 }, { "content": "Title: Illinois Clean Jobs Bill Content: The Illinois Clean Jobs Bill is a renewable-energy bill introduced in the Illinois House of Representatives ( H.B. 2607 ) and Illinois Senate ( S.B. 1485 ) . The bill was sponsored by Democratic state senator Don Harmon of Oak Park and Democratic state representative Elaine Nekritz of Northbrook . Proponents of the bill have nicknamed it the `` Clean Jobs Bill '' ; they promise to create tens of thousands of new jobs in Illinois if the bill is passed and signed into law . Some supporters claim that it would create 32,000 new jobs . Bill supporters claim that passage of the bill will cause energy demand to decrease by twenty percent by the year 2025 . Some proponents claim that the bill would `` enable solar and wind energy projects to flourish . '' However , under the state of Illinois ' current energy efficiency law , utility companies pass on new costs to customers . If the Illinois Clean Jobs Bill passed , households and businesses that use electricity would pay more money to subsidize the cost of wind turbines and other renewable energy sources . As of June 2015 , the bill is stalled in the legislature .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Illinois_Clean_Jobs_Bill", "rank": 17, "score": 92170 }, { "content": "Title: The International Forum on Energy Security for the Future Content: The International Forum on Energy Security for the Future : New Sources , Responsibility , Sustainability ( ESF ) is an initiative on energy security focused on popularization of alternative energy sources in Europe and worldwide . Founded by the Prince Albert II of Monaco Foundation , Aleksander Kwaśniewski 's Foundation `` Amicus Europae '' and Ukraine 's leading private oil & gas producer Burisma Group in 2016 , the Forum supports an equal and open dialogue between states , governments , businesspeople , expert community and civil society about the transition to a green economy and renewable energy sources .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "The_International_Forum_on_Energy_Security_for_the_Future", "rank": 18, "score": 92160 }, { "content": "Title: The Economics Anti-Textbook Content: The Economics Anti-Textbook is both an introduction to , and critique of the typical approaches to economics teaching , written by Rod Hill and Tony Myatt in 2010 . The main thrust of the authors ' argument is that basic economics courses , being centered on models of perfect competition , are biased towards the support of free market or laissez-faire ideologies , and neglect to mention conflicting evidence or give sufficient coverage of alternative descriptive models . An example of the book 's approach is the theories surrounding minimum wage . Classical micro-economic theory dictates that in a perfectly competitive market , raising the legal minimum wage will increase unemployment , as it prevents the hire of workers whose market value falls below the legal minimum . Society therefore loses from the imposition of a minimum wage due to the loss of allocative efficiency . While real markets may not be perfectly competitive , the model of perfect competition provides a good approximation to real market behaviour . A number of counterarguments to this are given . The classical model , while neat , is only a hypothesis which should be experimentally verified before being accepted as fact . Over 30 years of econometric studies have failed to conclusively prove or disprove the hypothesis that raising minimum wage will increase unemployment . The theory is surrounded by a ` protective belt of assumptions ' which makes conducting such studies near impossible . The existence of market friction , asymmetric information and search costs all violate the assumptions of perfect competition . The authors argue that monopolistic price theories may depict reality better than the perfectly competitive model . In this case it can be shown that raising a minimum wage can in some circumstances , lead to a decrease in unemployment . The existence of multiple equilibria in a supply/demand system may mean that imposition of a minimum wage forces the system over a tipping point from a less efficient to a more efficient equilibrium . Arguments in favour of increasing allocative efficiency were in any case constructed in an era where society was less wealthy than it is today . Recent studies have shown that for well-off societies , the happiness of a population has little correlation with its absolute wealth . Therefore , efficiency may not necessarily be an important goal of resource allocation in any case . In any case , efficient markets can have morally undesirable outcomes . Later chapters explore the concept of bounded rationality and how it confounds classical arguments in favour of laissez faire ; in particular it is noted that the very existence of an advertising industry disproves rational behaviour . Arguments from the field of game theory explain limited rationality and the balance of power of corporations over the individual . Overall , the authors argue - with reference to Thomas Kuhn 's Structure of Scientific Revolutions - that the existing economic paradigm is due for a change . The book presents their own paradigm for interpreting economic behaviour . Despite not yet being reviewed in mainstream journals , as of February 2011 the introductory chapter has received 13,000 views on stumbleupon and the book has attracted positive comment on various blogs .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "The_Economics_Anti-Textbook", "rank": 19, "score": 92158 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy Content: Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources , which are naturally replenished on a human timescale , such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , waves , and geothermal heat . Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas : electricity generation , air and water heating/cooling , transportation , and rural ( off-grid ) energy services . Based on REN21 's 2016 report , renewables contributed 19.2 % to humans ' global energy consumption and 23.7 % to their generation of electricity in 2014 and 2015 , respectively . This energy consumption is divided as 8.9 % coming from traditional biomass , 4.2 % as heat energy ( modern biomass , geothermal and solar heat ) , 3.9 % hydro electricity and 2.2 % is electricity from wind , solar , geothermal , and biomass . Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US$ 286 billion in 2015 , with countries like China and the United States heavily investing in wind , hydro , solar and biofuels . Globally , there are an estimated 7.7 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries , with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer . As of 2015 worldwide , more than half of all new electricity capacity installed was renewable . Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas , in contrast to other energy sources , which are concentrated in a limited number of countries . Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security , climate change mitigation , and economic benefits . The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change , a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies . In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power . At the national level , at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply . National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond . Some places and at least two countries , Iceland and Norway generate all their electricity using renewable energy already , and many other countries have the set a goal to reach 100 % renewable energy in the future . For example , in Denmark the government decided to switch the total energy supply ( electricity , mobility and heating/cooling ) to 100 % renewable energy by 2050 . While many renewable energy projects are large-scale , renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries , where energy is often crucial in human development . United Nations ' Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity . As most of renewables provide electricity , renewable energy deployment is often applied in conjunction with further electrification , which has several benefits : Electricity can be converted to heat ( where necessary generating higher temperatures than fossil fuels ) , can be converted into mechanical energy with high efficiency and is clean at the point of consumption . In addition to that electrification with renewable energy is much more efficient and therefore leads to a significant reduction in primary energy requirements , because most renewables do n't have a steam cycle with high losses ( fossil power plants usually have losses of 40 to 65 % ) . Renewable energy systems are rapidly becoming more efficient and cheaper . Their share of total energy consumption is increasing . Growth in consumption of coal and oil could end by 2020 due to increased uptake of renewables and natural gas .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Renewable_energy", "rank": 20, "score": 92135 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in the United States Content: Renewable energy in the United States accounted for 13.44 percent of the domestically produced electricity in 2015 , and 11.1 percent of total energy generation . As of 2016 , more than 260,000 people work in the solar industry and 43 states deploy net metering , where energy utilities buy back excess power generated by solar arrays . Renewable energy reached a major milestone in the first quarter of 2011 , when it contributed 11.7 percent of total U.S. energy production ( 2.245 quadrillion BTU of energy ) , surpassing energy production from nuclear power ( 2.125 quadrillion BTU ) . 2011 was the first year since 1997 that renewables exceeded nuclear in US total energy production . Hydroelectric power is currently the largest producer of renewable power in the U.S. . It produced around 6.14 % of the nation 's total electricity in 2015 which was 45.71 % of the total renewable power in the U.S. . The United States is the fourth largest producer of hydroelectricity in the world after China , Canada and Brazil . The Grand Coulee Dam is the 5th largest hydroelectric power station in the world . U.S. wind power installed capacity now exceeds 72,000 MW and supplies 4.1 % of the nation 's electricity . Texas is firmly established as the leader in wind power development , followed by Iowa and California . Since the U.S. pioneered the technology in 1981 with Solar One , several solar thermal power stations have also been built . The largest of these solar thermal power stations are the Ivanpah Solar Power Facility ( 392 MW ) , southwest of Las Vegas , and the SEGS group of plants in the Mojave Desert , with a total generating capacity of 354 MW . Large photovoltaic power plants in the USA include Solar Star ( 579 MW ) , near Rosamond , California , the Desert Sunlight Solar Farm , a 550 MW solar power plant in Riverside County , California and the Topaz Solar Farm , a 550 MW photovoltaic power plant , in San Luis Obispo County , California . The Geysers in Northern California is the largest complex of geothermal energy production in the world . The development of renewable energy and energy efficiency marks `` a new era of energy exploration '' in the United States , according to President Barack Obama . In a joint address to the Congress on February 24 , 2009 , President Obama called for doubling renewable energy within the next three years . In his 2012 State of the Union address , President Barack Obama restated his commitment to renewable energy and mentioned the long-standing Interior Department commitment to permit 10,000 MW of renewable energy projects on public land in 2012 .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_the_United_States", "rank": 21, "score": 90672 }, { "content": "Title: P2 Energy Solutions Content: P2 Energy Solutions provides financial and accounting management software , geospatial data , land asset management tools , well lifecycle management solutions , environmental , health & safety solutions and outsourcing services to both the upstream and mid-stream oil and gas sectors as well as the alternative energy sector . Operating from its headquarters in Denver , Colorado , P2 also has offices in Houston , Texas ; Calgary , Alberta , Canada ; Fort Worth , Texas ; San Antonio , Texas ; Livingston , New Jersey ; Tampa , Florida ; Dubai , UAE ; Tunis , Tunisia , Singapore and Perth , Australia . P2 employs nearly 700 people and was a privately held portfolio company of Vista Equity Partners . On October 7 , 2013 P2 Energy Solutions was acquired by a Boston-based private equity firm : Advent International .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "P2_Energy_Solutions", "rank": 22, "score": 90633 }, { "content": "Title: Cebu Declaration on East Asian Energy Security Content: The Cebu Declaration on East Asian Energy Security was signed by 16 nations after a three-hour meeting of delegates at the East Asia Summit in Cebu on January 15 , 2007 . The countries have agreed to promote energy security and find energy alternatives to conventional fuels . The Declaration lists a series of goals aimed at providing `` reliable , adequate and affordable '' energy supplies . It was signed by the 10 ASEAN members ( Indonesia , Malaysia , Philippines , Singapore , Thailand , Brunei , Vietnam , Laos , Burma and Cambodia ) , as well as China , Japan , New Zealand , India , South Korea and Australia . This was followed by the Singapore Declaration on Climate Change , Energy and the Environment at the Third EAS .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Cebu_Declaration_on_East_Asian_Energy_Security", "rank": 23, "score": 89962 }, { "content": "Title: Conventional weapon Content: The terms conventional weapons or conventional arms generally refer to weapons that are in relatively wide use that are not weapons of mass destruction ( e.g. nuclear , biological , and chemical weapons ) . Any armament used in crimes , conflicts or wars are categorized as Conventional weapons and includes small arms and light weapons , sea and land mines , as well as ( non-weapons of mass destruction ) bombs , shells , rockets , missiles , cluster munitions , SALW fuel intrastate conflicts , human rights violations , domestic and transnational crime etc.These weapons use explosive material based on chemical energy , as opposed to nuclear energy in nuclear weapons . The acceptable use of all types of conventional weapons in war time is governed by the Geneva Conventions . Certain types of conventional weapons are also regulated or prohibited under the United Nations Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons . Others are prohibited under the Convention on Cluster Munitions , the Ottawa Treaty ( also known as the Mine Ban Treaty ) and Arms Trade Treaty .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Conventional_weapon", "rank": 24, "score": 89347 }, { "content": "Title: Alternative energy Content: Alternative energy is any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel . These alternatives are intended to address concerns about such fossil fuels , such as its high carbon dioxide emissions , an important factor in global warming . Marine energy , hydroelectric , wind , geothermal and solar power are all alternative sources of energy . The nature of what constitutes an alternative energy source has changed considerably over time , as have controversies regarding energy use . Because of the variety of energy choices and differing goals of their advocates , defining some energy types as `` alternative '' is considered very controversial .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Alternative_energy", "rank": 25, "score": 89342 }, { "content": "Title: Jobless claims Content: Initial Jobless Claims is a report issued by the U.S. Department of Labor on a weekly basis . The employment situation is extremely important for a macroeconomic analysis , so the financial markets track employment indicators , although this is a low impact indicator compared with the monthly BLS 's `` Employment Report '' . This report tracks how many new people have filed for unemployment benefits in the previous week . It is a good gauge of the U.S. job market . For instance , when more people file for unemployment benefits , fewer people have jobs , and vice versa . Investors can use this report to gather pertinent information about the economy , but it 's a very volatile data , so the four-week average of jobless claims is monitored . The report is released at 08:30 Eastern Time on Thursdays and can be a market moving event . Initial jobless claims measure emerging unemployment , and it is released after one week , but continued claims data measure the number of persons claiming unemployment benefits , and it is released one week later than the initial claims , that 's the reason initial have a higher impact in the financial markets .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Jobless_claims", "rank": 26, "score": 89295 }, { "content": "Title: Alternative Earth Resources Content: Alternative Earth Resources Inc. is an emerging renewable energy developer focused on producing clean , sustainable geothermal electric power from high temperature geothermal resources in the United States . Based in Vancouver , BC , the company has 6 geothermal projects in the Western United States . Despite federal government loan guarantees , the company is facing financial trouble and there is `` significant doubt about the company 's ability to continue as a going concern '' .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Alternative_Earth_Resources", "rank": 27, "score": 88707 }, { "content": "Title: 21st-century fossil fuel regulations in the United States Content: Fossil fuel regulations are part of the energy policy in the United States and have gained major significance with the strong dependence on fossil fuel based energy . Regulatory processes are established at the federal and state level due to the immense economic , socio-political and environmental impact of fossil fuel extraction and production . Over 80 % of the United States ' energy comes from fossil fuels such as coal , natural gas , and oil . The Bush administration was marked by the Energy Policy Act of 2005 , which provided a monetary incentive for renewable energy adoption and addressed the issue of climate change . The Obama administration was made up of advocates for renewable energy and natural gas , while Donald Trump built his campaign on promises to revive the coal industry . Oil , gas , and coal companies have been at odds with policy makers who have supported a wider implementation of renewable energy , with the former often spending millions of dollars to lobby against cleaner energy . The Washington Post reported on February 22 , 2017 Scott Pruitt 's potential special interests with the fossil fuel industry as he began his term as the appointed head of the EPA under the Trump administration . Fossil fuel emission disproportionately affects working class , poor and minority populations . The people most adversely affected also have the least political influence and least access to health care .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "21st-century_fossil_fuel_regulations_in_the_United_States", "rank": 28, "score": 88539 }, { "content": "Title: Alternative Energy Promotion Centre Content: Alternative Energy Promotion Centre ( AEPC ) ( Nepali : वैकल्पिक ऊर्जा प्रवर्द्धन केन्द्र , Vaikalpik Urja Pravardhan Kendra ) is an independently functioning government institution established by the Government of Nepal with the objectives to popularize and promote the use of renewable energy technologies , raise the living standards of the rural people , protect the environment , and develop commercially viable renewable energy industries in the country . It is governed by nine member board representing government , non-government , industry and financial sectors . AEPC was established in November 3 , 1996 ( Kartik 18 , 2053 B.S. ) under then Ministry of Science and Technology of the Government of Nepal . Currently , it is under the Ministry of Population and Environment .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Alternative_Energy_Promotion_Centre", "rank": 29, "score": 87852 }, { "content": "Title: Vegetable oils as alternative energy Content: Vegetable oils are increasingly used as a substitute for fossil fuels . Vegetable oils are the basis of biodiesel , which can be used like conventional diesel . Some vegetable oil blends are used in unmodified vehicles , but straight vegetable oil needs specially prepared vehicles which have a method of heating the oil to reduce its viscosity and surface tension . Another alternative is vegetable oil refining . The availability of biodiesel around the world is increasing , although still tiny compared to conventional fossil fuel sources . There is significant research in algaculture methods to make biofuel from algae . Concerns have been expressed about growing crops for fuel use rather than food and the environmental impacts of large-scale agriculture and land clearing required to expand the production of vegetable oil for fuel use . These effects/impacts would need to be specifically researched and evaluated , economically and ecologically , and weighed in balance with the proposed benefits of vegetable oil fuel in relation to the use of other fuel sources .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Vegetable_oils_as_alternative_energy", "rank": 30, "score": 87553 }, { "content": "Title: Big Coal: The Dirty Secret Behind America's Energy Future Content: Big Coal : The Dirty Secret Behind America 's Energy Future is a book by Jeff Goodell which claims that coal mining is one of America 's largest and most influential industries . Goodell suggests that coal mining is deadly and environmentally destructive .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Big_Coal:_The_Dirty_Secret_Behind_America's_Energy_Future", "rank": 31, "score": 87373 }, { "content": "Title: In Praise of Hard Industries Content: In Praise of Hard Industries is a book about the economic impact of fewer manufacturing jobs in the United States written by Irish journalist and author Eamonn Fingleton . It was published in 1999 . The book was reissued in a 2003 paperback edition under the title Unsustainable : How Economic Dogma Is Destroying American Prosperity . The book argues that the shift in the American work-force from industry to knowledge workers was setting the country up for an economic collapse . It criticizes financial innovation as a ruse to sell complex financial instruments and urged for more advanced manufacturing in the United States . The book argues that industrial activities create jobs and exports , and that job salaries would be protected in environments using high-end equipment . In its first chapter , the book enunciates the `` Three Strikes Against the New Economy '' : a bad job mix , slow income growth . and a dearth of exports .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "In_Praise_of_Hard_Industries", "rank": 32, "score": 87291 }, { "content": "Title: Energy in Guam Content: The pattern of energy production and use in Guam is shaped by its location , a remote island . Almost all energy is reliant on imports of petroleum products for use in transport and electricity . Guam has no domestic production of conventional fuels such as oil , natural gas or coal . Its economy is dependent on the import of gasoline and jet fuel for transport and residual fuel oil for electricity . One third of electricity produced is used in commercial settings including the leading industry of tourism . Despite making up about one-tenth of the islands population , the U.S. military uses one-fifth of the island 's energy . Rising fuel costs and environmental concerns have led to major plans to alter the electrical industry in Guam . Renewables and cleaner burning natural gas and diesel power are planned .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Energy_in_Guam", "rank": 33, "score": 87169 }, { "content": "Title: Energy medicine Content: Energy medicine , energy therapy , energy healing , or spiritual healing are branches of alternative medicine based on a pseudo-scientific belief that healers can channel healing energy into a patient and effect positive results . This idea itself contains several methods : hands-on , hands-off , and distant ( or absent ) where the patient and healer are in different locations . Many schools of energy healing exist using many names , for example , biofield energy healing , spiritual healing , contact healing , distant healing , Qi Do , therapeutic touch , Reiki or Qigong . Spiritual healing occurs largely in non-denominational and ecumenical contexts . Practitioners do not see traditional religious faith as a prerequisite for effecting cures . Faith healing , by contrast , takes place within a traditional religious context . While early reviews of the scientific literature on energy healing were equivocal and recommended further research , more recent reviews have concluded that there is no evidence supporting clinical efficiency . The theoretical basis of healing has been criticised as implausible , research and reviews supportive of energy medicine have been faulted for containing methodological flaws and selection bias , and positive therapeutic results have been dismissed as resulting from known psychological mechanisms . Edzard Ernst , formerly Professor of Complementary and Alternative Medicine at the University of Exeter , has warned that `` healing continues to be promoted despite the absence of biological plausibility or convincing clinical evidence ... that these methods work therapeutically and plenty to demonstrate that they do not '' . Some claims of those purveying `` energy medicine '' devices are known to be fraudulent and their marketing practices have drawn law-enforcement action in the US", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Energy_medicine", "rank": 34, "score": 87062 }, { "content": "Title: Alternative Energy (composition) Content: Alternative Energy is a symphony for electronica and orchestra in four movements by the American composer Mason Bates . The work was commissioned by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra , for whom Bates was then composer-in-residence . It was premiered by the orchestra under conductor Riccardo Muti at Symphony Center in Chicago , February 2 , 2012 .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Alternative_Energy_(composition)", "rank": 35, "score": 86973 }, { "content": "Title: Thomas G. Barnes Content: Thomas G. Barnes ( August 14 , 1911 -- October 23 , 2001 ) was an American creationist , who argued in support of his religious belief in a young earth by making the faulty scientific claims that the Earth 's magnetic field was consistently decaying and that Einstein 's theory of relativity was incorrect .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Thomas_G._Barnes", "rank": 36, "score": 86751 }, { "content": "Title: Hulda Regehr Clark Content: Hulda Regehr Clark ( 18 October 1928 in Rosthern , Saskatchewan -- 3 September 2009 in Chula Vista , California ) was a Canadian naturopath , author , and practitioner of alternative medicine . Clark claimed all human disease was related to parasitic infection , and also claimed to be able to cure all diseases , including cancer and HIV/AIDS , by destroying these parasites by `` zapping '' them with electrical devices which she marketed . Clark wrote several books describing her methods and operated clinics in the United States . Following a string of legal difficulties and actions by the Federal Trade Commission , she relocated to Tijuana , Mexico where she ran the Century Nutrition clinic . Clark 's claims and devices have been dismissed by authorities ranging from the United States Federal Trade Commission and Food and Drug Administration to alternative medicine figures such as Dr. Andrew Weil as scientifically unfounded , `` bizarre '' , and potentially fraudulent . Clark died 3 September 2009 from blood and bone cancer .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Hulda_Regehr_Clark", "rank": 37, "score": 86729 }, { "content": "Title: Lists of renewable energy topics Content: Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale , such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , waves , and geothermal heat . Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas : electricity generation , air and water heating/cooling , motor fuels , and rural ( off-grid ) energy services . Based on REN21 's 2014 report , renewables contributed 19 percent to our global energy consumption and 22 percent to our electricity generation in 2012 and 2013 , respectively . These are lists about renewable energy : Index of solar energy articles List of books about renewable energy List of concentrating solar thermal power companies List of countries by electricity production from renewable sources List of energy storage projects Lists of environmental topics List of geothermal power stations List of hydroelectric power stations List of largest hydroelectric power stations List of offshore wind farms Lists of offshore wind farms by country Lists of offshore wind farms by water area List of onshore wind farms List of onshore wind farms in the United Kingdom List of people associated with renewable energy List of photovoltaics companies List of photovoltaic power stations List of pioneering solar buildings List of renewable energy companies by stock exchange List of renewable energy organizations List of renewable energy topics by country List of rooftop photovoltaic installations List of solar car teams List of solar powered products List of solar thermal power stations List of U.S. states by electricity production from renewable sources Lists of wind farms by country List of wind farms in Australia List of wind farms in Canada List of wind farms in Iran List of wind farms in Romania List of wind farms in Sweden List of wind farms in the United States List of wind turbine manufacturers", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Lists_of_renewable_energy_topics", "rank": 38, "score": 86352 }, { "content": "Title: Energy cannibalism Content: Energy cannibalism refers to an effect where rapid growth of a specific energy producing industry creates a need for energy that uses ( or cannibalizes ) the energy of existing power plants . Thus during rapid growth the industry as a whole produces no new energy because it is used to fuel the embodied energy of future power plants .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Energy_cannibalism", "rank": 39, "score": 85561 }, { "content": "Title: New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization Content: The , or NEDO , is Japan 's largest public management organization promoting research and development as well as deployment of industrial , energy and environmental technologies . In 2003 , NEDO was reorganized as an Independent Administrative Agency . NEDO has approximately 1,000 personnel and domestic offices in Hokkaido , Kansai , and Kyushu and international offices in Washington D.C. , Silicon Valley ( California ) , Paris , Beijing , Bangkok , Jakarta and New Delhi . Its budget for fiscal year 2009 was 234,700,000,000 yen ( approximately $ 2.6 billion ) , the vast majority of which was provided by Japan 's Ministry of Economy , Trade and Industry ( METI ) . Its head office is located just outside Tokyo in Kawasaki City , Kanagawa Prefecture . NEDO has a number of projects in the United States , notably a smart grid and alternative energy project with two research laboratories in New Mexico , Sandia National Laboratories and Los Alamos National Laboratory ( LANL ) . In March 2010 , NEDO and the laboratories signed agreements in which NEDO will fund a smart grid research facility at LANL and smart house demonstration projects in both Los Alamos and Albuquerque , New Mexico . NEDO is investing $ 30 million ( U.S. ) on the projects for a four-year period .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "New_Energy_and_Industrial_Technology_Development_Organization", "rank": 40, "score": 85293 }, { "content": "Title: Energy accidents Content: Energy resources bring with them great social and economic promise , providing financial growth for communities and energy services for local economies . However , the infrastructure which delivers energy services can breakdown in an energy accident , sometimes causing much damage , and energy fatalities can occur , and with many systems often deaths will happen even when the systems are working as intended . Historically , coal mining has been the most dangerous energy activity and the list of historical coal mining disasters is a long one . Underground mining hazards include suffocation , gas poisoning , roof collapse and gas explosions . Open cut mining hazards are principally mine wall failures and vehicle collisions . In the US alone , more than 100,000 coal miners have been killed in accidents over the past century , with more than 3,200 dying in 1907 alone . According to Benjamin K. Sovacool , 279 major energy accidents occurred from 1907 to 2007 and they caused 182,156 deaths with $ 41 billion in property damages , with these figures not including deaths from smaller accidents . However , by far the greatest energy fatalities that result from energy generation by humanity , is the creation of air pollution . The most lethal of which , particulate matter , which is primarily generated from the burning of fossil fuels and biomass is ( counting outdoor air pollution effects only ) estimated to cause 2.1 million deaths annually .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Energy_accidents", "rank": 41, "score": 85249 }, { "content": "Title: New Chronology (Rohl) Content: New Chronology is an alternative chronology of the ancient Near East developed by English Egyptologist David Rohl and other researchers beginning with A Test of Time : The Bible - from Myth to History in 1995 . It contradicts mainstream Egyptology by proposing a major revision of the established Egyptian chronology , in particular by re-dating Egyptian kings of the Nineteenth through Twenty-fifth Dynasties , bringing forward conventional dating by up to 350 years . Rohl asserts that the New Chronology allows him to identify some of the characters in the Hebrew Bible with people whose names appear in archaeological finds . The New Chronology , one of several proposed radical revisions of the conventional chronology , has not been accepted in academic Egyptology , where the conventional chronology or small variations of it remain standard . Amélie Kuhrt , head of Ancient Near Eastern History at University College London , in one of the standard reference works of the discipline , notes , Rohl 's most vocal critic has been Kenneth Kitchen , one of the leading experts on biblical history and the author of the standard work on the conventional chronology of the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt , the period most directly affected by the New Chronology 's redating of the Nineteenth to Twenty-fifth Dynasties .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "New_Chronology_(Rohl)", "rank": 42, "score": 85246 }, { "content": "Title: Energy policy of the Barack Obama administration Content: The Energy Policy of the Obama administration , stated on U.S. President Barack Obama 's website , lists the guiding principles of the administration regarding energy and the environment . They include creating new `` clean energy '' jobs and technologies , making America more energy independent , and reducing carbon emissions . On April 13 , 2010 , in honor of the 40th anniversary of Earth Day , the White House website summarized the initiatives that the administration is taking or has undertaken : • A $ 3.4 billion Smart Grid Investment Grant ( part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 ) , which would affect 49 states and has the potential to reduce electricity use by more than 4 % by 2030 , • The launch of the Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy ( ARPA-E ) project under the Department of Energy and in collaboration with the Department of Defense , modeled after the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency , • A new report on how the federal government can help create a `` self-sustaining home energy efficiency retrofit industry '' • New efficiency standards for home appliances , • A new National Fuel Efficiency Policy that will apply to cars from model years 2012-2016 and will ultimately require cars to have an average fuel efficiency of 35.5 mpg by 2016 , • Three measures to increase the production of biofuels : a renewable fuels standard , biomass crop assistance program , and a biofuels working group . The President has also created an interagency task force to help create a federal strategy for carbon capture and storage , and • A new Environmental Protection Agency ruling ( called the Mandatory Reporting of Greenhouse Gases Rule ) requiring the reporting of greenhouse gas emissions by major emitters in the United States .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Energy_policy_of_the_Barack_Obama_administration", "rank": 43, "score": 84633 }, { "content": "Title: Green electricity in Australia Content: Green electricity in Australia is available from a number of green energy suppliers that supply electricity from environmentally friendly energy sources that are renewable and non-polluting . The growth and development of the green energy industry was tracked in Australia by the ALTEX-Australia alternative energy index from 2006 to 2011 . In Australia green energy is accredited under the GreenPower scheme whereby all distributors are government audited bi-annually to ensure that customers are getting exactly what is described in their purchased products . In the 2009 settlement period there were 904,716 GreenPower customers Australia-wide , accounting for a total of 2,194,934 MWh of electricity generation , a 10 % increase over 2008 . This total electricity provision was divided between residential customers who purchased 1,001,195 MWh , and business customers who purchased 1,193,739 MWh . The largest nationwide distributors were EnergyAustralia , Origin Energy , and TRUenergy . By the 2014 settlement period the number of GreenPower customers Australia-wide was at 497,406 , and total purchases accounted for 1,279,281 MWh .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Green_electricity_in_Australia", "rank": 44, "score": 84587 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Mexico Content: Renewable energy in Mexico contributes to 26 percent of electricity generation in Mexico . As of 2009 , electricity generation from renewable energy comes from hydro power , geothermal , solar power and wind . There is a long term effort established to increase the use of renewable energy sources . The amount of geothermal energy used and harvested , places Mexico as number four in the world . As one of the leading countries in renewable energy , more specifically , geothermal placing Mexico as the 4th ranked country in the world . As the importance of clean sustainable energy becomes more prevalent , the country and government officials continue to invest in research and innovations to continue to allow Mexico to be a leading example of renewable energy . Predictions based on current energy standings lead the country to anticipate by the year 2035 , the 26 percent renewable energy in Mexico will rise to 35 percent . Not only will this prove a more sustainable future it also increases jobs in rural areas . Jobs increased by 14 percent within the last 8 years in the renewable energy sector . With the objection to create more in home jobs for residents of Mexico , an increase in sustainable energy , results in a lower demand for conventional fuels such as fuel oil , petrol gas , coal and natural gas . With a lower demand on these fuels , mainly gasoline and diesel and on the rise jet fuel , this will result in a lower need for imports . With relying on fewer imports , national security is higher .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Mexico", "rank": 45, "score": 84454 }, { "content": "Title: Josef Issels Content: Josef M. Issels ( November 21 , 1907 -- February 11 , 1998 ) was a German physician known for promoting an alternative cancer therapy regimen , the Issels treatment . He claimed to cure cancer patients who had been declared incurable by conventional cancer treatments . During Issels ' lifetime , his methods were controversial , and in 1961 he was charged with fraud and manslaughter for allegedly promising fraudulent cancer cures and for the subsequent deaths of patients under his care who refused standard cancer treatment . An initial conviction on the manslaughter charge was overturned in 1964 on the grounds that Issels had genuinely believed that his therapy could cure cancer . The Issels treatment is currently considered unproven and ineffective as a treatment for cancer .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Josef_Issels", "rank": 46, "score": 84151 }, { "content": "Title: New Chronology (Fomenko) Content: The New Chronology is a pseudohistorical theory which argues that the conventional chronology of Middle Eastern and European history is fundamentally flawed , and that events attributed to the civilizations of the Roman Empire , Ancient Greece and Ancient Egypt actually occurred during the Middle Ages , more than a thousand years later . The central concepts of the New Chronology are derived from the ideas of Russian scholar Nikolai Morozov ( 1854 -- 1946 ) , although work by French scholar Jean Hardouin ( 1646 -- 1729 ) can be viewed as an earlier predecessor . However , the New Chronology is most commonly associated with Russian mathematician Anatoly Fomenko ( born 1945 ) , although published works on the subject are actually a collaboration between Fomenko and several other mathematicians . The concept is most fully explained in History : Fiction or Science ? , originally published in Russian . The New Chronology also contains a reconstruction , an alternative chronology , radically shorter than the standard historical timeline , because all ancient history is `` folded '' onto the Middle Ages . According to Fomenko 's claims , the written history of humankind goes only as far back as AD 800 , there is almost no information about events between AD 800 -- 1000 , and most known historical events took place in AD 1000 -- 1500 . The New Chronology is rejected by mainstream historians and is inconsistent with absolute and relative dating techniques used in the wider scholarly community . The majority of scientific commentators consider The New Chronology to be pseudoscientific .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "New_Chronology_(Fomenko)", "rank": 47, "score": 83704 }, { "content": "Title: Infinite Energy (magazine) Content: Infinite Energy is a bi-monthly magazine published in New Hampshire that details theories and experiments concerning alternative energy , new science and new physics . The magazine was founded by the late Eugene Mallove , and is owned by the non-profit New Energy Foundation . It was established in 1994 as Cold Fusion magazine and changed its name in March 1995 . Topics of interest include `` new hydrogen physics , '' also called cold fusion ; vacuum energy , or zero point energy ; and so-called `` environmental energy '' which they define as the attempt to violate the Second Law of Thermodynamics , for example with a perpetual motion machine . This is done in pursuit of the founder 's commitment to `` unearthing new sources of energy and new paradigms in science . '' The magazine has also published articles and book reviews that are critical of the big bang theory that describes the origin of the universe . The magazine has a print run of 3,000 , and is available on U.S. newsstands . The issues range in size from 48 to 100 pages .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Infinite_Energy_(magazine)", "rank": 48, "score": 83357 }, { "content": "Title: Kevin Henke Content: Kevin R. Henke is an American geochemist and former instructor at the University of Kentucky 's department of Geology . He currently works as a senior research scientist at the University of Kentucky 's Center for Applied Energy Research . He is well known for his criticism of young earth creationism and the scientific arguments they make for a young earth . In particular , he has been critical of the RATE project 's results , which claim to show that zircons contain too much helium to be billions of years old , and has argued that Russell Humphreys , a young-earth creationist who was involved in the project , has made errors in his research . These flaws include that , according to Henke , `` The vast majority of Humphreys et al. 's critical a , b , and Q/Q0 values that are used in these `` dating '' equations are either missing , poorly defined , improperly measured or inaccurate . '' Henke has also accused Humphreys of misidentifying his specimens , fudging his data , and not considering the possibility of helium contamination in this research . He has also criticized John Woodmorappe for arguing that radiometric dating is unreliable . On one occasion , Henke called Kent Hovind on the phone regarding Hovind 's $ 250,000 challenge to `` prove '' evolution . Hovind told Henke that in order to win the money he would have to recreate the Big Bang in a laboratory . Henke responded by proposing several alternative `` proofs '' that pertained to geology ( his field of expertise ) , but Hovind refused , saying that the project must be chosen by him and it must not pertain to the area in which Henke has scientific expertise . Hovind therefore required Henke to prove that dogs and bananas had a common ancestor , and lowered the award to only $ 2,000 should he succeed . Henke accepted the challenge , and later drafted a contract , which was then posted on Talk.origins . However , one of Henke 's requirements was that the judges be unbiased , and Hovind rejected the challenge for this reason , insisting that he should be the only one who can choose the judges .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Kevin_Henke", "rank": 49, "score": 83218 }, { "content": "Title: Conservation of energy Content: In physics , the law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant -- it is said to be conserved over time . Energy can neither be created nor destroyed ; rather , it transforms from one form to another . For instance , chemical energy can be converted to kinetic energy in the explosion of a stick of dynamite . In technical terms , conservation of energy can be rigorously proven by the Noether theorem to be a direct consequence of continuous time translation symmetry . A consequence of the law of conservation of energy is that a perpetual motion machine of the first kind can not exist . That is to say , no system without an external energy supply can deliver an unlimited amount of energy to its surroundings . For equations of motion which do not have time translation symmetry , the conservation of energy may not be able to be defined . Examples include curved spacetimes in general relativity or time crystals in condensed matter physics .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Conservation_of_energy", "rank": 50, "score": 83198 }, { "content": "Title: William Vale Content: Squadron Leader William `` Cherry '' Vale DFC & Bar , AFC ( 3 June 1914 -- 29 November 1981 ) was a Royal Air Force ( RAF ) pilot who , during the Second World War , claimed 30 enemy aircraft shot down and shared in the destruction of three others , and also claiming 6 damaged and another two shared damaged . His 20 kills achieved while flying the Hawker Hurricane and his 10 with the Gloster Gladiator made him the second highest scoring Hurricane and biplane pilot in the RAF , in both cases after Marmaduke Pattle .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "William_Vale", "rank": 51, "score": 83070 }, { "content": "Title: List of books about renewable energy Content: This is a bibliography of renewable energy . Renewable energy is energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , and geothermal heat , which are renewable ( naturally replenished ) . About 16 % of global final energy consumption comes from renewables , with 10 % coming from traditional biomass , which is mainly used for heating , and 3.4 % from hydroelectricity . New renewables ( small hydro , modern biomass , wind , solar , geothermal , and biofuels ) account for another 3 % and are growing very rapidly . Total investment in renewable energy reached $ 244 billion in 2012 . The top countries for investment in recent years were China , Germany , Spain , the United States , Italy , and Brazil . Leading renewable energy companies include BrightSource Energy , Enercon , First Solar , Gamesa , GE Energy , Goldwind , Nordex , Sinovel , Suntech , Trina Solar , Vestas and Yingli .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "List_of_books_about_renewable_energy", "rank": 52, "score": 82448 }, { "content": "Title: Energy in New Zealand Content: Despite abundant natural resources and a relatively small population , New Zealand is a net importer of energy , in the form of petroleum products . The ratio of non-renewable and renewable energy sources was fairly consistent from 1975 to 2008 , with about 70 per cent of primary energy supply coming from hydrocarbon fuels . This ratio decreased to about 60 per cent in 2014 . The proportion of non-renewable energy varies annually , depending on water flows into hydro-electricity lakes and demand for energy . In 2014 , approximately 60 % of primary energy was from non-renewable hydrocarbon fuels and 40 % was from renewable sources . In 2007 energy consumption per capita was 120 gigajoules . Per capita energy consumption had increased 8 per cent since 1998 . New Zealand uses more energy per capita than 17 of 30 OECD countries . New Zealand is one of 13 OECD countries that does not operate nuclear power stations . From 1994 to 2014 , the energy intensity of the economy per unit of GDP declined by 24 per cent to 2.67 MJ / $ . A contributing factor is the growth of relatively less energy-intensive service industries .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Energy_in_New_Zealand", "rank": 53, "score": 82373 }, { "content": "Title: Energy policy of India Content: The energy policy of India is largely defined by the country 's expanding energy deficit and increased focus on developing alternative sources of energy , particularly nuclear , solar and wind energy . India ranks 81 position in overall energy self sufficiency at 66 % in 2014 . The primary energy consumption in India is the third biggest after China and USA with 5.3 % global share in 2015 . The total primary energy consumption from crude oil ( 195.5 Mtoe ; 27.91 % ) , natural gas ( 45.5 Mtoe ; 6.50 % ) , coal ( 407.2 Mtoe ; 58.13 % ) , nuclear energy ( 8.6 Mtoe ; 1.23 % ) , hydro electricity ( 28.1 Mtoe ; 4.01 % ) and renewable power ( 15.5 Mtoe ; 2.21 % ) is 700.5 Mtoe ( excluding traditional biomass use ) in 2015 . In 2013 , India 's net imports are nearly 144.3 million tons of crude oil , 16 Mtoe of LNG and 95 Mtoe coal totalling to 255.3 Mtoe of primary energy which is equal to 42.9 % of total primary energy consumption . About 70 % of India 's electricity generation capacity is from fossil fuels . India is largely dependent on fossil fuel imports to meet its energy demands -- by 2030 , India 's dependence on energy imports is expected to exceed 53 % of the country 's total energy consumption . In 2009-10 , the country imported 159.26 million tonnes of crude oil which amounts to 80 % of its domestic crude oil consumption and 31 % of the country 's total imports are oil imports . By the end of calendar year 2015 , India has become a power surplus country with huge power generation capacity idling for want of electricity demand . India ranks second after China in renewables production with 208.7 Mtoe in 2014 . In 2015-16 , the per-capita energy consumption is 22.042 Giga Joules ( 0.527 Mtoe ) excluding traditional biomass use and the energy intensity of the Indian economy is 0.271 Mega Joules per INR ( 65 kcal/INR ) . Due to rapid economic expansion , India has one of the world 's fastest growing energy markets and is expected to be the second-largest contributor to the increase in global energy demand by 2035 , accounting for 18 % of the rise in global energy consumption . Given India 's growing energy demands and limited domestic fossil fuel reserves , the country has ambitious plans to expand its renewable and most worked out nuclear power programme . India has the world 's fifth largest wind power market and also plans to add about 100,000 MW of solar power capacity by 2020 . India also envisages to increase the contribution of nuclear power to overall electricity generation capacity from 4.2 % to 9 % within 25 years . The country has five nuclear reactors under construction ( third highest in the world ) and plans to construct 18 additional nuclear reactors ( second highest in the world ) by 2025 .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Energy_policy_of_India", "rank": 54, "score": 82304 }, { "content": "Title: Solar energy in the European Union Content: Solar energy in the European Union consists of photovoltaics ( PV ) and solar thermal energy . In 2010 , the $ 2.6 billion European solar heating sector consisted of small and medium-sized businesses , generated 17.3 terawatt-hours ( TWh ) of energy , employed 33,500 workers , and created one new job for every 80 kW of added capacity . During 2011 , an additional 21.9 gigawatts ( GW ) of photovoltaics systems were connected to the grid in the European Union , a steep increase from 13.4 GW in 2010 . Turnover of the European PV market amounted to approximately $ 36 billion for this period .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Solar_energy_in_the_European_Union", "rank": 55, "score": 82259 }, { "content": "Title: Alternative finance Content: Alternative finance refers to financial channels and instruments that have emerged outside of the traditional finance system such as regulated banks and capital markets . Examples of alternative financing activities through ` online marketplaces ' are reward-based crowdfunding , equity crowdfunding , peer-to-peer consumer and business lending , invoice trading third party payment platforms . Alternative finance instruments include cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin , SME mini-bond , social impact bond , community shares , private placement and other ` shadow banking ' mechanisms . Alternative Finance differs to traditional banking or capital market finance through technology-enabled ` disintermediation ' , which means utilising third party capital by connecting fundraisers directly with funders , in turn , reducing transactional costs and improve market efficiency . Alternative finance has grown into a considerable global industry in recent years following the financial crisis according to various reports , particularly for small and medium enterprises . For instance , the European online alternative finance market is estimated to have reached nearly $ 3bn in 2014 and is projected to reach $ 7bn in 2015 . For the United Kingdom , according to the University of Cambridge and Nesta , the UK online alternative finance market reached # 1.74 bn in 2014 . In comparison , the alternative finance markets in France and Germany reached $ 154m and $ 140m respectively in 2014 . Alternative finance activities such as equity crowdfunding and peer-to-peer lending are now regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority in the United Kingdom from 1 April 2014 . Peer-to-peer lending investment will be eligible for an Innovative Finance ISA from 2016 In the US , under the Title II of the JOBS Act , accredited investors are allowed to invest on equity crowdfunding platforms from September 2013 . The SEC then announced the updated and expanded Regulation A mandated by the Title IV of the JOBS Act to allow non-accredited investors to participate in equity crowdfunding .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Alternative_finance", "rank": 56, "score": 82085 }, { "content": "Title: New economy Content: The new economy is the result of the transition from a manufacturing-based economy to a service-based economy . This particular use of the term was popular during the dot-com bubble of the late 1990s . The high growth , low inflation and high employment of this period led to overly optimistic predictions and many flawed business plans .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "New_economy", "rank": 57, "score": 82038 }, { "content": "Title: Alternative Energy: Political, Economic, and Social Feasibility Content: Alternative Energy : Political , Economic , and Social Feasibility ( Lanham , Maryland : Rowman & Littlefield , 2006 . ) , a 2006 book by Christopher A. Simon , discusses the transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy . The book has been called a `` sophisticated , insightful , and well written book on the current global push to adopt varying forms of alternative energy , from wind to solar , geothermal , hydrogen , and beyond '' . In 2008 , Christopher Simon , associate professor of political science at the University of Nevada , Reno , was named the `` Technology Educator of the Year '' by Nevada 's Center for Entrepreneurship and Technology .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Alternative_Energy:_Political,_Economic,_and_Social_Feasibility", "rank": 58, "score": 81636 }, { "content": "Title: Energy in India Content: Energy in India describes energy and electricity production , consumption and import in India . Energy policy of India describes the policies and strategies of India for achieving sustainable energy security to its people . Electricity sector in India is the main article of electricity in India . The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy provides data regarding progress in the non-conventional energy sector . Since 2013 , total primary energy consumption in India has been the third highest in the world after China and the United States . India is the second top coal consumer in the year 2015 after China . India ranks third in oil consumption with 195.5 million tons in 2015 after the United States and China . India is net energy importer to meet nearly 45 % of its total primary energy .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Energy_in_India", "rank": 59, "score": 81445 }, { "content": "Title: George Philippidis Content: George Philippidis is a renewable energy leader who has published and spoken extensively about the global need for energy diversification over the last 20 years . He advocates the development of renewable and alternative low-carbon power and fuels to enhance energy security , combat climate change , and secure sustainable economic growth . He has authored 11 cleantech patents , written numerous articles , and spoken nationally and internationally on this subject emphasizing that renewable and alternative energy will initially supplement and augment current resources and progressively replace fossil energy , provided that governments institute long-term energy policies promoting the development of and private investment in new energy technologies . A diverse energy portfolio , depending on the local availability of natural resources , includes ( 1 ) solar , wind , biomass-to-power , ocean , and geothermal energy for power generation , and ( 2 ) renewable hydrocarbons , biomass - and algae-derived biofuels , and electric vehicles for transportation . The private sector and the markets should determine which of those forms of low-carbon energy are most appropriate and cost-effective locally in different parts of the country and the world . Dr. Philippidis studied Chemical Engineering at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki in Greece getting a BS and at the University of Minnesota receiving a PhD . He also studied Business Administration at the University of Denver obtaining an MBA . He led strategic business units at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory ( NREL ) of the US Department of Energy in Denver and at a subsidiary of Thermo Electron Corporation in Boston before becoming Energy Director of the Applied Research Center , the business arm of Florida International University in Miami . Presently , he is Director of the Alternative Energy Research Center and Associate Professor of Biofuel Engineering at the University of South Florida Polytechnic in the Tampa Bay area , where he works with companies and venture capital firms to commercialize clean energy technologies and educates students and professionals in critical energy issues . He has been advising the federal and state governments on energy policy , venture capital and private equity firms on investment in cleantech , and the private sector in the United States and Latin America on the establishment of a renewable energy industry .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "George_Philippidis", "rank": 60, "score": 81365 }, { "content": "Title: List of unproven and disproven cancer treatments Content: This is a list of alternative treatments that have been promoted to treat or prevent cancer in humans but which lack good scientific and medical evidence of effectiveness . In many cases , there is good scientific evidence that the alleged treatments do not work . Unlike accepted cancer treatments , unproven and disproven treatments are generally ignored or avoided by the medical community , and are often pseudoscientific .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "List_of_unproven_and_disproven_cancer_treatments", "rank": 61, "score": 81339 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of nuclear explosions Content: The energy released from a nuclear weapon detonated in the troposphere can be divided into four basic categories : Blast -- 40 -- 50 % of total energy Thermal radiation -- 30 -- 50 % of total energy Ionizing radiation -- 5 % of total energy ( more in a neutron bomb ) Residual radiation -- 5 -- 10 % of total energy with the mass of the explosion Depending on the design of the weapon and the environment in which it is detonated the energy distributed to these categories can be increased or decreased . The blast effect is created by the coupling of immense amounts of energy , spanning the electromagnetic spectrum , with the surroundings . Locations such as submarine , ground burst , air burst , or exo-atmospheric determine how much energy is produced as blast and how much as radiation . In general , denser media around the bomb , like water , absorb more energy , and create more powerful shockwaves while at the same time limiting the area of its effect . When an air burst occurs , lethal blast and thermal effects proportionally scale much more rapidly than lethal radiation effects , as higher and higher yield nuclear weapons are used . The physical-damage mechanisms of a nuclear weapon ( blast and thermal radiation ) are identical to those of conventional explosives , but the energy produced by a nuclear explosive is millions of times more powerful per gram and the temperatures reached are briefly in the tens of millions of degrees . Energy from a nuclear explosive is initially released in several forms of penetrating radiation . When there is a surrounding material such as air , rock , or water , this radiation interacts with and rapidly heats it to an equilibrium temperature ( i.e. so that the matter is at the same temperature as the atomic bomb 's matter ) . This causes vaporization of surrounding material resulting in its rapid expansion . Kinetic energy created by this expansion contributes to the formation of a shockwave . When a nuclear detonation occurs in air near sea level , much of the released energy interacts with the atmosphere and creates a shockwave which expands spherically from the center . Intense thermal radiation at the hypocenter forms a nuclear fireball and if the burst is low enough , it is often associated with a mushroom cloud . In a burst at high altitude , where the air density is low , more energy is released as ionizing gamma radiation and x-rays than an atmosphere-displacing shockwave . In 1942 there was some initial speculation among the scientists developing the first nuclear weapons that there might be a possibility of igniting the Earth 's atmosphere with a large enough nuclear explosion . This would concern a nuclear reaction of two nitrogen atoms forming a carbon and an oxygen atom , with release of energy . This energy would heat up the remaining nitrogen enough to keep the reaction going until all nitrogen atoms were consumed . Hans Bethe was assigned the task of studying whether there was a possibility in the very early days , and concluded there was no possibility due to inverse Compton effect cooling of the fireball . Richard Hamming , a mathematician , was asked to make a similar calculation just before Trinity , with the same result . Nevertheless , the notion has persisted as a rumor for many years , and was the source of black humor at the Trinity test .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Effects_of_nuclear_explosions", "rank": 62, "score": 81297 }, { "content": "Title: Statistical study of energy data Content: Energy statistics refers to collecting , compiling , analyzing and disseminating data on commodities such as coal , crude oil , natural gas , electricity , or renewable energy sources ( biomass , geothermal , wind or solar energy ) , when they are used for the energy they contain . Energy is the capability of some substances , resulting from their physico-chemical properties , to do work or produce heat . Some energy commodities , called fuels , release their energy content as heat when they burn . This heat could be used to run an internal or external combustion engine . The need to have statistics on energy commodities became obvious during the 1973 oil crisis that brought tenfold increase in petroleum prices . Before the crisis , to have accurate data on global energy supply and demand was not deemed critical . Another concern of energy statistics today is a huge gap in energy use between developed and developing countries . As the gap narrows ( see picture ) , the pressure on energy supply increases tremendously . The data on energy and electricity come from three principal sources : Energy industry Other industries ( `` self-producers '' ) Consumers The flows of and trade in energy commodities are measured both in physical units ( e.g. , metric tons ) , and , when energy balances are calculated , in energy units ( e.g. , terajoules or tons of oil equivalent ) . What makes energy statistics specific and different from other fields of economic statistics is the fact that energy commodities undergo greater number of transformations ( flows ) than other commodities . In these transformations energy is conserved , as defined by and within the limitations of the first and second laws of thermodynamics .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Statistical_study_of_energy_data", "rank": 63, "score": 81221 }, { "content": "Title: Advanced Space Propulsion Investigation Committee Content: Advanced Space Propulsion Investigation Committee ( ASPIC ) was a research group of specialists , including Y.Minami , and T.Musha , which was organized under the Japan Society for Aeronautical and Space Sciences in 1994 . The purpose of which was to study all kinds of non-chemical space propulsion systems instead of the conventional rocket for the use of space missions to the nearby Earth , the Moon , and the outer solar system , including plasma propulsion , laser propulsion , nuclear propulsion , solar sail and field propulsion systems which utilize a strain on space , zero-point energy in a vacuum , electro-gravitic effect , non-Newtonian gravitic effect predicted from the Einstein Theory of Gravity , and the terrestrial magnetism . The research report was published by the Japan Society for Aeronautical and Space Sciences in March 1996 .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Advanced_Space_Propulsion_Investigation_Committee", "rank": 64, "score": 81219 }, { "content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster", "rank": 65, "score": 81166 }, { "content": "Title: Coal in China Content: China is the largest producer and consumer of coal in the world and is the largest user of coal-derived electricity , generating an estimated 73 % of domestic electricity production in 2014 from coal . Coal production and consumption fell in 2014 and 2015 . As a share of the source of electricity generation , coal is projected to decline steadily , falling to 45 % in 2040 . At the beginning of 2016 China was said to be building or planning 144 new coal-fired power stations , and building more coal-burning capacity each year than the whole capacity of Britain . But in April the National Energy Administration ( NEA ) issued a directive curbing construction of new coal fired plants in many parts of the country . This was followed up in January 2017 when the NEA canceled a further 103 coal power plants , eliminating 120 gigawatts of future coal-fired capacity , despite the resistance of local authorities mindful of the need to create jobs . In July 2016 the commission in charge of state-owned enterprises , SASAC , ordered companies under its supervision to cut coal mining capacity by 10 % in 2 years and by 15 % in 5 years . The decreasing rate of construction is due to the realization that too many power plants had been built and some existing plants were being used far below capacity . Nevertheless , in the first two months of 2016 China had added 22 GW of capacity , 14 GW of which was coal , according to the China Electricity Council . In April 2017 coal-powered electricity production hit a new record high .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Coal_in_China", "rank": 66, "score": 81049 }, { "content": "Title: Alternative Energy Development Board Content: The Alternative Energy Development Board ( -LSB- ) or AEDB , is the sole representing agency of the Federal Government that was established in May 2003 with the main objective to facilitate , promote and encourage development of Renewable Energy in Pakistan and with a mission to introduce Alternative and Renewable Energies ( AREs ) at an accelerated rate . The administrative control of AEDB was transferred to Ministry of Water and Power in 2006 . The Government of Pakistan has inter alia mandated AEDB to : - Implement policies , programs and projects through private sector in the field of ARE Assist and facilitate development and generation of ARE to achieve sustainable economic growth Encourage transfer of technology and develop indigenous manufacturing base for ARE Technology Promote provision of energy services that are based on ARE resources Undertake ARE projects on commercial scale ( AEDB Act 2010 ) The Government of Pakistan has tasked the AEDB to ensure 5 % of total national power generation capacity to be generated through renewable energy technologies by the year 2030 . In addition , under the remote village electrification program , AEDB has been directed to electrify 7,874 remote villages in Sindh and Balochistan provinces through ARE technologies . The Federal Government established AEDB as a statutory organization by announcing and promulgating the AEDB Act in May 2010 . The Act bestowed upon AEDB the authorities and the responsibilities for the promotion and development of AREs . Although , the AEDB is administrated through the appointed chairman and chief executive officer ; all policies and funding research is overseen by the prime minister . Currently the organization 's progress is being heard and examined in the Supreme Court of Pakistan .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Alternative_Energy_Development_Board", "rank": 67, "score": 80943 }, { "content": "Title: Topocide Content: Topocide is the deliberate culling of a place through industrial expansion and change , so that its earlier landscape and character are destroyed . An alternative term is domicide , the destruction of home ; the two may be viewed as synonyms or they may be opposed , with topocide referring to destruction from the point of view of the destroyers ( generally outsiders ) and domicide from the point of view of the inhabitants . Topocide can be the result of deliberate industrial expansion . When industries form , then the people 's center of life revolve around that industry . New jobs are formed and the environmental and cultural landscape is forever changed . Arguable examples include the destruction of Dresden at the end of World War II and the Khmer Rouge 's destruction in Cambodia .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Topocide", "rank": 68, "score": 80659 }, { "content": "Title: Court of Arbitration (New South Wales) Content: The Court of Arbitration was the first court in New South Wales , a state of Australia which dealt exclusively with industrial relation disputes in the early twentieth century . Justice Lance Wright claims that it perhaps was the first court of its type in the world . The court was unique at that time as it was the first court of its type to deal with labour relations between employer and employees on a compulsory basis . Previous arbitration measures between employer and employee had been on a voluntary basis or had been based on the criminal justice system through the use of criminal penalties . The conventional economic model is that both employer and employee enjoy equal bargaining power to set wages and conditions . This asserts that both parties are able to agree on a fair market price for the cost of labour free from distortions . However , where employers or employees group together , these outcomes can be distorted particularly in `` boom '' or `` bust '' economic conditions . The purpose of the court was to change the manner in which employers and employees negotiated pay and conditions . It was an attempt to reduce the power imbalances between employer groups or employee unions that arose from using collective bargaining , and the resulting use of that market power to influence wages , and also to reduce the threat of lockout or strikes to achieve those ends .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Court_of_Arbitration_(New_South_Wales)", "rank": 69, "score": 80615 }, { "content": "Title: Solar power by country Content: Many industrialized nations have installed significant solar power capacity into their electrical grids to supplement or provide an alternative to conventional energy sources while an increasing number of less developed nations have turned to solar to reduce dependence on expensive imported fuels . Long distance transmission allows remote renewable energy resources to displace fossil fuel consumption . Solar power plants use one of two technologies : Photovoltaic ( PV ) systems use solar panels , either on rooftops or in ground-mounted solar farms , converting sunlight directly into electric power . Concentrated solar power ( CSP , also known as `` concentrated solar thermal '' ) plants use solar thermal energy to make steam , that is thereafter converted into electricity by a turbine . Worldwide growth of photovoltaics is extremely dynamic and varies strongly by country . By the end of 2016 , cumulative photovoltaic capacity increased by more than 75 gigawatt ( GW ) and reached at least 303 GW , sufficient to supply 1.8 percent of the world 's total electricity consumption . The top installers of 2016 were China , the United States , and India . There are more than 24 countries around the world with a cumulative PV capacity of more than one gigawatt . Austria , the Chile , and South Africa , all crossed the one gigawatt-mark in 2016 . The available solar PV capacity in Honduras is now sufficient to supply 12.5 % of the nation 's electrical power while Italy , Germany and Greece can produce between 7 % and 8 % of their respective domestic electricity consumption . After an almost two decade long hiatus , deployment of CSP resumed in 2007 , with significant growth only in the most recent years . However , the design for several new projects is being changed to cheaper photovoltaics . Most operational CSP stations are located in Spain and the United States , while large solar farms using photovoltaics are being constructed in an expanding list of geographic regions . As of January 2017 , the largest solar power plants in the world are the 850 MW Longyangxia Dam Solar Park in China for PV and the 377 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility in the United States for CSP . Other large CSP facilities include the 354 megawatt ( MW ) Solar Energy Generating Systems power installation in the USA , Solnova Solar Power Station ( Spain , 150 MW ) , Andasol Solar Power Station ( Spain , 150 MW ) and the first part of Shams solar power station ( United Arab Emirates , 100 MW ) .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Solar_power_by_country", "rank": 70, "score": 80419 }, { "content": "Title: E-Lybra Content: E-Lybra is an alternative medicine electrodermal testing biofeedback device manufactured by World Development Systems Ltd. . Its manufacturers claim that the device can `` analyze and restore energetic balance within the bio-field of humans and animals '' . The device is based on an alternative medicine system called `` Energy medicine '' , whose practitioners believe that `` energetic imbalances '' can be detrimental to health . A study done on a similar device found that the devices lack evidence for efficacy in diagnosing allergies . Quackwatch states that E-Lybra , along with other similar devices , transmit `` false or misleading health information '' .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "E-Lybra", "rank": 71, "score": 80280 }, { "content": "Title: Regional Renewable Energy Procurement Project Content: The Regional Renewable Energy Procurement Project is an energy project in the San Francisco Bay Area , set to develop 186 sites that will generate a total of 31 megawatts , enough electricity for more than 6,000 residences . The project is expected to create more than 800 jobs . In May 2015 , Gina McCarthy , head of the federal Environmental Protection Agency , presided over a dedication ceremony at the first designated site for the project , at the location of Hayward 's former landfill , next to the Hayward Regional Shoreline .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Regional_Renewable_Energy_Procurement_Project", "rank": 72, "score": 80240 }, { "content": "Title: Birch index Content: The Birch ( Employee Growth ) Index is an economic indicator of employment . It multiplies absolute job growth by relative job growth , which reveals the employment-creation power of differently sized enterprises . It was devised by economist David L. Birch at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . In 1980 Birch published an influential study that showed 70 % of job growth in the U.S. came from enterprises with fewer than 100 employees .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Birch_index", "rank": 73, "score": 80205 }, { "content": "Title: GDiesel Content: GDiesel is a 100 % drop-in alternative Diesel fuel that is manufactured by Reno , Nevada-based Advanced Refining Concepts ( ARC ) . This new type of Diesel results from an innovative way of combining conventional ultra-low-sulfur Diesel and natural gas -- hence the `` G '' in the name . It burns far cleaner and significantly improves performance , delivering 10 percent or better improvement in fuel economy , depending on the application . The inventor of GDiesel ® is Dr. Rudolf W. Gunnerman , who has a 40-year background in the development and marketing of energy - and fuel-related technologies . His last venture , Sulfco , which provided an ultrasound and hydrogen peroxide for efficient desulfurization and also promised cheaper fuel , wound up bankrupt after many years of positive press releases that success was just around the corner . His son Peter is the partner and director of Advanced Refining Concepts . The firm 's ClearRefining ® process is relatively simple , beginning with the standard ultra-low sulfur Diesel fuel that one would buy at any filling station . This feedstock is first pressurized in a steel tank to less than 10 pounds per square inch ( 69 kPa ) and heated to about 250 ° F , much lower levels than those required during typical refinery processes . Natural gas , the same material used for cooking and heating , is piped into the tank of Diesel fuel , and the resulting mixture then swirls up and through a wheel-shaped filter wrapped with four different metal catalysts -- cobalt , among others . In August 2010 , GDiesel received formal certification as an `` alternative fuel '' from the Nevada Division of Environmental Protection . The fuel is produced at the company 's McCarran , Nevada , facility in which natural gas is combined with standard Diesel fuel and is then circulated through four different metal catalysts . Previously , the fuel was featured in publications such as Diesel World and Motor Trend .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "GDiesel", "rank": 74, "score": 79810 }, { "content": "Title: State Agency on Alternative and Renewable Energy Sources (Azerbaijan) Content: The State Agency on Alternative and Renewable Energy Sources , SAARES ( Alternativ və Bərpa Olunan Enerji Mənbələri üzrə Dövlət Agentliyi , ABEMDA ) is a governmental agency under the Ministry of Industry and Energy mandated by the Cabinet of Ministers . It serves as the principal regulatory institution in the sphere of alternative and renewable energy in the Republic of Azerbaijan . The State Agency is headed by Akim Badalov .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "State_Agency_on_Alternative_and_Renewable_Energy_Sources_(Azerbaijan)", "rank": 75, "score": 79580 }, { "content": "Title: New Jobs tax credit Content: The New Jobs tax credit was a tax credit policy created as part of the 1977 stimulus package enacted by the Carter administration and was in effect through 1978 . The tax credit acted as a form of wage subsidy by granting employers a tax credit for making new hires . In 1979 , the credit was not renewed and it was ultimately perceived as a failure due to poor execution and lack of exposure . As written in the Tax Reduction and Simplification Act of 1977 , the tax credit offered fifty percent of the first $ 4,200 in wages per employee for increases in employment of at least two percent over the previous year . In early 2010 , there was renewed interest in duplicating the original 1977 tax credit in legislation proposed by Barack Obama . The proposed tax credit was renamed and included in the Hiring Incentives to Restore Employment Act .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "New_Jobs_tax_credit", "rank": 76, "score": 79261 }, { "content": "Title: Chemtrail conspiracy theory Content: The chemtrail conspiracy theory is the incorrect claim that long-lasting trails , so-called `` chemtrails '' , are left in the sky by high-flying aircraft and that they consist of chemical or biological agents deliberately sprayed for sinister purposes undisclosed to the general public . Believers in the theory argue that normal contrails dissipate relatively quickly and that contrails that do not dissipate must contain additional substances . These arguments have been dismissed by the scientific community : such trails are normal water-based contrails ( condensation trails ) that are routinely left by high-flying aircraft under certain atmospheric conditions . Although proponents have attempted to prove that the claimed chemical spraying does take place , their analyses have been flawed or based on misconceptions . Because of the persistence of the conspiracy theory and questions about government involvement , scientists and government agencies around the world have repeatedly explained that supposed chemtrails are in fact normal contrails . The term chemtrail is a portmanteau of the words chemical and trail , as contrail is of condensation and trail . Believers in the conspiracy theory speculate that the purpose of the claimed chemical release may be solar radiation management , psychological manipulation , human population control , weather modification , or biological or chemical warfare and that the trails are causing respiratory illnesses and other health problems .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Chemtrail_conspiracy_theory", "rank": 77, "score": 79198 }, { "content": "Title: Moon landing conspiracy theories Content: Moon landing conspiracy theories are conspiracy theories which claim that some or all elements of the Apollo program and the associated Moon landings were hoaxes staged by NASA with the aid of other organizations . The most notable claim is that the six manned landings ( 1969 -- 72 ) were faked and that twelve Apollo astronauts did not actually walk on the Moon . Various groups and individuals have made claims since the mid-1970s , that NASA and others knowingly misled the public into believing the landings happened , by manufacturing , tampering with , or destroying evidence including photos , telemetry tapes , radio and TV transmissions , Moon rock samples , and even some key witnesses . Much third-party evidence for the landings exists , and detailed rebuttals to the hoax claims have been made . Since the late 2000s , high-definition photos taken by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter ( LRO ) of the Apollo landing sites have captured the lander modules and the tracks left by the astronauts . In 2012 , images were released showing five of the six Apollo missions ' American flags erected on the Moon still standing ; the exception is that of Apollo 11 , which has lain on the lunar surface since being accidentally blown over by the takeoff rocket 's exhaust . Conspiracists have managed to sustain public interest in their theories for more than 40 years , despite the rebuttals and third-party evidence . Opinion polls taken in various locations have shown that between 6 % and 20 % of Americans and 28 % of Russians surveyed believe that the manned landings were faked . Even as late as 2001 , the Fox television network documentary Conspiracy Theory : Did We Land on the Moon ? claimed NASA faked the first landing in 1969 to win the Space Race .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Moon_landing_conspiracy_theories", "rank": 78, "score": 79097 }, { "content": "Title: Agency for Non-conventional Energy and Rural Technology Content: Agency for Non-conventional Energy and Rural Technology ( ANERT ) is an organisation working under Government of Kerala , in Kerala , India , for gathering and disseminating knowledge about non-conventional energy , energy conservation and rural technology . The organisation was established in 1985 with headquarters at Thiruvananthapuram .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Agency_for_Non-conventional_Energy_and_Rural_Technology", "rank": 79, "score": 79046 }, { "content": "Title: Johnson thermoelectric energy converter Content: A Johnson thermoelectric energy converter or JTEC is a type of solid-state heat engine that uses the electrochemical oxidation and reduction of hydrogen in a two-cell , thermal cycle that approximates the Ericsson cycle . It is under investigation as a viable alternative to conventional photovoltaic cells . Lonnie Johnson invented it and claims the converter exhibits an energy conversion efficiency of as much as 60 % compared to the 30 % efficiency typical of the best photovoltaic cells ; however , this claim is at a theoretical level based on comparison with a Carnot cycle and assumes a temperature gradient of 600C . It was originally proposed for funding to the Office of Naval Research but was refused . Johnson obtained later funding by framing the engine as a hydrogen fuel cell . Johnson is collaborating with PARC on development of the engine .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Johnson_thermoelectric_energy_converter", "rank": 80, "score": 78951 }, { "content": "Title: Energy in South Korea Content: South Korea is a major energy importer , importing nearly all of its oil needs and the second-largest importer of liquefied natural gas in the world . Electricity generation in the country mainly comes from conventional thermal power , which accounts for more than two thirds of production , and from nuclear power . Energy producers were dominated by government enterprises , although privately operated coal mines and oil refineries also existed . The National Assembly enacted a broad electricity sector restructuring program in 2000 , but the restructuring process was halted amid political controversy in 2004 and remains a topic of intense political debate . South Korea has no proven oil reserves . Exploration until the 1980s in the Yellow Sea and on the continental shelf between Korea and Japan did not find any offshore oil . Coal supply in the country is insufficient and of low quality . The potential for hydroelectric power is limited because of high seasonal variations in the weather and the concentration of most of the rainfall in the summer . Accordingly , the government is increasingly focused on developing nuclear power generation .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Energy_in_South_Korea", "rank": 81, "score": 78655 }, { "content": "Title: Energy Fair Content: Energy Fair in the United Kingdom is a group of six people leading a campaign that claims that the nuclear power industry receives unfair subsidies , consisting of : Dr Dörte Fouquet , senior partner of the law firm Becker Büttner Held ( BBH ) and Director of the European Renewable Energies Federation . Antony Froggatt , energy policy consultant , senior research fellow at Chatham House . Dr David Lowry , research policy consultant , specialising in nuclear issues . Pete Roche , energy consultant , policy adviser to the Scottish Nuclear Free Local Authorities , and the National Steering Committee of United Kingdom Nuclear Free Local Authorities . Professor Stephen Thomas , energy policy researcher , University of Greenwich Business School . Dr Gerry Wolff , coordinator , Desertec-UK and the Kyoto2 Support Group . In February 2011 and January 2012 the group , supported by other organisations and environmentalists , lodged formal complaints with the European Union 's Directorate General for Competition , alleging that the Government was providing unlawful State aid in the form of subsidies for nuclear power industry , in breach of European Union competition law . One of the largest subsidies is the cap on liabilities for nuclear accidents which the nuclear power industry has negotiated with governments . `` Like car drivers , the operators of nuclear plants should be properly insured , '' said Gerry Wolff , coordinator of the Energy Fair group . The group calculates that , `` if nuclear operators were fully insured against the cost of nuclear disasters like those at Chernobyl and Fukushima , the price of nuclear electricity would rise by at least $ 0.14 per kWh and perhaps as much as $ 2.36 , depending on assumptions made '' .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Energy_Fair", "rank": 82, "score": 78648 }, { "content": "Title: Energy policy of Venezuela Content: Venezuela has the largest conventional oil reserves and the second-largest natural gas reserves in the Western Hemisphere . In addition Venezuela has non-conventional oil deposits ( extra-heavy crude oil , bitumen and tar sands ) approximately equal to the world 's reserves of conventional oil . Venezuela is also amongst world leaders in hydroelectric production , supplying a majority of the nation 's electrical power through the process .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Energy_policy_of_Venezuela", "rank": 83, "score": 78532 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental and Energy Study Institute Content: The Environmental and Energy Study Institute ( EESI ) is an independent , bi-partisan 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization that aims to promote environmentally sustainable societies . Based out of Washington , DC , EESI seeks to be a catalyst moving society away from environmentally damaging fossil fuels and toward a clean energy future . The organization was established in 1984 by a bipartisan and bicameral group of members of the United States Congress who were concerned with global environmental and energy problems . EESI works to advance policy solutions that reduce greenhouse gas emissions and ground-level air pollution ; improve public health , energy security , and economic development opportunities ; and increase use of renewable energy and energy efficiency . The group seeks to advance its mission through policymaker education , coalition building , and policy development .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Environmental_and_Energy_Study_Institute", "rank": 84, "score": 78500 }, { "content": "Title: Eugene Mallove Content: Eugene Franklin Mallove ( June 9 , 1947 -- May 14 , 2004 ) was an American scientist , science writer , editor , and publisher of Infinite Energy magazine , and founder of the non-profit organization New Energy Foundation . He was a proponent of cold fusion , and a supporter of its research and related exploratory alternative energy topics , several of which are sometimes characterised as `` fringe science '' . Mallove authored Fire from Ice , a book detailing the 1989 report of table-top cold fusion from Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann at the University of Utah . Among other things , the book advances a conspiracy theory , claiming that the team did produce `` greater-than-unity '' output energy in an experiment successfully replicated on several occasions , but that the results were suppressed through an organized campaign of ridicule from mainstream physicists , including those studying controlled thermonuclear fusion , trying to protect their research and funding . Mallove was murdered in 2004 while cleaning out his former childhood home , which had been rented out . Three people have been arrested and charged in connection with the killing ; two were convicted of first-degree manslaughter and murder , in 2012 and 2014 ; the third pleaded guilty to obstruction of justice in 2015", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Eugene_Mallove", "rank": 85, "score": 78466 }, { "content": "Title: M-26 artillery rocket Content: M26 is the basic MLRS rocket . It is unguided with a range of 20 mi ( 32 km ) . It is armed with 644 M77 DPICM ( Dual-Purpose Improved Conventional Munitions ) anti-personnel/anti-materiel grenades , which are dispersed over the target in mid-air and detonate on impact . There is a newer , guided DPICM-armed MLRS rocket called the M30 . The UK Ministry of Defence has recently announced it will cease to use dumb cluster munitions and will destroy its remaining stocks of the M30 . The British Army will instead procure the M31 variant which has a unitary high-explosive warhead .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "M-26_artillery_rocket", "rank": 86, "score": 78368 }, { "content": "Title: Alternative fuel vehicle Content: An alternative fuel vehicle is a vehicle that runs on a fuel other than traditional petroleum fuels ( petrol or Diesel fuel ) ; and also refers to any technology of powering an engine that does not involve solely petroleum ( e.g. electric car , hybrid electric vehicles , solar powered ) . Because of a combination of factors , such as environmental concerns , high oil prices and the potential for peak oil , development of cleaner alternative fuels and advanced power systems for vehicles has become a high priority for many governments and vehicle manufacturers around the world . Hybrid electric vehicles such as the Toyota Prius are not actually alternative fuel vehicles , but through advanced technologies in the electric battery and motor/generator , they make a more efficient use of petroleum fuel . Other research and development efforts in alternative forms of power focus on developing all-electric and fuel cell vehicles , and even the stored energy of compressed air . An environmental analysis extends beyond just the operating efficiency and emissions . A life-cycle assessment of a vehicle involves production and post-use considerations . A cradle-to-cradle design is more important than a focus on a single factor such as the type of fuel .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Alternative_fuel_vehicle", "rank": 87, "score": 78238 }, { "content": "Title: Energy policy of Iraq Content: Energy policy of Iraq describes the politics of Iraq related to energy . Energy in Iraq describes the energy and electricity production , consumption and import in Iraq . Electricity sector in Iraq is the main article of electricity in Iraq . Oil revenues are the major income in the economy of Iraq . Based on data from BP at the end of 2009 the highest proved oil reserves including the non-conventional oil deposits are in 1 ) Saudi Arabia ( 18 per cent of global reserves ) 2 ) Canada ( 12 % , mostly oil sands ) 3 ) Venezuela ( 12 % , mostly tar sands ) 4 ) Iran ( 9 % ) and 5 ) Iraq ( 8 % )", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Energy_policy_of_Iraq", "rank": 88, "score": 78186 }, { "content": "Title: 100% renewable energy Content: The endeavor to use 100 % renewable energy for electricity , heating and cooling , and transport is motivated by global warming , pollution and other environmental issues , as well as economic and energy security concerns . Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system . In 2013 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand . Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates anticipated . In 2014 , renewable sources such as wind , geothermal , solar , biomass , and burnt waste provided 19 % of the total energy consumed worldwide , with roughly half of that coming from traditional use of biomass . The most important sector is electricity with a renewable share of 22.8 % , most of it coming from hydropower with a share of 16.6 % , followed by wind with 3.1 % . There are many places around the world with grids that are run almost exclusively on renewable energy . At the national level , at least 30 nations already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 % of the energy supply . Professors S. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow of Princeton University have developed a series of `` Climate stabilization wedges '' that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change , and `` renewable energy sources , '' in aggregate , constitute the largest number of their `` wedges . '' Mark Z. Jacobson , professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy program , says that producing all new energy with wind power , solar power , and hydropower by 2030 is feasible , and that existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050 . Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be `` primarily social and political , not technological or economic '' . Jacobson says that energy costs today with a wind , solar , and water system should be similar to today 's energy costs from other optimally cost-effective strategies . The main obstacle against this scenario is the lack of political will . Similarly , in the United States , the independent National Research Council has noted that `` sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change , energy security , and the escalation of energy costs ... Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States , taken collectively , can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand . '' The main barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low-carbon energy strategies are political rather than technological . According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report , which reviewed many international studies , the key roadblocks are : climate change denial , the fossil fuels lobby , political inaction , unsustainable energy consumption , outdated energy infrastructure , and financial constraints .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "100%_renewable_energy", "rank": 89, "score": 78120 }, { "content": "Title: Converse accident Content: The fallacy of converse accident ( also called reverse accident , destroying the exception , or a dicto secundum quid ad dictum simpliciter ) is an informal fallacy that can occur in a statistical syllogism when an exception to a generalization is wrongly excluded , and the generalization wrongly called for as applying to all cases . For example : If we allow people with glaucoma to use medical marijuana , then everyone should be allowed to use marijuana . The inductive version of this fallacy is called hasty generalization . See faulty generalization . This fallacy is similar to the slippery slope , where the opposition claims that if a restricted action under debate is allowed , such as allowing people with glaucoma to use medical marijuana , then the action will by stages become acceptable in general , such as eventually everyone being allowed to use marijuana . The two arguments imply there is no difference between the exception and the rule , and in fact fallacious slippery slope arguments often use the converse accident to the contrary as the basis for the argument . However , a key difference between the two is the point and position being argued . The above argument using converse accident is an argument for full legal use of marijuana given that glaucoma patients use it . The argument based on the slippery slope argues against medicinal use of marijuana because it will lead to full use . The opposing kind of dicto simpliciter is accident .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Converse_accident", "rank": 90, "score": 78078 }, { "content": "Title: Shiftgig Content: Shiftgig connects hourly workers and businesses through a mobile application . Aiming to streamline and modernize the traditional staffing industry , it develops an employment-related mobile application , where employees can claim jobs in real-time . Shiftgig 's product and business model have been compared with that of both LinkedIn and Uber . The company was listed among Business Insider magazine 's `` 25 Coolest New Businesses In Chicago '' . Shiftgig was also included in CIO 's `` 10 Hot Social Media Startups to Watch '' .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Shiftgig", "rank": 91, "score": 77915 }, { "content": "Title: Intelligent Energy Content: Intelligent Energy is a power technology company that specialises in the development of Proton Exchange Membrane ( PEM ) fuel cells for application in the automotive , consumer electronics and stationary power markets . Based in the UK , the company also has offices in India , Japan , Singapore , France and the United States and employs approximately 400 people . Intelligent Energy Holdings plc , the group holding company , is listed on the London Stock Exchange ( ticker symbol : IEH ) .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Intelligent_Energy", "rank": 92, "score": 77842 }, { "content": "Title: Accident (fallacy) Content: The informal fallacy of accident ( also called destroying the exception or a dicto simpliciter ad dictum secundum quid ) is a deductively valid but unsound argument occurring in statistical syllogisms ( an argument based on a generalization ) when an exception to a rule of thumb is ignored . It is one of the thirteen fallacies originally identified by Aristotle in Sophistical Refutations . The fallacy occurs when one attempts to apply a general rule to an irrelevant situation . For example : It is easy to construct fallacious arguments by applying general statements to specific incidents that are obviously exceptions . Generalizations that are weak generally have more exceptions ( the number of exceptions to the generalization need not be a minority of cases ) and vice versa . This fallacy may occur when we confuse particulars ( `` some '' ) for categorical statements ( `` always and everywhere '' ) . It may be encouraged when no qualifying words like `` some '' , `` many '' , `` rarely '' etc. are used to mark the generalization . Related inductive fallacies include : overwhelming exception , hasty generalization . See faulty generalization . The opposing kind of dicto simpliciter fallacy is the converse accident .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Accident_(fallacy)", "rank": 93, "score": 77761 }, { "content": "Title: Dual-Purpose Improved Conventional Munition Content: A Dual-Purpose Improved Conventional Munition ( DPICM ) is an artillery or surface-to-surface missile warhead designed to burst into sub-munitions at an optimum altitude and distance from the desired target for dense area coverage . The sub-munitions are designed for both anti-armor and antipersonnel attack . Some sub-munitions may be designed for delayed reaction or mobility denial ( mines ) . The air-to-surface variety of this kind of munition is better known as a cluster bomb . They are banned by some countries under the Convention on Cluster Munitions .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Dual-Purpose_Improved_Conventional_Munition", "rank": 94, "score": 77563 }, { "content": "Title: Unconventional oil Content: Unconventional oil is petroleum produced or extracted using techniques other than the conventional ( oil well ) method . Oil industries and governments across the globe are investing in unconventional oil sources due to the increasing scarcity of conventional oil reserves .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Unconventional_oil", "rank": 95, "score": 77274 }, { "content": "Title: Nuclear micro-battery Content: The new generation of swarm and communicating devices will explore new approaches : supplying information using power supplies generated from the world of living organisms or ATP molecules ( similar to living things ) , micro-internal combustion engines , or even nuclear micro-batteries which are far removed from conventional batteries . Nuclear engineers at the University of Wisconsin , Madison have explored the possibilities of producing minuscule batteries which exploit the decrease in the number of radioactive nuclei of substances such as polonium or curium to produce electric energy . As an example of an integrated , self-powered application , the researchers have created an oscillating cantilever beam that is capable of consistent , periodic oscillations over very long time periods without the need for refueling . Ongoing work demonstrate that this cantilever is capable of radio frequency transmission , allowing MEMS devices to communicate with one another wirelessly . These micro-batteries are very light and deliver enough energy to function as power supply for use in MEMS devices and further for supply for nanodevices . The energy released through the decrease in the number of radioactive nuclei is transformed into electric energy , which is restricted to the area of the device that contains the processor and the micro-battery that supplies it with energy .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Nuclear_micro-battery", "rank": 96, "score": 77082 }, { "content": "Title: Institute of Petroleum Content: The Institute of Petroleum ( IP ) was a UK-based professional organisation that merged with the Institute of Energy in 2003 to form the Energy Institute . The Institute of Petroleum had similar goals to the EI but was specifically focused on the oil and gas industry , whereas the EI also covers other forms of energy including nuclear and alternative energies . The IP designation still survives , for example in the specification of test methods in the petroleum industry ( see for example a list of IP Test Methods on Caleb Brett 's site ) . The Energy Institute still runs an `` International Petroleum ( IP ) Week '' , a series of events and seminars aimed at the petroleum industry . Category : Defunct professional associations based in the United Kingdom", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Institute_of_Petroleum", "rank": 97, "score": 76881 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Agreement Content: When the Climate Change Levy was introduced in the United Kingdom , the position of energy-intensive industries was considered , given their energy usage , the requirements of the Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control regime and their exposure to international competition . As a result , a 65 % discount from the levy was allowed for those sectors that agreed targets for improving their energy efficiency or reducing carbon emissions . The discount on electricity increased to 90 % in 2013 . An ` energy-intensive ' sector is one which either carries out activities which are listed as Part A ( 1 ) or A ( 2 ) activities in Part 2 of Schedule 1 to the Environmental Permitting ( England and Wales ) Regulations 2010 ( Statutory Instrument 2010 No. 675 ) ( as amended ) , or that satisfies energy intensity criteria provided by the Department of Energy and Climate Change . The regulations cover the ten main energy-intensive sectors of industry ( aluminium , cement , ceramics , chemicals , food and drink , foundries , glass , non-ferrous metals , paper , and steel ) and over thirty smaller sectors , and in agriculture , livestock units for the intensive rearing of pigs and poultry .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Climate_Change_Agreement", "rank": 98, "score": 76870 }, { "content": "Title: 2014 FIA Alternative Energies Cup Content: The 2014 FIA Alternative Energies Cup was the eighth season of the FIA Alternative Energies Cup , a world championship for vehicles with alternative energy propulsion organized by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile . For the fourth successive year , Massimo Liverani won the Category VII/VIII title for hybrid vehicles , despite winning only one of the seven events during the season . He won the championship by 24 points ahead of Guido Guerrini , who finished as the championship runner-up for the fourth successive year . Third place went to Kalin Dedikov , who won his home event in Bulgaria . The other wins were shared by Sylvain Blondeau , Txema Foronda , Massimo Zanasi , Gregor Zdovc , as well as Roberto Viganò , who was ineligible to score points towards the championship . Guerrini 's co-driver Isabelle Barciulli was the winner of the co-drivers ' championship , as Liverani used both Valeria Strada and Fulvio Ciervo during the season . Strada finished second to Barciulli , four points in arrears . Abarth were the winners of the manufacturers ' championship . In the all-electric Category III , it was Walter Kofler who claimed the championship title , after winning four out of the category 's seven events . His tally of 50 points was over 4 times that of his nearest competitor , James Morlaix , who scored 11 . Jesús Echave , Greg Jonkerlinck and Akash Makhan shared third place overall , with one-off category victories . Franco Gaioni was the winner of the co-drivers ' championship , with Think the winners of the manufacturers ' championship .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "2014_FIA_Alternative_Energies_Cup", "rank": 99, "score": 76758 }, { "content": "Title: Energy policy of Australia Content: The energy policy of Australia is subject to the regulatory and fiscal influence of all three levels of government in Australia , although only the State and Federal levels determine policy for primary industries such as coal . As of 2016 , Federal energy policies continue to support the coal mining and natural gas industries through subsidies for fossil fuel use and production as the exports by those industries contribute significantly to the earnings of foreign exchange and government revenues . Australia is one of the most coal-dependent countries in the world . Coal and natural gas , along with oil-based products , are currently the primary sources of Australian energy usage and the coal industry produces approximately 38 % of Australia 's total greenhouse gas emissions . In 2015 Federal policy reverted to a pro-coal economy with cuts to alternate and renewable energy government offices , targets and subsidies Federal climate change policy changed following the election of the Labor Rudd Government in December 2007 , which committed to introduce an Emissions Trading Scheme in 2010 , and to expand the mandatory renewable energy target to ensure 20 % of electricity supply in Australia was from renewable sources by 2020 . After a contentious political debate , a carbon pricing mechanism entered force on 1 July 2012 under Prime Minister Julia Gillard , but was repealed by the Abbott Government in 2014 . In June 2015 the Abbott Government downgraded the renewable energy target from 41,000 GWh per year to 33,000 GWh . As of 2013 , Australia was now only the 12th highest emitter of greenhouse gases per capita in the world , and 16th ( behind China , Russia . the US , Germany , the UK , Japan , India and other major developed nations ) , in total CO2 emissions ( kt per year ) . Renewable energy commercialisation in Australia is an area of growing activity . Australia 's renewable energy industries are diverse , covering numerous energy sources and scales of operation , and currently contribute about 8 -- 10 % of Australia 's total energy supply . The major area where renewable energy is growing is in electricity generation following the introduction of government Mandatory Renewable Energy Targets . The two most populous states , New South Wales and Victoria have renewable energy targets of 20 % and 25 % respectively by 2020 .", "qid": "3066", "docid": "Energy_policy_of_Australia", "rank": 100, "score": 76565 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Spain Content: Electricity from renewable sources in Spain represented 42.8 % of electricity demand coverage during 2014 . The country has a very large wind power capability built up over many years and is one of the world leaders in wind power generation . Initially Spain also positioned itself as a European leader in Solar power , by 2007-2010 the country was second only to Germany in installed capacity , however other countries ( Italy in particular ) have since leapfrogged Spanish development . By 2015 solar power in Spain though significant produced less than a third of that of wind power in 2015 . Spain has set the target of generating 20 % of all its energy needs from renewable energy sources by 2020 and an additional 0.8 % may be available for other EU countries under the cooperation mechanism bringing the total to 20.8 % . By the end of 2014 Spain had reached a level of 16.2 % of all its energy needs from renewable energy sources . The story of renewable energy development in Spain is both a mixed and unfinished one . Under previous subsidies the country expanded its renewable base rapidly and helped establish a domestic industry in both wind turbine and solar energy . However , support was drastically cut back following the global financial crisis and new installations stagnated between 2012 and 2015 . The debts incurred during the boom period have led to tougher and retrospective revisions of contracts to providers of renewable energy reducing returns considerably . In being one of the first-to-market countries , Spain faces the challenge of powerful competitors from countries such as Denmark , Germany and China and ironically a cheaper and more mature renewable energy sector which Spain itself helped to pioneer . In 2015 solar power suddenly demonstrated a possible way through the impasse . The continued fall in prices for solar systems and Spain 's abundant sunshine led to prices for solar power reaching grid price parity . Suddenly there was the potential for sustained and spontaneous growth in solar installations in Spain as households and producers could produce power more economically . However the Spanish government introduced what has been dubbed the world 's first `` sun tax '' on solar installations making them economically less viable as well as draconian fines ( up to 60 million Euros ) for anyone not complying with the tax . The tax has proved highly controversial . On the one hand the government has argued that those generating their own power still rely on the national grid for power backup and so should be liable for contributing to the cost . On the other hand , the solar industry has argued that the government is simply trying to protect the centralised established power producers whose revenues would be threatened by this competitive solar threat . Environmentalists have criticised the tax for artificially blocking Spain from continuing its long standing movement to renewable energy production . Whatever the merits of both arguments , the controversy can only become more heightened as the price of solar energy continues to fall and if PV solar power installed capacity in Spain were to continue sliding down the EU league from 12th position in 2014 ( 102.9 kW per 1000 inhabitants ) . In the same year in terms of wind energy production Spain was much stronger in 3rd position ( 495 kW per 1000 inhabitants ) .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Spain", "rank": 1, "score": 135752 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in the United States Content: Renewable energy in the United States accounted for 13.44 percent of the domestically produced electricity in 2015 , and 11.1 percent of total energy generation . As of 2016 , more than 260,000 people work in the solar industry and 43 states deploy net metering , where energy utilities buy back excess power generated by solar arrays . Renewable energy reached a major milestone in the first quarter of 2011 , when it contributed 11.7 percent of total U.S. energy production ( 2.245 quadrillion BTU of energy ) , surpassing energy production from nuclear power ( 2.125 quadrillion BTU ) . 2011 was the first year since 1997 that renewables exceeded nuclear in US total energy production . Hydroelectric power is currently the largest producer of renewable power in the U.S. . It produced around 6.14 % of the nation 's total electricity in 2015 which was 45.71 % of the total renewable power in the U.S. . The United States is the fourth largest producer of hydroelectricity in the world after China , Canada and Brazil . The Grand Coulee Dam is the 5th largest hydroelectric power station in the world . U.S. wind power installed capacity now exceeds 72,000 MW and supplies 4.1 % of the nation 's electricity . Texas is firmly established as the leader in wind power development , followed by Iowa and California . Since the U.S. pioneered the technology in 1981 with Solar One , several solar thermal power stations have also been built . The largest of these solar thermal power stations are the Ivanpah Solar Power Facility ( 392 MW ) , southwest of Las Vegas , and the SEGS group of plants in the Mojave Desert , with a total generating capacity of 354 MW . Large photovoltaic power plants in the USA include Solar Star ( 579 MW ) , near Rosamond , California , the Desert Sunlight Solar Farm , a 550 MW solar power plant in Riverside County , California and the Topaz Solar Farm , a 550 MW photovoltaic power plant , in San Luis Obispo County , California . The Geysers in Northern California is the largest complex of geothermal energy production in the world . The development of renewable energy and energy efficiency marks `` a new era of energy exploration '' in the United States , according to President Barack Obama . In a joint address to the Congress on February 24 , 2009 , President Obama called for doubling renewable energy within the next three years . In his 2012 State of the Union address , President Barack Obama restated his commitment to renewable energy and mentioned the long-standing Interior Department commitment to permit 10,000 MW of renewable energy projects on public land in 2012 .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_the_United_States", "rank": 2, "score": 134856 }, { "content": "Title: Energy in Spain Content: According to The World Factbook , In 2011 Spain produced 276.8 billion kWh of electricity . In the same year , Spain consumed only 249.7 billion kWh of electricity . In recent years , huge investment has been made into Spain 's renewable energy industry and aims to be carbon-free well before 2050 . According to Red Electrica de España ( REE ) , the Spanish peninsula got 69 percent of its electricity generation in March 2015 from technologies that produce zero carbon emissions -- that is to say , renewable energy plus some of its nuclear power . Nuclear as a whole provided 23.8 percent of the country 's electricity in March , while 47 percent came solely from renewable sources . Most of the renewable electricity being generated in Spain comes from wind , which alone provided 22.5 percent of the country 's electricity last month . Wind often competes with nuclear for the title of Spain 's top electricity generation source overall -- in fact , though nuclear pulled through in March as the top source of electricity , wind has overall provided more electricity to Spain in the entirety of 2015 . From January to March 2015 , according to REE , wind provided 23.7 percent of electricity generation while nuclear made up 22.7 percent .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Energy_in_Spain", "rank": 3, "score": 131890 }, { "content": "Title: Electricity sector in Spain Content: The electricity sector in Spain describes electricity in Spain . In 2008 Spain consumed electricity 88 % compared to the European Union 15 average . Spain exported about 3 % of the produced electricity in 2009 . The volume of renewable electricity rose 5 % shares of the electricity use in 2009 compared to 2004 and was about 26 % of the electricity use in 2009 . The share of nuclear power declined notably between 2004 and 2005 . The volume of nuclear power pro person has declined smoothly during 2004 -- 2009 .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Electricity_sector_in_Spain", "rank": 4, "score": 128787 }, { "content": "Title: Wind power in Spain Content: By year end 2015 Spain was the world 's fifth biggest producer of wind power with 23,031 MW installed capacity ( including 11 MW of wind-hydro capacity ) , providing 48,118 GWh of power and 19 % of the country 's total electricity production in that year . In 2014 , a record breaking year for renewable electricity production , wind power accounted for 20.2 % of total electricity generation in Spain making it the second most important electricity source after nuclear power ( 22 % ) and ahead of coal power ( 16.5 % ) . In earlier periods wind energy covered 16 % of the demand in 2010 , 13.8 % in 2009 and 11.5 % in 2008 . Following the fallout from the financial crisis in 2008 and the dire straits of the Spanish economy in the subsequent period new installations of new wind turbines all but stagnated between 2012 and 2015 remaining at close to 23,000 MW installed capacity for the entire period . Whilst Spain put expansion on ice the other world leading countries continued to expand or accelerated new wind turbine installations and by 2015 India had moved ahead of Spain in total installations . As of end 2015 ranked 5th in the world by wind power installed capacity . On windy days , wind power generation has surpassed all other electricity sources in Spain ; On 21 November 2015 at 4:50 am , 70.4 % of the electricity consumed on the Spanish Peninsula was covered with wind power energy . On 6 February 2013 , wind power achieved an earlier record in electricity production , reaching an instantaneous peak of 17,056 MW and an hourly production of 16,918 MWh . In November 2011 a capacity peak of 59 % of power demand being generated by wind power was reached . Power peaks of 14.960 GW were reached in November 2010 , and in November 2009 , a wind storm caused wind farms to produce a peak of 53 % of total electricity demand ( 11.546 GW ) . In 2009 , the largest producer of wind power in Spain was Iberdrola , with 25.5 % of capacity , followed by Acciona with 20.9 % and NEO Energia ( EDP Renewables ) with 8.3 % .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Wind_power_in_Spain", "rank": 5, "score": 127644 }, { "content": "Title: List of books about renewable energy Content: This is a bibliography of renewable energy . Renewable energy is energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , and geothermal heat , which are renewable ( naturally replenished ) . About 16 % of global final energy consumption comes from renewables , with 10 % coming from traditional biomass , which is mainly used for heating , and 3.4 % from hydroelectricity . New renewables ( small hydro , modern biomass , wind , solar , geothermal , and biofuels ) account for another 3 % and are growing very rapidly . Total investment in renewable energy reached $ 244 billion in 2012 . The top countries for investment in recent years were China , Germany , Spain , the United States , Italy , and Brazil . Leading renewable energy companies include BrightSource Energy , Enercon , First Solar , Gamesa , GE Energy , Goldwind , Nordex , Sinovel , Suntech , Trina Solar , Vestas and Yingli .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "List_of_books_about_renewable_energy", "rank": 6, "score": 126424 }, { "content": "Title: Sino-Spanish Association for Energy and Sustainability Content: The Sino-Spanish Association for Energy and Sustainability ( ASEES ) is a Spanish non-profit organization founded in 2009 by Cosme de Arana for the promotion of bilateral cooperation between China and Spain in the renewable energy and environment sectors . It aims to build a bridge between the two countries to promote commercial and technological exchange .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Sino-Spanish_Association_for_Energy_and_Sustainability", "rank": 7, "score": 125208 }, { "content": "Title: Solar power in Spain Content: Spain is one of the most advanced countries in the development of solar energy , and it is one of the European countries with the most hours of sunshine . Through a ministerial ruling in March 2004 , the Spanish government removed economic barriers to the connection of renewable energy technologies to the electricity grid . The Royal Decree 436/2004 equalized conditions for large-scale solar thermal and photovoltaic plants and guaranteed feed-in tariffs . In the wake of the 2008 financial crisis , the Spanish government drastically cut its subsidies for solar power and capped future increases in capacity at 500 MW per year , with effects upon the industry worldwide . In 2008 the Spanish government committed to achieving a target of 12 % of primary energy from renewable energy by 2010 and by 2020 expects the installed solar generating capacity of 10 GW . Spain is the fourth largest manufacturer in the world of solar power technology and exports 80 % of this output to Germany . Spain added a record 2.6 GW of solar photovoltaic power in 2008 , increasing capacity to 3.5 GW . In 2016 , nearly 8 TWh was produced from photovoltaics , and 5 TWh from solar thermal . By the end of 2012 , 4.5 GW had been installed , and that year 8.2 TWh of electricity was produced . Since then , new installations of solar photovoltaics have slowed down significantly . Since 2010 , Spain has been the world 's leader in concentrated solar power ( CSP ) , and by the end of 2012 had installed over 2,000 MW of CSP .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Solar_power_in_Spain", "rank": 8, "score": 123907 }, { "content": "Title: Acciona Energy Content: Acciona Energy , a subsidiary of Acciona based in Madrid , is a Spanish company developing renewable energy projects , including small hydro , biomass , solar energy and thermal energy , and the marketing of biofuels . It also has assets in the field of co-generation and wind turbine manufacture . , it is carrying out research projects to produce hydrogen from wind power and to manufacture more efficient photovoltaic cells . , Acciona Energy has 164 wind farms in nine countries representing over 4,500 megawatts ( MW ) of wind power installed or under construction . Acciona Energy is also the developer , owner and operator of Nevada Solar One , the world 's first solar thermal plant built in more than 16 years , and the third largest facility of its kind . On September 18 , 2009 , the 100.5 MW EcoGrove Wind Farm in Lena , Illinois , U.S. became operational . The wind farm comprises 67 Acciona Windpower 1.5 MW turbines , and will produce enough to power 25,000 homes and offset 176,000 tons of carbon annually . The EcoGrove facility is spread across 7000 acre . Acciona Windpower 's main product is the AW1500 , a 1.545 MW output machine . There is a prototype AW3000 , a 3 MW model , operational in Pamplona , Spain . The company has a manufacturing facility in West Branch , Iowa which manufactures wind turbines . In June 2014 , Kohlberg Kravis Roberts announced it was taking a one-third stake in the international energy business of the company , at a cost of $ 417 million ( $ 567 million ) . The renewable energy generation business operates renewable assets , largely wind farms , across 14 countries including the United States , Italy and South Africa .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Acciona_Energy", "rank": 9, "score": 121248 }, { "content": "Title: Acciona Content: Acciona , S.A. ( -LSB- akˈθjona -RSB- ) is a Spanish conglomerate group dedicated to the development and management of infrastructure ( construction , water , industrial and services ) and renewable energy . The company was founded in 1997 through the merger of Entrecanales y Tavora and Cubiertas y MZOV . The company 's headquarters is in Alcobendas , Community of Madrid , Spain . The company 's U.S. operations are headquartered in Chicago , Illinois . The Company employs 30,000 professionals , and it is to be found in 30 countries on five continents . The Company is IBEX 35-listed and an industry benchmark .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Acciona", "rank": 10, "score": 119991 }, { "content": "Title: Nuclear power in Spain Content: Spain has five active nuclear plants with seven reactors producing 21 % of the country 's electricity as of 2013 . A nuclear power moratorium was enacted by the Socialist government in 1983 . For a time the country had a policy of phasing out nuclear power in favor of renewables . It ended in 1997 but no public or private company has been interested in building new nuclear plants . The oldest unit ( at José Cabrera nuclear power plant ) was shut down at the end of 2006 , 40 years after its construction . In December 2012 , the Garoña plant was also shut down . In 2011 , the government lifted the 40-year limit on all reactors , allowing owners to apply for license extensions in 10-year increments .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Nuclear_power_in_Spain", "rank": 11, "score": 118385 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Denmark Content: Denmark is a world leading country in wind energy production and wind turbine production . In 2014 Denmark produced 57.4 % of its net electricity generation from renewable energy sources . The Danish wind company Vestas Wind Systems A/S has expanded from its domestic base and by 2015 had a revenue of $ 8.423 billion , with more than 18,000 employees globally and manufacturing plants in Denmark , Germany , India , Italy , Romania , the United Kingdom , Spain , Sweden , Norway , Australia , China , and the United States ( see Vestas link above for sources ) . Wind power alone produced 42.7 % of Denmark 's electricity production in 2014 and is expected to increase its production by nearly 80 % in the years to 2024 . Denmark has a target of producing 30 % of all its energy needs from RE energy sources by 2020 , a considerable increase from the 17 % it attained in 2005 . By 2014 this figure had already reached 29.2 % and was the fifth highest amongst the EU-28 countries . The country has ambitious renewable energy goals for the future , including using renewable energy for 100 % of its energy needs in all sectors including transport by 2050 . In the heating sector the country has long used and continues to develop district heating ( DH ) networks . Hot water or steam is produced centrally and then distributed through a network of insulated pipes to high population areas . Houses within a district heating area have heat exchangers installed instead of boilers for their heating and hot water requirements . The heat exchanger keeps the two water systems separate and means that heat can be adjusted as with a familiar domestic boiler . One simple but important innovation in the district heating network was the development of internally insulated pipes . The two pipes taking and receiving the return of water are placed inside a much larger pipe and insulating material is set so as to fill the figure eight shaped void between the two smaller and the large pipe . In 2013 district heating supplied over 60 % of all households in Denmark with heating and hot water . The development of district heating technology has led Denmark to become a world leader in industrial pump and thermostat designs and its products are used in many industries worldwide . Cogeneration is also widely used . This is a process that extracts the waste heat produced when generating electricity . Power stations designed to do this are known as Combined Heat and Power ( CHP ) stations . CHP stations in Denmark are often sized to provide the heat required for the local district heating system . Thus CHP stations produce both electricity for the grid and heat for district heating systems . Heat can be stored in large industrial hot water tanks for several days allowing electricity and heat supply to be provided time independently from each other . By 2013 the use of CHP stations had reduced the overall energy consumption in Denmark by 11 % . Danish electricity generation has become increasingly decentralised with a move away from production in the large central power stations to many smaller , locally based and mostly CHP stations . Many of these smaller stations use locally sourced bio energy sources including straw and wood pellets .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Denmark", "rank": 12, "score": 118385 }, { "content": "Title: Unemployment in Spain Content: Though unemployment is a general problem for the whole world , the degree of unemployment in Spain is especially high in respect to the other countries in the region at the same economic level . After reaching a minimum of 8 % between 2006 and 2007 , with the Spanish economic crisis that began in 2008 the rate of unemployment grew quickly exceeding 20 % in 2010 and 25 % in 2012 and unemployment became the greatest concern within Spanish society . Even though unemployment in some regions of Spain is slightly less than in others , the general amount is one of the highest in the European Union and in general has stayed like that independently of the economic situation . Almost 100,000 people have lost their jobs in the real estate industry in Spain .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Unemployment_in_Spain", "rank": 13, "score": 118330 }, { "content": "Title: Instituto para la Diversificación y Ahorro de la Energía Content: The Institute for Diversification and Saving of Energy ( IDAE ) is an agency of the Ministry of Industry , Energy and Tourism through the Ministry of Energy . The Secretary of State for Energy , Mr. Alberto Nadal Belda , is the president of IDAE . Contribute to achieving the objectives of Spain in improving energy efficiency , renewable energy and other low carbon technologies is the strategic framework of its activity . In this sense , the IDAE conducts communicaction campaigns , dissemination and training , technical assistance , program development and funding of specific projects of technological innovation and replicable nature . Also , the Institute leads an intense international activity under various European programs and cooperation with third countries worldwide .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Instituto_para_la_Diversificación_y_Ahorro_de_la_Energía", "rank": 14, "score": 115342 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy commercialization Content: Renewable energy commercialization involves the deployment of three generations of renewable energy technologies dating back more than 100 years . First-generation technologies , which are already mature and economically competitive , include biomass , hydroelectricity , geothermal power and heat . Second-generation technologies are market-ready and are being deployed at the present time ; they include solar heating , photovoltaics , wind power , solar thermal power stations , and modern forms of bioenergy . Third-generation technologies require continued R&D efforts in order to make large contributions on a global scale and include advanced biomass gasification , hot-dry-rock geothermal power , and ocean energy . As of 2012 , renewable energy accounts for about half of new nameplate electrical capacity installed and costs are continuing to fall . Public policy and political leadership helps to `` level the playing field '' and drive the wider acceptance of renewable energy technologies . Countries such as Germany , Denmark , and Spain have led the way in implementing innovative policies which has driven most of the growth over the past decade . As of 2014 , Germany has a commitment to the `` Energiewende '' transition to a sustainable energy economy , and Denmark has a commitment to 100 % renewable energy by 2050 . There are now 144 countries with renewable energy policy targets . Renewable energy continued its rapid growth in 2015 , providing multiple benefits . There was a new record set for installed wind and photovoltaic capacity ( 64GW and 57GW ) and a new high of US$ 329 Billion for global renewables investment . A key benefit that this investment growth brings is a growth in jobs . The top countries for investment in recent years were China , Germany , Spain , the United States , Italy , and Brazil . Renewable energy companies include BrightSource Energy , First Solar , Gamesa , GE Energy , Goldwind , Sinovel , Trina Solar , Vestas , and Yingli . Climate change concerns are also driving increasing growth in the renewable energy industries . According to a 2011 projection by the ( IEA ) International Energy Agency , solar power generators may produce most of the world 's electricity within 50 years , reducing harmful greenhouse gas emissions . Renewable power has been more effective in creating jobs than coal or oil in the United States .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Renewable_energy_commercialization", "rank": 15, "score": 113703 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy Content: Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources , which are naturally replenished on a human timescale , such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , waves , and geothermal heat . Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas : electricity generation , air and water heating/cooling , transportation , and rural ( off-grid ) energy services . Based on REN21 's 2016 report , renewables contributed 19.2 % to humans ' global energy consumption and 23.7 % to their generation of electricity in 2014 and 2015 , respectively . This energy consumption is divided as 8.9 % coming from traditional biomass , 4.2 % as heat energy ( modern biomass , geothermal and solar heat ) , 3.9 % hydro electricity and 2.2 % is electricity from wind , solar , geothermal , and biomass . Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US$ 286 billion in 2015 , with countries like China and the United States heavily investing in wind , hydro , solar and biofuels . Globally , there are an estimated 7.7 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries , with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer . As of 2015 worldwide , more than half of all new electricity capacity installed was renewable . Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas , in contrast to other energy sources , which are concentrated in a limited number of countries . Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security , climate change mitigation , and economic benefits . The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change , a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies . In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power . At the national level , at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply . National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond . Some places and at least two countries , Iceland and Norway generate all their electricity using renewable energy already , and many other countries have the set a goal to reach 100 % renewable energy in the future . For example , in Denmark the government decided to switch the total energy supply ( electricity , mobility and heating/cooling ) to 100 % renewable energy by 2050 . While many renewable energy projects are large-scale , renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries , where energy is often crucial in human development . United Nations ' Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity . As most of renewables provide electricity , renewable energy deployment is often applied in conjunction with further electrification , which has several benefits : Electricity can be converted to heat ( where necessary generating higher temperatures than fossil fuels ) , can be converted into mechanical energy with high efficiency and is clean at the point of consumption . In addition to that electrification with renewable energy is much more efficient and therefore leads to a significant reduction in primary energy requirements , because most renewables do n't have a steam cycle with high losses ( fossil power plants usually have losses of 40 to 65 % ) . Renewable energy systems are rapidly becoming more efficient and cheaper . Their share of total energy consumption is increasing . Growth in consumption of coal and oil could end by 2020 due to increased uptake of renewables and natural gas .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Renewable_energy", "rank": 16, "score": 113333 }, { "content": "Title: Wind power in Utah Content: Wind power in Utah is in the early stages of development . As of 2013 Utah had 325 MW of wind generation capacity . Wind thus plays a small role in the state 's renewable portfolio standard goals . A 2009 Utah Renewable Energy Zone Taskforce estimated that the state could produce over 9,000 megawatts of wind power . As about 80 % of Utah 's population is concentrated along the foot of the Wasatch Front mountain range , reliable and predictable canyon winds offer opportunities for wind power generation and efficient wind energy distribution without long-distance transmission . Utah Power , now PacifiCorp , launched the Blue Sky Program in 2000 to give customers an opportunity to purchase imported wind power , giving customers the option of purchasing 100-kilowatt hour ( kWh ) `` blocks '' of renewable energy for a monthly fee through their electricity bills . In the spring 2003 , radio station KZMU began operating solely on wind power . Kinkos also participates . PacifiCorp , the major provider in Utah , imports much of it renewable energy in the state and does not intend to build facilities within it until at least 2024 . The first utility scale wind farm was built at Spanish Fork in 2008 .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Wind_power_in_Utah", "rank": 17, "score": 109097 }, { "content": "Title: Endesa (Spain) Content: Endesa , S.A. ( -LSB- enˈdesa -RSB- , originally an initialism for Empresa Nacional de Electricidad , S.A. ) is the largest electric utility company in Spain . The firm , a majority-owned subsidiary of the Italian utility company Enel , has 10 million customers in Spain , with domestic annual generation of over 97,600 GWh from nuclear , fossil-fueled , hydroelectric , and renewable resource power plants . Internationally , it serves another 10 million customers and provides over 80,100 GWh annually . Total customers numbered 22.2 million as of December 31 , 2004 . It also markets energy in Europe . The company has additional interests in Spanish natural gas and telecommunications companies .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Endesa_(Spain)", "rank": 18, "score": 109014 }, { "content": "Title: Illinois Clean Jobs Bill Content: The Illinois Clean Jobs Bill is a renewable-energy bill introduced in the Illinois House of Representatives ( H.B. 2607 ) and Illinois Senate ( S.B. 1485 ) . The bill was sponsored by Democratic state senator Don Harmon of Oak Park and Democratic state representative Elaine Nekritz of Northbrook . Proponents of the bill have nicknamed it the `` Clean Jobs Bill '' ; they promise to create tens of thousands of new jobs in Illinois if the bill is passed and signed into law . Some supporters claim that it would create 32,000 new jobs . Bill supporters claim that passage of the bill will cause energy demand to decrease by twenty percent by the year 2025 . Some proponents claim that the bill would `` enable solar and wind energy projects to flourish . '' However , under the state of Illinois ' current energy efficiency law , utility companies pass on new costs to customers . If the Illinois Clean Jobs Bill passed , households and businesses that use electricity would pay more money to subsidize the cost of wind turbines and other renewable energy sources . As of June 2015 , the bill is stalled in the legislature .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Illinois_Clean_Jobs_Bill", "rank": 19, "score": 108033 }, { "content": "Title: Gamesa Corporación Tecnológica Content: Siemens Gamesa Renewable Energy ( -LSB- ɡaˈmesa korpoɾaˈθjon teɣnoˈloxika -RSB- ) , formerly Grupo Auxiliar Metalúrgico , is a Spanish manufacturing company principally involved in the fabrication of wind turbines and the construction of wind farms . It was formerly headquartered in Vitoria-Gasteiz , Spain , but subsequently moved in 2010 to Zamudio , Biscay in northern Spain . Gamesa develops , manages and sells wind farms , for which it also supplies wind turbines . It is the market leader in Spain and the fourth largest wind turbine manufacturer in the world ( 2011 ) . The company has installed more than 10,000 MW of production in four continents , saving the equivalent of 51.9 millions of tons of carbon dioxide annually . It presently has over 20,000 MW of production in development in Europe , America and Asia and it is also involved in the construction and development of photovoltaic power stations . In 2016 Siemens Wind and Gamesa reached agreement on a 59:41 merger of their wind turbine businesses .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Gamesa_Corporación_Tecnológica", "rank": 20, "score": 106512 }, { "content": "Title: Regional Renewable Energy Procurement Project Content: The Regional Renewable Energy Procurement Project is an energy project in the San Francisco Bay Area , set to develop 186 sites that will generate a total of 31 megawatts , enough electricity for more than 6,000 residences . The project is expected to create more than 800 jobs . In May 2015 , Gina McCarthy , head of the federal Environmental Protection Agency , presided over a dedication ceremony at the first designated site for the project , at the location of Hayward 's former landfill , next to the Hayward Regional Shoreline .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Regional_Renewable_Energy_Procurement_Project", "rank": 21, "score": 106468 }, { "content": "Title: Vicente Lopez Ibor Mayor Content: Dr. Vicente Lopez-Ibor Mayor ( born 20 March 1959 ) is former Commissioner of the National Energy Commission and of the National Electric System Commission , of Spain , and a founding partner of Spanish energy law firm , Estudio Juridico Internacional Lopez-Ibor Mayor & Asociados ( EJI ) . He is chairman of Lightsource Renewable Energy Ltd , the UK 's largest solar energy generator , operating the largest portfolio of commercial scale solar photovoltaic ( PV ) assets on ground and roof in Britain . As an academic , he has written numerous scholarly papers about energy security , law , and policy . He used to be the General Manager of Institutional Relations for Spain 's major construction and Infrastructure firm , FCC Group.Mayor has a PhD in Law from Madrid University with the highest qualifications `` Cum Laude '' .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Vicente_Lopez_Ibor_Mayor", "rank": 22, "score": 105731 }, { "content": "Title: Iberdrola Renovables Content: Iberdrola Renovables was a subsidiary of Iberdrola , headquartered in Valencia , Spain , which included companies in the domains of renewable energy , particularly wind power . The firm was the world 's largest renewable energy firm : it was the world 's largest owner-operator of wind farms , but also operated in the solar , hydro , biomass and wave power industries .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Iberdrola_Renovables", "rank": 23, "score": 105649 }, { "content": "Title: Energy in the United States Content: The United States was the 2nd largest energy consumer in 2010 ( after China ) considering total use . The U.S. ranks seventh in energy consumption per-capita after Canada and a number of small nations . Not included is the significant amount of energy used overseas in the production of retail and industrial goods consumed in the U.S. The majority of this energy is derived from fossil fuels : in 2010 , data showed 25 % of the nation 's energy came from petroleum , 22 % from coal , and 22 % from natural gas . Nuclear power supplied 8.4 % and renewable energy supplied 8 % , which was mainly from hydroelectric dams and biomass but also included other renewable sources such as wind power , geothermal and solar energy . Energy consumption has increased at a faster rate than domestic energy production over the last fifty years in the U.S. ( when they were roughly equal ) . This difference is now largely met through imports . According to the Energy Information Administration 's statistics , the per-capita energy consumption in the US has been somewhat consistent from the 1970s to today . The average has been 334 million British thermal units ( BTUs ) per person from 1980 to 2010 . One explanation suggested for this is that the energy required to produce the increase in US consumption of manufactured equipment , cars , and other goods has been shifted to other countries producing and transporting those goods to the US with a corresponding shift of green house gases and pollution . In comparison , the world average has increased from 63.7 in 1980 to 75 million BTU 's per person in 2008 . On the other hand , US `` off-shoring '' of manufacturing is sometimes exaggerated : US domestic manufacturing has grown by 50 % since 1980 .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Energy_in_the_United_States", "rank": 24, "score": 103777 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy law in Pennsylvania Content: Pennsylvania approved a bill that establishes a $ 500 million fund to support renewable energy projects . Special Session House Bill 1 authorizes the Commonwealth Financing Authority to borrow $ 500 million , most of which will be split into six funding sources relating to energy efficiency and renewable energy : $ 80 million in grants and loans for solar energy projects ; $ 100 million in grants , loans , and rebates for up to 35 % of the cost of solar energy projects at residences and small businesses ; $ 165 million in grants and loans for alternative energy projects , excluding solar energy , at businesses and local government facilities ; $ 25 million for wind and geothermal energy projects ; $ 40 million to help start-up businesses involved in energy efficiency technologies ; and $ 25 million in grants and loans to improve the energy efficiency of new and existing homes and small business buildings . An additional $ 65 million will go toward pollution control technologies and to help low-income families pay their energy bills . In addition to the $ 500 million fund , the bill creates a Consumer Energy Program that is funded at $ 15 million for the next 3 fiscal years , then gradually decreases to $ 8 million by the 2015 -- 2016 fiscal year , for a total of $ 100 million . Of that , $ 92.5 million will support loans , grants , and rebates for up to 25 % of the cost of energy efficiency improvements to homes and small businesses , while $ 5 million will support low-interest loans for energy efficiency improvements to homes . An additional $ 50 million will be available over the next 8 years to support tax credits for 15 % of the cost of alternative energy projects , capped at $ 1 million per year for each project .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Renewable_energy_law_in_Pennsylvania", "rank": 25, "score": 103681 }, { "content": "Title: Iberdrola Content: Iberdrola ( -LSB- iβerˈðɾola -RSB- ) is a Spanish public multinational electric utility company based in Bilbao , Basque Country . Iberdrola has a workforce of around 31,330 employees in dozens of countries on four continents serving around 31.67 million customers . Subsidiaries include Scottish Power ( Scotland ) , Avangrid ( United States ) and Elektro ( Brazil ) , amongst others . The largest shareholder of the company was , in 2013 , Qatar Investment Holding ; other significant shareholders are ACS , Kutxabank and Bankia . Since embarking on its growth and international expansion plan in 2001 , Iberdrola has become Spain 's largest energy group by market capitalisation , the global leader in wind energy and one of the world 's largest utilities by market capitalisation . The company is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Iberdrola", "rank": 26, "score": 103639 }, { "content": "Title: Fersa Energias Renovables Content: Fersa Energias Renovables SA is a renewable energy company . It has its headquarters in Barcelona , Spain . The company is specialized to the development of wind farms . Through its subsidiaries it is also engaged in production of solar and biomass energy . Fersa has planned and developed wind farms is Spain , India , China , Panama , France , Italy , Montenegro , Hungary , Poland , Estonia and Russia . In India , the company owns the Gadaj wind farm and develops Hanumanhatti , Chaveneshwar , and Ramdurga wind farms . In Panama , the company develops Toabré and Antón ( Cocle ) wind farms .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Fersa_Energias_Renovables", "rank": 27, "score": 103348 }, { "content": "Title: Job losses caused by the Great Recession Content: Job losses caused by the Great Recession refers to jobs that have been lost worldwide within people since the start of the Great Recession . In the US , job losses have been going on since December 2007 , and it accelerated drastically starting in September 2008 following the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers . By February 2010 , the American economy was reported to be more shaky than the economy of Canada . Many service industries ( particularly in countries that either have the same unemployment rate as the United States or greater ) have reported dropping their prices in order to maximize profit margins ( looking to make use of any price elasticity of demand in their market segments ) . This is an era in which employment is becoming unstable , and in which being either underemployed or unemployed is a common part of life for many people .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Job_losses_caused_by_the_Great_Recession", "rank": 28, "score": 102907 }, { "content": "Title: Economy of Spain Content: Spain has the fourteenth-largest economy by nominal GDP in the world , and it is also among the largest in the world by purchasing power parity . The country is a member of the European Union , the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development , and the World Trade Organization . The Spanish economy is the fifth-largest in Europe behind Germany , United Kingdom , Italy and France ; and the fourth-largest in the Eurozone , based on nominal GDP statistics . In 2012 , Spain was the twelfth-largest exporter in the world and the sixteenth-largest importer . Spain is listed 23rd in UN Human Development Index and 30th in GDP ( PPP ) per capita by the World Bank , thus it is classified as a high income economy and among the countries of very high human development . According to The Economist , Spain has the world 's 10th highest quality of life . Spain has also the biggest life expectancy in Europe . Following the financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 , the Spanish economy 's plunged into recession , entering a cycle of negative macroeconomic performance . Compared to the EU 's and US . average , the Spanish economy entered recession later ( the economy was still growing by 2008 ) , but stayed there for longer . The economic boom of the 2000s was reversed , leaving over a quarter of Spain 's workforce unemployed by 2012 . In aggregated terms , the Spanish GDP contracted by almost 9 % during the 2009-2013 period . The economic situation started improving by 2013-2014 . The country managed to reverse the record trade deficit which had built up during the boom years attaining a trade surplus in 2013 after three decades of running a trade deficit . The surplus kept strengthening during 2014 and 2015 . In 2015 the Spanish GDP grew by 3.2 % , a rate not seen since 2007 , before the crisis struck ; such growth rate was the highest among larger EU economies that year . In just two years ( 2014-2015 ) the Spanish economy had recovered 85 % of the GDP lost during the 2009-2013 recession , which got some international analysts to refer to Spain 's current recovery as `` the showcase for structural reform efforts '' . Strong GDP growth was registered also in 2016 , with the country growing twice as fast as the eurozone average . According to the IMF forecast for 2017 , Spain will recover this year all the GDP growth lost during the economic crisis , exceeding for the first time in 2017 the output level that had been reached in 2008 .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Economy_of_Spain", "rank": 29, "score": 102827 }, { "content": "Title: Electricity sector in Denmark Content: The electricity sector in Denmark relies on fossil energy and renewable energy : wind power , biogas , biomass and waste . Danish average consumption of electricity per person was 0.8 GWh less than EU 15 average in 2008 . Denmark has average electricity costs ( including costs for cleaner energy ) in EU , but general taxes increase the price to the highest in Europe . In 2015 , supply security was over 99.99 % , among the highest in the world . Denmark invested in the wind power development in the 1970s and has had the highest wind share in the world ever since ; wind produced the equivalent of 42 % of Denmark 's total electricity consumption in 2015 . Danish consumption of wind turbine generated electricity is the highest in the world per person : 1,218 kWh in 2009 . Denmark produced more wind power per person in Denmark in 2009 than either Spain or the UK produced nuclear power per person in their respective countries . The Danish electricity market is a part of the Nord Pool Spot power exchange .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Electricity_sector_in_Denmark", "rank": 30, "score": 102388 }, { "content": "Title: New Energy for America Content: New Energy for America is a plan led by Barack Obama and Joe Biden to invest in renewable energy sources , reduce reliance on foreign oil , address global warming issues , and create jobs for Americans .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "New_Energy_for_America", "rank": 31, "score": 102161 }, { "content": "Title: State Energy Program (United States) Content: The United States Department of Energy 's State Energy Program ( SEP ) provides grants to states and directs funding to state energy offices from technology programs in Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy . States use grants to address their energy priorities and program funding to adopt emerging renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies . The State Energy Program $ 3 billion funding will be used to provide rebates to consumers for home energy audits or other energy-saving improvements ; to develop renewable energy ; to promote Energy Star products ; to upgrade the energy efficiency of state and local government buildings ; and other innovative state efforts to help families save money on their energy bills . The energy efficiency upgrades are to be available for families making up to 200 % of the federal poverty level .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "State_Energy_Program_(United_States)", "rank": 32, "score": 101287 }, { "content": "Title: Aalborg CSP Content: Aalborg CSP is a Danish renewable energy specialist mainly designing solutions based on the concentrated solar power ( CSP ) technology . The company 's main office is located in , Aalborg Denmark , and they have offices in Spain , United States , Kenya , Australia and Indonesia . Aalborg CSP has participated in projects mainly in Spain , but also in Turkey , Norway and Russia . The most current project as of 2015 is an integrated energy system located in Port Augusta , Australia . Aalborg CSP has partnered with Sundrop Farms to create a farm powered by the sun and saltwater . By using desalination , powered by the sun , it is possible to water the produce with desalinated seawater . Aalborg CSP was in 2010 given the gazelle award , where companies must have had a doubling of either revenue or profit in the last 4 years Aalborg CSP has 56 people employed", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Aalborg_CSP", "rank": 33, "score": 101161 }, { "content": "Title: EDP Renováveis Content: EDP Renováveis ( EDP Renewables , EDPR ) is a leading renewable energy company registered in Oviedo and headquartered in Madrid that designs , develops , manages and operates power plants that generate electricity using renewable energy sources . EDPR was established in 2007 to hold and operate the growing renewable energy assets of parent company Energias de Portugal ( EDP Group ) , Portugal ´ s largest utility company headquartered in Lisbon . EDP Renováveis is the third-largest generator of wind energy globally ( after Iberdrola Renovables and NextEra Energy Resources ) . EDPR ´ s business currently includes wind farms and , to a limited extent , mini-hydro energy activities . The company has also said it is actively exploring opportunities in other renewable energy technologies .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "EDP_Renováveis", "rank": 34, "score": 99873 }, { "content": "Title: Denise Holt Content: Dame Denise Mary Holt , DCMG ( née Mills ; born 1 October 1949 , Vienna , Austria ) was British Ambassador to Mexico ( 2002-05 ) and Spain and Andorra ( 2007 -- 09 ) . A Non-Executive Director of HSBC Bank plc ( 2011 - ) and Chairman of M&S Bank ( an HSBC subsidiary ) , Denise joined the Board of Nuffield Health in 2013 and in 2014 became a NED on the Board of Iberdrola SA , the Spanish energy company , having previously served on the Boards of Scottish Power Renewables and Scottish Power Energy Holdings ( both Iberdrola subsidiaries ) . She is a member of the Council of Bristol University ( 2014 - ) and Independent Chair of the nominations committee of the Alzheimer 's Society . Previous roles include Ofqual ( the examinations regulator in England ) from 2010-2013 and the NHS Pay Review Body 2010-2014 . She was Chair of Trustees of the Anglo-Spanish Society ( 2010-2013 ) , a member of the Management Council of the Canada Blanch Centre for Contemporary Spanish Studies at LSE , and Chair of the Institute of Latin American Studies at the University of London . On 20 June 2011 , Scottish Power Renewables announced in a press release that they had appointed Holt to their board as a non-executive director . Holt grew up in Russia , Japan , Lebanon , Netherlands , Iran and Bulgaria . She was educated at New Hall School , Chelmsford , and Bristol University where she studied Spanish , French and Politics . She joined the Foreign and Commonwealth Office in 1970 as Research Analyst for Spain and Portugal . Overseas postings included Ireland in 1984 where she was First Secretary of the British Embassy in Dublin , followed by a spell as Head of the Central American Section at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office ( 1988 -- 90 ) . She served as First Secretary of the British Embassy in Brazil ( 1991 -- 93 ) . She was Deputy Head of Eastern Department , responsible for relations with newly independent countries of Central Asia and the Trans Caucasus . In London in 1996 she was appointed as Deputy Director of Human Resources in the FCO ( 1999 -- 2001 ) and later Director . Later on in her career she also became Director for Migration and for the Overseas Territories ( 2005 -- 07 ) at the FCO .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Denise_Holt", "rank": 35, "score": 99678 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy credit Content: A Renewable energy credit ( REC ) is any tax credit offered by a local or federal taxation authority as an incentive for the installation and operation of renewable energy systems such as solar or wind power . In the United States , as part of the new economic stimulus package , new renewable Energy Rebate Programs are in place . Residential and commercial customers may receive a lump sum cash rebate or , for larger systems , a five-year payback program from their local utility company . In addition , there is new 30 % uncapped federal tax credit and state tax credits around 10 % . Renewable Energy Credit is one of two main outputs or benefits from generation of new power from renewable sources . Renewable power generation creates actual power in the form of electricity , and environmental benefits to society from `` green '' power production -- such as minimizing pollution and slowing the rate finite fuel resources are used . The actual power is sold into the local grid , and the societal benefits are sold in the form of Renewable Energy Credits or `` RECs '' , sold separately as a commodity into the marketplace . While RECs are not actually a measure of power , each REC represents one megawatt hour ( MWh ) of renewable-generated energy . For each REC purchased the customer is able to claim the equivalent MWh of energy reduction as on offset to their conventional energy use . Opponents declare that by using RECs a customer can claim energy `` reduction '' even if they do not actually reduce their end-use at all - or even increase it . Proponents counter that more REC purchases drive increased production of renewable power which can replace conventional production .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Renewable_energy_credit", "rank": 36, "score": 99513 }, { "content": "Title: Carlos St. James Content: Carlos St. James ( born Chicago , Illinois , US on June 21 , 1961 ) is considered one of the founders of the Latin American renewable energy industry . He founded Argentina 's renewable energy industry association ; founded another organization that creates a bridge for investment capital and technology transfer from the Gulf region into Latin America 's energy sector ; and was the first President of the Latin American & Caribbean Council on Renewable Energy ( `` LAC-CORE '' ) of Washington , DC , USA . He is active in the private sector as developer and investor , and as founder and publisher of a Spanish language magazine that communicates and educates the benefits of clean energy use across the continent . He has spoken at energy conferences in over three dozen countries across five continents to promote investment and visibility to the region , while working with governments to improve energy policies . His high school years took place in Buenos Aires , Argentina ( 1972 -- 1980 ) . He returned to the United States to study international economics at DePaul University , graduating with the class of 1985 , then working in international energy finance in the United States , Australia and Mexico , participating in the last nuclear energy construction boom of the U.S. in the 1980s . In 2004 he received a master 's degree in international relations from the Fletcher School at Tufts University and was elected class president . In 2006 he returned to Argentina , where he began his work developing the industry . He co-founded and became the first president of the Argentine Renewable Energies Chamber ( known by its Spanish initials as CADER ) , a non-profit industry trade association . With CADER 's support , Argentina began increasing in world biodiesel production rankings , peaking as second largest producer in 2011 ; the organization also worked alongside the federal government in structuring the only renewable energy tenders for electricity -- known as GENREN -- in 2009 . In 2011 he stepped down as president of CADER to become the first president of LAC-CORE where he was already a board member , ending his term in 2014 while remaining on the board . During this period investment in renewable energy across Latin America and the Caribbean has increased from $ 5 billion to almost $ 15 billion . His institutional roles -- all ad honorem -- also include a position as founding chairman of the Middle East-Americas Energy Council , a non-profit investment development organisation that helps attract investment and technology transfer in the energy sector between these regions ; board member the Global Renewable Fuels Alliance , a Toronto , Ontario , Canada-based non-profit organization that seeks to promote the development of biofuels internationally ; and member of the Latin American Advisory Group of the Fletcher School , which promotes the expansion of the graduate school 's reach in the region . He also founded and was the first president of the Fletcher Club of Buenos Aires , an alumni association . In the private sector he has developed , built and profitably sold off numerous solar , wind and even biofuels installations across the region . He co-founded and was publisher of Clean Energy magazine , a Spanish language publication that is distributed across the region which was successfully sold in 2011 ; founder of Santiago & Sinclair , LLC , an energy consultancy focused on emerging markets ; co-founder and board member of VOLA Investments Ltd. , a private investment firm based in London , UK , and founder and publisher of the Latin American Energy Review , an English language online periodical written by industry leaders for the marketplace . He is the author of more than two dozen published studies on the state of the renewable energy industry in Latin America , and his first Spanish language book , The State of Argentina 's Renewable Energy Industry , has been translated into English and German . He has been interviewed on television to discuss renewable energy topics in Latin America such as CNN , is a regular speaker at industry events , and is oft-quoted by the media , including a program on energy for the History Channel and the Wall Street Journal . In May 2009 he was the subject of a profile on Recharge News , a European industry publication. , as well as in Clean Energy magazine in 2011 . In 1989 he married Marian Lopez of Santa Barbara , California , with whom he has two sons .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Carlos_St._James", "rank": 37, "score": 99285 }, { "content": "Title: Hydroelectric power in the United States Content: Hydroelectric power stations in the United States are currently the largest renewable source of energy , but the second for capacity ( behind Wind power in the United States ) . Hydroelectric power produced 35 % of the total renewable electricity in the U.S. in 2015 , and 6.1 % of the total U.S. electricity . According to IEA the United States was the 4th largest producer of hydroelectric power in the world in 2008 after China , Canada and Brazil . Produced hydroelectricity was 282 TWh ( 2008 ) . It was 8.6 % of the world 's total hydropower . The installed capacity was 100 GW in 2007 . The amount of hydroelectric power generated is strongly affected by changes in precipitation and surface runoff . Hydroelectric stations exist in at least 34 US states . The largest concentration of hydroelectric generation in the US is in the Columbia River basin , which in 2012 was the source of 44 % of the nation 's hydroelectricity . Hydroelectricity projects such as Hoover Dam , Grand Coulee Dam , and the Tennessee Valley Authority have become iconic large construction projects . Of note , however , is that California does not consider power generated from large hydroelectric facilities ( facilities greater than 30 megawatts ) to meet its strictest definition of `` renewable '' , due to concerns over the environmental impact of large hydroelectric projects . As such , electricity generated from large hydroelectric facilities does not count toward California 's strict Renewable Portfolio Standards . Roughly about 10 to 15 percent of California 's energy generation is from large hydroelectric generation that is not RPS-eligible .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Hydroelectric_power_in_the_United_States", "rank": 38, "score": 98928 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable Energy Payments Content: Renewable Energy Payments are a competitive alternative to Renewable Energy Credits ( REC 's ) . Although the intent with both methods is the same , to stimulate growth in the alternative and renewable energy space , REP 's have proven to offer benefits to local jobs , businesses and economies while making the growth fundable and lendable by financial institutions . Renewable Energy Payments are the mechanisms or instruments at the heart of specific state , provincial or national renewable energy policies . REPs are incentives for homeowners , farmers , businesses , etc. , to become producers of renewable energy , or to increase their production of renewable energy . As such , they increase our overall production and use of renewable energy , and decrease our consumption and burning of fossil fuels . In a broad stroke , Renewable Energy Payments , sometimes known as a Feed-in Tariff place obligations on utility companies to buy electricity from renewable energy sources , often small , local companies , for a fixed period of time . The underlying premise being that with fixed payments the once volatile renewable energy projects now become lendable and attractive for financing , thus stimulating growth and innovation . Proponents of Renewable Energy Payments argue that this policy has proven to stimulate local economies , innovation and small business growth because in its truest form REP 's put everyone , whether small business , individual , or farmers on an equal footing with large commercial titans of industry . Representative Jay Inslee of Washington says `` We can give homeowners , farmers and communities across America investment security that they can take to the bank . We know from experience in Germany , Spain and dozens of other countries around the world that this policy approach spurs unparalleled and affordable renewable-energy development . '' The alternative to Renewable Energy Payments are what are called Renewable Energy Credits , which have been likened to the Alaskan Bridge to nowhere in a recent filing by the Florida Alliance for Renewable Energy . ( FARE )", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Renewable_Energy_Payments", "rank": 39, "score": 98273 }, { "content": "Title: List of Spanish Autonomous Communities by Unemployment Rate Content: The Unemployment Rate in Spain , Since the great recession of 2008 , the unemployment rate in Spain skyrocketed to a high of 27 % in 2013 , but as of 2016 , the unemployment rate for Spain is currently 21 % . It is estimated that it will take until 2020 to return to the pre-recession unemployment rate . The largest community , Andalusia , has the highest unemployment rate of any community at 31 % .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "List_of_Spanish_Autonomous_Communities_by_Unemployment_Rate", "rank": 40, "score": 98223 }, { "content": "Title: List of renewable energy topics by country Content: This is a list of renewable energy topics by country . These links can be used to compare developments in renewable energy in different countries and to help and encourage new writers to participate in writing about developments in their own countries or countries of interest . The list refers to renewable energy in general , as well as solar power , wind power , geothermal energy , biofuel , and hydro-electricity . As of 2013 , China , Germany , and Japan , three of the world 's four largest economies , as well as India , generate more electricity from renewables than from nuclear power . Based on REN21 's 2014 report , renewables contributed 19 percent to humans ' global energy consumption . This energy consumption is divided as 9 % coming from traditional biomass , 4.2 % as heat energy ( non-biomass ) , 3.8 % hydro electricity and 2 % is electricity from wind , solar , geothermal , and biomass . China is the world 's largest producer of hydroelectricity , followed by Canada . Wind power capacity is growing at the rate of 26 % annually , and is widely used in Europe , Asia , and the United States . Wind power accounts for approximately 30 % of electricity use in Denmark , 20 % in Portugal , and 18 % in Spain . PV power stations are popular in Japan , China and the United States . The world 's largest geothermal power installation is The Geysers in California , with a rated capacity of 750 MW . Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world , involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane , and ethanol now provides 18 percent of the country 's automotive fuel . Ethanol fuel is also widely available in the USA . Plug-in electric vehicles in Norway reached a market share of 22.4 % in 2015 . the highest in the world . While many renewable energy projects are large-scale , renewable technologies are also suited to developing countries , where energy is often crucial in human development . Small solar PV systems provide electricity to a few million households , and micro-hydro configured into mini-grids serves many more .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "List_of_renewable_energy_topics_by_country", "rank": 41, "score": 98137 }, { "content": "Title: Som Energia Content: Som Energia is a renewable energies cooperative that was officially founded in December 2010 , making it the first of its kind in Catalonia . The project to create the cooperative was begun in November 2009 by a group of former students and lecturers at University of Girona and other contributors , with the objective of setting up something similar to initiatives such as Ecopower ( Flanders ) or Enercoop ( France ) . Som Energia intends to offer its members the possibility of consuming energy from sources that are 100 % renewable at a price similar to conventional energy , as well as developing its own renewable energy projects . On June 2013 , the cooperative had over 8000 members , had invested over 3 million euro in renewable energy production projects , had produced over 350.000 kWh and employed 7 people .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Som_Energia", "rank": 42, "score": 96831 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Germany Content: Germany 's renewable energy sector is among the most innovative and successful worldwide . Net-generation from renewable energy sources in the German electricity sector has increased from 6.3 % in 2000 to about 34 % in 2016 . On Sunday 15 May 2016 at 14:00 hours , renewables supplied nearly all of domestic electricity demand . While peak-generation from combined wind and solar reached a previous all-time high of 74 % in April 2014 , wind power saw its best day ever on December 12 , 2014 , generating 562 GWh . Germany has been called `` the world 's first major renewable energy economy '' . More than 23,000 wind turbines and 1.4 million solar PV systems are distributed all over the country 's area of 357,000 square kilometers . As of 2011 , Germany 's federal government is working on a new plan for increasing renewable energy commercialization , with a particular focus on offshore wind farms . A major challenge is the development of sufficient network capacities for transmitting the power generated in the North Sea to the large industrial consumers in southern parts of the country . According to official figures , some 370,000 people were employed in the renewable energy sector in 2010 , especially in small and medium-sized companies . This is an increase of around 8 % compared to 2009 ( around 339,500 jobs ) , and well over twice the number of jobs in 2004 ( 160,500 ) . About two-thirds of these jobs are attributed to the Renewable Energy Sources Act . Germany 's energy transition , the Energiewende , designates a significant change in energy policy from 2011 . The term encompasses a reorientation of policy from demand to supply and a shift from centralized to distributed generation ( for example , producing heat and power in very small cogeneration units ) , which should replace overproduction and avoidable energy consumption with energy-saving measures and increased efficiency .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Germany", "rank": 43, "score": 95962 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in developing countries Content: Renewable energy technology has sometimes been seen as a costly luxury item by critics , and affordable only in the affluent developed world . This erroneous view has persisted for many years , but 2015 was the first year when investment in non-hydro renewables , was higher in developing countries , with $ 156 billion invested , mainly in China , India , and Brazil . Most developing countries have abundant renewable energy resources , including solar energy , wind power , geothermal energy , and biomass , as well as the ability to manufacture the relatively labor-intensive systems that harness these . By developing such energy sources developing countries can reduce their dependence on oil and natural gas , creating energy portfolios that are less vulnerable to price rises . In many circumstances , these investments can be less expensive than fossil fuel energy systems . In isolated rural areas , electricity grid extensions are often not economical . Off‐grid renewable technologies provide a sustainable and cost‐effective alternative to the diesel generators that would be otherwise be deployed in such areas . Renewable technologies can also help to displace other unsustainable energy sources such as kerosene lamps and traditional biomass . Kenya is the world leader in the number of solar power systems installed per capita ( but not the number of watts added ) . More than 30,000 small solar panels , each producing 12 to 30 watts , are sold in Kenya annually . Kenya was the first African country to use geothermal power , and still has the largest installed capacity of geothermal power in Africa at 200 MW , with a potential of up to 10 GW .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_developing_countries", "rank": 44, "score": 95558 }, { "content": "Title: Termosolar Borges Content: Termosolar Borges ( also known as Borges Termosolar ) is a hybrid biomass-parabolic trough solar thermal power plant which provides electricity to Spain 's transmission system . It is located about 100 km west of Barcellona , about 10 km south-east of Lleida , near Les Borges Blanques , Catalonia , Spain . The plant is the northernmost concentrated solar plant built in Spain . Construction has started February 2011 and the power plant was brought into operation in December 2012 . and required between 150 and 450 people depending on the phase of creation . On a commercial scale , the plant is the first of its type : a solar parabolic trough plant with two biomass burners that integrate the solar production . The facility was developed by Abantia Group and COMSA EMTE . Owner is Borges Blanques , an Abantia Group ( 47.5 % ) , Comsa Emte ( 47.5 % ) and Institut Català d'Energia ( 5 % ) joint venture . The facility is a $ 153 million investment . The plant employs 40 people in the operations and about 50 indirect jobs are engaged in the extraction and transport of biomass , over its 25-year lifetime . The plant net power output is 22.5 megawatts ( MW ) . The facility combines solar power generation with biomass-fired power generation in a system that allows for continuous electrical production of renewable energy 24/7 , even when the sun is n't shining . The plant peak capacity of 22.5 MWe is obtained when there is sufficient solar power . At night , when only the biomass power is available , the plant power capacity is 12 MWe . The facility is located on a 70 ha site .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Termosolar_Borges", "rank": 45, "score": 95501 }, { "content": "Title: Marguerite Fund Content: The 2020 European Fund for Energy , Climate Change and Infrastructure , known as the Marguerite Fund , is a pan-European equity fund that invests in renewables , energy and transport . It is based in Luxembourg . The Marguerite Fund was established in 2010 by the European Investment Bank , Caisse des dépôts et consignations , Cassa Depositi e Prestiti , Instituto de Crédito Oficial , Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau and Powszechna Kasa Oszczędności Bank Polski as part of the European Economic Recovery Plan . The Marguerite Fund has invested in the Butendiek Wind Farm off Germany , the Tychovo and the Kukinia wind farms in Poland , -RSB- -RSB- . the Thorntonbank Wind Farm off Belgium , Chirnogeni Wind Farm in Romania , Massangis 1 and Toul-Rosières 2 photovoltaic plants in France , the Poznań incineration plant in Poland , the Zagreb International Airport in Croatia , the N17/N18 Motorway project in Ireland , and the Autovía de Arlanzon Motorway in Spain . In January 2016 , the Marguerite Fund became the second largest investor in the Latvian gas company Latvijas Gāze .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Marguerite_Fund", "rank": 46, "score": 95281 }, { "content": "Title: Monte Alto photovoltaic power plant Content: The Monte Alto photovoltaic power plant in Spain has a generating capacity of 9.55 megawatts peak ( MWp ) and will generate 14 million kilowatt-hours of electricity per annum . It cost 65 million euros -LSB- US$ 87 million -RSB- . The installation covers an area of 51 hectares on agricultural land near the locality of Milagro ( Navarre ) and contains 889 solar structures , of which 864 are equipped with automated solar tracking . The rest are fixed structures adapted to the relief of the terrain . In five years Acciona Energy has developed seven `` solar gardens '' in Navarre with a total capacity of 20 MWp , and another two are under construction in Castilla-La Mancha . Overall , the company 's installed capacity is 23 megawatts ( MW ) , through the approximately 3,000 automated solar monitoring structures , and represents a total investment of 177 million euros -LSB- US$ 236 million -RSB- shared among more than 2,000 owners . The yield from these investments is somewhere between 8 and 10 % and the payback of the investment is estimated at around 10 years .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Monte_Alto_photovoltaic_power_plant", "rank": 47, "score": 95004 }, { "content": "Title: Building Energy Content: Building Energy S.p.A. is a vertical integrated renewable energy company that develops , engineers , constructs , and operates projects across the world . The company employ approximately 130 full-time professionals working throughout 4 continents ( Europe , Africa , Asia and the Americas ) andown a diversified portfolio of renewable assets within solar energy , energy storage , wind energy , biomass and hydropower .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Building_Energy", "rank": 48, "score": 94578 }, { "content": "Title: Solar energy in the European Union Content: Solar energy in the European Union consists of photovoltaics ( PV ) and solar thermal energy . In 2010 , the $ 2.6 billion European solar heating sector consisted of small and medium-sized businesses , generated 17.3 terawatt-hours ( TWh ) of energy , employed 33,500 workers , and created one new job for every 80 kW of added capacity . During 2011 , an additional 21.9 gigawatts ( GW ) of photovoltaics systems were connected to the grid in the European Union , a steep increase from 13.4 GW in 2010 . Turnover of the European PV market amounted to approximately $ 36 billion for this period .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Solar_energy_in_the_European_Union", "rank": 49, "score": 93810 }, { "content": "Title: Repsol Content: Repsol S.A.Originally an initialism for Refinería de Petróleos de Escombreras adding the word Sol ( Sun ) ( -LSB- repˈsol -RSB- ) is an integrated global energy company based in Madrid , Spain . It carries out upstream and downstream activities throughout the entire world . It has more than 24,000 employees worldwide . It is vertically integrated and operates in all areas of the oil and gas industry , including exploration and production , refining , distribution and marketing , petrochemicals , power generation and trading . Repsol also partners with Honda Racing Corporation to compete in MotoGP under Repsol Honda Team .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Repsol", "rank": 50, "score": 93430 }, { "content": "Title: Wind power in the United Kingdom Content: The United Kingdom is one of the best locations for wind power in the world , and is considered to be the best in Europe . Wind power contributed 11 % of UK electricity generation in 2015 , and 17 % in December 2015 . Allowing for the costs of pollution , particularly the carbon emissions of other forms of production , onshore wind power is the cheapest form of energy in the United Kingdom . In 2016 , the UK generated more electricity from wind power than from coal . Wind power delivers a growing percentage of the energy of the United Kingdom and at the end of May 2017 , it consisted of 7,520 wind turbines with a total installed capacity of almost 15.5 gigawatts : 10,128 megawatts of onshore capacity and 5,356 megawatts of offshore capacity . This placed the United Kingdom at this time as the world 's sixth largest producer of wind power ( behind 1 . China , 2 . USA , 3 . Germany , 4 . India and 5 . Spain ) , having overtaken France and Italy in 2012 . Polling of public opinion consistently shows strong support for wind power in the UK , with nearly three quarters of the population agreeing with its use , even for people living near onshore wind turbines . In 2015 , 40.4 TW · h of energy was generated by wind power , and the quarterly generation record was set in the three-month period from October to December 2015 , with 13 % of the nation 's electricity demand met by wind . 2015 saw 1.2 GW of new wind power capacity brought online , a 9.6 % increase of the total UK installed capacity . Three large offshore wind farms came on stream in 2015 , Gwynt y Môr ( 576 MW max . capacity ) , Humber Gateway ( 219 MW ) and Westermost Rough ( 210 MW ) . Through the Renewables Obligation , British electricity suppliers are now required by law to provide a proportion of their sales from renewable sources such as wind power or pay a penalty fee . The supplier then receives a Renewables Obligation Certificate ( ROC ) for each MW · h of electricity they have purchased . Within the United Kingdom , wind power is the largest source of renewable electricity , and the second largest source of renewable energy after biomass . However , the UK 's Conservative government is opposed to onshore wind power and has attempted to cancel existing subsidies for onshore wind turbines a year early from April 2016 , although the House of Lords have struck these changes down . Overall , wind power raises costs of electricity slightly . In 2015 , it was estimated that the use of wind power in the UK had added # 18 to the average yearly electricity bill . This was the additional cost to consumers of using wind to generate about 9.3 % of the annual total ( see table below ) -- about # 2 for each 1 % . Nevertheless , offshore wind power is significantly more expensive than onshore , which raises costs . Offshore wind projects completed in 2012 -- 14 had a levelised cost of electricity of # 131/MW · h compared to a wholesale price of # 40 -- 50/MW · h ; the industry hopes to get the cost down to # 100/MW · h for projects approved in 2020 .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Wind_power_in_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 51, "score": 93097 }, { "content": "Title: Federal Lands Jobs and Energy Security Act Content: The Federal Lands Jobs and Energy Security Act is a bill that would require the Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) to establish certain fees for activities related to the development of oil and gas on federal lands . A portion of those amounts along with a portion of fees from renewable energy projects on federal lands would be available to the agency , subject to appropriation , to cover the costs of activities aimed at increasing energy development on federal lands . The bill also would exempt lawsuits related to energy production on federal lands from the Equal Access to Justice Act ( EAJA ) . In addition , the legislation would require the BLM to offer for sale at least 25 percent of onshore federal lands nominated by firms for oil and gas leasing . It was introduced in the United States House of Representatives during the 113th United States Congress . President Barack Obama threatened to veto the bill on November 19 , 2013 .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Federal_Lands_Jobs_and_Energy_Security_Act", "rank": 52, "score": 93049 }, { "content": "Title: Securing America's Energy Independence Act of 2007 Content: On January 18 , 2007 , Congressmen Michael McNulty ( D-NY ) and Dave Camp ( R-MI ) introduced legislation to reinvest funds in America 's most abundant renewable resource -- solar power . Title : `` Securing America 's Energy Independence Act of 2007 . '' , H.R. 550 January 18 , 2007 : Referred to the House Committee on Ways and Means . February 14 , 2007 -- Senators Gordon H. Smith ( R-OR ) and Ken Salazar ( D-CO ) introduced legislation to stimulate investment in America 's most abundant renewable resource -- solar power . Title : `` Securing America 's Energy Independence Act of 2007 . '' , S. 590 February 14 , 2007 Referred to Senate committee . Status : Read twice and referred to the Committee on Finance .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Securing_America's_Energy_Independence_Act_of_2007", "rank": 53, "score": 92881 }, { "content": "Title: Eurosolar Content: Eurosolar is the non-profit European Association for Renewable Energy ( Europäische Vereinigung für Erneuerbare Energien ) that conducts its work independently of political parties , institutions , commercial enterprises , and interest groups . Eurosolar develops and encourages political and economic action plans and concepts for the introduction of renewable energy . The association has offices in 14 countries that include Austria , Italy , Turkey , and Ukraine . Eurosolar has approximately 2,500 members , close to 400 legal groups , and owns the Solar Age magazine , released four times a year . A history of the association is available . Formed on 2 August 1988 in Bonn , West Germany , Eurosolar runs an annual event called the Solar Prize awards , rewarding progress in renewable energy .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Eurosolar", "rank": 54, "score": 92848 }, { "content": "Title: Outlook On Renewable Energy In America Content: Outlook On Renewable Energy In America is a comprehensive two volume report , published in 2007 by The American Council on Renewable Energy ( ACORE ) , about the future of renewable energy in the United States . It has been said that this report exposes a `` new reality for renewable energy in America '' . Volume One of the report presents background information on government research conducted by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory , Energy Information Administration , Electric Power Research Institute and other institutions . It also collates information from industry associations such as the American Wind Energy Association , Solar Energy Industries Association , National Hydropower Association , as well as some non-profit organizations . Joint Outlook on Renewable Energy in America is the second volume of the report which presents a scenario compiled by the American renewable energy community . ACORE makes it clear that this report is not a forecast -- it is a scenario of what is achievable if the country wants renewables to reach their full potential , and is willing to embrace the public policies to make that happen . ACORE released an update of the report in March 2014 , which assesses the marketplace and forecasts the future of each renewable energy technology sector from the perspectives of U.S. renewable energy trade associations . Each sector forecast is accompanied by a list of the trade association 's specific policy recommendations that they believe might encourage continued industry growth .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Outlook_On_Renewable_Energy_In_America", "rank": 55, "score": 92733 }, { "content": "Title: Falck Renewables Content: Falck Renewables , a limited company , is an Italian renewable energy project developer with a UK-based subsidiary under the same name . Its core business is to construct and operate wind farms primarily in Italy , the UK , Spain and France . Falck Renewables is a subsidiary of the Falck Group , an Italian company based in Milan . Founded in 2002 it has become a major player in supplying energy from renewables sources in Europe . It currently has over 400 MW of wind generation in operation .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Falck_Renewables", "rank": 56, "score": 92522 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable portfolio standard (United States) Content: A Renewable Portfolio Standard ( RPS ) is a regulation that requires the increased production of energy from renewable energy sources , such as wind , solar , biomass , and geothermal . The federal RPS is called the Renewable Electricity Standard ( RES ) . The RPS mechanism generally places an obligation on electricity supply companies to produce a specified fraction of their electricity from renewable energy sources . Certified renewable energy generators earn certificates for every unit of electricity they produce and can sell these along with their electricity to supply companies . Supply companies then pass the certificates to some form of regulatory body to demonstrate their compliance with their regulatory obligations . Because it is a market mandate , the RPS relies almost entirely on the private market for its implementation . Unlike feed-in tariffs which guarantee purchase of all renewable energy regardless of cost , RPS programs tend to allow more price competition between different types of renewable energy , but can be limited in competition through eligibility and multipliers for RPS programs . Those supporting the adoption of RPS mechanisms claim that market implementation will result in competition , efficiency , and innovation that will deliver renewable energy at the lowest possible cost , allowing renewable energy to compete with cheaper fossil fuel energy sources . RPS programs have been adopted in 29 of 50 U.S. states , and the District of Columbia .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Renewable_portfolio_standard_(United_States)", "rank": 57, "score": 92469 }, { "content": "Title: Abantia Content: ABANTIA is a Spanish group specialising in the engineering , planning , development and the execution of complex systems . The group 's nine subsidiaries cover the following sectors : Electricity and security Systems and telecommunications Air conditioning Maintenance and facility Management Industrial assembly Global EPC ( Engineering , Procurement and Construction ) projects Energy and the environment Energy Efficiency Retail Intelligence The group was formed in July 2006 by renaming AGE ( Applicaciones Generales Eléctricas ) , a company formed in 1944 as specialising in electrical and refrigeration installations , and all the subsidiaries companies created as AGE expanded in new activities . In 2009 Abantia has started activities in Italy , Poland , Guatemala , France and Abu Dhabi , and in 2011 in Mexico and Guatemala , El Salvador , Peru , Chile , Qatar . In 2013 Abantia made a bid for phase one of Kuwait 's Shagaya Multi-Technology Renewable Energy Park .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Abantia", "rank": 58, "score": 92444 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Kazakhstan Content: The Republic of Kazakhstan has enormous renewable energy potential , particularly from wind and small hydropower plants . The country has the potential to generate 10 times as much power as it currently needsfrom wind energy alone . But renewable energy accounts for just 0.6 percent of all power installations . Of that , 95 percent comes from small hydropower projects . The main barriers to investment in renewable energy are relatively high financing costs and an absence of uniform feed-in tariffs for electricity from renewable sources . The amount and duration of renewable energy feed-in tariffs are separately evaluated for each project , based on feasibility studies and project-specific generation costs . Power from wind , solar , biomass and water up to 35 MW , plus geothermal sources , are eligible for the tariff and transmission companies are required to purchase the energy of renewable energy producers . An amendmentthat introduces and clarifies technology-specific tariffs is now being prepared . It is expected to be adoptedby Parliament by the end of 2014 . In addition , the World Bank 's Ease of Doing Business indicator shows the country to be relatively investor-friendly , ranking it in 10th position for investor protection . Kazakhstan is a party to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change ( 1995 ) and ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2009 . Kazakhstan has committed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . Having more renewable energy in the energy balance of Kazakhstan is one of the most effective mechanisms to reduce harmful effects of the energy sector and to diversify the national power generation capacity . To help Kazakhstan meet its goals for renewable energy generation , the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development ( EBRD ) is launching the Kazakhstan Renewable Energy Financing Facility ( KazREFF ) . The KazREFF aims to provide development support and debt finance to renewable energy projects which meet required commercial , technical and environmental criteria . Renewable energy technologies supported will include solar , wind , small hydropower , geothermal , biomass , and biogas . The Facility comprises an amount of up to $ 50 million for financing projects together with up to $ 20 million of concessional finance from Clean Technology Fund ( CTF ) , and the technical assistance funded by the Japanese government through the Japan-EBRD Cooperation Fund ( JECF ) .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Kazakhstan", "rank": 59, "score": 92226 }, { "content": "Title: Fusion for Energy Content: Fusion for Energy ( F4E ) is the European Union ( EU ) organisation responsible for Europe 's contribution to ITER , the world 's largest scientific partnership aiming to demonstrate fusion as a viable and sustainable source of energy . The organisation -- formally known as the European Joint Undertaking for ITER and the Development of Fusion Energy -- was created under article 45 of the Euratom Treaty by the decision of the Council of the European Union on 27 March 2007 for a period of 35 years . F4E counts 400 members of staff and its offices are located in Barcelona , in Spain . One of its main tasks is to work together with European industry and research organisations to develop and provide a wide range of high technology components for the ITER project . The European Union is the host party for the ITER project . Its contribution amounts to 45 % , while the other six parties have an in-kind contribution of approximately 9 % each . Since 2008 , F4E has been collaborating with at least 250 companies and more than 50 R&D organisations .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Fusion_for_Energy", "rank": 60, "score": 92198 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Hungary Content: Hungary is a member of the European Union and thus takes part in the EU strategy to increase its share of renewable energy . The EU has adopted the 2009 Renewable Energy Directive , which included a 20 % renewable energy target by 2020 for the EU . By 2030 wind should produce in average 26-35 % of the EU 's electricity and save Europe $ 56 billion a year in avoided fuel costs . The national authors of Hungary forecast is 14.7 % renewables in gross energy consumption by 2020 , exceeding their 13 % binding target by 1.7 percentage points . Hungary is the EU country with the smallest forecast penetration of renewables of the electricity demand in 2020 , namely only 11 % ( including biomass 6 % and wind power 3 % ) . In 2015 , 10,5 % of the gross Hungarian electricity production came from renewables , 52 % of that amount was from biomass , 22 % was from wind , 7 % was from hydroenergy and 3 % was from solar .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Hungary", "rank": 61, "score": 91689 }, { "content": "Title: Narec Content: Narec , since 2014 known as the National Renewable Energy Centre , is a part of the Offshore Renewable Energy ( ORE ) Catapult , an English technology innovation and research centre for offshore wind power , wave energy , tidal energy and low carbon technologies . The centre operates multi-purpose offshore renewable energy test and demonstration facilities . It is very similar to other centres , such as NREL in the US and National Centre for Renewable Energies ( CENER ) in Spain . The National Renewable Energy Centre is based in Blyth , Northumberland .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Narec", "rank": 62, "score": 91575 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Renewable Energy Certificate Content: Solar Renewable Energy Certificates ( SRECs ) or Solar Renewable Energy Credits are a form of Renewable Energy Certificate or `` Green tag '' existing in the United States of America . SRECs exist in states that have Renewable Portfolio Standard ( RPS ) legislation with specific requirements for solar energy , usually referred to as a `` solar carve-out '' . The additional income received from selling SRECs increases the economic value of a solar investment and assists with the financing of solar technology . In conjunction with state and federal incentives , solar system owners can recover their investment in solar by selling their SRECs through spot market sales or long-term sales , both described below .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Solar_Renewable_Energy_Certificate", "rank": 63, "score": 91448 }, { "content": "Title: Energy in Common Content: Energy in Common ( EIC ) was a not-for-profit organization issuing microloans specifically and only for renewable energy technologies . EIC was founded by Hugh Whalan and Scott Tudman in 2009 ( website launch 2010 ) . It has the very ambitious goal of delivering renewable energy to 15 million people in the next five years , while fighting poverty by empowering developing world entrepreneurs through microloans . EIC represents one of the most promising contenders in the growing green microfinance sector . As of 2012 , it has ceased operations due to a lack of funds after their overseas partners defaulted on their loan obligations . EIC operates very similarly to Kiva . In the case of Kiva , lenders provide funds with zero return expected to developing world entrepreneurs to invest in their businesses ( typical loans are for things like seeds for farming ) . EIC does this as well , but specifically focuses on purchasing renewable energy systems like solar photovoltaic panels . What makes EIC particularly unique in the microfinance non-profit sector is that they have created a model to measure the greenhouse gas emission reductions that are created by their loans . The EIC model helps provide funding to developing world entrepreneurs for energy solutions and also helps to channel additional funding into mitigating climate change .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Energy_in_Common", "rank": 64, "score": 91365 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in Seychelles Content: Renewable energy in Seychelles is a recent development in providing power to the country . Electricity for the island nation of Seychelles is primarily produced by diesel generators which must import their fuel ( 69 MW on Mahe and 12 MW on Praslin ) . Energy policy calls for 15 % renewables by 2030 . In June 2013 , the first wind farm in Seychelles was officially inaugurated . This 6 MW power plant can produce up to 2 % of the Seychelles ' power and is located on Mahé Island . It is expected that the wind farm will replace 1.6 million litres of diesel fuel . The wind farm is expected to generate 7GHw of electricity and the islands consume 350GHw of electricity per year . The project was developed by Masdar of Abu Dhabi . Unison of S. Korea manufactured and installed the wind farm , with a 2-year maintenance contract upon commissioning . Electricity production is expected to be highly seasonal with the majority of energy produced in the months of June to September when wind strength and wind probability are highest on the island of Mahe . Project Development The wind farm project was fully funded by the Abu Dhabi government through a $ 28Million grant to the Seychelles . The Abu Dhabi government appointed Masdar as project manager . The wind farm was originally envisaged to be commissioned by November 2012 however this suffered several delays . The commissioning date was moved to February 2013 but just three of the eight turbines were commissioned by this date . The farm was finally fully commissioned 8 months later than first planned in June 2013 . The wind farm operator , the state owned Public Utilities Corporation ( PUC ) , confirmed on 25 July 2013 that one of the turbines was out of operation due to an overheating transformer . This followed weeks of speculation on local social media networks that one of the turbines was not in operation . The PUC also confirmed that the farm had produced 2.4 GHw of electricity during 2013 up to 25 July 2013 , approximately halfway through the windy season . Energy production from the wind farm is therefore expected to be below expectations in 2013 .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_Seychelles", "rank": 65, "score": 91311 }, { "content": "Title: The Solutions Project Content: The Solutions Project is an organization first conceived in 2011 by prominent figures in science , business and the entertainment media with the goal of utilizing the combined efforts of individuals in the fields of science , business and culture to accelerate the transition to 100 % renewable energy use in the United States . Based on the results of academic research , the organization maintains that America is capable of meeting its entire energy needs through renewable energy sources , and that this goal can be achieved by the year 2050 . ( The organization defines renewable energy as solar power , wind power , hydroelectric power , geothermal energy and wave/tidal power . ) Furthermore , the organization claims that the solutions that will be needed to achieve this goal are primarily social and political , not technical , in nature , as most of the technology necessary to bring about the transition already exists . The organization has proposed what it calls the `` 50 States 50 Plans '' initiative . These are plans developed for each of the 50 United States specifying the precise mix of renewable energy types that , given factors such as geography and climate , would allow that particular state to receive all of its energy from renewable sources by 2050 . The organization claims that , beyond the issue of environmental sustainability , a number of significant benefits to society would come about if the initiative were adopted , including consumer energy cost savings , health cost savings and millions of long-term ( 40 years or more ) jobs . Founders of The Solutions Project include Stanford University professor Mark Z. Jacobson , renewable energy executive Marco Krapels , documentary filmmaker and activist Josh Fox and Hollywood actor and activist Mark Ruffalo .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "The_Solutions_Project", "rank": 66, "score": 91283 }, { "content": "Title: Green job Content: Green jobs or green-collared jobs are , according to the United Nations Environment Program , `` work in agricultural , manufacturing , research and development ( R&D ) , administrative , and service activities that contribute ( s ) substantially to preserving or restoring environmental quality . Specifically , but not exclusively , this includes jobs that help to protect ecosystems and biodiversity ; reduce energy , materials , and water consumption through high efficiency strategies ; de-carbonize the economy ; and minimize or altogether avoid generation of all forms of waste and pollution . '' The environmental sector has the dual benefit of mitigating environmental challenges as well as helping economic growth . Green jobs , according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics , are classified as , `` jobs in business that produce goods or services that benefit the environment or conserve natural resources '' or `` jobs in which workers ' duties involve making their establishment 's production processes more environmentally friendly or use fewer natural resources '' . The Bureau of Labor Statistics categorizes Green Jobs into the following : Water conservation , Sustainable forestry , Biofuels , Geothermal energy , Environmental Remediation , Sustainability , Energy auditors , Recycling , Electric Vehicles , Solar power , and Wind energy . These definitions include jobs which seek to use or develop renewable forms of energy ( i.e. wind , hydropower , geothermal , wind , landfill gas and municipal solid waste ) as well as increase their efficiency . Under the green jobs domain education , training , and public awareness are also included . These jobs seek to enforce regulations , support education , and increase public influence for the benefit of the environment .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Green_job", "rank": 67, "score": 91265 }, { "content": "Title: Gas Natural Content: Gas Natural SDG , S.A. , trading as Gas Natural Fenosa ( -LSB- ˈɡaz natuˈɾal feˈnosa -RSB- ) , is a Spanish natural gas utilities company which operates primarily in Spain but also in such countries as Italy , France , Germany , The Netherlands , Belgium , Mexico , Colombia , Argentina , Puerto Rico , Moldova and Morocco . Its main interests are the distribution of natural gas in Spain , Italy and Latin America , the generation and commercialisation of electricity in the recently liberalised Spanish market as well as in Puerto Rico , and the management of gas infrastructure . Gas Natural has approximately 10,000,000 clients and 6,700 employees , of which around 50 % work in Spain . The firm is headquartered in Barcelona . The group 's largest shareholders include the Spanish bank La Caixa and oil major Repsol . Gas Natural acquired utility company Unión Fenosa for around $ 16.8 billion in 2009 .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Gas_Natural", "rank": 68, "score": 91036 }, { "content": "Title: Geothermal power Content: Geothermal power is power generated by geothermal energy . Technologies in use include dry steam power stations , flash steam power stations and binary cycle power stations . Geothermal electricity generation is currently used in 24 countries , while geothermal heating is in use in 70 countries . As of 2015 , worldwide geothermal power capacity amounts to 12.8 gigawatts ( GW ) , of which 28 percent or 3,548 megawatts are installed in the United States . International markets grew at an average annual rate of 5 percent over the last three years and global geothermal power capacity is expected to reach 14.5 -- 17.6 GW by 2020 . Based on current geologic knowledge and technology , the Geothermal Energy Association ( GEA ) estimates that only 6.5 percent of total global potential has been tapped so far , while the IPCC reported geothermal power potential to be in the range of 35 GW to 2 TW . Countries generating more than 15 percent of their electricity from geothermal sources include El Salvador , Kenya , the Philippines , Iceland and Costa Rica . Geothermal power is considered to be a sustainable , renewable source of energy because the heat extraction is small compared with the Earth 's heat content . The greenhouse gas emissions of geothermal electric stations are on average 45 grams of carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour of electricity , or less than 5 percent of that of conventional coal-fired plants .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Geothermal_power", "rank": 69, "score": 91031 }, { "content": "Title: Energy in Hawaii Content: Energy production in Hawaii is a difficult issue due to the islands ' isolated location and lack of local resources . The state relies heavily on imports of petroleum and coal for power although recent initiatives have increased use of alternative resources . High levels of solar photovoltaic and wind power use have led to power balance issues which have made Hawaii a study case for renewable use . Commercial-scale batteries and upgraded grid resources and management are among the solutions being advanced . Hawaii has the most expensive electricity prices in the United States . In 2016 the average cost of electricity was $ 0.24 per kilowatt-hour , with the next highest state being Alaska at $ 0.19 . The U.S. average was $ 0.10 per kilowatt-hour across all sectors .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Energy_in_Hawaii", "rank": 70, "score": 90975 }, { "content": "Title: Energy in Oregon Content: The U.S. state of Oregon is the third largest renewable energy producing state in the United States . Hydroelectric power dominates the power market in Oregon , providing nearly two-thirds of the electricity generated in the state , although it accounts for less than half of the total percentage consumed when electricity imported from other states is accounted for . Coal is the second largest source of the state 's energy portfolio , with much of it being imported from Wyoming and domestic production coming from the Boardman Coal Plant , Oregon 's only coal power plant .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Energy_in_Oregon", "rank": 71, "score": 90915 }, { "content": "Title: 2008–16 Spanish financial crisis Content: The 2008 -- present Spanish financial crisis , also known as the Great Recession in Spain or the Great Spanish Depression began in 2008 during the world financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 . In 2012 it made Spain a late participant in the European sovereign debt crisis when the country was unable to bailout its financial sector and had to apply for a $ 100 billion rescue package provided by the European Stability Mechanism ( ESM ) . The main cause of Spain 's crisis was the housing bubble and the accompanying unsustainable high GDP growth rate . The ballooning tax revenues from the booming property investment and construction sectors kept the Spanish government 's revenue in surplus , despite strong increases in expenditure , until 2007 . The Spanish government supported the critical development by relaxing supervision of the financial sector and thereby allowing the banks to violate International Accounting Standards Board standards . . The banks in Spain were able to hide losses and earnings volatility , mislead regulators , analysts , and investors , and thereby finance the Spanish real estate bubble . The results of the crisis were devastating for Spain , including a strong economic downturn , a severe increase in unemployment , and bankruptcies of major companies . Even though some fundamental problems in the Spanish economy were already evident far ahead of the crisis , Spain continued the path of unsustainable property led growth when the ruling party changed in 2004 . In these early times Spain had already a huge trade deficit , a loss of competitiveness against its main trading partners , an above-average inflation rate , house price increases , and a growing family indebtedness . During the third quarter of 2008 the national GDP contracted for the first time in 15 years , and , in February 2009 , Spain ( and other European economies ) officially entered recession . The economy contracted 3.7 % in 2009 and again in 2010 by 0.1 % . It grew by 0.7 % in 2011 . By the 1st quarter of 2012 , Spain was officially in recession once again . The Spanish government forecast a 1.7 % drop for 2012 . The provision of up to $ 100 billion of rescue loans from eurozone funds was agreed by eurozone finance ministers on 9 June 2012 . As of October 2012 , the so-called Troika ( European Commission , ECB and IMF ) is in negotiations with Spain to establish an economic recovery program required for providing additional financial loans from ESM . In addition to applying for a $ 100 billion bank recapitalization package in June 2012 , Spain negotiated financial support from a `` Precautionary Conditioned Credit Line '' ( PCCL ) package . If Spain applies and receives a PCCL package , irrespective to what extent it subsequently decides to draw on this established credit line , this would at the same time immediately qualify the country to receive `` free '' additional financial support from ECB , in the form of some unlimited yield-lowering bond purchases . The turning point for the Spanish sovereign debt crisis occurred on 26 July 2012 , when ECB President Mario Draghi said that the ECB was `` ready to do whatever it takes to preserve the euro '' . Announced on 6 September 2012 , the ECB 's Outright Monetary Transactions ( OMT ) program of unlimited purchases of short-term sovereign debt put the ECB 's balance sheet behind the pledge . Speculative runs against Spanish sovereign debt were discouraged and 10-year bond yields stayed below the 6 % level , approaching the 5 % level by the end of 2012 .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "2008–16_Spanish_financial_crisis", "rank": 72, "score": 90808 }, { "content": "Title: Spanish general election, 2015 Content: The 2015 Spanish general election was held on Sunday , 20 December 2015 , to elect the 11th Cortes Generales of the Kingdom of Spain . All 350 seats in the Congress of Deputies were up for election , as well as 208 of 266 seats in the Senate . After a legislature plagued by the effects of an ongoing economic crisis , corruption scandals affecting the ruling party and social distrust with traditional parties , the election resulted in the most fragmented Spanish parliament in its history . While Prime Minister Mariano Rajoy 's People 's Party ( PP ) emerged as the largest party overall , it obtained its worst result since 1989 . The party 's net loss of 64 seats and 16 percentage points also marked the largest loss of support for a sitting government since 1982 . Opposition Spanish Socialist Workers ' Party ( PSOE ) obtained its worst result since the Spanish transition to democracy , losing 20 seats and nearly 7 points . Newcomer Podemos ( Spanish for `` We can '' ) ranked third , winning over 5 million votes , some 20 % of the share , 69 seats and coming closely behind PSOE . Up-and-coming Citizens ( C 's ) , a party based in Catalonia since 2006 , entered the parliament for the first time with 40 seats , though considerably lower than what pre-election polls had suggested . Spanish minoritary parties were decimated , with historic United Left ( IU ) , which ran in a common platform with other left-wing parties under the Popular Unity in Common label , obtaining the worst result in its history . Union , Progress and Democracy ( UPyD ) , a newcomer which had made gains in both the 2008 and 2011 general elections , was obliterated , losing all of its seats and nearly 90 % of its votes . At the regional level , aside from a major breakthrough from Republican Left of Catalonia ( ERC ) , all regional nationalist parties lost votes , with the break up of Convergence and Union ( CiU ) , support for the abertzale left EH Bildu coalition falling sharply , Canarian Coalition ( CC ) clinging on to a single seat and the expulsion of both Geroa Bai and the Galician Nationalist Bloc ( BNG ) from parliament ; the latter of which had maintained an uninterrupted presence in the Congress of Deputies since 1996 . With the most-voted party obtaining just 123 seats -- compared to the 156 of the previous worst result for a first party , in 1996 -- and a third party winning an unprecedented 69 seats -- the previous record was 23 in 1979 -- the result marked the transition from a two-party system to a multi-party system . After months of inconclusive negotiations and a failed investiture , neither PP or PSOE were able to garner enough votes to secure a majority , leading to a fresh election in 2016 .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Spanish_general_election,_2015", "rank": 73, "score": 90754 }, { "content": "Title: Unemployment benefits in Spain Content: Unemployment benefits in Spain are contributory and non-contributory . They are part of social security system in Spain and are managed by the State Public Employment Service ( SEPE ) . Employers and employees contribute to the unemployment contingency fund and if an unemployed person fulfills certain criteria they can claim an allowance which is based on the time they have contributed and their average wage . A non-contributory benefit is also available to those who no longer receive a contributory benefit dependent on a maximum level of income .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Unemployment_benefits_in_Spain", "rank": 74, "score": 90696 }, { "content": "Title: List of U.S. states by electricity production from renewable sources Content: The information used to calculate values is from the Electric Power Monthly , February 2015 and 2014 published by the U.S. Energy Information Administration . Renewable generation does not include amounts for ` rooftop solar ' . Only utility scale generation from solar sources is included .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "List_of_U.S._states_by_electricity_production_from_renewable_sources", "rank": 75, "score": 90685 }, { "content": "Title: Nuclear power phase-out Content: A nuclear power phase-out is the discontinuation of usage of nuclear power for energy production . Often initiated because of concerns about nuclear power , phase-outs usually include shutting down nuclear power plants and looking towards fossil fuels and renewable energy . Three nuclear accidents have influenced the discontinuation of nuclear power : the 1979 Three Mile Island partial nuclear meltdown in the United States , the 1986 Chernobyl disaster in the USSR , and the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan . Following the March 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster , Germany has permanently shut down eight of its 17 reactors and pledged to close the rest by the end of 2022 . Italy voted overwhelmingly to keep their country non-nuclear . Switzerland and Spain have banned the construction of new reactors . Japan 's prime minister has called for a dramatic reduction in Japan 's reliance on nuclear power . Taiwan 's president did the same . Shinzō Abe , the new prime minister of Japan since December 2012 , announced a plan to re-start some of the 54 Japanese nuclear power plants ( NPPs ) and to continue some NPP sites under construction . As of 2016 , countries including Australia , Austria , Denmark , Greece , Ireland , Italy , Latvia , Liechtenstein , Luxembourg , Malaysia , Malta , New Zealand , Norway , Philippines , and Portugal have no nuclear power stations and remain opposed to nuclear power . Belgium , Germany , Spain and Switzerland are phasing-out nuclear power . Globally , more nuclear power reactors have closed than opened in recent years but overall capacity has increased . Italy is the only country that has closed all of functioning nuclear plants . Lithuania , Kazakhstan have shut down their only nuclear plants , but plan to built new ones to replace them . Armenia shut down its only nuclear plant but subsequently restarted it . Austria never used its first nuclear plant that was completely built . Due to financial , politic and technical reasons Cuba , Libya , North Korea and Poland never completed the construction of their first nuclear plants ( although North Korea and Poland plan to ) . Azerbaijan , Georgia , Ghana , Ireland , Kuwait , Oman , Peru , Singapore , Venezuela have planned , but not constructed their first nuclear plants .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Nuclear_power_phase-out", "rank": 76, "score": 90609 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Decathlon Europe Content: The Solar Decathlon Europe is an international competition that challenges collegiate teams to design and build houses powered exclusively by the sun . The winner of the competition is the team able to score the most points in 10 contests . On Oct. 18 , 2007 , the Spanish and U.S. governments signed a memorandum of understanding in which the Spanish Ministry of Housing committed to organize and host Solar Decathlon Europe . The agreement was signed in Washington , D.C. , next to the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid 's Casa Solar during the U.S. Department of Energy Solar Decathlon 2007 competition . The American signatory was Alexander A. Karsner , assistant secretary of the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Department of the U.S. Department of Energy , with Fernando Magro Fernández , undersecretary of housing of the Ministry of Housing representing the Spanish government . This competition takes place during even years , alternating with the U.S.-based competition , by agreement between the United States and Spanish governments .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Solar_Decathlon_Europe", "rank": 77, "score": 90597 }, { "content": "Title: Load-loss factor Content: Load-loss factor ( LLF ) is a factor which when multiplied by energy lost at time of peak and the number of load periods will give overall average energy lost . It is calculated as the ratio of the average load loss to the peak load loss . For electricity utilities , expect about 0.3 . In the days when computers were uncommon , estimates were derived from the Load Factor using an empirical formula .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Load-loss_factor", "rank": 78, "score": 90449 }, { "content": "Title: Health care in Spain Content: According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development , total health spending accounted for 9.4 % of GDP in Spain in 2011 , slightly above the OECD average of 9.3 % . The Spanish health care system is considered one of the best in the world , in 7th position in the ranking elaborated by the World Health Organization . Spain is the 1st country in the world in organ transplants . The public sector is the main source of health funding in nearly all countries . In Spain , 73 % of health spending was funded by public sources in 2011 , very close to the average of 72 % in OECD countries . Since 2010 , real term spending on healthcare has declined in Spain .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Health_care_in_Spain", "rank": 79, "score": 90421 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in the United Kingdom Content: Renewable energy in the United Kingdom '' ' can be divided into the generation of renewable electricity , the generation of renewable heat and renewable energy use in the transport sector . From the mid-1990s renewable energy began to contribute to the electricity generated in the United Kingdom , adding to a small hydroelectricity generating capacity . The total of all renewable electricity sources provided for 14.9 % of the electricity generated in the United Kingdom in 2013 , reaching 53.7 TWh of electricity generated . In the second quarter of 2015 , renewable electricity penetration exceeded 25 % and coal generation for the first time . Renewable energy contributions to meeting the UK 's 15 % target reduction in total energy consumption by 2020 , in accordance with the 2009 EU Renewable Directive , totalled 5.2 % in 2013 as measured in accordance with the methodology set out in the Directive . By 2016 provisional calculations show that the figure had risen again to 8.3 per cent of energy consumption ( all sources ) coming from renewable sources in 2015 . Interest in renewable energy in the UK has increased in recent years due to new UK and EU targets for reductions in carbon emissions and the promotion of renewable electricity power generation through commercial incentives such as the Renewable Obligation Certificate scheme ( ROCs ) and Feed in tariffs ( FITs ) and the promotion of renewable heat through the Renewable Heat Incentive . Historically hydroelectric schemes were the largest producers of renewable electricity in the UK , but these have now been surpassed by wind power schemes , for which the UK has large potential resources .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 80, "score": 90387 }, { "content": "Title: Whitelee Wind Farm Content: Whitelee Wind Farm is the largest on-shore wind farm in the United Kingdom ( second in Europe to Fântânele-Cogealac , in Romania ) with 215 Siemens and Alstom wind turbines and a total capacity of 539 megawatts ( MW ) . Whitelee was developed and is operated by ScottishPower Renewables , which is part of the Spanish company Iberdrola . The Scottish government had a target of generating 31 % of Scotland 's electricity from renewable energy by 2011 and 100 % by 2020 . The majority of this is likely to come from wind power .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Whitelee_Wind_Farm", "rank": 81, "score": 90363 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in South Dakota Content: Renewable energy in South Dakota involves production of biofuels and generation of electricity from renewable sources of energy such as wind and hydropower . South Dakota is among the states with the highest percentage of electricity generation from renewable resources , typically over 70 percent . In 2011 , South Dakota became the first U.S. state to have at least 20 % of its electricity generation come from wind power .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_South_Dakota", "rank": 82, "score": 90329 }, { "content": "Title: Lightsource Renewable Energy Content: Lightsource Renewable Energy is the UK 's largest solar energy generator , operating the largest portfolio of commercial scale solar photovoltaic ( PV ) assets on ground and roof in Britain . Founded in 2010 , it now consists of 250 professionals , and has gained an exceptional track record in the distribution of solar farms and commercial rooftop installations in the UK . The company provides fully funded solar PV solutions to property owners wishing to gain an attractive rental income from their land or gain significant reductions in electricity bills by employing unused roof space . In 2011 , they established the first solar farm in Truro , the biggest in the UK with more than 5,000 panels that generate enough electricity for 430 homes in the area , saving over 700 tons of CO2 . Lightsource Renewable Energy has been the recipient of renewable energy awards , including an award for most innovative system design and a leadership award in renewable energy .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Lightsource_Renewable_Energy", "rank": 83, "score": 90290 }, { "content": "Title: Intermittent energy source Content: An intermittent energy source is any source of energy or electrical power that is not continuously available due to some factor outside direct control . The intermittent source may be quite predictable , for example , tidal power , but can not be dispatched to meet the demand of a power system . Effective use of intermittent sources in an electric power grid usually relies on using the intermittent sources to displace fuel that would otherwise be consumed by non-renewable power stations , or by storing energy in the form of renewable pumped storage , compressed air or ice , or in batteries , for use when needed , or as electrode heating for district heating schemes . The capacity of a reliable renewable power supply , can be fulfilled by the use of backup or extra infrastructure and technology , using mixed renewables to produce electricity above the intermittent average , which may be utilised to meet regular and unanticipated supply demands . Additionally , the storage of energy to fill the shortfall intermittency or for emergencies can be part of a reliable power supply . The penetration of intermittent renewables in most power grids is low , global electricity production in 2014 was supplied by 3.1 % wind , and 1 % solar . Wind generates roughly 16 % of electric energy in Spain and Portugal , 15.3 % in Ireland , and 7 % in Germany . , wind provides 39 % of the electricity generated in Denmark . To operate with this level of penetration , Denmark exports surpluses and imports during shortfalls to and from neighbouring countries , particularly hydroelectric power from Norway , to balance supply with demand . It also uses large numbers of combined heat and power ( CHP ) stations which can rapidly adjust output . The use of small amounts of intermittent power has little effect on grid operations . Using larger amounts of intermittent power may require upgrades or even a redesign of the grid infrastructure .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Intermittent_energy_source", "rank": 84, "score": 90243 }, { "content": "Title: Energy (TV channel) Content: Energy is a private Spanish television channel owned by Mediaset España Comunicación . Its programming is aimed towards a male audience . It began test broadcasts on 27 December 2011 before fully launching on 9 January 2012 .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Energy_(TV_channel)", "rank": 85, "score": 90233 }, { "content": "Title: UGE International Content: UGE International is a worldwide distributed renewable energy company , founded in 2008 , with headquarters in New York City . UGE has projects in more than 100 countries worldwide . UGE also works with an international network of Partners that augments global distribution and sales . UGE 's capabilities include remote site assessments , power plant system design , patent-pending vertical axis wind turbine manufacturing , solar system design , monitoring and project financing . Its hybrid wind and solar systems are widely used to power telecommunications towers , commercial buildings , and municipal infrastructure including outdoor lighting . UGE announced in August 2013 that it had raised $ 20M from Tamra-Tacoma Capital Partners , a New York-based alternative investment firm , for a project finance fund to deploy UGE 's wind and solar technology for telecom companies . In April 2014 , UGE raised an additional $ 5M from Energine .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "UGE_International", "rank": 86, "score": 90206 }, { "content": "Title: List of renewable energy companies by stock exchange Content: Several renewable energy companies became listed on stock exchanges in the period after 2000 . The early 21st century was a very productive time for the renewable energy industry , since many governments set long term renewable energy targets . Some chose to directly subsidize the renewables with feed-in tariffs and other temporary measures to bridge the gap to full cost accounting that would properly reward these technologies for their low emissions and lack of interference with ecosystem services , and also to ensure some capacity and motivation to install conservation-focused smart grid technologies . Smart grid policy in the United States was especially important in driving renewable energy in that country ( see also load shedding , energy internet , home area network and cleantech for more on the structure of the industry and why renewables vendors are closely aligned industrially and politically with the vendors of networking technology ) , smart appliances and energy conservation software , and opposed in general to those of other `` energy '' firms , which effectively depend on the lack of this intelligence or accounting to appear competitive . For instance , coal vendors rely on a lack of accounting of about US$ 345 billion in harms done by coal to remain competitive in the US . In 2004 Russia ratified the United Nations ' Kyoto Protocol and the first order under this agreement came into force for the period 2008 to 2012 . The period from 2002 to 2008 was a period of rapid growth for the renewable energy industry with the photovoltaics industry experiencing an average of 60 % growth per annum , the biodiesel industry 42 % and the wind industry 25 % . As of the end of 2007 the renewable energy industry was worth an estimated US $ 77.3 billion . As a result of this growth several companies listed IPOs . Many public companies involved in the development of this industry and responsible for large market share do not participate exclusively in renewable energy and have been omitted for this list , most notable of these are BP , GE Energy and Sharp . This list consists of companies whose primary produce is either renewable energy or renewable energy products and services .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "List_of_renewable_energy_companies_by_stock_exchange", "rank": 87, "score": 90051 }, { "content": "Title: Mandatory renewable energy target Content: Mandatory renewable energy targets are part of government legislated schemes which require electricity retailers to source specific proportions of total electricity sales from renewable energy sources according to a fixed time frame . The purpose of these schemes is to promote renewable energy and reduce dependency on fossil fuels . If this results in an additional cost of electricity , the additional cost is distributed across most customers by increases in other tariffs . The cost of this measure is therefore not funded by government budgets , except for costs of establishing and monitoring the scheme and any audit and enforcement actions . As the cost of renewable energy has become cheaper than other sources , meeting and exceeding a renewable energy target will also reduce the cost of electricity to consumers . At least 67 countries have renewable energy policy targets of some type . In Europe , 28 European Union members states and 8 Energy Community Contracting Parties have legally binding renewable energy targets . The EU baseline target is 20 % by 2020 , while the United States also has a national RET of 20 % . Similarly , Canada has 9 provincial RETs but no national target . Targets are typically for shares of electricity production , but some are defined as by primary energy supply , installed capacity , or otherwise . While some targets are based on 2010-2012 data , many are now for 2020 , which ties in with the IPCC suggested greenhouse gas emission cuts of 25 to 40 % by Annex I countries by 2020 , although some are for 2025 .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Mandatory_renewable_energy_target", "rank": 88, "score": 90031 }, { "content": "Title: Joseph Brant Arseneau Content: Joseph Brant Arseneau ( born September 3 , 1967 ) is generally known in finance and technology for first formally defining finance techniques for third world housing by describing the securitization of excess cash flow from renewable energy with the use of Renewable Energy Derivatives . The technique was first based on microfinance methods and it continues to gain popularity as both financial and technical infrastructure matures . His team was also involved in the development of the Renewable Energy Derivative , which is a structured product that securitizes renewable energy into property-based debt obligations backed by the cash flows of excess energy . Thus providing a responsible use of the environment to finance properties in third world countries . The method was initially intended to finance lower income housing in developing countries by replacing the credit risk with the operational risk of the renewable energy assets ' capability to generate predictable cash flows . The financing is structured so that the risk is to be underwrite until the cost of the houses can be claimed by the banks . The new method includes operational risk transfer and mitigation through insurance , weather derivatives and `` world class '' preventive maintenance programs . Arseneau 's primary area of technical expertise is in biologically-inspired systems called computational intelligence , which include : neural networks , genetic algorithms , fuzzy logic , swarm intelligence , and intelligent agents . His interest in computational intelligence began with his research into the application of neural networks to software reengineering ; that research went on to form the foundation to a patent being awarded to Raymond Obin and Brian Reynolds for a commercial reenginering process . His primary area of business expertise is in capital markets including ; high performance computing for trading , new securitization methods , derivatives , and financing techniques in developing economies . His work on high-frequency trading has been leveraged by several academic research efforts and more recently a commercial venture . His earlier research on computational intelligence and reengineering ( software ) is frequently cited .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Joseph_Brant_Arseneau", "rank": 89, "score": 89870 }, { "content": "Title: National Renewable Energy Action Plan Content: A National Renewable Energy Action Plan ( NREAP ) is a detailed report submitted by countries outlining commitments and initiatives to develop renewable energy that all member states of the European Union were obliged to notify to the European Commission by 30June 2010 . The plan provides a detailed road map of how the member state expects to reach its legally binding 2020 target for the share of renewable energy in their total energy consumption , as required by article 4 of the Renewable Energy Directive 2009/28/EC . In the plan , the member state sets out sectoral targets , the technology mix they expect to use , the trajectory they will follow , and the measures and reforms they will undertake to overcome the barriers to developing renewable energy . Each NREAP report provides details of the expected share of energy provided by renewable sources up to and including 2020 . The overall target for EU countries is to use 20 % of their energy use from renewable energy sources although targets for each country vary considerably . In addition targets are broken down further by energy use sector including transport , electricity and the heating and cooling sectors .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "National_Renewable_Energy_Action_Plan", "rank": 90, "score": 89712 }, { "content": "Title: Ministry of Energy, Tourism and Digital Agenda Content: The Ministry of Energy , Tourism and Digital Agenda is one of the thirteen ministries that are part of the Spanish Government . Since November 4 , 2016 , the Minister is Álvaro Nadal , previous General Director of the Economic Office of the President of the Government of Spain .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Ministry_of_Energy,_Tourism_and_Digital_Agenda", "rank": 91, "score": 89699 }, { "content": "Title: First Wind Content: Founded in 2002 , First Wind was an independent renewable energy company that develops and operates utility-scale power projects in the United States . It grew to employ more than 220 people across the country . Headquartered in Boston , the company develops or operates renewable energy projects in Maine , Vermont , Massachusetts , New York , Utah , Idaho , Washington and Hawaii with a combined capacity of nearly 1,300 megawatts . In addition to renewable energy projects , the company developed and operates two generator leads . First Wind began as a utility-scale wind power developer and operator , but in 2014 the company brought its first solar energy projects online . In November 2014 First Wind was purchased by SunEdison and its yieldco TerraForm Power for $ 2.4 billion . In February 2015 , as part of the merger integration , First Wind CEO Paul Gaynor , who led the company since 2004 , was appointed EVP Of North America Utility And Global Wind at SunEdison .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "First_Wind", "rank": 92, "score": 89614 }, { "content": "Title: Identity theft in the United States Content: Identity theft in the United States was estimated to be responsible for financial losses of $ 24.7 billion in 2012 by a United States Department of Justice study -- about double the $ 14 billion total of other property crimes . Analysts at Javelin Strategy & Research estimated that 1 in 3 Americans affected by a data breach ended up a victim of fraud in 2013 -- up from 1 in 9 in 2010 . According to their surveys , when an existing credit card is exposed and then used for fraud , the average loss is $ 1,251 . When a Social Security number is exposed and then used to open new accounts , the average loss is $ 2,330 . Javelin says that the number of identity theft victims jumped to 13.1 million in 2013 , an increase of 500,000 from 2012 and the second highest number of victims since Javelin began conducting its annual study in 2004 . Identity theft is blamed for $ 4 trillion of fraudulent tax refunds by the Internal Revenue Service ( IRS ) and 770,000 taxpayers have been the victims of tax identity theft by 2013 .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Identity_theft_in_the_United_States", "rank": 93, "score": 89185 }, { "content": "Title: Scottish Renewables Content: Scottish Renewables is the representative body of the Scottish renewable energy industry . Since 1996 , it has aimed to present a united voice to decision makers who make energy policy . Scottish Renewables represents over 300 members and member organisations are wide ranging across all technologies and supply chains . Scottish Renewables has developed 14 focus areas to fully represent the renewable energy industry . These include : offshore wind power , onshore wind power , bioenergy , heat , hydro , marine energy , and microgeneration . Johanna Yates , offshore policy manager for Scottish Renewables , has said Scotland is the natural home to offshore renewable energy , with abundant natural resources and long heritage of maritime industry -- principally oil and gas and fisheries . Scotland 's potential is well known and in recent months there has been investment from significant international players , such as Doosan , Mitsubishi and Gamesa , all vying to establish their wind turbines in Scottish waters . Future employment for offshore wind projects is promising , with up to 28,000 direct jobs being created by 2020 , leading to an economic input of # 7 billion .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Scottish_Renewables", "rank": 94, "score": 89168 }, { "content": "Title: Innovation, Development and Employment Alliance Content: The Innovation , Development and Employment Alliance is a business coalition launched in May 2009 , aimed at securing intellectual property rights in a number of areas , including environmentally sound technology , healthcare and renewable energy . It is supported by the United States Chamber of Commerce ; members include General Electric , Microsoft and Sunrise Solar . It was created in response to developments at the United Nations post -- Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas emissions , where developing countries such as Brazil , India and China want the ability to compulsory licence green technology , as they are currently able to do with key drugs , notably for AIDS treatment .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Innovation,_Development_and_Employment_Alliance", "rank": 95, "score": 89003 }, { "content": "Title: List of Spanish Autonomous Communities by Median Income Content: Median Income in Spain has declined significantly since the recession , in some cases , such as Catalonia , median income has declined by 9.6 % since 2009 . Median income differs from GDP Per Capita because the per capita is a mean value , which can over exaggerate extreme values such as the very rich or the very poor . Median income represents the 50th percentile of income , meaning that half of people earn less than this value and half of people earn more than this value . The 2014 median monthly income in Spain is listed below . The two autonomous cities of Spain are excluded from this list . These values are paid 13 times per year , not 12 as in every month . As of 2014 , the median income for all of Spain was $ 1,634 , which is paid in 13 payments per year .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "List_of_Spanish_Autonomous_Communities_by_Median_Income", "rank": 96, "score": 88980 }, { "content": "Title: Renewables Obligation (United Kingdom) Content: The Renewables Obligation ( RO ) is designed to encourage generation of electricity from eligible renewable sources in the United Kingdom . It was introduced in England and Wales and in a different form ( the Renewables Obligation ( Scotland ) ) in Scotland in April 2002 and in Northern Ireland in April 2005 , replacing the Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation which operated from 1990 . The RO places an obligation on licensed electricity suppliers in the United Kingdom to source an increasing proportion of electricity from renewable sources , similar to a renewable portfolio standard . In 2010/11 it is 11.1 % ( 4.0 % in Northern Ireland ) . This figure was initially set at 3 % for the period 2002/03 and under current political commitments will rise to 15.4 % ( 6.3 % in Northern Ireland ) by the period 2015/16 and then it runs until 2037 ( 2033 in Northern Ireland ) . The extension of the scheme from 2027 to 2037 was declared on 1 April 2010 and is detailed in the National Renewable Energy Action Plan . Since its introduction the RO has more than tripled the level of eligible renewable electricity generation ( from 1.8 % of total UK supply to 7.0 % in 2010 ) .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Renewables_Obligation_(United_Kingdom)", "rank": 97, "score": 88926 }, { "content": "Title: Econcern Content: Econcern was an international holding company , consisting of five operating companies : Ecofys , Evelop , Ecostream , Ecoventures and OneCarbon . These companies delivered solutions for renewable energy ( solar energy , wind energy , bioenergy ) and carbon credits , with a mission to `` ensure a sustainable energy supply for everyone '' . Econcern employed 1,200 professionals in over 20 countries across the world . Econcern was ranked No. 234 in Europe 's top 500 listing of high growth , job-creating companies in 2007 and was named ` Business of the Year ' at the CMS European Business Awards in 2008 .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Econcern", "rank": 98, "score": 88621 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy debate Content: There is a renewable energy debate about the constraints and opportunities associated with the use of renewable energy . Renewable electricity production , from sources such as wind power and solar power , is sometimes criticized for being variable or intermittent . However , the International Energy Agency has stated that this only applies to certain renewables , mainly wind and solar photovoltaics , and its significance depends on a range of factors , such as the penetration of the renewables concerned . There have been `` not in my back yard '' ( NIMBY ) concerns relating to the visual and other impacts of some wind farms , with local residents sometimes fighting or blocking construction . In the USA , the Massachusetts Cape Wind project was delayed for years partly because of aesthetic concerns . However , residents in other areas have been more positive and there are many examples of community wind farm developments . According to a town councillor , the overwhelming majority of locals believe that the Ardrossan Wind Farm in Scotland has enhanced the area . The market for renewable energy technologies has continued to grow . Climate change concerns , coupled with high oil prices , peak oil , and increasing government support , are driving increasing renewable energy legislation , incentives and commercialization . New government spending , regulation and policies helped the industry weather the 2009 economic crisis better than many other sectors .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "Renewable_energy_debate", "rank": 99, "score": 88610 }, { "content": "Title: China Village Electrification Program Content: The China Village Electrification Program ( Song Dian Dao Cun ) is a scheme to provide renewable electricity to 3.5 million households in 10,000 villages by 2010 . This is to be followed by full rural electrification using renewable energy by 2015 . The total program is expected to cost in the region of US$ 5 billion , and solar generated electricity is expected to play a major role . China produces around 20 % of the world 's total solar cells , and production is growing at over 50 % each year . small hydro and wind power are also likely to be employed . The Program follows on from the smaller China Township Electrification Program which ended in 2005 . China is committed to generating 10 % of its electricity from renewables by 2010 .", "qid": "3068", "docid": "China_Village_Electrification_Program", "rank": 100, "score": 88579 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 1, "score": 221341 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 2, "score": 202963 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 3, "score": 188691 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 4, "score": 187639 }, { "content": "Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference", "rank": 5, "score": 186929 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming", "rank": 6, "score": 186692 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 7, "score": 185366 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 8, "score": 184644 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 9, "score": 184246 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 10, "score": 182973 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 11, "score": 182564 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 12, "score": 181415 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 13, "score": 177661 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan", "rank": 14, "score": 172652 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 15, "score": 172326 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 16, "score": 172304 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change", "rank": 17, "score": 172117 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 18, "score": 171649 }, { "content": "Title: America's Climate Security Act of 2007 Content: The America 's Climate Security Act of 2007 was a global warming bill that was considered by the United States Senate to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in the United States . Also known as the Lieberman-Warner bill , bill number , the legislation was introduced by Sens. Joseph Lieberman ( I-CT ) and John Warner ( R-VA ) on October 18 , 2007 . The bill was approved by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works in December 2007 , and was debated in the Senate during the week of June 2 . The bill would create a national cap-and-trade scheme for greenhouse gas emissions , in which polluters would mostly be allocated right-to-emit credits based on how much greenhouse gas they currently emit . The cap would get tighter over time , until by 2050 , emissions would be reduced to 63 % below 2005 levels . Several environmental groups express their encouragement at the progress in legislation on the global warming issue while at the same time expressing disappointment that the bill does n't reduce emissions enough . On June 6 , 2008 , the bill was killed by Senate Republicans over worries that it would damage the economy .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "America's_Climate_Security_Act_of_2007", "rank": 19, "score": 171397 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Carbon_emissions_reporting", "rank": 20, "score": 170465 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates", "rank": 21, "score": 169656 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation", "rank": 22, "score": 169049 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact", "rank": 23, "score": 168982 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 24, "score": 168510 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 25, "score": 168192 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change litigation and the California Environmental Quality Act Content: Litigation related to climate change and greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions has become increasingly common in federal and state courts . Following adoption of the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) and publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , additional pressure was placed on California public agencies to evaluate potential adverse effects to global climate change caused by GHG emissions . In particular , several lawsuits have been filed against agencies for failure to analyze GHG emissions generated by projects subject to the California Environmental Quality Act ( CEQA ) . Court decisions prior to the 2010 revisions to the CEQA guidelines gave early insights as to how CEQA would be used as a vehicle to identify and mitigate GHG emissions within the state . Decisions issued after adoption of the revised guidelines are now being used to interpret CEQA 's new requirement to evaluate GHG emissions and climate change .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Climate_change_litigation_and_the_California_Environmental_Quality_Act", "rank": 26, "score": 167580 }, { "content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Kyoto_Protocol", "rank": 27, "score": 164977 }, { "content": "Title: Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists Content: The 2007 Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists was a statement signed by over 200 climate scientists advocating specific targets for greenhouse gas emissions for the 21st century . The statement was based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Article 2 that committed signatories to the '' ... stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' and on the science available in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment report ( IPCC AR4 ) . The Bali Declaration was released to coincide with the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference which took place in Bali 3 -- 15 December 2007 . Category : Climate change policy", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Bali_Declaration_by_Climate_Scientists", "rank": 28, "score": 164522 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 29, "score": 164286 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture", "rank": 30, "score": 164081 }, { "content": "Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry", "rank": 31, "score": 163924 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 32, "score": 163075 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 33, "score": 162780 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States", "rank": 34, "score": 161078 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 35, "score": 160897 }, { "content": "Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Fugitive_emissions", "rank": 36, "score": 159951 }, { "content": "Title: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions Content: Intended Nationally Determined Contributions ( INDCs ) is a term used under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions that all countries that signed the UNFCCC were asked to publish in the lead up to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Paris , France in December 2015 . These intended contributions were determined without prejudice to the legal nature of the contributions . The term was intended as a compromise between `` quantified emissions limitation and reduction objective '' ( QUELROs ) and `` nationally appropriate mitigation actions '' ( NAMAs ) that the Kyoto Protocol used to describe the different legal obligations of developed and developing countries . Under the Paris Agreement , adopted in December 2015 , the INDC will become the first Nationally Determined Contribution when a country ratifies the agreement , unless they decide to submit a new NDC at the same time . Once the Paris Agreement is ratified , the NDC will become the first greenhouse gas targets under the UNFCCC that applied equally to both developed and developing countries . On 3 August 2016 China and US ratified 2015 agreement on INDC . Together they both constitute 38 % of total global emission , with China 's alone emitting total of 20 % . India that has a Global share of GHGs emission at 4.1 % of that of world ratified Paris climate agreement on October 2 , 2016 by depositing the Instrument of ratification with the United nations .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Intended_Nationally_Determined_Contributions", "rank": 37, "score": 159624 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Greenhouse_effect", "rank": 38, "score": 159185 }, { "content": "Title: European Climate Change Programme Content: The European Climate Change Programme ( ECCP ) was launched in June 2000 by the European Union 's European Commission , with the purpose of avoiding dangerous climate change . The goal of the ECCP is to identify , develop and implement all the necessary elements of an EU strategy to implement the Kyoto Protocol . All EU countries ' ratifications of the Kyoto Protocol were deposited simultaneously on 31 May 2002 . The European Union Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) is perhaps the most significant contribution of the ECCP , and the EU ETS is the largest greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world . In 1996 the EU adopted a target of a maximum 2 ° C rise in global mean temperature , compared to pre-industrial levels . Since then , European Leaders have reaffirmed this goal several times . Due to only minor efforts in global Climate change mitigation it is highly likely that the world will not be able to reach this particular target . The EU might then be forced to accept a less ambitious target or to change its climate policy paradigm .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "European_Climate_Change_Programme", "rank": 39, "score": 159164 }, { "content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)", "rank": 40, "score": 158797 }, { "content": "Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme", "rank": 41, "score": 157698 }, { "content": "Title: Forests for the 21st Century Content: Forests for the 21st Century is a short video promoting and explaining the benefits of forest landscape restoration . In the last few centuries people have removed more than half of the world 's forest cover . Deforestation is currently responsible for nearly 20 per cent of global carbon emissions . This tide of deforestation can be reversed , but we can make a much greater impact if we also put back some of our lost forests . Planting more trees can lock up more carbon , improve the environment and people 's lives . Many regions and countries have already restored much of their forest .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Forests_for_the_21st_Century", "rank": 42, "score": 157326 }, { "content": "Title: Post–Kyoto Protocol negotiations on greenhouse gas emissions Content: Post-Kyoto negotiations refers to high level talks attempting to address global warming by limiting greenhouse gas emissions . Generally part of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , these talks concern the period after the first `` commitment period '' of the Kyoto Protocol , which expired at the end of 2012 . Negotiations have been mandated by the adoption of the Bali Road Map and Decision 1/CP .13 ( `` The Bali Action Plan '' ) . UNFCCC negotiations are conducted within two subsidiary bodies , the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action under the Convention ( AWG-LCA ) and the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol ( AWG-KP ) and were expected to culminate in the United Nations Climate Change Conference taking place in December 2009 in Copenhagen ( COP-15 ) ; negotiations are supported by a number of external processes , including the G8 process , a number of regional meetings and the Major Economies Forum on Energy and Climate that was launched by US President Barack Obama in March 2009 . High level talks were held at the meeting of the G8 +5 Climate Change Dialogue in February 2007 and at a number of subsequent G8 meetings , most recently leading to the adoption of the G8 leaders declaration `` Responsible Leadership for a Sustainable Future '' during the G8 summit in L ´ Aquila , Italy , in July 2009 .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Post–Kyoto_Protocol_negotiations_on_greenhouse_gas_emissions", "rank": 43, "score": 157193 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 44, "score": 156860 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 45, "score": 156517 }, { "content": "Title: List of parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC or FCCC ) is an international environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) , informally known as the Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . The objective of the treaty is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The treaty itself set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . In that sense , the treaty is considered legally non-binding . Instead , the treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' ) that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases . The UNFCCC was opened for signature on 9 May 1992 , after an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee produced the text of the Framework Convention as a report following its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . It entered into force on 21 March 1994 . As of December 2015 , UNFCCC has 197 parties .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "List_of_parties_to_the_United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 46, "score": 156387 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Massachusetts Content: Formet Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick has signed into law three global warming and energy-related bills that will promote advanced biofuels , support the growth of the clean energy technology industry , and cut the emissions of greenhouse gases within the state . The Clean Energy Biofuels Act , signed in late July , exempts cellulosic ethanol from the state 's gasoline tax , but only if the ethanol achieves a 60 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions relative to gasoline . The act also requires all diesel motor fuels and all No. 2 fuel oil sold for heating to include at least 2 % `` substitute fuel '' by July 2010 , where substitute fuel is defined as a fuel derived from renewable non-food biomass that achieves at least a 50 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions . The requirement for both motor diesel fuel and heating oil increases by a percentage point per year until 2013 , after which it holds steady 5 % . The act also allows the state to expand the requirement to other forms of fuel oil , and it requires the state to work to establish a low-carbon fuel standard under the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative . In early August of 2008 , Governor Patrick signed two additional bills : the Green Jobs Act and the Global Warming Solutions Act . The Green Jobs Act will support the growth of a clean energy technology industry within the state , backed by $ 68 million in funding over 5 years . The Global Warming Solutions Act requires a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the state to 10 % -25 % below 1990 levels by 2020 and to 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . Under the act , the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection will carry the burdens of determining the baseline level of emissions in 1990 and creating a plan to meet the future emissions limits , including the establishment of interim limits for 2030 and 2040", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Massachusetts", "rank": 47, "score": 156090 }, { "content": "Title: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) is an international environmental treaty adopted on May 9 , 1992 and opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . It then entered into force on 21 March 1994 , after a sufficient number of countries had ratified it . The UNFCCC objective is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The framework sets no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . Instead , the framework outlines how specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' or `` Agreements '' ) may be negotiated to specify further action towards the objective of the UNFCCC . Initially an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee ( INC ) produced the text of the Framework Convention during its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . The UNFCCC was adopted on 9 May 1992 , and opened for signature on 4 June 1992 . The UNFCCC has 197 parties as of December 2015 . The convention enjoys broad legitimacy , largely due to its nearly universal membership . The parties to the convention have met annually from 1995 in Conferences of the Parties ( COP ) to assess progress in dealing with climate change . In 1997 , the Kyoto Protocol was concluded and established legally binding obligations for developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions in the period 2008-2012 . The 2010 Cancún agreements state that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . The Protocol was amended in 2012 to encompass the period 2013-2020 in the Doha Amendment , which - as of December 2015 - had not entered into force . In 2015 the Paris Agreement was adopted , governing emission reductions from 2020 on through commitments of countries in ambitious Nationally Determined Contributions . The Paris Agreement entered into force on November 4th , 2016 . One of the first tasks set by the UNFCCC was for signatory nations to establish national greenhouse gas inventories of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and removals , which were used to create the 1990 benchmark levels for accession of Annex I countries to the Kyoto Protocol and for the commitment of those countries to GHG reductions . Updated inventories must be submitted annually by Annex I countries . The UNFCCC is also the name of the United Nations Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of the Convention , with offices in Haus Carstanjen , and the UN Campus ( known as Langer Eugen ) Bonn , Germany . From 2010 to 2016 the head of the secretariat was Christiana Figueres . In July 2016 , Patricia Espinosa from Mexico succeeded Figueres . The Secretariat , augmented through the parallel efforts of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , aims to gain consensus through meetings and the discussion of various strategies .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 48, "score": 155719 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )", "qid": "3069", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita", "rank": 49, "score": 155613 }, { "content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Global_Carbon_Project", "rank": 50, "score": 155569 }, { "content": "Title: Hell and High Water (book) Content: Hell and High Water : Global Warming -- the Solution and the Politics -- and What We Should Do is a book by author , scientist , and former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph J. Romm , published December 26 , 2006 . The author is `` one of the world 's leading experts on clean energy , advanced vehicles , energy security , and greenhouse gas mitigation . '' The book warns of dire consequences to the U.S. and the world if wide-scale environmental changes are not enacted by the U.S. government within the next decade . It reviews the evidence that the current initial global warming changes will lead to accelerated warming . According to Romm , the oceans , soils , Arctic permafrost , and rainforests may become sources of greenhouse gas emissions . The book claims that , without serious government action within the next ten years , sea levels will rise high enough to submerge numerous coastal communities and inland areas on both U.S. coasts and around the world by the year 2100 . In April 2008 , TIME magazine wrote that `` On -LSB- Romm 's -RSB- blog and in his most recent book , Hell and High Water , you can find some of the most cogent , memorable , and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming . '' Romm was interviewed on Fox News on January 31 , 2007 about the book and the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report climate report .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Hell_and_High_Water_(book)", "rank": 51, "score": 154986 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas inventory Content: Greenhouse gas inventories are a type of emission inventory that are developed for a variety of reasons . Scientists use inventories of natural and anthropogenic ( human-caused ) emissions as tools when developing atmospheric models . Policy makers use inventories to develop strategies and policies for emissions reductions and to track the progress of those policies . And , regulatory agencies and corporations rely on inventories to establish compliance records with allowable emission rates . Businesses , the public , and other interest groups use inventories to better understand the sources and trends in emissions . Unlike some other air emission inventories , greenhouse gas inventories include not only emissions from source categories , but also removals by carbon sinks . These removals are typically referred to as carbon sequestration . Greenhouse gas inventories , typically use Global warming potential ( GWP ) values to combine emissions of various greenhouse gases into a single weighted value of emissions . Some of the key examples of greenhouse gas inventories include : All Annex I countries are required to report annual emissions and sinks of greenhouse gases under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) National governments that are Parties to the UNFCCC and/or the Kyoto Protocol are required to submit annual inventories of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals from sinks . The Kyoto Protocol includes additional requirements for national inventory systems , inventory reporting , and annual inventory review for determining compliance with Articles 5 and 8 of the Protocol . Project developers under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol prepare inventories as part of their project baselines . Corporation and other entities can prepare greenhouse gas inventories to track progress towards meeting an emission reduction goal . Scientific efforts aimed at understanding detail of total net carbon exchange . Example : Project Vulcan - a comprehensive US inventory of fossil-fuel greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_inventory", "rank": 52, "score": 154945 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans", "rank": 53, "score": 153827 }, { "content": "Title: Air pollution in Germany Content: Air pollution in Germany has significantly decreased over the past decade . Air pollution occurs when harmful substances are released into the Earth 's atmosphere . These pollutants are released through human activity and natural sources . Germany took interest in reducing its greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions by switching to renewable energy sources . Renewable energy use rose from 6.3 % in 2000 to 34 % in 2016 . Through the transition to renewable energy sources , Germany has become the climate change policy leader and renewable energy leader in the European Union ( EU ) and in the world with ambitious climate change programs . The current goal of the German government was approved on 14 November 2016 in the German Climate Action Plan 2050 , which outlines measures by which Germany can meet its greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 . By 2050 , Germany wants to reduce their GHGs by 80 to 95 % and by 2030 they want to reduce it by 55 % , compared to the EU target of 40 % . In order to achieve these goals , a variety of strategies and policies are used rather than legislation . The four strategies the German government bases air pollution control on are laying down environmental quality standards , emission reduction requirements according to the best available technology , production regulations , and laying down emission ceilings . Through these strategies , policy instruments have been put in place that have contributed to the success of the significant air pollution reduction in Germany . These instruments include the Federal Emission Control Act and Implementing Ordinances , Technical Instructions on Air Quality Control ( TA Luft ) , Amendment to Ordinance on Small Firing Installations , Implementation of the directive on industrial emissions , and Transboundary air pollution control policy . The German Feed-in-Tariff policy introduced in 2000 led to the significant increase in renewable energy use and decreasing air pollution . They have been introduced in Germany to increase the use of renewables , such as wind power , biomass , hydropower , geothermal power , and photovoltaics , thereby reducing GHG emissions causing air pollution and combating climate change . The German government has been an agenda setter in international climate policy negotiations since the late 1980s . However , national and global climate policies have become a top priority since the conservative-social democratic government came into power in 2005 , pushing both European and international climate negotiations . Positive path dependency in Germany 's climate and energy policies has occurred over the past 20 years . There are three main triggers that put Germany on this positive path dependency and what led them to becoming a climate change policy leader . The first being the widespread damages to health , due to smog , and to nature , due to acid rain , caused by air pollution . The second being the shock of the two oil price crises , in 1973 and 1979 , that highlighted the problem of the German economy 's strong dependence on unsure foreign sources . The third being the growing opposition to the country 's growing reliance on nuclear energy . Air pollution began to be seen as a problem in Germany due to these three triggers , causing Germany to put policies into place to control air pollution . This has now developed from controlling air pollution to being a leader in climate change politics . __ TOC __", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Air_pollution_in_Germany", "rank": 54, "score": 153720 }, { "content": "Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Emission_Reduction_Unit", "rank": 55, "score": 153688 }, { "content": "Title: Decarbonisation measures in proposed UK electricity market reform Content: The United Kingdom is committed to legally binding greenhouse gas emissions reduction targets of 34 % by 2020 and 80 % by 2050 , compared to 1990 levels , as set out in the Climate Change Act 2008 . DECC ( 2008 ) . Climate Change Act . Decarbonisation of electricity generation will form a major part of this reduction and is essential before other sectors of the economy can be successfully decarbonised.DECC ( 2011a ) . Planning Our Electric Future : A White Paper for Secure , Affordable and Low-Carbon Electricity . The Government 's proposals for electricity market reform , published in a White Paper in July 2011 , included three initiatives to encourage decarbonisation of electricity generation in the UK : A Carbon Price Floor to complement the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) ; Feed-in tariffs which will eventually replace the Renewables Obligation ; and an Emissions Performance Standard to restrict future use of the most carbon intensive forms of generation . In implementing these proposals , the Government aims to attract investment in low-carbon generation , deliver security of supply through an appropriate mix of electricity sources and ensure a minimum amount of impact on consumer bills ; all this at a time when security of supply is threatened by scheduled closures of existing plants and both the demand for , and subsequently the price of , electricity is increasing .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Decarbonisation_measures_in_proposed_UK_electricity_market_reform", "rank": 56, "score": 153111 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Emissions Scenarios Content: The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) is a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was published in 2000 . The greenhouse gas emissions scenarios described in the Report have been used to make projections of possible future climate change . The SRES scenarios , as they are often called , were used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , published in 2001 , and in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , published in 2007 . The SRES scenarios were designed to improve upon some aspects of the IS92 scenarios , which had been used in the earlier IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . The SRES scenarios are `` baseline '' ( or `` reference '' ) scenarios , which means that they do not take into account any current or future measures to limit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions ( e.g. , the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ) . Emissions projections of the SRES scenarios are broadly comparable in range to the baseline emissions scenarios that have been developed by the scientific community . The SRES scenarios , however , do not encompass the full range of possible futures : emissions may change less than the scenarios imply , or they could change more . SRES was superseded by Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) in 2014 .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Emissions_Scenarios", "rank": 57, "score": 152584 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Climate_change_in_China", "rank": 58, "score": 152580 }, { "content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources", "rank": 59, "score": 152338 }, { "content": "Title: Paris Agreement Content: The Paris Agreement ( Accord de Paris ) is an agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) dealing with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation , adaptation and finance starting in the year 2020 . The language of the agreement was negotiated by representatives of 195 countries at the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC in Paris and adopted by consensus on 12 December 2015 . It was opened for signature on 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) at a ceremony in New York . As of May 2017 , 195 UNFCCC members have signed the treaty , 147 of which have ratified it . After several European Union states ratified the agreement in October 2016 , there were enough countries that had ratified the agreement that produce enough of the world 's greenhouse gases for the agreement to enter into force . The agreement went into effect on 4 November 2016 . The head of the Paris Conference , France 's foreign minister Laurent Fabius , said this `` ambitious and balanced '' plan is a `` historic turning point '' in the goal of reducing global warming . One year on , the ratification of the Paris Agreement was celebrated by the Mayor of Paris Anne Hidalgo by illuminating the Eiffel Tower and the Arc de Triomphe , Paris ' most iconic monuments , in green .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Paris_Agreement", "rank": 60, "score": 152080 }, { "content": "Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Economic_impacts_of_climate_change", "rank": 61, "score": 151808 }, { "content": "Title: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Content: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation , sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries ( REDD + ) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) since 2005 , with the objective of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries . Most of the key REDD + decisions were completed by 2013 , with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015 . In the last two decades , various studies estimate that land use change , including deforestation and forest degradation , accounts for 12-29 % of global greenhouse gas emissions . For this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC . During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol , and then in particular its Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , the inclusion of tropical forest management was debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in establishing -- in particular -- additionality and leakage ( detrimental effects outside of the project area attributable to project activities ) . What remained on forestry was `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' , sectoral scope 14 of the CDM . Under this sectoral scope areas of land that had no forest cover since 1990 could be replanted with commercial or indigenous tree species . In its first eight years of operation 52 projects had been registered under the `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' scope of the CDM . The cumbersome administrative procedures and corresponding high transaction costs are often blamed for this slow uptake . Beyond the CDM , all developed countries that were parties to the Kyoto Protocol also committed to measuring and reporting on efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from forests . The United States also measures and reports on the net greenhouse gas sequestration in its forests . In response to what many perceived to be a failure to address a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions , the Coalition for Rainforest Nations ( CfRN ) was established and in 2005 they proposed to the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC policy approaches and positive incentives for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases stemming from tropical deforestation and forest degradation as a climate change mitigation measure .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation", "rank": 62, "score": 151414 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change and Emissions Management Amendment Act Content: __ NOTOC __ The Climate Change and Emissions Management Amendment Act of the Canadian province of Alberta was the first law of its type to impose greenhouse gas cuts on large industrial facilities . Starting from July 1 , 2007 , Alberta facilities that emit more than 100,000 tonnes of greenhouse gases per year will be required to reduce their emissions intensity by 12 percent under the Climate Change and Emissions Management Amendment Act . Companies have three ways to meet their reductions : they can make operating improvements , buy an Alberta-based credit , or contribute to the Climate Change and Emissions Management Fund . The regulations apply to about 100 large facilities which emit more than 100,000 tonnes of greenhouse gases a year . Those facilities account for about 70 per cent of Alberta 's industrial greenhouse gas emissions . The annual cost of compliance is estimated to be $ 177 million - or less than one tenth of one per cent of Alberta 's nominal GDP ( $ 242 billion in 2006 ) .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Climate_Change_and_Emissions_Management_Amendment_Act", "rank": 63, "score": 150999 }, { "content": "Title: Compact of Mayors Content: The Compact of Mayors is a global coalition of city leaders addressing climate change by pledging to cut greenhouse gas emissions and prepare for the future impacts of climate change . The Compact highlights cities ' climate impact while measuring their relative risk levels and carbon pollution . The Compact of Mayors seeks to show the importance of city climate action , both at the local level and around the world . The Compact was launched in 2014 by UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and former New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg , the UN Special Envoy for Cities and Climate Change . The Compact represents a common effort from global city networks C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group ( C40 ) , ICLEI , and United Cities and Local Governments ( UCLG ) , as well as UN-Habitat , to unite against climate change . 428 global cities have committed to the Compact of Mayors . The collective member cities comprise over 376 million people and 5.19 % of the global population .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Compact_of_Mayors", "rank": 64, "score": 150979 }, { "content": "Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "California_Senate_Bill_32", "rank": 65, "score": 150946 }, { "content": "Title: Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate Content: The Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate , also known as APP , was an international , voluntary , public-private partnership among Australia , Canada , India , Japan , the People 's Republic of China , South Korea , and the United States announced July 28 , 2005 at an Association of South East Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) Regional Forum meeting and launched on January 12 , 2006 at the Partnership 's inaugural Ministerial meeting in Sydney . As of 5 April 2011 , the Partnership formally concluded although a number of individual projects continue . The conclusion of the APP and cancellation of many of its projects attracted almost no media comment . Foreign , Environment and Energy Ministers from partner countries agreed to co-operate on the development and transfer of technology which enables reduction of greenhouse gas emissions that is consistent with and complementary to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and other relevant international instruments , and is intended to complement but not replace the Kyoto Protocol. , Ministers agreed to a Charter , Communique and Work Plan that `` outline a ground-breaking new model of private-public task forces to address climate change , energy security and air pollution . '' Member countries account for over 50 % of the world 's greenhouse gas emissions , energy consumption , GDP and population . Unlike the Kyoto Protocol ( currently unratified by the United States ) , which imposes mandatory limits on greenhouse gas emissions , the Partnership engages member countries to accelerate the development and deployment of clean energy technologies , with no mandatory enforcement mechanism . This has led to criticism that the Partnership is worthless , by other governments , climate scientists and environmental groups . Proponents , on the other hand , argue that unrestricted economic growth and emission reductions can only be brought about through active engagement by all major polluters , which includes India and China , within the Kyoto Protocol framework neither India nor China are yet required to reduce emissions . Canada became the 7th member of the APP at the Second Ministerial Meeting in New Delhi on October 15 , 2007 . Canada 's Prime Minister Stephen Harper earlier expressed his intention to join the Partnership in August 2007 , despite some domestic opposition .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Asia-Pacific_Partnership_on_Clean_Development_and_Climate", "rank": 66, "score": 150815 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 67, "score": 150727 }, { "content": "Title: The 2030 °Challenge Content: The 2030 ° Challenge is an initiative by Edward Mazria and Architecture 2030 asking the global architecture and construction community to adopt a series of greenhouse gas reduction targets for new and renovated buildings . In many developed countries the construction and use of buildings is the leading consumer of energy and producer of greenhouse gas emissions . Stabilizing and reversing emissions in this sector is key to keeping future global warming under one degree celsius ( ° C ) above today 's level , in order to avoid increased global warming , potentially to reach a tipping point .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "The_2030_°Challenge", "rank": 68, "score": 150294 }, { "content": "Title: Stratospheric aerosol injection (climate engineering) Content: The ability of stratospheric sulfate aerosols to create a global dimming effect has made them a possible candidate for use in solar radiation management climate engineering projects to limit the effect and impact of climate change due to rising levels of greenhouse gases . Delivery of precursor sulfide gases such as sulfuric acid , hydrogen sulfide or sulfur dioxide by artillery , aircraft and balloons has been proposed . It presently appears that this proposed method could counter most climatic changes , take effect rapidly , have very low direct implementation costs , and be reversible in its direct climatic effects . One study calculated the impact of injecting sulfate particles , or aerosols , every one to four years into the stratosphere in amounts equal to those lofted by the volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , but did not address the many technical and political challenges involved in potential solar radiation management efforts . If found to be economically , environmentally and technologically viable , such injections could provide a `` grace period '' of up to 20 years before major cutbacks in greenhouse gas emissions would be required , the study concludes . It has been suggested that the direct delivery of precursors could be achieved using sulfide gases such as dimethyl sulfide , sulfur dioxide , carbonyl sulfide , or hydrogen sulfide . These compounds would be delivered using artillery , aircraft ( such as the high-flying F-15C ) or balloons , and result in the formation of compounds with the sulfate anion SO42 − . According to estimates , `` one kilogram of well placed sulfur in the stratosphere would roughly offset the warming effect of several hundred thousand kilograms of carbon dioxide . ''", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_(climate_engineering)", "rank": 69, "score": 149512 }, { "content": "Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Contraction_and_Convergence", "rank": 70, "score": 149427 }, { "content": "Title: Global Climate Coalition Content: The Global Climate Coalition ( GCC ) ( 1989 -- 2001 ) was an international lobbyist group of businesses that opposed action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and challenged the science behind global warming . The GCC was the largest industry group active in climate policy and the most prominent industry advocate in international climate negotiations . The GCC was involved in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol , and played a role in blocking ratification by the United States . The coalition promoted the views of climate skeptics . The GCC dissolved in 2001 after membership declined in the face of improved understanding of the role of greenhouse gases in climate change and of public criticism .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Global_Climate_Coalition", "rank": 71, "score": 148825 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation", "rank": 72, "score": 148652 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport", "rank": 73, "score": 148517 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007", "rank": 74, "score": 148495 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center", "rank": 75, "score": 148320 }, { "content": "Title: New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers Climate Change Action Plan 2001 Content: The New England Governors and Eastern Canadian Premiers ( NEG-ECP ) Climate Change Action Plan 2001 is a resolution adopted on August 28 , 2001 , by the New England Governors and the Eastern Canadian Premiers . The resolution calls for a reduction in greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions to 1990 levels by 2010 , at least 10 % below 1990 levels by 2020 , and a 75-85 % reduction of 2001 levels as a long-term goal . Participating are the six states belonging to New England : Connecticut , Maine , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , Rhode Island , and Vermont ; as well as the Eastern Canadian provinces : New Brunswick , Newfoundland and Labrador , Nova Scotia , Prince Edward Island , and Quebec . In addition , the Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management ( NESCAUM ) is building a Regional Greenhouse Gas Registry ( RGGR ) to help track emissions in the region . This effort is similar to that of the California Climate Action Registry .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "New_England_Governors_and_Eastern_Canadian_Premiers_Climate_Change_Action_Plan_2001", "rank": 76, "score": 148230 }, { "content": "Title: Methane emissions Content: Global methane emissions are major part of the global greenhouse gas emissions . Methane in the atmosphere has a 100-year global warming potential of 34 .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Methane_emissions", "rank": 77, "score": 148185 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report", "rank": 78, "score": 147659 }, { "content": "Title: Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases Content: The Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases , created in 1985 , was an advisory body for the review of studies into the greenhouse effect . The group was created by the International Council of Scientific Unions , the United Nations Environment Programme , and the World Meteorological Organization to follow up on the recommendations of the International conference of the Assessment of the role of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts , held at Villach , Austria , in October 1985 . The seven-member panel included Swedish meteorologist Bert Bolin and Canadian climatologist Kenneth Hare . The group held its last meeting in 1990 . It was gradually replaced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Advisory_Group_on_Greenhouse_Gases", "rank": 79, "score": 147646 }, { "content": "Title: Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 Content: The Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008 , also known as Senate Bill 375 or SB 375 , is a State of California law targeting greenhouse gas emissions from passenger vehicles . The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) sets goals for the reduction of statewide greenhouse gas emissions . Passenger vehicles are the single largest source of greenhouse gas emissions statewide , accounting for 30 % of total emissions . SB 375 therefore provides key support to achieve the goals of AB 32 . SB 375 instructs the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) to set regional emissions ' reduction targets from passenger vehicles . The Metropolitan Planning Organization for each region must then develop a `` Sustainable Communities Strategy '' ( SCS ) that integrates transportation , land-use and housing policies to plan for achievement of the emissions target for their region . In a press release the day he signed the bill into law , Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger stated , `` What this will mean is more environmentally-friendly communities , more sustainable developments , less time people spend in their cars , more alternative transportation options and neighborhoods we can safely and proudly pass on to future generations . ''", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Sustainable_Communities_and_Climate_Protection_Act_of_2008", "rank": 80, "score": 147619 }, { "content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia", "rank": 81, "score": 147212 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe", "rank": 82, "score": 147118 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals", "rank": 83, "score": 146954 }, { "content": "Title: Turning the Corner Plan Content: Turning the Corner Plan is a Canadian climate change action plan introduced by the Harper Conservative Government in April 2007 by then Minister of the Environment John Baird . Turning the Corner has plans set out to reduce Canada 's greenhouse gas emissions by 20 % relative to 2006 levels by 2020 , and reductions of 60 to 70 percent below 2006 levels by 2050 .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Turning_the_Corner_Plan", "rank": 84, "score": 146919 }, { "content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Climate_system", "rank": 85, "score": 146315 }, { "content": "Title: California Proposition 23 (2010) Content: Proposition 23 was a California ballot proposition that was on the November 2 , 2010 California statewide ballot . It was defeated by California voters during the statewide election by a 23 % margin . If passed , it would have suspended AB 32 , a law enacted in 2006 , legally referred to its long name , the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 . Sponsors of the initiative referred to their measure as the California Jobs Initiative while opponents called it the Dirty Energy Prop . The goal of the proposition was to freeze the provisions of AB 32 until California 's unemployment rate dropped to 5.5 % or below for four consecutive quarters . Since the rate was then at 12.4 % , and it had been decades since the state had seen an unemployment rate below 5.5 % for such a period of time , this wording was seen by former Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger and others as a wording trick to delay the environmental regulations indefinitely . AB 32 requires that greenhouse emission levels in the state be cut to 1990 levels by 2020 , in a gradual process of cutting that is slated to begin in 2012 . Reducing greenhouse emission levels to 1990 levels will involve cutting them by about 15 % from 2010 levels . AB 32 includes a provision allowing the Governor of California to suspend the provisions of AB 32 if there are `` extraordinary circumstances '' in place , such as `` significant economic harm '' . The supporters of Prop 23 , Assemblyman Dan Logue and Ted Costa , decided to circulate a petition to accomplish a suspension of the environmental regulations . Governor Schwarzenegger , as well as the major party candidates for Governor , Jerry Brown , and Meg Whitman , all stated they would vote `` no '' on Prop 23 . Brown however favored `` adjustments '' to AB 32 , while Whitman would have immediately suspended the law . Louise Bedsworth , a research fellow at the Public Policy Institute of California , predicted in April 2010 that total campaign spending on this proposition would top the $ 154 million record set in 2006 by Proposition 87 . If campaign spending on the proposition does reach that level , it could be because supporters and opponents view the battle over the suspension of AB 32 as symbolic in the larger national debate over global warming . Steven Maviglio , speaking for a group that wants to keep AB 32 intact , said , '' ... this could be a ground zero for the battle for the future of clean energy '' .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "California_Proposition_23_(2010)", "rank": 86, "score": 146197 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009 Content: The Climate Change ( Scotland ) Act 2009 is an Act of the Scottish Parliament . The Act includes an emissions target , set for the year 2050 , for a reduction of at least 80 % from the baseline year , 1990 . Annual targets for greenhouse gas emissions must also be set , after consultation the relevant advisory bodies . Provisions are included in the Act for the creation of a Scottish Committee on Climate Change , as at present the only advisory body is the UK-wide Committee on Climate Change . Ministers in parliament must now report on the progress of these targets . As of January 2011 , public sector bodies in Scotland must comply with new guidelines set out by the Scottish Government .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Climate_Change_(Scotland)_Act_2009", "rank": 87, "score": 145630 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 Content: The Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 , or Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 , is a California State Law that fights global warming by establishing a comprehensive program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from all sources throughout the state . AB 32 was authored by then-Assembly member Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez ( D-Los Angeles ) and signed into law by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger on September 27 , 2006 . On June 1 , 2005 , Governor Schwarzenegger signed an executive order known as Executive Order S-3-05 which established greenhouse gas emissions targets for the state . The executive order required the state to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions levels to 2000 levels by 2010 , to 1990 levels by 2020 , and to a level 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . However , to implement this measure , the California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) needed authority from the legislature . The California State Legislature passed the Global Warming Solutions Act to address this issue and gave the CARB authority to implement the program . AB 32 requires the California Air Resources Board ( CARB or ARB ) to develop regulations and market mechanisms to reduce California 's greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year of 2020 , representing approximately a 30 % reduction statewide , with mandatory caps beginning in 2012 for significant emissions sources . The bill also allows the Governor to suspend the emissions caps for up to a year in case of emergency or significant economic harm . The State of California leads the nation in energy efficiency standards and plays a lead role in environmental protection , but is also the 12th largest emitter of carbon worldwide . Greenhouse gas emissions are defined in the bill to include all of the following : carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons . These are the same greenhouse gases listed in Annex A of the Kyoto Protocol .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Global_Warming_Solutions_Act_of_2006", "rank": 88, "score": 145549 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas accounting Content: Greenhouse gas accounting describes the way to inventory and audit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . A corporate or organisational greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions assessment quantifies the total greenhouse gases produced directly and indirectly from a business or organisation 's activities . Also known as a carbon footprint , it is a business tool that provides information with a basis for understanding and managing climate change impacts . The drivers for corporate GHG accounting include mandatory GHG reporting in directors ' reports , investment due diligence , shareholder and stakeholder communication , staff engagement , green messaging , and tender requirements for business and government contracts . Accounting for greenhouse gas emissions is increasingly seen as a standard requirement for business . For example , in June 2012 , the UK coalition government announced the introduction of mandatory carbon reporting , requiring around 1,100 of the UK 's largest listed companies to report their greenhouse gas emissions every year . Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg confirmed that emission reporting rules would come into effect from April 2013 in his piece for The Guardian . Guidance for accounting for GHG emissions from organizations and emission reduction projects is provided by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) GHG Protocol . For national GHG inventories , guidance is provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) methodology reports . The International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) also provides some general standards for greenhouse gas emissions at organisation level ( ISO 14064 - 1 ) and greenhouse gas emissions at project level ( ISO 14064 - 2 ) . Specifications to validate and verify relevant accountings are documented in ( ISO 14064 - 3 ) .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_accounting", "rank": 89, "score": 144971 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in New Zealand Content: Climate change in New Zealand refers to change in the climate of New Zealand on the scale of years , decades , centuries and longer periods of time . New Zealand is being affected by climate change and the impacts are predicted to increase in future . Anthropogenic global warming during the 20th century is apparent in the instrumental temperature record , in New Zealand 's participation in international treaties , and in social and political debates . Climate change is being responded to in a variety of ways by civil society and the government of New Zealand . An emissions trading scheme has been established and from 1 July 2010 , the energy and liquid fossil fuel sectors have obligations to report emissions and to obtain and surrender emissions units ( carbon credits ) .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Climate_change_in_New_Zealand", "rank": 90, "score": 144930 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Response (Emissions Trading) Amendment Act 2008 Content: The Climate Change Response ( Emissions Trading ) Amendment Act 2008 was a statute enacted in September 2008 by the Fifth Labour Government of New Zealand that established the first version of the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme , a national all-sectors all-greenhouse gases uncapped and highly internationally linked emissions trading scheme .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Climate_Change_Response_(Emissions_Trading)_Amendment_Act_2008", "rank": 91, "score": 144850 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions accounting Content: Greenhouse gas emissions accounting is a method of calculating the amount of greenhouse gases ( GHG ) emitted by a region in a given time-scale . A National Emissions Inventory ( NEI ) measuring a country 's GHG emissions in a year is required by the UNFCCC to provide a benchmark for the country 's emission reductions , and subsequently to evaluate international climate policies such as the Kyoto protocol ( although the original has now expired , extensions have been agreed ) as well as regional climate policies such as the EU Emissions Trading Scheme ( ETS ) . There are two conflicting ways of measuring GHG emissions : production-based ( sometimes referred to as territorial-based ) or consumption-based . Production-based emissions take place `` within national territory and offshore areas over which the country has jurisdiction '' . Consumption-based emissions encompass those emissions from domestic final consumption and those caused by the production of its imports . This means the importing country takes responsibility for emissions related to production of the exporting country 's exports . By these definitions production-based emissions include exports but exclude imports and emissions embodied in international trade , whereas consumption-based emissions refer to the reverse ( Table 1 ) . Which technique is applied by policymakers is fundamental as each can generate a very different NEI . Different NEIs would result in a country 's choosing different optimal mitigation activities , the wrong choice based on wrong information being potentially damaging . The application of production-based emissions accounting is currently favoured in policy terms , although much of the literature favours consumption-based accounting . The former method is criticised in the literature principally for its inability to allocate emissions embodied in international trade/transportation and the potential for carbon leakage .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_accounting", "rank": 92, "score": 144727 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Carbon_tax", "rank": 93, "score": 144676 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Greenhouse_debt", "rank": 94, "score": 144286 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Climate_change_in_South_Korea", "rank": 95, "score": 143874 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 96, "score": 143799 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Sweden Content: The issue of climate change in Sweden has received significant public and political attention and the mitigation of its effects has been high on the agenda of the three latest Governments of Sweden , the former Cabinet of Göran Persson ( -2006 ) , the previous Cabinet of Fredrik Reinfeldt ( 2006-2014 ) and the current Löfven cabinet ( 2014 - ) . Sweden aims for an energy supply system with zero net atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Sweden", "rank": 97, "score": 143437 }, { "content": "Title: UK Emissions Trading Scheme Content: The UK Emissions Trading Scheme was a voluntary emissions trading system created as a pilot prior to the mandatory European Union Emissions Trading Scheme which it now runs in parallel with . It ran from 2002 and it closed to new entrants in 2009 . Management of the scheme transferred to the Department of Energy and Climate Change in 2008 . At the time , the scheme was a novel economic approach , being the first multi-industry carbon trading system in the world . ( Denmark ran a pilot greenhouse gas trading scheme between 2001 and 2003 but this only involved eight electricity companies ) . It took note of the emerging international consensus on the benefits of carbon trading that were being proposed in the mandatory Kyoto Protocol , which had not been ratified at that time , and allowed government and corporate early movers and to gain experience in the auction process and the trading system that the later schemes have entailed . It ran in parallel to a tax on energy use , the Climate Change Levy , introduced in April 2001 , but companies could get a discount on the tax if they elected to make reductions through participation in the trading scheme . The voluntary trading scheme recruited 34 participants from UK industries and organisations who promised to make reductions in their carbon emissions , this has since expanded to 54 sectors of the UK economy . In return they received a share of a # 215 million `` incentive fund '' from the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( DEFRA ) . Each agreed to hold sufficient allowances to cover its actual emissions for that year , and participate in a cap and trade system , with an annually reducing cap . Each participant could then decide to take action to manage its emissions to exactly meet its target , or reduce its actual emissions below its target ( thereby releasing allowances that it could sell on , or save for use in future years ) , or buy allowances from other participants to cover any excess . From March 2002 , DEFRA ran an auction of emission allowances to perform allocations to participants , after the start of the mandatory EU scheme .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "UK_Emissions_Trading_Scheme", "rank": 98, "score": 142942 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme", "rank": 99, "score": 142715 }, { "content": "Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .", "qid": "3069", "docid": "American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut", "rank": 100, "score": 142383 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Department of Manufacturing Industry Content: The Department of Manufacturing Industry was an Australian government department that existed between June 1974 and December 1975 .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Department_of_Manufacturing_Industry", "rank": 1, "score": 124807 }, { "content": "Title: Balance of payments of Australia Content: In trade terms , the Australian economy has had persistently large current account deficits for more than 50 years . One single factor that undermines balance of payments is Australia 's narrow export base . Dependent upon commodities , the Australian government has endeavoured to redevelop the Australian manufacturing sector . This initiative , also known as microeconomic reform , has helped Australian manufacturing to grow from 10.1 % in 1983-1984 to 17.8 % in 2003-2004 . There are other factors that have contributed to the extremely high current account deficit that Australia has today . Lack of international competitiveness and heavy reliance on capital goods from overseas might increase Australia 's current account deficit in the future . Low levels of national savings also contribute to high current account deficits . This is because excessive expenditure will force a lot of businesses to seek funds overseas . At the same time , when governments run constant budget deficits , they meet their monetary requirements by borrowing from the domestic sector . Economists refer to the ` crowding out effect ' to explain this economic situation . When governments borrow from the domestic sector , they force the private sector to ` crowd out ' . Since there are n't enough funds available within the domestic economy , the private sector is forced to borrow funds from overseas . The borrowing of funds is simply typed into the borrowers account at interest to the lender and the fractional reserve banking system kicks in via computerised lendings . Borrowing from overseas causes Australia 's current account deficit to increase , leading to a major increase in credit debt expansion . On the other hand , there is nothing wrong with the debt growing if Gross Domestic Product grows at the same time . That is , current account deficit has to stay within a range of 4-5 % in order to meet regular interest repayments on foreign debt whilst maintaining perpetual servitude of the borrower and interest repayments to the lender . However , excessive current account deficit , combined with low investor confidence and the possibility of a currency crisis , may force the central bank to implement contractionary macroeconomic policies to restrict economic growth . When economic growth or activity is being restricted , low investment and low levels of expenditure will generally restrain the current account from growing . Nevertheless , Australia 's current account deficit needs a long term solution in order to secure the Australian economy 's viability . Many economists , notably John Pitchford , argued that choices whether to borrow or lend are dealt with between private or ` consenting adults ' and in consequence no governmental intervention is necessary . There are also other experts who argue that Australia 's high current account deficit will undermine the Australian dollar and that it might experience a similar crisis experienced by the Thai currency that foreshadowed major economic crisis .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Balance_of_payments_of_Australia", "rank": 2, "score": 122173 }, { "content": "Title: Government Aircraft Factories Content: Government Aircraft Factories ( GAF ) was the name of an aircraft manufacturer owned by the Government of Australia based at Fishermans Bend , a suburb of Melbourne in Victoria . It had its origins in the lead-up to World War II , during which it was known as the Department of Aircraft Production ( DAP ) . In 1987 , GAF was reorganised and renamed as Aerospace Technologies of Australia ( ASTA ) then privatised . ASTA subsequently formed the nucleus of Boeing Australia .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Government_Aircraft_Factories", "rank": 3, "score": 118183 }, { "content": "Title: Jackson Committee Content: The Jackson Committee was established in 1974 by the Whitlam government of Australia to advise on policies for Australia 's manufacturing industry . The committee was chaired by R.G. Jackson , the then general manager and a director of CSR Ltd. . Its report advocated a move towards a more open economy , with gradual structural adjustment of Australia 's manufacturing sector . However , it was criticised over its call for increased assistance to manufacturing through grants and tax concessions and its suggestion that exchange-rate policy should offer more support for the sector . Category : Political history of Australia", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Jackson_Committee", "rank": 4, "score": 117084 }, { "content": "Title: Australian referendum, 1946 (Social Services) Content: Constitution Alteration ( Social Services ) 1946 proposed to extend the powers of government over a range of social services . The question was put to a referendum in the Australian referendum , 1946 with two other ( unrelated ) questions . It was carried and inserted s51 ( xxiiiA ) into section 51 of the Australian Constitution .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australian_referendum,_1946_(Social_Services)", "rank": 5, "score": 114246 }, { "content": "Title: Department of Innovation, Industry, Science and Research Content: The Department of Innovation , Industry , Science and Research ( also called DIISR ) was a department of the Australian Government that existed between December 2007 and December 2011 . The Department was charged with further developing growth in Australian industries and advancements in science and research . Ministers with responsibility for the department included Kim Carr , Minister for Innovation , Industry , Science and Research and Nick Sherry , Minister for Small Business . The department was responsible for : Manufacturing and commerce including industry and market development Industry innovation policy and technology diffusion Promotion of industrial research and development , and commercialisation Biotechnology , excluding gene technology regulation Export services Marketing , including export promotion , of manufactures and services Investment promotion Enterprise improvement Construction industry Small business policy and implementation Business entry point management Facilitation of the development of service industries generally Bounties on the production of goods Trade marks , plant breeders ' rights and patents of inventions and designs Country of origin labelling Weights and measures standards Civil space issues Analytical laboratory services Science policy Promotion of collaborative research in science and technology Co-ordination of research policy Commercialisation and utilisation of public sector research relating to portfolio programs and agencies Research grants and fellowships Information and communications technology industry development The Department was made up of several divisions including Innovation , Manufacturing , Science & Research , Corporate , Industry & Small Business Policy , eBusiness and Questacon . The Enterprise Connect and AusIndustry divisions served as the program delivery arms of the Department . The department was headed by a Secretary , initially Mark Paterson , who was succeeded in June 2011 by Don Russell .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Department_of_Innovation,_Industry,_Science_and_Research", "rank": 6, "score": 114028 }, { "content": "Title: Biosecurity Australia Content: Biosecurity Australia is an arm of the Australian Government Department of Agriculture , Fisheries and Forestry . It provides science-based quarantine assessments and policy advice to protect Australian agricultural industry , and to enhance Australia 's access to international animal and plant related markets . Biosecurity Australia also provides policy advice to the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service ( AQIS ) concerning the importation of quarantine risk material to Australia . AQIS ultimately sets the rules concerning the imports , not Biosecurity Australia . Biosecurity Australia 's headquarters is located in the Edmund Barton Building on Broughton Street in Barton , ACT .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Biosecurity_Australia", "rank": 7, "score": 110253 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Industry Group Content: The Australian Industry Group , also called Ai Group , is an employers ' organisation , whose members employ over 750,000 staff from throughout Australia . The organisation covers a wide range of industries including manufacturing ; engineering ; construction ; automotive ; food ; transport ; information technology ; telecommunications ; call centres ; labour hire ; printing ; defence ; mining equipment and supplies ; airlines ; and other related service industries . It is one of the largest industry organisations in Australia . The Australian Industry Group actively collaborates with such institutions as the Housing Industry Association , the accountancy firm PriceWaterhouseCoopers , and the Commonwealth Bank of Australia to produce surveys of the various industries it represents , releasing both status reports on large sections of the Australian economy , and of specific industries like the Australian construction industry and the manufacturing sector . Deloitte sponsors Ai Group 's premier annual event the National Forum and Annual National Dinner . The group maintains influences in a variety of public policy areas , weighing in on such issues as the response to the Fair Work Act 2009 , minimum wage , skill shortages , environment and energy , occupational health and safety , trade , and defence . The Australian Industry Group provides information , advice and assistance to help members . Through policy leadership and research-based advocacy members are represented at all levels of government by representing and promoting their interests on current and emerging issues . Ai Group members operate small , medium and large businesses . They include many major Australian and global companies operating in a range of industries . The Group employs more than 300 staff and 550 apprentices and trainees through its training arm , Australian Industry Group Training Services . The organisation includes workplace relations advisers , lawyers and employment and business specialists who provide services to members in the areas of : workplace relations ; legal ; human resource management ; occupational health and safety ; workers ' compensation ; the environment and energy ; international trade and export ; economics ; tax ; business growth and skills . Innes Willox is the Chief Executive of Ai Group and their chief spokesperson . Heather Ridout previously held the role . Ai Group also operates the Ai Group Defence Council , which is the peak body representing the Defence industry in Australia . Ai Group also manages the Australian Constructors Association . Ai Group is closely affiliated with more than 50 other employer groups in Australia alone and directly manages a number of those organisations . The organisation has formal and long standing links with more than 80 overseas employer organisations such as the Confederation of Indian Industry ; the Chinese Machinery Industry Federation ; The Osaka Chamber of Commerce and Industry ; the Federation of Malaysian Manufacturers ; the US National Association of Manufacturers ; the Confederation of British Industry and Business New Zealand . The Australian Industry Group traces its foundations back to 1873 , with the creation of the Metal Trades Industry Association ( MTIA ) . In 1998 , MTIA merged with the Australian Chamber of Manufactures ( ACM ) , forming Ai Group . Ai Group has a strong media presence and is also on Twitter with the account @The_AiGroup .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australian_Industry_Group", "rank": 8, "score": 108916 }, { "content": "Title: Energy policy of Australia Content: The energy policy of Australia is subject to the regulatory and fiscal influence of all three levels of government in Australia , although only the State and Federal levels determine policy for primary industries such as coal . As of 2016 , Federal energy policies continue to support the coal mining and natural gas industries through subsidies for fossil fuel use and production as the exports by those industries contribute significantly to the earnings of foreign exchange and government revenues . Australia is one of the most coal-dependent countries in the world . Coal and natural gas , along with oil-based products , are currently the primary sources of Australian energy usage and the coal industry produces approximately 38 % of Australia 's total greenhouse gas emissions . In 2015 Federal policy reverted to a pro-coal economy with cuts to alternate and renewable energy government offices , targets and subsidies Federal climate change policy changed following the election of the Labor Rudd Government in December 2007 , which committed to introduce an Emissions Trading Scheme in 2010 , and to expand the mandatory renewable energy target to ensure 20 % of electricity supply in Australia was from renewable sources by 2020 . After a contentious political debate , a carbon pricing mechanism entered force on 1 July 2012 under Prime Minister Julia Gillard , but was repealed by the Abbott Government in 2014 . In June 2015 the Abbott Government downgraded the renewable energy target from 41,000 GWh per year to 33,000 GWh . As of 2013 , Australia was now only the 12th highest emitter of greenhouse gases per capita in the world , and 16th ( behind China , Russia . the US , Germany , the UK , Japan , India and other major developed nations ) , in total CO2 emissions ( kt per year ) . Renewable energy commercialisation in Australia is an area of growing activity . Australia 's renewable energy industries are diverse , covering numerous energy sources and scales of operation , and currently contribute about 8 -- 10 % of Australia 's total energy supply . The major area where renewable energy is growing is in electricity generation following the introduction of government Mandatory Renewable Energy Targets . The two most populous states , New South Wales and Victoria have renewable energy targets of 20 % and 25 % respectively by 2020 .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Energy_policy_of_Australia", "rank": 9, "score": 108891 }, { "content": "Title: Department of Industry (Australia) Content: The Australian Department of Industry was a department of the Australian Government charged with shaping Australia 's future economy through skills , discovery and innovation . The Department existed between September 2013 and December 2014 . Ministerial officeholders were : The Minister for Industry the Hon Ian Macfarlane The Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister for Industry the Hon Bob Baldwin", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Department_of_Industry_(Australia)", "rank": 10, "score": 108696 }, { "content": "Title: Lives at Risk Content: Lives at Risk is a book about modern health care systems . It examines the flaws of current health care systems and proposes reforms for the American health care system . In doing so it examines twenty common assumptions about government involvement in health care systems which they argue are myths . The book continues on to discuss the economics and politics behind health care in the United States , and proposes market based reforms .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Lives_at_Risk", "rank": 11, "score": 107341 }, { "content": "Title: National Industrial Chemicals Notification and Assessment Scheme Content: The National Industrial Chemicals Notification and Assessment Scheme ( NICNAS ) is the Australian government 's regulatory body for industrial chemicals . NICNAS is designed to help protect workers , the public and the environment from the harmful effects of industrial chemicals . It does so by making risk assessment and safety information on chemicals widely available and providing recommendations for their safe use . NICNAS also informs importers and manufacturers of their legal responsibilities .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "National_Industrial_Chemicals_Notification_and_Assessment_Scheme", "rank": 12, "score": 107270 }, { "content": "Title: Department of Industry and Science Content: The Department of Industry and Science was a department of the Australian Government responsible for consolidating the Government 's efforts to drive economic growth , productivity and competitiveness by bringing together industry , energy , resources and science .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Department_of_Industry_and_Science", "rank": 13, "score": 107179 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Taxation Office Content: The Australian Taxation Office ( ATO ) is an Australian government statutory agency and the principal revenue collection body for the Australian government . The ATO has responsibility for administering the Australian federal taxation system , superannuation legislation , and other associated matters . Responsibility for the operations of the ATO are within the portfolio of the federal Treasurer . As the Australian government 's principal revenue collection body , the ATO collects income tax , goods and services tax ( GST ) and other federal taxes . The ATO also has responsibility for managing the Australian Business Register , delivering the Higher Education Loan Program , delivering many Australian government payments and administering key components of Australia 's superannuation system .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australian_Taxation_Office", "rank": 14, "score": 107049 }, { "content": "Title: Small Arms Ammunition Factory Content: The Small Arms Ammunition Factories were ammunition manufacturing plants run by the Australian government . Nearly all of their production was for domestic use by their military , the police forces , and government-appointed agents .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Small_Arms_Ammunition_Factory", "rank": 15, "score": 106816 }, { "content": "Title: Great Depression in Australia Content: Australia suffered badly during the period of the Great Depression of the 1930s . The Depression began with the Wall Street Crash of October , 1929 and rapidly spread worldwide . As in other nations , Australia suffered years of high unemployment , poverty , low profits , deflation , plunging incomes , and lost opportunities for economic growth and personal advancement . The Australian economy and foreign policy largely rested upon its place as a primary producer within the British Empire , and Australia 's important export industries , particularly primary products such as wool and wheat , suffered significantly from the collapse in international demand . Unemployment reached a record high of around 30 % in 1932 , and gross domestic product declined by 10 % between 1929 and 1931 . There were also incidents of civil unrest , particularly in Australia 's largest city , Sydney . Though Australian Communist and far right movements were active in the Depression , they remained largely on the periphery of Australian politics , failing to achieve the power shifts obtained in Europe , and the democratic political system of the young Australian Federation survived the strain of the period . The Scullin Labor Government had just assumed power in 1929 when the Labor movement split over how to deal with the crisis , with Treasurer Ted Theodore failing to have his inflationary plan pass Parliament , New South Wales Premier Jack Lang losing office over a proposal to default on international loan payments , and Labor defector Joseph Lyons forming the United Australia Party which provided stable and more fiscally conservative government from 1932 until his death in 1939 . Thus Australia , unlike the United States , did not embark on a significant Keynesian program of spending to recover from the Depression . Nevertheless , the Australian recovery began around 1932 . Australians took consolation from sporting achievements through the Depression , with cricketer Don Bradman and race horse Phar Lap achieving long-lasting fame .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Great_Depression_in_Australia", "rank": 16, "score": 106410 }, { "content": "Title: Stronger Futures policy Content: The Stronger Futures policy is a multifaceted social policy of the Australian government concerning the aboriginal population of the Northern Territory . On 23 November 2011 , the Stronger Futures legislation was introduced in the Parliament of Australia by Jenny Macklin , the Minister for Families , Community Services and Indigenous Affairs , and was subsequently supported by the Prime Minister , Julia Gillard . The policy intends to address key issues that exist within Aboriginal communities of the Northern Territory such as unemployment , school enrolment and attendance , alcohol abuse , community safety and child protection , food security , and housing and land reforms . Several years of similar initiatives preceded the policy , including the Building Stronger Regions , Stronger Futures policy , New Local Government policy , and the Northern Territory Emergency Response Act . The Stronger Futures legislation maintains key components of the Northern Territory Emergency Response Act and includes bills such as the Stronger Futures in the Northern Territory Bill of 2011 , Stronger Futures in the Northern Territory ( Consequential and Transitional Provisions ) Bill 2011 and the Social Security Legislation Amendment Bill of 2011 . The legislation proposed to extend both the time frame and the geographic scope of these measures . The Stronger Futures legislation was passed in the House of Representatives with small changes on 27 February 2012 and was passed by the Senate on 29 June . The Australian Government claims that consultations with Aboriginal communities of the Northern Territory helped construct the Stronger Futures . The policy has been criticised by organisations such as Amnesty International , Concerned Citizens of Australia and most of the major Christian church denominations . The Stand for Freedom campaign leads the public movement against this legislation and criticises many measures of the legislation since they maintain `` racially-discriminatory '' elements of the Northern Territory Emergency Response Act and continue the control of the Australian Government over `` Aboriginal people and their lands . '' In addition , the campaign advocates the inadequacy of the Aboriginal consultations and discusses how the decisions derived from these consultations rarely coincided with the actual desires of the affected communities . However , members of the Australian Government continue to voice support for the Stronger Futures policy .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Stronger_Futures_policy", "rank": 17, "score": 106168 }, { "content": "Title: Government of Australia Content: The Government of the Commonwealth of Australia ( also referred to as the Australian Government , the Commonwealth Government , or the Federal Government ) is the government of the Commonwealth of Australia , a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy . The Commonwealth of Australia was formed in 1901 as a result of an agreement among six self-governing British colonies , which became the six states . The terms of this contract are embodied in the Australian Constitution , which was drawn up at a Constitutional Convention and ratified by the people of the colonies at referendums . The Australian head of state is the Queen of Australia who is represented by the Governor-General of Australia , with executive powers delegated by constitutional convention to the Australian head of government , the Prime Minister of Australia . The Government of the Commonwealth of Australia is divided into the executive branch , composed of the Federal Executive Council presided by the Governor-General , which delegates powers to the Cabinet of Australia led by the Prime Minister , the legislative branch composed of the Parliament of Australia 's House of Representatives and Senate , and the judicial branch composed of the High Court of Australia and federal courts . Separation of powers is implied by the structure of the Constitution , the three branches of government being set out in separate chapters ( chs I to III ) . The Australian system of government combines elements of the Westminster and Washington systems with unique Australian characteristics , and has been characterised as a `` Washminster mutation '' .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Government_of_Australia", "rank": 18, "score": 105083 }, { "content": "Title: Australian referendum, 1984 (Interchange of Powers) Content: The Australian Constitution places some restraints on the ability of the State and Federal governments to freely cooperate . The Constitution Alteration ( Interchange of Powers ) 1984 proposal would have removed these barriers , such that the states and the federal government could freely interchange powers at will . The proposal was put to a referendum in the Australian referendum , 1984 .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australian_referendum,_1984_(Interchange_of_Powers)", "rank": 19, "score": 105011 }, { "content": "Title: Department of Agriculture and Water Resources Content: The Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources is responsible for developing and implementing policies and programmes that contribute to strengthening Australia 's primary industries , delivering better returns for primary producers at the farm gate , protecting Australia from animal and plant pests and diseases , and improving the health of Australia 's rivers and freshwater ecosystems . The Secretary of the Department of Agriculture and Water Resources , Daryl Quinlivan , is responsible to the Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Agriculture and Water Resources , the Hon Barnaby Joyce . The Assistant Minister for Agriculture and Water Resources is Senator the Hon Anne Ruston . The Assistant Minister to the Deputy Prime Minister is the Hon Luke Hartsuyker MP .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Department_of_Agriculture_and_Water_Resources", "rank": 20, "score": 104521 }, { "content": "Title: 2014 Australian federal budget Content: The 2014 Australian federal budget was the federal budget to fund government services and operations for the 2014/15 financial year . The 2014 budget was the first delivered by the Abbott Government , since the Coalition 's victory in the 2013 Australian federal election . Treasurer Joe Hockey presented the budget to the House of Representatives on 13 May 2014 . The budget featured significant changes to address a perceived deficit crisis . This included a proposed dramatic downsizing of government bureaucracy , and contained significant changes to welfare , new initiatives for a medical research fund and spending on roads . A budget surplus was not expected until 2023 . The austere budget faced widespread criticism and was overwhelmingly rejected by the Australian public as reflected in all opinion polls after its release . Opposition to `` unfair '' budget measures came from the opposition and cross-bench , pensioners , economists , the union movement , students and welfare , community and disability groups with some taking to the streets in protest . The budget included changes which were contrary to pre-election commitments and promises made by the Liberals in opposition . Critics argue that every one of the following pre-election commitments made by Tony Abbott were broken in the first budget : `` No cuts to education , no cuts to health , no change to pensions , no change to the GST and no cuts to the ABC or SBS . '' Echos of the `` dead and buried '' Fightback ! policy package from the 1993 election occurred with proposals to defer unemployment benefits for six months for under 30s and the removal of GP bulk billing . Most proposals have since been shelved , dumped or modified .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "2014_Australian_federal_budget", "rank": 21, "score": 104131 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Manufacturing Workers Union Content: The Australian Manufacturing Workers Union , or more fully , the Automotive , Food , Metals , Engineering , Printing and Kindred Industries Union ( AMWU ) ( `` The Metalworkers '' ) is an Australian trade union that is registered with the Australian Industrial Relations Commission and is affiliated with the Australian Council of Trade Unions . The AMWU is considered to be the most powerful left-wing union in the trade union movement . It is made up of five divisions , representing different industries or occupational groups : Vehicle division , Metal and Engineering division , the Food and Confectionery division , the Technical , Supervisory and Administrative division ( for white collar workers ) and the Printing division .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australian_Manufacturing_Workers_Union", "rank": 22, "score": 104066 }, { "content": "Title: WorkChoices Content: WorkChoices was the name given to changes made to the federal industrial relations laws in Australia by the Howard Government in 2005 , being amendments to the Workplace Relations Act 1996 by the Workplace Relations Amendment ( Work Choices ) Act 2005 , that came into effect on 27 March 2006 . In May 2005 , Prime Minister John Howard informed the Australian House of Representatives that the federal government intended to reform Australian industrial relations laws by introducing a unified national system . WorkChoices was ostensibly designed to improve employment levels and national economic performance by dispensing with unfair dismissal laws for companies under a certain size , removing the `` no disadvantage test '' which had sought to ensure workers were not left disadvantaged by changes in legislation , thereby promoting individual efficiency and requiring workers to submit their certified agreements directly to Workplace Authority rather than going through the Australian Industrial Relations Commission . It also made adjustments to a workforce 's ability to legally go on strike , enabling workers to bargain for conditions without collectivised representation , and significantly restricting trade union activity . The passing and implementation of the new laws was strongly opposed by the left side of politics , particularly the trade union movement . It was argued that the laws stripped away basic employee rights and were fundamentally unfair . The ACTU , the peak association for Australian trade unions , consistently ran television advertisements attacking the new laws launching its `` Your Rights at Work '' campaign opposing the changes . The campaign involved mass rallies and marches , television and radio advertisements , judicial action , and e-activism . The week of action culminated on Friday 1 July 2005 with a `` SkyChannel '' meeting of union delegates and members organised by Unions NSW . The meeting was followed by a large rally in Sydney and events in regional areas . Individual state governments also opposed the changes . For example , the Victorian Government introduced the Victorian Workplace Rights Advocate as a form of political resistance to the changes . WorkChoices was a major issue in the 2007 federal election , with the Australian Labor Party ( ALP ) led by Kevin Rudd vowing to abolish it . Labor won government at the 2007 election and repealed the whole of the WorkChoices legislation by the Fair Work Act 2009 .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "WorkChoices", "rank": 23, "score": 104046 }, { "content": "Title: Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia Survey Content: The Household , Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia ( HILDA ) survey is an Australian household-based panel study which began in 2001 . It has been used for examining issues such as the incidence of persistent poverty ; assets and income in the transition to retirement ; the correlates and impact of changes in physical and mental health ; and an international comparison of wealth and happiness . The survey is widely used by Australian and international researchers in the fields of economics , social science and social policy and by the Australian Government . The HILDA survey is managed by a small team from the Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research at the University of Melbourne and the national fieldwork is carried out by ACNielsen and Roy Morgan Research . The survey is funded by the Australian Government through the Department of Social Services . HILDA has the following key features : It collects information about economic and subjective well-being , labour market dynamics and family dynamics . Special questionnaire modules are included each wave and have covered topics such as wealth , retirement and fertility intentions . The wave 1 panel consisted of 7,682 households and 19,914 individuals . In wave 11 this was topped up with an additional 2,153 households and 5,477 individuals Interviews are conducted annually with all adult members of each household . Children are interviewed once they turn 15 . The panel members are followed over time . Funding has been guaranteed for 18 waves , and the survey is expected to continue beyond wave 18 . Data releases occur at the start of December . The release in December 2016 was for data collected from 2001 ( wave 1 ) to 2015 ( wave 15 ) . HILDA data , when weighted , describe the Australian population ( excluding those not living in households ) . The datasets ( PSPP/SPSS , SAS and Stata files ) are available for legitimate research purposes and application can be made from the HILDA website . The data are confidentialised by suppression of geographic and other identifying information . A bibliography of published research , the survey methodology , the questionnaires and a user manual are available from the HILDA website . HILDA data are integrated into the Cross-National Equivalent File ( CNEF ) which contains population panel data from Australia , Canada , Germany , Great Britain , Korea , Switzerland , Russia and the United States .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Household,_Income_and_Labour_Dynamics_in_Australia_Survey", "rank": 24, "score": 103908 }, { "content": "Title: Manufacturing in Australia Content: Manufacturing in Australia peaked in the 1960s at 25 % of the country 's gross domestic product , and has since dropped below 10 % .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Manufacturing_in_Australia", "rank": 25, "score": 103716 }, { "content": "Title: Australian industrial relations legislation national day of protest, 2005 Content: A national day of protest was held in Australia on 15 November 2005 , to protest against the industrial relations legislation being introduced by the government of Prime Minister John Howard . The day was organised by the Australian Council of Trade Unions ( ACTU ) and its state , territory and local affiliates , with the support of the Australian Labor Party , the Australian Greens , the Australian Democrats , and various other political and community organisations . Estimates of the number of people taking part varied widely , with organisers claiming more than 500,000 . Police and media estimates suggested that about 250,000 people took part in capital city rallies . Tens of Thousands of people also attended hundreds of meetings in rural and regional towns across Australia . Government ministers such as John Howard and Industrial Relations Minister Kevin Andrews said they would ignore the protests . Howard said that in a year 's time the legislation would be accepted . Andrews described the ACTU campaign as `` irresponsible and hysterical . '' The Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry said that `` more than 95 per cent of workers ignored the call-out to join the protest . '' Commonwealth Public Servants were prohibited from attending with one report saying `` The Department of Employment and Workplace Relations has just advised agencies that -LSB- the national day of community protest -RSB- is a form of industrial action and as such access to leave and flex leave should not be given to employees wishing to attend . '' In Melbourne , the rally , at Federation Square , was addressed by the Premier of Victoria , Steve Bracks , the ACTU President , Sharan Burrow , and the ACTU Secretary , Greg Combet . In Brisbane , the Premier of Queensland Peter Beattie and federal Labor Party Leader Kim Beazley addressed the rally , with Beazley promising to repeal the legislation if Labor wins the election expected in 2007 . Combet , who was the main organiser of the union movement 's resistance to the government 's legislation , told the Melbourne rally that `` working people will not be denied a central place in Australia 's future . Working families built this country . They fought and died for it . They do not deserve to have their rights at work taken away . '' Combet said the expected passage of the industrial relations bills through the Australian Senate in the next few weeks would not mark the defeat of the unions ' campaign . `` Rather , it will signal the start of a determined , relentless effort to overturn these laws and put in their place decent rights for the working people of this country , '' he said . Combet said that he and other union officials would `` not be intimidated '' by the prospect of the fines and imprisonment threatened in the legislation if officials break the new laws . `` Unions must continue to stand up for people , '' he said . `` As a union leader let me make this clear . I will not pay a $ 33,000 fine for asking for people to be treated fairly . '' This line drew an enormous cheer from the crowd . `` We must be disciplined and responsible , '' Combet said . `` There is no place for foolhardy or reckless behaviour . But we must also be firm in our resolve to stand up for people . It is true that it will take time for some people to be affected by the laws . But the rights of every person will be diminished . And for many the change will come quickly -- particularly the most vulnerable . '' Organisers estimated the Melbourne crowd at 245,000 protesters . Police estimated the crowd at 150,000 . Organisers claimed that 45,000 people marched in Sydney , while the Sydney Morning Herald put the number at 30,000 . Although Sydney is bigger than Melbourne , protest crowds are usually bigger in the southern city . Up to 120,000 people across New South Wales took part in 227 separate stopwork meetings , linked by a statewide video hook-up . Organisers claimed 40,000 marchers in Adelaide , 30,000 in Perth , 25,000 in Brisbane , 6,000 in Hobart , 5,000 in Canberra and 3,000 in Darwin . Rallies were held in about 300 cities and towns . The day of protest was largely peaceful , but in Sydney more than 3,000 transport workers voted to block the M4 , a major arterial route into the city , disrupting traffic . More than 15 freight trucks blocked traffic in both directions on the M4 , while seven trucks stopped traffic at the entrance to the M4 from the Homebush Bay overpass . Thousands of protesters sat on the road , chanting and waving placards . The blockage lasted about half an hour . In most places there was effective co-operation between the organisers and police . Unions warned that the day of protest was only the start of a campaign which would continue until the next election . Bill Shorten , national secretary of the Australian Workers ' Union , said : `` The strategy is to fight , to fight in the workplace , to fight in the community , to fight in the media and to get rid of the Howard government . ''", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australian_industrial_relations_legislation_national_day_of_protest,_2005", "rank": 26, "score": 103456 }, { "content": "Title: Department of Industry, Innovation and Science Content: The Department of Industry , Innovation and Science is a department of the Australian Government responsible for consolidating the Government 's efforts to drive economic growth , productivity and competitiveness by bringing together industry , energy , resources and science . The head of the department is the Secretary of the Department of Industry , Innovation and Science , presently Glenys Beauchamp ; who reports to the Minister for Industry , Innovation and Science , presently Senator the Hon. Arthur Sinodinos , and the Minister for Resources and Northern Australia , the Hon. Matthew Canavan . The ministers are assisted by the Assistant Minister for Industry , Innovation and Science , the Hon. Craig Laundy .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Department_of_Industry,_Innovation_and_Science", "rank": 27, "score": 103453 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme", "rank": 28, "score": 102849 }, { "content": "Title: Automotive industry in Australia Content: A substantial car industry was created in Australia in the 20th century through the opening of Australian plants by international manufacturers . The first major carmaker was the Ford Motor Company of Australia and the first Australian-designed mass production car was manufactured by Holden in 1948 . Australian manufacture of cars rose to a maximum of almost half a million in the 1970s ( 10th place in the World ) and still exceeded 400,000 in 2004 . Australia was best known for the design and production of ` large ' sized passenger vehicles . By 2009 total production had fallen to around 175,000 and the Australian market was dominated by cars imported from Asia and Europe . As of 2015 Australian-designed cars are made by General Motors subsidiary Holden , and Ford Australia , while Toyota Australia manufactures local variants of its international models , particularly the Camry . However , the Ford Australia engine and vehicle plants closed in October 2016 and the Holden and Toyota Australia factories are to close in late-2017 . Ford of Australia 's design and development facilities remain in operation and are expanding , leaving Australia as one of only a few countries with the capabilities to design and develop mass market cars from scratch .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Automotive_industry_in_Australia", "rank": 29, "score": 102266 }, { "content": "Title: History of fair use proposals in Australia Content: The history of fair-use proposals in Australia is a series of Australian government enquiries into the introduction of a `` flexible and open '' fair use system into Australian copyright law . Between 1998 and 2016 , eight enquiries examined , and in most cases recommended , the introduction of fair use in place of the current `` fair dealing '' system which allows copyrighted material to be used only if it meets one of four specific purposes as set out in the Act . A change to a fair-use system would allow copyright material to be used without the copyright owner 's consent in any circumstances where the use is fair , as judged against four `` fairness factors '' . A re-user need only address the four fairness factors proposed by the Australian Law Reform Commission and Productivity Commission , which are : The purpose and character of the use ; The nature of the copyright material ; The amount and substantiality of the part used ; and The effect of the use on the potential market for , or value of , the copyright material . Proponents of fair use describe it as a system which would '' ... maximise the net benefit to the community '' , reinforce that `` user interests should also be recognised by Australia 's copyright system '' , and that without it , '' ... the Australian copyright system will always have gaps , always be trying to catch up with new technologies and behaviours . '' They further argue that fair dealing is `` too limited and prescriptive in nature '' . Detractors of fair use say that it would introduce `` significant and unnecessary uncertainty into Australian law '' and that it is `` an American legal principle that has enabled large enterprises in the US to use copyright material for free '' . Fair use is also used in countries including Israel , Singapore , South Korea , and Poland . The copyright exception system -- either fair use or fair dealing -- is unrelated to parallel import restrictions , or the duration of the copyright term , although the three are often conflated in public debates .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "History_of_fair_use_proposals_in_Australia", "rank": 30, "score": 102187 }, { "content": "Title: Department of Environment, Housing and Community Development Content: The Department of Employment and Industrial Relations was an Australian government department that existed between December 1975 and December 1978 .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Department_of_Environment,_Housing_and_Community_Development", "rank": 31, "score": 102019 }, { "content": "Title: Tourism Australia Content: Tourism Australia is the Government of Australia agency responsible for promoting Australia to the world as a destination for business and leisure travel . Tourism Australia 's purpose is to increase the economic benefits to Australia of tourism , supporting the industry 's Tourism 2020 strategy , which aims to grow the overnight annual expenditure generated by tourism to as much as $ 140 billion by 2020 . The organisation is active in around 30 key markets , including Australia , where it aims to grow demand for the destination 's tourism experiences by promoting the unique attributes which will entice people to visit . Tourism Australia 's activities include advertising , public relations and media programs , trade shows and programs for the tourism industry , consumer promotions , online communications and consumer research .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Tourism_Australia", "rank": 32, "score": 101825 }, { "content": "Title: South Australian Science Council Content: The South Australian Science Council is a body which provides high level , independent science policy advice to the Government of South Australia and to the Chief Scientist of South Australia . It also oversees the implementation of the state 's Investing in Science action plan . Prior to June 2015 the council was known as the Premier 's Science and Industry Council , and prior to that , the Premier 's Science and Research Council . The council was established during the first term of the Rann Government in June 2002 `` to advise the government on strategies for boosting local science and research capabilities and improving levels of innovation . '' In 2011 , the council re-examined its priorities , and focused on the development of the State 's science and research capabilities `` in the critical area of adaptation to industry . '' Minister Tom Kenyon said the shift of focus was `` in line with the recommendations to revitalise manufacturing as proposed by the ` Thinker in Residence ' , Professor Göran Roos and in the establishment of the Department of Department for Manufacturing , Innovation , Trade , Resources and Energy . ''", "qid": "3070", "docid": "South_Australian_Science_Council", "rank": 33, "score": 100663 }, { "content": "Title: White Paper on Full Employment in Australia Content: The White Paper Full Employment in Australia was the defining document of economic policy in Australia for the 30 years between 1945 and 1975 . For the first time , the Australian government accepted an obligation to guarantee full employment and to intervene as necessary to implement that guarantee . The preparation of the paper was ordered by The Australian Labor Party Prime Minister John Curtin and his Employment Minister John Dedman and undertaken by a group of economists headed by H.C. Coombs . The contrasting experiences of the Great Depression and the Second World War convinced the Labor Party that governments could and must intervene to ensure the achievement of full employment . The introduction to the White Paper summed this up : Despite the need for more houses , food , equipment and every other type of product , before the war not all those available for work were able to find employment or to feel a sense of security in their future . On the average during the twenty years between 1919 and 1939 more than one-tenth of the men and women desiring work were unemployed . In the worst period of the depression well over 25 per cent were left in unproductive idleness . By contrast , during the war no financial or other obstacles have been allowed to prevent the need for extra production being satisfied to the limit of our resources . The basic ideas behind the White Paper were those set out by John Maynard Keynes in his 1936 work , The General Theory of Employment , Interest and Money . Keynes ' neoclassical contemporaries , argued that the economy was naturally self-correcting . Unless real wages were held above their market level by union action or government regulation , unemployment could only be a short run phenomenon . The neoclassical economists drew the same conclusion as that of the fundamentalists today -- that government action to reduce unemployment could only make matters worse in the long run . Keynes ' first , and perhaps most important , contribution was to show that the economy could remain at high levels of unemployment for indefinite periods in the absence of government action . As well as demonstrating the possibility of unemployment in equilibrium , Keynes provided an analysis of the causes of periodic unemployment and the basis for a policy response . Keynes argued that recessions and depressions occurred because the economy was destabilised by fluctuations in private demand , and particularly in levels of investment . To simplify , the remedy he advocated was that governments should increase their own demand in periods of depression , particularly through public works . The increase in income generated by public works would then be fed into demand for other goods and services , yielding a stimulus to the private sector . The White Paper also stressed the importance of what is now called the social wage . In Australia , a significant contribution to living standards has been made in the past , and will continue to be made , by a high level of social services . Some of these are in the form of direct money payments , such as invalid and old-age pensions , child endowment and widows ' pensions . Others are services provided directly by governments and public authorities , including education , health and medical services , kindergartens and libraries . ( p12 ) Following the end of the postwar economic boom in the 1970s , the ideas of the White Paper were gradually displaced by alternative policies in which commitment to full employment was abandoned .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "White_Paper_on_Full_Employment_in_Australia", "rank": 34, "score": 100369 }, { "content": "Title: Department of Trade and Industry (Australia) Content: The Department of Trade and Industry was an Australian government department that existed between December 1963 and December 1972 .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Department_of_Trade_and_Industry_(Australia)", "rank": 35, "score": 100360 }, { "content": "Title: Australia Tibet Council Content: The Australia Tibet Council ( ATC ) is an independent , non-profit Australian organisation working to promote the human rights and democratic freedoms of the Tibetan people . ATC is funded solely by members and supporters . The organisation 's headquarters are in Sydney . The council undertakes a range of campaigns and advocacy work including promoting support for negotiations between the Dalai Lama and the Chinese government to reach a resolution to the Tibet situation ; promotion of religious and cultural freedom and human rights , particularly in the case of Tibetan political prisoners ; and the protection of the Tibetan environment and the prevention of the inappropriate exploitation of Tibetan resources . A particular focus of the ATC is lobbying the Australian Government with regard to opening up dialog with China about the situation in Tibet . Following public campaigns led by the ATC , the former Australian Prime Minister , John Howard , has met the Tibetan leader twice , in 1996 and 2007 . The ATC has lobbied political leaders on both sides of Australian politics to support greater autonomy for Tibet . The ATC states that it works to achieve the United Nations resolution 1723 of 1961 calling for `` the cessation of practices which deprive the Tibetan people of their fundamental human rights and freedoms , including their right to self-determination '' . It claims to do this by raising awareness of the situation in Tibet at all levels of Australian society , by encouraging government and community leaders to take positive action , and by supporting appropriate Australian and international initiatives . ATC liaises with the Tibetan Government-in-Exile located in Dharamsala , and is a member of the International Tibet Support Network , a global network of Tibet support groups .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australia_Tibet_Council", "rank": 36, "score": 100291 }, { "content": "Title: Government risk Content: Government risk is an investment term used to collectively describe the impact of prospective changes in legislation , policies of the executive branch within existing legislation , and corruption . It is typically referenced as distinct from other forms of risk , such as market risk , credit risk , price risk , and natural risk when assessing the viability of an investment project .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Government_risk", "rank": 37, "score": 100111 }, { "content": "Title: Energy in Queensland Content: Queensland 's energy policy is based on the year 2000 document called the Queensland Energy Policy : A Cleaner Energy Strategy . The Queensland Government assists energy development through the Department of Energy and Water Supply . The state is noted for its significant contribution to coal mining in Australia . The primary fuel for electricity generation in the state is coal with coal seam gas becoming a significant fuel source . Queensland has 98 % of Australia 's reserves of coal seam gas . An expansion of energy-intensive industries such as mining , economic growth and population growth have created increased demand for energy in Queensland . Early energy development in the middle of the 20th century facilitated the extraction of fossil fuels and distribution of natural gas and oil in pipelines from the south west of the state , under the leadership of Joh Bjelke-Petersen . In 2006 , Queensland became the biggest emitter of greenhouse gases in Australia due to its reliance on coal power and road transport . A 2005 government report highlighted the state 's vulnerability to rising oil prices . Queensland was the state to first to produce commercial oil , the first to find natural gas and the first to supply a capital city with natural gas by pipeline . It has Australia 's largest onshore oil field at Jackson . It was also the first state to use a form of hydro-electric power at Thargomindah when water pressure from a well sunk into the Great Artesian Basin was harnessed to generate electric power .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Energy_in_Queensland", "rank": 38, "score": 100015 }, { "content": "Title: WaterSecure Content: WaterSecure , the trading name of the Queensland Manufactured Water Authority , was a statutory authority of the Government of Queensland which supplied water to the South East Queensland region of Australia through its desalination plant and a water recycling scheme , the Western Corridor Recycled Water scheme . WaterSecure was merged with Seqwater on 1 July 2011 .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "WaterSecure", "rank": 39, "score": 99528 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Transport Safety Bureau Content: The Australian Transport Safety Bureau ( ATSB ) is Australia 's national transport safety investigator . The ATSB is the federal government body responsible for investigating transport-related accidents and incidents within Australia . It covers air , sea and rail travel . The ATSB is an independent Commonwealth Government statutory agency . The ATSB is governed by a Commission and is entirely separate from transport regulators , policy makers and service providers . Its headquarters are located in the 62 Northbourne Avenue building in Canberra , Australian Capital Territory . It has field offices in Adelaide , Brisbane , and Perth . It has about 110 employees , including about 60 investigators of aviation , marine , and rail accidents and incidents .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australian_Transport_Safety_Bureau", "rank": 40, "score": 99319 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering Content: The Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering ( ATSE ) is an independent non-government organisation dedicated to the promotion in Australia of scientific and engineering knowledge to practical purposes . Founded in 1976 as the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences , it acquired its current name in 1987 .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australian_Academy_of_Technological_Sciences_and_Engineering", "rank": 41, "score": 99252 }, { "content": "Title: State of North Queensland Content: The State of North Queensland is a proposed state of Australia . Under the Constitution of Australia , section 124 , a new state can be created by `` separation of territory from a State , but only with the consent of the Parliament thereof , and a new State may be formed by the union of two or more States or parts of States , but only with the consent of the Parliaments of the States affected '' . In 1852 , John Dunmore Lang proposed -- in his book Freedom and Independence for the Golden Lands of Australia : the right of the colonies , and the interest of Britain and of the world -- the division of the future colony of Queensland into three subdivisions . A committee of businessmen in Townsville first pushed for a separate state in July 1882 . The separatist movement in North Queensland was fostered by the sugar planters , who saw the existence of the sugar industry threatened by the `` abolitionist '' movement in South Queensland for the suppression of Kanaka labour . One proposal is that Queensland should be divided by the 22nd parallel with the boundary running just south of Sarina on the coast to the Northern Territory border between Boulia and Mount Isa , and the capital would be Sellheim , near Charters Towers , to overcome rivalry between Mackay , Townsville and Cairns . According to The Courier-Mail in 2010 , the majority of North Queensland mayors were in favour of the separation from Queensland proper . Only two of the 100 delegates at the NQ Local Government Association meeting were against the proposal -- the two being Mayor Val Schier ( Cairns ) and Mayor Ben Callcott ( Charters Towers ) . In 2013 , social demographer Bernard Salt said that Townsville would go from regional powerhouse to metropolitan city by 2026 , and that there are fewer people living in the state of Tasmania than in North Queensland . Supporters of the North Queensland state include Geoffrey Blainey , and Member of Parliament Bob Katter and former member Clive Palmer . While the Liberal National Party Coalition voted down a motion to hold a referendum at a state convention , it was backed by Senator Matt Canavan and MP George Christensen .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "State_of_North_Queensland", "rank": 42, "score": 99233 }, { "content": "Title: 2009 Australian federal budget Content: The 2009 Australian federal budget for the Australian financial year ended 30 June 2010 was presented on 12 May 2009 by the Treasurer of Australia , Wayne Swan , the second federal budget presented by Swan , and the second budget of the first Rudd Government . Swan commented that the budget would be tougher than in previous years . `` Projected government revenue has fallen by $ 200 billion since the last budget because of the global economic crisis . '' There were many allegedly planned leaks which released a number of headline details and bad news in the weeks beforehand .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "2009_Australian_federal_budget", "rank": 43, "score": 99181 }, { "content": "Title: Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs Content: The former Australian Department of Families , Housing , Community Services and Indigenous Affairs ( FaHCSIA ) was a department of the Government of Australia located in Greenway in Canberra . It was formed in 2007 and absorbed the former Department of Families , Community Services and Indigenous Affairs . As a result of an Administrative Arrangements Order issued on 18 September 2013 , the Department of Social Services was established and assumed most of the responsibilities of FaHCSIA ; with indigenous affairs functions assumed by the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Department_of_Families,_Housing,_Community_Services_and_Indigenous_Affairs", "rank": 44, "score": 99178 }, { "content": "Title: Government House, Canberra Content: Government House , Canberra , commonly known as Yarralumla , is the official residence of the Governor-General of Australia . It is located in the suburb of Yarralumla , in the City of Canberra , in the Australian Capital Territory . The house is set amid 54 hectares ( 133 acres ) of parkland . The suburb of Yarralumla , which has grown up around Government House , is one of Canberra 's most expensive residential areas and also the site of many foreign embassies . At Government House , the governor-general presides over meetings of the Federal Executive Council , and holds investitures to present honours within the Order of Australia and associated Australian military , bravery and civil decorations . The governor-general also receives visiting heads of state and other dignitaries and the credentials of ambassadors to Australia , and entertains people from all walks of life . The Queen of Australia , Elizabeth II , and foreign heads of state stay at Government House when on official visits to Canberra .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Government_House,_Canberra", "rank": 45, "score": 99138 }, { "content": "Title: Department of Industry and Commerce (1982–84) Content: The Department of Industry and Commerce was an Australian government department that existed between May 1982 and December 1984 . It was the second so-named Australian Government department .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Department_of_Industry_and_Commerce_(1982–84)", "rank": 46, "score": 99099 }, { "content": "Title: Australian referendum, 1926 (Industry and Commerce) Content: Constitution Alteration ( Industry and Commerce ) 1926 was an Australian referendum held in the 1926 referendums which sought to alter the Australian Constitution to extend the Commonwealth legislative power in respect to corporations , and to give it the power to make laws with respect to trusts and combinations in restraint of trade , trade unions and employer associations .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australian_referendum,_1926_(Industry_and_Commerce)", "rank": 47, "score": 98903 }, { "content": "Title: List of South Australian manufacturing businesses Content: A list of manufacturing companies founded in South Australia , many now forgotten but `` household names '' in their day . It does not include local affiliates of multinational companies , such as General Motors Holden , Kelvinator and Philips Electrical Industries . Nor does it ( yet ) include food and beverage companies such as Amscol , Chapmans , Coopers , Glen Ewin and Haighs or pharmaceuticals and toiletries such as Bickfords , Cromptons and Fauldings .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "List_of_South_Australian_manufacturing_businesses", "rank": 48, "score": 98901 }, { "content": "Title: Mary Putland Content: Mary Putland ( née Bligh , later O'Connell ) ( 1783 -- 1864 ) was the Lady of Government House , New South Wales , Australia during the period her father William Bligh was the Governor of New South Wales .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Mary_Putland", "rank": 49, "score": 98711 }, { "content": "Title: Distribution of Industry Act 1945 Content: The Distribution of Industry Act 1945 ( 8 & 9 Geo . VI c. 36 ) was an Act of Parliament in the United Kingdom intended to help redevelop areas , such as south-western Scotland , which depended heavily on specific heavy industries , and which had been hard-hit by unemployment in the inter-war period . The Act gave the government two main powers , namely : To schedule `` development areas '' where the Government was able to build factories for rental to private enterprise , and to manage industrial estates itself To require that the site for any factory above a certain size should be decided on by discussion between the firm proposing to build it and the Board of Trade . This plan , mostly prepared by Hugh Dalton , the President of the Board of Trade , was contentious ; it was felt by many to be encouraging a planned economy . John Sydney Wardlaw-Milne , a Conservative MP , described it in debate as `` the very antithesis of private enterprise ... bureaucracy and Socialism carried to the last limit '' .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Distribution_of_Industry_Act_1945", "rank": 50, "score": 98636 }, { "content": "Title: 2008 Australian federal budget Content: The 2008 Australian federal budget for the Australian financial year ended 30 June 2009 was presented on 13 May 2009 by the Treasurer of Australia , Wayne Swan , the first federal budget presented by Swan , and the first budget of the first Rudd Government . It had a particular emphasis on family welfare ( expansive tax cuts and a lift in the threshold of the Medicare levy surcharge ) and capital investment ( national accreditation ) funds . Swan described it as `` a A$ 55 billion Working Families Support Package '' that `` strengthens Australia 's economic foundations , and delivers for working families under pressure '' from increasingly high interest rates . Total spending was cut , following on from gradual cuts of nearly 2 % of GDP over the decade of the Howard government . Changes to taxation prompted then Shadow Treasurer Malcolm Turnbull to claim the increased taxation will contribute to inflation , but Swan argued that the tax will affect only high income-earners , dispelling any `` custodian '' line of attack . Heavy spending by the states had been inefficient at managing past underinvestment on infrastructure , and `` the conduct of expansionary monetary policies will be less complicated '' as a result of the new reform agenda to avoid ( supply-side ) case-mix funding of the health care and vocational training sectors of the economy . A new $ 3 billion tax increase on alcopop drinks was designed to slow down a projected increase ( from the Federal Health Minister , Nicola Roxon , tabling Treasury advice ) in alcopop sales by 43 million bottles , curtailing binge drinking . However , the opposition described the increase as merely a revenue raiser , with Shadow Health Minister Joe Hockey arguing that consumers of alcopop will switch to other drinks , such as champagne , and binge drinking will not decrease . In response , the Prime Minister told Federal Parliament that the tax increase had wide support in medical and alcohol support services . Opposition Leader Brendan Nelson counter-offered with a $ 1.8 billion petrol tax cut , reversing years of policy opposing lowering petrol taxes . The Opposition pledged to block the alcopop tax in the Senate , which it will control until July 2008 , and has also pledged to block a move to remove a surcharge tax trap for people who fail to take out health cover , which , it claims , will drive up insurance premiums and steer people away from private healthcare . An increase to the luxury car tax was defeated in the Senate , with Steve Fielding of Family First joining the coalition in blocking the budget legislation . It had been supported by the government , the Australian Greens , and independent Nick Xenophon . It was later passed by all non-coalition Senators after amendments were made .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "2008_Australian_federal_budget", "rank": 51, "score": 98615 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Food and Grocery Council Content: Australian Food and Grocery Council ( AFGC ) represents Australia 's food , drink and grocery manufacturing industry . AFGC 's stated vision is for Australia 's food , beverage and grocery manufacturing industry to be socially responsible and competing profitably domestically and overseas . The chief executive officer of the Australian Food and Grocery Council is former Liberal party politician , Kate Carnell , who was Chief Minister of the Australian Capital Territory ( ACT ) from 1995 to 2000 . They are a membership-based organisation totally funded by industry to work on behalf of industry in the following areas : Policy - Analyse and influence federal and state policies to ensure our members ' views are represented at the highest level . Member Service - Offering a wide range of professional services specifically tailored to meet their members ' needs . Programs - Providing targeted programs to deliver solutions for members and stakeholders . Representation and Advocacy - Presenting a united voice and advocate on behalf of the food and grocery manufacturing industry . Communication - Keeping members up to date , and promoting the industry .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australian_Food_and_Grocery_Council", "rank": 52, "score": 98598 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry Content: The Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry ( Australian Chamber ) is Australia 's largest and most representative business association , comprising state and territory chambers of commerce and national industry associations . The Australian Chamber contributes to public discussion and government decision-making on issues that impact on business , including economics , trade , workplace relations , work health and safety and employment , education and training . The Australian Chamber also speaks on behalf of Australian business in international forums .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australian_Chamber_of_Commerce_and_Industry", "rank": 53, "score": 98334 }, { "content": "Title: Parliament of Australia Content: The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia , variously referred to as the Australian Parliament , the Commonwealth Parliament or the Federal Parliament , is the legislative branch of the government of Australia . It consists of three elements : the Queen of Australia , the Senate and the House of Representatives . The Queen is represented by the Governor-General . The combination of two elected Houses , in which the members of the Senate represent the six States and the two self-governing Territories while the members of the House represent electoral divisions according to population , is modelled on the United States Congress . Through both Houses , however , there is a fused executive , drawn from the Westminster System . The upper house , the Senate , consists of 76 members : twelve for each state , and two each for the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory . Senators are elected using the single transferable vote proportional representation system and as a result , the chamber features a multitude of parties vying for power . The governing party or coalition rarely has a majority in the Senate and usually needs to negotiate with other parties and Independents to get legislation passed . The lower house , the House of Representatives , currently consists of 150 members , each elected from single member constituencies , known as electoral divisions ( commonly referred to as `` electorates '' or `` seats '' ) using full-preference Instant-runoff voting . This tends to lead to the chamber being dominated by two major parties , the Liberal/National Coalition and the Labor Party . The government of the day must achieve the confidence of this House in order to gain and remain in power . Although elections can be called early , each 3 years the full House of Representatives and half of the Senate is dissolved and goes up for reelection . A deadlock breaking mechanism known as a double dissolution can be used to dissolve the full Senate as well as the House in the event that the Upper House refuses to pass a piece of legislation twice . The two Houses meet in separate chambers of Parliament House ( except in a rare joint sitting ) on Capital Hill in Canberra , Australian Capital Territory .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Parliament_of_Australia", "rank": 54, "score": 98302 }, { "content": "Title: Department of Agriculture (Australia) Content: The Australian Government Department of Agriculture was a federal government department charged with the responsibility to develop and implement policies and programs that ensure Australia 's agricultural , fisheries , food and forestry industries remain competitive , profitable and sustainable . The head of the department was the Secretary of the Department of Agriculture , initially Paul Grimes ( until March 2015 ) and then Daryl Quinlivan . The Secretary was responsible to the Minister for Agriculture , the Hon. Barnaby Joyce .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Department_of_Agriculture_(Australia)", "rank": 55, "score": 98293 }, { "content": "Title: Australian referendum, 1913 (Industrial Matters) Content: The Constitution Alteration ( Industrial Matters ) 1912 was an Australian referendum held in the 1913 referendums which sought to alter the Australian Constitution to give the Commonwealth legislative power in respect to industrial matters .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australian_referendum,_1913_(Industrial_Matters)", "rank": 56, "score": 98187 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Legislative Ethics Commission Content: Australian Legislative Ethics Commission has been around since 1998 , though only recently registered as an Australian Charity . Their main goal is assisting families who have had their children removed by child protection agencies in Australia , where caseworkers have failed to follow legislation , guidelines , policy and protocol . In addition They have more recently been working with indigenous organisations who are protesting about the increasingly large number of indigenous children being removed from families and placed into out of home care - long after former Prime Minister Kevin Rudd apologised for the former stolen generations , and actively participate in programs designed to improve the Family Law System and Children 's Safety . The recently assembled federal Senate Inquiry into Children in Out of Home Care brought forward with the assistance of MP David Shoebridge , and other members of parliament , has provided the public an opportunity to determine exactly what is happening in child protection . Senator Rachel Siewert is the chair of the committee , which is due to report on out of home care on 13 May 2015 . In the past five years they have investigated dozens of matters whereby child protection agents seek to intimidate and censor by forcing a lawsuit against parents complaining against their unlawful actions . Such actions generally leave the parents without legal defence and or contact with their children until they abandon their criticism or opposition . Alecomm is now pushing for anti-SLAPP ( Strategic lawsuit against public participation ) to be introduced on a national level into Australia to ensure that people not only involved in care and protection matters are not denied justice because of the departments unlimited war-chest and magistrates inabilities to ensure that policy and procedure are followed at all times , preventing such unlawful actions against our sentient beings . The charity has multiple interests in human rights and actively promotes the Convention on the Rights of the Child , the International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights , and Universal Declaration of Human Rights through development of two systems linked direct to Geneva . People can report human rights violations direct to the UN , and also report enforced disappearances . Over the past decade , the Commission has participated in many national rallies and attempts to bring to the forefront the high suicide rate of mothers who have had their children removed without lawful justification . Grandmothers who are then having to bury their own children are forced to fight the system that has taken their grandchildren in order to secure the type of burial they wish for their kin , as the department often claim they are the dead mothers next of kin and so choose how the deceased will be buried .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australian_Legislative_Ethics_Commission", "rank": 57, "score": 98162 }, { "content": "Title: Department of Industry and Commerce (1975–82) Content: The Department of Industry and Commerce was an Australian government department that existed between December 1975 and May 1982 .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Department_of_Industry_and_Commerce_(1975–82)", "rank": 58, "score": 98093 }, { "content": "Title: Bi-partisan appointment republican model Content: The Bi-partisan appointment republican model is a proposal for Australian constitutional reform . If approved at referendum , the model would have established Australia as a republic with a Head of State appointed by the Australian Federal Parliament . The model was put to the people at the November 1999 republican referendum and was defeated by 54.4 % of voters .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Bi-partisan_appointment_republican_model", "rank": 59, "score": 97939 }, { "content": "Title: Department of Industry (1928–40) Content: The Department of Industry was an Australian government department that existed between 1928 and 1940 .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Department_of_Industry_(1928–40)", "rank": 60, "score": 97792 }, { "content": "Title: Direct election republican model (Australia) Content: A direct election republican model is a proposal for Australian constitutional reform . If a proposal of this type is approved at a referendum , it would establish Australia as a republic with a head of state chosen directly by the Australian electorate . While a directly elected president would be compatible with either a parliamentary or presidential system of government , typically when Australian republicans express support for `` the direct-election model '' , support for the existing parliamentary system of government is usually implied . Supporters are envisaging a reform in which the Governor-General is replaced by a directly elected figurehead president and the Prime Minister of Australia remains the head of government .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Direct_election_republican_model_(Australia)", "rank": 61, "score": 97617 }, { "content": "Title: Cluster Munitions (Prohibition) Bill 2006 Content: The Cluster Munitions ( Prohibition ) Bill 2006 is a bill for an act to ensure that civilians in conflict zones are not maimed , killed or put at risk as a result of Australians possessing , using or manufacturing cluster munitions . Senator Lyn Allison , leader of the Australian Democrats , introduced the bill into the Australian Senate on 5 December 2006 . On the same day , she dispersed the contents of a model cluster munition from a balcony at Parliament House , Canberra , as an educational exercise . The bill was co-sponsored by Senator Andrew Bartlett of the Australian Democrats , Senator Mark Bishop of the Australian Labor Party , and Senator Bob Brown of the Australian Greens . The Senate Foreign Affairs , Defence and Trade Committee will review the provisions of the bill and has invited submissions from organizations with a possible interest in the bill . It is due to conclude its review in mid-March 2007 . A spokesperson from the office of the Minister for Defence indicated that the Australian Government did not intend to support the bill .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Cluster_Munitions_(Prohibition)_Bill_2006", "rank": 62, "score": 97316 }, { "content": "Title: Government House, Perth Content: Government House is the official residence of the Governor of Western Australia , situated in the central business district of Perth , the state capital . It was built between 1859 and 1864 , in the Jacobean Revival style . Government House is located on St Georges Terrace ( Perth 's main thoroughfare ) , sitting on the same block as Council House and the Supreme Court buildings . The site has been used by governors since the establishment of the Swan River Colony in 1829 , with the current structure built to replace an existing wooden building . The buildings and gardens of Government House are of exceptional heritage significance , being listed on the Western Australian Register of Heritage Places and classified by the National Trust . They are regularly opened for public viewing .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Government_House,_Perth", "rank": 63, "score": 96894 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Textile Workers' Union Content: The Australian Textile Workers ' Union ( ATWU ) was an Australian trade union which existed from 1919 to 1987 . The ATWU represented Australian workers employed in the manufacture of textiles , including the spinning , weaving , dyeing and finishing of all types of fibres . Later , the union also represented workers employed in manufacturing felt hatting .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australian_Textile_Workers'_Union", "rank": 64, "score": 96865 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Centre of Excellence for Risk Analysis Content: The Australian Centre of Excellence for Risk Analysis ( ACERA ) is a research institute within the School of Botany at the University of Melbourne in Melbourne , Victoria , Australia . It conducts research on a wide range of topics in risk , with an initial focus on biosecurity risks . It was founded in 2006 to honour a Federal Government election commitment , with a grant administered through the Bureau of Rural Sciences of the Federal Department of Agriculture , Fisheries and Forestry . The Centre has received a second phase of funding commencing in July 2009 and extending to June 2013 . The Director is Mark Burgman .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australian_Centre_of_Excellence_for_Risk_Analysis", "rank": 65, "score": 96829 }, { "content": "Title: Government of South Australia Content: The Government of South Australia , also referred to as the South Australian Government , is the Australian state democratic administrative authority of South Australia . The Government of South Australia , a parliamentary constitutional monarchy , was formed in 1856 as prescribed in its Constitution , as amended from time to time . Since the Federation of Australia in 1901 , South Australia has been a state of the Commonwealth of Australia , and the Constitution of Australia regulates its relationship with the Commonwealth . Under the Australian Constitution , South Australia ceded legislative and judicial supremacy to the Commonwealth , but retained powers in all matters not in conflict with the Commonwealth .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Government_of_South_Australia", "rank": 66, "score": 96450 }, { "content": "Title: Industrial Relations Taskforce Content: The Industrial Relations Taskforce is a taskforce established in December 2005 by the caucus of the Federal Parliamentary Labor Party of Australia to examine the effects of the Government 's industrial relations changes ( Work Choices ) on individuals , families and communities . In particular , the terms of reference require the Taskforce to examine the adverse effects on women , young people and those in regional and rural areas and to identify specific examples of the abuse of the laws . The members of the Taskforce are Brendan O'Connor ( Chair ) , Chris Hayes ( secretary ) , Bob McMullan ( Deputy Chair ) , Sharon Grierson , Sharon Bird , Jennie George , Steve Hutchins , Kate Ellis and Carol Brown . The Taskforce visited over 20 federal electorates and spoken with over 200 witnesses . In June 2006 , the Taskforce released its interim report , which has been distributed widely and received much coverage in the media . Category : Australian labour movement", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Industrial_Relations_Taskforce", "rank": 67, "score": 96421 }, { "content": "Title: Australian federal budget Content: An Australian federal budget is a document that sets out the estimated revenues and expenditures of the Australian Treasury in the following financial year , proposed conduct of Australian government operations in that period , and its fiscal policy for the forward years . Budgets are called by the year in which they are presented to Parliament and relate to a financial year that commences on the following 1 July and ends on 30 June of the following year , so that the budget brought down in May relates to the / financial year ( 1 July -- 30 June , FY ) . Revenue estimates detailed in the budget are raised through the Australian taxation system , with government spending ( including transfers to the states ) representing a sizeable proportion of the overall economy . Besides presenting the government 's expected revenues and expenditures , the federal budget is also a political statement of the government 's intentions and priorities , and has profound macroeconomic implications . Australia follows , to a great extent , the conventions of the Westminster system . For example , the prime minister must have the support of a majority in the House of Representatives , and must in any case be able to ensure the existence of no absolute majority against the government . In relation to the budget , that requires that if the House fails to pass the government 's budget , even by one dollar , then the government must either resign so that a different government can be appointed or seek a parliamentary dissolution so that new general elections may be held in order to re-confirm or deny the government 's mandate .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australian_federal_budget", "rank": 68, "score": 96253 }, { "content": "Title: Department of Industry, Technology and Commerce Content: The Department of Industry , Technology and Commerce was an Australian government department that existed between December 1984 and March 1993 .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Department_of_Industry,_Technology_and_Commerce", "rank": 69, "score": 96164 }, { "content": "Title: Safety in Australia Content: In common with most of Europe and North America , Australian State Parliaments have responded to the problem of workplace illness , injury , and death by enacting legislation regulating workplace hazards . Until the 1970s and 80s , these standards were generally detailed and technical , focusing mainly on prescriptive measures such as specifying machinery guarding measures to be adopted to prevent injury to workers operating dangerous machinery . Beginning in 2008 , state and federal regulations were harmonised , giving greater clarity and consistency in the legislation in effect in the various states .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Safety_in_Australia", "rank": 70, "score": 96078 }, { "content": "Title: The Rocks, Albany Content: The Rocks , also referred to as Government House or Government Cottage , is a residence in Albany in the Great Southern region of Western Australia . The building was constructed in 1882 for William Grills Knight , a prominent local identity , and his family . Knight later served as Mayor of the City of Albany from 1886 to 1888 and the family remained at the property until 1910 , the last owner being his daughter , Mary Knight . The building was sold to Mr Dymes who sold to Mr Butcher in 1910 , who made various improvements on the building . The building is set on 8196 m2 of manicured gardens situated on the side of Mount Melville and overlooks the town of Albany and Princess Royal Harbour . The Government of Western Australia acquired the property in 1912 to utilize as a summer cottage for vice regal dignitaries . During World War I the house was used as a convalescent home for wounded servicemen up until 1921 when the government started using the building again for vice regal visits . By 1937 the Governor no longer required the building and it then served several purposes including being used as a school , maternity and general hospital . During World War II it was once again used by returned servicemen , and became a private hospital again in 1941 . In 1944 it became a private residence and then in 1950 the building was used as a hostel for girls attending Albany Senior High School , with 30 girls taking up residence ; this was later increased to 40 . The Country Women 's Association were managing the enterprise . The building was classified by the National Trust in 1977 , and placed on the register of the National Estate in 1980 . In the early 1990s it was once again briefly used as a hospital . The property is used as tourist accommodation and is the only five star heritage accommodation in Western Australia . The house is important as an example of the restrained architecture typical of Albany and of a large house of the period . It has a federation filigree style with seven bedroom , eight bathrooms , billiard room , library with Victorian styling and jarrah floorboards . In 2005 the building received a 50,000 grant from the state government to assist with the cost of conservation work including the replacement of the aluminium windows and doors with jarrah frames .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "The_Rocks,_Albany", "rank": 71, "score": 95965 }, { "content": "Title: Australian settlement Content: The Australian settlement is a term that has been used to describe a set of nation-building policies adopted in Australia at the beginning of the twentieth century . Those policies profoundly influenced the way Australia developed over the coming decades and were only dismantled towards the end of the century . They were : the ` White Australia ' Policy of immigration restriction ; protective tariffs on imports of manufactured goods ; a system of compulsory conciliation and arbitration for industrial disputes ; and early social welfare policies . The term ` settlement ' refers to the way this constellation of policies emerged as a compromise between major interests in Australian society at that time , namely workers and employers .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australian_settlement", "rank": 72, "score": 95942 }, { "content": "Title: Department of Employment and Industrial Relations (1982–87) Content: The Department of Employment and Industrial Relations was an Australian government department that existed between May 1982 and July 1987 . It was the second Australian Government Department to be given the name . When announcing the new department in 1982 , Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser issued a press release stating that `` the Government 's policies in relation to maintaining high levels of employment and effective industrial relations , and the close links between these two areas require the Departments of Industrial Relations and Employment and Youth Affairs to be brought together again . The Department 's were split during the formative stages of the employment and training programs . ''", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Department_of_Employment_and_Industrial_Relations_(1982–87)", "rank": 73, "score": 95783 }, { "content": "Title: 2008 Western Australian gas crisis Content: The Western Australian gas crisis was a major disruption to natural gas supply in Western Australia , caused by the rupture of a corroded pipeline and subsequent explosion at a processing plant on Varanus Island , off the state 's north west coast on 3 June 2008 . The plant , operated by Apache Energy , which normally supplied a third of the state 's gas , was shut down for almost two months while a detailed engineering investigation and major repairs were carried out . Gas supply from the plant partially resumed in late August . By mid-October , gas production was running at two-thirds of normal capacity , with 85 % of full output restored by December 2008 . In a state heavily reliant on continuous supply of gas for industrial processing , manufacturing , residential use and electricity generation , the sudden loss of almost 35 % of gas supply had immediate social impacts , and significant short and long-term economic effects . Many businesses were forced to curtail or cease operations , resulting in workers being stood down or forced to take annual leave , and the government requested that businesses and householders conserve energy usage . An emergency coordination committee of government and industry representatives rationed and redirected remaining gas supply sources . When many large gas users switched to diesel for power generation , the risk of a shortfall in transport fuel led to the federal government authorising the release of emergency fuel reserves stored at the Garden Island naval facility . The incident raised significant public and political issues related to energy security , adequacy of existing infrastructure , contingency planning , and the role of regulatory agencies . The plant took three months to repair , although partial supplies were restored within six weeks of the explosion . A major investigation was launched by the National Offshore Petroleum Safety Authority ( NOPSA ) , with separate investigations conducted by the plant operator and several other government agencies . NOPSA 's report was published on 10 October 2008 , and confirmed early suggestions that the explosion was caused by structural failure of the export pipeline due to significant corrosion . A Senate Committee inquiry was established to investigate the economic impacts and the state government 's response to the crisis . The committee 's report was handed down on 3 December 2008 .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "2008_Western_Australian_gas_crisis", "rank": 74, "score": 95590 }, { "content": "Title: Abbott Government Content: The Abbott Government was the federal executive government of Australia led by Prime Minister Tony Abbott . The Government was made up of members of the Liberal -- National Coalition . The Leader of the Nationals , Warren Truss , served as Deputy Prime Minister . Following the 2013 Australian federal election on 7 September , the Coalition defeated the second Rudd Government , ending six years of Labor Government . The Abbott Government was sworn into office on 18 September 2013 . Less than two years later on 14 September 2015 , Malcolm Turnbull defeated Abbott in a leadership ballot , 54 votes to 44 . In economic policy , the Abbott Government aimed to rein in a budget deficit that reached A$ 48.5 billion by June 2014 . It concluded free trade agreements with China , Japan and South Korea . It removed the Rudd-Gillard era Resource Super Profits Tax and carbon pricing . It established the National Commission of Audit to advise on restoring the Budget to surplus ; instituted the Royal Commission into trade union governance and corruption ; founded the Medical Research Future Fund ; and produced White Papers on Developing Northern Australia and the Agricultural Competitiveness . Treasurer Joe Hockey delivered two Budgets , the first focused on expenditure reduction measures , but faced a hostile reception in the Senate and media . Partial deregulation of universities , and a $ 7 contribution to doctor visits were proposed , but blocked by the Senate . The second Budget emphasised stimulus for the small business sector . Abbott campaigned in Opposition and in Office to halt the people smuggling trade , and unauthorised maritime arrivals ceased during his term of office under Operation Sovereign Borders . In foreign policy , Australia continued its military engagement in the Mid-East , amid the worsening Syrian conflict . In 2015 , The Abbott Government agreed to resettle an additional 12,000 refugees from the region . Abbott and Foreign Minister Julie Bishop challenged Russia at the United Nations over the shooting down of Malaysian Flight MH17 in Ukraine . The Government launched the New Colombo Plan to encourage educational exchange with the Indo-Pacific region . Domestically , Abbott campaigned for recognition of Indigenous Australians in the Australian Constitution , flagging a referendum for 2017 , and promised a plebiscite on the issue of same-sex marriage . Air and road infrastructure was prioritised . Abbott had to negotiate a hostile Senate . The Palmer United Party had emerged at the 2013 Election , but fractured soon after . The Liberal Party faced Cabinet leaks and early leadership instability , after a poorly received first Budget and amid media criticism . Abbott became the shortest-serving Australian Prime Minister since William McMahon , when his government was succeeded by the Turnbull Government .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Abbott_Government", "rank": 75, "score": 95492 }, { "content": "Title: Department of Industry, Science and Resources Content: The Department of Industry , Science and Resources was an Australian government department that existed between October 1998 and November 2001 .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Department_of_Industry,_Science_and_Resources", "rank": 76, "score": 95348 }, { "content": "Title: The Risk railway station Content: The Risk is a closed railway station on the North Coast railway line in New South Wales , Australia . The station opened in 1930 and closed in 1974", "qid": "3070", "docid": "The_Risk_railway_station", "rank": 77, "score": 95344 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency Content: The Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency ( ARPANSA ) is an Australian body that monitors and identifies solar radiation and nuclear radiation risks to the population of Australia . It is identified as the main government body dealing with ionizing and non-ionizing radiation and publishes material regarding radiation protection . The agency publishes daily solar ultraviolet radiation ( UVR ) levels for many locations in Australia . It also sets Ultraviolet Protection Factor standards for protective clothing .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australian_Radiation_Protection_and_Nuclear_Safety_Agency", "rank": 78, "score": 95263 }, { "content": "Title: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission Content: The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission ( ATSIC ) ( 1990 -- 2005 ) was the Australian Government body through which Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders were formally involved in the processes of government affecting their lives . A number of indigenous programs and organisations fell under the overall umbrella of ATSIC . The agency was dismantled in 2004 in the aftermath of corruption allegations and litigation .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Aboriginal_and_Torres_Strait_Islander_Commission", "rank": 79, "score": 95099 }, { "content": "Title: Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia) Content: The Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade ( also called DFAT , ˈdiː.fæˑt , DEE-fat ) is a department of the Government of Australia charged with the responsibility of advancing the interests of Australia and its citizens internationally . It manages the government 's foreign relations and trade policies . The head of the department is the Secretary of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade , presently Frances Adamson , who reports to the Minister for Foreign Affairs , presently Julie Bishop , the Minister for Trade and Investment , presently Steven Ciobo , the Minister for International Development and the Pacific , presently Senator Concetta Fierravanti-Wells , and the Minister for Tourism and International Education and the Minister Assisting the Minister for Trade and Investment , presently Senator Richard Colbeck supports the administration of the department .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Department_of_Foreign_Affairs_and_Trade_(Australia)", "rank": 80, "score": 95048 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Boot Trade Employees' Federation v Whybrow & Co Content: Australian Boot Trade Employees Federation v Whybrow & Co , commonly known as Whybrow 's case or the Boot Trades case was the third of a series of decisions of the High Court of Australia in 1910 concerning the boot manufacturing industry and the role of the Commonwealth Court of Conciliation and Arbitration in preventing and settling industrial disputes . In doing so the High Court considered the constitutional power of the Federal Parliament to provide for common rule awards and the jurisdiction of the High Court to grant prohibition against the Arbitration Court . The majority held in Whybrow ( No 1 ) that the Arbitration Court could not make an award that was inconsistent with a State law , but that different minimum wages were not inconsistent as it was possible to obey both laws . In Whybrow ( No 2 ) the High Court established the doctrine of ambit , with the emphasis on the precise claim made and refused , and the practice with respect to `` paper disputes '' being treated `` prima facie as genuine and real '' , with the majority holding that the High Court had power to order prohibition to correct jurisdictional error as part of its original jurisdiction . Finally in Whybrow ( No 3 ) '' the High Court unanimously held that the Federal Parliament had no constitutional power to provide for common rule awards .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australian_Boot_Trade_Employees'_Federation_v_Whybrow_&_Co", "rank": 81, "score": 94984 }, { "content": "Title: List of Australian government entities Content: This list of Australian government entities is of Australian Ministers , government departments , bureaus and commissions , authorities , corporations and other entities , which are grouped into a number of areas of portfolio responsibility . Each portfolio is led by one or more government ministers who are members of the Parliament of Australia , appointed by the Governor-General of Australia on the advise of the Prime Minister . '' The agencies are principally grouped into 18 principal departments , each led by a secretary , director-general , or similarly-titled executive officer and comprising a number of portfolios covering specific policy areas across the department and allocated statutory authorities , trading enterprises , boards , councils and other public bodies . Agencies have varying levels of operational autonomy , and deliver one or more of frontline public services , administrative functions and law enforcement . Some are structured as for-profit corporations . Where there are multiple portfolios within a department , the Secretary may be accountable to a number of ministers . The current Government is led by Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull , the leader of the Liberal Party of Australia in Coalition with the National Party of Australia , led by Barnaby Joyce , which was sworn in by the Governor-General on 18 September 2013 . The Government changed the structure and portfolios of a number of agencies .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "List_of_Australian_government_entities", "rank": 82, "score": 94959 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Institute of Family Studies Content: The Australian Institute of Family Studies ( AIFS ) is an Australian Government statutory agency in the Department of Social Services . It is located in Melbourne , Victoria , Australia . Its role is to conduct research and communicate findings that affect family wellbeing to policy makers , service providers and the broader community . The Director of AIFS is Anne Hollonds , and the Chairman of the Advisory Council is Reverend the Honourable Professor Brian Howe AO .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australian_Institute_of_Family_Studies", "rank": 83, "score": 94957 }, { "content": "Title: Hancock Report Content: The Hancock Report was a report on the Australian system of industrial relations system by the central government . The report argued for a centralised industrial relations system centred on award and argued against decentralisation and enterprise bargaining . The report 's findings were handed down in 1985 and started a long debate over industrial relations in Australia .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Hancock_Report", "rank": 84, "score": 94948 }, { "content": "Title: Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (Australia) Content: The Department of Agriculture , Fisheries and Forestry ( DAFF ) was an Australian government department that existed between 1998 and 2013 , when it was renamed as the Department of Agriculture . DAFF 's role was to develop and implement policies and programs that ensure Australia 's agricultural , fisheries , food and forestry industries remained competitive , profitable and sustainable . DAFF policies and programs were to : encourage and support sustainable natural resource use and management protect the health and safety of plant and animal industries enable industries to adapt to compete in a fast-changing international and economic environment help improve market access and market performance for the agricultural and food sector encourage and assist industries to adopt new technology and practices assist primary producers and the food industry to develop business and marketing skills , and to be financially self-reliant .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Department_of_Agriculture,_Fisheries_and_Forestry_(Australia)", "rank": 85, "score": 94900 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Qualifications Framework Content: The Australian Qualifications Framework ( AQF ) specifies the standards for educational qualifications in Australia . It is administered nationally by the Australian Government 's Department of Industry , with oversight from the States and Territories , through the Standing Council of Tertiary Education Skills and Employment . While the AQF specifies the standards , education and training organisations are authorised by accrediting authorities to issue a qualification .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australian_Qualifications_Framework", "rank": 86, "score": 94871 }, { "content": "Title: South Australian electoral boundaries referendum, 1991 Content: A referendum on electoral redistributions in South Australia was held on 9 February 1991 . The proposal put to voters would require the Electoral Commission of South Australia to redistribute the electoral boundaries following every election , and to consider a broader range of criteria when reviewing boundaries : specifically , `` to draw the boundaries in such a way that the party with the majority of ( the two-party ) vote would also win the majority of seats and so be able to form government '' . The proposals were accepted by a wide margin .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "South_Australian_electoral_boundaries_referendum,_1991", "rank": 87, "score": 94804 }, { "content": "Title: Industrial policy Content: The industrial policy of a country , sometimes denoted IP , is its official strategic effort to encourage the development and growth of part or all of the manufacturing sector as well as other sectors of the economy . The government takes measures `` aimed at improving the competitiveness and capabilities of domestic firms and promoting structural transformation . '' A country 's infrastructure ( transportation , telecommunications and energy industry ) is a major part of the manufacturing sector that often has a key role in IP . Industrial policies are sector-specific , unlike broader macroeconomic policies . Examples of the latter , which are horizontal , economy-wide policies , are tightening credit and taxing capital gains . Traditional examples of industrial policy that involves vertical , sector-specific policies , include protecting textiles from imports and subsidizing export industries . More contemporary industrial policies include measures such as support for linkages between firms and support for upstream technologies . Industrial policies are interventionist measures typical of mixed economy countries . Many types of industrial policies contain common elements with other types of interventionist practices such as trade policy and fiscal policy . An example of a typical industrial policy is import-substitution-industrialization ( ISI ) , where trade barriers are temporarily imposed on some key sectors , such as manufacturing . By selectively protecting certain industries , these industries are given time to learn ( learning by doing ) and upgrade . Once competitive enough , these restrictions are lifted to expose the selected industries to the international market .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Industrial_policy", "rank": 88, "score": 94707 }, { "content": "Title: Screen Australia Content: Screen Australia is the Australian Federal Government 's key funding body for the Australian screen production industry . Its functions are to support and promote the development of a highly creative , innovative and commercially sustainable industry . It was created under the Screen Australia Act 2008 , and from 1 July 2008 took over the functions and appropriations of its predecessor agencies the Australian Film Commission ( AFC ) , the Film Finance Corporation Australia ( FFC ) and Film Australia Limited . Across its various departments , Screen Australia supports the development , production , promotion and distribution of Australian screen content . Activities include : Production of a range of content including features , documentaries , television drama and children 's programs The growth of screen businesses Marketing and screen culture initiatives with Australian content Developing scripts and proposals Online content Indigenous talent and distinctive stories Administering the Government 's Producer Offset and International Co-production Program to increase the commercial sustainability of production in Australia Providing data and research to the industry and government Promoting access to the archive of Australian documentary screen content . Screen Australia 's funding was cut in both the 2014 and 2015 federal budgets , by AU$ 38 million in 2014 and by AU$ 3.6 million over four years beginning from 2015 .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Screen_Australia", "rank": 89, "score": 94689 }, { "content": "Title: Referendums in Australia Content: Referendums in Australia are polls held in Australia to approve Parliament-proposed changes to the Australian Constitution or a state or territory . Non-binding polls are usually referred to as plebiscites . Voting in a referendum is compulsory for those on the electoral roll , in the same way that it is compulsory to vote in an Australian general election . As of 2012 , 44 referendums have been held , of which only 8 have been carried . Although there have been 44 referendums , there have only been 19 times the Australian people have gone to the polls to vote on constitutional amendments , as it is common to have multiple questions on the ballot .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Referendums_in_Australia", "rank": 90, "score": 94560 }, { "content": "Title: Australian referendum, 1911 (Trade and Commerce) Content: Constitution Alteration ( Legislative Powers ) 1910 was an Australian referendum held in the 1911 referendums which sought to alter the Australian Constitution to extend the Commonwealth power in respect of trade and commerce , the control of corporations , labour and employment and combinations and monopolies . All of the proposed changes were contained within the one question .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australian_referendum,_1911_(Trade_and_Commerce)", "rank": 91, "score": 94369 }, { "content": "Title: Department of Health and Family Services Content: The Department of Health and Family Services was an Australian government department that existed between March 1996 and October 1998 . The Department was created after the 1996 federal election in which a new Government was elected , gaining responsibility for the Supported Accommodation Assistance Program from the former Department of Housing and Regional Development .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Department_of_Health_and_Family_Services", "rank": 92, "score": 94339 }, { "content": "Title: Minister for Family and Community Services (New South Wales) Content: The New South Wales Minister for Family and Community Services is a minister of the Government of New South Wales with responsibility for social policy and welfare , including matters relating to ageing , disability , housing and social housing , women 's affairs in the state of New South Wales , Australia . The current Minister for Family and Community Services is Pru Goward , who also holds office as the Minister for Social Housing and the Minister for Prevention of Domestic Violence and Sexual Assault . Goward is assisted by Anthony Roberts as the Minister for Housing , who also holds title as the Minister for Planning and the Special Minister of State ; Tanya Davies as the Minister for Ageing ; and by Ray Williams as the Minister for Disability Services and the Minister for Multiculturalism . All ministers were sworn in on 30 January 2017 . Collectively the ministers administer the portfolio through the Department of Family and Community Services , Housing NSW and a range of other government agencies .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Minister_for_Family_and_Community_Services_(New_South_Wales)", "rank": 93, "score": 94154 }, { "content": "Title: List of Australian federal elections Content: This article provides a summary of results for the general elections to the Australian House of Representatives and Senate , respectively the lower and upper houses of Australia 's federal bicameral legislative body , the Parliament of Australia . The number of seats has increased steadily over time , from 111 for the first election , to the current total of 226 . The current federal government structure was established in 1900 by the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act , 1900 . Two groups have dominated politics in Australia : Labor and the Coalition , composed of the Liberal Party and the National Party . Since the foundation of the Liberal Party in 1944 , these two groups have formed every government . Although government has been a two-party system , the Senate has a multi-party tradition , beginning with the 1955 election , where one DLP candidate was elected ( under the ALP-AC banner ) . Although the DLP ceased to be a force after Gough Whitlam took power in 1972 , the Liberal Movement and its successor the Australian Democrats carved out their own niche . In the 1980s the NDP briefly gained election , and in the 1990s the Greens first joined the Senate , while more recently One Nation and Family First did the same . In the past decade , the Democrats ' federal parliamentary representation has disappeared , while the Greens have emerged at the national level to take their place . The Nationals ' representation has also steadily declined , with their percentage of the vote hitting new lows . With the high-profile defection of Senator Julian McGauran to the Liberals in 2006 , questions have been raised about the Nationals ' viability , and proposals for a Liberal-National party merger have increased in strength .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "List_of_Australian_federal_elections", "rank": 94, "score": 94071 }, { "content": "Title: Strategic Indigenous Housing and Infrastructure Program Content: The Strategic Indigenous Housing and Infrastructure Program ( SIHIP ) is a joint program between the Australian Federal Government and the Northern Territory government to design and construct housing in a range of Indigenous Australian communities in the Northern Territory . It follows on from the previous Federal government 's Northern Territory National Emergency Response . The A$ 647 million program proposes to construct over 750 houses and refurbish another 2,500 houses in 73 communities across the Northern Territory , as well as providing essential urban infrastructure to support the new houses . Major capital works are proposed in 16 communities , pending the establishment of long-term leases . A key focus of the program is the aim to provide jobs and training opportunities for Indigenous Australians . The Federal Government announced in May 2009 that work under the program had started in three locations , Groote Eylandt , the Tiwi Islands and Tennant Creek . The government has announced that at least 20 per cent of the local workforce will be indigenous , with the aim of creating longer-term employment outcomes for communities . Work at Tennant Creek includes providing electricity , water , sewerage and roads to the town camps . The program has been criticised by indigenous leaders such as Alison Anderson and Galarrwuy Yunupingu for what they claim is excessive bureaucracy and overheads . Yunupingu said in August 2009 `` I keep hearing that , two years on , not one house has been built and I see it , too . Not one house . I keep getting the complaint that all the companies are doing is consulting and consulting , getting their daily fees and disappearing again . '' , adding `` It 's a system designed to profit non-Aborigines while nothing gets done . '' The local federal member of parliament , Damian Hale had earlier defended the program , citing the remoteness of the areas where the houses are proposed to be built . Hale commented that `` It will not be fixed in 20 months but what we can fix is have the land lease arrangements in place properly , the alliances are put in place '' and stated that '' -LSB- W -RSB- e 're not building in Sydney or Melbourne , we 're building in remote parts of Australia . '' A briefing to Anderson , a Northern Territory parliamentarian , by the administrator of the program , was said to have indicated that as few as 300 houses may be built ; this briefing was later described as `` inaccurate '' . Anderson challenged the administration charge claimed by the Territory government -- initially $ 100 million , 15 per cent of the project budget -- claiming it was excessive , and was successful in pushing for cost savings of $ 50 million . The Chief Minister of the Northern Territory , Paul Henderson , has pledged that the program would construct the 750 houses , with construction of 55 new homes to be underway by the end of 2010 .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Strategic_Indigenous_Housing_and_Infrastructure_Program", "rank": 95, "score": 94037 }, { "content": "Title: 44th Parliament of Australia Content: The 44th Parliament of Australia was a meeting of the legislative branch of the Australian federal government , composed of the Australian Senate and the Australian House of Representatives . It met in Canberra from 12 November 2013 to 9 May 2016 . The 2013 general election gave the Coalition of the Liberal and National Parties control of the House , allowing their leader Tony Abbott to take office as the 27th Prime Minister of Australia .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "44th_Parliament_of_Australia", "rank": 96, "score": 93962 }, { "content": "Title: Music Industry Piracy Investigations Content: Music Rights Australia ( formally known as MIPI ) is an organisation that protects the creative interests of artists within the Australian music community through educational initiatives , government lobbying and the protection of artists ' copyrights . Music Rights Australia represents over 2,000 songwriters and music publishers through their association the Australasian Mechanical Copyright Owners ' Society ( AMCOS ) , and more than 125 record labels -- both independent and major , including Sony Music , Universal and Warner Music -- through the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . Music Rights Australia ( http://www.musicrights.com.au/ ) aims to ensure that the works created by its music industry stakeholders are respected and appropriately rewarded and protected . It also seeks to improve the awareness of intellectual property rights among music fans and the wider Australian community .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Music_Industry_Piracy_Investigations", "rank": 97, "score": 93932 }, { "content": "Title: 2015 Australian federal budget Content: The 2015 Australian federal budget was the federal budget to fund government services and operations for the 2015/16 financial year . The 2015 budget is the second and last submitted by the Abbott Government , since the Coalition 's victory in the 2013 Australian federal election . Treasurer Joe Hockey presented the budget to the House of Representatives on 12 May 2015 . The budget featured a $ 4.4 billion Families Package to reform child care in Australia and a $ 5.5 billion Jobs and Small Business Package to assist small business . The budget was passed by both the House of Representatives and the Senate and took effect at the start of the 2015/16 financial year , which began on 1 July 2015 .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "2015_Australian_federal_budget", "rank": 98, "score": 93924 }, { "content": "Title: Republicanism in Australia Content: Republicanism in Australia is a movement to change Australia 's system of government from a constitutional monarchy to a republic . Republicanism was first espoused in Australia before Federation in 1901 . After a period of decline after Federation , the movement again became prominent at the end of the 20th century after successive legal and socio-cultural changes loosened Australia 's ties with the United Kingdom . Politically , republicanism is officially supported by the Labor Party and the Greens , and is also supported by some Liberal Party members of the Australian parliament including leader and prime minister Malcolm Turnbull . In a referendum in 1999 , Australian voters rejected a proposal to establish a republic with a parliamentary appointed head of state .", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Republicanism_in_Australia", "rank": 99, "score": 93808 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics Content: The Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences ( ABARES ) is a research organization within the Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources . It is located in Canberra , Australia . ABARES , established in 1945 , is also involved in commercial consultancy . The group 's stated mission is `` To provide high quality economic policy analysis and forecasts to enhance the competitiveness of Australia 's agricultural , fishing , forestry , energy and minerals industries and the quality of the Australian environment . '' ABARES maintains the AgSurf database which includes data for the last ten years on farm performance , production benchmarks , farm management , socioeconomic indicators relating to the grains , beef , sheep and dairy industries in Australia . ABARES has received funding from business and industry groups . ABARES ' website notes that `` Over half of ABARES ' external revenue is derived from commercial consulting work . ''", "qid": "3070", "docid": "Australian_Bureau_of_Agricultural_and_Resource_Economics", "rank": 100, "score": 93706 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Climate_sensitivity", "rank": 1, "score": 216443 }, { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 2, "score": 200461 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 3, "score": 200415 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 4, "score": 198672 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 5, "score": 184696 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 6, "score": 179934 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 7, "score": 178234 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 8, "score": 177540 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 9, "score": 176396 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 10, "score": 174385 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan", "rank": 11, "score": 173017 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle", "rank": 12, "score": 172778 }, { "content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar", "rank": 13, "score": 170875 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 14, "score": 170387 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 15, "score": 166201 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 16, "score": 164407 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 17, "score": 160893 }, { "content": "Title: Keeling Curve Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that plots the ongoing change in concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere since the 1950s . It is based on continuous measurements taken at the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii that began under the supervision of Charles David Keeling . Keeling 's measurements showed the first significant evidence of rapidly increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere . Many scientists credit Keeling 's graph with first bringing the world 's attention to the current increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Charles David Keeling , of Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego , was the first person to make frequent regular measurements of the atmospheric carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) concentration , taking readings at the South Pole and in Hawaii from 1958 onwards . Measurements of carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere had been taken prior to the Mauna Loa measurements , but on an ad-hoc basis across a variety of locations . Guy Stewart Callendar had shown a steady increase in concentrations since the 19th century . Keeling had perfected the measurement techniques and observed `` strong diurnal behavior with steady values of about 310 ppm in the afternoon '' at three locations : Big Sur near Monterey , the rain forests of Olympic Peninsula , and high mountain forests in Arizona . By measuring the ratio of two isotopes of carbon , Keeling attributed the diurnal change to respiration from local plants and soils , with afternoon values representative of the `` free atmosphere '' . By 1960 , Keeling and his group had determined that the measurement records from California , Antarctica , and Hawaii were long enough to see not just the diurnal and seasonal variations , but also a year-on-year increase that roughly matched the amount of fossil fuels burned per year . In the article that made him famous , Keeling observed : `` at the South Pole the observed rate of increase is nearly that to be expected from the combustion of fossil fuel '' .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Keeling_Curve", "rank": 18, "score": 158699 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth", "rank": 19, "score": 158430 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming", "rank": 20, "score": 157382 }, { "content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Global_Carbon_Project", "rank": 21, "score": 156438 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 22, "score": 152953 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 23, "score": 152244 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 24, "score": 152033 }, { "content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change", "rank": 25, "score": 151945 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide", "rank": 26, "score": 151490 }, { "content": "Title: Scott Denning Content: A. Scott Denning is a climate scientist and professor of atmospheric science at Colorado State University , whose faculty he joined in 1998 . He is known for his research into atmosphere-biosphere interactions and atmospheric carbon dioxide . He firmly supports action to avoid dangerous climate change and has said that the science behind it is `` settled '' . He has also argued that , if no action is taken on the matter , global warming could cause the climate of Colorado to resemble the current climate of its neighbors to the south , such as southern New Mexico , Texas and Mexico .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Scott_Denning", "rank": 27, "score": 151241 }, { "content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Mesopause", "rank": 28, "score": 150710 }, { "content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "350.org", "rank": 29, "score": 149927 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center", "rank": 30, "score": 147844 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 31, "score": 147341 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 32, "score": 147306 }, { "content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network", "rank": 33, "score": 145775 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere Content: An atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding a planet or other material body , that is held in place by the gravity of that body . An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is high and the temperature of the atmosphere is low . The atmosphere of Earth is mostly composed of nitrogen ( about 78 % ) , oxygen ( about 21 % ) , argon ( about 0.9 % ) with carbon dioxide and other gases in trace amounts . Oxygen is used by most organisms for respiration , nitrogen is fixed by bacteria and lightning to produce ammonia used in the construction of nucleotides and amino acids and carbon dioxide is used by plants , algae and cyanobacteria for photosynthesis . The atmosphere helps protect living organisms from genetic damage by solar ultraviolet radiation , solar wind and cosmic rays . Its current composition is the product of billions of years of biochemical modification of the paleoatmosphere by living organisms . The term stellar atmosphere describes the outer region of a star , and typically includes the portion starting from the opaque photosphere outwards . Stars with sufficiently low temperatures may form compound molecules in their outer atmosphere .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Atmosphere", "rank": 34, "score": 143597 }, { "content": "Title: Climate engineering Content: Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Climate_engineering", "rank": 35, "score": 142101 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 36, "score": 141537 }, { "content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)", "rank": 37, "score": 141152 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 38, "score": 140475 }, { "content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model", "rank": 39, "score": 139506 }, { "content": "Title: Greening Earth Society Content: The Greening Earth Society , now defunct , was a public relations organization which promoted the idea that there is considerable scientific doubt about the effects of climate change and increased levels of carbon dioxide . The Society published the World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels of the Cato Institute . It was a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association , with which it shared an office and many staff members . It has been called a `` front group created by the coal industry '' and an `` industry front '' . Fred Palmer , a Society staffer , is a registered lobbyist for Peabody Energy , a coal company . Although the Greening Earth Society was generally skeptical of the impact of climate change , it acknowledged some degree of global warming as real : `` Fact # 1 . The rate of global warming during the past several decades has been about 0.18 ° C per decade '' . Note that the actual increase in the global surface temperature during the 100 years ending in 2005 was 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C.", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Greening_Earth_Society", "rank": 40, "score": 138612 }, { "content": "Title: Zotino Tall Tower Observation Facility Content: The Zotino Tall Tower Observation Facility ( ZOTTO ) is a climatic research station in the Siberian taiga in the proximity of Zotino , Russia , established and operated by the Max Planck Society and the Sukachev Institute of Forest , it serves as a long-term observing platform to be operated for at least 30 years . Far from human influences , researchers aim to determine how the concentration of greenhouse gases , aerosols , and the rising temperatures of the terrestrial atmosphere affect each other mutually . The heart of the station is a 302 m tower on which precision instruments measure the concentration of carbon dioxide , methane and other greenhouse gases . The measurement data are processed directly in the station at the foot of the tower and then transferred to the Institute of Forest , in Krasnoyarsk , Russia , as well as to the Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry in Jena , Germany . The station has been operational since September 2006 . It extended the project Terrestrial Carbon Observing System and was funded by the 5th framework programme of the European Union , uniting 8 European and 4 Russian partners . A main conclusion of the project is that Siberian forests constitute a substantially smaller carbon-sink than so far assumed .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Zotino_Tall_Tower_Observation_Facility", "rank": 41, "score": 138093 }, { "content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Cap_carbonate", "rank": 42, "score": 138033 }, { "content": "Title: Bomb pulse Content: The bomb pulse is the sudden increase of carbon-14 ( 14C ) in the Earth 's atmosphere due to the hundreds of aboveground nuclear bombs tests started in 1945 and intensified between 1950 until 1963 when the Limited Test Ban Treaty was signed by the United States , the Soviet Union and Great Britain . These hundreds of blasts were followed by a doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere . Since then , the concentration of 14C has decreased towards the previous level . Carbon-14 , the radioisotope of carbon-12 , is naturally developed in trace amounts in the atmosphere and it can be detected in all living organisms . Carbon of all types is continually used to form the molecules of the cells of organisms . Doubling of the concentration of 14C in the atmosphere is reflected in the tissues and cells of all organisms that lived around the period of nuclear testing . This property has many applications in the fields of biology and forensics .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Bomb_pulse", "rank": 43, "score": 137410 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 44, "score": 137315 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 45, "score": 136967 }, { "content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)", "rank": 46, "score": 136349 }, { "content": "Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''", "qid": "3072", "docid": "James_Hansen", "rank": 47, "score": 135781 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Climate_change_and_potatoes", "rank": 48, "score": 135039 }, { "content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Climate_system", "rank": 49, "score": 134327 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Idaho", "rank": 50, "score": 134079 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates", "rank": 51, "score": 133536 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Low-carbon_emission", "rank": 52, "score": 133441 }, { "content": "Title: Drawdown (climate) Content: Climate drawdown is the point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere begin to decline on a year-to-year basis . Drawdown is a goal for reversing climate change , and eventually reducing global average temperatures . Project Drawdown is a climate change mitigation project initiated by Paul Hawken and climate activist Amanda Joy Ravenhill . Central to the project is the compilation of a list of the `` 100 most substantive solutions to global warming . '' The list , encompassing only technologically viable , existing solutions , was compiled by a team of over 200 scholars , scientists , policymakers , business leaders and activists ; for each solution the carbon impact through the year 2050 , the total and net cost to society , and the total lifetime savings were measured and modelled .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Drawdown_(climate)", "rank": 53, "score": 133215 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth", "rank": 54, "score": 133207 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change", "rank": 55, "score": 131818 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe", "rank": 56, "score": 131349 }, { "content": "Title: Gilbert Plass Content: Gilbert Norman Plass ( 22 March 1920 -- 1 March 2004 ) was a Canadian physicist who in the 1950s made predictions about the increase in global atmospheric carbon dioxide levels in the 20th century and its effect on the average temperature of the planet that closely match measurements reported half a century later . Plass worked most of his life as a physicist in the United States . He graduated from Harvard University in 1941 and earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1947 . He worked as an associate physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory ( Manhattan District ) of the University of Chicago from 1942 to 1945 . He became an instructor of physics at Johns Hopkins University in 1946 , and eventually became an associate professor there . In 1955 , leaving academia , he held a job for a year as a staff scientist with Lockheed Aircraft Corporation . He then joined the advanced research staff at the Aeronutronic division of the Ford Motor Company . In 1960 , he became manager of the research lab at Ford 's theoretical physics department and a consulting editor of the journal Infrared Physics ( now called Infrared Physics and Technology ) . In 1963 , he accepted a position as the first professor of atmospheric and space science at the Southwest Center for Advanced Studies ( now the University of Texas at Arlington ) , where he remained for five years . In 1968 , he arrived at Texas A&M University , where he served as professor of physics and head of the department .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Gilbert_Plass", "rank": 57, "score": 130327 }, { "content": "Title: Evangelical Climate Initiative Content: The Evangelical Climate Initiative ( ECI ) is a campaign by US-American church leaders and organizations to promote market based mechanisms to mitigate global warming . ECI 's first statement , calling for reductions in carbon dioxide emissions , was initially signed by 86 evangelical leaders . Signatories included Rick Warren , the presidents of 39 evangelical colleges , and the leader of the Salvation Army . The number of signatories had risen to over 100 by December 2007 , and as of July 2011 over 220 evangelical leaders had signed the call to action . David P. Gushee , a professor of Christian ethics at Mercer University , helped draft the document . When the Evangelical Climate Initiative launched in February 2006 , the National Association of Evangelicals ( NAE ) was not ready to make such a commitment . Not quite a year later , the NAE worked with the Center for Health and the Global Environment at Harvard Medical School to bring scientists and evangelical Christian leaders together to mitigate climate change . As ABC News reported :", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Evangelical_Climate_Initiative", "rank": 58, "score": 130090 }, { "content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program", "rank": 59, "score": 128967 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric temperature Content: Atmospheric temperature is a measure of temperature at different levels of the Earth 's atmosphere . It is governed by many factors , including incoming solar radiation , humidity and altitude . When discussing surface temperature , the annual atmospheric temperature range at any geographical location depends largely upon the type of biome , as measured by the Köppen climate classification .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Atmospheric_temperature", "rank": 60, "score": 128612 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report", "rank": 61, "score": 127859 }, { "content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Climate_inertia", "rank": 62, "score": 127483 }, { "content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Charles_David_Keeling", "rank": 63, "score": 127473 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 64, "score": 127386 }, { "content": "Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Contraction_and_Convergence", "rank": 65, "score": 127348 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Mars Content: The atmosphere of Mars is the layer of gases surrounding Mars . It is composed mostly of carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure on the Martian surface averages 600 Pa , about 0.6 % of Earth 's mean sea level pressure of 101.3 kPa . It ranges from a low of 30 Pa on Olympus Mons 's peak to over 1155 Pa in the depths of Hellas Planitia . This pressure is well below the Armstrong limit for the unprotected human body . Mars 's atmospheric mass of 25 teratonnes compares to Earth 's 5148 teratonnes with a scale height of about 11 km versus Earth 's 7 km . The Martian atmosphere consists of approximately 96 % carbon dioxide , 1.9 % argon , 1.9 % nitrogen , and traces of free oxygen , carbon monoxide , water and methane , among other gases , for a mean molar mass of 43.34 g/mol . There has been renewed interest in its composition since the detection of traces of methane in 2003 that may indicate life but may also be produced by a geochemical process , volcanic or hydrothermal activity . The atmosphere is quite dusty , giving the Martian sky a light brown or orange-red color when seen from the surface ; data from the Mars Exploration Rovers indicate suspended particles of roughly 1.5 micrometres in diameter . On 16 December 2014 , NASA reported detecting an unusual increase , then decrease , in the amounts of methane in the atmosphere of the planet Mars . Organic chemicals have been detected in powder drilled from a rock by the Curiosity rover . Based on deuterium to hydrogen ratio studies , much of the water at Gale Crater on Mars was found to have been lost during ancient times , before the lakebed in the crater was formed ; afterwards , large amounts of water continued to be lost . On 18 March 2015 , NASA reported the detection of an aurora that is not fully understood and an unexplained dust cloud in the atmosphere of Mars . On 4 April 2015 , NASA reported studies , based on measurements by the Sample Analysis at Mars ( SAM ) instrument on the Curiosity rover , of the Martian atmosphere using xenon and argon isotopes . Results provided support for a `` vigorous '' loss of atmosphere early in the history of Mars and were consistent with an atmospheric signature found in bits of atmosphere captured in some Martian meteorites found on Earth . This was further supported by results from the MAVEN orbiter circling Mars , that the solar wind is responsible for stripping away the atmosphere of Mars over the years .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Mars", "rank": 66, "score": 127194 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide clathrate Content: Carbon dioxide hydrate is a snow-like crystalline substance composed of water ice and carbon dioxide . It normally is a Type I gas clathrate . However , there has been some experimental evidence for the development of a metastable Type II phase at A temperature near the ice melting point . The clathrate can exist below 283K ( 10 ° C ) at a range of pressures of carbon dioxide . It is quite likely to be important on Mars due to the presence of carbon dioxide and ice at low temperatures .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_clathrate", "rank": 67, "score": 126646 }, { "content": "Title: Kenneth Hare Content: Fredrick Kenneth Hare , ( February 5 , 1919 -- September 3 , 2002 ) was a Canadian climatologist and academic , who researched atmospheric carbon dioxide , climate change , drought , and arid zone climates and was a strong advocate for preserving the natural environment .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Kenneth_Hare", "rank": 68, "score": 126457 }, { "content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia", "rank": 69, "score": 126065 }, { "content": "Title: Five Ways to Save the World Content: Five Ways to Save the World is a British documentary film on environmental issues related to climate change , released in 2006 . The film was made by Karen O'Connor , for the big screen and was shot in the English language to reach an international audience . It includes interviews with five environmental scientists and experts including Paul Crutzen , James Roger Angel , John Latham , Ian Jones , and Klaus Lackner . The `` five ways '' proposed are geoengineering techniques : space lenses in orbit , to diffract sunlight away from the earth cloud seeding with seawater to increase albedo sulfur launched into the stratosphere to increase albedo ocean fertilization with iron or urea ( nitrogen fertilizer ) artificial trees ( see carbon capture and sequestration ) Since the first three methods do not remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , they would only reduce global warming but not ocean acidification . Since the last two methods would remove carbon dioxide , they could in theory reduce both global warming and ocean acidification .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Five_Ways_to_Save_the_World", "rank": 70, "score": 125742 }, { "content": "Title: Representative Concentration Pathways Content: Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) are four greenhouse gas concentration ( not emissions ) trajectories adopted by the IPCC for its fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) in 2014 . It supersedes Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) projections published in 2000 . The pathways are used for climate modeling and research . They describe four possible climate futures , all of which are considered possible depending on how much greenhouse gases are emitted in the years to come . The four RCPs , RCP2 .6 , RCP4 .5 , RCP6 , and RCP8 .5 , are named after a possible range of radiative forcing values in the year 2100 relative to pre-industrial values ( +2.6 , +4.5 , +6.0 , and +8.5 W/m2 , respectively ) .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Representative_Concentration_Pathways", "rank": 71, "score": 125638 }, { "content": "Title: Bicarbonate indicator Content: A bicarbonate indicator ( hydrogencarbonate indicator ) is a type of pH indicator that is sensitive enough to show a color change as the concentration of carbon dioxide gas in an aqueous solution increases . The indicator is used in photosynthesis and respiration experiments to find out whether carbon dioxide is being liberated . It is also used to test the carbon dioxide content during gaseous exchange of organisms . When the carbon dioxide content is higher than 0.04 % , the initial red color changes to yellow as the pH becomes more acidic . If the carbon dioxide content is lower than 0.04 % , it changes from red to magenta and , in relatively very low carbon dioxide concentrations , to purple . Carbon dioxide , even in the concentrations found in exhaled air , will dissolve in the indicator to form carbonic acid , a weak acid , which will lower the pH and give the characteristic colour change . A colour change to purple during photosynthesis shows a reduction in the percentage of carbon dioxide and is sometimes inferred as production of oxygen , but there is not actually any direct evidence for it . Great care must be taken to avoid acidic or alkaline contamination of the apparatus in such experiments , since the test is not directly specific to carbon dioxide .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Bicarbonate_indicator", "rank": 72, "score": 125155 }, { "content": "Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Revelle_factor", "rank": 73, "score": 125013 }, { "content": "Title: Ian G. Enting Content: Ian Enting ( born 25 September 1948 ) is a mathematical physicist and the AMSI/MASCOS Professorial Fellow at the ARC Centre of Excellence for Mathematics and Statistics of Complex Systems ( MASCOS ) based at The University of Melbourne . Enting is the author of Twisted , The Distorted Mathematics of Greenhouse Denial in which he analyses the presentation and use of data by climate change deniers . More recently he has been addressing the claims made in Ian Plimer 's book `` Heaven + Earth '' . He has published a critique , `` Ian Plimer 's ` Heaven + Earth ' -- Checking the Claims '' , listing what Enting claims are numerous misrepresentations of the sources cited in the book . From 1980 to 2004 he worked in CSIRO Atmospheric Research , primarily on modelling the global carbon cycle . He was one of the lead authors of the chapter and the Carbon Cycle in the 1994 IPCC report on Radiative Forcing of Climate . Enting has published scientific papers , on mathematical physics and carbon cycle modelling , and a monograph on mathematical techniques for interpreting observations of carbon dioxide and other trace gases .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Ian_G._Enting", "rank": 74, "score": 124880 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture", "rank": 75, "score": 124849 }, { "content": "Title: Keeling (disambiguation) Content: The Keeling Curve is a graph that depicts the increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide over the twentieth century . It is named after Charles David Keeling who discovered the rise in carbon dioxide concentrations and plotted the graph . Keeling may also refer to : Keeling , Virginia North Keeling Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands Surname Charles Keeling , climatologist Edward Keeling Harold Keeling John Keeling , MP Ralph Keeling , son of Charles , also climatologist William Keeling , English sea captain", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Keeling_(disambiguation)", "rank": 76, "score": 124712 }, { "content": "Title: Michael Raupach Content: Michael Robin Raupach ( 30 October 1950 -- 10 February 2015 ) was an Australian climate scientist . He is credited with developing the concept of a carbon budget , the amount of CO2 that is emitted and absorbed in the global ecosystem in the course of a year . When the in balance , CO2 emissions and absorption in carbon sinks are roughly the same , but when disturbed , possibly large changes in the ecosystem ensue . He was a founding co-chair of the Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) , a network of the world 's leading carbon cycle researchers . He was instrumental in publishing the Annual Carbon Budget , which draws on a large amount of scientific data to determine the level of imbalance and options for addressing it . He worked for the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation before becoming the director of the Australian National University 's Climate Change Institute in 2014 . He was a co-chair of the Global Carbon Project from 2000 to 2008 , and contributed to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Fourth Assessment Report in 2007 . He chaired the steering committee of the ` Australia 2050 ' project of the Australian Academy of Science ( AAS ) . In 2009 -- 2010 he chaired the Expert Working Group on Challenges at the Intersection of Carbon , Energy and Water , reporting to the Prime Minister 's Science , Engineering and Innovation Council and the Office of the Chief Scientist of Australia . His career included the publication of 150 scientific papers and 50 reports . His research developed in three stages , the first focused on very localized flow and transport of matter and energy through and above plant canopies . At the next stage , he worked on quantification of CO2 transport through and above plant canopies , though still on a small scale . In the 1990s , his focus began to shift to global ecosystems when he became a member of the scientific steering committee of the Biospheric Aspects of the Hydrological Cycle core project of the IGBP ( International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme ) . One of the most fundamental and important questions that the project addressed was : does the land-surface matter in climate and weather ? His research contributed to addressing that question , through his work on turbulent fluxes near the land surface , boundary-layer budgeting and quantifying the water balance at broader scales . He was a fellow of the Australian Academy of Science , the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering , and the American Geophysical Union . Just before his death following a short illness , he co-chaired the working group of the Australian Academy of Science drafting the AAS booklet The Science of Climate Change : Questions and Answers .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Michael_Raupach", "rank": 77, "score": 124564 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric temperature range Content: Atmospheric temperature range is the numerical difference between the minimum and maximum values of temperature observed in a given location during a period of time ( e.g. , in a given day , month , year , century ) or the average ( average of all temperature ranges in a period of time ) . The variation in temperature that occurs from the highs of the day to the cool of nights is called diurnal temperature variation .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Atmospheric_temperature_range", "rank": 78, "score": 124236 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Climate_change", "rank": 79, "score": 123784 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 80, "score": 123202 }, { "content": "Title: Air sensitivity Content: Air sensitivity is a term used , particularly in chemistry , to denote the reactivity of chemical compounds with some constituent of air . Most often , reactions occur with atmospheric oxygen ( O2 ) or water vapor ( H2O ) , although reactions with the other constituents of air such as carbon monoxide ( CO ) , carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and nitrogen ( N2 ) are also possible . The range of methods used to work with air-sensitive compounds are known as air-free techniques . Two main methods exist -- gloveboxes and Schlenk lines . Gloveboxes are sealed cabinets filled with an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen . Normal laboratory equipment can be set up and manipulated through the use of the gloves . A Schlenk line is a vacuum and inert-gas dual-manifold that allows glassware to be evacuated and refilled with inert gas .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Air_sensitivity", "rank": 81, "score": 122873 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Carbon_tax", "rank": 82, "score": 122791 }, { "content": "Title: Hiroshi Kanzawa Content: Hiroshi Kanzawa ( b. January 1953 in Maebashi , Gunma Prefecture , Japan ) is a Japanese meteorologist , environmental scientist and the dean of the Graduate School of Environmental Studies at the University of Nagoya . He is perhaps best known for his onsite atmospheric work in Antarctica and the papers he has co-authored on Ozone depletion , including : `` Large stratospheric sudden warming in Antarctic late winter and shallow ozone hole in 1988 '' ( with Sadao Kamaguchi ) and `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japanese colleague Seita Emori and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) . Kanzawa also sits on the board of Councilors of the Hydrospheric Atmospheric Research Center at the University of Nagoya .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Hiroshi_Kanzawa", "rank": 83, "score": 122623 }, { "content": "Title: The Greening of Planet Earth Content: The Greening of Planet Earth is a half-hour-long video produced by the coal industry , which argues that rising CO2 levels will be beneficial to agriculture , and that policies intending to reduce CO2 levels are therefore misguided . The video argues that rising CO2 levels both directly stimulate plant growth and , as a result of their warming properties , cause winter temperatures to rise , thereby indirectly stimulating plant growth . It was produced in 1991 and released the following year . A sequel , entitled , The Greening of Planet Earth Continues , was released in 1998 . The video was narrated by Sherwood Idso . After the video was made , it was distributed to thousands of journalists by a coal industry group . The video became very popular viewing in the George H. W. Bush White House and elsewhere in Washington , where it was promoted before the 1992 Earth Summit , and , according to some reports , became especially popular with then-chief of staff John H. Sununu .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "The_Greening_of_Planet_Earth", "rank": 84, "score": 122441 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 85, "score": 121793 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 86, "score": 121485 }, { "content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Suess_effect", "rank": 87, "score": 121083 }, { "content": "Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Seita_Emori", "rank": 88, "score": 121053 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States", "rank": 89, "score": 120773 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal", "rank": 90, "score": 120733 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Climate_change_in_China", "rank": 91, "score": 120605 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Venus Content: The atmosphere of Venus is the layer of gases surrounding Venus . It is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and is much denser and hotter than that of Earth . The temperature at the surface is 740 K ( 467 ° C , 872 ° F ) , and the pressure is 93 bar ( 9.3 MPa ) , roughly the pressure found 900 m underwater on Earth . The Venusian atmosphere supports opaque clouds made of sulfuric acid , making optical Earth-based and orbital observation of the surface impossible . Information about the topography has been obtained exclusively by radar imaging . Aside from carbon dioxide , the other main component is nitrogen . Other chemical compounds are present only in trace amounts . Mikhail Lomonosov was the first person to hypothesize the existence of an atmosphere on Venus based on his observation of the transit of Venus of 1761 in a small observatory near his house in Saint Petersburg , Russia . Aside from the very surface layers , the atmosphere is in a state of vigorous circulation . The upper layer of troposphere exhibits a phenomenon of super-rotation , in which the atmosphere circles the planet in just four Earth days , much faster than the planet 's sidereal day of 243 days . The winds supporting super-rotation blow at a speed of 100 m/s ( ~ 360 km/h or 220 mph ) or more . Winds move at up to 60 times the speed of the planet 's rotation , while Earth 's fastest winds are only 10 % to 20 % rotation speed . On the other hand , the wind speed becomes increasingly slower as the elevation from the surface decreases , with the breeze barely reaching the speed of 10 km/h ( 2.8 m/s ) on the surface . Near the poles are anticyclonic structures called polar vortices . Each vortex is double-eyed and shows a characteristic S-shaped pattern of clouds . Above there is an intermediate layer of mesosphere which separates the troposphere from the thermosphere . The thermosphere is also characterized by strong circulation , but very different in its nature - the gases heated and partially ionized by sunlight in the sunlit hemisphere migrate to the dark hemisphere where they recombine and downwell . Unlike Earth , Venus lacks a magnetic field . Its ionosphere separates the atmosphere from outer space and the solar wind . This ionised layer excludes the solar magnetic field , giving Venus a distinct magnetic environment . This is considered Venus 's induced magnetosphere . Lighter gases , including water vapour , are continuously blown away by the solar wind through the induced magnetotail . It is speculated that the atmosphere of Venus up to around 4 billion years ago was more like that of the Earth with liquid water on the surface . A runaway greenhouse effect may have been caused by the evaporation of the surface water and subsequent rise of the levels of other greenhouse gases . Despite the harsh conditions on the surface , the atmospheric pressure and temperature at about 50 km to 65 km above the surface of the planet is nearly the same as that of the Earth , making its upper atmosphere the most Earth-like area in the Solar System , even more so than the surface of Mars . Due to the similarity in pressure and temperature and the fact that breathable air ( 21 % oxygen , 78 % nitrogen ) is a lifting gas on Venus in the same way that helium is a lifting gas on Earth , the upper atmosphere has been proposed as a location for both exploration and colonization . On January 29 , 2013 , ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of the planet Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to `` the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions . ''", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Venus", "rank": 92, "score": 120523 }, { "content": "Title: List of parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC or FCCC ) is an international environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) , informally known as the Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . The objective of the treaty is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The treaty itself set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . In that sense , the treaty is considered legally non-binding . Instead , the treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' ) that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases . The UNFCCC was opened for signature on 9 May 1992 , after an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee produced the text of the Framework Convention as a report following its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . It entered into force on 21 March 1994 . As of December 2015 , UNFCCC has 197 parties .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "List_of_parties_to_the_United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 93, "score": 120433 }, { "content": "Title: Climate state Content: Climate state describes a state of climate on Earth and similar terrestrial planets based on a thermal energy budget , such as the greenhouse or icehouse climate state . The main climate state change is between periodical glacial and interglacial cycles in Earth history , studied from climate proxies . The climate system is responding to the current climate forcing and adjusts following climate sensitivity to reach a climate equilibrium , Earth 's energy balance . Model simulations suggest that the current interglacial climate state will continue for at least another 100,000 years , due to emissions - including complete deglaciation of the Northern Hemisphere .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Climate_state", "rank": 94, "score": 120182 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite Content: The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Greenhouse_Gases_Observing_Satellite", "rank": 95, "score": 120039 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change feedback Content: Climate change feedback is important in the understanding of global warming because feedback processes may amplify or diminish the effect of each climate forcing , and so play an important part in determining the climate sensitivity and future climate state . Feedback in general is the process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity , and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first . Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it . The term `` forcing '' means a change which may `` push '' the climate system in the direction of warming or cooling . An example of a climate forcing is increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases . By definition , forcings are external to the climate system while feedbacks are internal ; in essence , feedbacks represent the internal processes of the system . Some feedbacks may act in relative isolation to the rest of the climate system ; others may be tightly coupled ; hence it may be difficult to tell just how much a particular process contributes . Forcings , feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate system determine how much and how fast the climate changes . The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere , which in turn leads to further warming . The main negative feedback comes from the Stefan -- Boltzmann law , the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space changes with the fourth power of the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere . Some observed and potential effects of global warming are positive feedbacks , which contribute directly to further global warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that `` Anthropogenic warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible , depending upon the rate and magnitude of the climate change . ''", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Climate_change_feedback", "rank": 96, "score": 120003 }, { "content": "Title: Klaus Lackner Content: Klaus S. Lackner is the director of the Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) and a professor in School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment at Arizona State University . He is a pioneer in carbon management and is the first to suggest capturing carbon dioxide from air in the context of addressing climate change . His current work includes the demonstrating and improving passive methods to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , integrating air capture technology with applications for using carbon dioxide , exploring safe and permanent disposal options for carbon dioxide , and identifying opportunities for automation and scaling . His publications have been cited 5842 times as of November 12 , 2015 . His h-index is 31 . Previously , he was the director of the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute and Faculty in the Earth and Environmental Engineering department at Columbia University from 2001 - 2014 . He , along with CNCE executive director , Allen Wright , co - founded of the first privately held air capture company Global Research Technologies ( GRT ) in Tucson , AZ where they demonstrated the moisture swing . Prior to his academic work he held appointments at the theoretical division of Los Alamos National Laboratory for nearly 17 years . His idea of the self - replicating machines along with his colleague , Christopher Wendt , was featured by Discover Magazine in 1995 as `` One of the 7 Ideas that can Change the World . ''", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Klaus_Lackner", "rank": 97, "score": 119977 }, { "content": "Title: William D. Sellers Content: William D. Sellers ( 18 August 1928 -- 27 August 2014 ) was an American meteorologist , climate scientist , and pioneer of climate modelling . He created one the earliest climate models and was one of the first scientists to recognize the effects of CO2 in the atmosphere on the earth 's climate . He published the textbook `` Physical Climatology '' .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "William_D._Sellers", "rank": 98, "score": 119972 }, { "content": "Title: Central chemoreceptors Content: Central chemoreceptors of the central nervous system , located on the ventrolateral medullary surface in the vicinity of the exit of the 9th and 10th cranial nerves , are sensitive to the pH of their environment . These act to detect the changes in pH of nearby cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) that are indicative of altered oxygen or carbon dioxide concentrations available to brain tissues . An increase in carbon dioxide causes tension of the arteries , often resulting from decreased CO2 output ( hypercapnia ) , indirectly causes the blood to become more acidic ; the cerebrospinal fluid pH is closely comparable to plasma , as carbon dioxide easily diffuses across the blood -- brain barrier . However , a change in plasma pH alone will not stimulate central chemoreceptors as H + are not able to diffuse across the blood -- brain barrier into the CSF . Only CO2 levels affect this as it can diffuse across , reacting with H2O to form carbonic acid and thus decrease pH. Central chemoreception remains , in this way , distinct from peripheral chemoreceptors . The central chemoreception system has also been shown experimentally to respond to hypercapnic hypoxia ( elevated CO2 , decreased O2 ) and aqueous sodium cyanide injection into the whole animal and in vitro slice preparation . These methods can be used to mimic some forms of hypoxic hypoxia and they are currently being studied including the detection of variation in arterial CO2 tension acting as a quick-response-system for short term ( or emergency ) regulation . This system utilizes a negative feedback system , therefore if the pH of the cerebral spinal fluid does not compare to an ideal `` set '' level , then the receptor will send an error signal to the effectors and appropriate action may be executed . Peripheral chemoreceptors ( carotid and aortic bodies ) and central chemoreceptors ( medullary neurons ) primarily function to regulate respiratory activity . This is an important mechanism for maintaining arterial blood pO2 , pCO2 , and pH within appropriate physiological ranges . For example , a fall in arterial pO2 ( hypoxemia ) or an increase in arterial pCO2 ( hypercapnia ) leads to an increase in the rate and depth of respiration through activation of the chemoreceptor reflex . Chemoreceptor activity , however , also affects cardiovascular function either directly ( by interacting with medullary vasomotor centers ) or indirectly ( via altered pulmonary stretch receptor activity ) . Respiratory arrest and circulatory shock ( these conditions decrease arterial pO2 and pH , and increase arterial pCO2 ) dramatically increase chemoreceptor activity leading to enhanced sympathetic outflow to the heart and vasculature via activation of the vasomotor center in the medulla .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Central_chemoreceptors", "rank": 99, "score": 119963 }, { "content": "Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .", "qid": "3072", "docid": "Supercritical_carbon_dioxide", "rank": 100, "score": 119962 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies . It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report . The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''", "qid": "3074", "docid": "IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 1, "score": 204651 }, { "content": "Title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 2, "score": 192103 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Third Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Third Assessment Report , Climate Change 2001 , is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the UN 's World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) '' ... to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' -LSB- IPCC website -RSB- The Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) is the third of a series of assessments ; it has been superseded by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , released in 2007 . Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR are often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming , although a small minority of scientists take issue with the UN assessments ( see also Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming ) .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "IPCC_Third_Assessment_Report", "rank": 3, "score": 126742 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Emissions Scenarios Content: The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) is a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was published in 2000 . The greenhouse gas emissions scenarios described in the Report have been used to make projections of possible future climate change . The SRES scenarios , as they are often called , were used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , published in 2001 , and in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , published in 2007 . The SRES scenarios were designed to improve upon some aspects of the IS92 scenarios , which had been used in the earlier IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . The SRES scenarios are `` baseline '' ( or `` reference '' ) scenarios , which means that they do not take into account any current or future measures to limit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions ( e.g. , the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ) . Emissions projections of the SRES scenarios are broadly comparable in range to the baseline emissions scenarios that have been developed by the scientific community . The SRES scenarios , however , do not encompass the full range of possible futures : emissions may change less than the scenarios imply , or they could change more . SRES was superseded by Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) in 2014 .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Emissions_Scenarios", "rank": 4, "score": 125040 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change litigation and the California Environmental Quality Act Content: Litigation related to climate change and greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions has become increasingly common in federal and state courts . Following adoption of the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) and publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , additional pressure was placed on California public agencies to evaluate potential adverse effects to global climate change caused by GHG emissions . In particular , several lawsuits have been filed against agencies for failure to analyze GHG emissions generated by projects subject to the California Environmental Quality Act ( CEQA ) . Court decisions prior to the 2010 revisions to the CEQA guidelines gave early insights as to how CEQA would be used as a vehicle to identify and mitigate GHG emissions within the state . Decisions issued after adoption of the revised guidelines are now being used to interpret CEQA 's new requirement to evaluate GHG emissions and climate change .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Climate_change_litigation_and_the_California_Environmental_Quality_Act", "rank": 5, "score": 122631 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report Content: The Fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is the fifth in a series of such reports . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects and options for adaptation and mitigation . The Fifth Assessment Report was finalized in 2014 . As had been the case in the past , the outline of the AR5 was developed through a scoping process which involved climate change experts from all relevant disciplines and users of IPCC reports ; in particular representatives from governments . Governments and organizations involved in the Fourth Report were asked to submit comments and observations in writing with the submissions analysed by the panel . The report was delivered in stages , starting with Working Group I 's report on the physical science basis , based on 9,200 peer-reviewed studies . The summaries for policy makers were released on 27 September 2013 for the first report , on 31 March 2014 for the second report entitled `` Impacts , Adaptation , and Vulnerability '' , and on 14 April 2014 for the third report entitled `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . The Synthesis Report was released on 2 November 2014 , in time to pave the way for negotiations on reducing carbon emissions at the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris during late 2015 .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "IPCC_Fifth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 6, "score": 113780 }, { "content": "Title: Representative Concentration Pathways Content: Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) are four greenhouse gas concentration ( not emissions ) trajectories adopted by the IPCC for its fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) in 2014 . It supersedes Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) projections published in 2000 . The pathways are used for climate modeling and research . They describe four possible climate futures , all of which are considered possible depending on how much greenhouse gases are emitted in the years to come . The four RCPs , RCP2 .6 , RCP4 .5 , RCP6 , and RCP8 .5 , are named after a possible range of radiative forcing values in the year 2100 relative to pre-industrial values ( +2.6 , +4.5 , +6.0 , and +8.5 W/m2 , respectively ) .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Representative_Concentration_Pathways", "rank": 7, "score": 112152 }, { "content": "Title: Patrick Michaels Content: Patrick J. ( `` Pat '' ) Michaels ( born February 15 , 1950 ) is an American climatologist . Michaels is a senior fellow in environmental studies at the Cato Institute . Until 2007 he was research professor of environmental sciences at the University of Virginia , where he had worked from 1980 . A self-described skeptic on the issue of global warming , he is a past president of the American Association of State Climatologists . He has written a number of books and papers on climate change , including Sound and Fury : The Science and Politics of Global Warming ( 1992 ) , The Satanic Gases ( 2000 ) , and Meltdown : The Predictable Distortion of Global Warming by Scientists , Politicians , and the Media ( 2004 ) . He 's also the co-author of Climate of Extremes : Global Warming Science They Do n't Want You to Know ( 2009 ) . Michaels ' viewpoint , as argued in a 2002 article in the journal Climate Research , is that the planet will see `` a warming range of 1.3 -- 3.0 ° C , with a central value of 1.9 ° C '' for the 1990 to 2100 period ( an analysis far smaller than the IPCC 's average predictions ) .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Patrick_Michaels", "rank": 8, "score": 107611 }, { "content": "Title: 4O Content: 4O or 4-O may refer to : 4 ° ( also 4o ) , an abbreviation for Quarto 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference , discussing issues involving a 4 ° C rise in average global surface temperature 4o Sector , see Quaternary sector of the economy 4O , IATA code for Interjet 4º , abbreviation for fourth 4º Supermag Rally Italia Sardinia , see 2007 Rally d'Italia Sardegna", "qid": "3074", "docid": "4O", "rank": 9, "score": 107281 }, { "content": "Title: Global temperature Content: In its AR4 , WG1 report , Chapter3 , the IPCC explains global temperature in these words :", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Global_temperature", "rank": 10, "score": 101822 }, { "content": "Title: Wide Range Achievement Test Content: The Wide Range Achievement Test 4 ( WRAT4 ) is an achievement test which measures an individual 's ability to read words , comprehend sentences , spell , and compute solutions to math problems . The test currently is in its fourth revision . The test was developed in 1941 by psychologists Sidney W. Bijou and Joseph Jastak . The test is appropriate for individuals ages 5 -- 94 years . The WRAT4 provides two equivalent forms ( Blue and Green ) , which enables retesting within short periods of time without potential practice effects that occur from repeating the same items . The alternate forms also may be administered together in a single examination . The Wide Range Achievement Test 4 ( WRAT4 ) is the latest offering in a test series first published in 1946 . The various editions of the Wide Range Achievement Test ( WRAT ) have enjoyed widespread use in a variety of settings as a measure of the basic academic skills necessary for effective learning , communication , and thinking : reading and spelling words and performing basic mathematical calculations . The WRAT4 is published by and available from Psychological Assessment Resources , Inc. . A computerized scoring program and interpretive report are also available . An added feature in the WRAT4 is a Reading Composite Score . Previous versions of the WRAT4 included WRAT III .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Wide_Range_Achievement_Test", "rank": 11, "score": 101685 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 12, "score": 101203 }, { "content": "Title: Mount Arfak Content: Mount Arfak is the highest point in the province of West Papua . It is located on north-east side of the Bird 's Head Peninsula . It is a popular hiking area and is the highest peak of the Arfak Mountains . From the summit , Manokwari can be seen . The summit of Mt. Arfak is temperate and dry with very hot , dry summer temperatures that average below 95 ° F ( 35 ° C ) and mild , humid winter temperatures that average above 38 ° F ( 3 ° C ) . During the winter months , the mountain 's summit receives frost usually and sometimes can get to 33 ° F ( 0 ° C ) every now and then . Sometimes snow can fall on the summit , but not every year . Average rain amount per year is about 45 inches ( 1150 mm ) . The mountain is part of the Pegunungan Arfak Nature Reserve , a 683 km2 protected area that protects parts of the Vogelkop Montane Rain Forests Ecoregion . The mountain is also the highest point in the Manokwari metropolitan area .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Mount_Arfak", "rank": 13, "score": 97154 }, { "content": "Title: Amaterasu Patera Content: Amaterasu Patera is a patera , or a complex crater with scalloped edges , on Jupiter 's moon Io . Its temperature was estimated on March 5 , 1979 , to be around 281 kelvins . It is one of the darkest features on Io , and the measurement of its thermal spectrum helped to support an anticorrelation established between albedo and temperature for Ionian hotspots . The feature has darkened further since the first orbit around Jupiter by the Galileo spacecraft . It is 100 kilometers in diameter and located at . It was named after the Japanese sun goddess Amaterasu . To the north are Kinich Ahau Patera and Dazhbog Patera , and to the west are Manua Patera and Fuchi Patera .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Amaterasu_Patera", "rank": 14, "score": 96441 }, { "content": "Title: Iridium tetroxide Content: Iridium tetroxide ( IrO4 , Iridium ( VIII ) oxide ) is a binary compound of oxygen and iridium in oxidation state + VIII . This compound was formed by photochemical rearrangement of -LSB- ( η1O2 ) IrO2 -RSB- in solid argon at a temperature of 6 K ( − 267 ° C , − 449 ° F ) . At higher temperatures the oxide is unstable . The detection of the iridium tetroxide cation by infrared photodissociation spectroscopy with formal oxidation state IX has been reported .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Iridium_tetroxide", "rank": 15, "score": 95487 }, { "content": "Title: 4° Content: 4 ° may refer to : 4 ° , or Quarto a book or pamphlet produced from full ` blanksheets ' , each of which is printed with eight pages of text , four to a side 4 ° , a reference to a 4-degrees Celsius increase in the global average temperature due to climate change , 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference `` 4 ° '' , the third single by the progressive rock band Tool from their 1993 album Undertow `` 4 Degrees '' , the first single by experimental pop singer Anohni from her 2016 album Hopelessness", "qid": "3074", "docid": "4°", "rank": 16, "score": 93952 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Report Content: World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels , was produced by the Greening Earth Society , a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association . Early editions were paper based ; it was then transferred to a web-only format , having ceased publication as a physically based report with Volume 8 in 2002 . It continues to exist in blog form at www.worldclimatereport.com , although the website itself has not been updated since late 2012 . World Climate Report presents a scientific skeptical view of populist anthropogenic-driven mass global climate change , or as it describes , ` Global Warming Alarmism ' . However , it does not reject the concepts of global climate change or greenhouse theory ( or other well-established and widely accepted scientific theories or empirical studies ) , in general attempting to engender itself as giving a well balanced and scientific view of the sources ( though often at a contrary expense of its perceived adversaries : the aforementioned alleged ` Global Warming Alarmists ' ) . WCR says of itself : World Climate Report , a concise , hard-hitting and scientifically correct response to the global change reports which gain attention in the literature and popular press . As the nation 's leading publication in this realm , World Climate Report is exhaustively researched , impeccably referenced , and always timely . This popular biweekly newsletter points out the weaknesses and outright fallacies in the science that is being touted as `` proof '' of disastrous warming . It 's the perfect antidote against those who argue for proposed changes to the Rio Climate Treaty , such as the Kyoto Protocol , which are aimed at limiting carbon emissions from the United States ... World Climate Report has become the definitive and unimpeachable source for what nature now calls the `` mainstream skeptic '' point of view . . In addition to Patrick Michaels ( chief editor ) , the staff is listed as Robert C. Balling , Jr ( contributing editor ) , Robert Davis ( contributing editor ) , and Paul Knappenberger ( Administrator ) . New Hope Environmental Services , an advocacy science consulting firm , claims WCR as its biweekly newsletter .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "World_Climate_Report", "rank": 17, "score": 93191 }, { "content": "Title: Human body temperature Content: Normal human body temperature , also known as normothermia or euthermia , is the typical temperature range found in humans . The normal human body temperature range is typically stated as 36.5 -- . Individual body temperature depends upon the age , exertion , infection , sex , time of day , and reproductive status of the subject , the place in the body at which the measurement is made , the subject 's state of consciousness ( waking or sleeping ) , activity level , and emotional state . It is typically maintained within this range by thermoregulation . Human body temperature is of interest in medical practice , human reproduction , and athletics .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Human_body_temperature", "rank": 18, "score": 92806 }, { "content": "Title: Piedra Plat Content: Piedra Plat is a village on the island of Aruba , located towards the center of the island . The average temperature is 86 degrees Fahrenheit . It is a popular city because of dancing and the arts . Category : Populated places in Aruba", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Piedra_Plat", "rank": 19, "score": 92283 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 20, "score": 91937 }, { "content": "Title: Arhodomonas aquaeolei Content: Arhodomonas aquaeolei is a species of the bacterial genus Arhodomonas noted for its ability to grow in an environment of high salinity . It is an aerobic , oval rod-shaped , gram-negative bacterium . It is motile by means a single polar flagellum . A. aquaeolei is among the most halophilic organisms known . The temperature range for the growth of this bacteria is between 20 ° C and 45 ° C , with optimal growth at 37 ° C and it requires specifically sodium chloride ( NaCl ) for its growth . ( Other salts do not promote growth of A. aquaeolei . ) Growth occurred at NaCl concentrations between 6 % and 20 % in a Campylobacter medium . Although A. aquaeolei is most closely related to purple sulfur bacteria , it does not share those orgnamisms ' phototrophic traits . A. aquaeolei has been shown to degrade phenol and phenol based compounds , indicating possible industrial uses . A. aquaeolei '' causes no known diseases .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Arhodomonas_aquaeolei", "rank": 21, "score": 91593 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature in Canada Content:", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Temperature_in_Canada", "rank": 22, "score": 91205 }, { "content": "Title: Excessive heat watch Content: An Excessive Heat Watch is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States when the heat index is expected to be greater than 105 ° F ( 41 ° C ) across the northern states or 110 ° F ( 43 ° C ) across the southern states during the day , and/or nighttime low temperature will be at least 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) or higher for two consecutive days . Note that even with the usual northern/southern criteria , local offices , particularly those with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Excessive_heat_watch", "rank": 23, "score": 90884 }, { "content": "Title: Room temperature Content: Colloquially , room temperature is the range of temperatures that people prefer for indoor settings , at which the air feels neither hot nor cold when wearing typical indoor clothing . The range is typically between 15 C and 25 C and various methods of climate control are often employed to maintain this thermal comfort level . In certain fields , like science and engineering , and within a particular context , `` room temperature '' may have an agreed upon value for temperature .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Room_temperature", "rank": 24, "score": 89990 }, { "content": "Title: FourU thermometer Content: __ NOTOC __ FourU thermometers are a class of non-coding RNA thermometers found in Salmonella . They are named ` FourU ' due to the four highly conserved uridine nucleotides found directly opposite the Shine-Dalgarno sequence on hairpin II ( pictured ) . RNA thermometers such as FourU control regulation of temperature via heat shock proteins in many prokaryotes . FourU thermometers are relatively small RNA molecules , only 57 nucleotides in length , and have a simple two-hairpin structure . FourU are found in the 5 ' untranslated region of the gene for heat shock protein Salmonella agsA , they repress translation of this protein by base-pairing the Shine-Dalgardo sequence of the gene 's mRNA . This prevents ribosomes from binding the gene 's start codon . They are also found in the 5 ` UTR of htrA ( high temperature requirement ) genes in Salmonella and E.coli . In V. cholerae fourU thermometer in the 5 ' of toxT controls its temperature-dependant translation . At human body temperature , the thermometer structure opens and to allow transcriptional activator protein ToxT translation , facilitating V. cholerae virulance . Other known RNA thermometers include the ROSE element and Hsp90 cis-reg element .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "FourU_thermometer", "rank": 25, "score": 88951 }, { "content": "Title: The Fourth Way (band) Content: The Fourth Way was an American jazz quartet , comprising Eddie Marshall , Mike Nock , Michael White , and Ron McClure . They formed in 1967 and worked primarily in the San Francisco Bay Area through the early 1970s , releasing three albums . Like their contemporaries Weather Report , they were early pioneers of electric jazz fusion , with Nock 's Fender Rhodes piano run through many effects pedals including ring modulation , Michael White 's electrically amplified violin , and Ron McClure 's electric bass .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "The_Fourth_Way_(band)", "rank": 26, "score": 88095 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric temperature range Content: Atmospheric temperature range is the numerical difference between the minimum and maximum values of temperature observed in a given location during a period of time ( e.g. , in a given day , month , year , century ) or the average ( average of all temperature ranges in a period of time ) . The variation in temperature that occurs from the highs of the day to the cool of nights is called diurnal temperature variation .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Atmospheric_temperature_range", "rank": 27, "score": 88071 }, { "content": "Title: Dimorphite Content: Dimorphite , chemical name tetraarsenic trisulfide ( As4S3 ) , is a very rare orange-yellow arsenic sulfide mineral . In nature , dimorphite forms primarily by deposition in volcanic fumaroles at temperatures of 70 -- 80 ° C ( 158 -- 176 ° F ) . Dimorphite was first discovered in such a fumarole near Naples , Italy in 1849 by the mineralologist Arcangelo Scacchi ( 1810 -- 1893 ) . Since its discovery , dimorphite has been found in the Alacrán silver mine near Copiapó , Chile . It has also been reported from Cerro de Pasco , Peru , and the Lavrion District Mines in Attica , Greece .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Dimorphite", "rank": 28, "score": 87645 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years", "rank": 29, "score": 87634 }, { "content": "Title: Arona, Tenerife Content: Arona is a municipality in the southern part of the island of Tenerife in the Canary Islands . The municipality covers an area of 81.79 square kilometres comprising 4 % of the island 's area . The town Arona is 59 km southwest from Santa Cruz de Tenerife , the island 's capital . The population in 2013 was about 81,000 . It is the third largest city in Tenerife , after , Santa Cruz de Tenerife and San Cristóbal de La Laguna . Arona has a pleasant climate with temperatures ranging from 20 to 25 degrees Celsius . Notable places include the tourist resorts of Los Cristianos , Playa de las Americas , Costa del Silencio and Las Galletas . Arona also features Punta Salemas , the southernmost point of the island of Tenerife . The TF-1 motorway passes through the municipality .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Arona,_Tenerife", "rank": 30, "score": 87437 }, { "content": "Title: Erillinen Pataljoona 4 Content: Erillinen Pataljoona 4 ( 4th Detached Battalion , ErP 4 ) was a Finnish Army special forces unit during the Continuation War . The battalion was founded on July 1 , 1943 from the existing long range reconnaissance patrols ( Kaukopartiot ) .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Erillinen_Pataljoona_4", "rank": 31, "score": 87343 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 32, "score": 86767 }, { "content": "Title: GEO-4 Content: GEO-4 may refer to : the fourth in a series of Global Environment Outlook reports issued in 2007 by the United Nations Environmental Program SBIRS GEO 4 , a potential fourth in a series of geosynchronous orbit space surveillance satellites planned as part of the United States Air Force 's Space-Based Infrared System", "qid": "3074", "docid": "GEO-4", "rank": 33, "score": 86747 }, { "content": "Title: Technician fourth grade Content: Technician Fourth Grade ( abbreviated as T/4 or TEC4 ) was one of three United States Army technician ranks established on January 8 , 1942 during World War II . Those who held this rank were often addressed as Sergeant . Technicians possessed specialized skills that were rewarded with a higher pay grade . These skills could be directly related to combat , such as those skills possessed by a tank driver or combat engineer , or skills possessed by those in support functions such as a cooks or mechanics . Depending on his or her function , he or she might be called upon by an officer to command a group of men for a specific task . They were non-commissioned officers , as were sergeants . Initially , they shared the same insignia but on September 4 , 1942 , the three technician ranks were distinguished by a block `` T '' imprinted below the standard chevrons . Unofficial insignia using a technical specialty symbol instead of the T were used in some units .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Technician_fourth_grade", "rank": 34, "score": 86736 }, { "content": "Title: Excessive heat warning Content: An Excessive Heat Warning is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States within 12 hours of the heat index reaching one of two criteria levels . In most areas , a warning will be issued if there is a heat index of at least 105 ° F for more than 3 hours per day for 2 consecutive days , or if the heat index is greater than 115 ° F for any period of time . Note that local offices , particularly those where excessive heat is less frequent or in areas with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke , Heat exhaustion , and other heat-related illnesses .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Excessive_heat_warning", "rank": 35, "score": 86289 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy", "rank": 36, "score": 86156 }, { "content": "Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Reasons_for_concern", "rank": 37, "score": 85983 }, { "content": "Title: Arvand Free Zone Content: Arvand Free Zone with an area of 37400 hectares is at the confluence of Karun and Arvand Rivers . The Zone is located in 30 degrees , 21 minutes , 53 seconds of north and 13 minutes and 40.76 seconds of east and at a height of three meters above sea level and in proximity to Iraq and in the north west of Persian Gulf . Special fertility of the Zone is due to sediments having been accumulated in the low lands for the past millions years ago . The average temperature in the Zone since the beginning of the year until mid-autumn is 48 ° C and will reach to 8 ° C during other days of the year and the annual average rainfall is about 188 millimeters . Distance of the Zone to the center of Khuzestan Province is about 120 kilometers and its distance to Imam Khomeini Port and Mahshahr Port , as the two main industrial and transit Centers , is 80 kilometers . The connection road with the length of 1000 kilometers connects the capital of the country to Persian Gulf through this Zone.Existence of the two freshwater Rivers of Karun and Bahmanshir flowing through the Zone is of the natural benefits of the Zone and it has special importance in providing the freshwater required for industrial and home units.This Zone has long been one of the border and oil rich zones of the country due to the existence of freshwater Rivers of Karun and Arvand and also transportation facilities including road , rail , sea and air . It has been led to the establishment of the first oil refinery of the Middle East and the largest trade Port of the country.Special features of the Zone are the existence of fertile lands , possibility of fishing and its people having a special trade culture.Also , language , culture and kinship relations of the people with the neighboring countries are of the unique advantages of the Zone.Generally , Arvand Free Zone Org . is the largest regional-national project of Khuzestan Province and its implementation has big impacts on social and commercial criteria of the Zone . Great volume of investments , complexity of the engaged systems , necessity of systematic relations among executing factors , investigation and analysis of the situation and collection of managerial regulations are in line with target of creating a comprehensive , technical and economic view and in compliance with the situation . Lands of this Zone have been allocated to industrial activities , and other sectors , such as trade , tourism and office , to ports , warehousing and transit , and investors can invest in any of the economic activities . Politics of Khuzestan", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Arvand_Free_Zone", "rank": 38, "score": 85553 }, { "content": "Title: IPv4 Content: Internet Protocol version 4 ( IPv4 ) is the fourth version of the Internet Protocol ( IP ) . It is one of the core protocols of standards-based internetworking methods in the Internet , and was the first version deployed for production in the ARPANET in 1983 . It still routes most Internet traffic today , despite the ongoing deployment of a successor protocol , IPv6 . IPv4 is described in IETF publication RFC 791 ( September 1981 ) , replacing an earlier definition ( RFC 760 , January 1980 ) . IPv4 is a connectionless protocol for use on packet-switched networks . It operates on a best effort delivery model , in that it does not guarantee delivery , nor does it assure proper sequencing or avoidance of duplicate delivery . These aspects , including data integrity , are addressed by an upper layer transport protocol , such as the Transmission Control Protocol ( TCP ) .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "IPv4", "rank": 39, "score": 85451 }, { "content": "Title: Weather Stress Index Content: The Weather Stress Index , or WSI , is a relative measure of the weather conditions , often used as a comfort indicator . The index , a number between 0 and 100 , represents the percentage of time in the past with temperatures below the current temperature , for a given location , day and time . This makes the index a local measure based in past weather conditions . For example , if for a given location , on the 25th of July at 13:00 UTC the WSI is 85 for a temperature of 42 C , this means that the temperature was inferior to 42 ° C in 85 % of the time in the past , on the same place , on the 25th of July at 13:00 UTC ( and superior to 42 ° C in 15 % of the time on the same place , day and hour ) . In other words , the WSI gives the probability of finding a smaller temperature in the local weather history , at a given day and time , than that of the present measurement . Therefore , high values of WSI predict a relative discomfort from excessive heat for local inhabitants .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Weather_Stress_Index", "rank": 40, "score": 84239 }, { "content": "Title: Clinical Institute Withdrawal Assessment for Alcohol Content: The Clinical Institute Withdrawal Assessment for Alcohol , commonly abbreviated as CIWA or CIWA-Ar ( revised version ) , is a ten item scale used in the assessment and management of alcohol withdrawal . Each item on the scale is scored independently , and the summation of the scores yields an aggregate value that correlates to the severity of alcohol withdrawal , with ranges of scores designed to prompt specific management decisions such as the administration of benzodiazepines . The maximum score is 67 ; Mild alcohol withdrawal is defined with a score less than or equal to 15 , moderate with scores of 16 to 20 , and severe with any score greater than 20 . The ten items evaluated on the scale are common symptoms and signs of alcohol withdrawal , and are as follows : Nausea and vomiting Tremor Paroxysmal sweats Anxiety Agitation Tactile disturbances Auditory disturbances Visual disturbances Headache Orientation and clouded sensorium All items are scored from 0 -- 7 , with the exception of the orientation category , scored from 0 -- 4 . The CIWA scale is validated and has high inter-rater reliability . A randomized , double blind trial published in JAMA in 1994 showed that management for alcohol withdrawal that was guided by the CIWA scale resulted in decreased treatment duration and total use of benzodiazepines . The goal of the CIWA scale is to provide an efficient and objective means of assessing alcohol withdrawal . Studies have shown that use of the scale in management of alcohol withdrawal leads to decreased frequency of over-sedation with benzodiazepines in patients with milder alcohol withdrawal than would otherwise be detected without use of the scale , and decreased frequency of under-treatment in patients with greater severity of withdrawal than would otherwise be determined without the scale . The CIWA-Ar is actually a shortened , yet improved version of the CIWA , geared towards objectifying alcohol withdrawal symptom severity . It retains validity , usefulness and reliability between raters .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Clinical_Institute_Withdrawal_Assessment_for_Alcohol", "rank": 41, "score": 83638 }, { "content": "Title: Pato Branco Content: Pato Branco ( `` White Duck '' in English ) is a city in the southwest part of the Brazilian state Paraná . The municipality covers 537,8 km ² ( 206.7 mi ² ) and has a population of 66,680 ( 2007 IBGE estimate ) . Pato Branco started off as a village in 1942 and was given status as a city December 14th 1952 . It has two private colleges , Faculdade Mater Dei and Faculdade de Pato Branco , and one public University , Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná ( The Federal Technologic University of Paraná ) . The city has experienced a positive economic development throughout the last few years . Pato Branco is located 760 meters above sea level and has a sub-tropical climate with warm summers and mild winters , morning frost being usual during the winter season . Occasional snowfall . There is no defined period of drought . The coldest month of the year is July with an average temperature of 14.2 ° C ( 57.6 ° F ) . January is the warmest month with an average of 22.5 ° C ( 72.5 ° F ) . The current mayor ( elected for 2013-2016 ) is Augustinho Zucchi . The city has a small general aviation airport ( Juvenal Loureiro Cardoso Airport ) .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Pato_Branco", "rank": 42, "score": 83609 }, { "content": "Title: 300 Club Content: The 300 Club is the name given to those who have endured a range of temperature of 300 ° Fahrenheit ( 166 ° C ) within a very short time . The practice originated at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station in Antarctica . Participants in the 300 Club wait for a day when the temperature drops to − 100 ° F ( -73 ° C ) for more than a few minutes , generally in the winter . Those taking part first warm up in a sauna heated to 200 ° F ( 93 ° C ) for as long as 10 minutes . Then they run naked in the snow to the Geographic South Pole , running around it in the − 100 ° F weather . After this , they usually warm themselves back in the sauna again , often with the aid of alcoholic beverages . There are several patches made to commemorate the occasion that are entitled to be worn by those who have joined the 300 Club .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "300_Club", "rank": 43, "score": 83574 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of the Arctic Content: The climate of the Arctic is characterized by long , cold winters and short , cool summers . There is a large amount of variability in climate across the Arctic , but all regions experience extremes of solar radiation in both summer and winter . Some parts of the Arctic are covered by ice ( sea ice , glacial ice , or snow ) year-round , and nearly all parts of the Arctic experience long periods with some form of ice on the surface . Average January temperatures range from about − 34 ° C to 0 ° C ( − 40 to +32 ° F ) , and winter temperatures can drop below − 50 ° C ( − 58 ° F ) over large parts of the Arctic . Average July temperatures range from about − 10 to +10 ° C ( 14 to 50 ° F ) , with some land areas occasionally exceeding 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in summer . The Arctic consists of ocean that is largely surrounded by land . As such , the climate of much of the Arctic is moderated by the ocean water , which can never have a temperature below − 2 ° C ( 28 ° F ) . In winter , this relatively warm water , even though covered by the polar ice pack , keeps the North Pole from being the coldest place in the Northern Hemisphere , and it is also part of the reason that Antarctica is so much colder than the Arctic . In summer , the presence of the nearby water keeps coastal areas from warming as much as they might otherwise .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Climate_of_the_Arctic", "rank": 44, "score": 83422 }, { "content": "Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "North_Report", "rank": 45, "score": 83418 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Little Rock, Arkansas Content: Little Rock has a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen Cfa ) , with hot , usually humid summers , but subject to drought , primarily in late summer . Summers are usually hot , occasionally extremely hot ; winters are short and cool , but with marked temperature variations , as the area is subject to alternating incursions of warm , moist air from the Gulf of Mexico ( possibly producing daily high temperatures in the 70s F. ) and cold , dry air from Canada ( possibly producing daily high temperatures below freezing , 32 F. , even in the 20s F. ) . The Little Rock area has nearly 50 inches of precipitation per year , on average . Little Rock experiences a prolonged spring wet season , with heavy rainfall a distinct possibility from March to May , and a secondary wet season peaking in November and December . On average , August is the driest month , and July through September is the driest period of the year . Little Rock averages more rain than the national average , but also averages more sunny days than the national average . Thunderstorms can occur any month of the year , but are especially frequent and severe in spring , when torrential rainfall , damaging thunderstorm winds , hail , and tornadoes are all significant threats ; a secondary severe weather season peaks in November . Snow , sleet and freezing rain are rare , but can occur during the winter season , when cold Canadian air at ground level is overrun by warm , moist air from the Gulf of Mexico . Unless otherwise indicated , all normal data presented below are based on data at Bill and Hillary Clinton National Airport the official Little Rock climatology station , from the 1981 − 2010 normals period .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Climate_of_Little_Rock,_Arkansas", "rank": 46, "score": 83273 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment", "rank": 47, "score": 82960 }, { "content": "Title: 4-Octyne Content: 4-Octyne , also known as dipropylethyne , is a type of alkyne with a triple bond at its fourth carbon ( the ' 4 - ' indicates the location of the triple bond in the chain ) . Its formula is C8H14 . Its density at 25 ° C and otherwise stable conditions is 0.751 g/mL . The boiling point is 131 -- 132 ° C . The average molar mass is 110.20 g/mol . 4-Octyne forms with 5-decyne , 3-hexyne , and 2-butyne a group of symmetric alkynes .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "4-Octyne", "rank": 48, "score": 82745 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Second Assessment Report Content: The Second Assessment Report ( SAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 1996 , is an assessment of the then available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change . It was superseded by the Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "IPCC_Second_Assessment_Report", "rank": 49, "score": 82709 }, { "content": "Title: Pinus patula Content: Pinus patula , commonly known as patula pine , spreading-leaved pine , or Mexican weeping pine , and in Spanish as pino patula or pino llorón , ( patula Latin = spreading ) is a tree native to the highlands of Mexico . It grows from 24 ° to 18 ° North latitude and 1800 to 2700 m above sea level . The tree is 30 meters tall . It can not not stand long periods of temperatures as low as -- 10 ° C , but resists occasional brief below zero dips . It is moderately drought-tolerant , in this respect it is superior to Pinus taeda . Rainfall range is from 750 to 2000 mm annual average , it happens mostly in summer but in a little area of the State of Veracruz on the Sierra Madre Oriental its habitat is rainy year round . It is planted at high altitudes in Ecuador ( 3500 m ) , Bolivia , Colombia ( 3300m ) , Kenya , Tanzania , Angola , Zimbabwe , Papua New Guinea , and Hawaii ( 3000 m ) . In Hawaii it is replacing the native alpine grassland . At lower altitudes than its origin country it is cultivated in Southern Brazil , South Africa , India , and in the Argentine provinces of Córdoba and San Luis . it is planted for forestation purposes in lands originally covered by bushland . It has been introduced near sea level in New South Wales , Australia , where it spreads naturally by wind and is very favored because rainfalls are more abundant in summer . It was also introduced in New Zealand for commercial purposes and is fully naturalized there . It is cultivated in the United Kingdom as an ornamental tree for parks and gardens , and has gained the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit . The timber is pale-pink to salmon , moderately soft , brittle and smelling strongly of aniseed when freshly cut .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Pinus_patula", "rank": 50, "score": 82389 }, { "content": "Title: TEMP (meteorology) Content: TEMP ( upper air soundings ) is a set of World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) alphanumerical codes used for reporting weather observations of the upper regions of the atmosphere made by weather balloons released from the surface level ( either at land or at sea ) . The WMO designates the FM-35 numerical code for surface TEMPs and the FM-36 numerical code for ship-based TEMPs . Category : Earth sciences data formats", "qid": "3074", "docid": "TEMP_(meteorology)", "rank": 51, "score": 82255 }, { "content": "Title: Mish Michaels Content: Mish Michaels is a broadcast meteorologist , environmental reporter and author . Michaels was born in Kolkata , India . She received a Bachelor of Science degree in Meteorology from Cornell University in Ithaca , New York , and a Master 's degree in Technology from Harvard University . Michaels worked at WHDH and The Weather Channel . She joined the WBZ-TV weather team in September 2001 and left in July 2009 . After leaving WBZ , she spent time raising her children and writing books in her spare time . In late 2010 , she contributed to the book , Extreme New England Weather written by Josh Judge , with her story of a deadly microburst in Stratham , New Hampshire in 1991 . On January 31 , 2017 , Michaels announced via Twitter her employment with WGBH as a science reporter . As of February 8 , 2017 , it has been made public that she has been fired from this position as she '' ... has been outspoken in her controversial belief that vaccines cause autism ... '' as well as a disbelief in man made climate change . Michaels later disputed these claims on her personal website .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Mish_Michaels", "rank": 52, "score": 82104 }, { "content": "Title: Fourth year Content: Fourth year , also known as S4 , is the fourth year of schooling in Scottish , Venezuelan , Ecuadorian , Colombian , and other Latin American countries secondary schools , and is roughly equivalent to Year 11 in England and Wales and Year 12 ( Sixth Form ) in Northern Ireland . In Latin American countries , it is equal to the United States high school 's senior year , but the Scottish S4 is equivalent to 10th grade . Most pupils are 15 or 16 years old at the end of S4 . It is at the end of this year the pupils completed their Standard Grade , or Intermediates examinations , as of 2013 it is the National 4/5 examinations for the new Curriculum for Excellence . It is also usually the last year of compulsory education in Scotland , depending on what time of the year the pupil was born . Near the end of fourth year pupils pick the subjects they want to take for highers ( or A levels as they call it in England ) . They can also leave school if they are 16 . The term can also refer to the fourth year of a university course . Category : Secondary education in Scotland 4", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Fourth_year", "rank": 53, "score": 82088 }, { "content": "Title: Humidex Content: The humidex ( short for humidity index ) is an index number used by Canadian meteorologists to describe how hot the weather feels to the average person , by combining the effect of heat and humidity . The term humidex is a Canadian innovation coined in 1965 . The humidex is a dimensionless quantity based on the dew point . Range of humidex : Degree of comfort : 20 to 29 : Little to no discomfort 30 to 39 : Some discomfort 40 to 45 : Great discomfort ; avoid exertion Above 45 : Dangerous ; heat stroke quite possible", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Humidex", "rank": 54, "score": 81895 }, { "content": "Title: Operating temperature Content: An operating temperature is the temperature at which an electrical or mechanical device operates . The device will operate effectively within a specified temperature range which varies based on the device function and application context , and ranges from the minimum operating temperature to the maximum operating temperature ( or peak operating temperature ) . Outside this range of safe operating temperatures the device may fail . Aerospace and military-grade devices generally operate over a broader temperature range than industrial devices ; commercial-grade devices generally have the narrowest operating temperature range . It is one component of reliability engineering . Similarly , biological systems have a viable temperature range , which might be referred to as an `` operating temperature '' .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Operating_temperature", "rank": 55, "score": 81606 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Svalbard Content: The climate of Svalbard is principally a result of its latitude , which is between 74 ° and 81 ° north . Average July temperatures range from 3 and , and in January temperatures are normally between − 13 and . The North Atlantic Current moderates Svalbard 's temperatures , particularly during winter , giving it up to 20 C-change higher winter temperature than similar latitudes in continental Russia and Canada . This keeps the surrounding waters open and navigable most of the year . The interior fjord areas and valleys , sheltered by the mountains , have less temperature differences than the coast , giving about 2 ° C lower summer temperatures and 3 ° C higher winter temperatures . On the south of Spitsbergen , the temperature is slightly higher than further north and west . During winter , the temperature difference between south and north is typically 5 ° C , while only about 3 ° C in summer . Bear Island has average temperatures even higher than the rest of the archipelago . The archipelago is the meeting place for cold polar air from the north and mild , wet sea air from the south , creating low pressure and changing weather and fast winds , particularly in winter ; in January , a strong breeze is registered 17 % of the time at Isfjord Radio , but only 1 % of the time in July . In summer , particularly away from land , fog is common , with visibility under 1 km registered 20 % of the time in July and 1 % of the time in January , at Hopen and Bear Island . Precipitation is frequent , but falls in small quantities , typically less than 400 mm in Western Spitsbergen . More rain falls in the uninhabited east side , where there can be more than 1000 mm . The warmest temperature ever recorded was 21.3 C in July 1979 and the coldest was -46.3 C in March 1986 .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Climate_of_Svalbard", "rank": 56, "score": 81407 }, { "content": "Title: Tau4 Eridani Content: Tau4 Eridani ( τ4 Eri , τ4 Eri ) is a binary star system in the constellation Eridanus . It is visible to the naked eye with an apparent visual magnitude of 3.65 . The distance to this star can be estimated using the parallax method , which yields a value of roughly 300 light years . This is an evolved red giant star currently on the asymptotic giant branch with a stellar classification of M3/4 III . It is a slow irregular variable star of type Lb , undergoing changes in magnitude over the range 3.57 − 3.72 with a periodicity of 23.8 d . The measured angular diameter of Tau4 Eridani is . At its estimated distance , this yields a physical size of about 106 times the radius of the Sun . It shines with 1,537 times the luminosity of the Sun from an outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 3,712 K. This is most likely a binary star system . The companion is a magnitude 9.5 star at an angular separation of 5.7 ″ along a position angle of 291 ° , as of 2013 .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Tau4_Eridani", "rank": 57, "score": 81329 }, { "content": "Title: Alice Springs Content: Alice Springs -LSB- ˌælᵻs_ˈsprɪŋz -RSB- ( Arrernte : Mparntwe ) is the third largest town in the Northern Territory of Australia . Popularly known as `` the Alice '' or simply `` Alice '' , Alice Springs is situated roughly in Australia 's geographic centre . The area is known as Mparntwe to its original inhabitants , the Arrernte , who have lived in the Central Australian desert in and around what is now Alice Springs for thousands of years . The name Alice Springs was given by surveyor William Whitfield Mills after Alice , Lady Todd ( née Alice Gillam Bell ) , wife of the telegraph pioneer Sir Charles Todd . Alice Springs has a population of 27,972 , which makes up 8.7 percent of the territory 's population . Alice Springs is nearly equidistant from Adelaide and Darwin . The town straddles the usually dry Todd River on the northern side of the MacDonnell Ranges . The surrounding region is known as Central Australia , or the Red Centre , an arid environment consisting of several different deserts . In Alice Springs temperatures can vary dramatically , with an average maximum temperature in summer of 35.6 ° C and an average minimum temperature in winter of 5.1 ° C. Alice Springs has faced many problems in recent years , largely stemming from an increase in crime and a strong racial divide that has existed for years in the town .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Alice_Springs", "rank": 58, "score": 80807 }, { "content": "Title: Frost (temperature) Content: Frost or freezing occurs when the temperature of air falls below the freezing point of water ( 0 ° C , 32 ° F , 273.15 K ) . This is usually measured at the height of 1.2 m above the ground surface . There is a rather subjective scale to show several degrees of frost severity : slight frost : 0 to moderate frost : − 3.6 to − 6.5 ° C ( 25.6 to 20.3 ° F ) severe frost : − 6.6 to − 11.5 ° C ( 20.2 to 11.3 ° F ) very severe frost : below -11.5 C Frost is not necessary to get ground frost or hoar frost ; they can form even if air temperature is above freezing point if the surfaces have been chilled by heat emission during a cold night .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Frost_(temperature)", "rank": 59, "score": 80401 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Texas", "rank": 60, "score": 80259 }, { "content": "Title: FOUR score Content: The FOUR Score is a clinical grading scale designed for use by medical professionals in the assessment of patients with impaired level of consciousness . It was developed by Dr. Eelco F.M. Wijdicks and colleagues in Neurocritical care at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester , Minnesota . `` FOUR '' in this context is an acronym for `` Full Outline of UnResponsiveness . '' The FOUR Score is a 17-point scale ( with potential scores ranging from 0 to 16 ) . Decreasing FOUR Score is associated with worsening level of consciousness . The FOUR Score assesses four domains of neurological function : eye responses , motor responses , brainstem reflexes , and breathing pattern . The rationale for the development of the FOUR Score was to create a clinical grading scale for the assessment of patients with impaired level of consciousness that can be used in patients with or without endotracheal intubation . The main clinical grading scale in use for patients with impaired level of consciousness has historically been the Glasgow Coma Scale ( GCS ) , which can not be administered to patients with an endotracheal tube ( one component of the GCS is the assessment of verbal responses , which are not possible in the presence of an endotracheal tube . ) The FOUR score has been validated with reference to the Glasgow Coma Scale in several clinical contexts , including assessment by physicians in the Neurocritical Care Unit , assessment by intensive care nurses , assessment of patients in the medical intensive care unit ( ICU ) , and assessment of patients in the Emergency Department . Comparison of the inter-observer reliability of the FOUR Score and the GCS suggests that the FOUR Score may have a modest but significant advantage in this particular measure of test function . Overall , FOUR score has better biostatistical properties than Glasgow Coma Scale in terms of sensitivity , specificity , accuracy and positive predictive value .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "FOUR_score", "rank": 61, "score": 80248 }, { "content": "Title: Tephigram Content: A tephigram is one of four thermodynamic diagrams commonly used in weather analysis and forecasting . The name evolved from the original name `` T -- gram '' to describe the axes of temperature ( T ) and entropy used to create the plot . Usually , temperature and dew point data from radiosondes are plotted on these diagrams to allow calculations of convective stability or convective available potential energy ( CAPE ) . Wind barbs are often plotted at the side of a tephigram to indicate the winds at different heights .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Tephigram", "rank": 62, "score": 80228 }, { "content": "Title: Old Fourth Ward Content: The Old Fourth Ward , often abbreviated O4W , is a neighborhood on the east side of Atlanta , Georgia , United States . The neighborhood is best known as the location of the Martin Luther King , Jr. historic site .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Old_Fourth_Ward", "rank": 63, "score": 79949 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Chile Content: The climate of Chile comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a large geographic scale , extending across 38 degrees in latitude , making generalizations difficult . According to the Köppen system , Chile within its borders hosts at least seven major climatic subtypes , ranging from low desert in the north , to alpine tundra and glaciers in the east and southeast , humid subtropical in Easter Island , Oceanic in the south and Mediterranean climate in central Chile . There are four seasons in most of the country : summer ( December to February ) , autumn ( March to May ) , winter ( June to August ) , and spring ( September to November ) . On a synoptic scale , the most important factors that controls the climate in Chile are the Pacific Anticyclone , the southern circumpolar low pressure area , the cold Humboldt current , the Chilean Coast Range and the Andes Mountains . Despite Chile 's narrowness , some interior regions may experience wide temperature oscillations and cities such as San Pedro de Atacama , may even experience a continental climate . In the extreme northeast and southeast the border of Chile extends beyond the Andes into the Altiplano and the Patagonian plains , giving these regions climate patterns similar to those seen in Bolivia and Argentina respectively .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Climate_of_Chile", "rank": 64, "score": 79511 }, { "content": "Title: ARL4D Content: ADP-ribosylation factor-like protein 4D is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ARL4D gene .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "ARL4D", "rank": 65, "score": 79496 }, { "content": "Title: Fourth heart sound Content: The fourth heart sound or S4 is an extra heart sound that occurs during late diastole , immediately before the normal two `` lub-dub '' heart sounds ( S1 and S2 ) . It occurs just after atrial contraction and immediately before the systolic S1 and is caused by the atria contracting forcefully in an effort to overcome an abnormally stiff or hypertrophic ventricle . This produces a rhythm classically compared to the cadence of the word `` Tennessee '' . One can also use the phrase `` A-stiff-wall '' to help with the cadence ( a S4 , stiff S1 , wall S2 ) , as well as the pathology of the S4 sound .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Fourth_heart_sound", "rank": 66, "score": 79288 }, { "content": "Title: Provisional Low Temperature Scale of 2000 Content: The Provisional Low Temperature Scale of 2000 ( PLTS-2000 ) is an equipment calibration standard for making measurements of very low temperatures , in the range of 0.9 mK ( millikelvin ) to 1 K , adopted by the International Committee for Weights and Measures in October , 2000 . It is based on the melting pressure of solidified helium-3 . At these low temperatures , the melting pressure of helium-3 varies from about 2.9 MPa to nearly 4.0 MPa . At the temperature of approximately 315 mK , a minimum of pressure ( 2.9 MPa ) occurs . Although this gives a disadvantage of non-monotonicity , in that two different temperatures can give the same pressure , the scale is otherwise robust since the melting pressure of helium-3 is insensitive to many experimental factors .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Provisional_Low_Temperature_Scale_of_2000", "rank": 67, "score": 79037 }, { "content": "Title: Homologous temperature Content: Homologous temperature expresses the temperature of a material as a fraction of its melting point temperature using the Kelvin scale : For example , the homologous temperature of lead at room temperature ( 25 ° C ) is approximately 0.50 ( TH = T/Tmp = 298 K/601 K = 0.50 ) . Solder ( Tmp : 183 ° C = 456 K ) at 0.85 Tmp or 115 ° C ( = 388 K ) , would thus be expected to have comparable properties to copper ( Tmp : 1085 ° C = 1358 K ) at 0.85 Tmp or 881 ° C ( = 1154 K ) . In electronics applications , where circuits typically operate over a − 55 ° C to +125 ° C range , eutectic tin-lead ( Sn63 ) solder is working at 0.48 Tmp to 0.87 Tmp . The upper temperature is high relative to the melting point ; from this we can deduce that solder will have limited mechanical strength ( as a bulk material ) and significant creep under stress . This is borne out by its comparatively low values for tensile strength , shear strength and modulus of elasticity . Copper , on the other hand , has a much higher melting point , so foils are working at only 0.16 Tmp to 0.29 Tmp and their properties are little affected by temperature .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Homologous_temperature", "rank": 68, "score": 78996 }, { "content": "Title: PSLV-C4 Content: PSLV-C4 was the fourth operational launch and overall seventh mission of the PSLV program . This launch was also the forty-eight launch by Indian Space Research Organisation since its first mission on 1 January 1962 . The vehicle carried and injected India 's first dedicated Meteorological satellite , Kalpana-1 ( originally called MetSat ) into the Geosynchronous transfer orbit . PSLV-C4 was launched at 15:53 hours IST on 12 September 2002 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre ( then called `` Sriharikota Launching Range '' ) .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "PSLV-C4", "rank": 69, "score": 78645 }, { "content": "Title: Barrel (album) Content: Barrel is the fourth album by Lee Michaels and was released in 1970 . It reached # 51 on the Billboard Top LPs chart . Former Paul Revere & the Raiders ' guitarist Drake Levin played guitar on the album . The album featured a cover of Moby Grape 's `` Murder in My Heart ( For the Judge ) . '' The album featured the single `` What Now America '' which did not chart on the Billboard single 's chart .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Barrel_(album)", "rank": 70, "score": 78592 }, { "content": "Title: Symphony No. 4 (Pärt) Content: Symphony No. 4 , Los Angeles , is the fourth symphony by Estonian composer Arvo Pärt . It is the first of his symphonies to be written post-1976 and is in his signature tintinnabuli style . It is the first of his pieces that focuses on larger scale , instrumental tintinnabulation . Previous pieces , such as Summa and Für Alina , were typically written for SATB choir or a smaller number of instruments . Composed in 2008 , and premiered January 10 , 2009 , Symphony No. 4 has been nominated for a 2010 Grammy Award for Best Classical Contemporary Composition , although he did not receive the award . The work was a joint commission from the Los Angeles Philharmonic Association , its conductor Esa-Pekka Salonen , the Canberra International Music Festival , and the Sydney Conservatorium of Music .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Symphony_No._4_(Pärt)", "rank": 71, "score": 78414 }, { "content": "Title: Geography of Uttar Pradesh Content: Uttar Pradesh is India 's fourth largest and most populous state , located in the north-central part of the country . It spreads over a large area , and the plains of the state are quite distinctly different from the high mountains in the north . The climate of Uttar Pradesh can also vary widely - primarily due to it being far from the moderating effect of the sea and the occasional cold air arising due to western disturbances - with temperatures reaching as high as 49 ° C in summer , and as low as -1 ° C in winter .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Geography_of_Uttar_Pradesh", "rank": 72, "score": 78390 }, { "content": "Title: Epsilon Coronae Australis Content: Epsilon Coronae Australis ( ε CrA ) , is a star located in the constellation Corona Australis . Epsilon Coronae Australis is also known as HR 7152 , and HD 175813 . Epsilon Coronae Australis is an F4V dwarf star with an effective temperature of 6000 Kelvin . It ranges between apparent magnitudes of 4.74 to 5 over 14 hours , an absolute magnitude of +2.45 , and a mass of 1.1 solar masses . Epsilon Coronae Australis is an W Ursae Majoris variable , indicating that it has a contact companion within the Roche Limit of the primary . The star is located at a distance of 30 pc ( 97 light years ) from the Sun . Yildiz and colleagues estimated the age of the system at 2.83 ± 0.28 billion years based on study of the properties of the system and estimated rate of mass transfer . They found the current masses of the primary and secondary to be 1.72 ± 0.04 and 0.22 ± 0.02 solar masses respectively , from their original masses of 1.06 ± 0.03 and 2.18 ± 0.06 solar masses .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Epsilon_Coronae_Australis", "rank": 73, "score": 78321 }, { "content": "Title: Effect of radiation on perceived temperature Content: The `` radiation effect '' results from radiation heat exchange between human bodies and surrounding surfaces , such as walls and ceilings . It may lead to phenomena such as houses feeling cooler in the winter and warmer in the summer at the same temperature . For example , in a room in which air temperature is maintained at 22 ° Celsius at all times , but in which the inner surfaces of the house is estimated to be an average temperature of 10 ° Celsius in the winter or 25 ° Celsius in the summer , heat transfer from the surfaces to the individual will occur , resulting in a difference in the perceived temperature . We can observe and compare the rate of radiation heat transfer between a person and the surrounding surfaces if we first make a few simplifying assumptions : The heat exchange in the environment is in a `` steady state '' , meaning that there is a constant flow of heat either into or out of the house . The person is completely surrounded by the interior surfaces of the room . Heat transfer by convection is not considered . The walls , ceiling , and floor are all at the same temperature . For an average person , the outer surface area is 1.4 m ² , the surface temperature is 30 ° Celsius , and the emissivity is 0.95 . Emissivity is the ability of a surface to emit radiant energy compared to that of a black body at the same temperature . We will be using the following equation to find out how much heat is lost by a person standing in the same room in summertime as compared to the winter , at exactly the same thermostat reading temperature : Q ̇ = εσA_s ( T_s ^ 4-T_surr ^ 4 ) Where Q ̇ is the rate of heat loss ( W ) , ε is the emissivity ( or the ability of an objects surface to emit energy by radiation ) of a person , σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( 5.670 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) W/m2 ∙ K4 ) , As is the surface area of a person , Ts is the surface temperature of a person ( K ) , and Tsurr is the surface temperature of the walls , ceiling , and floor ( K ) . Please note that this equation is only valid for an object standing in a completely enclosed room , box , etc. . In the winter , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 10 degrees Celsius , was found to be 152 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 10 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 152 ) ̇ In the summer , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 25 degrees Celsius , was found to be 40.9 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 25 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 40.9 ) ̇ Thermal radiation is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature . It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays , gamma rays , microwaves , radio waves , and television rays that are not related to temperature . Scientists have found that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation . People are constantly radiating their body heat , but at different rates . From these values , the rate of heat loss from a person is almost four times as large in the winter than in the summer , which explains the `` chill '' we feel in the winter even if the thermostat setting is kept the same .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Effect_of_radiation_on_perceived_temperature", "rank": 74, "score": 78170 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of south-west England Content: The climate of south-west England is classed as oceanic ( Cfb ) according to the Köppen climate classification . The oceanic climate is typified by cool winters with warmer summers and precipitation all year round , with more experienced in winter . Annual rainfall is about 1000 mm and up to 2000 mm on higher ground . Summer maxima averages range from 18 ° C to 22 ° C and winter minima averages range from 1 ° C to 4 ° C across the south-west . It is the second windiest area of the United Kingdom , the majority of winds coming from the south-west and north-east . Government organisations predict the area will experience a rise in temperature and become the hottest region in the United Kingdom . Inland areas of low altitude experience the least amount of precipitation . They have the highest summer maxima temperatures , but winter minima are lower than those of the coast . Snowfalls are more frequent in comparison to the coast , but less so in comparison to higher ground . They experience the lowest wind speeds and the total sunshine hours are between those of the coast and the moors . This typical climate of inland areas is more noticeable the further north-east into the region . In comparison to inland areas , the coast experiences high minimum temperatures , especially in winter , and slightly lower maximum temperatures during the summer . Rainfall is lowest at the coast and snowfall there is rarer than the rest of the region . Coastal areas are the windiest parts of the peninsula and they receive the most sunshine . The general coastal climate becomes more prevalent further south-west into the region . The south-west has areas of moorland inland such as Bodmin Moor , Dartmoor and Exmoor . Because of their high altitude they experience lower temperatures and more precipitation than the rest of the south west ( approximately twice as much rainfall as lowland areas ) . Both of these factors also result in the highest levels of snowfall and the lowest levels of sunshine . Exposed areas of the moors are windier than the lowlands and can be almost as windy as the coast .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Climate_of_south-west_England", "rank": 75, "score": 78152 }, { "content": "Title: New Fourth Army Memorial Hall Content: The New Fourth Army Memorial Hall , full name `` New Fourth Army National Revolutionary Army military memorial reconstruction '' , ( Chinese : 新四军纪念馆 ) is located in the east of Jianjun Road , Yancheng , Jiangsu , China . It was advanced as a State AAAA-class tourist attractions on 18 May 2011 . It is known as the only one professional New Fourth Army Memorial Hall in China . It was built in 1985 and was finished in September 1986 . Its exhibition hall is a modern architecture . There is armband pattern ` N4A ' , which colors blue and white , above the main entrance of the hall . And in both sides of its flag-shaped carving , it is the reflection of the historical scene where New Fourth Army joined force with the Eighth Route Army and where New fourth Army was reconstructed after the incident in Anhui . New fourth Army Memorial Hall is the base for primary and national patroitic education . There are about 1000 pictures of anti-Japanese war , a lot of historical relics and some artistic works . There is a bike with the legendary trophy named ` Manzhou ' ( Chinese : 满洲 ） . All its exhibition reflect the history of how New fourth Army together with common people fighting against the enemies in the war . Something about New fourth Army : New Fourth Army , full name ` China National Revolutionary Army Army New Fourth Army ' ( Chinese : 中国国民革命军陆军新编第四军 ） ， is a people 's army in the leadership of Communist Party of China for anti-Japanese War . It was established in KMT-CPC cooperation situation , by the Eighth Route Army gurrillas in Jiangxi , Fujian , Guangdong , Hunan , Hubei , Henan , Zhejiang , Anhui in 12 , October in 1937 . There is a special heritage in the New Fourth Army Memorial Hall -- A bicycle . The owner of the bike , an 87-year-old female soldier named Li Chunhua , is still alive and she took a visit to her old comrade , the bike , after 24 years since 1986 . She seized the bike from a Japanese soldier in 1943 , Anti Japanese War . The bike and Li experienced many wars together and helped her to transfer the wounded , to transport supplies and to gather intelligence in the war . After the war , Li work and lived with it in 1986 , Li donated it to The New Fourth Army Hall . There is a `` man ( 满 ） '' on the bike . It means the bike was produced by the puppet state of Manchukuo . So it was a clear evidence of the Japanese invasion of China . It has been treated very well up till now .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "New_Fourth_Army_Memorial_Hall", "rank": 76, "score": 78140 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of East Anglia Content: The climate of East Anglia is generally dry and mild . The region is among the driest in the United Kingdom with many areas receiving less than 700mm of rainfall a yearand locations such as Lowestoft less than 600 mm on average . Rainfall is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year . Maximum temperatures range from 5 -- 10 ° C ( 41 -- 50 ° F ) in the winter to 20 -- 25 ° C ( 68 -- 77 ° F ) in the summer , although temperatures have been known to reach 35 ° C ( 95 ° F ) . Sunshine totals tend to be higher towards the coastal areas .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Climate_of_East_Anglia", "rank": 77, "score": 78094 }, { "content": "Title: Androgen receptor Content: The androgen receptor ( AR ) , also known as NR3C4 ( nuclear receptor subfamily 3 , group C , member 4 ) , is a type of nuclear receptor that is activated by binding either of the androgenic hormones , testosterone , or dihydrotestosterone in the cytoplasm and then translocating into the nucleus . The androgen receptor is most closely related to the progesterone receptor , and progestins in higher dosages can block the androgen receptor . The main function of the androgen receptor is as a DNA-binding transcription factor that regulates gene expression ; however , the androgen receptor has other functions as well . Androgen regulated genes are critical for the development and maintenance of the male sexual phenotype .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Androgen_receptor", "rank": 78, "score": 78089 }, { "content": "Title: ARF4 Content: ADP-ribosylation factor 4 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ARF4 gene .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "ARF4", "rank": 79, "score": 78004 }, { "content": "Title: UDP-4-amino-4-deoxy-L-arabinose formyltransferase Content: UDP-4-amino-4-deoxy-L-arabinose formyltransferase ( , UDP-L-Ara4N formyltransferase , ArnAFT ) is an enzyme with systematic name 10-formyltetrahydrofolate : UDP-4-amino-4-deoxy-beta-L-arabinose N-formyltransferase . This enzyme catalyses the following chemical reaction 10-formyltetrahydrofolate + UDP-4-amino-4-deoxy-beta-L-arabinopyranose 5,6,7,8-tetrahydrofolate + UDP-4-deoxy-4-formamido-beta-L-arabinopyranose The activity is part of a bifunctional enzyme that also performs the EC 1.1.1.305 reaction .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "UDP-4-amino-4-deoxy-L-arabinose_formyltransferase", "rank": 80, "score": 77948 }, { "content": "Title: Argo (oceanography) Content: Argo is an international program that uses profiling floats to observe temperature , salinity , currents , and , recently , bio-optical properties in the Earth 's oceans ; it has been operational since the early 2000s . The real-time data it provides is used in climate and oceanographic research . A special research interest is to quantify the ocean heat content ( OHC ) . The Argo fleet consists of almost 4000 drifting `` Argo floats '' ( as profiling floats used by the Argo program are often called ) deployed worldwide . Each float weighs 20 -- 30 kg . In most cases probes drift at a depth of 1000 metres ( the so-called parking depth ) and , every 10 days , by changing their buoyancy , dive to a depth of 2000 metres and then move to the sea-surface , measuring conductivity and temperature profiles as well as pressure . From these , salinity and density can be calculated . Seawater density is important in determining large-scale motions in the ocean . Average current velocities at 1000 metres are directly measured by the distance and direction a float drifts while parked at that depth , which is determined by GPS or Argos system positions at the surface . The data are transmitted to shore via satellite , and are freely available to everyone , without restrictions . The Argo program is named after the Greek mythical ship Argo to emphasize the complementary relationship of Argo with the Jason satellite altimeters .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Argo_(oceanography)", "rank": 81, "score": 77784 }, { "content": "Title: Sweetnighter Content: Sweetnighter is Weather Report 's fourth album , released on Columbia Records in 1973 . The group had recorded the songs in a five-day stretch during February of the same year . It was to be the last album to feature founding member Miroslav Vitouš as the primary bassist . Zawinul began to assert greater control of the band , steering it away from the collective improvisation that marked its live performances toward more structured compositions emphasizing funk and groove . This was exemplified by the album 's two dominant tracks , `` Boogie Woogie Waltz '' and `` 125th Street Congress , '' as well as the closer , `` Non-Stop Home . '' Other tracks were reminiscent of Weather Report 's previous albums . Sweetnighter is considered to be the most stylistically transitional release by the band as it bridged the gap between the more open , improvisational earlier style to a more compositionally structured format . Also , the more prominent use of electric bass is evident here . Zawinul had taken the decision to add some funky beats in the band 's sounds , so he recruited drummer Herschel Dwellingham and percussionist Muruga Booker to play on the album . Andrew White was hired to play the English horn , but also handled the bass for three tracks of the album . Sweetnighter was recorded at a Connecticut recording studio in less than a week , and was released in April 1973 . `` Boogie Woogie Waltz '' was frequently in the band 's live sets through the 1970s , and a live version from 1978 appeared on the album 8:30 . Also in 1978 , Vitouš recorded a new version of `` Will '' with Terje Rypdal and Jack DeJohnette on their collective album for ECM .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Sweetnighter", "rank": 82, "score": 77702 }, { "content": "Title: Thorium tetrafluoride Content: Thorium ( IV ) fluoride ( ThF4 ) is an inorganic chemical compound . It is a white , hygroscopic powder which can be produced by reacting thorium with fluorine gas . At temperatures above 500 ° C , it reacts with atmospheric moisture to produce ThOF2 .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Thorium_tetrafluoride", "rank": 83, "score": 77625 }, { "content": "Title: Extreme cold warning Content: An extreme cold warning is issued by Environment Canada to inform the public about cold temperatures in their region that are expected to last for at least two hours . As of April 8 , 2014 , Environment Canada replaced the Wind Chill Warning with an Extreme Cold Warning . In the older system a wind chill warning for Southern Ontario and Atlantic Canada was issued when the wind chill dropped to -35 . Thus a temperature of -37 C with no winds would not require a warning be issued . Under the new system the extreme cold warning is issued based on either the temperature or the wind chill being a certain value for at least two hours . The values range from -30 C in the south to -55 C in parts of the Arctic .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Extreme_cold_warning", "rank": 84, "score": 77582 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 85, "score": 77491 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Anchorage, Alaska Content: Anchorage , Alaska has a subarctic climate with the code Dfc according to the Köppen climate classification due to its short , cool summers . Average daytime summer temperatures range from approximately 55 to ; average daytime winter temperatures are about 5 to . Anchorage has a frost-free growing season that averages slightly over one hundred days . Average January low and high temperatures at Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport ( PANC ) are 11 / with an average winter snowfall of 75.5 in . The weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be very unpredictable . Some winters feature several feet of snow and cold temperatures , while others like that of 1976 -- 77 ( in the January of which Anchorage amazingly averaged 2.7 F-change warmer than Atlanta almost 30 degrees closer to the equator ) , just a foot or two of snow and frequent thaws , which put dangerous ice on the streets . On March 17 , 2002 , there was a storm causing 22 inches of snow closing schools for the next two days . The storm broke the city record for the most snowfall in a single day . The storm , which started the evening of March 16 , easily surpassed the old record of 15.6 in recorded on 28 December and 29 December 1955 . On March 17 , 22 in were measured by the National Weather Service , topping the old record of 15.6 in set on December 29 , 1955 . The 2011-2012 winter had 134.5 in , which made it the snowiest winter on record while the least snowiest winter of record was 2014-2015 when 25.1 in of snow fell . The coldest temperature ever recorded at the original weather station located at Merrill Field on the East end of 5th Avenue was -38 F on February 3 , 1947 . Due to its proximity to active volcanoes , ash hazards are a significant , though infrequent , occurrence . The most recent notable incident was an August , 1992 eruption of Mt. Spurr , which is located 78 miles west of the city . The eruption deposited about 3 mm of volcanic ash on the city . The clean-up of ash resulted in excessive demands for water and caused major problems for the Anchorage Water and Wastewater Utility . Summers are typically mild ( although cool compared to the contiguous US and even interior Alaska ) , though it can rain frequently . Average July low and high temperatures are 52 / and the hottest reading ever recorded was 87 F on June 18 , 2013 . The average annual precipitation at the airport is 16.63 in . Because of Anchorage 's latitude , summer days are very long and winter daylight hours are very short . Anchorage is often cloudy during the winter , which decreases the amount of sunlight experienced by residents .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Climate_of_Anchorage,_Alaska", "rank": 86, "score": 77470 }, { "content": "Title: Gliese 1214 Content: Gliese 1214 is a dim M4 .5 red dwarf in the constellation Ophiuchus with an apparent magnitude of 14.7 . It is located at a distance of approximately 47 light years from Earth . It is about one-fifth as large as the Sun with a surface temperature estimated to be 3000 K. Its luminosity is only 0.003 % that of the Sun . The estimate for the stellar radius is 15 % larger than predicted by theoretical models . It also shows a 1 % intrinsic variability in the near-infrared probably caused by stellar spots .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Gliese_1214", "rank": 87, "score": 77443 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Kolkata Content: Kolkata has a Tropical wet-and-dry climate ( Köppen climate classification Aw ) . The annual mean temperature is 24.8 ° C ( 80 ° F ) ; monthly mean temperatures range from 15 ° C to 30 ° C ( 59 ° F to 86 ° F ) . Summers are hot and humid with temperatures in the low 30 's and during dry spells the maximum temperatures often exceed 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) during May and June . Winter tends to last for only about two and a half months , with seasonal lows dipping to 9 ° C -- 11 ° C ( 48.2 ° F -- 51.8 ° F ) between December and January . The highest recorded temperature is 43.9 ° C ( 111 ° F ) and the lowest is 3 ° C ( 37.4 ° F ) . Often during early summer , dusty squalls followed by spells of thunderstorm and heavy rains lash the city , bringing relief from the humid heat . These thunderstorms are convective in nature , and is locally known as Kal baisakhi ( কালবৈশাখী , Nor ` westers ) . Rains brought by the Bay of Bengal branch of South-West monsoon lash the city between June and September and supplies the city with most of its annual rainfall of 1,582 mm ( 62.3 inches ) . The highest rainfall occurs during the monsoon in August ( 306 mm ) . The city receives 2,528 hours of sunshine per annum , with the maximum sunlight occurring in March . Pollution is a major concern in Kolkata , and the Suspended Particulate Matter ( SPM ) level is high when compared to other major cities of India , leading to regular smog and haze . Severe air pollution in the city has caused rise in pollution-related respiratory ailments such as lung cancer .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Climate_of_Kolkata", "rank": 88, "score": 77193 }, { "content": "Title: Fourth power Content: In arithmetic and algebra , the fourth power of a number n is the result of multiplying four instances of n together . So : n4 = n × n × n × n Fourth powers are also formed by multiplying a number by its cube . Furthermore , they are squares of squares . The sequence of fourth powers of integers ( also known as biquadratic numbers or tesseractic numbers ) is : 0 , 1 , 16 , 81 , 256 , 625 , 1296 , 2401 , 4096 , 6561 , 10000 , 14641 , 20736 , 28561 , 38416 , 50625 , 65536 , 83521 , 104976 , 130321 , 160000 , 194481 , 234256 , 279841 , 331776 , 390625 , 456976 , 531441 , 614656 , 707281 , 810000 , ... The last two digits of a fourth power of an integer in base 10 can be easily shown ( for instance , by computing the squares of possible last two digits of square numbers ) to be restricted to only twelve possibilities : if a number ends in 0 , its fourth power ends in ( in fact in ) if a number ends in 1 , 3 , 7 or 9 its fourth power ends in , , , or if a number ends in 2 , 4 , 6 , or 8 its fourth power ends in , , , or if a number ends in 5 its fourth power ends in ( in fact in ) These twelve possibilities can be conveniently expressed as 00 , e1 , o6 or 25 where o is an odd digit and e an even digit . Every positive integer can be expressed as the sum of at most 19 fourth powers ; every sufficiently large integer can be expressed as the sum of at most 16 fourth powers ( see Waring 's problem ) . Euler conjectured a fourth power can not be written as the sum of 3 smaller fourth powers , but 200 years later this was disproven ( Elkies , Frye ) with : 958004 + 2175194 + 4145604 = 4224814 . That the equation x4 + y4 = z4 has no solutions in nonzero integers ( a special case of Fermat 's Last Theorem ) , was known , see Fermat 's right triangle theorem .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Fourth_power", "rank": 89, "score": 77148 }, { "content": "Title: Belgian ship A4 Content: Patrol vessel A4 ( Patrouilleur A4 ) was a small operated by Belgium during the Second World War . Originally built for the British Royal Navy , as HMS John Ebbs , the ship is notable for its role in evacuating Belgian gold reserves to England during the Battle of Belgium in May 1940 . The success of the operation not only allowed the Belgian government in exile to fund its operations but deprived the German occupiers of an important asset to support their war effort . After the Belgian surrender , the vessel and its crew interned themselves in neutral Spain . In 1946 , the vessel and its crew were released and the ship was scrapped soon afterwards .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Belgian_ship_A4", "rank": 90, "score": 77089 }, { "content": "Title: ISO 1 Content: ISO 1 is an international standard set by the International Organization for Standardization that specifies the standard reference temperature for geometrical product specification and verification . The temperature is fixed at 20 ° C , which is equal to 293.15 kelvins and 68 degrees Fahrenheit . Due to thermal expansion , precision length measurements need to be made at ( or converted to ) a defined temperature . ISO 1 helps in comparing measurements by defining such a reference temperature . The reference temperature of 20 ° C was adopted by the CIPM on 15 April 1931 , and became ISO recommendation number 1 in 1951 . It soon replaced worldwide other reference temperatures for length measurements that manufacturers of precision equipment had used before , including 0 ° C , 62 ° F , and 25 ° C. Among the reasons for choosing 20 ° C was that this was a comfortable and practical workshop temperature and that it resulted in an integer value on both the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "ISO_1", "rank": 91, "score": 77065 }, { "content": "Title: Arrhenius equation Content: The Arrhenius equation is a formula for the temperature dependence of reaction rates . The equation was proposed by Svante Arrhenius in 1889 , based on the work of Dutch chemist Jacobus Henricus van ' t Hoff who had noted in 1884 that Van ' t Hoff 's equation for the temperature dependence of equilibrium constants suggests such a formula for the rates of both forward and reverse reactions . This equation has a vast and important application in determining rate of chemical reactions and for calculation of energy of activation . Arrhenius provided a physical justification and interpretation for the formula . Currently , it is best seen as an empirical relationship . It can be used to model the temperature variation of diffusion coefficients , population of crystal vacancies , creep rates , and many other thermally-induced processes/reactions . The Eyring equation , developed in 1935 , also expresses the relationship between rate and energy . A historically useful generalization supported by Arrhenius ' equation is that , for many common chemical reactions at room temperature , the reaction rate doubles for every 10 degree Celsius increase in temperature .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Arrhenius_equation", "rank": 92, "score": 77027 }, { "content": "Title: Haines Index Content: Haines Index ( also known as Lower Atmosphere Severity Index ) is a weather index developed by meteorologist Donald Haines in 1988 that measures the potential for dry , unstable air to contribute to the development of large or erratic wildland fires . The index is derived from the stability ( temperature difference between different levels of the atmosphere ) and moisture content ( dew point depression ) of the lower atmosphere . These data may be acquired with a radiosonde or simulated by a numerical weather prediction model . The index is calculated over three ranges of atmospheric pressure : low elevation ( 950-850 millibars ( mb ) ) , mid elevation ( 850-700 mb ) , and high elevation ( 700-500 mb ) . A Haines Index of 6 means a high potential for an existing fire to become large or exhibit erratic fire behavior , 5 means medium potential , 4 means low potential , and anything less than 4 means very low potential .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Haines_Index", "rank": 93, "score": 76928 }, { "content": "Title: Custom Built Content: Custom Built is the fourth studio album by rock artist , Poison lead singer and reality television star Bret Michaels . It was released on July 6 , 2010 and is Michaels ' first studio album since 2005 's Freedom of Sound . Announced on Michaels ' Facebook , due to his recovery period , the album had been moved to July 6 , 2010 . During the making of this album , Michaels was on the TV reality show Celebrity Apprentice 3 on NBC and was announced the winner on May 23 , 2010 . The album is Michaels highest charting solo album to date peaking at # 1 on both the Top Independent Albums and Top Hard Rock Albums chart and also charting at # 4 on the Top Rock Albums and # 14 on The Billboard 200 .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Custom_Built", "rank": 94, "score": 76743 }, { "content": "Title: 2013 heatwave in Ireland and the United Kingdom Content: The 2013 heat wave in the United Kingdom and Ireland was a period of unusually hot weather primarily in July 2013 , with isolated warm days in June and August . A prolonged high pressure system over Britain and Ireland caused higher than average temperatures for 19 consecutive days in July , reaching 33.5 ° C at Heathrow and Northolt . Following a brief period of cooler weather at the end of July , temperatures temporarily rose again , peaking at 34.1 ° C on 1 August in the United Kingdom , the warmest the country had seen since July 2006 , and 31.0 ° C in Ireland . At 19 days , the July heatwave was the longest continuous period of hot weather in the UK since August 1997 . However , in the general sense , Britain did not have an overall exceptional summer ; the country experienced cool low pressure systems brought by an unseasonably low latitude by the jet stream for the 6 summers previous , which made the summer of 2013 more `` welcome '' and feel warmer than other summers . The historical records suggests `` Using the CET record ( for June , July & August ) , the average temperature by that measure was 16.3 degC ( Provisional ) : neither June nor August was exceptionally warm , so this value does not ` rate ' too highly when set against other very warm summer seasons . '' With June being a cool month and August being an Average month , in terms of temperatures the English Central summer temperature ended up being on the average side set up against previous summers since the CET series began in 1659 .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "2013_heatwave_in_Ireland_and_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 95, "score": 76683 }, { "content": "Title: Fourth UK television service Content: In the 1960s and 1970s , an envisioned fourth UK television service was popularly referred to as ITV2 , before the launch of Channel 4 and its Welsh counterpart S4C . Plans for independent television to consist of two or more channels in a given area were first discussed during its inception , where ways of allowing the composite companies to compete directly with one another were considered . When the first broadcasts went on air in 1955 there was not enough frequency space allocated for television , leading to the approach whereby each competing company was allotted a part of the country ( or in the larger areas a period of the week , weekdays or weekend ) . This arrangement was not seen as ideal and the Independent Television Authority ( ITA ) along with the franchisees continually pushed the government for capacity to license a second set of franchises . When transmissions began on UHF in the early 1960s , the General Post Office ( GPO ) were afforded the task of allocating each transmitter region with a set of frequencies that would provide maximum coverage and minimal interference ; this provided capacity for four services , allowing one each for the existing BBC and ITV services ( already carried on VHF ) , one for the new BBC2 and a fourth for future allocation . By 1968 the ITA considered this sufficiently likely that when awarding franchises for the next ten-year period they included a clause that allowed the licence to be revoked and reconsidered if ` ITV2 ' became a reality . The issue was a sensitive political point : The Labour Party of the 1950s and 1960s had traditionally been against commercial television and many on the left of the party wanted to see all commercial television abolished , advocating instead for an expansion of BBC Television ( which was not acted upon , most likely due to cost ) . The following Conservative government , and advocates of commercial broadcasting , were also slow to act in implementing a new network after coming to power in 1970 , instead concentrating on Independent Local Radio . Moves began to be made towards the end of the 1970s on the form such a fourth service would take . By then , both major political parties roughly agreed that this new service ought to have some public service element to it and provide content to minority groups not necessarily catered for by the BBC or ITV proper . The resultant service , Channel 4 , and a variant for Wales , S4C , began in 1982 . It could be said that this service was the long-awaited ` ITV2 ' in all but name , as it was operated and regulated by the IBA , was ( then ) funded by the rest of ITV and ( then ) had a substantial amount of content produced by the ITV companies . The term ` ITV2 ' became popular as the term ` ITV ' itself grew in popularity for the commercial network which had previously been referred to by generic titles ` Independent Television ' or ` Commercial Television ' . In anticipation of the second network , it was common for television sets manufactured during the 1960s and 1970s to have buttons labelled ` ITV1 ' and ` ITV2 ' . It was not until 16 years after the launch of Channel 4 that the name ` ITV2 ' was used for a new digital channel in 1998 .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Fourth_UK_television_service", "rank": 96, "score": 76645 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC report Content: IPCC report may refer to : IPCC First Assessment Report , 1990 IPCC Second Assessment Report , 1995 IPCC Third Assessment Report , 2001 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report , 2007 IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , 2014 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report , expected in 2022", "qid": "3074", "docid": "IPCC_report", "rank": 97, "score": 76408 }, { "content": "Title: United Airlines Flight 4 Content: United Airlines Trip 4 was a Boeing 247D operating on a scheduled flight from Salt Lake City , Utah , to Cheyenne , Wyoming , on October 7 , 1935 . The aircraft last contacted Cheyenne at 2:16 or 2:17 a.m. reporting its position as Silver Crown . Cheyenne called the flight at 2:17 , receiving no reply . The weather was virtually clear with ceiling unlimited . The wreckage was located three miles ( 4.8 km ) east of Silver Crown . The aircraft struck the ground in a shallow descent just below a small knoll . Marks on the ground made by the propellers , fuselage , and engine showed the aircraft was in a normal flight attitude . Propeller marks and engine damage established the engines were developing normal power and the aircraft was at cruising speed . An untouched knoll 60 feet ( 18 m ) further back on the flight path and three feet ( 0.9 m ) higher established that the aircraft was descending . The pilot was believed to be flying on instruments . The probable cause was determined to be pilot error in failing to monitor altitude or location .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "United_Airlines_Flight_4", "rank": 98, "score": 76316 }, { "content": "Title: Theta Draconis Content: Theta Draconis ( θ Dra / θ Draconis ) is a fourth-magnitude star in the northern circumpolar constellation of Draco . Parallax measurements place it at an estimated distance of 68.6 ly from Earth . This star is 21 % more massive than the Sun and has a radius 2.5 times the Sun 's . It is radiating 8.7 times the luminosity of the Sun from its outer atmosphere at an effective temperature of 6,290 K . This temperature is what gives it the yellow-white hue of an F-type main sequence star with a stellar classification of F9 V.", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Theta_Draconis", "rank": 99, "score": 76313 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature Content: A temperature is an objective comparative measurement of hot or cold . It is measured by a thermometer . Several scales and units exist for measuring temperature , the most common being Celsius ( denoted ° C ; formerly called centigrade ) , Fahrenheit ( denoted ° F ) , and , especially in science , Kelvin ( denoted K ) . The coldest theoretical temperature is absolute zero , at which the thermal motion of atoms and molecules reaches its minimum -- classically , this would be a state of motionlessness , but quantum uncertainty dictates that the particles still possess a finite zero-point energy . Absolute zero is denoted as 0 K on the Kelvin scale , − 273.15 ° C on the Celsius scale , and − 459.67 ° F on the Fahrenheit scale . The kinetic theory offers a valuable but limited account of the behavior of the materials of macroscopic bodies , especially of fluids . It indicates the absolute temperature as proportional to the average kinetic energy of the random microscopic motions of those of their constituent microscopic particles , such as electrons , atoms , and molecules , that move freely within the material . Temperature is important in all fields of natural science including physics , geology , chemistry , atmospheric sciences , medicine and biology as well as most aspects of daily life .", "qid": "3074", "docid": "Temperature", "rank": 100, "score": 76285 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 1, "score": 263004 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 2, "score": 169452 }, { "content": "Title: Greenland ice sheet Content: The Greenland ice sheet ( Grønlands indlandsis , Sermersuaq ) is a vast body of ice covering 1710000 km ² , roughly 80 % of the surface of Greenland . It is the second largest ice body in the world , after the Antarctic ice sheet . The ice sheet is almost 2400 km long in a north-south direction , and its greatest width is 1100 km at a latitude of 77 ° N , near its northern margin . The mean altitude of the ice is 2135 m . The thickness is generally more than 2 km and over 3 km at its thickest point . It is not the only ice mass of Greenland -- isolated glaciers and small ice caps cover between 76000 and around the periphery . If the entire 2850000 km3 of ice were to melt , it would lead to a global sea level rise of 7.2 m . The Greenland Ice Sheet is sometimes referred to under the term inland ice , or its Danish equivalent , indlandsis . It is also sometimes referred to as an ice cap .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Greenland_ice_sheet", "rank": 3, "score": 159989 }, { "content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Climate_inertia", "rank": 4, "score": 158845 }, { "content": "Title: Greenland Sea Content: The Greenland Sea is a body of water that borders Greenland to the west , the Svalbard archipelago to the east , Fram Strait and the Arctic Ocean to the north , and the Norwegian Sea and Iceland to the south . The Greenland Sea is often defined as part of the Arctic Ocean , sometimes as part of the Atlantic Ocean . However , definitions of the Arctic Ocean and its seas tend to be imprecise or arbitrary . In general usage the term `` Arctic Ocean '' would exclude the Greenland Sea . In oceanographic studies the Greenland Sea is considered part of the Nordic Seas , along with the Norwegian Sea . The Nordic Seas are the main connection between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans and , as such , could be of great significance in a possible shutdown of thermohaline circulation . In oceanography the Arctic Ocean and Nordic Seas are often referred to collectively as the `` Arctic Mediterranean Sea '' , a marginal sea of the Atlantic . The sea has Arctic climate with regular northern winds and temperatures rarely rising above 0 ° C . It previously contained the Odden ice tongue ( or Odden ) area , which extended eastward from the main East Greenland ice edge in the vicinity of 72 -- 74 ° N during the winter and acted as a key winter ice formation area in the Arctic . The West Ice forms in winter in the Greenland Sea , north of Iceland , between Greenland and Jan Mayen island . It is a major breeding ground of harp seal and hooded seal that has been used for seal hunting for more than 200 years .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Greenland_Sea", "rank": 5, "score": 152811 }, { "content": "Title: North Ice Content: North Ice was a research station of the British North Greenland Expedition ( 1952 to 1954 ) on the inland ice of Greenland . The coordinates of the station were , at an altitude of 2341 m above sea level . The British North Greenland Expedition was led by Commander James Simpson RN . The station recorded the lowest temperature ever in North America with -66.1 C on 9 January 1954 . The name of the station contrasts to the former British South Ice station in Antarctica .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "North_Ice", "rank": 6, "score": 146767 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment", "rank": 7, "score": 146648 }, { "content": "Title: Dye 3 Content: Dye 3 is an ice core site and previously part of the Distant Early Warning ( DEW ) line , located at ( , 2480 masl ) in Greenland . As a DEW line base , it was disbanded in years 1990/1991 . An ice core is a core sample from the accumulation of snow and ice that has re-crystallized and trapped air bubbles over many years . The composition of these ice cores , especially the presence of hydrogen and oxygen isotopes , provides a picture of the climate at the time . Ice cores contain an abundance of climate information . Inclusions in the snow , such as wind-blown dust , ash , bubbles of atmospheric gas and radioactive substances , remain in the ice . The variety of climatic proxies is greater than in any other natural recorder of climate , such as tree rings or sediment layers . These include ( proxies for ) temperature , ocean volume , precipitation , chemistry and gas composition of the lower atmosphere , volcanic eruptions , solar variability , sea-surface productivity , desert extent and forest fires . Typical ice cores are removed from an ice sheet such as the ice cap internal to Greenland . Greenland is , by area , the world 's largest island . The Greenland ice sheet covers about 1.71 million km2 and contains about 2.6 million km3 of ice .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Dye_3", "rank": 8, "score": 146425 }, { "content": "Title: Konrad Steffen Content: Konrad `` Koni '' Steffen ( born 1952 ) is a glaciologist and the former director of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences at the University of Colorado Boulder , a position he held from 2005 until he took office as the director of the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest , Snow and Landscape Research on July 1 , 2012 . He is known for his research into Arctic sea ice and the glaciers of Greenland , and how they are affected by global warming . He has often traveled to Greenland to study these glaciers firsthand ; for example , when studying Petermann Glacier for three weeks in 2004 , Steffen did so from a camp set up 4,000 feet up the flanks of the glacier 's ice cap . He also operates a network of 20 weather stations on the Greenland ice sheet , the first of which , Swiss Camp , he established in 1990 . He has argued that due to this ice sheet melting faster than anticipated , sea levels could rise by about 3 feet by 2100 , considerably higher than the IPCC 's upper limit of 59 cm , and that Greenland might lose all its ice in 10,000 years , but Antarctica would take considerably longer , since it is so much bigger .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Konrad_Steffen", "rank": 9, "score": 145027 }, { "content": "Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Jonathan_M._Gregory", "rank": 10, "score": 144853 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline", "rank": 11, "score": 144446 }, { "content": "Title: Greenland ice core project Content: The Greenland Ice Core Project ( GRIP ) was a multinational European research project , organized through the European Science Foundation . Funding came from 8 nations ( Belgium , Denmark , France , Germany , Iceland , Italy , Switzerland , and United Kingdom ) , and from the European Union . The project ran from 1989 to 1995 , with drilling seasons from 1990 to 1992 . GRIP successfully drilled a 3029-metre ice core to the bed of the Greenland ice sheet at Summit , Central Greenland from 1989 to 1992 at . Studies of isotopes and various atmospheric constituents in the core have revealed a detailed record of climatic variations reaching more than 100,000 years back in time . The results indicate that Holocene climate has been remarkably stable and have confirmed the occurrence of rapid climatic variation during the last ice age ( the Wisconsin ) . Delta-O-18 variations observed in the core part believed to date from the Eemian Stage have not been confirmed by other records including the NGRIP core and are now believed not to represent climate events : the interglacial climate of Eemian Stage appears to have been as stable as the Holocene .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Greenland_ice_core_project", "rank": 12, "score": 143144 }, { "content": "Title: Ice-sheet dynamics Content: Ice sheet dynamics describe the motion within large bodies of ice , such those currently on Greenland and Antarctica . Ice motion is dominated by the movement of glaciers , whose gravity-driven activity is controlled by two main variable factors : the temperature and strength of their bases . A number of processes alter these two factors , resulting in cyclic surges of activity interspersed with longer periods of inactivity , on both hourly and centennial time scales . Ice-sheet dynamics are of interest in modelling future sea level rise . __ TOC __", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Ice-sheet_dynamics", "rank": 13, "score": 141044 }, { "content": "Title: Greenland's Grand Canyon Content: Greenland 's Grand Canyon or Grand Canyon of Greenland is a tentative canyon of record length discovered underneath the Greenland ice sheet as reported in the journal Science on 30 August 2013 ( submitted 29 April 2013 ) , by scientists from the University of Bristol , University of Calgary , and University of Urbino , who described it as a mega-canyon . Ice-penetrating radar data collected during NASA 's Operation IceBridge showed a huge subglacial canyon running from the central region of the island northward into the Arctic Ocean , to the fjord of the Petermann Glacier . The bottom of the canyon is below sea level ; the canyon is likely to have influenced basal water flow from the ice sheet interior to the margin . Jonathan Bamber , a geographer at University of Bristol , stated , `` The distinctive V-shaped walls and flat bottom suggests water carved the buried valley , not ice . '' The canyon is more than 750 km long , up to 800 m deep and 10 km wide , making it the longest canyon discovered on the Earth to date . There are , however , many canyons -- including Arizona 's Grand Canyon and Tibet 's Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon , previously the world 's longest -- that are deeper . The canyon predates ice sheet inception and has influenced basal hydrology in Greenland over past glacial cycles .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Greenland's_Grand_Canyon", "rank": 14, "score": 138550 }, { "content": "Title: Ice shelf Content: An ice shelf is a thick floating platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a coastline and onto the ocean surface . Ice shelves are only found in Antarctica , Greenland , Canada and the Russian Arctic . The boundary between the floating ice shelf and the grounded ( resting on bedrock ) ice that feeds it is called the grounding line . The thickness of ice shelves ranges from about 100 to 1000 meters . In contrast , sea ice is formed on water , is much thinner ( typically less than 3m ) , and forms throughout the Arctic Ocean . It also is found in the Southern Ocean around the continent of Antarctica . Ice shelves are principally driven by gravity-driven pressure from the grounded ice . That flow continually moves ice from the grounding line to the seaward front of the shelf . The primary mechanism of mass loss from ice shelves was thought to have been iceberg calving , in which a chunk of ice breaks off from the seaward front of the shelf . A study by NASA and university researchers - published in the June 14 , 2013 issue of Science - found however that ocean waters melting the undersides of Antarctic ice shelves are responsible for most of the continent 's ice shelf mass loss . Typically , a shelf front will extend forward for years or decades between major calving events . Snow accumulation on the upper surface and melting from the lower surface are also important to the mass balance of an ice shelf . Ice may also accrete onto the underside of the shelf . The density contrast between glacial ice , which is denser than normal ice , and liquid water means that only about 1/9 of the floating ice is above the ocean surface . The world 's largest ice shelves are the Ross Ice Shelf and the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in Antarctica . The term captured ice shelf has been used for the ice over a subglacial lake , such as Lake Vostok .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Ice_shelf", "rank": 15, "score": 137688 }, { "content": "Title: Geography of Greenland Content: Greenland is located between the Arctic Ocean and the North Atlantic Ocean , northeast of Canada and northwest of Iceland . The territory comprises the island of Greenland -- the largest island in the world -- and more than a hundred other smaller islands ( see alphabetic list ) . As an island , Greenland has no land boundaries and 44,087 km of coastline . A sparse population is confined to small settlements along certain sectors of the coast . Greenland possesses the world 's second largest ice sheet . Greenland sits atop the Greenland plate , a subplate of the North American plate . The Greenland craton is made up of some of the oldest rocks on the face of the earth . The Isua greenstone belt in southwestern Greenland contains the oldest known rocks on Earth , dated at 3.7 -- 3.8 billion years old . The vegetation is generally sparse , with the only patch of forested land being found in Nanortalik Municipality in the extreme south near Cape Farewell . The climate is arctic to subarctic , with cool summers and cold winters . The terrain is mostly a flat but gradually sloping icecap that covers all land except for a narrow , mountainous , barren , rocky coast . The lowest elevation is sea level and the highest elevation is the summit of Gunnbjørn Fjeld , the highest point in the Arctic at 3694 m . The northernmost point of the Island of Greenland is Cape Morris Jesup , discovered by Admiral Robert Peary in 1909 . Natural resources include zinc , lead , iron ore , coal , molybdenum , gold , platinum , uranium , hydropower and fish .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Geography_of_Greenland", "rank": 16, "score": 137679 }, { "content": "Title: East Greenland Current Content: The East Greenland Current ( EGC ) is a cold , low salinity current that extends from Fram Strait ( ~ 80N ) to Cape Farewell ( ~ 60N ) . The current is located off the eastern coast of Greenland along the Greenland continental margin . The current cuts through the Nordic Seas ( the Greenland and Norwegian Seas ) and through the Denmark Strait . The current is of major importance because it directly connects the Arctic to the Northern Atlantic , it is a major contributor to sea ice export out of the Arctic , and it is a major freshwater sink for the Arctic .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "East_Greenland_Current", "rank": 17, "score": 136916 }, { "content": "Title: Glacial earthquake Content: Glacial earthquakes are earthquakes as large as magnitude 5.1 that occur in glaciated areas where the glacier moves faster than one kilometer per year . The number of glacial earthquakes in Greenland shows a peak every year in July , August and September , and the number is increasing over time . In a study using data from January 1993 through October 2005 , more events were detected every year since 2002 , and twice as many events were recorded in 2005 as there were in any other year . This increase in the numbers of glacial earthquakes in Greenland may be a response to global warming . Seismic waves are also generated by the Whillans Ice Stream , a large , fast-moving river of ice pouring from the West Antarctic Ice Sheet into the Ross Ice Shelf . Two bursts of seismic waves are released every day , each one equivalent to a magnitude 7 earthquake , and are seemingly related to the tidal action of the Ross Sea . During each event a 96 by 193 kilometer ( 60 by 120 mile ) region of the glacier moves as much as .67 meters ( 2.2 feet ) over about 25 minutes , remains still for 12 hours , then moves another half-meter . The seismic waves are recorded at seismographs around Antarctica , and even as far away as Australia , a distance of more than 6,400 kilometers . Because the motion takes place of such a long period of time 10 to 25 minutes , it can not be felt by scientists standing on the moving glacier . It is not known if these events are related to global warming .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Glacial_earthquake", "rank": 18, "score": 136612 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Arctic_geoengineering", "rank": 19, "score": 135103 }, { "content": "Title: King Oscar Glacier Content: King Oscar Glacier ( Kong Oscar Gletscher ) is one of several glaciers that drain the north-western part of the Greenland Ice Sheet into Melville Bay . As part of a comprehensive survey of Greenland 's glaciers that was published in 2006 , scientists documented that the mass balance -- the sum of gains through snow accumulation and losses through iceberg calving and melting -- of Kong Oscar and Greenland 's other north-western glaciers was strongly negative between 1996 and 2005 : they lost more ice than they gained . The pattern was similar to the ice sheet as a whole , which has been losing ice mass at an accelerating pace in the past decade .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "King_Oscar_Glacier", "rank": 20, "score": 134952 }, { "content": "Title: Greenland Ice Sheet Project Content: The Greenland Ice Sheet Project ( GISP ) was a decade-long project to drill ice cores in Greenland that involved scientists and funding agencies from Denmark , Switzerland and the United States . Besides the U.S. National Science Foundation ( NSF ) , funding was provided by the Swiss National Science Foundation and the Danish Commission for Scientific Research in Greenland . The ice cores provide a proxy archive of temperature and atmospheric constituents that help to understand past climate variations . The preliminary GISP field work started in 1971 at Dye 3 , where a 372 meter deep , 10.2 cm diameter core was recovered . After this , annual field expeditions were carried out to drill intermediate depth cores at various locations on the ice sheet . The first was a 398 m core at Milcent and another was a 405 m core at the Crete station in 1974 . After working out various logistical and engineering problems related to the development of a more sophisticated drilling rig , drilling to bedrock at Dye 3 began in the summer of 1979 using a new Danish electro-mechanical ice drill . In the first year , an 18 cm diameter hole was drilled and cased to a depth of 80 m. Coring continued for two more seasons , and on August 10 , 1981 , bedrock was reached at a depth of 2037 m . The Dye 3 site was a compromise : glaciologically , a higher site on the ice divide with smooth bedrock would have been better ; logistically , such a site would have been too remote .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Greenland_Ice_Sheet_Project", "rank": 21, "score": 134939 }, { "content": "Title: West Ice Content: The West Ice is a patch of the Greenland Sea covered by pack ice during winter time . It is located north of Iceland , between Greenland and Jan Mayen island . The West Ice is a major breeding ground for seals , especially harp seals and hooded seals . It was discovered in the early 18th century by British whalers . At the time , whalers were not interested in seal hunting as long as there was ample stock of bowhead whales in the area . However , after the 1750s , the whale population had been depleted in the area , and systematic seal hunting started , first by British ships and then by German , Dutch , Danish , Norwegian , and Russian ships . The annual catches were 120,000 animals around 1900 , mostly by Norway and Russia , and rose to 350,000 by the 1920s . They then declined , first because of imposed restrictions on total allowable catch and then in response to decreasing market demand . Nevertheless , the seal population in the West Ice was rapidly falling , from an estimated 1,000,000 in 1956 to 100,000 in the 1980s . In the 1980s -- 1990s , takings of harp seals totaled 8,000 -- 10,000 , and annual catches of hooded seals totaled a few thousand between 1997 and 2001 . Norway accounts for all recent seal hunting in the West Ice , as Russia has not hunted hooded seals since 1995 , and catches harp seals at the East Ice in the White Sea -- Barents Sea . Seal hunting in the West Ice was a dangerous occupation , as floating ice , storms and winds posed constant threat to the ships ; in the 19th century , the hunters often encountered frozen human bodies on the West Ice . A major accident occurred around 5 April 1952 when a sudden storm surprised 53 ships hunting in the area . Seven of them sank and five vanished , namely Ringsel , Brattind and Vårglimt from Troms and Buskøy and Pels from Sunnmøre , with 79 men on board . The search for them involved ships and planes and continued for many days , but no trace of the missing boats was found .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "West_Ice", "rank": 22, "score": 134798 }, { "content": "Title: Hans Tausen Iskappe Content: Hans Tausen Iskappe is an ice cap in northern Greenland . It is about 75 km from north to south and 50 km from east to west and sits on a 1000 m high plateau . Ice cores show it is around 3500 -- 4000 years old . It formed since the Holocene climatic optimum of 6000-8000 BP . It is the source of many glaciers , including Ymer Gletscher , Lurgletscher and the Tjalfe Gletscher . It is a well studied ice cap , and is important to understanding the last Climactic Optimum . ( Holocene climatic optimum )", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Hans_Tausen_Iskappe", "rank": 23, "score": 134699 }, { "content": "Title: Denmark Strait Content: The Denmark Strait or Greenland Strait ( , the latter meaning ` Greenland Sound ' ) is an oceanic strait between Iceland ( to its southeast ) and Greenland ( to its northwest ) . The Norwegian island of Jan Mayen lies northeast of the strait . It connects the Greenland Sea , an extension of the Arctic Ocean , to the Irminger Sea , a part of the Atlantic Ocean . It stretches 300 mi long and 180 mi wide at its narrowest , between Straumnes , the northwestern headland of the Westfjords peninsula of Hornstrandir , and Cape Tupinier on Blosseville Coast in East Greenland ) . The official International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) delineation between the Arctic and the North Atlantic Oceans runs from Straumnes to Cape Nansen , 132 km southwest of Cape Tunipier . From Straumnes to Cape Nansen the distance is 336 km . The narrow depth , where the Greenland-Iceland Rise runs along the bottom of the sea , is 625 ft. The cold East Greenland Current passes through the strait and carries icebergs south into the North Atlantic . It hosts important fisheries . The world 's largest known underwater waterfall , known as the Denmark Strait cataract , flows down the western side of the Denmark Strait . During World War II , the Battle of the Denmark Strait took place on 24 May 1941 . The German battleship Bismarck sank the British battlecruiser , which exploded with the loss of all but three of its 1,418 crew ; HMS Prince of Wales was seriously damaged in the engagement . Bismarck entered the Atlantic through the Strait , but damage sustained in the battle -- combined with British aircraft search-and-destroy missions -- led to its sinking three days later .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Denmark_Strait", "rank": 24, "score": 134384 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Sea_level_rise", "rank": 25, "score": 133208 }, { "content": "Title: Wiesław Masłowski Content: Wiesław Masłowski is a research professor at the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey , California since 2009 . He obtained his MS from the University of Gdańsk in 1987 , and his PhD from the University of Alaska , Fairbanks in 1994 with a dissertation entitled `` Numerical modeling study of the circulation of the Greenland Sea '' . He became well known in 2007 for stating that the Arctic Ocean might be nearly ice free in the summer as early as 2013 , based on projection of the declining ice volume trend . While later revised to 2016 + / - 3 years based on computer modeling , this prediction became controversial when the Arctic was not sea-ice free in 2013 , having increased from the record low set in 2012 .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Wiesław_Masłowski", "rank": 26, "score": 133206 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic resources race Content: The Arctic resources race refers to the competition between global entities for newly available natural resources in the Arctic . As the ice in the Arctic melts at a record rate and the sea ice extent continues to decrease due to global climate change , the Arctic waters become more navigable and Arctic resources -- such as oil and gas , minerals , fish , as well as tourism and new trade routes -- are becoming more accessible . Under the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea , five nations have the legal right to exploit the Arctic 's natural resources within their exclusive economic zones : Canada , Russia , Denmark , Norway , and the United States ( though the U.S. has yet to ratify the treaty , it considers the treaty to be customary international law and abides by it ) . The Arctic region and its resources have recently been at the center of controversy and pose potential conflicts between nations that have differing opinions of how to manage the area , including conflicting territorial claims . In addition , the Arctic region is home to an estimated 400,000 indigenous people . If the ice continues to melt at the current rate , then these indigenous people are at risk of being displaced . The acceleration of ice depletion will contribute to climate change as a whole : melting ice releases methane , ice reflects incoming solar radiation , and without it will cause the ocean to absorb more radiation ( albedo effect ) , heating up the water causing more ocean acidification , and melting ice will cause a rise in sea level .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Arctic_resources_race", "rank": 27, "score": 133082 }, { "content": "Title: Flora and fauna of Greenland Content: Although the bulk of its area is covered by ice caps inhospitable to most forms of life , Greenland 's terrain and waters support a wide variety of plant and animal species . The northeastern part of the country is the world 's largest national park . The flora and fauna of Greenland are strongly susceptible to changes associated with climate change . The image galleries below link to information related to the flora and fauna of Greenland , including Latin taxonomy , Danish translations , and links to articles in the Danish Wikipedia , which can be helpful when searching for more information .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Flora_and_fauna_of_Greenland", "rank": 28, "score": 131920 }, { "content": "Title: Ice2sea Content: Ice2sea is a program of scientific research funded by the European Union 's Framework 7 Programme to study the effects of climate change on glaciation and the melting of ice caps and glaciers on sea level . The ice2sea project , a collaborative of 24 research institutions , which is headed by Prof David Vaughan , aims to reduce the uncertainty in sea-level projections which are of great economic and social importance to the European Union , especially as large areas of coastal area in Europe are below or less than a metre above sea level . The 2007 fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) report highlighted ice sheets * as the most significant remaining uncertainty in projections of sea-level rise . Understanding about the crucial ice-sheet effects was `` too limited to assess their likelihood or provide a best estimate of an upper bound for sea-level rise '' . Improved scientific results from ice2sea will feed directly into the fifth IPCC report ( due in 2013 ) to generate more accurate sea-level rise projections . The initiative recently funded research by scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in Germany , which was published in Nature in 2012 , which predicts the disappearance of the 450000 km2 vast Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf in east Antarctica by the end of the century which could add up to 4.4 mm of rise of sea level each year due to its melting alone .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Ice2sea", "rank": 29, "score": 131911 }, { "content": "Title: Uunartoq Qeqertaq Content: Uunartoq Qeqertaq , Greenlandic for `` The Warming Island '' , is an island off the east central coast of Greenland , 550 km north of the Arctic Circle . It became recognised as an island only in September 2005 , by US explorer Dennis Schmitt . It was attached to the mainland of Liverpool Land by glacial ice even in 2002 , when the ice shelves began retreating rapidly in this area , so that by 2005 it was no longer attached to the mainland . Members of the scientific community believe this newly discovered island is a direct result of global warming . The island has three large peninsulas , and thus resembles the letter W , or the Chinese character 山 .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Uunartoq_Qeqertaq", "rank": 30, "score": 130680 }, { "content": "Title: Jakobshavn Glacier Content: Jakobshavn Glacier , also known as Sermeq Kujalleq ( in Greenlandic ) and the Jakobshavn Isbræ ( in Danish ) , is a large outlet glacier in West Greenland . It is located near the Greenlandic town of Ilulissat ( Jakobshavn ) and ends at the sea in the Ilulissat Icefjord . Jakobshavn Glacier drains 6.5 % of the Greenland ice sheet and produces around 10 % of all Greenland icebergs . Some 35 billion tonnes of icebergs calve off and pass out of the fjord every year . Icebergs breaking from the glacier are often so large ( up to a kilometer in height ) that they are too tall to float down the fjord and lie stuck on the bottom of its shallower areas , sometimes for years , until they are broken up by the force of the glacier and icebergs further up the fjord . Studied for over 250 years , Jakobshavn Glacier has helped develop our understanding of climate change and icecap glaciology . Ilulissat Icefjord ( Ilulissat Kangerlua ) was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2004 .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Jakobshavn_Glacier", "rank": 31, "score": 130146 }, { "content": "Title: Eismitte Content: Eismitte , in English also called Mid-Ice , was the site of an Arctic expedition in the interior of Greenland that took place from July 1930 through August 1931 , and claimed the life of noted German scientist Alfred Wegener . The name `` Eismitte '' means Ice-Center in German , and the campsite was located 402 km from the coast at an estimated altitude of 3,000 meters ( 9,843 feet ) . The coldest temperature recorded during the expedition was − 64.9 ° C ( − 85 ° F ) , while the warmest temperature noted was − 2.8 ° C ( 27 ° F ) . For the 12-month period beginning September 1 , 1930 and ending August 31 , 1931 , the warmest month , July , had a mean monthly temperature of − 12.2 ° C ( 10 ° F ) , while the coldest month , February , averaged − 47.2 ° C ( − 53 ° F ) . Over the same period a total of 110 millimeters ( 4.33 inches ) of water-equivalent precipitation was recorded , with most of it , rather surprisingly , being received in winter . At the latitude of the camp , the sun does not set between May 13 and July 30 each year , and does not rise between November 23 and January 20 .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Eismitte", "rank": 32, "score": 129352 }, { "content": "Title: History of Greenland Content: The history of Greenland is a history of life under extreme Arctic conditions : currently , an ice cap covers about 80 percent of the island , restricting human activity largely to the coasts . The first humans are thought to have arrived in Greenland around 2500 BC . Their descendants apparently died out and were succeeded by several other groups migrating from continental North America . There has been no evidence discovered that Greenland was known to Europeans until the 10th century , when Icelandic Vikings settled on its southwestern coast , which seems to have been uninhabited when they arrived . The ancestors of the Inuit Greenlanders who live there today appear to have migrated there later , around 1200 AD , from northwestern Greenland . While the Inuit survived in the icy world of the Little Ice Age , the early Norse settlements along the southwestern coast disappeared , leaving the Inuit as the only inhabitants of the island for several centuries . During this time , Denmark-Norway , apparently believing the Norse settlements had survived , continued to claim sovereignty over the island despite the lack of any contact between the Norse Greenlanders and their Scandinavian brethren . In 1721 , aspiring to become a colonial power , Denmark-Norway sent a missionary expedition to Greenland with the stated aim of reinstating Christianity among descendants of the Norse Greenlanders who may have reverted to paganism . When the missionaries found no descendants of the Norse Greenlanders , they baptized the Inuit Greenlanders they found living there instead . Denmark-Norway then developed trading colonies along the coast and imposed a trade monopoly and other colonial privileges on the area . During World War II , when Germany invaded Denmark , Greenlanders became socially and economically less connected to Denmark and more connected to the United States and Canada . After the war , Denmark resumed control of Greenland and in 1953 , converted its status from colony to overseas amt ( county ) . Although Greenland is still a part of the Kingdom of Denmark , it has enjoyed home rule since 1979 . In 1985 , the island decided to leave the European Union , which it had joined as a part of Denmark in 1973 ; the Faroes had never joined .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "History_of_Greenland", "rank": 33, "score": 129138 }, { "content": "Title: North Greenland Ice Core Project Content: The drilling site of the North Greenland Ice Core Project ( NGRIP or NorthGRIP ) is near the center of Greenland ( 75.1 N , 42.32 W , 2917 m , ice thickness 3085 ) . Drilling began in 1999 and was completed at bedrock in 2003 . The cores are cylinders of ice 11 centimeters in diameter that were brought to the surface in 3.5-meter lengths . The NGRIP site was chosen to extract a long and undisturbed record stretching into the last glacial , and it succeeded . The site was chosen for a flat basal topography to avoid the flow distortions that render the bottom of the GRIP and GISP cores unreliable . Unusually , there is melting at the bottom of the NGRIP core - believed to be due to a high geothermal heat flux locally . This has the advantage that the bottom layers are less compressed by thinning than they would otherwise be : NGRIP annual layers at 105 kyr age are 1.1 cm thick , twice the GRIP thicknesses at equal age . The NGRIP record helps to resolve a problem with the GRIP and GISP2 records - the unreliability of the Eemian Stage portion of the record . NGRIP covers 5 kyr of the Eemian , and shows that temperatures then were roughly as stable as the pre-industrial Holocene temperatures were . This is confirmed by sediment cores , in particular MD95-2042 . In 2003 , NGRIP recovered what seem to be plant remnants nearly two miles below the surface , and they may be several million years old . `` Several of the pieces look very much like blades of grass or pine needles , '' said University of Colorado at Boulder geological sciences Professor James White , an NGRIP principal investigator . `` If confirmed , this will be the first organic material ever recovered from a deep ice-core drilling project , '' he said .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "North_Greenland_Ice_Core_Project", "rank": 34, "score": 128780 }, { "content": "Title: West Ice accidents Content: The West Ice accidents ( Ulykkene i Vestisen ) occurred around April 5 , 1952 when the five Norwegian seal hunting vessels Ringsel , Brattind and Vårglim from Troms and Buskøy and Pels from Sunnmøre with a total crew of 78 men vanished in the midst of a severe storm in the area of the West Ice in the Greenland Sea east of Greenland . Despite search and rescue operations for many days involving planes and naval ships , no traces of the missing boats were discovered . During Easter that year 53 Norwegian vessels were participating in seal hunting in the West Ice Pack . Of these 7 shipwrecked , 5 disappeared without a trace . The first vessel to shipwreck was the Møre boat `` Vestis '' , however the crew of this boat was rescued .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "West_Ice_accidents", "rank": 35, "score": 128213 }, { "content": "Title: West Greenland Current Content: The West Greenland Current is a weak cold water current that flows to the north along the west coast of Greenland . The current results from the movement of water flowing around the southernmost point of Greenland caused by the East Greenland Current . According to Lloyd et al. , 2007 , the WGC is a WARM current connected to a broader scale North Atlantic climate via the combined influences of Atlantic water from the Irminger Current ( IC ) and polar water from the East Greenland Current . Paleoclimatology records derived from foraminifera abundance show that periodic influxes of warm subsurface temperatures and near-bottom temperatures occurred throughout the Late Holocene epoch , particularly during the Holocene climatic optimum . The increased flow from the nearby East Greenland Current was associated with increased glacial iceberg calving from the large Jakobshavn Isbrae glacial outlet within the western Greenland Ice Sheet , causing rapid melting and destabilization events . Following the Neoglaciation , the Jakobshavn outlet formed a floating ice tongue around 2000 years before present .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "West_Greenland_Current", "rank": 36, "score": 126884 }, { "content": "Title: Nioghalvfjerdsbrae Content: Nioghalvfjerdsbrae , sometimes referred to as `` 79 N Glacier '' , is a large glacier located in northeast Greenland . It drains an area of 103,314 km2 of the Greenland Ice Sheet with a flux ( quantity of ice moved from the land to the sea ) of 14.3 km3 per year , as measured for 1996 .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Nioghalvfjerdsbrae", "rank": 37, "score": 126613 }, { "content": "Title: Chasing Ice Content: Chasing Ice is a 2012 documentary film about the efforts of nature photographer James Balog and his Extreme Ice Survey ( EIS ) to publicize the effects of climate change , directed by Jeff Orlowski . It was released in the United States on November 16 , 2012 . The documentary includes scenes from a glacier calving event that took place at Jakobshavn Glacier in Greenland , lasting 75 minutes , the longest such event ever captured on film . Two EIS videographers waited several weeks in a small tent overlooking the glacier , and were finally able to witness 7.4 km3 of ice crashing off the glacier . `` The calving of a massive glacier believed to have produced the ice that sank the Titanic is like watching a city break apart . ''", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Chasing_Ice", "rank": 38, "score": 125209 }, { "content": "Title: New South Greenland Content: New South Greenland , sometimes known as Morrell 's Land , was an appearance of land recorded by the American captain Benjamin Morrell of the schooner Wasp in , during a sealing and exploration voyage in the Weddell Sea area of Antarctica . Morrell provided precise coordinates and a description of a coastline which he claimed to have sailed along for more than 300 mi . Because the Weddell Sea area was so little visited , and hard to navigate due to ice conditions , the alleged land was never properly investigated before its existence was emphatically disproved during Antarctic expeditions in the early 20th century . At the time of Morrell 's voyage , the geography of the then unnamed Weddell Sea and its surrounding coasts was almost entirely unknown , making the claimed sighting initially plausible . However , obvious errors in Morrell 's voyage account , and his general reputation as a fabulist , created scepticism about the existence of this new land . In the German explorer Wilhelm Filchner searched for but found no traces of land , after his ship Deutschland became icebound in the Weddell Sea and drifted into the locality of Morrell 's observation . A sounding of the sea bottom revealed more than 5000 ft of water , indicating no land in near proximity . Three years later , trapped in the same waters with his ship Endurance , Ernest Shackleton was able by similar means to confirm the land 's non-existence . Various explanations for Morrell 's error have been suggested , including intentional deception . However , Morrell describes his find briefly and prosaically , evidently seeking no personal credit or glory from the discovery . In his narrative he assigns the honour to his fellow sealing captain , Robert Johnson , for finding and naming the land two years earlier . Morrell may have been honestly mistaken , through miscalculation of his ship 's position or by misremembering detail when writing the account after nine years . Alternatively , he may have made the common error of confusing distant icebergs with land , or been misled by the distorting effects of Antarctic mirage . In 1843 the distinguished British naval explorer James Clark Ross reported possible land in a position close to Morrell 's ; this land , too , would eventually be proven not to exist .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "New_South_Greenland", "rank": 39, "score": 125182 }, { "content": "Title: Irminger Sea Content: The Irminger Sea is a marginal sea of the North Atlantic Ocean . It is 480 km long and 290 km wide at its narrowest . The northern limit is the Greenland-Iceland Rise on the bottom of the Denmark Strait between Iceland and East Greenland , which connects to the Greenland Sea . To the southwest , it reaches to Cape Farvel , the southern tip of Greenland , and meets the Labrador Sea at this point . South of this point is the open North Atlantic Ocean . The sea floor of the Irminger Sea is largely part of the Irminger Basin , a northeastern continuation of the maximally 4600 m deep Labrador Basin , which on the east is bordered by the Reykjanes Ridge . This delineation is oceanographic only and does not represent any official borders . The Irminger Sea is one of the main fishing areas of the Rose fish . The Irminger Sea was named after Danish vice-admiral Carl Ludvig Christian Irminger ( 1802 -- 1888 ) , after whom also the Irminger Current was named .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Irminger_Sea", "rank": 40, "score": 125169 }, { "content": "Title: North Water Polynya Content: The North Water Polynya or Pikialasorsuaq in Greenlandic ( NOW ) is a polynya ( area of year-round open water surrounded by sea ice ) that lies between Greenland and Canada in northern Baffin Bay . The world 's largest Arctic polynya at about 85000 km2 , it creates a warm microclimate that provides a refuge for narwhal , beluga , walrus , and bowhead whales to feed and rest . While thin ice forms in some areas , the polynya is kept open by wind , tides and an ice bridge on its northern edge . Named the `` North Water '' by 19th century whalers who relied on it for spring passage , this polynya is one of the most biologically productive marine areas in the Arctic Ocean .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "North_Water_Polynya", "rank": 41, "score": 124873 }, { "content": "Title: Summit Camp Content: Summit Camp , also Summit Station , is a year-round research station on the apex of the Greenland Ice Sheet . Its coordinates are variable , since the ice is moving . The coordinates provided here are as of July 2009 . The station is located 3216 m above sea level . The population of the station is typically five in wintertime , and has peaked at 55 in the summer . The station is operated by the American-based CH2M HILL Polar Services ( formerly known as Veco Polar Resources ) , with support from the United States ' National Science Foundation . A permit from the Danish Polar Center ( Dansk Polarcenter ) under the auspices of the Home Rule Government of Greenland ( Kalaallit Nunaanni Inatsisartut ) is required to visit the station .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Summit_Camp", "rank": 42, "score": 124663 }, { "content": "Title: DEN/ICE Agreements Content: The DEN/ICE Agreements are a series of multilateral treaties that provide for the joint financing of air traffic control , communications , and meteorological services in Greenland , Iceland , and the Faroe Islands for civil aircraft crossing the North Atlantic Ocean above the 45th parallel north . The agreements were negotiated and are implemented within the International Civil Aviation Organization ( ICAO ) , a specialized agency of the United Nations .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "DEN/ICE_Agreements", "rank": 43, "score": 123939 }, { "content": "Title: Williwaw Content: In meteorology , a williwaw is a sudden blast of wind descending from a mountainous coast to the sea . The word is of unknown origin , but was earliest used by British seamen in the 19th century . The usage appears for winds found in the Strait of Magellan , the Aleutian Islands and the coastal fjords of the Alaskan Panhandle , where the terms outflow wind and squamish wind are also used for the same phenomenon . On Greenland the word piteraq is used . The williwaw results from the descent of cold , dense air from the snow and ice fields of coastal mountains in high latitudes , accelerated by the force of gravity . Thus the williwaw is considered a type of katabatic wind .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Williwaw", "rank": 44, "score": 123856 }, { "content": "Title: Avannaa Content: Avannaa , originally Nordgrønland ( `` North Greenland '' ) , was one of the three counties ( amt ) of Greenland , until 31 December 2008 . The county seat was at the main settlement , Qaanaaq . It was one of the least-densely-populated administrative divisions in the world , with 843 people living in 106,700 km ² of ice-free land for a density of 0.0079 people per square kilometre . The total land area including the land covered by the ice cap is over 500,000 km ² . North Greenland has a higher portion of ice-free land than most other areas of the country because much of the extreme north , such as Peary Land , is largely ice-free due to its low precipitation . The county was also sometimes known as Avannaarsua or Avanersuaq .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Avannaa", "rank": 45, "score": 123437 }, { "content": "Title: Camp Century Content: Camp Century was an Arctic United States Military scientific research base in Greenland . It is situated 240 km east from Thule Air Base . It was part of Project Iceworm to install sites for launching nuclear missiles in Greenland . Powered by a nuclear reactor , the camp operated from 1959 until 1967 . The base consisted of 21 tunnels with a complete length of 3000 m.", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Camp_Century", "rank": 46, "score": 122652 }, { "content": "Title: Zachariae Isstrom Content: Zachariae Isstrom ( Zachariæ Isstrøm Isstrøm being the Danish word for ice stream ) is a large glacier located in King Frederick VIII Land , northeast Greenland .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Zachariae_Isstrom", "rank": 47, "score": 122632 }, { "content": "Title: Past sea level Content: Global or eustatic sea level has fluctuated significantly over the Earth 's history . The main factors affecting sea level are the amount and volume of available water and the shape and volume of the ocean basins . The primary influences on water volume are the temperature of the seawater , which affects density , and the amounts of water retained in other reservoirs like rivers , aquifers , lakes , glaciers , polar ice caps and sea ice . Over geological timescales , changes in the shape of the oceanic basins and in land/sea distribution affect sea level . In addition to eustatic changes , local changes in sea level are caused by tectonic uplift and subsidence . Over geologic time sea level has fluctuated by hundreds of meters . Today 's interglacial level is near historic highs and is 130 meters above the low level reached during the Last Glacial Maximum 19,000 -- 20,000 years ago . Observational and modeling studies of mass loss from glaciers and ice caps indicate a contribution to sea-level rise of 0.2 to 0.4 mm/yr averaged over the 20th century . Over this last million years , whereas it was higher most of the time before then , sea level was lower than today .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Past_sea_level", "rank": 48, "score": 122548 }, { "content": "Title: Geology of Greenland Content: Greenland is the largest island on Earth . Only one-fifth of its surface area is exposed bedrock , the rest being covered by ice . The exposed surface is approximately 410,000 km2 . The geology of Greenland is dominated by crystalline rocks of the Precambrian Shield . The crystalline rocks of the Nuuk/Qeqertarsuatsiaat area comprise some of the oldest bedrock in Greenland which covers most of western Greenland . The surface has been altered several times and has an appearance as though it were shaped billions of years ago . This is one of the reasons why the Nuuk area is extraordinary and also because the particular climate zone for the area limits the vegetation which makes it possible to observe impressive km-scale megascopic textures . The bedrock around Nuuk consists of two major lithologic packages , the dark melanocratic Amitsoq gneiss , which is intruded by and complexly folded into the younger leucocratic Nuuk gneiss . This western gneiss complex is approximately 3600 million years old . The Isua Greenstone Belt in the Isukasia area , southwest Greenland , is extraordinary in that it contains some of the oldest bedrock on the planet , approximately 3800 million years old . The bedrock is not nearly as metamorphosed as the surrounding gneiss bedrock and is therefore of interest for answering how the earth 's surface appeared billions of years ago . There is a massive magnetite resource in this area . There are large deposits of rare earth oxides at Kvanefjeld . Greenland 's first gold mine is the Nalunaq mine , which opened in 2004 . Nalunaq is located 33 km northeast of Nanortalik , in the Ketilidian Orogenic Belt of southern Greenland ( 60 ° 21 ′ 29 ″ N , 44 ° 50 ′ 11 ″ W ) . Gold-quartz mineralization occurs along a shallowly-dipping fault believed to be a thrust fault in which the hanging wall consists of Paleoproterozoic amphibolite-facies metavolcanic rocks , and the footwall consists of variably altered and mineralized volcanic rocks ( i.e. , volcanogenic massive sulfides ) . Quartz-gold mineralization has been dated to 1.77 to 1.80 billion years ago ( late Paleoproterozoic ) , during the Ketilidian Orogeny . The Skaergaard intrusion is a layered mafic intrusion in eastern Greenland formed 55 million years ago during the opening of the North Atlantic Ocean . Skaergaard is one of the world 's foremost examples of a layered mafic intrusion which exhibits exceptionally well-developed cumulate layering .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Geology_of_Greenland", "rank": 49, "score": 122542 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 50, "score": 122169 }, { "content": "Title: Norwegian Sea Content: The Norwegian Sea ( Norskehavet ) is a marginal sea in the North Atlantic Ocean , northwest of Norway . It is located between the North Sea ( i.e. north of the United Kingdom ) and the Greenland Sea and adjoins the North Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Barents Sea to the northeast . In the southwest , it is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by a submarine ridge running between Iceland and the Faroe Islands . To the North , the Jan Mayen Ridge separates it from the Greenland Sea . Unlike many other seas , most of the bottom of the Norwegian Sea is not part of a continental shelf and therefore lies at a great depth of about two kilometres on average . Rich deposits of oil and natural gas are found under the sea bottom and are being explored commercially , in the areas with sea depths of up to about one kilometre . The coastal zones are rich in fish that visit the Norwegian Sea from the North Atlantic or from the Barents Sea ( cod ) for spawning . The warm North Atlantic Current ensures relatively stable and high water temperatures , so that unlike the Arctic seas , the Norwegian Sea is ice-free throughout the year . Recent research has concluded that the large volume of water in the Norwegian Sea with its large heat absorption capacity is more important as a source of Norway 's mild winters than the Gulf Stream and its extensions .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Norwegian_Sea", "rank": 51, "score": 121490 }, { "content": "Title: Mittivakkat Glacier Content: The Mittivakkat Glacier is located in southeast Greenland , and is part of the largest ice field on Ammassalik Island . This glacier has been in retreat ( negative net mass balance ) throughout most of recorded history ( 1898 -- 2008 ) . Reindeer bones were recovered from the retreating glacier in 2005 , and dated to about 1200-1300 AD .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Mittivakkat_Glacier", "rank": 52, "score": 121292 }, { "content": "Title: GROVER Content: GROVER or Goddard Remotely Operated Vehicle for Exploration and Research is an Earth-bound autonomous student-designed rover developed by the Goddard Space Flight Center . With this solar-powered rover , scientists hope to get cheaper data about the Greenland ice sheet that lies in a rapidly warming region . The test drive started in Summit Camp in Greenland on a three kilometer thick ice sheet , which is the highest spot on the largest island of the World . The science team is led by the glaciologist Lora Koenig from NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt , Md. . The test began on 3 May 2013 at temperatures as low as -30 ° C and is planned to continue till 8 June 2013 .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "GROVER", "rank": 53, "score": 121126 }, { "content": "Title: King Frederick VI Coast Content: Not to be confused with King Frederick VIII Land King Frederick VI Coast ( Kong Frederik VI Kyst ) is a major geographic division of Greenland . It comprises the coastal area of Southeastern Greenland in Sermersooq and Kujalleq municipalities fronting the Irminger Sea of the North Atlantic Ocean . It is bordered by King Christian IX Land on the north and the Greenland Ice Sheet to the west . The King Frederick VI Coast stretches for about 590 km and is characterized by a succession of short fjords , steep mountains and small coastal islands . There is a narrow belt of ice-free land between the shore and the Inland ice cap , interrupted by active glaciers reaching the shore with the ice limit varying seasonally from year to year . Owing to the movement of pack ice in the area and frequent gale-force winds that sweep down from the Greenland ice cap , it is often difficult to approach or navigate along the coast by ship .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "King_Frederick_VI_Coast", "rank": 54, "score": 120252 }, { "content": "Title: Quaternary glaciation Content: The Quaternary glaciation , also known as the Pleistocene glaciation or the current ice age , is a series of glacial events separated by interglacial events during the Quaternary period from 2.58 Ma ( million years ago ) to present . During this period , ice sheets expanded , notably from out of Antarctica and Greenland , and fluctuating ice sheets occurred elsewhere ( for example , the Laurentide ice sheet ) . The major effects of the ice age are erosion and deposition of material over large parts of the continents , modification of river systems , creation of millions of lakes , changes in sea level , development of pluvial lakes far from the ice margins , isostatic adjustment of the crust , and abnormal winds . It affected oceans , flooding , and biological communities . The ice sheets themselves , by raising the albedo , affect a major feedback on climate cooling .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Quaternary_glaciation", "rank": 55, "score": 120214 }, { "content": "Title: Chryseobacterium greenlandensis Content: Chryseobacterium greenlandensis is an ultramicrobacteria species of bacteria that is able to live for long periods of time in low-temperature , high-pressure , reduced-oxygen and nutrient-poor habitats . It is known to have survived for more than 120,000 years in an ice block in Greenland , at a depth of 3000 m.", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Chryseobacterium_greenlandensis", "rank": 56, "score": 119364 }, { "content": "Title: Project Iceworm Content: Project Iceworm was the code name for a top secret United States Army program during the Cold War to build a network of mobile nuclear missile launch sites under the Greenland ice sheet . The ultimate objective of placing medium-range missiles under the ice -- close enough to strike targets within the Soviet Union -- was kept secret from the Danish government . To study the feasibility of working under the ice , a highly publicized `` cover '' project , known as Camp Century , was launched in 1960 . Unsteady ice conditions within the ice sheet caused the project to be canceled in 1966 .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Project_Iceworm", "rank": 57, "score": 119030 }, { "content": "Title: Extreme Ice Survey Content: The Extreme Ice Survey ( EIS ) , based in Boulder , Colorado , uses time-lapse photography , conventional photography and video to document the effects of global warming on glacial ice . It is the most wide-ranging glacier study ever conducted using ground-based , real-time photography . Starting in 2007 the EIS team installed as many as 43 time-lapse cameras at a time at 18 glaciers in Greenland , Iceland , Alaska , Canada , the Nepalese Himalaya ( where cameras were installed at Mount Everest in 2010 ) , and the Rocky Mountains of the U.S. . The cameras shoot year-round , every half hour of daylight . The team supplements the time-lapse record by occasionally repeating shots at fixed locations in Iceland , Bolivia , the Canadian province of British Columbia and the French and Swiss Alps . Collected images are being used for scientific evidence and as part of a global outreach campaign aimed at educating the public about the effects of climate change . EIS imagery has appeared in time-lapse videos displayed in the terminal at Denver International Airport ; in media productions such as the 2009 NOVA Extreme Ice documentary on PBS ; and is the focus of the feature-length film Chasing Ice , directed by Jeff Orlowski , which premiered at the Sundance film festival in Utah on January 23 , 2012 . Major findings were published in 2012 in Ice : Portraits of the World 's Vanishing Glaciers by James Balog ( Rizzoli Publishing ) .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Extreme_Ice_Survey", "rank": 58, "score": 118785 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Ocean Conference Content: The inaugural Arctic Ocean Conference was held in Ilulissat , Greenland May 27 -- May 29 , 2008 . Five countries , Canada , Denmark , Norway , Russia and the United States , discussed key issues relating to the Arctic Ocean . The meeting was significant because of its plans for environmental regulation , maritime security , mineral exploration , polar oil oversight , and transportation . Before the conclusion of the conference , the attendees announced the Ilulissat Declaration . The conference was the first ever held at the ministerial level that included the five regional powers . It came at the invitation of Per Stig Møller , Denmark 's Foreign Minister , and Hans Enoksen , Greenlandic Premier in 2007 after several territorial disputes in the Arctic . States Møller , `` We must continue to fulfill our obligations in the Arctic area until the UN decides who will have the right to the sea and the resources in the region . We must agree on the rules and what to do if climate changes make more shipping possible . '' `` We need to send a common political signal to both our own populations and the rest of the world that the five coastal states will address the opportunities and challenges in a responsible manner . '' Ilulissat 's melting glacier was an appropriate backdrop for the landmark conference . The key ministry level attendees were : Canada : Gary Lunn , Canadian Minister for Nature Resources Denmark : Per Stig Møller ; Hans Enoksen Norway : Jonas Gahr Støre , Norwegian Minister for Foreign Affairs Russia : Sergey Lavrov , Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs United States : John D. Negroponte , Deputy Secretary of State", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Arctic_Ocean_Conference", "rank": 59, "score": 118738 }, { "content": "Title: Greenland Content: Greenland ( -LSB- ˈɡriːnlənd -RSB- Kalaallit Nunaat -LSB- kaˈlaːɬit ˈnunaːt -RSB- Grønland -LSB- ˈɡ̊ʁɶnˌlanˀ -RSB- ) is an autonomous constituent country within the Kingdom of Denmark between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans , east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago . Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America , Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe ( specifically Norway and Denmark , the colonial powers , as well as the nearby island of Iceland ) for more than a millennium . The majority of its residents are Inuit , whose ancestors began migrating from the Canadian mainland in the 13th century , gradually settling across the island . Greenland is the world 's largest island ( Australia , although larger , is generally considered to be a continental landmass rather than an island ) . Three-quarters of Greenland is covered by the only permanent ice sheet outside Antarctica . With a population of about 56,480 ( 2013 ) , it is the least densely populated country in the world . The Arctic Umiaq Line ferry acts as a lifeline for western Greenland , connecting the various cities and settlements . Greenland has been inhabited off and on for at least the last 4,500 years by Arctic peoples whose forebears migrated there from what is now Canada . Norsemen settled the uninhabited southern part of Greenland beginning in the 10th century , and Inuit peoples arrived in the 13th century . The Norse colonies disappeared in the late 15th century . Soon after their demise , beginning in 1499 , the Portuguese briefly explored and claimed the island , naming it Terra do Lavrador ( later applied to Labrador in Canada ) . In the early 18th century , Scandinavian explorers reached Greenland again . To strengthen trading and power , Denmark-Norway affirmed sovereignty over the island . Denmark -- Norway claimed Greenland for centuries . Greenland was settled by Vikings ( of Norwegian origin ) more than a thousand years ago , who had previously settled Iceland to escape persecution from the King of Norway and his central government . Vikings set sail from Greenland and Iceland , encountering North America nearly 500 years before Columbus reached the Caribbean islands . They attempted to colonize land . Though under continuous influence of Norway and Norwegians , Greenland was not formally under the Norwegian crown until 1262 . The Kingdom of Norway was extensive and a military power until the mid-14th century . Norway was dramatically hit with a larger death toll than Denmark by the Black Death , forcing Norway to accept a union in which the central government , university and other fundamental institutions were located in Copenhagen . Thus , the two kingdoms ' resources were directed at creating Copenhagen . Norway became the weaker part and lost sovereignty over Greenland in 1814 when the union was dissolved . Greenland became a Danish colony in 1814 , and was made a part of the Danish Realm in 1953 under the Constitution of Denmark . In 1973 , Greenland joined the European Economic Community with Denmark . However , in a referendum in 1982 , a majority of the population voted for Greenland to withdraw from the EEC which was effected in 1985 . Greenland contains the world 's largest and most northernly national park , Northeast Greenland National Park ( Kalaallit Nunaanni nuna eqqissisimatitaq ) . Established in 1974 and expanded to its present size in 1988 , it protects 972001 km2 of the interior and northeastern coast of Greenland and is bigger than all but twenty-nine countries in the world . Greenland is divided into four municipalities - Sermersooq , Kujalleq , Qaasuitsup , and Qeqqata . In 1979 , Denmark had granted home rule to Greenland , and in 2008 , Greenlanders voted in favour of the Self-Government Act , which transferred more power from the Danish royal government to the local Greenlandic government . Under the new structure , in effect since 21 June 2009 , Greenland can gradually assume responsibility for policing , judicial system , company law , accounting , and auditing ; mineral resource activities ; aviation ; law of legal capacity , family law and succession law ; aliens and border controls ; the working environment ; and financial regulation and supervision , while the Danish government retains control of foreign affairs and defence . It also retains control of monetary policy , providing an initial annual subsidy of DKK 3.4 billion , which is planned to diminish gradually over time . Greenland expects to grow its economy based on increased income from the extraction of natural resources . The capital , Nuuk , held the 2016 Arctic Winter Games . At 70 % , Greenland has one of the highest shares of renewable energy in the world , mostly coming from hydropower .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Greenland", "rank": 60, "score": 118660 }, { "content": "Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Pliocene_climate", "rank": 61, "score": 118266 }, { "content": "Title: Storstrommen (Greenland) Content: Storstrommen ( Storstrømmen `` Large Stream '' ) , is one of the major glaciers in northeastern Greenland . It was named Storstrømmen because of its size by the ill-fated 1906 -- 08 Denmark Expedition ( Danmark-Ekspeditionen ) led by Ludvig Mylius-Erichsen .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Storstrommen_(Greenland)", "rank": 62, "score": 117773 }, { "content": "Title: Tollmann's hypothetical bolide Content: Alexander Tollmann 's bolide , proposed by Kristan-Tollmann and Tollmann in 1994 , is a hypothesis presented by Austrian geologist Alexander Tollmann , suggesting that one or several bolides ( asteroids or comets ) struck the Earth at 7640 BCE ( ± 200 ) , with a much smaller one at 3150 BCE ( ± 200 ) . If true , this hypothesis explains early Holocene extinctions and possibly legends of the Universal Deluge . The claimed evidence for the event includes stratigraphic studies of tektites , dendrochronology , and ice cores ( from Camp Century , Greenland ) containing hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid ( indicating an energetic ocean strike ) as well as nitric acids ( caused by extreme heating of air ) . Christopher Knight and Robert Lomas in their book , Uriel 's Machine , argue that the 7640 BCE evidence is consistent with the dates of formation of a number of extant salt flats and lakes in dry areas of North America and Asia . They argue that these lakes are the result remains of multiple-kilometer-high waves that penetrated deeply into continents as the result of oceanic strikes that they proposed occurred .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Tollmann's_hypothetical_bolide", "rank": 63, "score": 117719 }, { "content": "Title: Labrador Sea Water Content: Labrador Sea Water ( LSW ) is an intermediate water mass characterized by cold water , relatively low salinity compared to other intermediate water masses , and high concentrations of both oxygen and anthropogenic tracers . It is formed by convective processes in the Labrador Sea located between Greenland and the northeast coast of the Labrador Peninsula . Deep convection in the Labrador Sea allows colder water to sink forming this water mass , which is a contributor to the upper layer of North Atlantic Deep Water . North Atlantic Deep Water flowing southward is integral to the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation . The Labrador Sea experiences a net heat loss to the atmosphere annually .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Labrador_Sea_Water", "rank": 64, "score": 117507 }, { "content": "Title: Wandel Sea Content: The Wandel Sea ( also known as McKinley Sea ) is a body of water in the Arctic Ocean , stretching from northeast of Greenland to Svalbard . It is obstructed by ice most of the year . This sea is named after Danish polar explorer and hydrographer , Vice Admiral Carl Frederick Wandel ( 1843-1930 ) , who in the years 1895-96 explored the coastal waters of Greenland as part of the Danish Ingolf Expedition .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Wandel_Sea", "rank": 65, "score": 117458 }, { "content": "Title: Maniitsoq Ice Cap Content: Maniitsoq Ice Cap ( old spelling : Manîtsoq , Sukkertoppen iskappe or Sukkertoppen isflade ) is a 58 x ice cap in the Qeqqata municipality in western Greenland .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Maniitsoq_Ice_Cap", "rank": 66, "score": 117262 }, { "content": "Title: Upernavik Icefjord Content: Upernavik Icefjord ( also : Ikeq , Aappilattup Ikera , Upernavik Isfjord ) is a fjord in the Qaasuitsup municipality in northwestern Greenland .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Upernavik_Icefjord", "rank": 67, "score": 117222 }, { "content": "Title: East Greenland Ice-Core Project Content: The East Greenland Ice-Core Project , known as EGRIP , is a scientific project that plans to retrieve an ice core from the Northeast Greenland ice stream . The first season in the field was 2015 ; the project is expected to be drilling through to the base of the ice sheet by 2020 . Much of the camp set up for the North Greenland Eemian Ice Drilling Project ( NEEM ) was moved to the EGRIP location in 2015 . The equipment was towed by several tractors . The team ran low on fuel and had to abandon some equipment , arriving at the EGRIP location on 26 May , after nine days of towing .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "East_Greenland_Ice-Core_Project", "rank": 68, "score": 116889 }, { "content": "Title: Kattertooq Content: Kattertooq , meaning ` where there is much blue ice ' in the Greenlandic language , ) is a fjord of the King Frederick VI Coast in the Sermersooq municipality , southeastern Greenland .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Kattertooq", "rank": 69, "score": 116846 }, { "content": "Title: Sermitsiaq Glacier Content: Sermitsiaq Glacier is a tidewater glacier in the Qeqqata municipality in western Greenland . It drains Maniitsoq ice cap into two fjords flowing towards Davis Strait : Kangaamiut Kangerluarsuat Fjord in the north , and the longer Kangerlussuatsiaq Fjord in the south .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Sermitsiaq_Glacier", "rank": 70, "score": 116711 }, { "content": "Title: Oodaaq Content: Oodaaq or Oodap Qeqert is a bank of gravel and silt northeast of Greenland that has been considered by some to be the most northerly point of land on earth . It was most likely created by the impact of an iceberg in shallow sea .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Oodaaq", "rank": 71, "score": 116663 }, { "content": "Title: British North Greenland expedition Content: The British North Greenland expedition was a British scientific mission , led by Commander James Simpson RN , which lasted from July 1952 to August 1954 . A total of 30 men took part , though not all stayed for both years . The purpose of BNGE was primarily to carry out scientific studies in glaciology , meteorology , geology and physiology . Gravimetric and seismological surveys were made , and radio wave propagation was also studied from their station codenamed `` North Ice '' . It also provided information useful to the Armed Forces about operating in Arctic environments , and the majority of the team were serving members . Travel over the icecap was either on foot , by dog sled , or by M29 Weasel tracked vehicles . Expedition members also made pioneering ascents in the Barth Mountains and Queen Louise Land .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "British_North_Greenland_expedition", "rank": 72, "score": 116644 }, { "content": "Title: Qinngua Valley Content: Qinngua Valley , also called Qinnquadalen , Kanginsap Qinngua , and Paradisdalen , in Greenland is about 15 km from the nearest settlement of Tasiusaq , Kujalleq with 90 inhabitants in 2010 . The valley is notable for having the only natural forest in Greenland . Qinngua Valley is about 15 km long running roughly north to south and terminating at Tasersuag Lake . The lake drains into Tasermiut Fjord . Mountains rise as much as 1500 m rise on either side of the narrow valley . Qinngua Valley may have the warmest climate in all of Greenland . The valley is situated about 50 km from the sea and protected from the cold winds coming off the interior glaciers of Greenland . In total , over 300 species of plants grow in the valley . Qinngua valley contains the only natural forest in Greenland -- a thicket consisting mainly of downy birch ( Betula pubescens ) and gray-leaf willow ( Salix glauca ) , growing up to 7 -- tall . Growing sometimes to tree height is the Greenland mountain ash ( Sorbus groenlandica ) , which is usually a shrub . Green alder ( Alnus crispa ) is also found in the valley . It is possible that other forests of this type once existed in Greenland but were cleared by early settlers for firewood or building material . The valley was declared a protected natural area in 1930 . Although nearly all of ice-free Greenland has an Arctic tundra climate ( ET in the Köppen climate classification ) , Qinngua valley may have a sub-arctic Dfc climate .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Qinngua_Valley", "rank": 73, "score": 116359 }, { "content": "Title: Labrador Current Content: The Labrador Current is a cold current in the North Atlantic Ocean which flows from the Arctic Ocean south along the coast of Labrador and passes around Newfoundland , continuing south along the east coast of Nova Scotia . It is a continuation of the West Greenland Current and the Baffin Island Current . It meets the warm Gulf Stream at the Grand Banks southeast of Newfoundland . The combination of these two currents produces heavy fogs and has also created one of the richest fishing grounds in the world . In spring and early summer , this current transports icebergs from the glaciers of Greenland southwards into the trans-Atlantic shipping lanes . The waters of the Labrador Current have a cooling effect on the Canadian Atlantic provinces and USA upper Northeast coast from Maine south to Massachusetts . The transport of the Labrador Current is believed to contain a large barotropic component . Early estimates indicated that the current may be 30 % stronger than geostrophic calculations indicated as a result of a significant barotropic flow component ( Hayes and Robe , 1978 ) . Greenberg and Petrie ( 1988 ) calculated a total transport of . ( One sverdrup ( Sv ) is equal to 106 cubic meters per second . ) The geostrophic transport was calculated to be just ( based on IIP sections ) . With a 30 % increase ( due to barotropic flow ) the transport is only so , the high transport values are thought to largely from the inclusion of deep currents indicated by a deep water mooring . Speeds for the Labrador Current are about along the shelf edge ( Greenberg and Petrie , Reynaud et al. , 1985 ) . Current speeds of were found by Reynaud et al. ( 1995 ) for the Labrador Current . Including the barotropic component , they estimate a value of for the continental shelf branch of the Labrador Current and 16 Sv transport for the slope branch of the Labrador Current . The inshore branch of the Labrador Current is approximately wide and deep and it passes through Avalon Channel and the splitting of the Labrador Current around Flemish Cap can be seen in the satellite tracked drifters ( Petrie and Isenor ) . Within the Flemish Pass , Petrie and Isenor ( 1985 ) report that the width of the Labrador Current is reduced to with a speed of which they believe is actually . The Labrador Current has a tendency to sometimes go farther south and/or east than normal . This can produce hazardous shipping conditions as it can carry icebergs into an area of the Atlantic where they are not usually found . The current has been known to transport icebergs as far south as Bermuda and as far east as the Azores . After the sinking of the RMS Titanic in 1912 , the International Ice Patrol was set up to track icebergs , including those found in areas of the ocean where they are rarely located .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Labrador_Current", "rank": 74, "score": 116354 }, { "content": "Title: Julie Palais Content: Julie Michelle Palais ( * September 2 , 1956 in Massachusetts ) is an award-winning polar glaciologist who has made great contributions to climate change research studying volcanic fallout in ice cores from both Greenland and Antarctica . Since 1990 , she has played a pivotal role working at the National Science Foundation as Program Director of the Antarctic Glaciology Program in the Division of Polar Programs . Both the Palais Glacier and Palais Bluff in Antarctica were named in her honor . She has made twenty-eight trips to Antarctica and three trips to Greenland , and was the co-recipient of the Explorer Club 's Lowell Thomas Award .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Julie_Palais", "rank": 75, "score": 116094 }, { "content": "Title: Akuliarusiarsuup Kuua Content: Akuliarusiarsuup Kuua ( Sandflugtdalen ) is a river and valley of the same name in the Qeqqata municipality in central-western Greenland . Its source is the meltwater outflow from Russell Glacier , an outflow of the Greenland ice sheet . The river is a tributary of Qinnguata Kuussua , the main river in the Kangerlussuaq area . For most of its run , the river flows very slowly through the sandur basin of the valley , forming meanders amongst large fields of glacial silt quicksand . The climate is polar continental , with the area receiving very little rainfall .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Akuliarusiarsuup_Kuua", "rank": 76, "score": 115926 }, { "content": "Title: Second Grinnell expedition Content: The Second Grinnell expedition of 1853–1855 was an American effort, financed by Henry Grinnell, to determine the fate of the Franklin's lost expedition. Led by Elisha Kent Kane, the team explored areas northwest of Greenland, now called Grinnell Land. While failing to determine the fate of Sir John Franklin, the expedition set a new record for northward penetration, delineated 960 miles (1,540 km) of unexplored coastline north of 82° latitude, and discovered the long-sought open Polar Sea. Kane collected valuable geographical, climate and magnetic observations before abandoning the brig Advance to the pack ice in 1855. While three members of the crew were lost, the epic journey of the survivors inspired the public as a vivid tale of Arctic survival.", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Second_Grinnell_expedition", "rank": 77, "score": 115905 }, { "content": "Title: Greenland Brewhouse Content: Greenland Brewhouse was Greenland 's first brewery . It was located in Narsaq in Southern Greenland and was founded in December 2004 . The beer was brewed from water derived from melted icebergs . Melt water was collected from icebergs and transported to the brewery by local fishermen on their fishing boats . Greenland Brewhouse pioneered ` ice beer ' , brewed from 2000-year-old natural Arctic ice harvested from glaciers . Prior to 1954 , alcohol sales were heavily restricted in Greenland , thus home brewing presented problems .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Greenland_Brewhouse", "rank": 78, "score": 115775 }, { "content": "Title: Blæsedalen Content: Blæsedalen ( Greenlandic : Itinneq Kangilleq ) is a large glacial valley on Disko Island , Western Greenland . The north-south U-formed valley features include icing ridges and a braided river system ; Røde Elv ( red river ) has red sediment , which colours its water . The valley is situated north of Qeqertarsuaq and stretches northward approximately 30 km to Kangerluk . The valley is fed by outlet-glaciers from Lyngemarkens Iskappe . Between Blæsedalen and Grønlænderhuse , there is evidence of Paleoinuit and Thule Culture habitation .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Blæsedalen", "rank": 79, "score": 115727 }, { "content": "Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe", "rank": 80, "score": 115634 }, { "content": "Title: Illullip Sermia Content: Illullip Sermia is a tidewater glacier in the Qaasuitsup municipality on the northwestern shore of Greenland . It drains the Greenland ice sheet southwestwards into Inussulik Bay , an inlet of Baffin Bay . The glacier front is located between the Sanningassorsuaq Peninsula in the north , and the base of Illulissuaq Peninsula in the south . The glacier front is located at .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Illullip_Sermia", "rank": 81, "score": 115521 }, { "content": "Title: 1985 Polar Sea controversy Content: The 1985 Polar Sea controversy was a diplomatic event triggered by plans for the navigation of through the Northwest passage from Greenland to Alaska without formal authorization from the Canadian government . It was the United States ' position that the Northwest Passage was an international strait open to shipping and it sought only to notify Canada rather than ask for permission . Publication of the plans enraged the Canadian public opinion as it was regarded as a breach and disregard of sovereignty and prompted the government to take preventive measures in defending Canada 's arctic territories . The U.S. never recognized Canada 's claim over the Northwest passage but nevertheless , the two countries reached an agreement two years later which stipulated that in the future , the U.S. would ask permission before navigating the disputed waters . Canada 's sovereignty over the region 's waters was still a contentious issue as of 2010 and is likely to become of increasing importance as climate change in the Arctic has the potential to render those waters more accessible to commercial ships and the thawing of the sea ice of making oil drilling easier .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "1985_Polar_Sea_controversy", "rank": 82, "score": 115499 }, { "content": "Title: Hotel Arctic (Greenland) Content: Hotel Arctic is the world 's most northerly 4-star hotel , with a 5 star conference centre . Right on the edge of the Ilulissat Icefjord - a wonder of the world which is on the UNESCO World Heritage Site list . The main hotel building is located about 100 metres from the coast and the Igloo ´ s right on the edge . Owned by Air Greenland , the hotel was built shortly after the airport was opened in 1984 to accommodate the passengers . Hotel Arctic has 76 rooms and 9 suites . In addition the hotel has 5 Aluminium `` Igloos '' built right on the edge of the coast and connected to the hotel by a 75-metre boardwalk . The `` Igloo '' cabins are inspired by the classic `` Eskimo '' igloo in shape and design but instead of being made of ice they have an aluminium frame so that when you step inside you are greeted by comfortable and modern facilities like any other hotel room - but the atmosphere is totally different . The Restaurant Ulo serves Greenlandic cuisine and is recognized as one of the very best in the whole country . The restaurant work hard to serve as much local food as possible and produce most of it themselves . Ingredients such as musk-ox , reindeer , Greenland halibut , Arctic hare , ptarmigan , wolffish , mussels , sea urchins , redfish and much more are on the menu daily . Herbs are collected in the fells : sheep sorrel , knot weed , mountain sorrel , lousewort , northern marsh yellowcress , common mouse ear , knotted pearlwort and many more . Additional food and beverage options are Café Ferdinand and the Ice Bar . In summer buffets are served on the terrace , with views to the City of Ilullsat and Icebergs passing by . The hotel has 5-star conference facilities is amongst the leading conference centres in Scandinavia and the North . Facilities for up to 120 people . From the conference room , you look out onto the colossal icebergs . Green environment - From September 1 . 2013 , the hotel is 100 percent CO2 neutral . Roots in the community - Hotel Arctic is an important workplace in Ilulissat . All year round , there are 60 employees and in the peak season this figure increases to about 70 . And young people are trained as cooks , waiters , receptionists , reception and tourism assistants and office clerks . Located to the north of the town of Ilulissat , Greenland , on the road to Ilulissat Airport . It is located 2.7 km north of the mouth of Ilulissat Icefjord , a UNESCO World Heritage Site .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Hotel_Arctic_(Greenland)", "rank": 83, "score": 115416 }, { "content": "Title: West Svartisen Ice-cap Content: The West Svartisen Ice-cap is an ice cap glacier , occupying 201 km2 of the coastal area of central Norway , just inside the Arctic Circle . Most of the glacier is around 1000 metres above sea level on a high plateau . The ice-cap owes its existence to the high snowfall rates in the region , rather than the cold temperatures , similar to other glacier close by such as the Jostedalsbreen glacier . The surface on the top of the plateau feeds many outlet glaciers , including the Engabreen glacier . The status of the glacier is unknown , although some of the outlet glaciers are advancing and gaining ice mass .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "West_Svartisen_Ice-cap", "rank": 84, "score": 115122 }, { "content": "Title: Second Grinnell Expedition Content: The Second Grinnell Expedition of 1853 was an American effort , financed by Henry Grinnell , to determine the fate of the Franklin 's lost expedition . Led by Dr. Elisha Kane , the team explored areas northwest of Greenland , now called Grinnell Land . While failing to determine the fate of Sir John Franklin , the expedition set a new record for northward penetration , delineated 960 mi of unexplored coastline north of 82 ° latitude , and discovered the long-sought open Polar Sea . Kane collected valuable geographical , climate and magnetic observations before abandoning the brig Advance to the pack ice in 1855 . While three members of the crew were lost , the epic journey of the survivors inspired the public as a vivid tale of Arctic survival .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Second_Grinnell_Expedition", "rank": 85, "score": 115042 }, { "content": "Title: Ilulissat Icefjord Content: Ilulissat Icefjord ( Ilulissat Kangerlua ) is a fjord in western Greenland . Ilulissat Icefjord was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2004 .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Ilulissat_Icefjord", "rank": 86, "score": 115040 }, { "content": "Title: Ilulissat Content: Ilulissat , formerly Jakobshavn or Jacobshaven , is a town in the Qaasuitsup municipality in western Greenland , located approximately 350 km north of the Arctic Circle . With the population of 4,541 as of 2013 , it is the third-largest city in Greenland , after Nuuk and Sisimiut . The city is home to almost as many sled-dogs . In direct translation , Ilulissat is the Kalaallisut word for `` Icebergs '' . The nearby Ilulissat Icefjord is a UNESCO World Heritage Site , and has made Ilulissat the most popular tourist destination in Greenland . Tourism is now the town 's principal industry . The city neighbours the Ilulissat Icefjord , where there are enormous icebergs from the most productive glacier in the northern hemisphere . These white giants are a source of astonishment for both residents and visitors , when the gaze drifts to the wide Disco Bay and when you walk close to the fjord .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Ilulissat", "rank": 87, "score": 114925 }, { "content": "Title: Frederikshaab Glacier Content: Frederikshaab Glacier is a glacier on the southwest coast of Greenland in the Sermersooq municipality . It flows from Greenland 's ice sheet and at its mouth melts into various ponds and channels that empty into Davis Strait . The nearest major town is Paamiut , roughly 110 km to the south , although some smaller settlements are closer . Category : Glaciers of Greenland", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Frederikshaab_Glacier", "rank": 88, "score": 114850 }, { "content": "Title: Nordic Seas Content: The Nordic Seas are located north of Iceland and south of Svalbard . They have also been defined as the region located north of the Greenland-Scotland Ridge and south of the Fram Strait-Spitsbergen-Norway intersection . Known to connect the North Pacific and the North Atlantic waters , this region is also known as having some of the densest waters , creating the densest region found in the North Atlantic Deep Water . The deepest waters of the Arctic Ocean are connected to the worlds other oceans through Nordic Seas and Fram Straight . There are three seas within the Nordic Sea : Greenland Sea , Norwegian Sea , and Iceland Sea . The Nordic Seas only make up about 0.75 % of the World 's Oceans . This region is known as having diverse features in such a small topographic area , such as the mid oceanic ridge systems . Some locations have shallow shelves , while others have deep slopes and basins . This region , because of the atmosphere-ocean transfer of energy and gases , has varying seasonal climate . During the winter , sea ice is formed in the western and northern regions of the Nordic Seas , whereas during the summer months , the majority of the region remains free of ice . Several water masses are found interacting in the Nordic Sea . These water masses are present due to subduction , deep convective mixing , surface/frontal mixing , and entrainment of water from low and high latitudes . Interaction from multiple water sources can lead to varying conditions . New primary production is higher in this region , usually exceeding regenerated primary production . New production is higher in regions where water interacts with Atlantic Water , which has nutrient-rich waters . When looking at carbon flux from the atmosphere to the ocean , this region is considered one of the highest in the world 's oceans . This region is also known as being one of the few bodies of water that take up large quantities of carbon dioxide yearly , ranging from 20-85 g C m − 2y − 1 , which is considered high in comparison the carbon dioxide flux in the world 's oceans . The Nordic Seas include the Greenland Sea , the Norwegian Sea , and the Iceland Sea . The Greenland and the Norwegian Sea are separately distinguished by Mohn 's Ridge . The Greenland and Iceland Sea are separated by the Jan Mayen fracture zone , and the Norwegian and Iceland Seas have the Aegir Ridge between them . The Nordic Seas have varying and diverse features as a result of each sea having separate water mass structures and circulation patterns . The Greenland Sea produces dense waters because of its high salinity and cooler temperatures from winter cooling . Higher salinity is present as a result of the Greenland Sea 's close proximity to the salinity inflow that occurs from the Atlantic Ocean . Another dense water source comes from the Arctic waters that also flow into the Greenland Sea . These water source mixtures are important because they play a role in the overflows that occur in the North Atlantic . The water that overflows from the Greenland ridge becomes the North Atlantic Deep Water dense water , even though this body of water does not make up the deep waters of the Nordic Sea .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Nordic_Seas", "rank": 89, "score": 114736 }, { "content": "Title: Culture of Greenland Content: The culture of Greenland has much in common with Greenlandic Inuit tradition , as the majority of people are descended from Inuit . Many people still go ice fishing and there are annual dog-sled races in which everyone with a team participates . However , Greenland has now become somewhat of a tourist attraction . It holds contests to attract tourists such as dog racing , ice fishing , hiking , and cross country racing .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Culture_of_Greenland", "rank": 90, "score": 114584 }, { "content": "Title: Alanngorsuup Sermia Content: Alanngorsuup Sermia ( old spelling : Alángorsûp Sermia ) is a tidewater glacier in the Qaasuitsup municipality on the northwestern shore of Greenland . It drains the Greenland ice sheet northwestwards into Tasiusaq Bay . The glacier front is located to the south of the Nunatarsuaq nunatak , and to the north of the Qassersuaq Peninsula . Nunatakassaup Sermia , a sibling glacier to the north , drains the icesheet into the same point at the inner end of Tasiusaq Bay .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Alanngorsuup_Sermia", "rank": 91, "score": 113849 }, { "content": "Title: K.J.V. Steenstrup Glacier Content: K.J.V. Steenstrup Glacier is one of the major glaciers in King Christian IX Land , by the eastern coast of Greenland , Sermersooq municipality . This ice formation includes two nearly parallel glaciers , the Northern K.J.V. Steenstrup Glacier ( K.I.V. Steenstrups Nordre Bræ ) and the Southern K.J.V. Steenstrup Glacier ( K.I.V. Steenstrups Søndre Bræ ) . These glaciers were named after Danish geologist and explorer of Greenland K. J. V. Steenstrup ( 1842 - 1913 ) .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "K.J.V._Steenstrup_Glacier", "rank": 92, "score": 113769 }, { "content": "Title: Piteraq Content: A piteraq is a cold katabatic wind which originates on the Greenlandic icecap and sweeps down the east coast . The word `` piteraq '' means `` that which attacks you '' in the local language . Piteraqs are most common in the autumn and winter . Wind speeds typically reach 50 to 80 m/s ( 180-288 km/h ; 111-178 mph ) . On February 6 , 1970 the community of Tasiilaq was hit by the worst documented piteraq ever in Greenland ( estimated at 90 m/s ) causing severe damage . Since the beginning of 1970 special piteraq warnings are issued by the Danish Meteorological Institute .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Piteraq", "rank": 93, "score": 113671 }, { "content": "Title: Cold blob (North Atlantic) Content: The cold blob in the North Atlantic describes a cold temperature anomaly of ocean surface waters , affecting the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation ( AMOC ) which is part of the thermohaline circulation , possibly related to global warming-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Cold_blob_(North_Atlantic)", "rank": 94, "score": 113341 }, { "content": "Title: Lincoln Sea Content: Lincoln Sea is a body of water in the Arctic Ocean , stretching from Cape Columbia , Canada , in the west to Cape Morris Jesup , Greenland , in the east . The northern limit is defined as the great circle line between those two headlands . It is covered with sea ice throughout the year , the thickest sea ice in the Arctic Ocean , which can be up to 15 m thick . Water depths range from 100 m to 300 m. Water and ice from Lincoln Sea empty into Robeson Channel , the northernmost part of Nares Strait , most of the time . The sea was named after Robert Todd Lincoln , then United States Secretary of War , on Adolphus W. Greely 's 1881 -- 1884 Arctic expedition into Lady Franklin Bay . Alert , the northernmost station of Canada , is the only populated place on the shore of Lincoln Sea . The body of water to the east of Lincoln Sea ( east of Cape Morris Jesup ) is Wandel Sea .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Lincoln_Sea", "rank": 95, "score": 113242 }, { "content": "Title: Upernavik Glacier Content: Upernavik Glacier ( Sermeq , Upernavik isstrøm ) is a large tidewater glacier in the Qaasuitsup municipality on the northwestern shore of Greenland . It drains a large portion of the Greenland ice sheet westwards into Upernavik Icefjord .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Upernavik_Glacier", "rank": 96, "score": 112897 }, { "content": "Title: Qinnguata Kuussua Content: Qinnguata Kuussua is a river in a valley of the same name in the Qeqqata municipality in central-western Greenland . Its source is a large meltwater outflow from Russell Glacier flowing from the Greenland Ice Sheet . It is the main river in the Kangerlussuaq area . For most of its run , the river is very wide , up to 2 km in the upper reaches . The climate is polar continental , with the area receiving very little rainfall .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Qinnguata_Kuussua", "rank": 97, "score": 112725 }, { "content": "Title: Tipping points in the climate system Content: A tipping point in the climate system is a threshold that, when exceeded, can lead to large changes in the state of the system. Potential tipping points have been identified in the physical climate system, in impacted ecosystems, and sometimes in both. For instance, feedback from the global carbon cycle is a driver for the transition between glacial and interglacial periods, with orbital forcing providing the initial trigger. Earth's geologic temperature record includes many more examples of geologically rapid transitions between different climate states.Climate tipping points are of particular interest in reference to concerns about global warming in the modern era. Possible tipping point behaviour has been identified for the global mean surface temperature by studying self-reinforcing feedbacks and the past behavior of Earth's climate system. Self-reinforcing feedbacks in the carbon cycle and planetary reflectivity could trigger a cascading set of tipping points that lead the world into a hothouse climate state.Large-scale components of the Earth system that may pass a tipping point have been referred to as tipping elements. Tipping elements are found in the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, possibly causing tens of meters of sea level rise. These tipping points are not always abrupt. For example, at some level of temperature rise the melt of a large part of the Greenland ice sheet and/or West Antarctic Ice Sheet will become inevitable; but the ice sheet itself may persist for many centuries. Some tipping elements, like the collapse of ecosystems, are irreversible.", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system", "rank": 98, "score": 112678 }, { "content": "Title: Gunnbjørn Fjeld Content: Gunnbjørn Fjeld ( also called only Gunnbjørn ) is Greenland 's highest mountain and also the highest mountain north of the Arctic circle . This mountain 's name refers to the mythical Norse Hvitserk , literally meaning `` whiteshirt '' , of the Icelandic Sagas . It is a nunatak , a rocky peak protruding through glacial ice .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Gunnbjørn_Fjeld", "rank": 99, "score": 112625 }, { "content": "Title: Rising Star (ship, 1991) Content: The Rising Star is a tugboat operated by the United States Air Force to assist cargo vessels supplying its Thule AFB , in northern Greenland . The tugboat is operated during the less than three months the port is ice-free . For the remainder of the year the vessel is pulled up on the beach . Built in 1991 , the Rising Star is 71 ft long . She is powered by two two-stroke diesel engines , capable of generating 900 shp each . She was built at the Swiftships yard in Morgan City , Louisiana . The Rising Star is the US Air Force 's only tugboat .", "qid": "3075", "docid": "Rising_Star_(ship,_1991)", "rank": 100, "score": 112546 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 1, "score": 148774 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline", "rank": 2, "score": 144039 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Content: The Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ( ACIA ) is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences : rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet , and many impacts on ecosystems , animals , and people . The ACIA is the first comprehensively researched , fully referenced , and independently reviewed evaluation of Arctic climate change and its impacts for the region and for the world . The project was guided by the intergovernmental Arctic Council and the non-governmental International Arctic Science Committee . Three hundred scientists participated in the study over a span of three years . The 140-page synthesis report Impacts of a Warming Arctic was released in November 2004 , and the scientific report later in 2005 . The ACIA Secretariat is located at the International Arctic Research Center at the University of Alaska Fairbanks .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic_Climate_Impact_Assessment", "rank": 3, "score": 138079 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic ice pack Content: The Arctic ice pack is the ice cover of the Arctic Ocean and its vicinity . The Arctic ice pack undergoes a regular seasonal cycle in which ice melts in spring and summer , reaches a minimum around mid-September , then increases during fall and winter . Summer ice cover in the Arctic is about 50 % of winter cover . Some of the ice survives from one year to the next . Currently 28 % of Arctic basin sea ice is multi-year ice , thicker than seasonal ice : up to 3 - thick over large areas , with ridges up to 20 m thick . As well as the regular seasonal cycle there has been an underlying trend of declining sea ice in the Arctic in recent decades .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic_ice_pack", "rank": 4, "score": 135680 }, { "content": "Title: Eismitte Content: Eismitte , in English also called Mid-Ice , was the site of an Arctic expedition in the interior of Greenland that took place from July 1930 through August 1931 , and claimed the life of noted German scientist Alfred Wegener . The name `` Eismitte '' means Ice-Center in German , and the campsite was located 402 km from the coast at an estimated altitude of 3,000 meters ( 9,843 feet ) . The coldest temperature recorded during the expedition was − 64.9 ° C ( − 85 ° F ) , while the warmest temperature noted was − 2.8 ° C ( 27 ° F ) . For the 12-month period beginning September 1 , 1930 and ending August 31 , 1931 , the warmest month , July , had a mean monthly temperature of − 12.2 ° C ( 10 ° F ) , while the coldest month , February , averaged − 47.2 ° C ( − 53 ° F ) . Over the same period a total of 110 millimeters ( 4.33 inches ) of water-equivalent precipitation was recorded , with most of it , rather surprisingly , being received in winter . At the latitude of the camp , the sun does not set between May 13 and July 30 each year , and does not rise between November 23 and January 20 .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Eismitte", "rank": 5, "score": 134576 }, { "content": "Title: Early 2014 North American cold wave Content: The 2014 North American cold wave was an extreme weather event that extended through the late winter months of the 2013 -- 2014 winter season , and was also part of an unusually cold winter affecting parts of Canada and parts of the north-central and upper eastern United States . The event occurred in early 2014 and was caused by a southward shift of the North Polar Vortex . Record-low temperatures also extended well into March . On January 2 , an Arctic cold front initially associated with a nor'easter tracked across Canada and the United States , resulting in heavy snowfall . Temperatures fell to unprecedented levels , and low temperature records were broken across the United States . Business , school , and road closures were common , as well as mass flight cancellations . Altogether , more than 200 million people were affected , in an area ranging from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean and extending south to include roughly 187 million residents of the Continental United States .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Early_2014_North_American_cold_wave", "rank": 6, "score": 133103 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of the Arctic Content: The climate of the Arctic is characterized by long , cold winters and short , cool summers . There is a large amount of variability in climate across the Arctic , but all regions experience extremes of solar radiation in both summer and winter . Some parts of the Arctic are covered by ice ( sea ice , glacial ice , or snow ) year-round , and nearly all parts of the Arctic experience long periods with some form of ice on the surface . Average January temperatures range from about − 34 ° C to 0 ° C ( − 40 to +32 ° F ) , and winter temperatures can drop below − 50 ° C ( − 58 ° F ) over large parts of the Arctic . Average July temperatures range from about − 10 to +10 ° C ( 14 to 50 ° F ) , with some land areas occasionally exceeding 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in summer . The Arctic consists of ocean that is largely surrounded by land . As such , the climate of much of the Arctic is moderated by the ocean water , which can never have a temperature below − 2 ° C ( 28 ° F ) . In winter , this relatively warm water , even though covered by the polar ice pack , keeps the North Pole from being the coldest place in the Northern Hemisphere , and it is also part of the reason that Antarctica is so much colder than the Arctic . In summer , the presence of the nearby water keeps coastal areas from warming as much as they might otherwise .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Climate_of_the_Arctic", "rank": 7, "score": 130857 }, { "content": "Title: Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 Content: The Great Arctic Cyclone , or `` Great Arctic Cyclone of 2012 , '' was an extratropical cyclone which centered on the Arctic Ocean in early August , 2012 . Such storms are rare in the Arctic summer , although common in the winter . The Great Arctic Cyclone was the strongest summer storm and the 13th strongest storm observed at any time since satellite observations began in 1979 . Although the Great Arctic Cyclone did not cause the record melting of sea ice which occurred in 2012 , turbulence resulting from the storm is believed to have contributed to melting of sea ice due to the rise of warmer saltier water from below .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Great_Arctic_Cyclone_of_2012", "rank": 8, "score": 129790 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic dipole anomaly Content: The Arctic dipole anomaly is a pressure pattern characterized by high pressure on the arctic regions of North America , and a low pressure on the Eurasia region . This pattern sometimes replaces the Arctic oscillation and the North Atlantic Oscillation . It was observed for the first time in the first decade of 2000s and is perhaps linked to recent climate change . The Arctic dipole lets more southern winds into the Arctic ocean resulting in more ice melting . The summer 2007 event played an important role in the record low sea ice extent which was recorded in September . The Arctic dipole has also been linked to changes in arctic circulation patterns that cause drier winters in Northern Europe , but much wetter winters in Southern Europe and colder winters in East Asia , Europe and the eastern half of North America .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic_dipole_anomaly", "rank": 9, "score": 129394 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal", "rank": 10, "score": 129024 }, { "content": "Title: Cold-weather warfare Content: Cold-weather warfare , also known as Arctic warfare or winter warfare , encompasses military operations affected by snow , ice , thawing conditions or cold , both on land and at sea . Cold-weather conditions occur year-round at high elevation or at high latitudes , and elsewhere materialise seasonally during the winter period . Mountain warfare often takes place in cold weather or on terrain that is affected by ice and snow , such as the Alps and the Himalayas . Historically , most such operations have been during winter in the Northern Hemisphere . Some have occurred above the Arctic Circle where snow , ice and cold may occur throughout the year . At times , cold or its aftermath -- thaw -- has been a decisive factor in the failure of a campaign , as with Napoleon 's invasion of Russia in 1812 and the Nazi invasion of Russia .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Cold-weather_warfare", "rank": 11, "score": 128582 }, { "content": "Title: 2007 Western United States freeze Content: The Western United States freeze of 2007 was a weather event affecting California , Oregon , and Washington from January 12 to January 18 , 2007 . An Arctic low pressure system dipped extremely far west , resulting in record cold temperatures in the western states , damaged citrus crops in California , and extremely unusual snow accumulation occurring in areas of Southern California .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "2007_Western_United_States_freeze", "rank": 12, "score": 124486 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic_geoengineering", "rank": 13, "score": 122243 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Ocean Content: The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world 's five major oceans . The International Hydrographic Organization ( IHO ) recognizes it as an ocean , although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea , classifying it a mediterranean sea or an estuary of the Atlantic Ocean . Alternatively , the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean . Located mostly in the Arctic north polar region in the middle of the Northern Hemisphere , the Arctic Ocean is almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America . It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year and almost completely in winter . The Arctic Ocean 's surface temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes ; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans , due to low evaporation , heavy fresh water inflow from rivers and streams , and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities . The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50 % . The US National Snow and Ice Data Center ( NSIDC ) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic_Ocean", "rank": 14, "score": 121238 }, { "content": "Title: 2013 extreme weather events Content: The 2013 extreme weather events included several all-time temperature records in Northern and Southern Hemisphere . The February extent of snow cover in Eurasia and North America was above average , while the extent of Arctic ice in the same month was 4,5 % below the 1981 -- 2010 average . The Northern Hemisphere weather extremes have been linked to the melting of Arctic sea ice , which alters atmospheric circulation in a way that leads to more snow and ice . By January 11 , 233 weather-related deaths were reported in India . Elsewhere , particularly in Russia , the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom , low temperatures affected wildlife , delaying bird breeding and disrupting the bird migration . On January 10 Bangladesh faced the lowest temperature since country 's independence , at 3.0 ° C in Saidpur . While Finland and most of Northern European countries got the record high , and even the highest temperatures at Europe during May and June , Western - and Middle Europe faced much cooler weather and even their wettest May and June ever . During summer prolonged heat waves in the Northern Hemisphere set new record high temperatures . On March 24 , 2014 , the secretary-general of the World Meteorological Organization Michel Jarraud announced that `` many of the extreme events of 2013 were consistent with what we would expect as a result of human-induced climate change '' .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "2013_extreme_weather_events", "rank": 15, "score": 121022 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic vegetation Content: In the Arctic , the low tundra vegetation clothes a landscape of wide vistas , lit by the low-angle light characteristic of high latitudes . Much of the Arctic shows little impact from human activities , making it one of the few places on earth one can see intac ecosystems . Arctic plants are adapted to short , cold growing seasons . They have the ability to withstand extremely cold temperatures in the winter ( winter hardiness ) , but what is even more important is the ability to be able to function in limiting summer conditions . Arctic plants have a compressed growing season : they initiate growth rapidly in the spring , and flower and set seed much sooner than plants that grow in warmer conditions . Their peak metabolic rate also occurs at a much lower temperature than plants from farther south . Compact cushions of vegetation keep the plants close to the warm soil and shield the tender central growing shoot . The height of Arctic plants is also governed by snow depth . Plants that protrude above the snow are subject to strong winds , blowing snow , and being eaten by caribou , muskox , or ptarmigan . Mosses and lichens are common in the Arctic . These plants have the ability to stop growth at any time and resume it promptly when conditions improve . They can even survive being covered by snow and ice for over a year .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic_vegetation", "rank": 16, "score": 120895 }, { "content": "Title: Charles Eagan Content: Charles Eagan was a Canadian scientist working in cold weather physiology , known primarily for advancing the wind chill formula . Antarctic explorers Paul Siple and Charles Passel had created their original formula for wind chill measurements in 1939 by drawing on data that showed how long it took water to freeze in a cylinder under various wind and temperature conditions . While conducting research for the U.S. Air Force in Fairbanks , Alaska in 1964 , Eagan recognized it would be more accurate if the equation took into account the fact people normally walk outdoors and do n't spend a great deal of time at a standstill or in a windless environment . When Eagan included walking speed ( 1.8 metres per second ) into the formula , wind chill temperatures warmed . Eagan served with the air force as a radio operator in Gander , Newfoundland and Labrador during the Second World War . Upon his return he attended the University of Western Ontario and earned a master 's in biophysics . After graduating , he went on to develop clothing that allowed soldiers to work through the cold . In 1959 in Fort Wainwright , Alaska , he worked with the U.S. Air Force Arctic Aeromedical Laboratory to help pilots and crews maximize their effectiveness in cold conditions . Eagan worked with mountain climbers at 14,300 feet on the flank of Mount McKinley to test their adaptability to altitude and cold . Eagan spent six years as an associate professor at Colorado State University . He settled in Ottawa in 1973 , where he was employed as head of the physiology section of what was then the Department of National Health and Welfare . Here he examined the impact of coal mining on the respiratory health of people in Sydney , Nova Scotia . He finished his career with the Department of National Defence , returning to his work on protecting soldiers from the cold . Eagan died on March 11 , 2010 at the Pearley Rideau Veterans ' Health Centre in Ottawa .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Charles_Eagan", "rank": 17, "score": 119702 }, { "content": "Title: Carnobacterium pleistocenium Content: Carnobacterium pleistocenium is recently discovered bacterium from the arctic part of Alaska . It was found in permafrost , seemingly frozen there for 32,000 years . Melting the ice , however , brought these extremophiles back to life . This is the first case of an organism `` coming back to life '' from ancient ice . These bacterial cells were discovered in a tunnel dug by the Army Corps of Engineers in the 1960s to allow scientists to study the permafrost in preparation for the construction of the Trans-Alaska pipeline system . The discovery of this bacterium is of particular interest for NASA , for it may be possible for such life to exist in the permafrost of Mars or on the surface of Europa . It is also of interest for scientists investigating the potential for cryogenically freezing life forms to reduce the transportation costs ( in terms of life support systems ) that would be associated with long-duration space travel .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Carnobacterium_pleistocenium", "rank": 18, "score": 119127 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic ecology Content: Arctic ecology is the scientific study of the relationships between biotic and abiotic factors in the arctic , the region north of the Arctic Circle ( 66 33 ' ) . This is a region characterized by stressful conditions as a result of extreme cold , low precipitation , a limited growing season ( 50 -- 90 days ) and virtually no sunlight throughout the winter . The Arctic consists of taiga ( or boreal forest ) and tundra biomes , which also dominate very high elevations , even in the tropics . Sensitive ecosystems exist throughout the Arctic region , which are being impacted dramatically by global warming . The earliest inhabitants of the Arctic were the Neanderthals . Since then , many indigenous populations have inhabited the region , which continues to this day . Since the early 1900s , when Vilhjalmur Stefansson led the first major Canadian Arctic Expedition , the Arctic has been a valued area for ecological research . In 1946 , The Arctic Research Laboratory was established in Point Barrow , Alaska under the contract of the Office of Naval Research . This launched an interest in exploring the Arctic examining animal cycles , permafrost and the interactions between indigenous peoples and the Arctic ecology . During the Cold War , the Arctic became a place where the United States , Canada , and the Soviet Union performed significant research that has been essential to the study of climate change in recent years . A major reason why research in the Arctic is essential for the study of climate change is because the effects of climate change will be felt more quickly and more drastically in higher latitudes of the world as above average temperatures are predicted for Northwest Canada and Alaska . From an anthropological point of view , researchers study the native Inuit peoples of Alaska as they have become extremely accustomed to adapting to ecological and climate variability .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic_ecology", "rank": 19, "score": 119076 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic resources race Content: The Arctic resources race refers to the competition between global entities for newly available natural resources in the Arctic . As the ice in the Arctic melts at a record rate and the sea ice extent continues to decrease due to global climate change , the Arctic waters become more navigable and Arctic resources -- such as oil and gas , minerals , fish , as well as tourism and new trade routes -- are becoming more accessible . Under the United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea , five nations have the legal right to exploit the Arctic 's natural resources within their exclusive economic zones : Canada , Russia , Denmark , Norway , and the United States ( though the U.S. has yet to ratify the treaty , it considers the treaty to be customary international law and abides by it ) . The Arctic region and its resources have recently been at the center of controversy and pose potential conflicts between nations that have differing opinions of how to manage the area , including conflicting territorial claims . In addition , the Arctic region is home to an estimated 400,000 indigenous people . If the ice continues to melt at the current rate , then these indigenous people are at risk of being displaced . The acceleration of ice depletion will contribute to climate change as a whole : melting ice releases methane , ice reflects incoming solar radiation , and without it will cause the ocean to absorb more radiation ( albedo effect ) , heating up the water causing more ocean acidification , and melting ice will cause a rise in sea level .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic_resources_race", "rank": 20, "score": 118538 }, { "content": "Title: Winter of 1962–63 in the United Kingdom Content: The winter of 1962 -- 1963 ( also known as the Big Freeze of 1963 ) was one of the coldest winters on record in the United Kingdom . Temperatures plummeted and lakes and rivers began to freeze over . In the Central England Temperature ( CET ) record , extending back to 1659 , only the winter ( defined as the months of December , January and February ) of 1683 -- 84 has been significantly colder , with 1739 -- 40 being slightly colder than 1962 -- 63 . Over Scotland and Northern Ireland , where data do not extend back to 1740 , the winters of 1813 -- 14 and 1878 -- 79 were certainly colder than 1962 -- 63 , as was the winter of 1779 -- 80 in Scotland and 1894 -- 95 in Northern Ireland . This winter remains the coldest since at least 1895 in all meteorological districts of the United Kingdom except Scotland North , where the two winters of 1978 -- 79 and 2009 -- 10 were marginally colder .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Winter_of_1962–63_in_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 21, "score": 117202 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Circle (organization) Content: The Arctic Circle is a nonprofit organization introduced by President Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson of Iceland on April 15 , 2013 , at the National Press Club in Washington . The organization 's mission is to facilitate dialogue among political and business leaders , environmental experts , scientists , indigenous representatives , and other international stakeholders to address issues facing the Arctic as a result of climate change and melting sea ice . The organization is led by Ólafur , who serves as chairman of the honorary board , and by Alaska Dispatch publisher and Arctic Imperative Summit founder Alice Rogoff , who chairs the advisory board .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic_Circle_(organization)", "rank": 22, "score": 117201 }, { "content": "Title: January 2016 East Asia cold wave Content: In late January 2016 , a cold wave struck much of East Asia , parts of mainland Southeast Asia and parts of northern South Asia , bringing record cold temperatures and snowfall to many regions . Sleet was reported in Okinawa for the first time on record , and many other regions saw their coldest temperatures in decades . Snowfall and frigid weather stranded thousands of people across four countries . At least 85 people in Taiwan died from hypothermia and cardiac arrest following a sudden drop in temperature during the weekend of January 22 -- 24 . The cold claimed a further fourteen lives in Thailand , and snowstorms resulted in six deaths across Japan . This event was driven by a fast Arctic warming that occurred within the troposphere , forcing the Arctic Oscillation to change phase rapidly from positive ( in late December ) to negative ( in late January ) , facilitating the atmospheric blocking and associated Siberian high buildup .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "January_2016_East_Asia_cold_wave", "rank": 23, "score": 115580 }, { "content": "Title: Arcticfox Content: Arcticfox is a science fiction tank simulation video game developed by Dynamix and published by Electronic Arts . It was published in Europe by Ariolasoft . A sequel to Dynamix 's Stellar 7 , Arcticfox was developed for the Amiga as one of the platform 's first titles but was quickly ported to other platforms including the Atari ST , Commodore 64 , ZX Spectrum , MS-DOS and Apple II . A third game was released in the series in 1991 titled Nova 9 : The Return of Gir Draxon . Arcticfox '' 's design team at Dynamix also went on to produce The Incredible Machine and Red Baron . The game is set in a fictional 2005 where aliens have taken over Antarctica in an attempt to steal the Earth 's oxygen . The player is sent to eradicate the intruders using a new super tank codenamed Arcticfox '' .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arcticfox", "rank": 24, "score": 115336 }, { "content": "Title: Winter 1985 cold wave Content: The Winter 1985 cold wave was a meteorological event , the result of the shifting of the polar vortex further south than is normally seen . Blocked from its normal movement , polar air from the north pushed into nearly every section of the eastern half of the United States and Canada , shattering record lows in a number of areas . The event was preceded by unusually warm weather in the eastern U.S. in December 1984 , suggesting that there was a build-up of cold air that was suddenly released from the Arctic , a meteorological event known as a Mobile Polar High , a weather process identified by Professor Marcel Leroux .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Winter_1985_cold_wave", "rank": 25, "score": 114932 }, { "content": "Title: Winter of 2010–11 in Great Britain and Ireland Content: The winter of 2010 -- 2011 was a weather event that brought heavy snowfalls , record low temperatures , travel chaos and school disruption to the islands of Britain and Ireland . It included the UK 's coldest December since Met Office records began in 1910 , with a mean temperature of -1 ° C , breaking the previous record of 0.1 ° C in December 1981 . Also it was the second-coldest December in the narrower Central England Temperature ( CET ) record series which began in 1659 , falling 0.1 ° C short of the all-time record set in 1890 . The winter of 2010 in England saw the earliest widespread winter snowfall since 1993 with snow falling as early as 24 November across Northumberland and North Yorkshire . A maximum snow depth of 30 in was recorded on 1 December in the Peak District , Sheffield , the Cotswold Hills and the Forest of Dean . In this event Scotland and Northern England were most severely affected . On 9 December temperatures recovered across much of the UK , causing a partial thaw . Later , on Thursday 16 December a cold front reintroduced a cold , arctic airstream . This cold spell brought further snow and ice chaos back to the British Isles with Southern England , Wales , the Republic of Ireland ( excluding the westerly coastal regions ) and Northern Ireland bearing the brunt of the wintry conditions . This led to severe disruption to the road and rail network with several airports being closed including London Heathrow Airport for a time . Several local temperature records were broken including a new record low for Northern Ireland of -18.7 ° C recorded at Castlederg on 23 December 2010 . By the new year a thaw had begun , and there was no recurrence of the extreme conditions for the remainder of the winter . There was some snowfall in early January , and there was an anticyclonic spell at the end of the month that brought some cold , frosty days . February was above average in temperature and ended on a mild note , although the snow returned in much of Scotland during March .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Winter_of_2010–11_in_Great_Britain_and_Ireland", "rank": 26, "score": 114023 }, { "content": "Title: Early 2012 European cold wave Content: The Early 2012 European cold wave was a deadly cold wave that started on January 27 , 2012 and brought snow and freezing temperatures to much of the European continent . There were more than 824 reported deaths . Particularly low temperatures hit several Eastern and Northern European countries , reaching as low as -42.7 C in Finland . The heaviest snow was recorded in the Balkan region . The cold weather was a result of an extensive area of very high pressure located in over the north east of the continent in northern Russia , which circulated cold air from the east .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Early_2012_European_cold_wave", "rank": 27, "score": 113755 }, { "content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm", "rank": 28, "score": 113292 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 29, "score": 112971 }, { "content": "Title: Cold blob (North Atlantic) Content: The cold blob in the North Atlantic describes a cold temperature anomaly of ocean surface waters , affecting the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation ( AMOC ) which is part of the thermohaline circulation , possibly related to global warming-induced melting of the Greenland ice sheet .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Cold_blob_(North_Atlantic)", "rank": 30, "score": 112886 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Antarctica Content: The climate of Antarctica is the coldest on Earth . Antarctica 's lowest air temperature record was set on 21 July 1983 , with − 89.2 C at Vostok Station . Satellite measurements have identified even lower ground temperatures , down to − 93.2 C at the cloud free East Antarctic Plateau on 10 August 2010 . It is also extremely dry ( technically a desert ) , averaging 166 mm of precipitation per year . On most parts of the continent the snow rarely melts and is eventually compressed to become the glacier ice that makes up the ice sheet . Weather fronts rarely penetrate far into the continent , because of the katabatic winds . Most of Antarctica has an ice cap climate ( Köppen EF ) with very cold , generally extremely dry weather .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Climate_of_Antarctica", "rank": 31, "score": 112745 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Ocean Conference Content: The inaugural Arctic Ocean Conference was held in Ilulissat , Greenland May 27 -- May 29 , 2008 . Five countries , Canada , Denmark , Norway , Russia and the United States , discussed key issues relating to the Arctic Ocean . The meeting was significant because of its plans for environmental regulation , maritime security , mineral exploration , polar oil oversight , and transportation . Before the conclusion of the conference , the attendees announced the Ilulissat Declaration . The conference was the first ever held at the ministerial level that included the five regional powers . It came at the invitation of Per Stig Møller , Denmark 's Foreign Minister , and Hans Enoksen , Greenlandic Premier in 2007 after several territorial disputes in the Arctic . States Møller , `` We must continue to fulfill our obligations in the Arctic area until the UN decides who will have the right to the sea and the resources in the region . We must agree on the rules and what to do if climate changes make more shipping possible . '' `` We need to send a common political signal to both our own populations and the rest of the world that the five coastal states will address the opportunities and challenges in a responsible manner . '' Ilulissat 's melting glacier was an appropriate backdrop for the landmark conference . The key ministry level attendees were : Canada : Gary Lunn , Canadian Minister for Nature Resources Denmark : Per Stig Møller ; Hans Enoksen Norway : Jonas Gahr Støre , Norwegian Minister for Foreign Affairs Russia : Sergey Lavrov , Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs United States : John D. Negroponte , Deputy Secretary of State", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic_Ocean_Conference", "rank": 32, "score": 111969 }, { "content": "Title: Amictic lake Content: Amictic lakes are `` perennially sealed off by ice from most of the annual seasonal variations in temperature . '' Amictic lakes exhibit inverse cold water stratification whereby water temperature increases with depth below the ice surface 0 ° C ( less-dense ) up to a theoretical maximum of 4 ° C ( at which the density of water is highest ) . Hutchinson -- Löffler ( 1956 ) classified amictic and other types of lakes based on physical/thermal processes . These processes are influenced by solar radiation and wind . They are strongly tied with seasonality and thus associated with latitude and altitude . Amictic lakes occur in Arctic , Antarctic , and alpine regions and due to permanent ice-cover , these physical/thermal influences have a limited effect on circulation in the water column . For this reason , amictic lakes are commonly referred to as lakes that never mix . `` Mixing '' in this context , however , refers to homogenization of the water column and so the term `` amictic '' is not meant to imply that the lake water is stagnant . With the rare exception of lakes near the edges of the permanent icecaps in Greenland and Antarctica , amictic lakes do experience melting around the lake 's perimeter during summer , resulting in a `` moat '' of water surrounding a thick pan of ice that remains in the centre of the lake . This melting occurs as a result of heat absorbed by water and sediments below the ice , particularly in the shallow-water areas , when snow does not cover the ice , and also by heat flow and meltwater runoff from the surrounding land . Mixing below the ice occurs due to density currents generated by heat from direct solar radiation and from meltwater runoff which may differ in density from the lake water due to both temperature and suspended sediment content , depending on its source and flow path . Despite these processes , the effects of wind at the lake surface are highly reduced due to the ice cover , and so vertical mixing of the water column may be incomplete . This may result in anoxic conditions , which has implications for biogeochemical processes within the lake .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Amictic_lake", "rank": 33, "score": 110677 }, { "content": "Title: Cold Sunday Content: `` Cold Sunday '' was a meteorological event which took place on January 17 , 1982 , when unprecedentedly cold air swept down from Canada and plunged temperatures across much of the United States far below existing all-time record lows . The phenomenon was caused by an unusually strong high pressure system over Saskatchewan with a core pressure of 1055mb ( 31.15 inHg ) , a level rarely seen outside of permanent polar areas such as Siberia and Antarctica . A recent snowfall had left the ground without any way to hold on to its heat and temperatures dropped precipitously . This mass of cold air was so strong that the temperature at Mequon , Wisconsin , dropped to − 40 ° F ( − 40 ° C ) . The previous record was − 28 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) and temperatures below − 20 ° F ( − 29 ° C ) had been felt there only six times in the previous 100 years . The lowest temperature recorded that day in the United States was − 52 ° F ( − 47 ° C ) , measured near Tower , Minnesota . Below is a partial list of cities which set all-time record low temperatures in the United States . This is only a small fraction of all locales setting record low temperatures : Hundreds of towns and cities from North Dakota to New Jersey to Mississippi broke records , and the vast majority of the records set on `` Cold Sunday '' still stand . The cold was not confined to the night , either . In Princeton , New Jersey , and Cincinnati , Ohio , the daytime high temperatures were 2 ° F ( − 17 ° C ) and − 9 ° F ( − 23 ° C ) . The average high temperature in January is 39 ° F ( 4 ° C ) in both cities . While much of South Florida escaped the deep freeze , enough damage was done to citrus crops in Central Florida during the month of January to write off the 1982 harvest as a disaster . International Falls , Minnesota : − 45 ° F ( − 43 ° C ) Saint Cloud , Minnesota : − 35 ° F ( − 37 ° C ) Madison , Wisconsin : − 31 ° F ( − 35 ° C ) Green Bay , Wisconsin : − 28 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) Chicago , Illinois : − 27 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) Milwaukee , Wisconsin : − 26 ° F ( − 32 ° C ) Moline , Illinois : − 23 ° F ( − 31 ° C ) Peoria , Illinois : − 23 ° F ( − 31 ° C ) Akron , Ohio : − 22 ° F ( − 30 ° C ) Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania : − 18 ° F ( − 28 ° C ) Cleveland , Ohio : − 17 ° F ( − 27 ° C ) Jackson , Mississippi : − 5 ° F ( − 21 ° C ) Washington , D.C. : − 5 ° F ( − 21 ° C ) Birmingham , Alabama : − 2 ° F ( − 19 ° C )", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Cold_Sunday", "rank": 34, "score": 109830 }, { "content": "Title: Lake North Pole Content: Lake North Pole , also known as The North Pool , is a small , shallow lake near the North Pole , and is currently the northernmost lake in the world . It came into existence in 2002 , occurring each year , then freezing over in the winter . The lake , which is approximately one foot deep , is composed almost entirely of fresh water melted from the ice beneath . A web camera is stationed beside the lake to monitor changes . It was built by the Polar Science Center . On July 26 , 2013 , the depth was estimated to be approximately 40 cm . Members of the scientific community are not alarmed by such bodies of water , stating that they occur widely , and often refer to them as `` melt ponds '' .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Lake_North_Pole", "rank": 35, "score": 109190 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic-Alpine Botanic Garden Content: The Arctic-Alpine Botanic Garden ( Arktisk alpin Botanisk hage ) is the world 's northernmost botanic garden . It is located in Tromsø , Norway , and is run by the Tromsø University Museum . It opened in 1994 , and is open from late May to early October . The garden displays Arctic and alpine plants from all over the northern hemisphere . Entrance is free of charge . The garden is located to the southeast of the University of Tromsø Campus , commanding a view of the mountains to the east and south . The location , corresponding to the north coast of Alaska , invites thought of an extreme Arctic climate . However , a branch of the Gulf Stream sweeping up the coast of North Norway provides a moderating influence , and the climate of Tromsø is one of relatively mild winters ( January average -4.4 ° C ) and cool summers ( July average 11.7 ° C ) . From May 15 until July 27 , the sun is continuously above the horizon in Tromsø . The two months of midnight sun provide some compensation to the plants for the short growing season and the low temperatures . In the months of May , June and July the theoretically possible number of hours of sunshine is 623 , 720 and 695 , respectively . The average hours of actual sunshine is about 200 for each of these months . From November 21 until January 17 the sun never rises . Snow generally covers the ground from October or November on , and will accumulate until the beginning of April . Snow then gradually melts and the ground will usually be bare around mid May at sea level , while lingering on far into the summer at higher altitudes . The season in the Botanic Garden is usually from end of May until mid October . Special Collections : Rhododendron ( e.g. R. Lapponicum ) , Meconopsis , Aster , Polemonium , Erigeron , Codonopsis , Rose Cultivars , Allium , Saxifraga , Silene , Tellima , Heu", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic-Alpine_Botanic_Garden", "rank": 36, "score": 108863 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Content: The Arctic ( -LSB- ˈɑrktɪk -RSB- or -LSB- ˈɑrtɪk -RSB- ) is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth . The Arctic consists of the Arctic Ocean , adjacent seas , and parts of Alaska ( United States ) , Canada , Finland , Greenland ( Denmark ) , Iceland , Norway , Russia and Sweden . Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover , with predominantly treeless permafrost-containing tundra . Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places . The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth 's ecosystems . For example , the cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions . In recent years , Arctic sea ice decline has been caused by global warming . Life in the Arctic includes organisms living in the ice , zooplankton and phytoplankton , fish and marine mammals , birds , land animals , plants and human societies . Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic", "rank": 37, "score": 108328 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic front Content: The Arctic front is the semipermanent , semi-continuous weather front between the cold arctic air mass and the warmer air of the polar cell . It can also be defined as the southern boundary of the Arctic air mass . Mesoscale cyclones known as polar lows can form along the arctic front in the wake of extratropical cyclones . Arctic air masses in their wake are shallow with a deep layer of stable air above the shallow cold cool .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic_front", "rank": 38, "score": 107776 }, { "content": "Title: Melting point Content: The melting point ( or , rarely , liquefaction point ) of a solid is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid at atmospheric pressure . At the melting point the solid and liquid phase exist in equilibrium . The melting point of a substance depends on pressure and is usually specified at standard pressure . When considered as the temperature of the reverse change from liquid to solid , it is referred to as the freezing point or crystallization point . Because of the ability of some substances to supercool , the freezing point is not considered as a characteristic property of a substance . When the `` characteristic freezing point '' of a substance is determined , in fact the actual methodology is almost always `` the principle of observing the disappearance rather than the formation of ice '' , that is , the melting point .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Melting_point", "rank": 39, "score": 107534 }, { "content": "Title: Pole of Inaccessibility (Antarctic research station) Content: The Pole of Inaccessibility Research Station is a defunct Soviet research station in Kemp Land , Antarctica , at the southern pole of inaccessibility ( the point in Antarctica furthest from any ocean ) as it was defined in 1958 when the station was established . Later definitions give other locations , all relatively near this point . It performed meteorological observations from 14 December 1958 to 26 December 1958 . The Pole of Inaccessibility has the world 's coldest year-round average temperature of -58.2 ° C. It is 878 km from the South Pole , and approximately 600 km from Sovetskaya . The surface elevation is 3,800 m . It was reached on 14 December 1958 by an 18-man traversing party of the 3rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition . Its WMO ID is 89550 .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Pole_of_Inaccessibility_(Antarctic_research_station)", "rank": 40, "score": 107291 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic sea ice Content: Antarctic sea ice is the sea ice of the Southern Ocean . It extends far north in winter and retreats almost to the coastline each summer . Sea ice is frozen seawater that is usually less than a few meters thick . This is in contrast to ice shelves , which are formed by glaciers , float in the sea , and are up to a kilometer thick . There are two subdivisions of sea ice : fast ice , which is attached to land ; and ice floes , which are not . Sea ice in the Southern Ocean melts from the bottom instead of from the surface like Arctic ice because it is covered in snow . As a result , melt ponds are rarely observed . On average , Antarctic sea ice is younger , thinner , warmer , saltier , and more mobile than Arctic sea ice . Due to its inaccessibility , it is not as well-studied as Arctic ice .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Antarctic_sea_ice", "rank": 41, "score": 107146 }, { "content": "Title: International Arctic Research Center Content: The International Arctic Research Center , or IARC , established in 1999 , is a research institution focused on integrating and coordinating study of climate change in the Arctic . The primary partners in IARC are Japan and the United States . Participants include organizations from Canada , China , Denmark , Germany , Japan , Norway , Russia , the United Kingdom , and the United States . The Center is located at the University of Alaska Fairbanks , in the Syun-Ichi Akasofu Building . The Keith B. Mather Library is the science library housed in the Akasofu Building , serving IARC and the Geophysical Institute of UAF . The building also houses the UAF atmospheric sciences department , the Center for Global Change and the Fairbanks forecast office of the National Weather Service . Study projects are focused within four major themes : Arctic ocean models and observation Arctic atmosphere : feedbacks , radiation , and weather analysis Permafrost/Frozen soil models and observations Arctic biota/vegetation ( ecosystem models ) IARC is devoting specific effort to answering the following three questions : To what extent is climate change due to natural vs man-made causes ? What parameters , processes and interactions are needed to understand and predict future climate change ? What are the likely impacts of climate change ?", "qid": "3079", "docid": "International_Arctic_Research_Center", "rank": 42, "score": 106823 }, { "content": "Title: Freezing Content: Freezing , or solidification , is a phase transition in which a liquid turns into a solid when its temperature is lowered below its freezing point . For most substances , the melting and freezing points are the same temperature ; however , certain substances possess differing solid -- liquid transition temperatures . For example , agar displays a hysteresis in its melting point and freezing point . It melts at 85 ° C ( 185 ° F ) and solidifies from 32 ° C to 40 ° C ( 89.6 ° F to 104 ° F ) .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Freezing", "rank": 43, "score": 106787 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Sun medical device Content: The Arctic Sun Temperature Management System is a non-invasive targeted temperature management system , a medical device used to modulate patient temperature with precision by circulating chilled water in pads directly adhered to the patient 's skin . Using varying water temperatures and a sophisticated computer algorithm , a patient 's body temperature can be controlled to the nearest 0.2 ° C . It is produced by Medivance , Inc. of Louisville , Colorado .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic_Sun_medical_device", "rank": 44, "score": 106267 }, { "content": "Title: Bombus polaris Content: Bombus polaris is a common Arctic bumblebee species . B. polaris is one of two bumblebees that live above the Arctic Circle . The other is its social parasite Bombus hyperboreus . B. polaris is a social bee that can survive at near freezing temperatures . It has developed multiple adaptations to live in such cold temperatures . B. polaris has a thicker coat of hair than most bees , utilizes thermoregulation , and makes insulated nests .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Bombus_polaris", "rank": 45, "score": 106263 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic oscillation Content: The Arctic oscillation ( AO ) or Northern Annular Mode/Northern Hemisphere Annular Mode ( NAM ) is an index ( which varies over time with no particular periodicity ) of the dominant pattern of non-seasonal sea-level pressure variations north of 20N latitude , and it is characterized by pressure anomalies of one sign in the Arctic with the opposite anomalies centered about 37 -- 45N . The AO is believed by climatologists to be causally related to , and thus partially predictive of , weather patterns in locations many thousands of miles away , including many of the major population centers of Europe and North America . NASA climatologist Dr. James E. Hansen explained the mechanism by which the AO affects weather at points so distant from the Arctic , as follows : `` The degree to which Arctic air penetrates into middle latitudes is related to the AO index , which is defined by surface atmospheric pressure patterns . When the AO index is positive , surface pressure is low in the polar region . This helps the middle latitude jet stream to blow strongly and consistently from west to east , thus keeping cold Arctic air locked in the polar region . When the AO index is negative , there tends to be high pressure in the polar region , weaker zonal winds , and greater movement of frigid polar air into middle latitudes . '' This zonally symmetric seesaw between sea level pressures in polar and temperate latitudes was first identified by Edward Lorenz and named in 1998 by David W.J. Thompson and John Michael Wallace . The North Atlantic oscillation ( NAO ) is a close relative of the AO and there exist arguments about whether one or the other is more fundamentally representative of the atmosphere 's dynamics ; Ambaum et al. argue that the NAO can be identified in a more physically meaningful way . Over most of the past century , the Arctic Oscillation alternated between its positive and negative phases . Starting in the 1970s the oscillation has trended to more of a positive phase when averaged using a 60-day running mean , though it has trended to a more neutral state in the last decade . The oscillation still fluctuates stochastically between negative and positive values on daily , monthly , seasonal and annual time scales , although , despite its stochastic nature , meteorologists have attained high levels of predictive accuracy in recent times , at least for the shorter term forecasts . ( The correlation between actual observations and the 7-day mean GFS ensemble AO forecasts is approximately 0.9 , a figure at the high end for that statistic . ) The National Snow and Ice Data Center describes the effects of the AO in some detail : `` In the positive phase , higher pressure at midlatitudes drives ocean storms farther north , and changes in the circulation pattern bring wetter weather to Alaska , Scotland and Scandinavia , as well as drier conditions to the western United States and the Mediterranean . In the positive phase , frigid winter air does not extend as far into the middle of North America as it would during the negative phase of the oscillation . This keeps much of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains warmer than normal , but leaves Greenland and Newfoundland colder than usual . Weather patterns in the negative phase are in general `` opposite '' to those of the positive phase . '' Climatologists are now routinely invoking the Arctic Oscillation in their official public explanations for extremes of weather . The following statement from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's National Climatic Data Center : State of the Climate December 2010 which uses the phrase `` negative Arctic Oscillation '' four times , is very representative of this increasing tendency : `` Cold arctic air gripped western Europe in the first three weeks of December . Two major snowstorms , icy conditions , and frigid temperatures wreaked havoc across much of the region ... The harsh winter weather was attributed to a negative Arctic Oscillation , which is a climate pattern that influences weather in the Northern Hemisphere . A very persistent , strong ridge of high pressure , or ` blocking system ' , near Greenland allowed cold Arctic air to slide south into Europe . Europe was not the only region in the Northern Hemisphere affected by the Arctic Oscillation . A large snow storm and frigid temperatures affected much of the Midwest United States on December 10 -- 13 ... '' A further , quite graphic illustration of the effects of the negative phase of the oscillation occurred in February 2010 . In that month , the Arctic Oscillation reached its most negative monthly mean value , − 4.266 , in the entire post-1950 era ( the period of accurate record-keeping ) . That month was characterized by three separate historic snowstorms that occurred in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States . The first storm dumped 25 in on Baltimore , Maryland , on February 5 -- 6 , and then a second storm dumped 19.5 in on February 9 -- 10 . In New York City , a separate storm deposited 20.9 in on February 25 -- 26 . This kind of snowstorm activity is as anomalous and extreme as the negative AO value itself . Similarly , the greatest negative value for the AO since 1950 in January was − 3.767 in 1977 , which coincided with the coldest mean January temperature in New York City , Washington , D.C. , Baltimore , and many other mid-Atlantic locations in that span of time . And though the January AO has been negative only 60.6 % of the time between 1950 and 2010 , 9 of the 10 coldest Januarys in New York City since 1950 have coincided with negative AOs . However , the correlation between sharply negative Arctic Oscillations and excessive winter cold and snow in regions vulnerable in that way to these negative AOs should not be overstated . It is by no means a simple , one-to-one equivalence . An extreme Arctic Oscillation does not necessarily mean extreme weather will occur . For example , since 1950 , eight out of the 10 coldest Januarys in New York did not coincide with the 10 lowest January AO values . And the fourth warmest January there since 1950 coincided with one of those 10 most negative AOs . So , although many climatologists believe that the Arctic Oscillation affects the probability of certain weather events occurring in certain places , the heightened chance of a phenomenon by no means assures it , nor does the lessened likelihood exclude it . Further , the precise value of the AO index only imperfectly reflects the severity of the weather associated with it .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic_oscillation", "rank": 46, "score": 105880 }, { "content": "Title: Great Blue Norther of November 11, 1911 Content: The Great Blue Norther of November 11 , 1911 was a cold snap that affected the central United States on Saturday , November 11 , 1911 . Many cities broke record highs , going into the 70s and 80s early that afternoon . By nightfall , cities were dealing with temperatures in the teens and single-digits on the Fahrenheit scale . This is the only day in many midwest cities ' weather bureau jurisdictions where the record highs and lows were broken for the same day . Some cities experienced tornadoes on Saturday and a blizzard on Sunday . A blizzard even occurred within one hour after an F4 tornado hit Rock County , Wisconsin . The main cause of such a dramatic cold snap was an extremely strong storm system separating warm , humid air from frigid , arctic air . Dramatic cold snaps tend to occur mostly in the month of November , though they can also come in February or March . These arrivals of Continental Polar or Arctic air masses are generally called northers , and the one in question was marked by a mass of steel blue clouds in the vicinity of the surface front , hence the name . Although temperature drops of this extent have happened on other occasions , as recently as February 2009 , the fact that the 1911 cold front passage was during the autumn and came after such warm weather contributed to the properties mentioned in this article .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Great_Blue_Norther_of_November_11,_1911", "rank": 47, "score": 105428 }, { "content": "Title: Zero-curtain effect Content: The zero-curtain effect occurs in cold ( particularly periglacial ) environments where the phase transition of water to ice is slowed down due to latent heat release . The effect is notably found in arctic and alpine permafrost sediments , and occurs where the air temperature falls below 0 ° C ( the freezing point of water ) followed by a rapid drop in soil temperature . Because of this effect , the lowering of temperature in moist , cold ground does not happen at a uniform rate . The loss of heat through conduction is reduced when water freezes , and latent heat is released . This heat of fusion is continually released until all the subsurface water has frozen , at which point temperatures can continue to fall . Therefore , for as long as water is available to the system ( for example , through cryosuction/capillary action ) the temperature of the sediment will remain at a constant temperature .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Zero-curtain_effect", "rank": 48, "score": 105280 }, { "content": "Title: North American Arctic Content: The North American Arctic comprises the northern portions of Alaska ( USA ) , Northern Canada and Greenland . Major bodies of water include the Arctic Ocean , Hudson Bay , the Gulf of Alaska and North Atlantic Ocean . The western limit is the Seward Peninsula and the Bering Strait . The southern limit is the Arctic Circle latitude of 66 ° 33 'N , which is the approximate limit of the midnight sun and the polar night . The region is defined by environmental limits where the average temperature for the warmest month ( July ) is below 10 C . The northernmost tree line roughly follows the isotherm at the boundary of this region . The area has tundra and polar vegetation .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "North_American_Arctic", "rank": 49, "score": 104780 }, { "content": "Title: Melting curve analysis Content: Melting curve analysis is an assessment of the dissociation-characteristics of double-stranded DNA during heating . As the temperature is raised , the double strand begins to dissociate leading to a rise in the absorbance intensity , hyperchromicity . The temperature at which 50 % of DNA is denatured is known as the melting point , though it is an inaccurate term as it has very little to do with a traditional melting point . The information gathered can be used to infer the presence and identity of single-nucleotide polymorphisms ( SNP ) . This is because G-C base pairing have 3 hydrogen bonds between them while A-T base pairs have only 2 . DNA with a higher G-C content , whether because of its source ( G-C contents : E. coli 0.50 , M. luteus 0.72 , poly d ( AT ) 0.00 ) or , as previously mentioned , because of SNPs , will have a higher melting temperature than DNA with a higher A-T content . The information also gives vital clues to a molecule 's mode of interaction with DNA . Molecules such as intercalators slot in between base pairs and interact through pi stacking . This has a stabilizing effect on DNA 's structure which leads to a raise in its melting temperature . Likewise , increasing salt concentrations helps diffuse negative repulsions between the phosphates in the DNA 's backbone . This also leads to a rise in the DNA 's melting temperature . Conversely , pH can have a negative effect on DNA 's stability which may lead to a lowering of its melting temperature .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Melting_curve_analysis", "rank": 50, "score": 104680 }, { "content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming", "rank": 51, "score": 104510 }, { "content": "Title: Winter of 2009–10 in Great Britain and Ireland Content: The winter of 2009 -- 10 in the United Kingdom ( also called The Big Freeze by British media ) was a meteorological event that started on 16 December 2009 , as part of the severe winter weather in Europe . January 2010 was provisionally the coldest January since 1987 across the country . A persistent pattern of cold northerly and easterly winds brought cold , moist air to the United Kingdom with many snow showers , fronts and polar lows bringing snowy weather with it . The first snowfall began on 17 December 2009 , before a respite over the Christmas period . The most severe snowy weather began on 5 January in North West England and west Scotland with temperatures hitting a low of -17.6 ° C in Greater Manchester , England . The snow spread to Southern England on 6 January and by 7 January the United Kingdom was blanketed in snow , which was captured by NASA 's Terra satellite . The thaw came a week later , as temperatures started to increase . The winter weather brought widespread transport disruption , school closures , power failures , the postponement of sporting events and 25 deaths . A low of -22.3 ° C was recorded in Altnaharra , Scotland on 8 January 2010 . Overall it was the coldest winter since 1978 -- 79 , with a mean temperature of 1.5 ° C.", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Winter_of_2009–10_in_Great_Britain_and_Ireland", "rank": 52, "score": 104362 }, { "content": "Title: 2016 Arctic Winter Games Content: The 2016 Arctic Winter Games , officially known with the slogan `` Join -- Feel -- Jump '' , is a winter multi-sport event which took place in Nuuk , Greenland , between 6 -- 12 March 2016 . The elected host city was announced on 14 September 2012 by the Arctic Winter Games International Committee ( AWGIC ) in Whitehorse , Yukon , Canada . The Arctic Winter Games is the world 's largest multisport and cultural event for young people of the Arctic . The Games is an international biennial celebration of circumpolar sports and culture held for a week , each time with a different nation or region as the host . AWG celebrates sports , social interaction and culture . The Games contributes to creating an awareness on cultural diversity , and develops athletes to participate in the competitions with the focus on fair play . The Games binds the Arctic countries together and includes traditional games such as Arctic sports and Dené games . Over 2,000 athletes from nine teams ( Alaska , Greenland , Northern Alberta , Northwest Territories , Nunavik Québec , Nunavut , Sápmi , Yamal-Nenets and Yukon ) participated in the games .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "2016_Arctic_Winter_Games", "rank": 53, "score": 104341 }, { "content": "Title: Winter of 1894–95 in the United Kingdom Content: The winter of 1894 -- 95 was severe for the British Isles with a CET of 1.27 C . Many climatologists have come to view this winter as the end of the Little Ice Age and the culmination of a decade of harsh winters in Britain . Whereas the average CET for the ten winters from 1885 -- 86 to 1894 -- 95 was 2.87 C , no winter with a CET under 3.0 C followed for twenty-two years and no month as cold as February or January 1895 until 1940 . In contrast , between 1659 and 1894 no spell with every winter CET above 3.0 C had lasted longer than twelve winters . Although this winter -- which featured the lowest North Atlantic Oscillation index between 1882 and 1962 with lower values recorded only in 1880/1881 , 1962/1963 and 1968/1969 -- affected most of Europe and North America very severely , the difficulties Britain had coping with it vis-à-vis the United States and Germany is seen as marking a beginning in the decline of British hegemony in global affairs . The severe winter led to mass unemployment and severe disruptions to shipping on the River Thames , which froze for the last time on record . Because mass political activism had not yet created the welfare state , most workers were left without sustenance and in industrial centres large soup kitchens were widespread to feed these people . There were also numerous skating festivals organised to take advantage of the unusually cold and sunny weather , with up to fifty thousand people skating on The Serpentine in London 's Hyde Park and speed skating races being widely popular and generating money to be used for relief of the poor , and in some cases to provide them with temporary work as vendors for spectators . Coal supplies dwindled as transporting coal by river was impossible , whilst many recently introduced exotic plants were killed by the cold .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Winter_of_1894–95_in_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 54, "score": 104255 }, { "content": "Title: November 2014 North American cold wave Content: The November 2014 North American cold wave was an extreme weather event that occurred across most of Canada and the contiguous United States , including parts of the Western United States up to western California . One of the first events of the winter , the cold wave was caused by the northward movement of an extremely powerful bomb cyclone associated with Typhoon Nuri 's remnant , which shifted the jet stream far northward , creating an omega block pattern . This allowed a piece of the polar vortex to advance southward into the Central and Eastern United States , bringing record-cold temperatures to much of the region . In contrast , Alaska experienced above-average temperatures . This was the worst cold wave that the North American region had experienced since an earlier cold wave in early 2014 . The cold wave was expected to last for a few weeks , extending at least until American Thanksgiving . Although the Omega Block broke down on November 20 , due to a powerful storm moving into the Gulf of Alaska , frigid conditions continued to persist across much of the United States . There was also concern among some meteorologists that another cold wave or abnormally cold trend might persist throughout the winter of 2014 -- 15 , the chances of which were `` above average . '' On November 23 , a warming trend primarily in the Eastern United States brought an end to the cold wave ; however , below-average temperatures were forecast to return to the Midwest by November 24 . Despite the development of a second cold wave , it ended on December 6 , when a ridge of high pressure brought above-average temperatures to the region , especially in the Central United States .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "November_2014_North_American_cold_wave", "rank": 55, "score": 104132 }, { "content": "Title: Winter Content: Winter is the coldest season of the year in polar and temperate climates , between autumn and spring . Winter is caused by the axis of the Earth in that hemisphere being oriented away from the Sun . Different cultures define different dates as the start of winter , and some use a definition based on weather . When it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere , it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere , and vice versa . In many regions , winter is associated with snow and freezing temperatures . The moment of winter solstice is when the sun 's elevation with respect to the North or South Pole is at its most negative value ( that is , the sun is at its farthest below the horizon as measured from the pole ) , meaning this day will have the shortest day and the longest night . The earliest sunset and latest sunrise dates outside the polar regions differ from the date of the winter solstice , however , and these depend on latitude , due to the variation in the solar day throughout the year caused by the Earth 's elliptical orbit ( see earliest and latest sunrise and sunset ) .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Winter", "rank": 56, "score": 103940 }, { "content": "Title: List of Arctic Air episodes Content: Arctic Air is a Canadian drama television series that began airing on CBC Television on January 10 , 2012 . On March 17 , 2014 , the series was canceled due to government budgetary cuts . In total , 35 episodes aired over the three seasons .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "List_of_Arctic_Air_episodes", "rank": 57, "score": 103390 }, { "content": "Title: February 2015 North American cold wave Content: The February 2015 North American cold wave was an extreme weather event that affected most of Canada and the eastern half of the United States . Following an earlier cold wave in the winter , the period of below-average temperatures contributed to an already unusually cold winter for the Eastern U.S. Several places broke their records for their coldest February on record , while some areas came very close . The cause of the cold wave was due to the polar vortex advancing southwards into the eastern parts of the U.S , and even making it as far south as the Southeast , where snow is rare . By the beginning of March , although the pattern did continue for the first week , it abated and retreated near the official end of the winter . In addition to the extremely cold weather , multiple winter storms affected nearly the entire United States , especially in the snow-weary Northeast , which had already seen nearly 3 ft of snow in the latter part of January ; this was added to by roughly 3 -- 4 ft ( 36 -- 48 in ) more snow , leading to Boston having its highest seasonal snowfall on record .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "February_2015_North_American_cold_wave", "rank": 58, "score": 103144 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic policy of the United States Content: The Arctic policy of the United States refers to the foreign policy of the United States in regard to the Arctic region . In addition , the United States ' domestic policy toward Alaska is part of its Arctic policy . Since March 30 , 1867 ( when the United States purchased Alaska from the Russian Empire ) , the United States of America has been one of the eight Arctic nations and one of the five Arctic Ocean littoral countries . The United States has been a member of the Arctic Council since its inception in 1996 and assumed the Chairmanship ( from Canada ) in April 2015 . 4 of the Arctic Council 's 6 Permanent Participant indigenous organizations have representatives in Alaska . The United States is also an observer of the Conference of Parliamentarians of the Arctic Region . Since 1880 , the global temperature has risen 0.8 ° C ; but the temperature in the Arctic has warmed twice as much , leading to much less sea ice coverage and greater accessibility to natural resources , transport passages and fisheries . The goals stated in the United States Arctic Policy released in NSPD-66 on January 9 , 2009 are as follows : Meet national security and homeland security needs relevant to the Arctic region ; Protect the Arctic environment and conserve its biological resources ; Ensure that natural resource management and economic development in the region are environmentally sustainable ; Strengthen institutions for cooperation among the eight Arctic nations ( the United States , Canada , Denmark , Finland , Iceland , Norway , the Russian Federation , and Sweden ) ; Involve the Arctic 's indigenous communities in decisions that affect them ; and Enhance scientific monitoring and research into local , regional , and global environmental issues . On May 10 , 2013 , the Obama White House released the National Strategy for the Arctic Region , emphasizing three areas : advancing U.S. security interests , pursuing responsible Arctic region stewardship , and strengthening international cooperation . Canada is the United States ' closest partner in Arctic affairs , due to geographic proximity and similar Arctic policy directives . The countries work together on scientific research , including mapping the Arctic sea floor . Two significant disagreements are the border dispute in the Beaufort Sea and the legal designation ( international or internal waters ) of the Northwest Passage .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic_policy_of_the_United_States", "rank": 59, "score": 103135 }, { "content": "Title: Canadian Arctic Archipelago Content: The Canadian Arctic Archipelago , also known as the Arctic Archipelago , is a group of islands north of the Canadian mainland . Situated in the northern extremity of North America and covering about 1424500 km2 , this group of 36,563 islands in the Arctic Sea comprises much of the territory of Northern Canada -- most of Nunavut and part of the Northwest Territories . The Canadian Arctic Archipelago is showing some effects of global warming , with some computer estimates determining that melting there will contribute 3.5 cm to the rise in sea levels by 2100 .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Canadian_Arctic_Archipelago", "rank": 60, "score": 103102 }, { "content": "Title: Early March 2015 United States winter storm Content: The Early March 2015 United States winter storm was a significant snow and ice storm that plowed through much of the United States , bringing 1 -- 2 ft of snow and record cold temperatures behind it . The storm actually occurred in two phases , with the latter bringing the cold temperatures behind it in its wake . Record cold temperatures even spread down to as far as northern Florida .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Early_March_2015_United_States_winter_storm", "rank": 61, "score": 102879 }, { "content": "Title: Mud season Content: Mud season is a period in late winter/early spring when dirt paths such as roads and hiking trails become muddy from melting snow and rain . Mud season happens in rural New England and a similar thing , rasputitsa , happens in Russia and other Eastern European countries . Mud season occurs only in places where the ground freezes deeply in winter , is covered by snow , and thaws in spring . Dirt roads and paths become muddy because the deeply frozen ground thaws from the surface down as the air temperature warms above freezing . The snow melts but the frozen lower layers of ground prevent water from percolating into the soil so the surface layers of soil become saturated with water and turn to mud . It is also characterized by giant puddles on the side of paved roads , from large piles of snow melting , with no place to drain off to .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Mud_season", "rank": 62, "score": 102504 }, { "content": "Title: Great Siberian Ice March Content: The Great Siberian Ice march ( Russian : Великий Сибирский Ледяной поход , Velikiy Sibirskiy Ledyanoy pokhod ) was the winter retreat of Vladimir Kappel 's White Russian Army in the course of the Russian Civil War in January -- February 1920 . After Admiral Kolchak 's White Russian Army retreated from Tomsk and Omsk and fled eastward along the Trans-Siberian Railway , they came to a halt on the shore of Lake Baikal near Irkutsk . With the Red Army in hot pursuit , the White Army had to escape southward to China across the frozen Lake Baikal in sub-zero temperatures . About 30,000 White Army soldiers , their families and all their possessions as well as the Tsar 's gold , made their way across the lake to Transbaikalia . The bloodiest campaign battles occurred at the villages of Yakovlevka , Birulka , and Gruznovskaya , as well as the city of Barguzin . As the Arctic winds blew unobstructed across the lake , many in the army and their families froze to death . Their bodies remained frozen on the lake in a kind of tableau throughout the winter of 1919 -- 20 . With the advent of spring , the frozen corpses and all their possessions disappeared in 5,000 feet of water . Kappel himself was struck by frostbite and pneumonia while leading his survivors along a frozen river in temperatures of -40 ° C ; he died on 26 January .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Great_Siberian_Ice_March", "rank": 63, "score": 102503 }, { "content": "Title: January 2017 European cold wave Content: A period of exceptionally cold and snowy winter weather in January 2017 occurred in Eastern and Central Europe . In some areas , flights and shipping services were suspended , and there was major disruption to power supplies and other essential infrastructure . The weather was the result of stationary high pressure over western Europe , resulting in strong winds circulating from Russia and Scandinavia towards eastern Europe . On 9 January , the Continental Arctic ( cA ) air mass extended from Germany across the Balkans , resulting in deep snow in Greece and strong bora winds affecting Croatia in particular . In addition , heavy snow in central and Southern Italy was the result of cold air flowing across the warmer Adriatic Sea . At least 61 deaths were attributed to the cold wave .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "January_2017_European_cold_wave", "rank": 64, "score": 102496 }, { "content": "Title: Stefan number Content: The Stefan number ( St or Ste ) is defined as the ratio of sensible heat to latent heat . It is given by the formula where cp is the specific heat , cp is the specific heat of solid phase in the freezing process while cp is the specific heat of liquid phase in the melting process . ∆ T is the temperature difference between phases , L is the latent heat of melting . It is a dimensionless parameter that is useful in analyzing a Stefan problem . The parameter was developed from Josef Stefan 's calculations of the rate of phase change of water into ice on the polar ice caps .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Stefan_number", "rank": 65, "score": 102134 }, { "content": "Title: Great Blizzard of 1899 Content: The Great Blizzard of 1899 also known as the Great Arctic Outbreak of 1899 was an unprecedented winter weather event that affected the Southern United States . It was notable for both the severity of winter weather and the extent of the U.S. it affected , especially in the Southern states . The first reports indicated record-high barometric pressure over Assiniboia ( now Saskatchewan ) due to the weight of the frigid and dense air . Later reports of the impending freeze were relayed down through Florida by the Florida East Coast Railway .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Great_Blizzard_of_1899", "rank": 66, "score": 102082 }, { "content": "Title: Melt-Freeze Crust Content: A Melt-Freeze Crust or Rain Crust is a discontinuity between snow layers which can lead to avalanches . The layer can be created in two ways : A temperature high enough to allow surface snow to melt , creating a layer of melt water which may later re-freeze . Rain falling and freezing on the surface of existing snow , also creating a frozen layer . This layer is brittle , smooth and slippery , and does not bond with snow layers above it , allowing the overlying slab of snow to move down the mountain under gravity when disturbed or if the accumulated snowfall exceeds a critical mass . The initial slab may be as large as 10,000 m ² and 10 metres thick .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Melt-Freeze_Crust", "rank": 67, "score": 101740 }, { "content": "Title: February 1987 nor'easter Content: The February 1987 nor'easter was a significant winter storm in the US that impacted the Mid-Atlantic States around the end of the month . It delivered 8 -- 12 hours of heavy , wet snowfall to several states from West Virginia to New York between February 22 and February 24 . The storm was both preceded and followed by relatively warm temperatures , causing the snow to rapidly melt . The mild conditions were the result of a moderate anticyclone over the region that deteriorated as the nor'easter approached . Cold air damming likely took place prior to the storm 's formation . The nor'easter evolved from a complex series of low pressure areas . Eventually , the multiple center consolidated and a primary cyclone took hold along the Carolina coast . This low rapidly strengthened as it tracked northeastward . Upon reaching the Maryland coast , it turned more towards the east and intensified further to attain a minimum barometric pressure of 964 millibars by 1800 UTC on February 23 . The heaviest precipitation , occasionally accompanied by thunder and lightning , along with gusty winds , occurred between 0000 UTC and 1800 UTC . Snowfall accumulations exceeding 10 in were reported in eastern West Virginia , northern Virginia , north-central Maryland , northern Delaware , southern Pennsylvania , central and southern New Jersey , and Long Island . Most of the interior Northeast was spared a substantial impact from the storm . However , lighter totals extended as far north as central Massachusetts . The weight of the wet snow caused extensive damage to trees and power lines , and hundreds of thousands were reportedly left without power . At Washington , D.C. , 11 in of snow fell , having widespread effects . Limited states of emergency were declared in certain areas . MV Balsa 24 , a 345 ft long freighter , was lost February 25 , 1987 after it capsized in the storm . 18 sailors were killed and there was 1 survivor , who was rescued by the nuclear submarine USS Scamp ( SSN-588 ) . Fishing vessel Delores Marie was also lost , killing 3 .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "February_1987_nor'easter", "rank": 68, "score": 101638 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic fox Content: The Arctic fox ( Vulpes lagopus ) , also known as the white fox , polar fox , or snow fox , is a small fox native to the Arctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere and common throughout the Arctic tundra biome . It is well adapted to living in cold environments . It has a deep thick fur which is brown in summer and white in winter . Its body length ranges from 46 to , with a generally rounded body shape to minimize the escape of body heat . The Arctic fox preys on any small creatures such as : lemmings , voles , ringed seal pups , fish , waterfowl , and seabirds . It also eats carrion , berries , seaweed , insects , and other small invertebrates . Arctic foxes form monogamous pairs during the breeding season and they stay together to raise their young in complex underground dens . Occasionally , other family members may assist in raising their young .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic_fox", "rank": 69, "score": 101444 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic exploration Content: Arctic exploration is the physical exploration of the Arctic region of the Earth . It refers to the historical period during which mankind has explored the region north of the Arctic Circle . Historical records suggest that humankind have explored the northern extremes since 325 BC , when the ancient Greek sailor Pytheas reached a frozen sea while attempting to find a source of the metal tin . Dangerous oceans and poor weather conditions often fetter explorers attempting to reach polar regions and journeying through these perils by sight , boat , and foot has proven difficult .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic_exploration", "rank": 70, "score": 101332 }, { "content": "Title: Old Pulteney Row To The Pole Content: The Old Pulteney Row To The Pole was a publicity stunt sponsored by a whisky distiller for naming rights , which navigated a rowing boat to the North Magnetic Pole at 78 ° 35.7 N 104 ° 11.9 W , the position certified in 1996 . It is believed to be the only polar expedition to feature rowing boats since the crew of Sir Ernest Shackleton 's row to Elephant Island off South Georgia in 1916 , after his aborted attempt to cross Antarctica . The 450-mile journey took almost four weeks . The expedition set out from Resolute Bay on July 28 , 2011 reaching the Pole position on August 25 . It was the first time any surface vessel under human power had been to any pole position . The expedition was the first attempt at such a voyage and was made possible by the open water in the Arctic region in summer . According to the National Snow and Ice Data Center , part of the University of Colorado , the Arctic sea ice melted to its third smallest extent ( since 1979 , when satellite measurements began ) in September 2010 . Prior to 1979 ice extents are unreliable .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Old_Pulteney_Row_To_The_Pole", "rank": 71, "score": 101136 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Spas Content: Arctic Spas is Blue Falls Manufacturing 's flagship brand of portable electric hot tubs , developed as a niche product for cold climates . The line is made and sold in Canada , and exported to the United States , Australia , and Europe .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic_Spas", "rank": 72, "score": 100927 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Thunder Content: Arctic Thunder is a snowmobile racing game developed by Midway Games released as an arcade game as well as on Sony PlayStation 2 and Xbox consoles , being a launch title for the latter . In the arcade version of the game , jets blow cold or hot winds , depending on the setting , in the player 's face while he or she plays the game . This is a part of Midway 's Thunder series , which also included Hydro Thunder , 4 Wheel Thunder , Offroad Thunder , and Hydro Thunder Hurricane . The Xbox version of this game is not currently compatible with the Xbox 360 . Although it was planned to be ported to the GameCube in 2002 , the version was eventually cancelled for unknown reasons .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic_Thunder", "rank": 73, "score": 100853 }, { "content": "Title: Pressure melting point Content: The pressure melting point is the temperature at which ice melts at a given pressure . The pressure melting point is a constant 0 ° C at pressures above the triple point at 611.7 Pa , where water can exist in only the solid or liquid phases , through atmospheric pressure ( 100 kPa ) until about 10 MPa . With increasing pressure above 10 MPa , the pressure melting point decreases to a minimum of − 21.9 ° C at 209.9 MPa . Thereafter , the pressure melting point rises rapidly with pressure , passing back through 0 ° C at 632.4 MPa .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Pressure_melting_point", "rank": 74, "score": 100608 }, { "content": "Title: Pieris angelika Content: Pieris angelika ( Arctic white ) is a cold-climate butterfly of the Pieridae family . Its main range is the Yukon , northwestern Northwest Territories and northwestern British Columbia , and Alaska . Its taxonomic name may change in the future , because there is a chance it was described and named before 1983 .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Pieris_angelika", "rank": 75, "score": 100347 }, { "content": "Title: Snow Content: Snow pertains to frozen crystalline water throughout its life cycle , starting when it precipitates from clouds and accumulates on surfaces , then metamorphoses in place , and ultimately melts , slides or sublimates away . Snowstorms organize and develop by feeding on sources of atmospheric moisture and cold air . Snowflakes nucleate around particles in the atmosphere by attracting supercooled water droplets , which freeze in hexagonal-shaped crystals . Snowflakes take on a variety of shapes , basic among these are platelets , needles , columns and rime . As snow accumulates into a snowpack , it may blow into drifts . Over time , accumulated snow metamorphoses , by sintering , sublimation and freeze-thaw . Where the climate is cold enough for year-to-year accumulation , a glacier may form . Otherwise , snow typically melts seasonally , causing runoff into streams and rivers and recharging groundwater . Major snow-prone areas include the polar regions , the upper half of the Northern Hemisphere and mountainous regions worldwide with sufficient moisture and cold temperatures . In the Southern Hemisphere , snow is confined primarily to mountainous areas , apart from Antarctica . Snow affects such human activities as transportation : creating the need for keeping roadways , wings , and windows clear ; agriculture : providing water to crops and safeguarding livestock ; such sports as skiing , snowboarding , snowmachine travel ; and warfare : impairing target acquisition , degrading the performance of combatants and materiel , and impeding mobility . Snow affects ecosystems , as well , by providing an insulating layer during winter under which plants and animals are able to survive the cold .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Snow", "rank": 76, "score": 100134 }, { "content": "Title: Ice Cold Gold Content: Ice Cold Gold is a reality television series that airs on Animal Planet . The series follows a mining company called Sixty Degree Resources along with its eight members as they try to strike it rich in one of the harshest , most inhospitable places in the world . With the arctic summer lasting only two months , the cast fearlessly prospects and mines throughout Greenland hoping to unearth her hidden fortunes before the arctic winter comes back , covering everything with ice . During this small window of time , no risk outweighs the payoff as the prospectors endure severe arctic storms , ice-infested boat rides , fatal rock slides , volatile ice sheets , utter isolation , and discord amongst themselves .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Ice_Cold_Gold", "rank": 77, "score": 100118 }, { "content": "Title: Older Dryas Content: The Older Dryas was a stadial ( cold ) period between the Bølling and Allerød interstadials ( warmer phases ) approximately 14,000 years ago ( BP ) , towards the end of the Pleistocene epoch . Its age is not well defined , with estimates varying by 400 years , but its duration is agreed to have been around two centuries . The gradual warming since the last glacial maximum 27-24 ,000 years BP has been interrupted by two cold spells , the Older Dryas having been followed by the Younger Dryas ( c. 12,900-11 ,650 BP ) . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and deeper during the Older than the succeeding Younger Dryas , and there is no evidence of human occupation of Britain . In north-west Europe an earlier Oldest Dryas is also recognised . They are named after an indicator genus , the arctic and alpine plant Dryas , the remains of which are found in higher concentrations in deposits from colder periods . The Older Dryas was a variable cold , dry Blytt-Sernander period , observed in climatological evidence in only some regions , depending on latitude . In regions where it is not observed , the Bølling-Allerød is considered a single interstadial ( warm ) period . Evidence of the Older Dryas is strongest in northern Eurasia , particularly part of North Europe roughly equivalent to Pollen zone Ic .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Older_Dryas", "rank": 78, "score": 100026 }, { "content": "Title: Polar High Content: The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex . Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' . Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Polar_High", "rank": 79, "score": 99993 }, { "content": "Title: Meltwater Content: Meltwater is water released by the melting of snow or ice , including glacial ice , tabular icebergs and ice shelves over oceans . Meltwater is often found in the ablation zone of glaciers , where the rate of snow cover is reducing . Meltwater can be produced during volcanic eruptions , in a similar way in which the more dangerous lahars form . When meltwater pools on the surface rather than flowing , it forms melt ponds . As the weather gets colder meltwater will often re-freeze . Meltwater can collect or melt under the ice 's surface . These pools of water , known as subglacial lakes can form due to geothermal heat and friction .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Meltwater", "rank": 80, "score": 99633 }, { "content": "Title: Yukon Arctic Ultra Content: The Yukon Arctic Ultra is a series of non-stop multiday races that take place concurrently beginning in Whitehorse , Yukon at the beginning of February each year . The marathon , 100/300/430 mile races follow the course of the Yukon Quest . The longer races have three disciplines : mountain bike , xc-skis or foot . The race is billed as the toughest ultramarathon in the world where the temperatures can drop to -50 degrees plus wind chill . The race was founded in 2003 and has run every year since except 2010 .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Yukon_Arctic_Ultra", "rank": 81, "score": 99462 }, { "content": "Title: Yamal (icebreaker) Content: The NS Yamal is a Russian Arktika class nuclear-powered icebreaker operated by Atomflot ( formerly by the Murmansk Shipping Company ) . It is named after the Yamal Peninsula in Northwest Siberia ; the name means End of the Land in Nenets . Laid down in Leningrad in 1986 , and launched in October 1992 , after the breakup of the Soviet Union , it filled its designed role of keeping shipping lanes open and also carried passengers on arctic excursions . In July of 1994 Yamal took an excursion to the North Pole , with the NSF ( National Science Foundation -- USA ) , to celebrate the official maiden voyage . While at the exact north pole ( verified by GPS & Inmarsat satellite coordinates ) the crew and passengers celebrated with a barbeque -- the ambient temperature was − 23 degrees C ( − 10 degrees F ) ( wind gusts were measured at − 40 degrees C/F ) . Because of the ship 90/90 coordinates the ship captain ( Smirnov ) organized a swimming party with Mr. Will Rountree ( USA ) being recorded as the 1st person to ever swim there ( 21 Jul 94 ) -- water temperature was below freezing , ranging from − 33 to − 35 degrees C ( − 28 degrees to − 31 degrees F ) . The Yamal is equipped with a double hull . The outer hull is 48 mm thick where ice is met and 25 mm elsewhere and has a polymer coating to reduce friction . There is water ballast between the inner and outer hulls which can be shifted in order to aid icebreaking . Icebreaking is also assisted by an air bubbling system which can deliver 24 m ³ / s of air from jets 9 m below the surface . The Yamal can break ice while making way either forwards or backwards . Yamal is one of the Russian `` Arktika '' family of icebreakers , the most powerful icebreakers in the world . These ships must cruise in cold water to cool their reactors , so they can not pass through the tropics to undertake voyages in the Southern hemisphere . Yamal carries one helicopter and several Zodiac boats . Radio and satellite communications systems are installed which can provide navigation , telephone , fax , and email services . Amenities include a large dining room ( capable of holding all 100 passengers in one sitting ) , a library , passenger lounge , auditorium , volleyball court , gymnasium , heated indoor swimming pool , a sauna , and an infirmary . She is equipped with 50 passenger cabins and suites , all with toilets , exterior windows , a television , and a desk . Yamal also played a significant role in creation of annual travel expeditions to the North Pole , being one of the few vessels capable of getting there and bringing tourists with it in safety . Since 1993 the icebreaker was operated by Murmansk Shipping Company and in 2001 -- 2008 the operation was made by Murmansk Shipping Company and Poseidon Expeditions . Yamal has made a total of 47 voyages to the North Pole .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Yamal_(icebreaker)", "rank": 82, "score": 99433 }, { "content": "Title: Siberian High Content: The Siberian High ( also Siberian Anticyclone ) is a massive collection of cold dry air that accumulates in the northeastern part of Eurasia from September until April . It is usually centered on Lake Baikal . It reaches its greatest size and strength in the winter when the air temperature near the center of the high-pressure cell is often lower than -40 ° C . The atmospheric pressure is often above 1040 mbar . The Siberian High is the strongest semi-permanent high in the northern hemisphere and is responsible for both the lowest temperature in the Northern Hemisphere , of -67.8 ° C on 15 January 1885 at Verkhoyansk , and the highest pressure , 1083.8 mbar ( 108.38 kPa , 32.01 inHg ) at Agata , Krasnoyarsk Krai on 31 December 1968 , ever recorded . The Siberian High is responsible both for severe winter cold and attendant dry conditions with little snow and few or no glaciers across Siberia , Mongolia , and China . During the summer , the Siberian High is largely replaced by the Asiatic low .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Siberian_High", "rank": 83, "score": 99398 }, { "content": "Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Pliocene_climate", "rank": 84, "score": 99052 }, { "content": "Title: Iceland (album) Content: Iceland is an EP released by All About Eve in 2002 . It was described mainly as a winter ( rather than specifically Christmas ) EP , although five out of seven of the songs do contain references to Christmas or are songs particularly connected with it . Only Melting and Cold are new All About Eve-penned songs . `` Last Christmas '' is a cover of the Wham ! song and `` A Winter 's Tale '' is a cover of the Queen song . The two versions of `` December '' are takes on the original All About Eve song ( as found on their second album Scarlet and Other Stories ) and Walking in the Air is a radical re-working of the song made famous as theme music to The Snowman . This album was made ( and the songs performed ) by Julianne Regan and Andy Cousin only , and did not include Robin Guy or Toni Haimi , the other band members at the time .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Iceland_(album)", "rank": 85, "score": 98975 }, { "content": "Title: Cold Weather Content: Cold Weather is an American mystery film written by Aaron Katz , Ben Stambler , and Brendan McFadden and directed by Katz with Stambler and McFadden producing . The film stars Cris Lankenau as a former forensic science student investigating the mysterious disappearance of his ex-girlfriend . The film was shot and set in Portland , Oregon , which was also the setting of Katz 's debut feature , Dance Party USA . Cold Weather premiered at the South by Southwest Film Festival in March 2010 and was released in the United States by IFC Films on February 4 , 2011 .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Cold_Weather", "rank": 86, "score": 98805 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic foothills tundra Content: The Arctic foothills tundra is an ecoregion of the far north of North America , lying inland from the north coast of Alaska . This is permafrost tundra with an average annual temperature below freezing .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic_foothills_tundra", "rank": 87, "score": 98712 }, { "content": "Title: Boreogadus saida Content: Boreogadus saida , known as the polar cod or as the Arctic cod , is a fish of the cod family Gadidae , related to the true cod ( genus Gadus ) . Another fish species for which both the common names Arctic cod and polar cod are used is Arctogadus glacialis . B. saida has a slender body , a deeply forked tail , a projecting mouth , and a small whisker on its chin . It is plainly coloured with brownish spots and a silvery body . It grows to a length of 40 cm . This species is found further north than any other fish ( beyond 84 ° N ) with a distribution spanning the Arctic seas off northern Russia , Alaska , Canada , and Greenland . This fish is most commonly found at the water 's surface , but is also known to travel at depths greater than 900 m . The polar cod is known to frequent river mouths . It is a hardy fish that survives best at temperatures of 0 -- 4 ° C , but may tolerate colder temperatures owing to the presence of antifreeze protein compounds in its blood . They group in large schools in ice-free waters . B. saida feeds on plankton and krill . It is in turn the primary food source for narwhals , belugas , ringed seals , and seabirds . They are fished commercially in Russia .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Boreogadus_saida", "rank": 88, "score": 98560 }, { "content": "Title: 2006 European cold wave Content: The 2006 European cold wave was an unusual cold wave which resulted in abnormal winter conditions over much of Europe . Southern Europe saw cold and snow , while places in northern Norway saw abnormally mild conditions . The phenomenon started on 20 January in Russia with temperatures below -40 ° C and extended to Central Europe where parts of Poland , Slovakia and Austria saw temperatures drop below -30 ° C . The cold resulted in the deaths of up to 50 people in Russia and a significant death toll in Eastern Europe including Moldova and Romania . The abnormal conditions gradually abated towards the end of the month .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "2006_European_cold_wave", "rank": 89, "score": 98510 }, { "content": "Title: 2012 Arctic Winter Games Content: The 2012 Arctic Winter Games took place in Whitehorse , Yukon , Canada from the 4th to the 10th of March 2012 . The Arctic Winter Games is an international biannual celebration of circumpolar sports and culture , held in Canada , Alaska or Greenland . Over 2,000 athletes from nine teams ( Alaska , Alberta North , Yukon , Yamal-Nenets , Northwest Territories , Greenland , Nunavik Québec , Nunavut and Sápmi ) participated in the games . Sports included alpine skiing , arctic sports , badminton , basketball , biathlon , curling , dene games , dog mushing , figure skating , freestyle skiing , gymnastics , hockey , indoor soccer , snowboarding , snowshoeing , speed skating , table tennis , volleyball and wrestling . The 2012 Arctic Winter Games was the first to have a relay . Rather than passing a baton or torch , however , a song was relayed . The youth at the games passed on a song , was in effort to promoting heritage awareness and cultural diversity . 2012 's mascot is a Husky dog named ` Borealis ' . The dog sports a Whitehorse Arctic Winter Games 2012 shirt and , as is common in Huskies , has different coloured eyes ( known as heterochromia ) .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "2012_Arctic_Winter_Games", "rank": 90, "score": 98377 }, { "content": "Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Ice-albedo_feedback", "rank": 91, "score": 98298 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Basin Marine Ecozone (CEC) Content: The Arctic Basin Marine Ecozone , as defined by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation ( CEC ) , is a Canadian marine ecozone encompassing the northwestern areas of waters on the Arctic continental shelf . It is bitterly cold and permanently covered in ice . Polar nights and the midnight sun may last months in this region , which has come to characterize the stereotype of the north . Its only land contact is with the northern coast of Ellesmere Island . Because of this , there are no inhabitants in this zone . All human activity here involves scientific excursions , petroleum exploration , rare hunting groups and extreme adventurers .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic_Basin_Marine_Ecozone_(CEC)", "rank": 92, "score": 98272 }, { "content": "Title: Ice age Content: An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Ice_age", "rank": 93, "score": 98171 }, { "content": "Title: Extreme cold warning Content: An extreme cold warning is issued by Environment Canada to inform the public about cold temperatures in their region that are expected to last for at least two hours . As of April 8 , 2014 , Environment Canada replaced the Wind Chill Warning with an Extreme Cold Warning . In the older system a wind chill warning for Southern Ontario and Atlantic Canada was issued when the wind chill dropped to -35 . Thus a temperature of -37 C with no winds would not require a warning be issued . Under the new system the extreme cold warning is issued based on either the temperature or the wind chill being a certain value for at least two hours . The values range from -30 C in the south to -55 C in parts of the Arctic .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Extreme_cold_warning", "rank": 94, "score": 98115 }, { "content": "Title: 2009 Alaska floods Content: The 2009 Alaska floods were a series of natural disasters taking place in the United States state of Alaska during April and May 2009 . The floods are a result of heavier-than-typical winter snowfall and above-average spring temperatures that resulted in rapid melting of the winter snowfall . The resulting high water levels were aggravated in places by the development of ice dams that caused catastrophic flooding . The record-breaking flood that affected Eagle , Alaska in early May is the best example of an ice dam causing flooding beyond the norm .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "2009_Alaska_floods", "rank": 95, "score": 98084 }, { "content": "Title: Fahrenheit Content: Fahrenheit is a temperature scale based on one proposed in 1724 by Amsterdam-based physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit ( 1686 -- 1736 ) , after whom the scale is named . It uses the degree Fahrenheit ( symbol ° F ) as the unit . Several accounts of how he originally defined his scale exist . The lower defining point , 0 ° F , was established as the temperature of a solution of brine made from equal parts of ice and salt . Further limits were established as the melting point of ice ( 32 ° F ) and his best estimate of the average human body temperature ( 96 ° F , about 2.6 ° F less than the modern value due to a later redefinition of the scale ) . The scale is now usually defined by two fixed points : the temperature at which water freezes into ice is defined as 32 ° F , and the boiling point of water is defined to be 212 ° F , a 180 ° F separation , as defined at sea level and standard atmospheric pressure . By the end of the 20th century , Fahrenheit was used as the official temperature scale only in the United States ( including its unincorporated territories ) , its freely associated states in the Western Pacific ( Palau , the Federated States of Micronesia and the Marshall Islands ) , the Bahamas , Belize , and the Cayman Islands . All other countries in the world now use the Celsius scale , defined since 1954 by absolute zero being − 273.15 ° C and the triple point of water being at 0.01 ° C.", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Fahrenheit", "rank": 96, "score": 97971 }, { "content": "Title: Getz Ice Shelf Content: The Getz Ice Shelf is the largest Antarctic ice shelf along the SE Pacific-Antarctic coastline , over 300 mi long and from 20 to wide , bordering the Hobbs and Bakutis Coasts of Marie Byrd Land between the McDonald Heights and Martin Peninsula . Several large islands are partially or wholly embedded in the ice shelf , pinning the calving front . Summer temperature and salinity measurements from 1994 to 2010 show the shelf is subject to more changeable oceanic forcing than other Antarctic shelves . Beneath cold surface waters , the thermocline was ∼ 200 m shallower in 2007 than in 2000 , indicative of shifting access of deep water to the continental shelf and ice shelf base . The calculated area-average basal melt rates was between 1.1 and 4.1 m of ice per year , making Getz the largest source of meltwater to the Southern Ocean . The ice shelf westward of Siple Island was discovered by the United States Antarctic Service ( USAS ) in December 1940 . The portion eastward of Siple Island was first delineated from air photos taken by U.S. Navy Operation Highjump , 1946 -- 47 . The entire feature was mapped by the United States Geological Survey from U.S. Navy air photos of 1962 -- 65 . It was named by the USAS ( 1939 -- 41 ) for George F. Getz of Chicago , Illinois , who helped furnish the seaplane for the expedition .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Getz_Ice_Shelf", "rank": 97, "score": 97919 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic ice sheet Content: The Antarctic ice sheet is one of the two polar ice caps of the Earth . It covers about 98 % of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth . It covers an area of almost 14 e6km2 and contains 26.5 e6km3 of ice . Approximately 61 percent of all fresh water on the Earth is held in the Antarctic ice sheet , an amount equivalent to about 58 m of sea-level rise . In East Antarctica , the ice sheet rests on a major land mass , but in West Antarctica the bed can extend to more than 2,500 m below sea level . Much of the land in this area would be seabed if the ice sheet were not there . In contrast to the melting of the Arctic sea ice , sea ice around Antarctica was expanding . The reasons for this are not fully understood , but suggestions include the climatic effects on ocean and atmospheric circulation of the ozone hole , and/or cooler ocean surface temperatures as the warming deep waters melt the ice shelves .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Antarctic_ice_sheet", "rank": 98, "score": 97829 }, { "content": "Title: International Arctic Buoy Program Content: The International Arctic Buoy Program is headquartered at the Polar Science Center , Applied Physics Laboratory , University of Washington , in Seattle , Washington , United States . The program 's objectives include to provide meteorological and oceanographic data in order to support operations and research for UNESCO 's World Climate Research Programme and the World Weather Watch Programme of the United Nations ' World Meteorological Organization . IABP participating countries include Canada , China , France , Germany , Japan , Norway , Russia , and the United States . Together , they share the costs of the program . The IABP has deployed more than 700 buoys since it began operations in 1991 , succeeding the Arctic Ocean Buoy Program ( operational since 1979-01-19 ) . Commonly , 25 to 40 buoys operate at any given time and provide real-time position , pressure , temperature , and interpolated ice velocity . In support of the International Polar Year , the IABP will deploy over 120 buoys , at over 80 different locations , during the period of April-August 2008 . The organization 's annual meeting provides discussion on instrumentation , forecasting , observations , and outlook .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "International_Arctic_Buoy_Program", "rank": 99, "score": 97793 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic Air Content: Arctic Air is a Canadian drama television series that began airing on CBC Television on January 10 , 2012 . The series was canceled on March 17 , 2014 , due to government budgetary cuts .", "qid": "3079", "docid": "Arctic_Air", "rank": 100, "score": 97725 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Benjamin D. Santer Content: Benjamin David Santer ( born June 3 , 1955 in Washington , DC , United States ) is a climate researcher at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and former researcher at the University of East Anglia 's Climatic Research Unit . He also worked at the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology from 1987 to 1992 . He specializes mainly in statistical analysis of climate data sets , and detection/attribution of climate change forcings .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Benjamin_D._Santer", "rank": 1, "score": 270806 }, { "content": "Title: Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison Content: The Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison ( PCMDI ) is a program at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in Livermore , California . Livermore is in the San Francisco Bay Area in the United States . It is funded by the Regional and Global Climate Modeling Group ( RGCM ) and the Atmospheric System Research ( ASR ) programs of the Climate and Environment Sciences Division of the United States Department of Energy .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Program_for_Climate_Model_Diagnosis_and_Intercomparison", "rank": 2, "score": 189550 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change", "rank": 3, "score": 181223 }, { "content": "Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Roger_Pulwarty", "rank": 4, "score": 177466 }, { "content": "Title: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 5, "score": 171863 }, { "content": "Title: C. Bruce Tarter Content: Dr. C. Bruce Tarter was director of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory from 1994 to 2002 . He received his bachelor 's degree in physics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and a Ph.D. from Cornell University .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "C._Bruce_Tarter", "rank": 6, "score": 170113 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 7, "score": 169664 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow", "rank": 8, "score": 169514 }, { "content": "Title: Earth System Grid Content: The Earth System Grid ( ESG ) is a data distribution portal whose development is funded mainly by the -LSB- United States Department of Energy -RSB- . It is the portal through which the Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory is distributing data for the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and the 2014 IPCC Fifth Assessment Report .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Earth_System_Grid", "rank": 9, "score": 168559 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 10, "score": 167306 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 11, "score": 166441 }, { "content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster", "rank": 12, "score": 165528 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 13, "score": 165204 }, { "content": "Title: Michael R. Anastasio Content: Michael Anastasio ( born 1948 ) led two national science laboratories during a time of transition . He was the director of the Los Alamos National Laboratory and president of the Los Alamos National Security LLC , the company that operates the laboratory . He is the former director of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory ( LLNL ) . The University of California Board of Regents appointed Michael R. Anastasio the director of LLNL on June 4 , 2002 . He started on July 1 , 2002 . In 2005 he became the president of the Los Alamos National Security LLC , and became the director of the Los Alamos National Laboratory on June 1 , 2006 . During his directorship at Lawrence Livermore , the laboratory won 25 R&D 100 Awards and maintained its world-class leadership position in high-performance computing and its application to global climate modeling . He has a bachelor 's degree in physics from Johns Hopkins University and earned M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in theoretical nuclear physics from the State University of New York at Stony Brook . His career at LLNL began in 1980 as a physicist in B-Division , one of the two nuclear weapons design divisions . He participated in the development of the W87 , W84 , and B83 warheads and 10 nuclear tests ; he was project physicist on four of these tests . In 1991 , he was made B-division leader and program manager responsible for primary weapons design . From 1996 to 2001 , he served as associate director for Defense and Nuclear Technologies , responsible for all activities in the laboratory 's nuclear weapons program . In that capacity , he was instrumental in the development and execution of the national Stockpile Stewardship Program . From 2001 to 2002 , Anastasio served as LLNL 's deputy director for Strategic Operations . He has 18 publications in intermediate energy theoretical nuclear physics and 800 citations . He received the Department of Energy Weapons Recognition of Excellence Award in 1990 and is a member of Sigma Pi Sigma , the national physics honor society ; U.S. Strategic Command , Strategic Advisory Group ; and the Defense Science Board Task Force on Nuclear Capabilities . He retired from his position as Laboratory Director at Los Alamos National Laboratory on June 1st 2011 .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Michael_R._Anastasio", "rank": 14, "score": 164604 }, { "content": "Title: The Deniers Content: The Deniers is a 2008 book by Lawrence Solomon , a Canadian environmentalist and writer . Subtitled `` The world-renowned scientists who stood up against global warming hysteria , political persecution , and fraud , '' the book draws attention to a number of scientists and others who , according to Solomon , have advanced arguments against what he calls the `` alarmist '' view of global warming , as presented by Al Gore , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , the mainstream media , and others . The book is based on a series of columns Solomon wrote for Canada 's National Post .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "The_Deniers", "rank": 15, "score": 163652 }, { "content": "Title: Roger Batzel Content: Roger Elwood Batzel ( December 1 , 1921 -- July 29 , 2000 ) was an American nuclear scientist , best known as the director of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory for over sixteen years , from 1971 to 1988 .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Roger_Batzel", "rank": 16, "score": 163379 }, { "content": "Title: United States House Science Subcommittee on Energy Content: The Science Subcommittee on Energy is one of six subcommittees of the United States House Committee on Science , Space and Technology . In 2007 , the subcommittee held the first Congressional hearing on global climate change for the 110th Congress . The Hearing on the State of Climate Change Science 2007 : The Findings of the Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Working Group I Report , included four climate scientists who authored the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) assessment report and Speaker Nancy Pelosi .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "United_States_House_Science_Subcommittee_on_Energy", "rank": 17, "score": 162667 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program", "rank": 18, "score": 161519 }, { "content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Leipzig_Declaration", "rank": 19, "score": 161198 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Third Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Third Assessment Report , Climate Change 2001 , is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the UN 's World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) '' ... to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' -LSB- IPCC website -RSB- The Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) is the third of a series of assessments ; it has been superseded by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , released in 2007 . Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR are often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming , although a small minority of scientists take issue with the UN assessments ( see also Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming ) .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "IPCC_Third_Assessment_Report", "rank": 20, "score": 161028 }, { "content": "Title: George H. Miller (physicist) Content: George H. Miller Ph.D. served as director of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory ( LLNL ) from 2007 until 2011 . Dr. Miller , an employee of the Laboratory for 34 years , replaced Michael Anastasio , who left LLNL to head Los Alamos National Laboratory . Dr. Miller received his B.S. with high honors in physics in 1967 , his M.S. in physics in 1969 and his Ph.D. in physics in 1972 , all from the College of William and Mary . Dr. Miller joined the LLNL staff in 1972 , as a physicist . In 1985 , he became associate director for nuclear design . He left LLNL in 1989 , to serve as the special scientific adviser on weapons activities to the U.S. Department of Energy . In 1990 he returned to LLNL to serve as associate director for defense and nuclear technologies , associate director for national security , and associate director for National Ignition Facility programs . Prior to being named the LLNL Director , he had been associate director at large for LLNL since June 2005 . He retired as LLNL director in December 2011 .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "George_H._Miller_(physicist)", "rank": 21, "score": 159976 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report Content: The Fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is the fifth in a series of such reports . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects and options for adaptation and mitigation . The Fifth Assessment Report was finalized in 2014 . As had been the case in the past , the outline of the AR5 was developed through a scoping process which involved climate change experts from all relevant disciplines and users of IPCC reports ; in particular representatives from governments . Governments and organizations involved in the Fourth Report were asked to submit comments and observations in writing with the submissions analysed by the panel . The report was delivered in stages , starting with Working Group I 's report on the physical science basis , based on 9,200 peer-reviewed studies . The summaries for policy makers were released on 27 September 2013 for the first report , on 31 March 2014 for the second report entitled `` Impacts , Adaptation , and Vulnerability '' , and on 14 April 2014 for the third report entitled `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . The Synthesis Report was released on 2 November 2014 , in time to pave the way for negotiations on reducing carbon emissions at the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris during late 2015 .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "IPCC_Fifth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 22, "score": 159605 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report", "rank": 23, "score": 159533 }, { "content": "Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Seita_Emori", "rank": 24, "score": 159428 }, { "content": "Title: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Content: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory ( LLNL ) is an American federal research facility in Livermore , California , United States , founded by the University of California in 1952 . A Federally Funded Research and Development Center ( FFRDC ) , it is primarily funded by the U.S. Department of Energy ( DOE ) and managed and operated by Lawrence Livermore National Security , LLC ( LLNS ) , a partnership of the University of California , Bechtel , BWX Technologies , AECOM , and Battelle Memorial Institute in affiliation with the Texas A&M University System . In 2012 , the laboratory had the synthetic chemical element livermorium named after it .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Lawrence_Livermore_National_Laboratory", "rank": 25, "score": 159411 }, { "content": "Title: Myles Allen Content: Myles R. Allen is head of the Climate Dynamics group at the University of Oxford 's Atmospheric , Oceanic and Planetary Physics Department . He is the Principal Investigator of the distributed computing project Climateprediction.net ( which makes use of computing resources provided voluntarily by the general public ) , and was principally responsible for starting this project . He is Professor of Geosystem Science in the School of Geography and the Environment , and a Fellow of Linacre College , Oxford . He has worked at the Energy Unit of the United Nations Environment Programme , the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory in Oxfordshire , and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . He contributed to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change as a Lead Author of the Chapter on detection of change and attribution of causes , and was a Review Editor for the chapter on predictions of global climate change for the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . His research focuses on the attribution of recent climate change and assessing what these changes mean for global climate simulations of the future . In 2010 , Allen was awarded the Appleton Medal and Prize by the Institute of Physics for `` his important contributions to the detection and attribution of human influence on climate and quantifying uncertainty in climate predictions '' . Allen also provided the technical expertise for the game Fate of the World , which is `` a PC strategy game that simulates the real social and environmental impact of global climate change over the next 200 years . ''", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Myles_Allen", "rank": 26, "score": 158839 }, { "content": "Title: Yuri Izrael Content: Yuri Antonovich Izrael ( Юрий Антониевич Израэль 15 May 1930 , Tashkent -- 23 January 2014 , Moscow ) was a vice-chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) until September 2008 , when the new bureau was elected . He was the `` most influential scientific adviser '' for Vladimir Putin , the former president of Russia , according to CNN . Izrael was former chairman of the Committee for Hydrometeorology . He also served as director of the Institute of Global Climate and Ecology , which is a part of the Russian Academy of Sciences . He was a first vice-president of the World Meteorological Organization and helped develop the World Weather Watch . In 1992 , Izrael won the International Meteorological Organization Prize and the UNEP Sasakawa Environment Prize for , among other accomplishments , contributing to the `` success of Working Group I I '' of the IPCC .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Yuri_Izrael", "rank": 27, "score": 157773 }, { "content": "Title: Curtis Bruce Tarter Content: Curtis Bruce Tarter from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , was awarded the status of Fellow in the American Physical Society , after they were nominated by their Division of Astrophysics in 1997 , for his pioneering research on the physics of photo-ionized plasmas near astrophysical and laboratory x-ray sources and for his leadership of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , maintaining the highest scientific integrity for this major US institution in a time of intense change .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Curtis_Bruce_Tarter", "rank": 28, "score": 157744 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies . It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report . The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''", "qid": "3082", "docid": "IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 29, "score": 156335 }, { "content": "Title: John T. Houghton Content: Sir John Theodore Houghton ( born 30 December 1931 ) is a Welsh scientist who was the co-chair of the Nobel Peace Prize winning Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) scientific assessment working group . He was the lead editor of first three IPCC reports . He was professor in atmospheric physics at the University of Oxford , former Director General at the Met Office and founder of the Hadley Centre . He is the president of the John Ray Initiative , an organisation `` connecting Environment , Science and Christianity '' , where he has compared the stewardship of the Earth , to the stewardship of the Garden of Eden by Adam and Eve . He is a founder member of the International Society for Science and Religion . He is also the current president of the Victoria Institute .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "John_T._Houghton", "rank": 30, "score": 155384 }, { "content": "Title: Valerie Masson-Delmotte Content: Valerie Masson-Delmotte is a French climate scientist and Research Director at the French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission , where she works in the Climate and Environment Sciences Laboratory ( LSCE ) . She uses data from past climates to test models of climate change , and has contributed to several IPCC reports .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Valerie_Masson-Delmotte", "rank": 31, "score": 155327 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 32, "score": 154492 }, { "content": "Title: Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award Content: The Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award was established in 1959 in honor of a scientist who helped elevate American physics to the status of world leader in the field . E. O. Lawrence was the inventor of the cyclotron , an accelerator of subatomic particles , and a 1939 Nobel Laureate in physics for that achievement . The Radiation Laboratory he developed at Berkeley during the 1930s ushered in the era of `` big science , '' in which experiments were no longer done by an individual researcher and a few assistants on the table-top of an academic lab but by large , multidisciplinary teams of scientists and engineers in entire buildings full of sophisticated equipment and huge scientific machines . During World War II , Lawrence and his accelerators contributed to the Manhattan Project , and he later played a leading role in establishing the U.S. system of national laboratories , two of which ( Lawrence Berkeley and Lawrence Livermore ) now bear his name . Shortly after Lawrence 's death in August 1958 , John A. McCone , Chairman of the United States Atomic Energy Commission , wrote to President Eisenhower suggesting the establishment of a memorial award in Lawrence 's name . President Eisenhower agreed , saying , `` Such an award would seem to me to be most fitting , both as a recognition of what he has given to our country and to mankind , and as a means of helping to carry forward his work through inspiring others to dedicate their lives and talents to scientific effort . '' The first Lawrence Awards were given in 1960 . The Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award is bestowed by the Secretary of the U.S. Department of Energy to mid-career scientists and engineers in recognition of exceptional scientific , technical , and/or engineering achievements related to the broad missions of the U.S. Department of Energy and its programs . The Lawrence Award is administered by the Department of Energy 's Office of Science . Each Lawrence Award recipient receives a citation signed by the Secretary of Energy , a gold medal bearing the likeness of Ernest Orlando Lawrence , and a $ 20,000 honorarium .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Ernest_Orlando_Lawrence_Award", "rank": 33, "score": 153465 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC supplementary report, 1992 Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change supplementary report of 1992 was published to contribute to the debate on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at the 1992 Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro . The report updated and revised some of the data contained in the IPCC First Assessment Report , and included six new climate change scenarios , including an update of the 1990 reference scenario . The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did `` not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment '' . It noted that transient ( time-dependent ) simulations , which had been very preliminary in the FAR , were now improved , but did not include aerosol or ozone changes .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "IPCC_supplementary_report,_1992", "rank": 34, "score": 153091 }, { "content": "Title: Parney Albright Content: Dr. Penrose `` Parney '' C. Albright is a physicist and weapons scientist known for his work with the U.S. Government , think tanks and National Laboratories , and government contractors . Since November 1 , 2014 , he has been the President and CEO of HRL Laboratories , a research firm jointly owned by Boeing and General Motors . Until December 2013 he served as the Director of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , and , in 2014 , he served as a Senior Advisor in the Office of the Director of National Intelligence , .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Parney_Albright", "rank": 35, "score": 152848 }, { "content": "Title: Ernest Lawrence Content: Ernest Orlando Lawrence ( August 8 , 1901 -- August 27 , 1958 ) was a pioneering American nuclear scientist and winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1939 for his invention of the cyclotron . He is also known for his work on uranium-isotope separation for the Manhattan Project , as well as for founding the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory . A graduate of the University of South Dakota and University of Minnesota , Lawrence obtained a PhD in physics at Yale in 1925 . In 1928 , he was hired as an associate professor of physics at the University of California , becoming the youngest full professor there two years later . In its library one evening , Lawrence was intrigued by a diagram of an accelerator that produced high-energy particles . He contemplated how it could be made compact , and came up with an idea for a circular accelerating chamber between the poles of an electromagnet . The result was the first cyclotron . Lawrence went on to build a series of ever larger and more expensive cyclotrons . His Radiation Laboratory became an official department of the University of California in 1936 , with Lawrence as its director . In addition to the use of the cyclotron for physics , Lawrence also supported its use in research into medical uses of radioisotopes . During World War II , Lawrence developed electromagnetic isotope separation at the Radiation Laboratory . It used devices known as calutrons , a hybrid of the standard laboratory mass spectrometer and cyclotron . A huge electromagnetic separation plant was built at Oak Ridge , Tennessee , which came to be called Y-12 . The process was inefficient , but it worked . After the war , Lawrence campaigned extensively for government sponsorship of large scientific programs , and was a forceful advocate of `` Big Science '' , with its requirements for big machines and big money . Lawrence strongly backed Edward Teller 's campaign for a second nuclear weapons laboratory , which Lawrence located in Livermore , California . After his death , the Regents of the University of California renamed the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory after him . Chemical element number 103 was named lawrencium in his honor after its discovery at Berkeley in 1961 .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Ernest_Lawrence", "rank": 36, "score": 152683 }, { "content": "Title: Richard A. Betts Content: Richard A. Betts is Head of the Climate Impacts strategic area at the Met Office Hadley Centre in Exeter , United Kingdom . He is also Chair in Climate Impacts at the University of Exeter and the Principal Investigator of the EU FP7 project HELIX ( High-End cLimate Impacts and eXtremes ) . He was a lead author for Working Group I and a contributing author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He was a lead author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report . He is an editor for the International Journal of Global Warming , the Journal of Environmental Investing , and for Earth System Dynamics . After studying physics at the University of Bristol , Betts switched to meteorology at the University of Birmingham and then studied for a doctorate in meteorology at the University of Reading . He is noted for engaging with critics of climate science on Twitter and was selected by TIME as one of the 140 best Twitter feeds of 2012 .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Richard_A._Betts", "rank": 37, "score": 152537 }, { "content": "Title: Ottmar Edenhofer Content: Ottmar Georg Edenhofer ( born in 8 July 1961 in Gangkofen , Lower Bavaria , Germany ) is one of the world 's leading experts on climate change policy , environmental and energy policy , and energy economics . Edenhofer currently holds the professorship of the Economics of Climate Change at the Technical University of Berlin . He is deputy director and chief economist of the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research ( PIK ) as well as director of the Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change ( MCC ) . From 2008 to 2015 he served as one of the co-chairs of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group III `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . Among other functions , he is a member of the OECD Advisory Council `` Growth , Investment and the Low-Carbon Transition '' , a member of the High-Level Commission on Carbon Prices , a member of the Advisory Committee of the Green Growth Knowledge Platform ( GGKP ) , and a member of the German Academy of Science and Engineering ( acatech ) .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Ottmar_Edenhofer", "rank": 38, "score": 152072 }, { "content": "Title: Patrick J. Miller Content: Patrick J. Miller is a computer scientist and high performance parallel applications developer with a Ph.D. in Computer Science from University of California , Davis , in run-time error detection and correction . Until recently he was with Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory . He is most noted for building and assembling the largest temporary supercomputer in the world , FlashMob I , in an attempt to break into the Top 500 list of supercomputers with students from his `` Do-it-yourself Supercomputing '' class at the University of San Francisco in April 2004 . This effort was featured on the front page of the New York Times on February 23 , 2004 . In September 2005 , he and others at Bryn Mawr recreated a FlashMob Supercomuter to calculate the value of pi to 15,000 digits and performed 15,800 steps to simulate the unfolding of a protein interacting with an anthrax toxin . More recently he is the author of the popular pyMPI distributed parallel version of the Python programming language .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Patrick_J._Miller", "rank": 39, "score": 151744 }, { "content": "Title: Ronald F. Lehman Content: Ambassador Ronald F. Lehman , II ( born March 25 , 1946 ) is currently Director of the Center for Global Security Research at the United States Department of Energy 's Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory . He is also Chair of the Governing Board of International Science and Technology Center , an intergovernmental organization headquartered in Moscow and is a member of the Department of Defense Threat Reduction Advisory Committee . He was Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Policy ( now Assistant Secretary of Defense for Global Strategic Affairs ) from 1988 to 1989 and then Director of the Arms Control and Disarmament Agency between 1989 and 1993 . From 1985 to 1988 , he served in the State Department as U.S. Chief Negotiator on Strategic Offensive Arms ( START I ) in Geneva . He has also served as Deputy Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs , senior director on the National Security Council , professional staff of the U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee , and in Vietnam with the United States Army . Lehman testified regularly before the U.S. Congress and was on the advisory board of the United States Institute of Peace . In 1995 , he was appointed to the five-member President 's Advisory Board on Arms Proliferation Policy . Lehman was educated at Claremont McKenna College ( B.S. , 1968 ) and then Claremont Graduate University with PH.D. in 1975 , the same year he went to Washington , D.C. , as a fellow of the Hoover Institution at Stanford University to begin his long and substantive diplomatic career in international arms control , disarmament , and the nonproliferation of weapons of mass destruction . He has served three U.S. Presidents ( Reagan , Bush , and Clinton ) , three Secretaries of State , three Secretaries of Defense , and three National Security Advisors in a variety of senior executive and advisory positions to promote peace through international disarmament and nonproliferation policymaking . Lehman worked closely with President Reagan for many years and continues to honor his memory by continuing to stabilize national conflict and aids in the protection of the United States . He was the 1988 CGU Distinguished Alumni Award Recipient .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Ronald_F._Lehman", "rank": 40, "score": 151603 }, { "content": "Title: Christian Mailhiot Content: Christian Mailhiot from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , was awarded the status of Fellow in the American Physical Society , after they were nominated by their Division of Materials Physics in 2003 , for his outstanding contributions and scientific leadership in theoretical and computational condensed matter and materials physics , with particular emphasis on innovative discoveries related to quantum-confined semiconductor structures and high-pressure research .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Christian_Mailhiot", "rank": 41, "score": 151140 }, { "content": "Title: John Zillman Content: John W. Zillman AO ( born 28 July 1939 ) is an Australian meteorologist , and former President of the World Meteorological Organization and the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering ( ATSE ) . He was born and was educated in Brisbane , Queensland . Through his leadership in professional organizations and advisory groups , Zillman has contributed to shaping science and innovation policy in Australia . More widely , he has contributed to raising awareness to the consequences of global climate change through involvement in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "John_Zillman", "rank": 42, "score": 150995 }, { "content": "Title: John S. Foster Jr. Content: John Stuart Foster Jr. ( born September 18 , 1922 ) is an American physicist , best known as the fourth director of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and as Director , Defense Research and Engineering under four Secretaries of Defense and two Presidents .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "John_S._Foster_Jr.", "rank": 43, "score": 150467 }, { "content": "Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Reasons_for_concern", "rank": 44, "score": 150197 }, { "content": "Title: Kevin E. Trenberth Content: Kevin Edward Trenberth ( born November 8 , 1944 ) is part of the Climate Analysis Section at the US NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research . He was a lead author of the 2001 and 2007 IPCC Scientific Assessment of Climate Change ( see IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ) and serves on the Scientific Steering Group for the Climate Variability and Predictability ( CLIVAR ) program . He chaired the WCRP Observation and Assimilation Panel from 2004 to 2010 and chaired the Global Energy and Water Exchanges ( GEWEX ) scientific steering group from 2010-2013 ( member 2007-14 ) . In addition , he served on the Joint Scientific Committee of the World Climate Research Programme , and has made significant contributions to research into El Niño-Southern Oscillation . Kevin 's work is highly cited and he has an h-index of 100 ( 100 papers have over 100 citations ) .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Kevin_E._Trenberth", "rank": 45, "score": 149959 }, { "content": "Title: Vincent R. Gray Content: __ NOTOC __ Vincent Richard Gray ( born 24 March 1922 ) is a New Zealand-based chemist , and a founder of the New Zealand Climate Science Coalition . Born in London on 24 March 1922 , Gray was awarded a PhD in physical chemistry by the University of Cambridge after studies on incendiary bomb fluids made from aluminium soaps . In New Zealand , he was the first Director of Building Research and later , Chief Chemist of the Coal Research Association . He has also published many articles and reports , seven in peer-reviewed journals . After retirement , he had four and a half years in China and when he returned became a critic of the claim that climate was harmed by human emissions of greenhouse gases . He has commented on every publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , with 1,898 comments on the 2007 Report . He has published critical studies on all of the reports including a book `` The Greenhouse Delusion : A Critique of ` Climate Change 2001 ' '' . He has published `` Confessions of a Climate Sceptic '' He is sceptical of the anthropogenic global warming : `` The two main `` scientific '' claims of the IPCC are the claim that `` the globe is warming '' and `` Increases in carbon dioxide emissions are responsible '' . Evidence for both of these claims is fatally flawed . '' Gray has called for the IPCC to be abolished , claiming it is `` fundamentally corrupt '' due to his conclusion that for significant parts of the work of the IPCC , the data collection and scientific methods employed are unsound and that the IPCC resists all efforts to try to discuss or rectify these problems . Gray was featured on the Australian Broadcasting Corporation program Counterpoint in a debate entitled `` Nine Lies about Global Warming '' , and was interviewed in a featured story in the New Zealand Herald as a `` prominent '' global warming skeptic . In 2002 , Gray also published a book , The Greenhouse Delusion : A Critique of `` Climate Change 2001 '' . In it , Gray argues `` that the quality and reliability of the IPCC 's measurements are poor , the system of determining how much weight should be attributed to different influences on the earth 's temperature is faulty , and the validity of evidence derived from computer modeling is questionable . ''", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Vincent_R._Gray", "rank": 46, "score": 149443 }, { "content": "Title: Paul Raskin Content: Paul Raskin is the founding President of the Tellus Institute , which has conducted over 3,500 research and policy projects throughout the world on environmental issues , resource planning , scenario analysis , and sustainable development . His research and writing has centered on formulating and analyzing alternative global and regional scenarios , and the requirements for a transition to a sustainable , just , and livable future , called the Great Transition . Dr. Raskin has served as a lead author on a number of high profile international reports , including the U.S. National Academy of Science 's Board on Sustainability , the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment , the United Nations Environment Programme 's Global Environment Outlook , the Earth Charter , and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Assessment Report .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Paul_Raskin", "rank": 47, "score": 149288 }, { "content": "Title: Climate risk Content: Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions . In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Climate_risk", "rank": 48, "score": 149094 }, { "content": "Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Jonathan_M._Gregory", "rank": 49, "score": 149018 }, { "content": "Title: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy Content: Venkatachalam Ramaswamy ( V. `` Ram '' Ramaswamy ) is the Director of the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research ( OAR ) , studying climate modeling and climate change . `` A leading climate scientist '' , his work is cited as supporting evidence for significant stratospheric climate change . He focuses in particular on radiative transfer models and the hydrologic cycle in the atmosphere . He has actively supported the development of supercomputing approaches that enable researchers to achieve higher resolution and greater complexity in climate models . As a lead author involved in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Ramaswamy 's contributions ( along with the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Venkatachalam_Ramaswamy", "rank": 50, "score": 148619 }, { "content": "Title: Ann Henderson-Sellers Content: Professor Ann Henderson-Sellers ( born 1952 ) is an Emeritus Professor of the Department of Environment and Geography at Macquarie University , Sydney . She was the Director of the Joint Planning Staff ( JPS ) of the World Climate Research Programme in 2006 and 2007 and was the Director of the Environment Division at ANSTO from 1998 to 2005 . She was the Deputy Vice-Chancellor ( Research & Development ) of The Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology from 1996-1998 . Prior to this she was the founding director of the Climatic Impacts Centre at Macquarie University where she continues to hold a Professorship in Physical Geography . Professor Henderson-Sellers previously led the WMO Project for Intercomparison of Land-surface Parameterization Schemes , which operates as an international Internet-based `` collaboratry '' . She recently led the Model Evaluation Consortium for Climate Assessment ( MECCA ) Analysis Team . She also acts as a consultant to the United Nations University on various aspects of the impact of climate . During 1995 she was a convening lead author for the IPCC SAR . Professor Henderson-Sellers has been an Earth Systems scientist all her life spearheading the description and prediction of the influence of land-cover and land-use change on climate and human systems . She has a BSc in mathematics , undertook her PhD in collaboration with the U.K. Meteorological Office and earned a D.Sc . in climate science in 1999 . She is an elected Fellow of Australia 's Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering and was awarded the Centenary Medal of Australia for Service to Australian Society in Meteorology in 2003 . Ann is an ISI `` highly cited '' author of over 500 publications , including 14 books and an elected Fellow of America 's Geophysical Union and the American Meteorological Society . Her Essay `` The IPCC Report : What The Lead Authors Really Think '' discusses IPCC lead authors ' views , especially on the 4th Assessment Report process .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Ann_Henderson-Sellers", "rank": 51, "score": 148026 }, { "content": "Title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 52, "score": 147621 }, { "content": "Title: Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change Content: The Civil Society Coalition on Climate Change ( or CSCCC ) is an entity that maintains a website and describes itself as a global group of non-profit organizations with a mission of `` seek -LSB- ing -RSB- to educate the public about the science and economics of climate change in an impartial manner . '' The Coalition identifies its membership as including 60 independent nonprofit organisations from 40 countries `` who share a commitment to improving public understanding about a range of public policy issues . '' It calls itself `` a free-market alternative to mainstream environmentalism . '' An Indian news media report states that it was founded by the International Policy Network , a London-based organization that receives support from Exxon Mobil . The group publishes background papers and opinion editorials on the science and economics of climate change and maintains a blog . Its Civil Society Report on Climate Change was published in 2007 , shortly before the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change conference in Bali . CSCCC experts make media appearances , such as Julian Morris 's 2007 feature on Larry King Live and his televised debate in 2008 with IPCC head Rajendra Pachauri . This IPN in the UK has Julian Morris as Executive Director . It is actually a part of the Atlas Group/Network ( aka Atlas Economic Research Institute ) which was founded by UK factory-chicken king , Sir Antony Fisher ( one of PM Margaret Thatcher 's economic gurus ) and American Loctite millionaire Richard Krieble . They had funding support from Krieble , Richard Mellon Scaife , and Philip Morris . Fisher is reputed to have had a primary hand in establishing up to 150 libertarian think-tanks around the world . Fisher 's daughter , Linda Whetstone , now works for the ( Fisher-founded ) Adam Smith Institute . She is also the chairperson of the International Policy Network , and is on the Boards of Directors of the Mont Pelerin Society , the Institute of Economic Affairs and the Atlas Group in the USA . Coalitions and networks of this kind a common with Atlas Group think-tanks , and many of their key staff and directors serve on many different organisations . This faux-multiplicity amplifies the apparent strength of the public attacks on climate-change science . See also the Stockholm Network . and", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Civil_Society_Coalition_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 53, "score": 146949 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 54, "score": 145749 }, { "content": "Title: Arturo Villavicencio Content: Arturo Villavicencio is an Ecuadorian environmental researcher . He was nominated by Denmark in 1995 for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and contributed to its fourth assessment report ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Arturo_Villavicencio", "rank": 55, "score": 145251 }, { "content": "Title: William Krupke Content: William Krupke from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , Livermore , CA was named Fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ( IEEE ) in 2016 for leadership in laser science and technology .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "William_Krupke", "rank": 56, "score": 144960 }, { "content": "Title: Michael Dennis Feit Content: Michael Dennis Feit from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , was awarded the status of Fellow in the American Physical Society , after they were nominated by their Division of Laser Science in 1988 , for the development and implementation of novel and powerful computational techniques with applications to optical propagation physics and the quantum theory of atoms and molecules and for contributing to the fundamental understanding of complex optical waveguiding devices .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Michael_Dennis_Feit", "rank": 57, "score": 144920 }, { "content": "Title: List of environmental reports Content: This is a list of notable environmental reports . In this context they relate to the impacts of human activity on the environment . City-level Decoupling : Urban Resource Flows and the Governance of Infrastructure Transitions - by the International Resource Panel Clean Energy Trends - a series of reports by Clean Edge - beginning in 2002 Copeland Report - for the U.S. government , completed in 1933 Copenhagen Diagnosis - written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries Dioxin Reassessment Report - by the United States Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Impact of the Big Cypress Swamp Jetport ( `` Leopold Report '' ) - United States Department of the Interior ( 1969 ) Environmental Risks and Challenges of Anthropogenic Metals Flows and Cycles - by the International Resource Panel Forest Principles - United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) The Global 2000 Report to the President - Council on Environmental Quality ( 1981 ) Global Environment Outlook - United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) Hirsch report ( Peaking of World Oil Production : Impacts , Mitigation , and Risk Management ) - United States Department of Energy Index of Leading Environmental Indicators - Pacific Research Institute IPCC First Assessment Report - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) IPCC supplementary report , 1992 - IPCC IPCC Second Assessment Report - IPCC IPCC Third Assessment Report Climate Change 2001 - IPCC ( 2001 ) IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Climate Change 2007 - IPCC ( 2007 ) IPCC Fifth Assessment Report ( 2014 ) Leopold Report ( `` Wildlife Management in the National Parks '' ) - Special Advisory Board on Wildlife Management ( 1963 ) Livestock 's Long Shadow - Environmental Issues and Options - United Nations ( 2006 ) Living Planet Report - WWF , every two years Making Sweden an Oil-Free Society - Government of Sweden ( 2006 ) Meat Atlas - published by the Heinrich Böll Foundation and Friends of the Earth Europe Nuclear Power and the Environment - UK Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution - 1976 Our Common Future - World Commission on Environment and Development ( 1987 ) Outlook On Renewable Energy In America ( 2 volumes ) - American Council on Renewable Energy - 2007 Phase I Environmental Site Assessment - generic Planning Policy Statement 10 : Planning for Sustainable Waste Management ( PPS 10 ) - British Government Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation - United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) - planned for 2010 Report of the Royal Commission on Genetic Modification - Royal Commission on Genetic Modification ( 2001 ) State of the Climate - NOAA/NCDC ( published annually ) The State of the World - Worldwatch Institute ( published yearly since 1984 ) Wegman Report - to validate criticisms of reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years Windscale : Britain 's Biggest Nuclear Disaster ( 2007 ) World Climate Report - Greening Earth Society The World 's 25 Most Endangered Primates - selected and published by the IUCN Species Survival Commission Primate Specialist Group ( IUCN/SSC PSG ) , the International Primatological Society ( IPS ) , and Conservation International ( CI )", "qid": "3082", "docid": "List_of_environmental_reports", "rank": 58, "score": 144919 }, { "content": "Title: Bert Bolin Content: Bert Rickard Johannes Bolin ( -LSB- bæʈː bʊliːn -RSB- ; 15 May 1925 -- 30 December 2007 ) was a Swedish meteorologist who served as the first chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , from 1988 to 1997 . He was professor of meteorology at Stockholm University from 1961 until his retirement in 1990 .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Bert_Bolin", "rank": 59, "score": 144853 }, { "content": "Title: Coupled model intercomparison project Content: In climatology , the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project ( CMIP ) is a framework and the analog of the Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project ( AMIP ) for global coupled ocean-atmosphere general circulation models ( GCMs ) . CMIP began in 1995 under the auspices of the Working Group on Coupled Modeling ( WGCM ) , which is in turn under auspices of CLIVAR and the Joint Scientific Committee for the World Climate Research Program . The Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory supports CMIP by helping WGCM to determine the scope of the project , by maintaining the project 's data base and by participating in data analysis . CMIP has received model output from the pre-industrial climate simulations ( `` control runs '' ) and 1 % per year increasing-CO2 simulations of about 30 coupled GCMs . More recent phases of the project ( 20C3M , ... ) include more realistic scenarios of climate forcing for both historical , paleoclimate and future scenarios .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Coupled_model_intercomparison_project", "rank": 60, "score": 144839 }, { "content": "Title: Kirk R. Smith Content: Kirk R. Smith is an expert on the health and climate effects of household energy use in developing nations . He is currently a professor of Global Environmental Health at the University of California , Berkeley , where his research focuses on the relationships among environmental quality , health , resource use , climate , development , and policy in developing countries . Smith contributed a great deal to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and the work of the IPCC ( including the contributions of many scientists ) was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize . Smith is a recipient of the 2012 Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement for his work with cookstoves , health , and climate . He is also credited with designing and implementing the first randomized controlled trial of the health effects of indoor air pollution ( IAP ) from cookstoves .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Kirk_R._Smith", "rank": 61, "score": 144762 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 62, "score": 144491 }, { "content": "Title: Space mirror (climate engineering) Content: The use of space mirrors as an anti-global warming measure is a proposed technology for climate change mitigation by deflection of sunlight . It was one of a series of proposals for controlling global warming made to the United States government in 2001 . At the `` Response Options to Rapid or Severe Climate Change '' round-table meeting organized by the President 's Climate Change Technology Program in September 2001 to gather ideas for averting climate change , one of the proposals was to station one or more wire-mesh `` mirrors '' in orbit to deflect sunlight back into space or to filter it . The idea was proposed by Lowell Wood , a senior staff scientist at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , who calculated that deflecting 1 % of sunlight would restore climatic stability , and that that would require either a single mirror 600000 sqmi in area or several smaller ones . Wood had been researching the idea for more than ten years but considered it so infeasible that it should only be a back-up plan for solving the global warming problem . In January 2007 , The Guardian reported that the US government was recommending that research on sunlight deflection , including space mirrors , be continued as `` insurance '' and that the next United Nations Report on Climate Change advocate such a strategy . In addition to the space mirror , suggested sunlight-reducing techniques included launching thousands of highly reflective balloons and pumping sulphate droplets into the upper atmosphere to emulate volcanic emissions . Space mirrors were first considered in the 1980s as a way to cool the climate of Venus . James Early , also at Livermore , in 1989 proposed using a `` space shade '' 2,000 kilometers in diameter orbiting at Lagrangian Point L1 . He estimated the cost at between one and ten trillion US dollars and suggested manufacturing it on the moon using moon rock . Using space mirrors as a space sunshade to reduce the impact of sunlight falls into the category of geoengineering : deliberately modifying the earth 's climate . At a conference on the topic organized by Daniel Schrag of Harvard University and David Keith of the University of Calgary in November 2007 , the consensus was that it was worth studying such ideas further despite their high cost , the doubtful feasibility of some including the space mirror , and the risk of their distracting attention from reduction of greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Space_mirror_(climate_engineering)", "rank": 63, "score": 144154 }, { "content": "Title: Kennedy J. Reed Content: Kennedy J. Reed is a theoretical atomic physicist in the Theory Group in the Physics & Advanced Technologies Directorate at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory ( LLNL ) and a founder of the National Physical Science Consortium ( NPSC ) , a group of about 30 universities that provides physics fellowships for women and minorities . Reed earned his Ph.D. at the University of Nebraska , was a professor of physics at Morehouse College , in Atlanta , Georgia and is known for his work related to ionization and atomic collisions in high temperature plasmas . He has published more than 100 papers . Demonstrating a commitment to improving the participation of minority and female students in the physical sciences , Dr. Reed has helped more than 100 such students to earn their doctorates and , through the NPSC consortium , awarded over 300 graduate fellowships .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Kennedy_J._Reed", "rank": 64, "score": 144087 }, { "content": "Title: Anders Levermann Content: Anders Levermann is a climate scientist at the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and Columbia University . He is a Professor of the Dynamics of the Climate System at Institute for Physics and Astrophysics of the Potsdam University , Germany . He was a lead author of the chapter on sea-level changes of the fifth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC AR5 ) , and contributed to the paleoclimate chapter in the previous report ( IPCC-AR4 ) . Levermann advises political and economic stakeholders on the issue of climate change .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Anders_Levermann", "rank": 65, "score": 143480 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change", "rank": 66, "score": 143391 }, { "content": "Title: Giulio Boccaletti Content: Giulio Boccaletti , Ph.D. , ( born in Modena , Italy ) is the British-Italian Chief Strategy Officer and Global Managing Director for Water at The Nature Conservancy . Trained as a physicist and atmospheric scientist , Boccaletti currently sits on the World Economic Forum 's Global Agenda Council , and has served on the OECD-WWC High Level Panel on Infrastructure Financing for a Water-Secure World . An alumnus of MIT , Princeton and Bologna universities , Boccaletti was briefly a lead author of the fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and contributes to the ideas platform published by the Edge Foundation , Inc. .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Giulio_Boccaletti", "rank": 67, "score": 143333 }, { "content": "Title: C. Vernon Cole Content: Dr. C. Vernon Cole ( 1922 -- August 30 , 2013 ) was a soil scientist known primarily for his work on nutrient cycling in agroecosystems . He was a member of Working Group II of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Second Assessment report , and the lead author of Chapter 23 `` Agricultural Options for Mitigation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions '' . The IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "C._Vernon_Cole", "rank": 68, "score": 143126 }, { "content": "Title: Stephen Schneider Content: Stephen Henry Schneider ( February 11 , 1945 -- July 19 , 2010 ) was Professor of Environmental Biology and Global Change at Stanford University , a Co-Director at the Center for Environment Science and Policy of the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies and a Senior Fellow in the Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment . Schneider served as a consultant to federal agencies and White House staff in the Richard Nixon , Jimmy Carter , Ronald Reagan , George H. W. Bush , Bill Clinton , George W. Bush and Barack Obama administrations . Schneider 's research included modeling of the atmosphere , climate change , and the effect of global climate change on biological systems . Schneider was the founder and editor of the journal Climatic Change and authored or co-authored over 450 scientific papers and other publications . He was a Coordinating Lead Author in Working Group II Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Assessment Report and was engaged as a co-anchor of the Key Vulnerabilities Cross-Cutting Theme for the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) at the time of his death . During the 1980s , Schneider emerged as a leading public advocate of sharp reductions of greenhouse gas emissions to combat global warming . In 2006 Professor Schneider was an Adelaide Thinker in Residence advising the South Australian Government of Premier Mike Rann on climate change and renewable energy policies . In ten years South Australia went from zero to 31 % of its electricity generation coming from renewables . An annual award for outstanding climate science communication was created in Schneider 's honor after his death , by the Commonwealth Club of California .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Stephen_Schneider", "rank": 69, "score": 142953 }, { "content": "Title: Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists Content: The 2007 Bali Declaration by Climate Scientists was a statement signed by over 200 climate scientists advocating specific targets for greenhouse gas emissions for the 21st century . The statement was based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Article 2 that committed signatories to the '' ... stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' and on the science available in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment report ( IPCC AR4 ) . The Bali Declaration was released to coincide with the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference which took place in Bali 3 -- 15 December 2007 . Category : Climate change policy", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Bali_Declaration_by_Climate_Scientists", "rank": 70, "score": 142474 }, { "content": "Title: James DeYoreo Content: James DeYoreo from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , was awarded the status of Fellow in the American Physical Society , after they were nominated by their Division of Biological Physics in 2007 , for his pioneering work using in situ force microscopy to understand the physical principles underlying biocrystallization '' '' , particularly the control of biomolecules and other modifiers on energy landscapes , step dynamics and morphological evolution during crystal formation .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "James_DeYoreo", "rank": 71, "score": 142279 }, { "content": "Title: Stephen Bernard Libby Content: Stephen Bernard Libby from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , was awarded the status of Fellow in the American Physical Society , after they were nominated by their American Physical Society in 1999 , for the application of quantum field theory to diverse systems including perturbative quantum chromodynamics and transport in the quantum Hall effect , as well as inventing computational algorithms for radiation driven kinetics in plasmas , and the invention of novel short wavelength laser applications .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Stephen_Bernard_Libby", "rank": 72, "score": 142107 }, { "content": "Title: Dork Sahagian Content: Dork Sahagian is an Armenian American climate scientist . He is the Director of the Environmental Initiative at Lehigh University in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania . He invented a technique for calculating the Earth 's air pressure in the past , based on the difference in the size of the bubbles in cooled volcanic lava . Sahagian contributed to three of four assessment reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , which on October 12 , 2007 was jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize with former vice president Al Gore .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Dork_Sahagian", "rank": 73, "score": 141696 }, { "content": "Title: John F. B. Mitchell Content: John Francis Brake Mitchell OBE FRS ( born 7 October 1948 ) is a British climatologist and climate modeller . He studied Applied Mathematics at Queen 's University Belfast in 1970 , staying on to gain a PhD in Theoretical Physics in 1973 . In 1978 , he was appointed head of the Climate Change group in what is now the Met Office 's Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research . He was Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2008 and Director of Climate Science from 2008 to 2010 . He is the most cited scientist regarding the topic of global warming . He was a convening lead author for the first and third IPCC Working Group I reports and lead author for the second . He was also chair of the World Meteorological Organization JSC/CLIVAR Working Group on Climate Modelling and a member of WMO Executive Council from 2005 to 2008 . He now ( 2014 ) works part-time as Principal Research Fellow , advising the Met Office Chief Scientist on climate change and is Visiting Professor at the University of Reading .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "John_F._B._Mitchell", "rank": 74, "score": 141653 }, { "content": "Title: Diana Liverman Content: Diana Margaret Liverman ( born May 15 , 1954 , Accra , Ghana ) is Regents Professor of Geography and Development , and formerly co-Director of the Institute of the Environment at the University of Arizona , USA . She is an expert on the human dimensions of global environmental change and the impacts of climate on society .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Diana_Liverman", "rank": 75, "score": 141388 }, { "content": "Title: Jean Palutikof Content: Jean Palutikof is founding Director of the National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility ( NCCARF ) at Griffith University , Australia . She has held this position since 2008 . Prior to this , Professor Palutikof was based at the UK Met Office during which time she managed the production of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report for Working Group II ( Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability ) . Professor Palutikof is among the foremost scholars of climate change adaptation and was lead author and review editor for several assessments of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and was present in Oslo at the ceremony at which the IPCC received the Nobel Peace Prize .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Jean_Palutikof", "rank": 76, "score": 140769 }, { "content": "Title: List of authors of Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis Content: This is a list of the 620 authors contributing to Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis , which was the 996 page contribution of Working Group I to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Their report describes the causes and climate consequences of global warming . This list is limited to people acknowledged as authors or editors on the report . The additional several hundred reviewers acknowledged in Annex III of the report are not included on this list . Author affiliations and nationalities are summarized from the list in Annex II of the report . Each author may have contributed to one or more sections and had one or more roles during the writing process . In the table below abbreviations are used to denote the roles and sections :", "qid": "3082", "docid": "List_of_authors_of_Climate_Change_2007:_The_Physical_Science_Basis", "rank": 77, "score": 140180 }, { "content": "Title: Steve Rayner Content: Steve Rayner is James Martin Professor of Science and Civilization at Oxford University and Director of the Institute for Science , Innovation and Society , a member of the Oxford Martin School . He describes himself as an `` undisciplined social scientist '' having been trained in philosophy , comparative religion ( BA University of Kent ) and political anthropology ( PhD University College London ) . A key research interest is climate policy , in particular adaptation and geoengineering as ways to mitigate climate change 's effects . He has been an outspoken critic of the architecture of the Kyoto Protocol , and his paper The Wrong Trousers : Radically Rethinking Climate Policy , co-written with Gwyn Prins of the London School of Economics has been widely cited on this topic . He is also interested in wicked problems , uncomfortable knowledge and clumsy solutions . He is currently principal investigator of the Oxford Programme for the Future of Cities and co-director of the Oxford Geoengineering Programme . In 2008 , he was listed by Wired Magazine as one of the 15 people the next President should listen to and was recognized for his contribution to the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Steve_Rayner", "rank": 78, "score": 140146 }, { "content": "Title: Peter L. Hagelstein Content: Peter L. Hagelstein is a principal investigator in the Research Laboratory of Electronics ( RLE ) and an associate professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) . He received a bachelor of science and a master of science degree in 1976 , then a Doctor of Philosophy degree in electrical engineering in 1981 , from MIT . He was a staff member of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory from 1981 to 1985 before joining the MIT faculty in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science in 1986 . Hagelstein 's early work focused on extreme ultraviolet and soft X-ray lasers , relativistic atomic structure and electron collision physics , autoionization and dielectronic recombination processes , plasma population kinetics , radiation transport and large scale physics simulation . He received the Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award in 1984 for his innovation and creativity in X-ray laser physics . While working in the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory he pioneered the work that later produced the first X-ray laser , which would later become important for the US Strategic Defense Initiative , popularly referred to as the `` Star Wars '' program . In 1989 he started investigating cold fusion ( also called low-energy nuclear reactions ) with the hope of making a breakthrough similar to the X-ray laser . In the period between 1989 and 2004 , the field became discredited in the eyes of many scientists . Due to his involvement , as of 2004 he has not achieved full professorship and he has lost his own laboratory . His recent efforts have included the invention of semiconductor technology that could allow efficient , affordable production of electricity from a variety of energy sources , as well as continuing investigations of low-energy nuclear reactions . Hagelstein is the co-author of a new textbook , Introductory Applied Quantum and Statistical Mechanics , and chaired the Tenth International Conference on Cold Fusion in 2003 .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Peter_L._Hagelstein", "rank": 79, "score": 139776 }, { "content": "Title: Bert Metz Content: Bert Metz ( born 15 August 1945 , The Hague ) is a Dutch climate policy expert . He was Co-chair of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Working Group III on mitigation on climate change for the third and fourth assessment report of the IPCC . Currently he is a fellow at the european climate foundation . Metz obtained an Engineer 's degree in Chemical Engineering at Delft University of Technology and subsequently his Ph.D. degree at the same university . From 1976 to 1987 he worked for Dutch Ministry of Housing , Spatial Planning and Environment in the fields of air pollution , external safety , noise pollution , chemical waste and the enforcement of environmental laws . From 1987 until 1992 he was Counsellor for Health and Environment at the Royal Netherlands Embassy in Washington DC . In 1992 he became Deputy Director for Air and Energy of the Netherlands Ministry of Housing , Spatial Planning and Environment , with responsibility for climate policy . He led the Netherlands delegation to the negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol to the Climate Convention . In 1997 he moved to the Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency at RIVM to head the group on climate change and global sustainability and was elected as co-chairman of the Working Group on Climate Change Mitigation of the IPCC for the preparation of the Third Assessment Report . In 2002 he was re-elected in that position for the 4th Assessment Report cycle . Although formally retired , Bert Metz is still very active in the climate policy arena , among others as advisor for the European Climate Foundation and as steering group member of UNEP 's annual Emissions Gap Report . In 2008 he was named Officer in the Order of Orange-Nassau . .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Bert_Metz", "rank": 80, "score": 139744 }, { "content": "Title: Piers Forster Content: Piers Forster is Professor of Physical Climate Change and Director of the Priestley International Centre for Climate at the University of Leeds . A physicist by training , his research focuses on quantifying the different human causes of climate change and the way the Earth responds . He is best known for his work on radiative forcing , climate sensitivity , contrails and geoengineering . He has contributed heavily to the writing of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports , including acting as a Lead Author for both the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and IPCC Fifth Assessment Report .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Piers_Forster", "rank": 81, "score": 139469 }, { "content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén", "rank": 82, "score": 139429 }, { "content": "Title: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera Content: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera is a theoretical physicist and researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . He disagrees with predictions about future climate change , arguing that they ignore the most important factor , which is sun activity . In the summer of 2008 , he also predicted the world to soon enter a little ice age . `` The models and forecasts of the U.N. IPCC `` are incorrect because they only are based on mathematical models and presented results at scenarios that do not include , for example , solar activity . '' -- Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Victor_Manuel_Velasco_Herrera", "rank": 83, "score": 139348 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions Content: Climate Change : Global Risks , Challenges and Decisions was a conference on Climate Change held at the Bella Center by the University of Copenhagen . The event was organised with the assistance of other universities in the International Alliance of Research Universities . The stated aim of the conference was to provide `` a summary of existing scientific knowledge two years after the last IPCC report . '' The conference took place on 10 -- 12 March 2009 .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Climate_Change:_Global_Risks,_Challenges_and_Decisions", "rank": 84, "score": 139169 }, { "content": "Title: Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment Content: The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment ( INCCA ) is a proposed network of scientists in India to be set up to publish peer-reviewed findings on climate change in India . It was announced on 7 October 2009 , saying : It was re-announced on 25 January 2012 by an official of the climate change division in the Environment Ministry after a strategy meeting chaired by Joint Secretary ( Climate ) J.M. Mausker , which also dealt with the framing of India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change ( NAPCC ) . On 4 February 2010 India 's environment minister Jairam Ramesh announced that it would bring together 250 scientists from 125 Indian research institutions and collaborate with international organisations.its first assessment of greenhouse gas emission was released on May 11 , 2010 and Its second climate assessment to be published in November 2010 would include reports on the Himalayas , the coastline of India , the Western Ghat highlands and the north-eastern region of India . He said it would operate as a `` sort of Indian IPCC '' , but will not rival the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Ramesh also announced the initiation of an Indian National Institute of Himalayan Glaciology . He said that although he respected the IPCC , it was unequal to the task and its weakness was that it did not conduct its own research . Ramesh also indicated its biases made it insensitive to regional realities , and instead relied on compiling assessments of other reports , which , led to `` goof-ups '' on the Amazon forests , Himalayan glaciers , and ice caps .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Indian_Network_on_Climate_Change_Assessment", "rank": 85, "score": 138693 }, { "content": "Title: Michael Oppenheimer Content: Michael Oppenheimer ( born February 28 , 1946 ) is the Albert G. Milbank Professor of Geosciences and International Affairs in the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs and the Department of Geosciences at Princeton University . He is the Director of the Program in Science , Technology and Environmental Policy ( STEP ) at the Woodrow Wilson School and Faculty Associate of the Atmospheric and Ocean Sciences Program , Princeton Environmental Institute , and the Princeton Institute for International and Regional Studies . Oppenheimer has taken leading role in various environmental and science policy related activities , e.g. with regard to acid rain , in contributing to 1990 amendments to the Clean Air Act . With regard to climate change , he was a major author of the IPCC 's Fourth Assessment Report and a coordinating lead author of the Fifth Assessment Report . Oppenheimer is also a prominent public figure and has e.g. discussed various aspects , impacts , solutions and even the psychology of global warming in the media . He has been a guest on many television and radio programs and talk shows , including ABC 's This Week , Nightline , Alcove , The News Hour , The Oprah Winfrey Show , Charlie Rose , ABC News and The Colbert Report . Oppenheimer is the author of over 140 articles published in professional journals . He is the author of Dead Heat : The Race Against The Greenhouse Effect , written together with environmental activist Robert H. Boyle and published in 1990 . Oppenheimer is co-founder of the Climate Action Network .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Michael_Oppenheimer", "rank": 86, "score": 138570 }, { "content": "Title: Richard G. Richels Content: Richard `` Rich '' Gayle Richels directs global climate change research at the Electric Power Research Institute . Richels received a BS degree in physics from the College of William & Mary . He was awarded MS and PhD degrees in decision science from Harvard University 's Division of Applied Sciences . Richels has served on a number of national and international advisory panels , including committees of the Department of Energy , the Environmental Protection Agency , and the National Research Council . He served as an expert witness at the Department of Energy 's hearings on the National Energy Strategy and testified at Congressional hearings on priorities in global climate change research . He was a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Second , Third and Fourth Assessment Reports ( the IPCC shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with Al Gore ) and served on the Synthesis Team for the US National Assessment of Climate Change Impacts on the United States . He currently serves on the Scientific Steering Committee for the US Carbon Cycle Program and the Advisory Committee for Princeton University Carbon Mitigation Initiative . He has served as Editor of the Energy , Environment and National Resources area of the Operations Research Journal . He has also served on the Board of Editors of The Energy Journal and the Journal of Applied Stochastic Models and Data Analysis , and contributed to the Energy Modeling Forum . Richels is a co-author of Buying Greenhouse Insurance - the Economic Costs of Emission Limits ( with Alan S. Manne ) , and of Economic and environmental choices in the stabilization of atmospheric concentrations ( with Tom Wigley and Jae Edmonds ) . Both studies outline an economic approach to climate policy . Richels is a researcher on integrated assessment modelling for climate change , and regularly appears in the media .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Richard_G._Richels", "rank": 87, "score": 138477 }, { "content": "Title: Omar Hurricane Content: Omar Hurricane is a Physicist at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , in the thermonuclear and inertial confinement fusion design division . Prior to Lawrence Livermore , he worked at the UCLA Institute of Plasma & Fusion Research . His research focuses on weapons physics , high energy density physics ( HEDP ) science , the theory of plasmas , and plasma instability . He has published widely in journals and conference papers", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Omar_Hurricane", "rank": 88, "score": 138391 }, { "content": "Title: Stockholm Memorandum Content: The Stockholm Memorandum is a document signed in May 2011 by many Nobel Laureates based on the verdict from the trial of humanity , which opened the 3rd Nobel Laureate Symposium . The jury of Nobel laureates concluded that Earth has entered a new geological age , which it calls the Anthropocene , in which humans are the most significant driver of global climate change , and in which human collective actions could have abrupt and irreversible consequences for human communities and ecological systems . The memorandum was signed by 20 winner of the Nobel Prize winners or the Sveriges Riksbank Prize for Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel ( six in Chemistry , five in Physics , three in Physiology or Medicine , one in Literature , one Peace Prize winner and four in Economic Sciences ) was submitted to the United Nations High Level Panel on global sustainability . `` We are the first generation with the insight of the new global risks facing humanity , that people and societies are the biggest drivers of global change . The basic analysis is not in question : we can not continue on our current path and need to take action quickly . Science can guide us in identifying the pathway to global sustainability , provided that it also engages in an open dialogue with society , '' says Professor Mario Molina , who acted as judge and received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995 .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Stockholm_Memorandum", "rank": 89, "score": 138253 }, { "content": "Title: John Weyant Content: John P. Weyant ( born July 23 , 1947 ) is a research professor of management science and engineering at Stanford University . He obtained his PhD from UC Berkeley and has been at Stanford since 1977 . His research is focussed on climate change , energy security , corporate strategy analysis , and energy policy in Japan . Weyant is the director of the Energy Modeling Forum , an editor of Energy Economics , and a lead author of the IPCC ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) . He is a key figure in the academic communities of energy economics , integrated assessment modelling , and climate economics , and has been influential in shaping the international policy debate on climate policy .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "John_Weyant", "rank": 90, "score": 137787 }, { "content": "Title: Global Climate Coalition Content: The Global Climate Coalition ( GCC ) ( 1989 -- 2001 ) was an international lobbyist group of businesses that opposed action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and challenged the science behind global warming . The GCC was the largest industry group active in climate policy and the most prominent industry advocate in international climate negotiations . The GCC was involved in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol , and played a role in blocking ratification by the United States . The coalition promoted the views of climate skeptics . The GCC dissolved in 2001 after membership declined in the face of improved understanding of the role of greenhouse gases in climate change and of public criticism .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Global_Climate_Coalition", "rank": 91, "score": 137779 }, { "content": "Title: Z-Division Content: The International Assessments Program -- known as Z-Division -- is a Special Projects Group of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory established to provide the United States Intelligence Community with technical assessments of foreign nuclear programs and weapons capabilities . Z-Division was formed in 1965 , bringing together scientists and engineers to help intelligence agencies understand the significance of Soviet nuclear weapons tests . The letter ` Z ' was chosen as most letters were already assigned to other divisions . Relationships with the American intelligence community were formalised by a memorandum of understanding drawn up between the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) and the Atomic Energy Commission ( now the Department of Energy ) in the same year .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Z-Division", "rank": 92, "score": 136869 }, { "content": "Title: Rajendra Shende Content: Rajendra Madhavrao Shende ( born 13 July 1949 ) , an alumnus of Indian Institute of Technology ( IIT ) and former Director in United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , is currently serving as the Chairman of TERRE Policy Centre which is a not-for-profit organization engaged in the evidence-based policy development and project based advocacy on the sustainable development . Before August 2011 , he was the Head of the OzonAction Branch of the United Nations Environment Programme , Division of the Technology , Industry and Economics ( UNEP DTIE ) in Paris . He served as Review Editor for the IPCC Special report on Technology Transfer in 2000 and was a Coordinating Lead Author for the IPCC/TEAP special report on Safeguarding the Ozone layer and Global Climate System in 2005 . The work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize . His UNEP programme became the first in the United Nations to bag an award from the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) for global efforts to protect the ozone layer . He also won a United States EPA award for Climate Protection . In 2006 he was felicitated by President of India Dr. Abdul Kalam for his role in development of the solar vaccine cooler for the poor , rural and remote communities . He is a member steering committee of key UNEP reports on interlinkages between Ozone Layer Protection and climate change . He has adopted his village Rahimatpur to develop it into a role model and a Social Laboratory for the sustainable development .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Rajendra_Shende", "rank": 93, "score": 136699 }, { "content": "Title: Michael E. Mann Content: Michael E. Mann ( born 1965 ) is an American climatologist and geophysicist , currently director of the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University , who has contributed to the scientific understanding of historic climate change based on the temperature record of the past thousand years . He has pioneered techniques to find patterns in past climate change , and to isolate climate signals from noisy data . As lead author of a paper produced in 1998 with co-authors Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , Mann used advanced statistical techniques to find regional variations in a hemispherical climate reconstruction covering the past 600 years . In 1999 the same team used these techniques to produce a reconstruction over the past 1,000 years ( MBH99 ) which was dubbed the `` hockey stick graph '' because of its shape . He was one of eight lead authors of the `` Observed Climate Variability and Change '' chapter of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Scientific Assessment Report published in 2001 . A graph based on the MBH99 paper was highlighted in several parts of the report , and was given wide publicity . The IPCC acknowledged that his work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . Mann was organizing committee chair for the National Academy of Sciences Frontiers of Science in 2003 and has received a number of honors and awards including selection by Scientific American as one of the fifty leading visionaries in science and technology in 2002 . In 2012 he was inducted as a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and was awarded the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . In 2013 he was elected a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society , and awarded the status of distinguished professor in Penn State 's College of Earth and Mineral Sciences . Mann is author of more than 200 peer-reviewed and edited publications . He has also published three books : Dire Predictions : Understanding Global Warming ( 2008 ) , The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines ( 2012 ) , and , together with co-author Tom Toles , The Madhouse Effect : How Climate Change Denial Is Threatening Our Planet , Destroying Our Politics , and Driving Us Crazy ( 2016 ) . In 2012 , the European Geosciences Union described his publication record as `` outstanding for a scientist of his relatively young age '' . Mann is also a co-founder and contributor to the climatology blog RealClimate .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Michael_E._Mann", "rank": 94, "score": 136500 }, { "content": "Title: John Hunter (scientist) Content: John Hunter ( born November 14 , 1955 ) is an American projectile researcher , who developed the 1994 `` supergun '' Super High Altitude Research Project ( SHARP ) at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory . The ultimate aim of his research is to shoot payloads into space , at less than one tenth of the cost of unmanned rockets . John Hunter was the director of Quicklaunch until 2012 .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "John_Hunter_(scientist)", "rank": 95, "score": 136394 }, { "content": "Title: UC Davis Department of Applied Science Content: The Department of Applied Science at the University of California , Davis was a cooperative academic program involving the University of California , Davis and the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory ( LLNL ) . It was established in the fall of 1963 by Edward Teller , director of LLNL , and Roy Bainer , then dean of the UC Davis College of Engineering . The department was discontinued in 2011 .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "UC_Davis_Department_of_Applied_Science", "rank": 96, "score": 135916 }, { "content": "Title: Rajendra K. Pachauri Content: Rajendra Kumar Pachauri ( born 20 August 1940 ) was the chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He held the post from 2002 until his resignation in 2015 , during which time the organization was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . He resigned from IPCC in February 2015 . Following a media trial , The Energy and Resources Institute ( TERI ) Governing Council asked him to step down from the post of Director-General of the institute . The Governing Council of TERI in a meeting in February 2016 appointed Ashok Chawla , a Gujarat cadre Indian Administrative Service Office who was former Union Finance Secretary and former Chairman of the Competition Commission , as its new chairman . Ajay Mathur , a technocrat in the Bureau of Energy Efficiency , was appointed as the Director General of TERI by the Governing Council in July 2015 .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Rajendra_K._Pachauri", "rank": 97, "score": 135429 }, { "content": "Title: Lawrence A. Mysak Content: Lawrence Mysak , ( born January 1940 in Saskatoon , Saskatchewan ) is a Canadian applied mathematician , working primarily on physical oceanography , and climate research , particularly arctic and palaeoclimate research . Born in Saskatoon , Saskatchewan , Lawrence earned his B.Sc . in applied mathematics in 1961 from the University of Alberta ( Canada ) along with his Assoc. Mus . ( flute performance ) , his M.Sc . from the University of Adelaide in 1963 ( where he was supervised by George Szekeres ) and his Ph.D. , also in applied mathematics , from Harvard University in 1967 . Lawrence continues to play the flute now with the I Medici di McGill orchestra . Then followed faculty appointments at Harvard University and the University of British Columbia where he co-authored the standard textbook on Waves in the Ocean with Paul LeBlond . Finally he joined the faculty at McGill University from 1986 until his retirement in 2010 . At McGill University Mysak was the founding director , in 1990 , of the McGill Centre for Global Change Research which is now known as the Global Environment and Climate Change Centre and during his tenure Dr. Mysak served as president of the International Association for the Physical Sciences of the Oceans , IAPSO . and serves on the Board of Trustees of the Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences . Mysak 's research focuses on Arctic sea ice and climate during the Little Ice Age ; sea ice rheology ( viscous-plastic vs. purely plastic models ) ; modeling the freshwater budget of the Arctic Ocean and exchanges with the North Atlantic Ocean ( present and past ) ; response of the ocean carbon cycle to Milankovitch forcing in a low-order atmosphere-ocean-sea ice model ; and reconstruction of climate change in Europe during the past millennium from an analysis of church architecture , comparing the Medieval Warm Period with the Little Ice Age .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Lawrence_A._Mysak", "rank": 98, "score": 135281 }, { "content": "Title: Gerald Friedland Content: Gerald Friedland ( born 1978 , Berlin ) is an adjunct professor at the Electrical Engineering and Computer Science Department of the University of California , Berkeley and a Principal Scientist at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory . He also maintains an affiliation with the International Computer Science Institute", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Gerald_Friedland", "rank": 99, "score": 135269 }, { "content": "Title: Nth Country Experiment Content: The Nth Country Experiment was an experiment conducted by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory starting in May 1964 which sought to assess the risk of nuclear proliferation . The experiment consisted in paying three recent young physicists who had just received their PhDs , though had no prior weapons experience , to develop a working nuclear weapon design using only unclassified information , and with basic computational and technical support . `` The goal of the participants should be to design an explosive with a militarily significant yield '' , the report on the experiment read , `` A working context for the experiment might be that the participants have been asked to design a nuclear explosive which , if built in small numbers , would give a small nation a significant effect on their foreign relations . '' The experiment ended on April 10 , 1967 , after only three man-years of work over two and a half calendar years . According to a heavily redacted declassified version of the summary , it was apparently judged by lab weapons experts that the team had come up with a credible design for the technically more challenging implosion style nuclear weapon . It is likely that they would have been able to design a simpler gun combination weapon even more quickly , though in such a case the limiting factor in developing such a weapon is not usually design difficulty but rather the procurement of material ( enriched uranium ) . The term `` Nth Country '' referred to the goal in assessing the difficulty in developing basic weapons design ( again , not the same thing as the development of weapons themselves ) for any potential country with a relatively small amount of technical infrastructure -- if the United States was the 1st country to develop nuclear weapons , and the USSR the 2nd , and so on , which would be the Nth country ? Due to the increased amount of publicly available resources regarding nuclear weapons , it is reasonable to assume that a viable weapon design could be reached with even less effort today . However in the history of nuclear weapons , the development of fission weapons was never strongly hindered by basic design questions except in the very first nuclear weapons programs . The Summary Report of the Nth Country Experiment was declassified -- though heavily excised -- in 2003 .", "qid": "3082", "docid": "Nth_Country_Experiment", "rank": 100, "score": 135238 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Christian Jensen Lofthuus Content: Christian Jensen Lofthuus ( Kristian Jenssøn Lofthus ) ( 15 May 1750 - 13 June 1797 ) was a prominent farmer from Risør , Norway . Between 1786-87 , he led a large peasant revolt in Norway which became known as the Lofthusreisingen .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Christian_Jensen_Lofthuus", "rank": 1, "score": 145867 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Høysgaard Content: Jens Pedersen Høysgaard ( December 25 , 1698 -- April 21 , 1773 ) was a Danish philologist , caretaker at the University of Copenhagen from 1737 -- 1759 , and bell-ringer at Trinitatis Church . In spite of never holding an academic post , he wrote several highly insightful treatises on Danish and Latin . Today , his work on Danish is considered the best of the early grammatical analyses of the Danish language . In 1743 , he was the first to describe the stød , an important aspect of Danish phonology , in his Concordia res parvæ crescunt , eller Anden Prøve af Dansk Orthographie , in which he also introduced the letter Å å to the Danish alphabet .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Høysgaard", "rank": 2, "score": 145009 }, { "content": "Title: Christen Jensen Lodberg Content: Christen Jensen Lodberg ( 31 October 1625 - 12 June 1693 ) was a Danish bishop . Born in Todbøl , Lodbjerg Parish , his father , Jens Christensen , was a farmer . In his eleventh year he went to the small grammar school in Thisted , and then to Viborg , from Viborg perhaps to Odense and finally to Roskilde school , from which he graduated in 1647 . During his studies , he returned to the farm to help out . After completing his theological studies and accumulating some money , he traveled abroad in 1652 , partly helped by a scholarship . Beset by lack of funds , he may have enlisted as a soldier on his travels , first in Naples , where he is said to have become acquainted with a Spanish general , under whom he served one and a half years in the Spanish guard . After his return in 1657 , he took a master 's degree , gave philosophical lectures and released some physico-astronomical theses , one of which , Philosophical-theological study on the first 2 verses of Genesis , attracted attention . After again having been abroad , as the steward of a young nobleman , he became in 1663 professor at Sorø Academy , which had been in decline . In 1665 he was called to court as tutor to the King of Denmark 's younger son , Prince George of Denmark . He was appointed dean of Roskilde in 1666 , while continuing to be the prince 's confessor . In 1681 , he became bishop of Ribe and the following year a doctor of theology . In 1671 , he married Johanne Eilertz # 1649-1714 # , daughter of Alderman Jacob Eilertz of Copenhagen . He died in Ribe , and was buried in Roskilde Cathedral . His son Jacob Lodberg was bishop of Odense . Based on text from the Dansk biografisk leksikon . Category :1625 births Category :1693 deaths Category : Danish Lutheran bishops", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Christen_Jensen_Lodberg", "rank": 3, "score": 142688 }, { "content": "Title: Christian Albrecht Jensen Content: Christian Albrecht Jensen ( 26 June 1792 -- 13 July 1870 ) was a Danish portrait painter who was active during the Golden Age of Danish Painting in the first half of the 19th century . Painting more than 400 portraits over the course of his career , he depicted most of the leading figures of the Danish Golden Age , including the writer Hans Christian Andersen , the painter Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg , the sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen , the physicist Hans Christian Ørsted and the theologian N. F. S. Grundtvig . Although Jensen experienced considerable commercial success , he received little official appreciation from the artistic establishment of his day . In particular , the art historian and critic Niels Lauritz Høyen criticized his style , finding his paintings ` unfinished ' .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Christian_Albrecht_Jensen", "rank": 4, "score": 140092 }, { "content": "Title: Søren Gade Content: Søren Gade Jensen ( born 27 January 1963 ) is a Danish politician who served as Defence Minister representing the Liberal party , Venstre from 2004 to 2010 , when he replaced Svend Aage Jensby . He has been a Liberal member of the Danish Parliament since 2001 . Before entering politics , he was a military officer and businessman . In January 2008 he lost his wife after years of cancer . Gade resigned his position due to a long time conflict with the media after the publishing of an Arabic text , telling the defence 's methods in the Afghan war .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Søren_Gade", "rank": 5, "score": 140069 }, { "content": "Title: Rasmus Jensen Content: Rasmus Jensen ( died 20 February 1620 ) was a Danish Lutheran priest and the first Lutheran cleric in Canada . Little is known about the life of Jensen , not even the parish where he served as pastor , although his diary during the expedition provides some information . It is known that he was the chaplain aboard an expedition to the New World commissioned by King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway in 1619 . The expedition was made up of two small Danish ships Enhiørningen and Lamprenen , with 64 sailors who were Danes , Norwegians , Swedes , and Germans . Captained by the navigator and explorer , Jens Munk , the ships were searching for the Northwest Passage . After sailing into Frobisher Bay and Ungava Bay , Munk eventually passed through Hudson Strait and reached Digges Island ( at the northern tip of Quebec ) on August 20 . They then set out across the Bay towards the southwest . By early September , they had not yet found a passage . The party arrived in Hudson Bay on September 7 , landed at the mouth of Churchill River , settling at what is now Churchill , Manitoba . The two ships were put side-by-side and prepared for winter as best as they could . It was a disastrous winter . Cold , famine , and scurvy destroyed most of the men . Jensen had died on 20 February 1620 . Only Munk and two sailors survived to return , leaving no settlement in the New World . The frigate Enhiørningen had been broken down by ice during the winter . However , the smaller Lamprenen could be salvaged . The return trip lasted two months . The surviving crew members aboard the Lamprenen reached Bergen , Norway on 20 September 1620 . In the future , the majority of Danish Lutheran missionary activity was concentrated in India and the Danish West Indies , especially Saint Thomas . Rasmus Jensen 's commemoration date is February 20 within the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Rasmus_Jensen", "rank": 6, "score": 138813 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Nilssøn Content: Jens Nilssøn ( in Latin Joannis Nicolai ) ( 1538 -- 1600 ) was the Bishop of Oslo from 1580 to 1600 , a poet , author and one of the Oslo humanists , a group of men who lived in Eastern Norway in the 16th century who through their scholarly studies represented the breakthrough of humanism in Norway . As Bishop , he oversaw the completion of the Reformation in his diocese . He published several books in Latin and Danish and corresponded with other leading personalities of the time in Denmark-Norway , among them Tycho Brahe . Due to his prolific writing , he is the Norwegian person who lived before 1600 who is best known today . He is known for his visitation books , which paint a unique picture of Norway in the 16th century . He also wrote poetry in Latin , was interested in natural sciences , particularly astronomy , and had a passion for Norwegian prehistory . He preserved several medieval manuscripts , including Jǫfraskinna , which included parts of Heimskringla . His brother , Anders Nilssøn , was the burgomaster of Oslo .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Nilssøn", "rank": 7, "score": 138762 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Peter Dahl-Jensen Content: Jens Peter Dahl-Jensen ( actually , Jens ( Peter ) Jensen , 23 July 1874 in Nibe , Jutland -- 12 December 1960 in Copenhagen ) was a Danish sculptor . In 1926 he changed his surname from Jensen to Dahl-Jensen . The son of a cabinet maker , he was initially apprenticed to a joiner in Aalborg and won a silver medal for his exemplary work . During this period he learnt to carve in wood and became interested in sculpture . From 1894 to 1897 , Dahl-Jensen studied at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts in Copenhagen . On his vacations he travelled to Berlin and Dresden . After his final academy examination , he did additional studies in Switzerland and Italy . In 1900 he married his wife Martha . From 1897 to 1917 , he was a model master of the porcelain company Bing & Grøndahl in Copenhagen and from 1917 to 1925 he was the artistic director of the porcelain factory Norden , also Copenhagen . Between 1901 and 1925 Dahl-Jensen modelled numerous small sculptures of beasts of prey in bronze that were exhibited at Charlottenborg , Malmö , Berlin , Munich and San Francisco , but he became increasingly famous for his work in porcelain , especially animal figurines for Bing & Grøndahl . He was the busiest animal sculptor of his company , some of his Art nouveau figurines are still produced by Royal Copenhagen . In 1925 he started his own business in Husum , Germany ; in the same year , the Dahl-Jensen Porcelainfabrik was founded in Copenhagen , which exported a lot , mainly to the United States and Italy . In addition to animal figures , he modeled some unusual oriental figurines with deep and strong lower glazes , from 1930 to 1958 . His wife Martha Dahl-Jensen worked in the family and his son Georg Dahl-Jensen continued the production until 1981 , the company closed after the sale of the stock in 1984 .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Peter_Dahl-Jensen", "rank": 8, "score": 136672 }, { "content": "Title: Hans Jensen Krog Content: Hans Jensen Krog ( 27 December 1808 -- 22 February 1897 ) was a Norwegian politician . He was elected to the Norwegian Parliament in 1859 , representing the constituency of Søndre Bergenhuus Amt . He worked as a vicar ( sogneprest ) there . He was re-elected for a second term in 1862 .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Hans_Jensen_Krog", "rank": 9, "score": 133925 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Jensen Gram Content: Jens Jensen Gram ( 12 February 1779 -- 2 November 1824 ) was a Norwegian jurist and politician . He was born in Copenhagen as the son of Jens Gram . He studied at the University of Copenhagen from 1798 , and graduated with the cand.jur . degree in 1804 . He worked in the Danish Chancellery from 1806 until 1808 , when he was appointed as acting district stipendiary magistrate of Ringerike and Hallingdal . He got the position on a permanent basis in 1815 . He lived in Nes from 1808 , and at Ask from 1816 . He was a deputy representative to Norwegian Constituent Assembly in 1814 , and was elected to the Norwegian Parliament in 1818 and 1821 , representing the constituency of Buskeruds Amt . He served as President of the Odelsting . Due to a stroke in late 1821 , he was not re-elected in 1823 . In April 1806 in Norderhov he married Reinholdine Boll ( 1779 -- 1859 ) . Through his son Paul James Reinhold Harald Gram he was a grandfather of Gregers Winther Wulfsberg Gram and great-grandfather of Harald Gram . Through his son Johan Georg Boll Gram he was a grandfather of Andrea Gram and Jens Gram , and through the latter a grandfather of Johan Fredrik and Mads Gram , He died on 2 November 1824 in Christiania .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Jensen_Gram", "rank": 10, "score": 133651 }, { "content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming", "rank": 11, "score": 133019 }, { "content": "Title: Anton Marius Jenssen Content: Anton Marius Jenssen ( 27 November 1879 -- 25 July 1967 ) was a Norwegian merchant and politician . He was born in Herning , Denmark to mill owner Anders Christen Jensen and Else Kirstine Olesen . He emigrated to Norway in 1894 , and settled first in Horten , and from 1901 as merchant in Tønsberg . He was elected representative to the Storting for the periods 1925 -- 1927 , 1928 -- 1930 , 1931 -- 1933 , 1934 -- 1936 and 1937 -- 1945 , for the Labour Party . He was member of the municipal council of Tønsberg from 1910 to 1936 .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Anton_Marius_Jenssen", "rank": 12, "score": 132994 }, { "content": "Title: Anders Løwlie Content: Anders Jensen Løwlie ( 6 April 1843 -- 9 March 1924 ) was a Norwegian businessman and sports official . Løwlie was born in Romedal to farmer and blacksmith Jens Helgesen Løvlien and Randi Olsdatter Skee , and married Oline Augusta Jacobsen in 1877 . He was manager of the distillery from 1865 , and of Kristiania Brændevinssamlag from 1886 . Løwlie played a central role in development of the receipe for Løiten Akvavit , based on caraway from Dovre . From 1887 to 1892 he chaired the sports asscociation Centralforeningen for utbredelse af idræt . He was decorated Knight , First Class of the Order of St. Olav in 1901 . He died in Oslo in 1924 .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Anders_Løwlie", "rank": 13, "score": 132808 }, { "content": "Title: Anders Jensen Horgen Content: Anders Jensen Horgen ( 11 March 1861 -- 2 June 1947 ) was a Norwegian farmer and politician for the Labour , Social Democratic Labour and Communist parties . He was born as Anders Jensen in Hokksund as a son of fisher Jens Jakob Paulsen ( 1832 -- 1865 ) and Regine Christensdatter ( 1831 -- 1913 ) . After basic schooling he worked in timber floating and timber trade , commencing merchantry in his homedistrict Øvre Eiker in 1898 . In 1902 he moved to the farm Horgen in Nedre Eiker , running it for the rest of his life . He was supposedly converted to socialism in 1888 after participating in the liberal workers ' movement , where he met and heard Christian Holtermann Knudsen and Christopher Hornsrud . He was first elected to Øvre Eiker municipal council in 1898 , and served as mayor from 1907 to 1916 . He first fielded for parliamentary election in 1909 . With shoemaker Bøhmer as his running mate , he carried the sub-constituencies Nedre Eiker , Røken and Hurum , but lost Lier to Conservative candidate Torger Holtsmark with quite a margin . In total Horgen had 1,904 votes compared to Holtsmark 's 2,056 , so a second round was necessary . Here , Holtsmark edged out Horgen with 2,951 to 2,504 votes . He was elected to the Parliament of Norway from the constituency Buskerud in 1912 , 1915 and 1918 , serving three terms . In 1921 he joined the new Social Democratic Labour Party , and headed their ballot in Buskerud in the 1921 . The party got the least votes , and he was not elected . By 1930 , the two parties had merged , but Horgen had instead joined the Communist Party . He stood on second place on their unprevailing ballot in the 1930 election . He died in June 1947 .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Anders_Jensen_Horgen", "rank": 14, "score": 131675 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Rasmussen (human factors expert) Content: Jens Rasmussen was a system safety and human factors professor at Risø in Denmark . He was highly influential within the field of safety science , human error and accident research , contributing with the skill rule knowledge framework , Risk Management Framework , AcciMap Approach , and others .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Rasmussen_(human_factors_expert)", "rank": 15, "score": 131220 }, { "content": "Title: Johannes V. Jensen Content: Johannes Vilhelm Jensen ( commonly known as Johannes V. Jensen ; 20 January 1873 -- 25 November 1950 ) was a Danish author , often considered the first great Danish writer of the 20th century . He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1944 `` for the rare strength and fertility of his poetic imagination with which is combined an intellectual curiosity of wide scope and a bold , freshly creative style '' . One of his sisters , Thit Jensen , was also a well-known writer and a very vocal , and occasionally controversial , early feminist .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Johannes_V._Jensen", "rank": 16, "score": 131010 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Jensen (trade unionist) Content: Jens Jensen ( 1859 -- 1928 ) was a Danish trade unionist and Social Democratic politician . Jensen was a painter by profession . In 1879 he moved to Copenhagen . In 1883 he became the president of the Painters ' Trade Union , and in 1898 he was one of the main founders of the United Trade Unions . Jensen was elected president of the union federation . During his tenure Jensen took the initiative to the first international trade union coordination , the International Secretariat of National Trade Union Centres . Between 1895 and 1903 he was a Member of Folketinget . He later became the first Social Democratic mayor of Copenhagen .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Jensen_(trade_unionist)", "rank": 17, "score": 129712 }, { "content": "Title: Jørgen Sadolin Content: Jørgen Jensen Sadolin ( c. 1490 -- 29 December 1559 in Odense ) was a Danish reformer , the son of Jens Christensen , a curate and subsequently a canon of Viborg Cathedral , and consequently , in all probability , born c. 1499 out of wedlock , as his Catholic opponents frequently took care to remind him . He himself never used the name Sadolin , which seems to have been invented subsequently by his son Hans , and points to the fact that the family were originally saddle-makers . We first hear of him on 1 December 1525 , when Frederick I permitted him to settle at Viborg to teach young persons of the poorer classes `` whatever might be profitable . '' On this occasion he is described as `` magister '' and no doubt got his degree abroad , where he seems to have been won for the Reformation . He sided with Hans Tausen when the latter first began to preach the gospel at Viborg and Tausen , though himself only in priest 's orders , shortly before he left the place , ordained Sadolin ( 1529 ) . Amongst `` the free priests '' who attended the herredag of Copenhagen in 1530 Sadolin occupied a prominent place . Frederick subsequently transferred him to Funen , where he acted , according to his own expression , as `` adjutor in verbo '' to the Bishop of Odense . At the diocesan council on 27 May 1532 , during the absence of the bishop , he presented to the assembled priests a translation of Luther 's catechism , with Luther 's name omitted , preceded earnestly in favour of a better system of education and a more practical application of the Christian life , which occupies a conspicuous place in the literature of the Danish Reformation . In the following year Sadolin published the first Danish translation of the Confession of Augsburg . On 2 September 1537 he was consecrated by the German reformer , Johann Bugenhagen , who himself only had priest 's orders , superintendent , or first evangelical bishop , of Funen . As bishop he was remarkable for the success with which he provided the necessary means for the support of churches , schools and hospitals in his widespread diocese , which had been deprived of its usual sources of income by the wholesale confiscation of church property . Towards the Catholics he adopted a firm , but moderate and reasonable , tone , and his indulgence towards the monks in St Knud 's cloister drew down upon him a fierce attack from the Puritan clergyman of Odense , who absurdly accused him of being a crypto-Catholic . He gave the funeral oration over Christian III in St John 's Church at Odense in February 1559 , though now very infirm and blind , and died at the end of the same year .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jørgen_Sadolin", "rank": 18, "score": 129389 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Christian Hansen Content: Jens Christian Hansen ( 5 May 1932 in Bodø -- 8 May 2014 ) was a Norwegian geographer . He took the dr.philos . degree in 1970 with the thesis Administrative grenser og tettstedsvekst . After a period as a docent at the Norwegian School of Economics he was a professor at the University of Bergen from 1972 . He was a fellow of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters from 1985 , of the Academia Europaea and of the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters . He died in May 2014 .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Christian_Hansen", "rank": 19, "score": 129269 }, { "content": "Title: Andrew Jenson Content: Andrew Jenson , born Anders Jensen , ( December 11 , 1850 -- November 18 , 1941 ) was a Danish immigrant to the United States who acted as an Assistant Church Historian of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ( LDS Church ) for much of the early-20th century . Jenson also served the church as president of the Scandinavian Mission .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Andrew_Jenson", "rank": 20, "score": 129173 }, { "content": "Title: 20th century Content: The 20th century was a century that began on January 1 , 1901 and ended on December 31 , 2000 . It was the tenth and final century of the 2nd millennium . It is distinct from the century known as the 1900s which began on January 1 , 1900 , and ended on December 31 , 1999 . The 20th century was dominated by a chain of events that heralded significant changes in world history as to redefine the era : World War I and World War II , nuclear power and space exploration , nationalism and decolonization , the Cold War and post-Cold War conflicts ; intergovernmental organizations and cultural homogenization through developments in emerging transportation and communications technology ; poverty reduction and world population growth , awareness of environmental degradation , ecological extinction ; and the birth of the Digital Revolution . It saw great advances in communication and medical technology that by the late 1980s allowed for near-instantaneous worldwide computer communication and genetic modification of life . The term `` short twentieth century '' was coined to represent the events from 1914 to 1991 . Global total fertility rates , sea level rise and ecological collapses increased ; the resulting competition for land and dwindling resources accelerated deforestation , water depletion . and the mass extinction of half the world 's estimated nine million unique species and wildlife population ; consequences which are now being dealt with . It took all of human history up to 1804 for the world 's population to reach 1 billion ; world population reached an estimated 2 billion in 1927 ; by late 1999 , the global population reached 6 billion . Global literacy averaged 80 % ; global lifespan-averages exceeded 40 + years for the first time in history , with over half achieving 70 + years ( three decades longer than it was a century ago ) .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "20th_century", "rank": 21, "score": 128696 }, { "content": "Title: Bjørn G. Andersen Content: Bjørn Grothaug Andersen ( 23 March 1924 , in Stavanger , Norway -- 12 January 2012 , in Asker , Norway ) was a Norwegian professor of Quaternary geology and glaciology who made foundational contributions to glacial geology and the understanding of climate change .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Bjørn_G._Andersen", "rank": 22, "score": 128592 }, { "content": "Title: Yvonne Herløv Andersen Content: Yvonne Herløv Andersen ( born 1942 ) is a Danish politician . A social worker and school principal by profession , Herløv Andersen was present at the founding of the Centre Democrats in 1973 , though initially in a background role , serving as assistant to party leader Erhard Jakobsen , and in other internal party positions . She was elected to the Folketing ( Danish parliament ) in 1977 from Sorø , serving until 1979 , again from 1981 to 1984 from Slagelse , and from 1987 -- 88 from Odense . In 1994 she was appointed Social Minister in the first Nyrup Rasmussen cabinet . She subsequently served as Minister of Health in the second Nyrup Rasmussen cabinet , from 1994 to 1996 , where she focused particularly on reform of HIV policy , and compensation for previous mistreatment of hemophiliacs . She was outed as lesbian in 1996 by Palle Juul-Jensen , the former head of the National Board of Health , who had clashed with Herløv Anderson and her predecessor Torben Lund over AIDS policy , leading to Juul-Jensen 's forced resignation in 1995 . In his memoir , Juul-Jensen asked what would have been different if `` the two latest Ministers of Health , not only politically but personally , had another relationship to the National Union for Gays and Lesbians '' . Herløv Anderson and Lund thereafter acknowledged their sexual orientations , becoming the first openly gay members of the Danish parliament .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Yvonne_Herløv_Andersen", "rank": 23, "score": 128521 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 24, "score": 128430 }, { "content": "Title: Alfred Råvad Content: Alfred Christian Ludvig Jensen ( since ca. 1880 Alfred Råvad , and in the United States Roewade ) ( 10 July 1848 in Rådvad -- 3 April 1933 in København ) was a Danish architect and urban planner . He influenced urban planning in Reykjavík .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Alfred_Råvad", "rank": 25, "score": 128114 }, { "content": "Title: Søren Marinus Jensen Content: Søren Marinus Jensen ( 5 May 1879 -- 6 January 1965 ) was a Danish sport wrestler who competed in the 1906 Intercalated Games and the 1908 and 1912 Summer Olympics . He won medals at each Games ; however , the gold medals he won at the 1906 Games are no longer considered to be Olympic medals . He remains Denmark 's most successful wrestler at the Olympics . In addition , he was World Champion in 1905 and won multiple European championship silver medals .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Søren_Marinus_Jensen", "rank": 26, "score": 127638 }, { "content": "Title: Ole Jensen Rong Content: Ole Jensen Rong ( 26 November 1885 -- 18 July 1953 ) was a Norwegian politician for the Labour Party . He was born in Herlø . He was elected to the Norwegian Parliament from Hordaland in 1945 , and was re-elected on one occasion . He had previously served in the position of deputy representative during the terms 1934 -- 1936 and 1937 -- 1945 . Towards the end of his second term in Parliament , he died and was replaced by Knut Severin Jakobsen Vik . Rong held various positions in Herdla municipality council from 1928 to 1947 , except for the years 1940 -- 1945 , during World War II .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Ole_Jensen_Rong", "rank": 27, "score": 127609 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Hoyer Hansen Content: Jens Høyer Hansen ( 14 July 1940 -- 10 August 1999 ) was a Danish-born jeweller who settled in New Zealand and did most of his well-known work in Nelson , New Zealand . Hansen was one of a number of European-trained jewellers who came to New Zealand in the 1960s and transformed contemporary jewellery in the country , including Tanya Ashken , Kobi Bosshard and Gunter Taemmler . He was the designer and creator of the prop ring used as The One Ring in Peter Jackson 's The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit film trilogies .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Hoyer_Hansen", "rank": 28, "score": 127328 }, { "content": "Title: Anders Christian Jensen-Haarup Content: Anders Christian Jensen-Haarup ( 8 January 1863 -- 30 January 1934 ) was a Danish entomologist who specialised in Hymenoptera . He was born in Nim and died in Silkeborg . Jensen-Haarup was a teacher . In September 1904 he went to the province of Mendoza in Argentina on an insect collecting expedition.In 1905 he returned to Denmark to work on the material . In autumn of 1906 Jensen-Haarup went on a second trip to Argentina , this time accompanied by his friend Peter Jørgensen . Jensen-Haarup published a series of popular accounts of the natural history of Argentina and wrote accounts of his travels as well as entomological works . The part of his collection which was not sold or retained by specialists to whom he sent material is in the Natural History Museum of Denmark , University of Copenhagen", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Anders_Christian_Jensen-Haarup", "rank": 29, "score": 127241 }, { "content": "Title: Christian Jensen Mørup Content: Christian Jensen Mørup ( 1732 -- 1800 ) was a Danish architect who primarily worked in Jutland during the 1700s . Mørup was born on 4 November 1732 in Nørup and died 27 April 1800 in Ødum . Christian Mørup 's parents were copyholders at Engelsholm Castle and his father a master builder . Mørup was taught the masonry craft by his father and was later educated in architectural drawing and planning by Nicolaus Hinrich Rieman . In 1760 the master builder of Bidstrup Manor died and Mørup was tasked with finishing the project . The following year he designed an extension for Aarhus Cathedral School which is today known as the White Building . The extension was extensively altered in 1847 when it was given an additional floor and a neoclassical appearance . In 1780 Mørup built Randers City hall which may be his best known work and which was protected as a listed building in 1918 . Christian Jensen Mørup worked in a dated Baroque style with some newer elements such as the lesene-arch framing the porch portal in Bidstrup Church which can be found in all his later works . Randers City Hall also has elements thought to be inspired by works by Niels Eigtved .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Christian_Jensen_Mørup", "rank": 30, "score": 127016 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Andersen Beldenak Content: Jens Andersen Beldenak , ( the Bald ) , Danish bishop , born in the village of Brøndum , the Limfjord , died 20 January 1537 .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Andersen_Beldenak", "rank": 31, "score": 126136 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Nygård (sport shooter) Content: Jens Jensen Nygård ( 7 August 1934 -- 3 September 2005 ) was a Norwegian sports shooter . He placed 69th in the 50 metre rifle , prone event at the 1972 Summer Olympics .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Nygård_(sport_shooter)", "rank": 32, "score": 126091 }, { "content": "Title: Dorte Juul Jensen Content: Dorte Juul Jensen is a senior scientist and head of the Center for Fundamental Research : Metal Structures in Four Dimensions and Materials Research Division , Risø DTU National Laboratory for Sustainable Energy , Roskilde , Denmark . Risø operates under the auspices of the Danish Ministry of Science , Technology and Innovation , researching a wide range of technologies and training Ph.D candidates in the sciences . Jensen 's research involves advancing knowledge of the physical characteristics of metal structures . She has pioneered new experimental techniques based on neutron diffraction , electron microscopy , and synchrotron x-ray diffraction . In 1997 , Jensen became the first woman to be awarded the degree of Dr. Techn . in Denmark . In 1998 , she was awarded a Tagea Brandt Rejselegat . In 1999 , she was the first woman to receive the Statoil Prize ( Statoil Prisen ) for her work . Jensen is an editor of the journal Scripta Materialia , an international journal of material science , and she has co-authored a book , Electron Backscatter Diffraction in Materials Science ( Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers , New York , New York 2000 ) .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Dorte_Juul_Jensen", "rank": 33, "score": 125851 }, { "content": "Title: Synnøve Liaaen Jensen Content: Synnøve Liaaen Jensen ( born 1 March 1932 ) is a Norwegian chemist . She took the dr.techn . degree in 1963 as the first woman in Norway , and became the first female professor at the Norwegian Institute of Technology . She was a professor of theoretical chemistry there from 1970 to her retirement . She also received an honorary degree at the ETH Zurich in 1986 . She is a fellow of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters and the Norwegian Academy of Technological Sciences .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Synnøve_Liaaen_Jensen", "rank": 34, "score": 125671 }, { "content": "Title: J. A. D. Jensen Content: Jens Arnold Diderich Jensen ( 24 July 1849 in Flensburg -- 24 November 1936 in Copenhagen ) was a Danish naval officer and Arctic explorer .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "J._A._D._Jensen", "rank": 35, "score": 125642 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Kristian Jensen Content: Jens Kristian Jensen ( 22 March 1885 -- 27 March 1956 ) was a Danish gymnast who competed in the 1912 Summer Olympics . He was part of the Danish team , which won the silver medal in the gymnastics men 's team , Swedish system event .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Kristian_Jensen", "rank": 36, "score": 125524 }, { "content": "Title: Tove Bruunstrøm Content: Tove Bruunstrøm Madsen , later Jensen ( October 10 , 1920 -- April 13 , 2007 ) , was a Danish backstroke and freestyle swimmer who competed in the 1936 Summer Olympics . She was born in Copenhagen . She was the wife of Finn Jensen . In 1936 she finished fifth in the 100 metre backstroke competition . She was also a member of the Danish relay team which finished seventh in the 4 × 100 metre freestyle relay event .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Tove_Bruunstrøm", "rank": 37, "score": 125269 }, { "content": "Title: Ole Rømer Content: Ole Christensen Rømer ( -LSB- ˈo lə ˈʁœːˀmɐ -RSB- ; 25 September 1644 -- 19 September 1710 ) was a Danish astronomer who in 1676 made the first quantitative measurements of the speed of light . Rømer also invented the modern thermometer showing the temperature between two fixed points , namely the points at which water respectively boils and freezes . In scientific literature alternative spellings such as `` Roemer '' , `` Römer '' , or `` Romer '' are common .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Ole_Rømer", "rank": 38, "score": 125119 }, { "content": "Title: Rømer scale Content: Rømer ( -LSB- ˈʁœːˀmɐ -RSB- ( also Roemer ) is a temperature scale named after the Danish astronomer Ole Christensen Rømer , who proposed it in 1701 . It is based on the freezing point of pure water being 7.5 degrees and the boiling point of water as 60 degrees .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Rømer_scale", "rank": 39, "score": 124874 }, { "content": "Title: Jørn Jensen Content: Jørn Jensen ( 1925 -- 2007 ) , one of the earliest Danish programmers . Examined as a mechanical engineer and had worked with electromechanical construction . In 1958 employed at the Danish Regnecentralen , and very soon exhibited an extraordinary programming skill . He developed the main parts of the base programs to DASK , the first Danish computer -- among others , he designed a collection of monitor programs to supervise the program running schedule on DASK . In tight collaboration with Peter Naur and others , he developed reliable , well documented compilers to the ALGOL 60 programming language . In this context he invented Jensen 's Device , an ingenious exploitation of the name parameters to compute numerical series without using procedure parameters -- as is necessary in all programming languages , except ALGOL 60 , and Simula-67 . After circa 20 years at Regnecentralen he continued his career as a systems programmer among others in the Brown Boveri company .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jørn_Jensen", "rank": 40, "score": 124848 }, { "content": "Title: Kandis (band) Content: Kandis is a Danish dansband made up of Johnny Hansen , Jørgen Hein Jørgensen , Michael Krätz and Jens Erik Jensen . It was formed in 1989 . Its biggest hit ever was the 1993 single `` En lille ring af guld '' , that stayed at the top of the Danish Danse Charts for a total of 33 weeks . Many of their albums have consistently reached the Top 5 including some that have topped the Danish albums Chart ( notably Kandis 12 in 2008 and Kandis 14 in 2011 ) . The band lead singer and guitarist Johnny Hansen , ( born 25 July 1965 ) , has had also a prosperous separate solo career releasing various albums like Godmorgen verden ( 1999 ) , Lidt efter lidt ( 2001 ) and Mit ferieparadis ( 2006 )", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Kandis_(band)", "rank": 41, "score": 124588 }, { "content": "Title: Jørgen Jensen (equestrian) Content: Jørgen Jensen ( 1 January 1878 -- 31 March 1970 ) was a Norwegian equestrian . He was born in Oslo . He competed at the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm , where he placed 26th in individual jumping .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jørgen_Jensen_(equestrian)", "rank": 42, "score": 124470 }, { "content": "Title: Søren Alfred Jensen Content: Søren Alfred Jensen ( May 22 , 1891 -- May 16 , 1978 ) was a Danish gymnast who competed in the 1912 Summer Olympics . He was part of the Danish team , which won the silver medal in the gymnastics men 's team , Swedish system event .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Søren_Alfred_Jensen", "rank": 43, "score": 124451 }, { "content": "Title: Christian E.O. Jensen Content: Christian Erasmus Otterstrøm ( Otterström ) Jensen ( 1859 -- 1941 ) was a Danish pharmacists and botanist - for decades a leading bryologist in Scandinavia . He studied botany and pharmaceutics at the University of Copenhagen and the Pharmaceutical College in Copenhagen . For the better part of his adult life , he ran a pharmacy in Hvalsø , Denmark , while devoting all available time to the study of mosses .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Christian_E.O._Jensen", "rank": 44, "score": 124430 }, { "content": "Title: Søren Elung Jensen Content: Søren Elung Jensen ( 7 July 1928 -- 22 January 2017 ) was a Danish film actor . He appeared in 22 films between 1960 and 1999 . He was born in Odense . He died from lung cancer on 22 January 2017 in Hellerup . He was 88 .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Søren_Elung_Jensen", "rank": 45, "score": 124139 }, { "content": "Title: Jensen's Bøfhus Content: Jensens Bøfhus is a Danish steakhouse chain with 49 restaurants all together ; 34 in Denmark , 13 in Sweden and one in Germany and Norway . It started in the year of 1984 when Palle Skov Jensen opened the first restaurant which was then called Bøfhus España in Aarhus , Denmark . It was later changed to the current name in 1990 and at that point there were only four restaurants . As of today the chain is still owned by Palle Skov Jensen . The vision of this restaurant is that everyone should afford high quality steak for low prices . The year 2000 was when Jensens Bøfhus started to sell selected new products such as spare ribs , sauces and coleslaw at the retail trade . The main office lies today in the area by Fruens Bøge in Odense , Denmark next to their restaurant by Læssøgade . Jensens Bøfhus has of today over 2,000 employees and every year the restaurant gets over five million visitors .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jensen's_Bøfhus", "rank": 46, "score": 123993 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Lambæk Content: Jens Vedersø Stamp Lambæk ( October 16 , 1899 -- October 21 , 1985 ) was a Danish gymnast who competed in the 1920 Summer Olympics . He was part of the Danish team , which was able to win the silver medal in the gymnastics men 's team , Swedish system event in 1920 .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Lambæk", "rank": 47, "score": 123424 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Bang Content: Jens Bang ( c. 1575 - 20 February 1644 ) was a wealthy Danish merchant . Born in Horsens , he was the son of merchant Oluf Bang . His older half-brother was the mayor , Jørgen Olufsen . Bang arrived in Aalborg at the age of 22 where he was apprenticed to a merchant . He purchased a large plot of land in 1621 on the corner of Algade and Østerå where , in 1623-24 , his built a large stone house , which came to be known as Jens Bang 's House . He may have been trying to out-do his older brother , Olufsen , who had built a large stone house in 1616 at 25 Østerå , which came to be known as Jørgen Olufsen 's House . He married Mette , daughter of Knud Jensen , the eel-salter . Bang died in Aalborg in 1644 .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Bang", "rank": 48, "score": 123362 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Søndergaard Content: Jens Søndergaard ( October 4 , 1895 -- May 21 , 1957 ) was a Danish expressionist painter . He specialised in strongly coloured landscapes depicting his feelings for the power of nature and the sea . Søndergaard won both national and international acclaim .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Søndergaard", "rank": 49, "score": 122600 }, { "content": "Title: Jens T. Larsen House Content: The Jens T. Larsen House is a historic building located in Kimballton , Iowa , United States . Its significance is derived from its association with the Danish immigrant settlement of the community , and the skilled Danish craftsman who lived and worked there . It is believed the house is the work of Anders Jensen , who may have had the assistance of his brother Thorvald . They were natives of Fyn , Denmark who immigrated with the rest of their family to Wisconsin in the 1870s before settling in Audubon County . Built in 1894 , the 1 1/2 - story frame structure features a T-plan , wall dormers , and a small square tower . The original front porch has subsequently been replaced by an enclosed porch . The house was built for Jens Larsen , also a Danish immigrant . He arrived in 1874 and was engaged in farming . The southern half of Kimballton was his land . This was his retirement home , and he lived here until he died , as did his wife Elena who died in 1928 . The house was acquired by their nephew Thomas Christensen , who owned it until 1962 . It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1991 .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_T._Larsen_House", "rank": 50, "score": 122544 }, { "content": "Title: Søren Georg Jensen Content: Søren Georg Jensen ( 4 October 1917 -- 20 September 1982 ) was a Danish silversmith and sculptor . Son of the noted silversmith Georg Jensen , he was the artistic director of the Georg Jensen Silversmithy from 1962 to 1964 .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Søren_Georg_Jensen", "rank": 51, "score": 122251 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Bjørneboe Content: Jens Ingvald Bjørneboe ( 9 October 1920 -- 9 May 1976 ) was a Norwegian writer whose work spanned a number of literary formats . He was also a painter and a Waldorf school teacher . Bjørneboe was a harsh and eloquent critic of Norwegian society and Western civilization on the whole . He led a turbulent life and his uncompromising opinions cost him both an obscenity conviction as well as long periods of heavy drinking and bouts of depression , which in the end led to his suicide . Jens Bjørneboe 's first published work was Poems ( Dikt ) in 1951 . He is widely considered to be one of Norway 's most important post-war authors . Bjørneboe identified himself , among other self-definitions , as an anarcho-nihilist . During the Norwegian language struggle , Bjørneboe was a notable proponent of the Riksmål language , together with his equally famous cousin André Bjerke .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Bjørneboe", "rank": 52, "score": 122236 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Andersen Hagen Content: Jens Andersen Hagen ( 1832 - ?? ) was a Norwegian politician for the Conservative Party . He was elected to the Norwegian Parliament in 1886 , representing the constituency of Kristiania , Hønefoss og Kongsvinger . He only served one term . He worked as a tanner .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Andersen_Hagen", "rank": 53, "score": 122131 }, { "content": "Title: El Niño–Southern Oscillation Content: El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation", "rank": 54, "score": 122071 }, { "content": "Title: Thit Jensen Content: Maria Kirstine Dorothea Jensen ( Thit Jensen ) ( 19 January 1876 -- 14 May 1957 ) was a Danish novelist , but also author of short stories , plays and society critical articles . She was the daughter of a veterinarian in Farsø and sister to Danish author Johannes V. Jensen . She was married from 1912 -- 1918 to the painter Gustav Fenger . She wrote about erotic and social themes and fought for women 's rights . In 1917 she founded Københavns Husmoderforening ( Copenhagen Housewives Association ) and in 1917 De Danske Husmoderforeninger ( The Danish Housewives Association ) which represented all the local associations in Denmark . In 1924 she founded the `` Foreningen for Seksuel Oplysning '' , the Organization for Sexual Awareness , in which Jonathan Leunbach performed abortions . She was personally against abortion , but felt that women needed to have a choice . She was highly criticized for this belief . Jensen was awarded the Tagea Brandt Rejselegat in 1935 and with the Holberg Medal in 1940 . Her literary work includes : 1903 - To Søstre 1905 - Martyrium 1907 - Prins Nilaus af Danmark 1913 - Højeste Ret 1915 - Stærkere end Tro 1916 - Jydske Historier 1918 - Gerd - det tyvende Aarhundredes Kvinde 1919 - Den erotiske Hamster 1924 - Frivilligt Moderskab 1925 - Aphrodite fra Fuur : den moderne kvindes udviklingshistorie 1926 - Børnebegrænsning . Hvorfor - hvordan ? 1929 - Storken 1931 - Jørgen Lykke : rigens sidste ridder 1934 - Nial den Vise 1936 - Stygge Krumpen 1940-53 - Romanserien om Valdemar Atterdag , Drotten , Rigets arving og Atter det skilte 1950 - Erindringerne Hvorfra ? Hvorhen ? 1954 - Den sidste Valkyrie", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Thit_Jensen", "rank": 55, "score": 122059 }, { "content": "Title: Bjørn Helland-Hansen Content: Bjørn Helland-Hansen ( 16 October 1877 -- 7 September 1957 ) was a Norwegian pioneer in the field of modern oceanography . He studied the variation patterns of the weather in the northern Atlantic Ocean and of the atmosphere . He studied both medicine and physics at the University of Christiania ( now University of Oslo ) . He developed the `` Helland-Hansen Photometer '' in 1910 , which was carried on board Michael Sars . It was operated for the first time close to the Azores at a depth between 500 and m . In 1915 he became Professor of oceanography at the Bergen Museum , and in 1917 director of the Geophysical Institute , University of Bergen . In 1933 he was awarded the Alexander Agassiz Medal . In 1939 he became President of the International Geodesic and Geophysical Union . He was a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences and a member of the Member of the Academy of Sciences of the German Democratic Republic ( DDR ) . Helland-Hansen trained Alexander Kuchin , the Russian oceanographer who went to Antarctica with Roald Amundsen . An island in the Russian Arctic , east of the Geiberg Islands , has been named Gellanda-Gansena after Helland-Hansen . thumb | left | Bjørn Helland-Hansen ( ca 1917 )", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Bjørn_Helland-Hansen", "rank": 56, "score": 121781 }, { "content": "Title: Harald Lønborg-Jensen Content: Harald Magnus Lønborg-Jensen ( 10 October 1871 -- 1 November 1941 ) was a Danish architect known as a productive church and restoration-architect . Harald Lønborg-Jensen was trained as a carpenter by his father Fritz Julius Jensen who worked as a building constructor . He later attended technical school and since the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts from which he graduated with a degree in architecture in 1900 . He subsequently found employment at various architect practices and worked for among others Vilhelm Dahlerup , Anton Rosen , Hans J. Holm , Ferdinand Meldahl and Martin Borch before he started his own architect practice . Harald Lønborg-Jensens expertise became church buildings . Through four decades he was one of the most used architects for designs of new churches and for restoration . His style was inspired by historical-romantic themes . He exhibited at the Charlottenborg Spring Exhibition in 1905 -- 07 and 1909 , was a member of the Royal Nordic Society of Antiquaries , on the board of Selskabet for kirkelig Kunst and a member of Akademiraadet 1931 -- 34 . He was architect at Ribe Cathedral from 1915 and at Roskilde Cathedral from 1927 . In 1926 Lønborg-Jensen was made a Knight af Dannebrog . Lønborg-Jensen was married in Ebeltoft 1 October 1895 to Eline Inga Benedicte Jensen and is buried on Frederiksberg Older Cemetery .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Harald_Lønborg-Jensen", "rank": 57, "score": 121533 }, { "content": "Title: Kjell Håvard Jensen Content: Kjell Håvard Jensen ( born June 3 , 1958 ) is a Norwegian politician for the Progress Party . He served as a deputy representative to the Parliament of Norway from Østfold during the term 2013 -- 2017 . Locally , he served as the mayor of Hobøl from 2007 to 2011 .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Kjell_Håvard_Jensen", "rank": 58, "score": 121396 }, { "content": "Title: Nils Riddervold Jensen Content: Nils Riddervold Jensen ( 22 March 1863 -- 8 January 1938 ) was a Norwegian educator and politician for the Conservative Party . He was born in Kristiania as a son of dean Peter Andreas Jensen ( 1812 -- 1867 ) and Mette Marie Riddervold ( 1827 -- 1895 ) . He was a maternal grandson of politician Hans Riddervold . He was a brother of Anne Marie Riddervold Jensen , who married Finn Lützow-Holm . He was also a first cousin of attorney Hans Riddervold , who in turn was the father of Hans Julius Riddervold . He took his examen artium in 1881 and the cand.theol . degree in 1887 . He spent his entire career , from 1887 to 1924 , as a teacher in Tønsberg ; from 1912 to 1919 as headmaster . He was also the auditor for the local savings bank from 1896 to 1928 . He was a member of Tønsberg city council from 1898 to 1931 , serving as deputy mayor from 1901 to 1904 . He was elected to the Parliament of Norway from Tønsberg in 1903 . After not being re-elected after three years , he did return and was elected to a second and third term in 1909 and 1915 respectively . From June 1920 to June 1921 he was the Norwegian Minister of Education and Church Affairs in Bahr Halvorsen 's First Cabinet .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Nils_Riddervold_Jensen", "rank": 59, "score": 121225 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Jørgen Hansen Content: Jens Jørgen Rankenberg Hansen ( born 4 January 1939 , in Struer ) is a Danish former football ( soccer ) player and manager . He played 417 games as a defender for Esbjerg fB with whom he won four Danish football championships . He represented the Denmark national football team in 39 games from 1962 to 1971 , and was a part of the Danish squad at the 1964 European Championship . After retiring , Hansen served as manager of Esbjerg fB for a short while in 1972 .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Jørgen_Hansen", "rank": 60, "score": 121050 }, { "content": "Title: Allerød oscillation Content: The Allerød oscillation ( Allerødtiden ) was a warm and moist global interstadial that occurred at the end of the last glacial period . It raised temperatures in the northern Atlantic region to almost present-day levels , before they declined again in the succeeding Younger Dryas period , which was followed by the present interglacial period . In some regions , especially in northern Eurasia , there is evidence for a cold period known as the Older Dryas interrupting the interstadial . In such regions the shorter oscillation ending with the Older Dryas is known as the Bølling oscillation , and the Allerød period is the interstadial following the Older Dryas . The Allerød period was named after a type site in Furesø municipality in Sjælland , Denmark ( near Copenhagen ) , where deposits created during the period were first identified in work published in 1901 by Hartz and Milthers . This Blytt-Sernander period corresponds to Pollen zone II .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Allerød_oscillation", "rank": 61, "score": 120705 }, { "content": "Title: Christine Bøe Jensen Content: Christine Bøe Jensen ( born June 3 , 1975 in Hammerfest ) is a Norwegian former footballer and Olympic champion . Jensen 's first club was HIF-Stein in her native Finnmark . She later moved to Tromsø and turned out for Kvaløysletta and Fløya , before linking up with Grand Bodø . In 2000 , she broke into the Norway women 's national football team as a Grand Bodø player and was included in the gold medal-winning squad at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney . On the back of that success Jensen secured a transfer to Kolbotn in 2001 . In 2002 , she was top goalscorer with 19 as Kolbotn won the Toppserien title . She later played for Manglerud Star and Vålerenga .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Christine_Bøe_Jensen", "rank": 62, "score": 120498 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Kraft Content: Jens Kraft ( 1720 -- 1756 ) was a Danish mathematician and philosopher of Norwegian birth . He was born in Frederikshald in Norway , but at age 5 he became an orphan and was subsequently raised by his uncle in Thy in Jutland . As a philosopher he introduced the study of ontology to Scandinavian academic circles . He was influenced by Christian Wolff whilst still a student at Copenhagen , attending a lecture by Wolff while visiting Halle . He was appointed professor of philosophy at the Sorø Academy , where he responded to Baumgarten 's Metaphsica with his own text metaphysik . Both divided their work into cosmologie , ontologie , psykologie and naturlig theologie . Kraft made a distinction between time and eternity writing that `` the finite can never obtain eternity , but it can obtain an infinite time , ( Aevum ) or a time with beginning but without end . '' The infinite by contrast has permanence ( sempiternité ) '' .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Kraft", "rank": 63, "score": 120295 }, { "content": "Title: Ragnar Fjørtoft Content: Ragnar Fjørtoft ( 1 August 1913 -- 28 May 1998 ) was an internationally recognized Norwegian meteorologist . He was part of a Princeton , New Jersey team that in 1950 performed the first successful numerical weather prediction using the ENIAC electronic computer . He was also a professor of meteorology at the University of Copenhagen and director of the Norwegian Meteorological Institute .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Ragnar_Fjørtoft", "rank": 64, "score": 120248 }, { "content": "Title: Søren Jensen (handballer) Content: Søren Andkjer Jensen ( born November 7 , 1942 ) is a former Danish handball player who competed in the 1972 Summer Olympics . He played his club handball with Efterslægten . In 1972 he was part of the Danish team which finished thirteenth in the Olympic tournament . He played four matches and scored one goal .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Søren_Jensen_(handballer)", "rank": 65, "score": 119843 }, { "content": "Title: Holger J. Jensen Content: Holger Jens Sophus Jensen ( 21 April 1900 -- 24 July 1966 ) was a Danish painter .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Holger_J._Jensen", "rank": 66, "score": 119761 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Aars Content: Jens Aars ( 1 October 1779 -- 27 March 1834 ) was a Norwegian priest and Member of Parliament . Jens Aars was born in Christiania ( now Oslo , Norway ) . He was the son of district stipendiary magistrate Jacob Aars ( 1736 -- 1807 ) , who had migrated to Norway from Aars , Denmark in 1757 . He was a student at Christiania Latin School and earning his theological degree with honors in 1801 . In 1804 he became assistant pastorat Rødøy Church , in 1806 substitute priest in Enebakk in Akershus and in 1817 vicar to Hadsel in Nordland . He was transferred to Lier in Buskerud in August 1821 . Aars was elected to the Norwegian Parliament in 1821 , representing the constituency of Nordlands Amt . He was a member of the Parliamentary deputation to Stockholm in 1823 . In 1832 he became a member of the Swedish Order of Vasa cleric ( Vasaordenen ) . In 1803 , he was married to Nicoline Elisabeth Mielsen ( 1783-1874 ) . Their children included priest and politician Nils Fredrik Julius Aars . They were also the grandparents of writer Sophus Christian Munk Aars as well as banker and politician Jens Ludvig Andersen Aars . Also , through his brother , Jens Aars was an uncle of educator Jacob Jonathan Aars and granduncle of philosopher Kristian Birch-Reichenwald Aars and architect Harald Aars . He was also a maternal great-grandfather of Harald Gram .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Aars", "rank": 67, "score": 119485 }, { "content": "Title: Frederik Nannestad Content: Frederik Nannestad ( 21 October 1693 -- 11 August 1774 ) was a Norwegian theologian and bishop . Frederik Nannestad was born in Eidsberg , Norway , the son of pastor Christopher Jensen and his third wife , Karen Tønnesdatter Unrov . In 1732 he became the Dean in Aarhus , where he also was married to Martha Elizabeth Jensdatter Wissing on 6 August 1732 . In 1742 he received his Doctorate of theology . On 11 May 1748 , he was appointed the bishop of the Diocese of Nidaros . In 1758 , after 10 years of work there , was he named the bishop of the Diocese of Oslo . He retired and left office on 1 October 1773 and died less than a year later .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Frederik_Nannestad", "rank": 68, "score": 119205 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Jensen (landscape architect) Content: Jens Jensen ( September 13 , 1860 - October 1 , 1951 ) was a Danish-American landscape architect .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Jensen_(landscape_architect)", "rank": 69, "score": 118650 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Hermansson Juel Content: Jens Hermansson Juel or Jens Juel ( born January 8 , 1580 at Refstrup , died March 26 , 1634 at Bøvling ) was a Danish nobleman who served as Governor-general of Norway from 1618 to 1629 .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Hermansson_Juel", "rank": 70, "score": 118600 }, { "content": "Title: Søren Jensen (footballer) Content: Søren Kolbye Jensen ( born 1 March 1984 ) is a Danish former professional football defender .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Søren_Jensen_(footballer)", "rank": 71, "score": 118272 }, { "content": "Title: Harry Jensen (Norwegian politician) Content: Harry Magnus Jensen ( 18 February 1940 -- 21 December 1990 ) was a Norwegian politician for the Progress Party . He was born in Gildeskål as a son of fisher Wilhelm Jensen and housewife Valborg Wilhelmsen . He took basic education in Bodø , and spent his career as a businessman . He was a deputy member of Bodø city council from 1975 to 1979 , member of Nordland county council from 1979 to 1986 and member of the county council 's executive committee from 1987 to 1991 . He chaired the countywide party chapter from 1976 to 1981 and was a member of the Progress Party central committee from 1985 to 1990 . He was elected to the Parliament of Norway from Nordland in 1989 , and was the deputy chair of the Standing Committee on Transport and Communications . He died in December 1990 and was replaced by Karl Sørmo .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Harry_Jensen_(Norwegian_politician)", "rank": 72, "score": 118138 }, { "content": "Title: Gulbrand Jensen Content: Gulbrand Jensen ( 24 September 1885 -- ) was a Norwegian judge . He was born in Hamar to merchant Gulbrand Jensen and Oline Jølstad . He graduated as cand.jur . in 1908 . He was appointed as district stipendiary magistrate ( sorenskriver ) in Tønsberg from 1945 to 1956 , and served as acting Supreme Court Justice in 1947 and in 1954 . He was decorated Knight , First Class of the Order of St. Olav in 1956 .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Gulbrand_Jensen", "rank": 73, "score": 118136 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Sørensen (canoeist) Content: Jens Christian Sørensen ( born August 20 , 1949 in Aarhus ) is a Danish former sprint canoer who competed in the early 1970s . He was eliminated in the semifinals of the K-2 1000 m event at the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Sørensen_(canoeist)", "rank": 74, "score": 118073 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Taksøe-Jensen Content: Peter Taksøe-Jensen ( born in 1959 in Copenhagen , Denmark ) has been the Danish Ambassador to India since August 2015 . The Ambassador represents the government of Denmark in India and is responsible for the direction and work of the Embassy . He lives and works in New Delhi . Before his current post , Ambassador Taksøe-Jensen was Denmark 's Ambassador to the United States from 2010 to 2015 . Before that he was Assistant Secretary-General for Legal Affairs at the United Nations . He was appointed to this position by UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon in August 2008 . He replaced Larry Johnson . Before joining the United Nations , Taksøe-Jensen served for more than two decades for the Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs , which he joined in 1987 . He worked in different areas in the ministry including the Legal Service , the Security Policy Department and the European Union Law Department and on various government commissions . He was posted to different places including to Vienna and to Brussels . Taksøe-Jensen has been Under-Secretary for Legal Affairs and Head of the Legal Service in the Danish Ministry since 2004 . In his capacity as ASG for Legal Affairs , Taksøe-Jensen was responsible for supporting the overall direction and management of the United Nations Office of Legal Affairs . Taksøe-Jensen obtained his law degree from the University of Copenhagen . Taksøe-Jensen is chairman of the conciliation commission , which should solve the border dispute between Australia and East Timor .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Peter_Taksøe-Jensen", "rank": 75, "score": 117747 }, { "content": "Title: Søren Jensen (sculptor) Content: Søren Jensen ( born 1957 ) is a Danish sculptor and photographer . Born in Copenhagen , he graduated from the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts in 1986 . His works are displayed at the National Museum of Art and the Trapholt Art Museum as well as at several other buildings , including Elsinore City Hall , Hvidovre Town Hall , TDC 's headquarters in the South Harbour in Copenhagen and Nordea 's headquarters at Christianshavn . From 1999 to 2005 , Jensen was Rector of the Funen Art Academy in Odense . His work explores the spatial relationships between sculpture and architecture . In 2004 he was awarded the Eckersberg Medal by the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Søren_Jensen_(sculptor)", "rank": 76, "score": 117666 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Staubrand Content: Jens Staubrand ( born 28 August 1947 ) is a Danish freelance journalist , author and philosopher . Staubrand gained a degree in philosophy from the University of Copenhagen in 1987 , with a thesis about Søren Kierkegaard and Mozart 's opera Don Giovanni . He has written books and articles in the field of culture and art , and a number of cultural productions . Staubrand is also a trained locksmith . He lives in Frederiksberg , Copenhagen , Denmark , with his wife Vibeke Hinge Jensen who is a social worker and designer .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Staubrand", "rank": 77, "score": 117649 }, { "content": "Title: Oddmund Jensen Content: Oddmund Ingvald Jensen ( 26 September 1928 -- 6 March 2011 ) was a Norwegian cross country skier and coach . He was born in Sørfold , but represented Alvdal IL . He participated at the 1956 Winter Olympics in Cortina d'Ampezzo , in 30 and 50 km , and at the 1960 Winter Olympics in Squaw Valley . He was Norwegian champion in 50 km in 1959 . He was head coach for the Norwegian men 's cross country national team from 1964 to 1978 . He was responsible for the ski tracks at the 1994 Winter Olympics at Lillehammer . Jensen died on 6 March 2011 at the age of 82 .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Oddmund_Jensen", "rank": 78, "score": 117609 }, { "content": "Title: Hans G. Jensen Content: Hans G. Jensen ( 13 March 1856 -- 7 September 1922 ) was a Norwegian trade unionist , politician , and tailor . Jensen was born in Horsens , Denmark in 1856 . He moved to Sandefjord , Norway in 1879 , before settling in Kristiania in 1883 . He became involved in the Norwegian labour movement , and was the leader of the Norwegian Labour Party from 1888 to 1889 . He co-founded a tailors ' union in 1892 , and became the first leader of the Norwegian Confederation of Trade Unions in 1899 . He held this position until 1900 . Jensen died in Kristiania in 1922 .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Hans_G._Jensen", "rank": 79, "score": 117503 }, { "content": "Title: Jørgen Jensen (cyclist) Content: Jørgen Jensen ( 6 January 1947 -- 4 March 2015 ) was a Danish cyclist . He competed in the men 's tandem at the 1968 Summer Olympics . For several years he was the chairman of Odense Ishockey Klub . He died in 2015 .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jørgen_Jensen_(cyclist)", "rank": 80, "score": 117252 }, { "content": "Title: Jensen (surname) Content: Jensen is a Surname of German and Scandanavian origin . Jensen literally means son of Jens . It is the most common surname in Denmark , where it is shared by about 5 % of the population . It is also very common in other Scandinavian countries such as Norway , where it is the ninth most common surname , but nevertheless shared by about 5 % of the population . The name is also in use in the Faroe Islands . There was no `` Jensen family , '' merely a system of patronymics that was finally fixed in the 19th century at an arbitrary time , when the state bureaucracy required a more rational system ; before that people took their name from their father 's first name .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jensen_(surname)", "rank": 81, "score": 117241 }, { "content": "Title: Axel Høeg-Hansen Content: Axel Høeg-Hansen was a Danish architect who primarily worked in and around Aarhus at the turn of the 20th century . Høeg-Hansen built many notable structures in Aarhus and left his mark across the city . He designed Kunsthal Aarhus ( 1917 ) , Atletion ( 1920 ) , the yellow city blocks in Park Allé and at Banegårdspladsen ( 1920s ) , Aarhus County Hospital ( 1935 ) and neighborhoods in the southern part of the city . Stylistically he mainly worked in functionalist and neoclassical styles . Axel Høeg-Hansen was born 1877 on Frederiksberg . He attended vocational school for business in 1893-94 and went on to become a master mason in 1897 . He attended vocational technical school from which he graduated in 1898 and was then admitted to the architect school of the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts where he studied between 1898 and 1907 and graduated with a degree in architecture . Høeg-Hansen worked for Ulrik Plesner in 1898 ; Claudius August Wiinholt between 1898-99 ; Fritz Koch between 1900 and 1905 and Anton Rosen between 1907 and 1909 . He had his own architects company in Aarhus from 1909 and held an exhibition on the Charlottenborg Spring Exhibition the same year . From 1935 to 1940 his company was jointly run with Harald Salling-Mortensen . Høeg-Hansen received K.A. Larssens Grant 1905-06 , bronze medal at the Danish National Exhibition of 1909 , the silver medal in 1920 for Atletion and received the Architects ' Association of Denmarks honorary medal in 1939 . He represented Denmark in the discipline architecture at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam . Høeg-Hansen became knight of the Order of the Dannebrog in 1924 and received the Order of the Dannebrog in 1935 . He was a member of the board of Architects ' Association of Denmark from 1909 to 1919 and chairman of the department of Jutland from 1933 to 1938 . He was married on 23 June 1909 in Helgenæs to lnga Pauline Liggern Hansen , died on 30 August 1947 at Frederiksværk and is buried on Solbjerg Parkkirkegård in Frederiksbjerg .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Axel_Høeg-Hansen", "rank": 82, "score": 117220 }, { "content": "Title: The Sharks (novel) Content: The Sharks ( Haiene ) is a novel written by Norwegian author Jens Bjørneboe between 1973 and 1974 and originally published by Gyldendal Norsk Forlag in 1974 . It is an allegorical sea story and was his last work . The external action takes place aboard the bark `` Neptune , '' which is on its way from Manila to Marseille via Rio de Janeiro . The year is 1899 , and it is also a voyage into the new century . The story is told through the voice of Norwegian `` Peder Jensen , '' the ship 's second mate , who resembles Bjørneboe himself . This book has a very strong symbolism ; the ship is always pursued by sharks and on board , there are peoples of all nationalities . The ship is a symbol of the world , where the captain symbolizes those who have the power and the crew the oppressed . The sharks that pursue the ship symbolize the demons in man . The novel ends with a mutiny and a shipwreck , before the crew and officers are stranded on a deserted island where they live in peaceful anarchy before being picked up by a passing ship . The Sharks is considered one of Bjørneboe 's most important novels and has been translated into multiple languages . Two years after its publication Bjørneboe committed suicide .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "The_Sharks_(novel)", "rank": 83, "score": 116891 }, { "content": "Title: The Fall of the King Content: The Fall of the King ( Kongens Fald ) is a novel by Danish author Johannes V. Jensen , published in three parts from 1900 to 1901 . It tells the story of Mikkel Thøgersen and the social entanglements which bring him into the service of king Christian II of Denmark .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "The_Fall_of_the_King", "rank": 84, "score": 116674 }, { "content": "Title: Hans Johan Jensen Content: Hans Johan Jensen ( 23 November 1882 -- ? ) was a Norwegian politician for the Labour Party . Born in Kristiania , he attended Treider 's School as well as the Norwegian National Academy of Craft and Art Industry . From 1903 he found work as a manual laborer , working on the Meråker Line and the Bergen Line . In 1909 he settled in Gol as a farmer and carpenter . Jensen was first elected to Gol municipal council in 1913 , and was re-elected nine times . In 1928 he was also elected to the Parliament of Norway for his constituency Buskerud . He was not re-elected in 1931 , but returned in 1934 and 1937 . In 1940 , upon the Nazi German invasion of Norway , Jensen was deprived of all his political positions .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Hans_Johan_Jensen", "rank": 85, "score": 116473 }, { "content": "Title: Eberhart Jensen Content: Eberhart Jensen ( 22 July 1922 -- 16 January 2003 ) was a Norwegian astrophysicist . He was born in Røyken as a son of farmer Edvard Jensen ( 1850 -- 1930 ) and Berthe Marie Kristiansen ( 1883 -- 1961 ) . He finished his secondary education in 1942 and graduated from the University of Oslo with the cand.real . degree in 1949 . During the occupation of Norway , after the 1943 University of Oslo fire , he was arrested together with a thousand students and sent to Stavern . In December he was shipped on to Sennheim , later Buchenwald . He survived until the camp was liberated . In 1948 he married Liv Linnestad . He took his Ph.D. at the University of Chicago in 1953 , and was hired as lecturer at the University of Oslo in 1959 and docent in 1961 . His fields were mainly solar physics and plasma physics . From 1965 to 1992 he served as professor , and he also edited the official Norwegian almanac from 1966 to 1993 . He was admitted into the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters in 1965 . He resided in Østerås . He died in January 2003 , aged 80 .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Eberhart_Jensen", "rank": 86, "score": 116191 }, { "content": "Title: Hans Jensen Blom Content: Hans Jensen Blom ( 19 May 1812 -- 13 April 1875 ) was a Norwegian politician and clergyman . Hans Jensen Blom was from Skien in Telemark county , Norway . He was elected to the Norwegian Parliament in 1848 , representing the constituency of Stavanger . He worked as a chaplain there , but was then appointed vicar ( sogneprest ) in the countryside , being re-elected in 1851 and 1854 from Stavanger Amt . He was appointed vicar in Kinn in 1854 , and was elected to Parliament from the constituency Nordre Bergenhuus Amt ( now Sogn og Fjordane ) in 1859 and 1862 . In 1862 he moved to Melhus , and represented Søndre Trondhjems Amt ( now Sør-Trøndelag ) as a deputy representative in 1868 .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Hans_Jensen_Blom", "rank": 87, "score": 116174 }, { "content": "Title: Holm Jølsen Content: Holm Pedersen Jølsen ( 6 December 1833 -- 1 August 1906 ) was a Norwegian industrial pioneer and plant owner . He was born in Rælingen , and was the father of writer Ragnhild Jølsen . In 1859 he took over the family farm Ekeberg in Enebakk . He established Jølsens Tændstikfabrik , which developed into the largest match factory in Norway in the 1870s , with about 300 employees . In 1887 he established Enebak Cellulosefabrik , which was one of the first pulp mills in Norway . Following a large fire in 1893 , Jølsen was bankrupt . in the Jens Bjorneboe roman `` Dream and the wheel '' he was immortalized .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Holm_Jølsen", "rank": 88, "score": 115894 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Peter Møller Content: Jens Peter Møller ( 4 October 1783 Faaborg -- 29 September 1854 ) was a Danish painter .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Peter_Møller", "rank": 89, "score": 115812 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Fink-Jensen Content: Jens Fink-Jensen ( born December 19 , 1956 ) is a Danish poet , author , photographer , composer and architect .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Fink-Jensen", "rank": 90, "score": 115805 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Jensen Content: Jens Jensen may refer to : Jens Jensen ( politician ) ( 1865 -- 1936 ) , Australian politician Jens Jensen ( landscape architect ) ( 1860 -- 1951 ) , Danish born landscape architect in Chicago , Illinois Jens Kristian Jensen ( 1885 -- 1956 ) , Danish gymnast and Olympic medalist ( 1890 -- 1957 ) , Danish football ( soccer ) player who played one game for the Denmark national football team Jens Jensen ( trade unionist ) ( 1859 -- 1928 ) , Danish trade unionist and Social Democratic politician Jens S. Jensen ( 1946 -- 2015 ) , Swedish photographer and writer", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Jensen", "rank": 91, "score": 115786 }, { "content": "Title: Erik Aalbæk Jensen Content: Erik Aalbæk Jensen ( 19 August 1923 , Thy , Denmark -- 30 September 1997 ) was a Danish writer who was awarded both the Danish Critics Prize for Literature and the Søren Gyldendal Prize for his works , most notably Perleporten .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Erik_Aalbæk_Jensen", "rank": 92, "score": 115740 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Andersen (businessman) Content: Jens Andersen ( 13 September 1866 -- 5 January 1937 ) was a Norwegian businessperson . He was born in Idd , and after taking his shoemaker training he worked for four years as a leather merchant in Fredrikstad . In 1898 he started the shoe factory Fredriksstad Skofabrik . He was the factory manager here until 1905 , then a co-manager for I. T. Halvorsen Skofabrik in Halden from 1906 to 1910 . In 1911 he started the company Skofabriken Norge in Kristiania , where he was the manager until 1924 , then director . He was a board member of the Federation of Norwegian Industries and the Norwegian Employers ' Confederation . He died in January 1937 and was buried at Vestre gravlund .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Andersen_(businessman)", "rank": 93, "score": 115689 }, { "content": "Title: Carsten V. Jensen Content: Carsten Vagn Jensen , colloquially known as Carsten V. Jensen , ( born 28 February 1963 ) is a Danish former professional football player , and a former director of football in F.C. Copenhagen . He started his career with Næstved IF in 1983 . He went on to play for Herfølge BK and B 1903 . He moved to BØF , where he won the 1990 and 1991 Danish championships . When Jensen was n't selected by BØF manager Morten Olsen for the 1991 UEFA Cup semi-finals against Italian club AS Roma , the disappointed Jensen moved back to Næstved IF . In 1993 , he was brought to F.C. Copenhagen , BØF 's local rivals . F.C. Copenhagen reached the 1995 Danish Cup final , where Jensen was named man of the match as the club won 5 -- 0 against Akademisk Boldklub . He ended his career in 1998 , after a combined 138 games and five goals for F.C. Copenhagen . In 2006 , he left his job as assistant coach in F.C. Copenhagen , to replace Niels-Christian Holmstrøm as head of sports in the club . In January 2012 , he replaced F.C. Copenhagen 's head coach Roland Nilsson , who was fired earlier the same day . He will continue functioning as director of football , as well . On 25 May 2012 after he failed to secure the 2011 -- 12 Danish Championship , it was announced that he would step down as manager and continue only as Director of Football . On 28 April 2014 , Jensen was fired as director of football in F.C. Copenhagen after declining results for the team . In June 2015 Jensen was appointed Sports director at FC Nordsjælland", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Carsten_V._Jensen", "rank": 94, "score": 115600 }, { "content": "Title: Bjørn Lomborg Content: Bjørn Lomborg ( -LSB- bjɶɐ̯n ˈlʌmbɒˀw -RSB- ; born 6 January 1965 ) is a Danish author and adjunct professor at the Copenhagen Business School as well as President of the Copenhagen Consensus Center . He is former director of the Danish government 's Environmental Assessment Institute ( EAI ) in Copenhagen . He became internationally known for his best-selling and controversial book , The Skeptical Environmentalist ( 2001 ) , in which he argues that many of the costly measures and actions adopted by scientists and policy makers to meet the challenges of global warming will ultimately have minimal impact on the world 's rising temperature . In 2002 , Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus , a project-based conference where prominent economists sought to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methods based on the theory of welfare economics . In 2009 , Business Insider cited Lomborg as one of `` The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics '' . While Lomborg campaigned against the Kyoto Protocol and other measures to cut carbon emissions in the short-term , he argued for adaptation to short-term temperature rises , and for spending money on research and development for longer-term environmental solutions . His issue is not with the reality of climate change , but rather with the economic and political approaches being taken ( or not taken ) to meet the challenges of that climate change . He is a strong advocate for focusing attention and resources on what he perceives as far more pressing world problems , such as AIDS , malaria and malnutrition . In his critique of the 2012 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development , Lomborg stated : `` Global warming is by no means our main environmental threat . '' In 2011 and 2012 , Lomborg was named a Top 100 Global Thinker by Foreign Policy `` for looking more right than ever on the politics of climate change '' .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Bjørn_Lomborg", "rank": 95, "score": 115530 }, { "content": "Title: Ægidius Elling Content: Jens William Ægidius Elling ( also Aegidus or Aegidius ) ( 26 July 1861 -- 27 May 1949 ) was a Norwegian researcher , inventor and pioneer of gas turbine who is considered to be the father of the gas turbine . He built the first gas turbine that was able to produce more power than needed to run its own components . Elling was born in and grew up in Oslo , Norway . He studied mechanical engineering at Kristiania Technical College , ( now part of Oslo and Akershus University College of Applied Sciences ) graduating in 1881 . Between 1885-1902 , he worked as an engineer and designer at a number of workshops in Sweden and Norway . His first gas turbine patent was granted in 1884 . In 1903 he completed the first turbine that produced excess power ; his original machine used both rotary compressors and turbines to produce 11 bhp net . He further developed the concept , and by 1912 he had developed a gas turbine system with separate turbine unit and compressor in series , a combination that is now common . One major challenge was to find materials that could withstand the high temperatures developed in the turbine to achieve high output powers . His 1903 turbine could withstand inlet temperatures up to 400 ° Celsius ( 752 ° F ) . Elling understood that if better materials could be found , the gas turbine would be an ideal power source for airplanes . Many years later , Sir Frank Whittle , building on the early work of Elling , managed to build a practical gas turbine engine for an airplane , the jet engine . Ellings gas turbine prototypes from 1903 and 1912 are exhibited at Norsk Teknisk Museum in Oslo . Elling also did significant development work in other areas , such as steam engine controls , pumps , compressors , vacuum drying et cetera . In 1914 Elling produced a book called Billig opvarmning : veiledning i at behandle magasinovner økonomisk og letvint . ( Cheap Heating : Guidance for the simple and economical treatment of base burners ) , which was published by Aschehoug . Books written by Elling are now rare , and are mostly found in museums and libraries .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Ægidius_Elling", "rank": 96, "score": 115475 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Galaaen Content: Jens Galaaen ( 25 April 1893 -- 13 May 1963 ) was a Norwegian newspaper editor and politician for the Labour and Communist parties . He was born in Røros as a son of farmers . He contributed to the local Labour newspaper Arbeidets Rett from a young age , and edited the newspaper from 1919 to 1923 . He was also imprisoned from 1918 to 1919 for being a conscientious objector . In 1923 he broke away from the Labour Party , joining the Communist Party . He was a journalist in Buskerud-Arbeideren from 1924 to 1925 , edited Møre Arbeiderblad from 1925 to 1929 and Arbeidet from 1929 . In 1932 he was again imprisoned , this time for six months . He defended the Moscow processes in Klassekampen in 1937 . In 1938 he edited the book Norske frivillige i Spania . En dokumentasjon om antifascistiske frontkjempere i Spania , about Norwegian volunteers in the Spanish Civil War . Adam Egede-Nissen , Lise Lindbæk and Nordahl Grieg also contributed . During the Second World War he was involved in the calamities around Peder Furubotn . In 1941 he was dispatched by the central committee of the Communist Party to relieve Furubotn of his position as party secretary in Western Norway . This did not happen ; instead the Western Norway party branch excluded Galaaen from the party .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Galaaen", "rank": 97, "score": 115403 }, { "content": "Title: Jens Sørensen (cyclist) Content: Jens Sørensen ( born 4 April 1941 ) is a former Danish cyclist . He competed in the team pursuit at the 1960 Summer Olympics .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Jens_Sørensen_(cyclist)", "rank": 98, "score": 115244 }, { "content": "Title: Hans Jensen Haga Content: Hans Jensen Haga ( 6 December 1845 -- 12 October 1924 ) was a Norwegian politician for the Conservative Party . He was elected to the Norwegian Parliament in 1889 , representing Akershus Amt . He was re-elected on four consecutive occasions . He worked as a farmer .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Hans_Jensen_Haga", "rank": 99, "score": 115206 }, { "content": "Title: Johnny Hansen (musician) Content: Johnny Hansen ( born 25 July 1965 ) is a Danish singer and musician , most famous as vocalist and guitarist of dansband Kandis . In addition to his career in Kandis , he has also released his own materials including four albums . In 1983 , at age 18 , he joined the band Airport that split up in 1988 . With Jens Erik Jensen , a fellow musician , he formed the duo Jens Erik and Torben . With bassist Jørgen Hein Jørgensen joining later , the duo became a band renamed as Kandis . He also took part in 2001 in Dansk Melodi Grand Prix with the song `` Lidt efter lidt '' in a bid to represent Denmark in Eurovision Song Contest 2001 . It was co-written by him and Nanna Kalinka Bjerke . His song did not qualify in selection round of ten songs .", "qid": "3084", "docid": "Johnny_Hansen_(musician)", "rank": 100, "score": 115139 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: List of space debris producing events Content: Major contributors to space debris include the explosion of upper stages and satellite collisions . There were 190 known satellite breakups between 1961 and 2006 . By 2015 , the total had grown to 250 on-orbit fragmentation events . there were an estimated 500,000 pieces of debris in orbit , with 300,000 pieces below 2000 km ( LEO ) . Of the total , about 20,000 are tracked . Also , about sixteen old Soviet nuclear space reactors are known to have released an estimated 100,000 liquid metal ( NaK ) droplets 800 -- 900 km up , which range in size from 1 -- 6 cm . The greatest risk to space missions is from untracked debris between 1 and 10 cm in size . Large pieces can be tracked and avoided , and impact from smaller pieces are usually survivable .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "List_of_space_debris_producing_events", "rank": 1, "score": 107510 }, { "content": "Title: Glory (satellite) Content: The Glory satellite was a planned NASA satellite mission that would have collected data on the chemical , micro-physical and optical properties -- and the spatial and temporal distributions -- of sulfate and other aerosols , and would have collected solar irradiance data for the long-term climate record . The science focus areas served by Glory included : atmospheric composition ; carbon cycle , ecosystems , and biogeochemistry ; climate variability and change ; and water and energy cycles . The US$ 424 million satellite was lost on March 4 , 2011 , when its Taurus XL carrier rocket malfunctioned . A subsequent investigation revealed that the fairing system failed to open fully , causing the satellite to reenter the atmosphere at which point it likely broke up and burned .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Glory_(satellite)", "rank": 2, "score": 107105 }, { "content": "Title: Small Astronomy Satellite 2 Content: The Small Astronomy Satellite 2 , also known also as SAS-2 , SAS B or Explorer 48 , was a NASA gamma ray telescope . It was launched on 15 November 1972 into the low Earth orbit with a periapsis of 443 km and an apoapsis of 632 km . It completed its observations on 8 June 1973 . SAS 2 was the second in the series of small spacecraft designed to extend the astronomical studies in the X-ray , gamma-ray , ultraviolet , visible , and infrared regions . The primary objective of the SAS-B was to measure the spatial and energy distribution of primary galactic and extragalactic gamma radiation which energies between 20 and 300 MeV . The instrumentation consisted principally of a guard scintillation detector , an upper and a lower spark chamber , and a charged particle telescope . SAS-2 was launched from the San Marco platform off the coast of Kenya , Africa , into a nearly equatorial orbit . The orbiting spacecraft was in the shape of a cylinder approximately 59 cm in diameter and 135 cm in length . Four solar paddles were used to recharge the 6 amp-h nickel-cadmium battery and provide power to the spacecraft and telescope experiment . The spacecraft was spin stabilized , and a magnetically torqued commandable control system was used to point the spin axis of the spacecraft to any position in space within approximately 1 degree . The experiment axis lay along this axis allowing the telescope to look at any selected region of the sky with its plus or minus 30 degree acceptance aperture . The nominal spin rate was 1/12 rpm . Data were taken at 1000 bit/s and could be recorded on an onboard tape recorder and simultaneously transmitted in real time . The recorded data were transmitted once per orbit . This required approximately 5 minutes . The telescope experiment was initially turned on Nov 20 1972 , and by Nov 27 1972 , the spacecraft became fully operational . The low-voltage power supply for the experiment failed on Jun 8 1973 . No useful scientific data were obtained after that date . With the exception of a slightly degraded star sensor , the spacecraft control section performed in an excellent manner . SAS-2 first detected Geminga , a pulsar believed to be the remnant of a supernova that exploded 300,000 years ago .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Small_Astronomy_Satellite_2", "rank": 3, "score": 106841 }, { "content": "Title: Dyson–Harrop satellite Content: A Dyson -- Harrop satellite is a hypothetical megastructure intended for power generation using the solar wind . It is inspired by the Dyson sphere , but much harder to detect from another star system . The concept for the so-called Dyson -- Harrop satellite begins with a long metal wire loop pointed at the sun . This wire is charged to generate a cylindrical magnetic field that snags the electrons that make up half the solar wind . These electrons get funnelled into a metal spherical receiver to produce a current , which generates the wire 's magnetic field -- making the system self-sustaining . Any current not needed for the magnetic field powers an infrared laser trained on satellite dishes back on Earth , designed to collect the energy . Earth 's air does not absorb infra-red light , so the system would be highly efficient . Back on the satellite , the current has been drained of its electrical energy by the laser -- the electrons fall onto a ring-shaped sail , where incoming sunlight can excite them enough to keep the satellite in orbit around the sun . A relatively small Dyson -- Harrop satellite using a 1-centimetre-wide copper wire 300 metres long , a receiver 2 metres wide and a sail 10 metres in diameter , sitting at roughly the same distance from the sun as the Earth , could generate 1.7 megawatts of power -- enough for about 1000 family homes in the US . Larger sizes could produce far greater amounts of power , even exceeding the current usage of Earth . Satellites could be placed anywhere in the solar system , and networks of satellites could combine to generate terawatts of power .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Dyson–Harrop_satellite", "rank": 4, "score": 104851 }, { "content": "Title: Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System Content: Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) is NASA climatological experiment from Earth orbit . The CERES are scientific satellite instruments , part of the NASA 's Earth Observing System ( EOS ) , designed to measure both solar-reflected and Earth-emitted radiation from the top of the atmosphere ( TOA ) to the Earth 's surface . Cloud properties are determined using simultaneous measurements by other EOS instruments such as the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) . Results from the CERES and other NASA missions , such as the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment ( ERBE ) , could lead to a better understanding of the role of clouds and the energy cycle in global climate change .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Clouds_and_the_Earth's_Radiant_Energy_System", "rank": 5, "score": 104274 }, { "content": "Title: Small satellite Content: Small satellites , miniaturized satellites , or smallsats , are satellites of low mass and size , usually under 500 kg . While all such satellites can be referred to as `` small '' , different classifications are used to categorize them based on mass . Satellites can be built small to reduce the large economic cost of launch vehicles and the costs associated with construction . Miniature satellites , especially in large numbers , may be more useful than fewer , larger ones for some purposes -- for example , gathering of scientific data and as signal relays . Technical challenges in the construction of small satellites may include the lack of sufficient power storage or of room for a propulsion system .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Small_satellite", "rank": 6, "score": 103807 }, { "content": "Title: Satellite Content: In context of spaceflight , a satellite is an artificial object which has been intentionally placed into orbit . Such objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as Earth 's Moon . In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the world 's first artificial satellite , Sputnik 1 . Since then , about 6,600 satellites from more than 40 countries have been launched . According to a 2013 estimate , 3,600 remained in orbit . Of those , about 1,000 were operational ; while the rest have lived out their useful lives and became space debris . Approximately 500 operational satellites are in low-Earth orbit , 50 are in medium-Earth orbit ( at 20,000 km ) , and the rest are in geostationary orbit ( at 36,000 km ) . A few large satellites have been launched in parts and assembled in orbit . Over a dozen space probes have been placed into orbit around other bodies and become artificial satellites to the Moon , Mercury , Venus , Mars , Jupiter , Saturn , a few asteroids , and the Sun . Satellites are used for many purposes . Common types include military and civilian Earth observation satellites , communications satellites , navigation satellites , weather satellites , and space telescopes . Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites . Satellite orbits vary greatly , depending on the purpose of the satellite , and are classified in a number of ways . Well-known ( overlapping ) classes include low Earth orbit , polar orbit , and geostationary orbit . A launch vehicle is a rocket that throws a satellite into orbit . Usually it lifts off from a launch pad on land . Some are launched at sea from a submarine or a mobile maritime platform , or aboard a plane ( see air launch to orbit ) . Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled systems . Satellite subsystems attend many tasks , such as power generation , thermal control , telemetry , attitude control and orbit control .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Satellite", "rank": 7, "score": 103113 }, { "content": "Title: Globalstar Content: Globalstar is a low Earth orbit ( LEO ) satellite constellation for satellite phone and low-speed data communications , somewhat similar to the Iridium satellite constellation and Orbcomm satellite systems . The Globalstar second-generation constellation will consist of 24 Low Earth Orbiting ( LEO ) satellites .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Globalstar", "rank": 8, "score": 102021 }, { "content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources", "rank": 9, "score": 101993 }, { "content": "Title: Space debris Content: Space debris , junk , waste , trash , or litter is the collection of defunct man-made objects in space -- old satellites , spent rocket stages , and fragments from disintegration , erosion , and collisions -- including those caused by debris itself . there were 5 satellite collisions with space waste . , the United States Strategic Command tracked a total of 17,852 artificial objects in orbit about the Earth , including 1,419 operational satellites . However these are just objects large enough to be tracked . , more than 170 million debris smaller than 1 cm , about 670,000 debris 1 -- 10 cm , and around 29,000 larger debris were estimated to be in orbit . Collisions with debris have become a hazard to spacecraft ; they cause damage akin to sandblasting , especially to solar panels and optics like telescopes or star trackers that can not be covered with a ballistic Whipple shield ( unless it is transparent ) . Below 2000 km Earth-altitude debris are denser than meteoroids ; mostly dust from solid rocket motors , surface erosion debris like paint flakes , and frozen coolant from RORSAT nuclear-powered satellites . For comparison , the International Space Station orbits in the 300 -- range and the 2009 satellite collision and 2007 antisat test occurred at 800 to altitude . The ISS has Whipple shielding , however known debris with a collision chance over 1/10000 are avoided by maneuvering the station . The Kessler syndrome , a runaway chain reaction of collisions exponentially increasing the amount of debris , has been hypothesized to ensue beyond a critical density . This could affect useful polar-orbiting bands , increases the cost of protection for spacecraft missions and could destroy live satellites . Whether it is already underway is debated . The measurement , mitigation and potential removal of debris are conducted by some participants in the space industry .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Space_debris", "rank": 10, "score": 100955 }, { "content": "Title: Small Astronomy Satellite 3 Content: The Small Astronomy Satellite 3 ( SAS 3 , also known as SAS-C before launch ) was a NASA X-ray astronomy space telescope . It functioned from May 7 , 1975 to April 1979 . It covered the X-ray range with four experiments on board . The satellite , built by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory ( APL ) , was proposed and operated by MIT 's Center for Space Research ( CSR ) . It was launched on a Scout vehicle from the Italian San Marco launch platform near Mombasa , Kenya , into a low-Earth , nearly equatorial orbit . It was also known as Explorer 53 , as part of NASA 's Explorer program . The spacecraft was 3-axis stabilized with a momentum wheel that was used to establish stability about the nominal rotation , or z-axis . The orientation of the z-axis could be altered over a period of hours using magnetic torque coils that interacted with the Earth 's magnetic field . Solar panels charged batteries during the daylight portion of each orbit , so that SAS 3 had essentially no expendables to limit its lifetime beyond the life of the tape recorders , batteries , and orbital drag . The spacecraft typically operated in a rotating mode , spinning at one revolution per 95-min orbit , so that the LEDs , tube and slat collimator experiments , which looked out along the y-axis , could view and scan the sky almost continuously . The rotation could also be stopped , allowing extended ( up to 30 min ) pointed observations of selected sources by the y-axis instruments . Data were recorded on board by magnetic tape recorders , and played back during station passes every orbit . SAS 3 was commanded from the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center ( GSFC ) in Greenbelt MD , but data were transmitted by modem to MIT for scientific analysis , where scientific and technical staff were on-duty 24 hours a day . The data from each orbit were subjected to quick-look scientific analysis at MIT before the next orbital station pass , so the science operational plan could be altered by telephoned instruction from MIT to GSFC in order to study targets in near real-time .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Small_Astronomy_Satellite_3", "rank": 11, "score": 100444 }, { "content": "Title: Tidal heating Content: Tidal heating ( also known as tidal working or tidal flexing ) occurs through the tidal friction processes : orbital and rotational energy are dissipated as heat in either the surface ocean or interior of a planet or satellite . Io , a moon of Jupiter , is the most volcanically active body in the solar system , evidenced by active volcanos and no impact craters surviving on its surface . Io 's heating is a result of the tug between Jupiter and the other Galilean moons . The eccentricity of Io 's orbit ( a consequence of its participation in a Laplace resonance ) causes the height of Io 's tidal bulge to vary significantly ( by up to 100 m ) over the course of an orbit ; the friction from this tidal flexing then heats up its interior . A similar but weaker process is theorised to have melted the lower layers of the ice surrounding the rocky mantle of Jupiter 's next large moon , Europa . Saturn 's moon Enceladus is similarly thought to have a liquid water ocean beneath its icy crust . The water vapor geysers which eject material from Enceladus are thought to be powered by friction generated within this moon 's shifting ice crust . The total amount of tidal heating in a satellite that is spin-synchronous and has an eccentric orbit is given by : where , , and are respectively the satellite 's mean radius , mean orbital motion , and eccentricity . is the imaginary portion of the second order Love number which measures the efficiency of body dissipation within the satellite . This imaginary portion is a function of the satellite 's bulk shear modulus and viscosity . These in turn are dependent upon temperature and melting of the satellite 's interior .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Tidal_heating", "rank": 12, "score": 99824 }, { "content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Earth's_energy_budget", "rank": 13, "score": 99643 }, { "content": "Title: Earth's internal heat budget Content: The flow of heat from Earth 's interior to the surface is estimated at 47 terawatts ( TW ) and comes from two main sources in roughly equal amounts : the radiogenic heat produced by the radioactive decay of isotopes in the mantle and crust , and the primordial heat left over from the formation of the Earth . Earth 's internal heat powers most geological processes and drives plate tectonics . Despite its geological significance , this heat energy coming from Earth 's interior is actually only 0.03 % of Earth 's total energy budget at the surface , which is dominated by 173,000 TW of incoming solar radiation . The insolation that eventually , after reflection , reaches the surface penetrates only several tens of centimeters on the daily cycle and only several tens of meters on the annual cycle . This renders solar radiation irrelevant for internal processes .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Earth's_internal_heat_budget", "rank": 14, "score": 99379 }, { "content": "Title: CloudSat Content: CloudSat is a NASA Earth observation satellite , which was launched on a Delta II rocket on April 28 , 2006 . It uses radar to measure the altitude and properties of clouds , adding to information on the relationship between clouds and climate in order to help resolve questions about global warming . CloudSat flies in formation in the `` A Train '' , with several other satellites : Aqua , Aura , CALIPSO and the French PARASOL . The mission was selected under NASA 's Earth System Science Pathfinder program in 1999 . Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. in Boulder , Colorado , designed and built the spacecraft . CloudSat 's primary mission was scheduled to continue for 22 months in order to allow more than one seasonal cycle to be observed .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "CloudSat", "rank": 15, "score": 98561 }, { "content": "Title: USA-243 Content: USA-243 , also known as WGS-5 , is an American military communications satellite . It was the fifth satellite to be launched as part of the Wideband Global SATCOM program , and the second Block II spacecraft . Constructed by Boeing , USA-243 is based on the BSS-702HP satellite bus . It had a mass at liftoff of 5987 kg , and a design life of 14 years . Its two solar panels generate upwards of 11 kilowatts of power . The spacecraft is equipped with X and Ka-band transponders . An R-4D bipropellant rocket motor and four XIPS-25 ion engines provide propulsion . USA-243 was launched by United Launch Alliance . A Delta IV-M + ( 5,4 ) rocket , Delta 362 , was used to place it into a supersynchronous transfer orbit , from which the spacecraft will be maneuvered into geostationary orbit . It was launched from Space Launch Complex 37B at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station at 00:27 UTC on 25 May 2013 . A launch attempt 24 hours before was cancelled because of a problem with a helium pressurization line . The launch was successful .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "USA-243", "rank": 16, "score": 98538 }, { "content": "Title: Space sunshade Content: A space sunshade or sunshield is a parasol that diverts or otherwise reduces some of a star 's radiation , preventing them from hitting a spacecraft or planet and thereby reducing its insolation , which results in reduced heating . Light can be diverted by different methods . First proposed in 1989 , the original space sunshade concept involves putting a large occulting disc , or technology of equivalent purpose at the L1 gravitation point between the Earth and Sun . A sunshade is of particular interest as a climate engineering method for mitigating global warming through solar radiation management . Such shades could also be used to produce space solar power , acting as solar power satellites . Proposed shade designs include a single-piece shade and a shade made by a great number of small objects . Most such proposals contemplate a blocking element at the Sun-Earth L1 Lagrangian point . In 1989 James Early proposed a space-based sun-shade to divert sunlight at the planetary level . His design involved making a large glass ( 2000 km ) occulter from lunar material and placing at the L1 point . Issues included the large amount of material needed to make the disc and also the energy to launch it to its orbit .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Space_sunshade", "rank": 17, "score": 98522 }, { "content": "Title: List of GPS satellites Content: As of February 2016 , 72 Global Positioning System navigation satellites have been launched ; not all remain operational . The minimum number of satellites for a full constellation is 24 operational 95 % of the time ; the current number exceeds this . The target number is 33 and decommissioned reserves are available to maintain the numbers . SVNs are `` space vehicle numbers '' , the serial numbers assigned to each GPS satellite , and PRNs are the `` pseudo-random noise '' sequences , or Gold codes , that each satellite transmits to differentiate itself from other satellites in the active constellation .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "List_of_GPS_satellites", "rank": 18, "score": 97799 }, { "content": "Title: WIND (spacecraft) Content: The Global Geospace Science ( GGS ) Wind satellite is a NASA science spacecraft launched at 04:31:00 EST on November 1 , 1994 , from launch pad 17B at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station ( CCAFS ) in Merritt Island , Florida aboard a McDonnell Douglas Delta II 7925-10 rocket . Wind was designed and manufactured by Martin Marietta Astro Space Division in East Windsor , New Jersey . The satellite is a spin stabilized cylindrical satellite with a diameter of 2.4 m and a height of 1.8 m. It was deployed to study radio waves and plasma that occur in the solar wind and in the Earth 's magnetosphere . The spacecraft 's original mission was to orbit the Sun at the Lagrangian point , but this was delayed to study the magnetosphere and near lunar environment when the SOHO and ACE spacecraft were sent to the same location . Wind has been at continuously since 2004 , and is still operating as of . Wind currently has enough fuel to last over 50 years at . Wind continues to produce new and exciting scientific results and as of January 31 , 2017 ( not including 2017 publications ) has accumulated over 4310 refereed scientific publications . Mission operations are conducted from the Multi-Mission Operations Center ( MMOC ) in Building 14 at Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt , Maryland . Wind data can be accessed using the SPEDAS software . Wind is the sister ship to GGS Polar .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "WIND_(spacecraft)", "rank": 19, "score": 97383 }, { "content": "Title: HEAO Program Content: The High Energy Astronomy Observatory Program was a NASA program of the late 1970s and early 1980s that included a series of three large low-Earth-orbiting spacecraft for X-ray and Gamma-Ray astronomy and Cosmic-Ray investigations . After launch , they were denoted HEAO 1 , HEAO 2 ( also known as The Einstein Observatory ) , and HEAO 3 , respectively . The large ( ~ 3000 kg ) satellites were 3-axis stabilized to arc-minute accuracy , with fixed solar panels . All three observatories were launched from Cape Canaveral , Florida on Atlas-Centaur SLV-3D launch vehicles into near-circular orbits with initial altitudes slightly above 500 km .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "HEAO_Program", "rank": 20, "score": 97283 }, { "content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia", "rank": 21, "score": 97261 }, { "content": "Title: Copernicus Programme Content: Copernicus is the world 's largest single earth observation programme and is directed by the European Commission in partnership with the European Space Agency ( ESA ) . It aims at achieving a global , continuous , autonomous , high quality , wide range Earth observation capacity . Providing accurate , timely and easily accessible information to , among other things , improve the management of the environment , understand and mitigate the effects of climate change , and ensure civil security . It follows and greatly expands on the work of the previous 2.3 billion euros European Envisat program which operated from 2002 to 2012 . Its cost during 1998 to 2020 are estimated at 6.7 billion euros with around $ 4.3 bn spend in the period 2014 to 2020 and shared between the EU ( 66 % ) and ESA ( 33 % ) with benefits of the data to the EU economy estimated at roughly 30 billion euros through 2030 . ESA as a main partner has performed much of the design and oversees and co-funds the development of Sentinel mission 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 and 6 with each sentinel mission consisting of at least 2 satellites and some like sentinel 1 consisting of 4 satellites . They will also provide the instruments for MTG and MetOp-SG weather satellites of EUMETSAT where ESA and EUMETSAT will also coordinate the delivery of data from upwards of 30 satellites that form the contributing satellite missions to Copernicus . The objective is to use multi-source data to get timely and quality information , services and knowledge , and to provide autonomous and independent access to information in relation to the environment and security on a global level . In other words , it will pull together all the information obtained by the Copernicus environmental satellites , air and ground stations to provide a comprehensive picture of the `` health '' of Earth . The geo-spatial information services offered by Copernicus can be grouped into six main interacting themes : land , ocean , emergency response , atmosphere , security and climate change . The first three Copernicus services under the land , ocean and emergency response themes and two additional services addressing the atmosphere and security themes were unveiled at the Copernicus Forum held in Lille in September 2008 . Copernicus builds upon three components : the space component ( observation satellites and associated ground segment with missions observing land , atmospheric and oceanographic parameters ) This comprises two types of satellite missions , ESA 's five families of dedicated Sentinel ( space missions ) and missions from other space agencies , called Contributing Missions . in-situ measurements ( ground-based and airborne data gathering networks providing information on oceans , continental surface and atmosphere ) services to users .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Copernicus_Programme", "rank": 22, "score": 97058 }, { "content": "Title: SDS-4 Content: SDS-4 ( Small Demonstration Satellite 4 ) is a small satellite ( 50 cm cube with mass of 50 kg ) developed by JAXA and to be launched as a secondary payload on the Shizuku mission in mid-2012 . There are four rather specialised systems on the satellite : SPAISE ( SPace-based Automatic Identification SystEm ) - test on-orbit a receiver for picking up signals from Automatic Identification System transmitters on ships well out to sea , and determine how space-based reception is affected by interference between nearby transmitters and by environmental conditions . FOX ( Flat heat-pipe on-orbit experiment ) - to test whether flat heat pipes work in space in accordance with theoretical models and with tests on Earth IST ( In-flight experiment of Solar absorption rate with THERME ) - to acquire information about the effect of sunlight in space on thermal coatings , re-flying the THERME instrument developed by CNES for testing different thermal coatings QCM ( Quartz Crystal Microbalance ) - to test whether a Japanese-manufactured quartz microbalance works well in monitoring contamination of the satellite from assembly to on-orbit operation .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "SDS-4", "rank": 23, "score": 97042 }, { "content": "Title: International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project Content: The International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project ( ISCCP ) was established as the first project of the World Climate Research Program ( WCRP ) . Since its inception in 1982 , there have been two phases , 1983 -- 1995 and 1995 -- 2009 . The project is responsible for collection and analysis of weather satellite radiance measurements . It infers clouds ' global distribution and properties , along with their diurnal , seasonal , and interannual variations . The results are studied to understand clouds in climate , including their effects on radiative energy exchanges , plus their role in the global water cycle . These datasets provide a systematic view of cloud behavior . The ISCCP headquarters are located at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City . ISCCP data is stored at the ISCCP Central Archive and at NASA . While the data are typically used for climate study , they are also a valuable resource for astronomical pursuits . From 1983 , institutions from around the world have collected and analyzed satellite radiance measurements from two polar orbiting and five geostationary satellites .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "International_Satellite_Cloud_Climatology_Project", "rank": 24, "score": 97023 }, { "content": "Title: NanoSail-D Content: NanoSail-D was a small satellite which was to have been used by NASA 's Ames Research Center to study the deployment of a solar sail in space . It was a three-unit CubeSat measuring 30 by 10 by 10 centimetres ( 12 × 3.9 × 3.9 inches ) , with a mass of 4 kg . The satellite was lost shortly after launch due to a problem with the rocket carrying it ; however , a replacement , NanoSail-D2 , was launched in 2010 to complete its mission .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "NanoSail-D", "rank": 25, "score": 96958 }, { "content": "Title: Satellite galaxies of the Milky Way Content: The Milky Way has several smaller galaxies gravitationally bound to it , as part of the Milky Way subgroup , which is part of the local galaxy cluster , the Local Group . There are about 50 small galaxies confirmed to be within 420 kpc of the Milky Way , but not all of them are necessarily in orbit , and some may themselves be in orbit of other satellite galaxies . The only ones visible to the naked eye are the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds , which have been observed since prehistory . Measurements with the Hubble Space Telescope in 2006 suggest the Magellanic Clouds may be moving too fast to be orbiting the Milky Way . Of the galaxies confirmed to be in orbit , the largest is the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy , which has a diameter of 2.6 kpc or roughly a fifth that of the Milky Way .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Satellite_galaxies_of_the_Milky_Way", "rank": 26, "score": 96924 }, { "content": "Title: Odin (satellite) Content: Odin is a Swedish satellite working in two disciplines : astrophysics and aeronomy , and it was named after Odin of Norse mythology . Within the field of astrophysics , Odin was used until the spring of 2007 aiding in the study of star formation . Odin is still used for aeronomical observations , including exploration of the depletion of the ozone layer and effects of global warming . In February 2016 it celebrated 15 years in Earth orbit , and was still functioning nominally . The main instrument on Odin is a radiometer using a 1.1 m telescope , designed to be used for both the astronomy and aeronomy missions . The radiometer works at 486 -- 580 GHz and at 119 GHz . The second instrument on board is the OSIRIS ( Optical Spectrograph and InfraRed Imager System ) . Odin was developed by the Space Systems Division of Swedish Space Corporation ( now OHB Sweden ) as part of an international project involving the space agencies of Sweden ( SNSB ) , Finland ( TEKES ) , Canada ( CSA ) and France ( CNES ) . Odin was launched on a START-1 rocket on February 20 , 2001 from Svobodny , Russia . In April 2007 , astronomers announced that Odin had made the first ever detection of molecular oxygen in interstellar clouds . The spacecraft was still functioning nominally in 2010 . It continued to function and as of February 20 , 2016 , was still functioning nominally . International partners : Agencies or organizations involved in Odin : Swedish National Space Board Swedish Space Corporation Canadian Space Agency Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council ( of Canada ) National Technology Agency of Finland CNES ( France ) Obejectives : Astronomy Aeronomy applications Atmospheric research Stratospheric ozone chemistry Mesospheric ozone science Summer mesospheric science Coupling of atmospheric regions", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Odin_(satellite)", "rank": 27, "score": 96703 }, { "content": "Title: 100% renewable energy Content: The endeavor to use 100 % renewable energy for electricity , heating and cooling , and transport is motivated by global warming , pollution and other environmental issues , as well as economic and energy security concerns . Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system . In 2013 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand . Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates anticipated . In 2014 , renewable sources such as wind , geothermal , solar , biomass , and burnt waste provided 19 % of the total energy consumed worldwide , with roughly half of that coming from traditional use of biomass . The most important sector is electricity with a renewable share of 22.8 % , most of it coming from hydropower with a share of 16.6 % , followed by wind with 3.1 % . There are many places around the world with grids that are run almost exclusively on renewable energy . At the national level , at least 30 nations already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 % of the energy supply . Professors S. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow of Princeton University have developed a series of `` Climate stabilization wedges '' that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change , and `` renewable energy sources , '' in aggregate , constitute the largest number of their `` wedges . '' Mark Z. Jacobson , professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy program , says that producing all new energy with wind power , solar power , and hydropower by 2030 is feasible , and that existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050 . Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be `` primarily social and political , not technological or economic '' . Jacobson says that energy costs today with a wind , solar , and water system should be similar to today 's energy costs from other optimally cost-effective strategies . The main obstacle against this scenario is the lack of political will . Similarly , in the United States , the independent National Research Council has noted that `` sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change , energy security , and the escalation of energy costs ... Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States , taken collectively , can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand . '' The main barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low-carbon energy strategies are political rather than technological . According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report , which reviewed many international studies , the key roadblocks are : climate change denial , the fossil fuels lobby , political inaction , unsustainable energy consumption , outdated energy infrastructure , and financial constraints .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "100%_renewable_energy", "rank": 28, "score": 96208 }, { "content": "Title: USA-204 Content: USA-204 , or Wideband Global Satcom 2 ( WGS-2 ) is an American military communications satellite which is operated by the United States Air Force as part of the Wideband Global Satcom programme . Launched in 2009 , it was the second WGS satellite to reach orbit , and operates in geostationary orbit at a longitude of 60 ° east . Built by Boeing , WGS-2 is based on the BSS-702 satellite bus . It had a mass at launch of 5987 kg , and was expected to operate for at least fourteen years . The spacecraft is equipped with two solar arrays to generate power for its communications payload , which consists of cross-band X and Ka band transponders . Propulsion is provided by an R-4D-15 apogee motor , with four XIPS-25 ion engines for stationkeeping . USA-204 was launched by United Launch Alliance , using an Atlas V 421 rocket . The launch occurred from Space Launch Complex 41 at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station at 00:31:00 UTC on 4 April 2009 , and successfully placed the satellite into a geosynchronous transfer orbit , from which the it raised itself into geostationary orbit using its onboard propulsion system . The satellite was designated USA-204 under the US military 's designation system , and received the International Designator 2009-017A and Satellite Catalog Number 34713 .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "USA-204", "rank": 29, "score": 96033 }, { "content": "Title: Hodoyoshi 4 Content: Hodoyoshi-4 is a Japanese micro-satellite launched in 2014 . The satellite is built in 0.5 x0 .6 x0 .7 m box-shape bus , optimized for piggy-back launch . All instruments are powered by solar cells mounted on the spacecraft body and two stub wings , with estimated electrical power of 50W . For orbit-keeping , a `` miniature '' ( 5 kg dry weight ) ion thruster with specific impulse 1100s and operating power 20W is integrated into the body . The satellite was developed under the Funding Program for World-Leading Innovation R&D on Science and Technology .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Hodoyoshi_4", "rank": 30, "score": 95827 }, { "content": "Title: Megha-Tropiques Content: Megha-Tropiques is a satellite mission to study the water cycle in the tropical atmosphere in the context of climate change A collaborative effort between Indian Space Research Organisation ( ISRO ) and French Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales ( CNES ) , Megha-Tropiques was successfully deployed into orbit by a PSLV rocket in October 2011 . Megha-Tropiques was initially scrapped in 2003 , but later revived in 2004 after India increased its contribution and overall costs were lowered . With the progress made by GEWEX ( Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ) , Megha-Tropiques is designed to understand tropical meteorological and climatic processes , by obtaining reliable statistics on the water and energy budget of the tropical atmosphere . Megha-Tropiques complements other data in the current regional monsoon projects such as MAHASRI and the completed GAME project . Megha-Tropiques also seeks to describe the evolution of major tropical weather systems . The focus will be the repetitive measurement of the tropics .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Megha-Tropiques", "rank": 31, "score": 95416 }, { "content": "Title: WorldView-4 Content: WorldView-4 , previously known as GeoEye-2 , is a third generation commercial Earth observation satellite launched on 11 November 2016 . The spacecraft is operated by DigitalGlobe . With a maximum resolution of 31 cm , WorldView-4 provides similar imagery as WorldView-3 , the highest resolution commercially available at the time of its launch .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "WorldView-4", "rank": 32, "score": 95343 }, { "content": "Title: OneWeb satellite constellation Content: The OneWeb satellite constellation -- formerly known as WorldVu -- is a proposed constellation of approximately 648 satellites expected to provide global Internet broadband service to individual consumers as early as 2019 . The constellation is proposed by the company WorldVu Satellites Ltd. , which has used the alternate name L5 in various regulatory filings . OneWeb is registered in St. Helier , Jersey and is expected to require up to in capital by the time the full constellation becomes operational in 2019 -- 2020 . The 648 communication satellites will operate in circular low Earth orbit , at approximately 750 mi altitude , transmitting and receiving in the Ku band of the radio frequency spectrum . Most of the capacity of the initial 648 satellites has been sold , and OneWeb is considering nearly quadrupling the size of the satellite constellation by adding 1,972 additional satellites that it has priority rights to . The company 's business plan is to attempt to `` reach hundreds of millions of potential users residing in places without -LSB- existing -RSB- broadband access . ''", "qid": "3090", "docid": "OneWeb_satellite_constellation", "rank": 33, "score": 95073 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite Content: The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Greenhouse_Gases_Observing_Satellite", "rank": 34, "score": 95035 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment Content: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment ( SORCE ) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measures incoming X-ray , ultraviolet , visible , near-infrared , and total solar radiation . These measurements specifically address long-term climate change , natural variability and enhanced climate prediction , and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation . These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun , its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind . The SORCE spacecraft launched on January 25 , 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) with precise measurements of solar radiation . SORCE measures the Sun 's output using radiometers , spectrometers , photodiodes , detectors , and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory . The SORCE satellite orbits the Earth accumulating solar data . Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun 's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter . Data obtained by the SORCE experiment can be used to model the Sun 's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun 's radiation on the Earth 's atmosphere and climate . Flying in a 645 km , 40 degree orbit , SORCE is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Colorado . It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements . SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 nm to 2000 nm , accounting for 95 % of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance . SORCE carries four instruments including the Total Irradiance Monitor ( TIM ) , Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment ( SOLSTICE ) , Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SIM ) , and the XUV Photometer System ( XPS ) .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Solar_Radiation_and_Climate_Experiment", "rank": 35, "score": 94773 }, { "content": "Title: Hodoyoshi 3 Content: Hodoyoshi-3 is a Japanese micro-satellite launched in 2014 . The satellite is built in 0.5 x0 .5 x0 .65 m box-shape bus , optimized for piggy-back launch . All instruments are powered by solar cells mounted on the spacecraft body and two stub wings , with estimated electrical power of 50W . For orbit-keeping , a hydrogen peroxide thruster is used . The latest information is available on FACEBOOK page . The satellite was developed under the Funding Program for World-Leading Innovation R&D on Science and Technology .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Hodoyoshi_3", "rank": 36, "score": 94493 }, { "content": "Title: Natural satellite Content: A natural satellite or moon is , in the most common usage , an astronomical body that orbits a planet or minor planet ( or sometimes another Small Solar System Body ) . In the Solar System there are six planetary satellite systems containing 178 known natural satellites . Four IAU-listed dwarf planets are also known to have natural satellites : Pluto , Haumea , Makemake , and Eris . , over 200 minor-planet moons have been discovered . The Earth -- Moon system is unique in that the ratio of the mass of the Moon to the mass of Earth is much greater than that of any other natural-satellite -- planet ratio in the Solar System ( although there are minor-planet systems with even greater ratios , notably the Pluto -- Charon system ) . At 3,474 km ( 2,158 miles ) across , Earth 's Moon is 0.27 times the diameter of Earth .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Natural_satellite", "rank": 37, "score": 94311 }, { "content": "Title: USA-195 Content: USA-195 , or Wideband Global Satcom 1 ( WGS-1 ) is an American military communications satellite operated by the United States Air Force as part of the Wideband Global Satcom programme . Launched in 2007 , it was the first WGS satellite to reach orbit . It is stationed at a longitude of 174.8 ° east . Built by Boeing , USA-195 is based on the BSS-702 satellite bus . It had a mass at launch of 5987 kg , and was expected to operate for fourteen years . The spacecraft is equipped with two solar arrays to generate power for its communications payload , which consists of cross-band X and Ka band transponders . Propulsion is provided by an R-4D-15 apogee motor , with four XIPS-25 ion engines for stationkeeping . USA-195 was launched by United Launch Alliance , who placed it into orbit using an Atlas V rocket flying in the 421 configuration . The launch took place from Space Launch Complex 41 at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station , with liftoff occurring at 00:22 UTC on 11 October 2007 . The launch was successful , placing the satellite into a geosynchronous transfer orbit , from which the spacecraft raised itself into geostationary orbit using its onboard propulsion systems . The satellite was designated USA-195 under the US military 's designation system , and received the International Designator 2007-046A and Satellite Catalog Number 32258 .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "USA-195", "rank": 38, "score": 94233 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric Infrared Sounder Content: The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder ( AIRS ) is one of six instruments flying on board NASA 's Aqua satellite , launched on May 4 , 2002 . The instrument is designed to support climate research and improve weather forecasting . Working in combination with its partner microwave instrument , the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit ( AMSU-A ) , AIRS observes the global water and energy cycles , climate variation and trends , and the response of the climate system to increased greenhouse gases . AIRS uses infrared technology to create three-dimensional maps of air and surface temperature , water vapor , and cloud properties . AIRS can also measure trace greenhouse gases such as ozone , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , and methane . AIRS and AMSU-A share the Aqua satellite with the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) , Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) , and the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-EOS ( AMSR-E ) . Aqua is part of NASA 's `` A-train , '' a series of high-inclination , Sun-synchronous satellites in low Earth orbit designed to make long-term global observations of the land surface , biosphere , solid Earth , atmosphere , and ocean . AIRS data is free and available to the public through the Goddard Earth Sciences Data Information and Services Center . NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena , California , manages AIRS for NASA 's Science Mission Directorate in Washington , D.C.", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Atmospheric_Infrared_Sounder", "rank": 39, "score": 94185 }, { "content": "Title: CRRES Content: The Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite ( CRRES ) was launched on July 25 , 1990 into a geosynchronous transfer orbit ( GTO ) for a nominal three-year mission to investigate fields , plasmas , and energetic particles inside the Earth 's magnetosphere . As part of the CRRES program , the SPACERAD ( Space Radiation Effects ) project , managed by Air Force Geophysics Laboratory , investigated the radiation environment of the inner and outer radiation belts and measured radiation effects on state-of-the-art microelectronics devices . Other magnetospheric , ionospheric , and cosmic ray experiments were also included onboard CRRES and supported by NASA or the Office of Naval Research . The chemical release project was managed by NASA/MSFC and utilized the release of chemicals from onboard canisters at low altitudes near dawn and dusk perigee times and at high altitudes near local midnight . The chemical releases were monitored with optical and radar instrumentation by ground-based observers to measure the bulk properties and movement of the expanding clouds of photo-ionized plasma along field lines after the releases occurred . In order to study the magnetosphere at different local times during the mission , the satellite orbit was designed to precess with respect to the Earth-Sun line such that the local time at apogee decreased by 2.5 minutes/day from 08:00 ( LT ) just after launch and returned to this position in nineteen month cycles . The CRRES spacecraft had the shape of an octagonal prism with solar arrays on the top side . The prism is 1 m high and 3 m between opposite faces . Four of the eight compartments were for the chemical canisters and the other four housed the SPACERAD and other experiments . The spacecraft body was spun at 2.2 rpm about a spin axis in the ecliptic plane and kept pointed about 12 degrees ahead of the Sun 's apparent motion in celestial coordinates . Pre-launch and in-flight operations were supported by the Space Test and Transportation Program Office of the U.S. Air Force Space Division . Contact with the CRRES spacecraft was lost on October 12 , 1991 and was presumed to be due to onboard battery failure . Taken From NASA .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "CRRES", "rank": 40, "score": 94088 }, { "content": "Title: Global Change Observation Mission Content: GCOM ( Global Change Observation Mission ) , is a series of JAXA Earth observation satellites as a successor to the ill-fated ADEOS 2 satellite and to the Aqua Mission . GCOM is , together with the GPM Mission , Japan 's contribution to the GEOSS ( Global Earth Observation System of Systems ) . To increase security and scientific output , JAXA made the decision to split the original ADEOS 2 mission into two models of smaller satellites , GCOM-W for water observation and GCOM-C for climate observation . It is planned to launch three satellites for each mission during the next decade , with each subsequent satellite overlapping to provide continuous coverage .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Global_Change_Observation_Mission", "rank": 41, "score": 94060 }, { "content": "Title: Geocentric orbit Content: A geocentric orbit or Earth orbit involves any object orbiting the Earth , such as the Moon or artificial satellites . In 1997 NASA estimated there were approximately 2,465 artificial satellite payloads orbiting the Earth and 6,216 pieces of space debris as tracked by the Goddard Space Flight Center . Over 16,291 previously launched objects have decayed into the Earth 's atmosphere .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Geocentric_orbit", "rank": 42, "score": 94023 }, { "content": "Title: Small Satellite Conference Content: Internationally recognized as the premier conference on small satellites , the AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites ( also known as the Small Satellite Conference , or Small Sat ) is held each August on the campus of Utah State University ( USU ) in Logan , Utah , USA . This annual gathering provides a forum for the best minds in the small satellite community to review recent successes , explore new directions , and introduce emerging technologies in small spacecraft development . In addition to creating an excellent environment for networking and speaking with experts in military , science , and academic fields , the Conference offers a program of international relevance , focusing on the key challenges and opportunities facing the small satellite community today .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Small_Satellite_Conference", "rank": 43, "score": 94013 }, { "content": "Title: USA-211 Content: USA-211 , or Wideband Global Satcom 3 ( WGS-3 ) is an American military communications satellite operated by the United States Air Force as part of the Wideband Global Satcom programme . Launched in 2009 , it was the third WGS satellite , and final Block I spacecraft , to reach orbit . It is stationed at 12 ° west in Geostationary orbit . Built by Boeing , USA-211 is based on the BSS-702 satellite bus . It had a mass at launch of 5987 kg , and was expected to operate for fourteen years . The spacecraft is equipped with two solar arrays to generate power for its communications payload , which consists of cross-band X and Ka band transponders . Propulsion is provided by an R-4D-15 apogee motor , with four XIPS-25 ion engines for stationkeeping . USA-211 was launched by United Launch Alliance , who placed it into orbit using an Delta IV rocket , which flew for the first time in the Medium + ( 5,4 ) configuration . The launch took place from Space Launch Complex 37B at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station , with at 01:47:00 UTC on 6 December 2009 . The launch was successful , placing the satellite into a geosynchronous transfer orbit , from which it raised itself into geostationary orbit using its propulsion system . Following launch , the satellite was designated USA-211 under the US military 's designation system , and received the International Designator 2009-068A and Satellite Catalog Number 36108 .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "USA-211", "rank": 44, "score": 93157 }, { "content": "Title: USA-244 Content: USA-244 , or Wideband Global Satcom 6 ( WGS-6 ) is an American military communications satellite operated by the United States Air Force as part of the Wideband Global Satcom programme . Launched in 2013 , it was the sixth WGS satellite to reach orbit . It is stationed at a longitude of 104 ° east , in geostationary orbit . WGS-6 was procured by the Australian Defence Force for the US Air Force , in exchange for participation in the programme . Built by Boeing , USA-244 is based on the BSS-702 satellite bus . It had a mass at launch of 5987 kg , and was expected to operate for fourteen years . The spacecraft is equipped with two solar arrays to generate power for its communications payload , which consists of cross-band X and Ka band transponders . Propulsion is provided by an R-4D-15 apogee motor , with four XIPS-25 ion engines for stationkeeping . USA-244 was launched by United Launch Alliance , who placed it into orbit using an Delta IV Medium + ( 5,4 ) rocket , flight number D363 . The launch took place from Space Launch Complex 37B at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station , with liftoff at 00:29 UTC on 8 August 2013 . The launch was successful , placing the WGS-6 into a geosynchronous transfer orbit , from which the spacecraft raised itself into geostationary orbit using its onboard propulsion system . The satellite was designated USA-244 under the US military 's designation system , and received the International Designator 2013-041A and Satellite Catalog Number 39222 .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "USA-244", "rank": 45, "score": 93035 }, { "content": "Title: Joint Polar Satellite System Content: Joint Polar Satellite System ( JPSS ) is the latest generation of U.S. polar-orbiting , non-geosynchronous , environmental satellites . JPSS will provide the global environmental data used in numerical weather prediction models for forecasts , and scientific data used for climate monitoring . JPSS will aid in fulfilling the mission of the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , an agency of the Department of Commerce . Data and imagery obtained from the JPSS will increase timeliness and accuracy of public warnings and forecasts of climate and weather events , thus reducing the potential loss of human life and property and advancing the national economy . The JPSS is developed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , who is responsible for operation of JPSS . Two satellites are planned for the JPSS constellation of satellites . JPSS satellites will be flown and the scientific data from JPSS will be processed by the JPSS - Common Ground System ( JPSS-CGS ) .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Joint_Polar_Satellite_System", "rank": 46, "score": 92930 }, { "content": "Title: Coal power in the United States Content: Coal power in the United States accounted for 39 % of the country 's electricity production at utility-scale facilities in 2014 , 33 % in 2015 , and 30.4 % in 2016 Coal supplied 16.5 quadrillion BTUs of primary energy to electric power plants in 2013 , which made up nearly 92 % of coal 's contribution to energy supply . Utilities buy more than 90 percent of the coal consumed in the United States . Coal has been used to generate electricity in the United States since an Edison plant was built in New York City in 1882 . The first alternating current power station was opened by General Electric in Ehrenfeld , Pennsylvania in 1902 , servicing the Webster Coal and Coke Company . By the mid-twentieth century , coal had become the leading fuel for generating electricity in the US . The long , steady rise of coal-fired generation of electricity shifted to a decline after 2007 . The decline has been linked to the increased availability of natural gas , decreased consumption , renewable power , and more stringent environmental regulations . The Environmental Protection Administration has advanced restrictions on coal plants to counteract mercury pollution , smog , and global warming .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Coal_power_in_the_United_States", "rank": 47, "score": 92913 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy in the United States Content: Renewable energy in the United States accounted for 13.44 percent of the domestically produced electricity in 2015 , and 11.1 percent of total energy generation . As of 2016 , more than 260,000 people work in the solar industry and 43 states deploy net metering , where energy utilities buy back excess power generated by solar arrays . Renewable energy reached a major milestone in the first quarter of 2011 , when it contributed 11.7 percent of total U.S. energy production ( 2.245 quadrillion BTU of energy ) , surpassing energy production from nuclear power ( 2.125 quadrillion BTU ) . 2011 was the first year since 1997 that renewables exceeded nuclear in US total energy production . Hydroelectric power is currently the largest producer of renewable power in the U.S. . It produced around 6.14 % of the nation 's total electricity in 2015 which was 45.71 % of the total renewable power in the U.S. . The United States is the fourth largest producer of hydroelectricity in the world after China , Canada and Brazil . The Grand Coulee Dam is the 5th largest hydroelectric power station in the world . U.S. wind power installed capacity now exceeds 72,000 MW and supplies 4.1 % of the nation 's electricity . Texas is firmly established as the leader in wind power development , followed by Iowa and California . Since the U.S. pioneered the technology in 1981 with Solar One , several solar thermal power stations have also been built . The largest of these solar thermal power stations are the Ivanpah Solar Power Facility ( 392 MW ) , southwest of Las Vegas , and the SEGS group of plants in the Mojave Desert , with a total generating capacity of 354 MW . Large photovoltaic power plants in the USA include Solar Star ( 579 MW ) , near Rosamond , California , the Desert Sunlight Solar Farm , a 550 MW solar power plant in Riverside County , California and the Topaz Solar Farm , a 550 MW photovoltaic power plant , in San Luis Obispo County , California . The Geysers in Northern California is the largest complex of geothermal energy production in the world . The development of renewable energy and energy efficiency marks `` a new era of energy exploration '' in the United States , according to President Barack Obama . In a joint address to the Congress on February 24 , 2009 , President Obama called for doubling renewable energy within the next three years . In his 2012 State of the Union address , President Barack Obama restated his commitment to renewable energy and mentioned the long-standing Interior Department commitment to permit 10,000 MW of renewable energy projects on public land in 2012 .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Renewable_energy_in_the_United_States", "rank": 48, "score": 92243 }, { "content": "Title: Explorer 7 Content: Explorer 7 was launched October 13 , 1959 at 10:36 a.m. Eastern Time by a Juno II rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station to an orbit of 573 km by 1073 km and inclination of 50.27 ° . It was designed to measure solar x-ray and Lyman-alpha flux , trapped energetic particles , and heavy primary cosmic rays . Also Secondary objectives included collecting data on micrometeoroid penetration and molecular sputtering and studying the Earth-atmosphere heat balance . Launch was originally scheduled for late September 1959 , but the mission was delayed for a week after a Jupiter IRBM test on an adjacent pad failed shortly after liftoff , causing flying debris to hit Explorer 7 's launch vehicle . However , the damage to the booster was minor and could be easily repaired . Significantly , it also carried Verner Suomi 's flat-plate radiometer , improved with the help of Robert Parent , that took the first Earth radiation budget measurements from space and initiated the era of satellite studies of the climate . Using both satellite observations of the Earth 's heat balance and atmospheric cooling rates measured by net flux radiosondes , Suomi established the important role played by clouds in absorbing radiated solar energy . These observations established that Earth 's energy budget varies markedly due to the effect of clouds , the surface albedo , and other absorbing constituents . Using these instruments , Suomi and his team discovered that the Earth absorbed more of the Sun 's energy than originally thought and demonstrated that it was possible to measure and quantify seasonal changes in the global heat budget . The satellite weighed 41.5 kg , was 75 cm high and 75 cm wide . Powered by solar cells it also carried 15 nickel-cadmium batteries around its equator . It transmitted data continuously through to February 1961 and went dead on August 24 , 1961 . It is still in orbit .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Explorer_7", "rank": 49, "score": 92066 }, { "content": "Title: Satellite (Nickelback song) Content: `` Satellite '' is a song recorded by Canadian rock group Nickelback for their eighth studio album , No Fixed Address ( 2014 ) . A pop rock `` power ballad '' about an all-encompassing love , the song was written by group members Chad Kroeger and Ryan Peake with Josh Ramsay and David Hodges . Nickelback co-produced the track with Chris Baseford . `` Satellite '' was released March 23 , 2015 as the album 's sixth single and serves as the second pop single in continental Europe . The song was later serviced to hot adult contemporary radio stations in the United States on May 11 , 2015 as the album 's third pop single in North America . An accompanying music video for the song , directed by Nigel Dick , serves as the second half of a two-part story started in the video for `` Get 'Em Up '' . Music critics were divided on their opinion of `` Satellite '' , with some praising the ballad form and others labelling the song as `` cliché . '' The song only charted in Canada , where it peaked outside the top 40 on the national adult contemporary chart .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Satellite_(Nickelback_song)", "rank": 50, "score": 91808 }, { "content": "Title: SDS-1 Content: The Small Demonstration Satellite ( SDS ) is a spacecraft or satellite which is built as part of a JAXA programme to develop and demonstrate technology for and through small satellites . One of the mid-term goals is also to demonstrate formation flying . SDS-1 launched aboard an H-IIA rocket on 23 January 2009 , as a secondary payload to GOSAT . The operation finished successfully on September 8 , 2010 . The programme started in spring 2006 , and continues on from the MicroLabSat spacecraft , which was launched on 14 December 2002 , and ceased operations on 27 September 2006 . The following experiments were aboard : MTP ( Multi-mode integrated Transponder ) SWIM ( SpaceWire demonstration Module ) AMI ( Advanced Micro processing In-orbit experiment equipment ) TFC ( Thin Film Solar Cell ) DOS ( Small Dosimeter ) Small satellite bus technology experiment . Total mass of the satellite is 100 kg .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "SDS-1", "rank": 51, "score": 91792 }, { "content": "Title: Sentinel-3 Content: Sentinel-3 is an Earth observation satellite constellation developed by the European Space Agency as part of the Copernicus Programme . Copernicus , formerly Global Monitoring for Environment and Security , is the European programme to establish a European capacity for Earth observation designed to provide European policy makers and public authorities with accurate and timely information to better manage the environment , and to understand and mitigate the effects of climate change .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Sentinel-3", "rank": 52, "score": 91441 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable energy Content: Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources , which are naturally replenished on a human timescale , such as sunlight , wind , rain , tides , waves , and geothermal heat . Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas : electricity generation , air and water heating/cooling , transportation , and rural ( off-grid ) energy services . Based on REN21 's 2016 report , renewables contributed 19.2 % to humans ' global energy consumption and 23.7 % to their generation of electricity in 2014 and 2015 , respectively . This energy consumption is divided as 8.9 % coming from traditional biomass , 4.2 % as heat energy ( modern biomass , geothermal and solar heat ) , 3.9 % hydro electricity and 2.2 % is electricity from wind , solar , geothermal , and biomass . Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US$ 286 billion in 2015 , with countries like China and the United States heavily investing in wind , hydro , solar and biofuels . Globally , there are an estimated 7.7 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries , with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer . As of 2015 worldwide , more than half of all new electricity capacity installed was renewable . Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas , in contrast to other energy sources , which are concentrated in a limited number of countries . Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security , climate change mitigation , and economic benefits . The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change , a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies . In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power . At the national level , at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply . National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond . Some places and at least two countries , Iceland and Norway generate all their electricity using renewable energy already , and many other countries have the set a goal to reach 100 % renewable energy in the future . For example , in Denmark the government decided to switch the total energy supply ( electricity , mobility and heating/cooling ) to 100 % renewable energy by 2050 . While many renewable energy projects are large-scale , renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries , where energy is often crucial in human development . United Nations ' Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity . As most of renewables provide electricity , renewable energy deployment is often applied in conjunction with further electrification , which has several benefits : Electricity can be converted to heat ( where necessary generating higher temperatures than fossil fuels ) , can be converted into mechanical energy with high efficiency and is clean at the point of consumption . In addition to that electrification with renewable energy is much more efficient and therefore leads to a significant reduction in primary energy requirements , because most renewables do n't have a steam cycle with high losses ( fossil power plants usually have losses of 40 to 65 % ) . Renewable energy systems are rapidly becoming more efficient and cheaper . Their share of total energy consumption is increasing . Growth in consumption of coal and oil could end by 2020 due to increased uptake of renewables and natural gas .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Renewable_energy", "rank": 53, "score": 91401 }, { "content": "Title: USA-64 Content: USA-64 , also known as GPS II-9 and GPS SVN-15 , was an American navigation satellite which formed part of the Global Positioning System . It was the last of nine Block II GPS satellites to be launched , which were the first operational GPS satellites to fly . It was also the last Block II satellite to be retired from service . USA-64 was launched at 21:56:00 UTC on 1 October 1990 , atop a Delta II carrier rocket , flight number D199 , flying in the 6925 configuration . The launch took place from Launch Complex 17A at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station , and placed USA-64 into a transfer orbit . The satellite raised itself into medium Earth orbit using a Star-37XFP apogee motor . On 31 October 1990 , USA-64 was in an orbit with a perigee of 19972 km , an apogee of 20390 km , a period of 717.94 minutes , and 54.9 degrees of inclination to the equator . It operated in slot 5 of plane D of the GPS constellation . The satellite had a mass of 840 kg , and generated 710 watts of power . It had a design life of 7.5 years , and ceased operations on 14 March 2007 , having been removed from active service on 17 November 2006 for testing .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "USA-64", "rank": 54, "score": 91334 }, { "content": "Title: NanoSail-D2 Content: NanoSail-D2 was a small satellite built by NASA 's Marshall Space Flight Center and Ames Research Center to study the deployment of a solar sail in space . It was a three-unit CubeSat , measuring 30 * with a mass of 4 kg . Its solar sail had an area of 10 m2 , and was deployed in around five seconds . It was planned to be deployed from the FASTSAT satellite around 3 December 2010 , two weeks after launch . The satellite did not eject at that time , but on January 17 , 2011 , it ejected on its own and deployed its sail three days later on the 20th . The beacon signal began transmitting after ejection and was first received on the afternoon of January 19 , 2011 .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "NanoSail-D2", "rank": 55, "score": 91203 }, { "content": "Title: Kalam SAT Content: Kalam SAT , the smallest Independent Cube Satellite ( made Till May , 2017 ) , is named after former Indian president Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam . It will be launched by NASA on 21 June , 2017 from Wallops Island . Kalam SAT has been reported widely to be the world 's lightest Independent satellite , even though that the tern ` lightest ' probably applies more to the KickSat Sprite -- considerably smaller , lighter , and actually flown in orbit , but KickSat can not be launched independently into space since it needs a mothership as well as it lacks the ability of integrating payloads resulting in no practical use while KalamSat will only fly on a sounding rocket as of now but it can be launched into Orbit or interplanetary missions as Independent satellites in future and have capability if adding multiple payloads which will have more practical use . The probe was built by the team of 7 peoples leaded by Rifath Sharook , an 18 year old student from Pallapatti , Tamil Nadu , India , on behalf of Space Kidz India , a Research Organisation based on Chennai , as a part of a competition , named as - ` Cubes in Space ' . This contest was jointly organised by NASA and another organisation ` I Doodle Learning ' which is a global education company . This will be the first time when a space probe , that was made by an Indian student will be launched by NASA . The weight of the probe is just 64 grams and it is fitted in a 3.8 centimeters cube . The probe is composed of 3-D printed reinforced carbon fiber polymer . Part of the components were supplied from India and other parts from abroad . The probe will be launched by a sub-orbital spaceflight . The expected time span of the mission ( post flight ) is 240 minutes . The tiny probe will be operated only for less than 12 minutes to demonstrate the performance of 3-D printed carbon fiber in a micro-gravity environment of space .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Kalam_SAT", "rank": 56, "score": 91079 }, { "content": "Title: USA-42 Content: USA-42 , also known as GPS II-3 and GPS SVN-16 , was an American navigation satellite which formed part of the Global Positioning System . It was the third of nine Block II GPS satellites to be launched , which were the first operational GPS satellites to be placed into orbit . USA-42 was launched at 05:57:59 UTC on 18 August 1989 , atop a Delta II carrier rocket , flight number D186 , flying in the 6925 configuration . The launch took place from Launch Complex 17A at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station , and placed USA-42 into a transfer orbit . The satellite raised itself into medium Earth orbit using a Star-37XFP apogee motor . On 19 September 1989 , USA-42 was in an orbit with a perigee of 20113 km , an apogee of 20246 km , a period of 717.86 minutes , and 54.9 degrees of inclination to the equator . The satellite had a mass of 840 kg , and generated 710 watts of power . It had a design life of 7.5 years , and ceased operations on 13 October 2000 .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "USA-42", "rank": 57, "score": 90988 }, { "content": "Title: Solar energy in the European Union Content: Solar energy in the European Union consists of photovoltaics ( PV ) and solar thermal energy . In 2010 , the $ 2.6 billion European solar heating sector consisted of small and medium-sized businesses , generated 17.3 terawatt-hours ( TWh ) of energy , employed 33,500 workers , and created one new job for every 80 kW of added capacity . During 2011 , an additional 21.9 gigawatts ( GW ) of photovoltaics systems were connected to the grid in the European Union , a steep increase from 13.4 GW in 2010 . Turnover of the European PV market amounted to approximately $ 36 billion for this period .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Solar_energy_in_the_European_Union", "rank": 58, "score": 90677 }, { "content": "Title: Energy mix Content: The energy mix is the group of different primary energy sources from which secondary energy for direct use - usually electricity - is produced . Primary energy in the form of fossil fuels is nowadays still mostly used directly for motor-driven vehicles , i.e. transport . Further energy conversion of the co-produced waste heat after burning is not possible . In 2009 , the global primary energy use corresponded to 12.5 e6t oil equivalent corresponding to 145,375 GWh ) . According to the International Energy Agency ( IEA ) 13,6 % of that was used by the EU . Within the EU , 75.9 % came from fossil fuels , 14.1 % from nuclear energy , 7 % from biofuels , 2.9 from renewable energy resources . Overall primary energy consumption in the U.S. in 2015 relied most on petroleum ( 35 e15BTU ) , natural gas ( 29 e15BTU ) and coal ( 16 e15BTU ) . Renewables contributed 9 e15BTU and nuclear power 8 e15BTU . In the same year , about 4 million GWh of electricity were generated in the U.S. , 67 % of which was generated from fossil fuels ( coal , natural gas , and < 1 % petroleum ) , 20 % from nuclear power , 6 % hydropower and 7 % other renewables . While the rise of global energy consumption with the global population growth can not immediately be counteracted , the sustainability of growth can partially be improved by changing the energy mix towards renewables . The main forces in this process are national and transnational energy policy and the energy industry together with their lobbyists .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Energy_mix", "rank": 59, "score": 90658 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Greenhouse_effect", "rank": 60, "score": 90362 }, { "content": "Title: Geothermal power Content: Geothermal power is power generated by geothermal energy . Technologies in use include dry steam power stations , flash steam power stations and binary cycle power stations . Geothermal electricity generation is currently used in 24 countries , while geothermal heating is in use in 70 countries . As of 2015 , worldwide geothermal power capacity amounts to 12.8 gigawatts ( GW ) , of which 28 percent or 3,548 megawatts are installed in the United States . International markets grew at an average annual rate of 5 percent over the last three years and global geothermal power capacity is expected to reach 14.5 -- 17.6 GW by 2020 . Based on current geologic knowledge and technology , the Geothermal Energy Association ( GEA ) estimates that only 6.5 percent of total global potential has been tapped so far , while the IPCC reported geothermal power potential to be in the range of 35 GW to 2 TW . Countries generating more than 15 percent of their electricity from geothermal sources include El Salvador , Kenya , the Philippines , Iceland and Costa Rica . Geothermal power is considered to be a sustainable , renewable source of energy because the heat extraction is small compared with the Earth 's heat content . The greenhouse gas emissions of geothermal electric stations are on average 45 grams of carbon dioxide per kilowatt-hour of electricity , or less than 5 percent of that of conventional coal-fired plants .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Geothermal_power", "rank": 61, "score": 90324 }, { "content": "Title: THEMIS Content: The Time History of Events and Macroscale Interactions during Substorms ( THEMIS ) mission was originally a constellation of five NASA satellites ( THEMIS A through THEMIS E ) to study energy releases from Earth 's magnetosphere known as substorms , magnetic phenomena that intensify auroras near Earth 's poles . The name of the mission is an acronym alluding to the Titan , Themis . Three of the satellites remain in the magnetosphere , while two have been moved into orbit near the Moon . Those have been renamed ARTEMIS for Acceleration , Reconnection , Turbulence and Electrodynamics of the Moon 's Interaction with the Sun . THEMIS B became ARTEMIS P1 and THEMIS C became ARTEMIS P2 . The THEMIS satellites were launched February 17 , 2007 from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 17 aboard a Delta II rocket . Each satellite carries identical instrumentation , including a fluxgate magnetometer ( FGM ) , an electrostatic analyzer ( ESA ) , a solid state telescope ( SST ) , a search-coil magnetometer ( SCM ) and an electric field instrument ( EFI ) . Each has a mass of 126 kg , including 49 kg of fuel . THEMIS data can be accessed using the SPEDAS software .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "THEMIS", "rank": 62, "score": 90142 }, { "content": "Title: World Energy Outlook Content: The annual World Energy Outlook is the International Energy Agency 's flagship publication , widely recognised as the most authoritative source for global energy projections and analysis . It represents the leading source for medium to long-term energy market projections , extensive statistics , analysis and advice for both governments and the energy business . It is produced by the Office of the Chief Economist , presently under the direction of Dr. Fatih Birol . Using a Reference Scenario based on no change in current policies , it enables policy-makers to evaluate their current path . The WEO has also developed an alternative scenario that puts the global energy systems on a trajectory to stabilise greenhouse gas emissions in line with limiting the increase in temperature to 2 ° C.", "qid": "3090", "docid": "World_Energy_Outlook", "rank": 63, "score": 90102 }, { "content": "Title: Intelsat III F-4 Content: Intelsat III F-4 was a geostationary communications satellite built by TRW , it was owned by Intelsat , a company currently based in Luxembourg . The satellite had an estimated useful life of 5 years . The Intelsat III F-4 was part of the Intelsat III series which consisted of eight satellites , which were used for retransmission of global commercial telecommunications , including live TV . The satellite was stabilized by rotation with a minus antenna structure ( its antenna was 34 inches high ) . It had a hydrazine propulsion system with four propellers and four tanks . Passive thermal control . With solar cells producing 178W peak , nine Ahr NiCd batteries . The load consisted of two transponders that used 12 watt TWTA amplifiers for multiple access , 1500 audio circuits or four TV channels . The Intelsat III F-1 was disabled due to launch vehicle failure . The satellite was successfully launched into space on May 22 , 1969 , by means of a Delta M vehicle from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida , United States . It had a launch mass of 293 kg .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Intelsat_III_F-4", "rank": 64, "score": 89866 }, { "content": "Title: High Energy Transient Explorer Content: The High Energy Transient Explorer ( abbreviated HETE ; also known as Explorer 79 ) was an American astronomical satellite with international participation ( mainly Japan and France ) . The prime objective of HETE was to carry out the first multiwavelength study of gamma-ray bursts with UV , X-ray , and gamma-ray instruments mounted on a single , compact spacecraft . A unique feature of the HETE mission was its capability to localize GRBs with ~ 10 arc second accuracy in near real time aboard the spacecraft , and to transmit these positions directly to a network of receivers at existing ground-based observatories enabling rapid , sensitive follow-up studies in the radio , IR , and optical bands . The satellite bus for the first HETE was designed and built by AeroAstro , Inc. of Herndon , VA ; the replacement satellite , HETE-2 , was built by MIT based on the original HETE design .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "High_Energy_Transient_Explorer", "rank": 65, "score": 89710 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Hawaii Content: Hawaii Governor Linda Lingle has approved a number of energy-related bills to address climate change and promote local renewable energy production . The governor 's energy bill-signing streak started in late April 2008 with the approval of House Bill 2502 , which allows solar energy facilities to be located on less-productive agricultural lands , followed in late May by the approval of HB 3179 , which makes it easier for biofuel producers to lease state lands . In the same time frame , the governor approved SB 2034 , SB 3190 , and HB 2168 , which authorize special purpose revenue bonds to help finance a 2.7-megawatt wave energy facility off the coast of Maui , a solar energy facility on Oahu , and hydrogen generation and conversion facilities at the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority , located on the island of Hawaii . Senate Bill 644 , approved on June 26 , 2008 prohibits the issuing of building permits for new homes without solar water heaters as of 2010 . The bill excludes homes located in areas with poor solar energy resources , homes using other renewable energy sources , and homes employing on-demand gas-fired water heaters . The bill also eliminates solar thermal energy tax credits for those homes . On June 6 , 2008 the governor approved SB 988 , which allows the Hawaii Public Utility Commission to establish a rebate for solar photovoltaic electric systems , and HB 2550 , which encourages net metering for residential and small commercial customers . On July 1 , 2008 the governor approved the final three energy bills , including HB 2863 , which provides streamlined permitting for new renewable energy facilities of at least 200 megawatts in capacity . HB 2505 creates a full-time renewable energy facilitator to help the state expedite those permits , while a third bill , HB 2261 , will provide loans of up to $ 1.5 million and up to 85 % of the cost of renewable energy projects at farms and aquaculture facilities .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Hawaii", "rank": 66, "score": 89697 }, { "content": "Title: Satellite temperature measurements Content: The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Satellite_temperature_measurements", "rank": 67, "score": 89620 }, { "content": "Title: Coronal radiative losses Content: In astronomy and in astrophysics , for radiative losses of the solar corona , it is meant the energy flux irradiated from the external atmosphere of the Sun ( traditionally divided into chromosphere , transition region and corona ) , and , in particular , the processes of production of the radiation coming from the solar corona and transition region , where the plasma is optically-thin . On the contrary , in the chromosphere , where the temperature decreases from the photospheric value of 6000 K to the minimum of 4400 K , the optical depth is about 1 , and the radiation is thermal . The corona extends much further than a solar radius from the photosphere and looks very complex and inhomogeneous in the X-rays images taken by satellites ( see the figure on the right taken by the XRT on board Hinode ) . The structure and dynamics of the corona are dominated by the solar magnetic field . There are strong evidences that even the heating mechanism , responsible for its high temperature of million degrees , is linked to the magnetic field of the Sun . The energy flux irradiated from the corona changes in active regions , in the quiet Sun and in coronal holes ; actually , part of the energy is irradiated outwards , but approximately the same amount of the energy flux is conducted back towards the chromosphere , through the steep transition region . In active regions the energy flux is about 107 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , in the quiet Sun it is roughly 8 105 -- 106 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , and in coronal holes 5 105 - 8 105 erg cm − 2sec − 1 , including the losses due to the solar wind . The required power is a small fraction of the total flux irradiated from the Sun , but this energy is enough to maintain the plasma at the temperature of million degrees , since the density is very low and the processes of radiation are different from those occurring in the photosphere , as it is shown in detail in the next section .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Coronal_radiative_losses", "rank": 68, "score": 89576 }, { "content": "Title: USP (satellite bus) Content: The USP , for Universal Space Platform ( Russian : УКП , Универсальная Космическая Платформа ) , also known as Viktoria , is a highly flexible satellite bus designed and manufactured by RSC Energia . It is called universal because it has been designed to be operated from LEO to GEO . It is a three axis stabilized platform with electric propulsion for station keeping , but chemical propellant is offered as an option . The bus can offer up to 3000 W of power and a payload capacity up to 1000 kg for Low Earth orbit or HEO an up to 300 kg for geostationary orbit . The platform is designed for direct orbital injection , and thus lacks orbit raising propulsion . It does however , support dual launching on Proton-M , which can enable cheap launching , or the use of smaller vehicles like the Soyuz-2 .1 b/Fregat-M or even the Dnepr for low energy orbits .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "USP_(satellite_bus)", "rank": 69, "score": 89502 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 70, "score": 89318 }, { "content": "Title: Orbital Test Satellite Content: The Orbital Test Satellite programme was an experimental satellite system inherited by the European Space Agency ( ESA ) in 1975 from its predecessor , the European Space Research Organisation ( ESRO ) . The first of the pair of OTS satellites ( OTS-1 ) was lost at launch in the failure of its US Delta launcher in September 1977 . OTS-2 was successfully launched in 1978 , again using the Delta rocket and became one of the first geostationary communications satellites to carry six Ku-band transponders and was capable of handling 7,200 telephone circuits . With a mass of approximately 445 kg on station , the OTS 2 bus was hexagonal with overall dimensions of 2.4 m by 2.1 m. Two solar panels with a span of 9.3 m provided 0.6 kW of electrical power . British Aerospace was the prime contractor from the European MESH consortium which developed the OTS vehicle . It completed its primary mission in 1984 after which the spacecraft was involved in a 6-year program of experiments , including the testing of a new attitude control technique taking advantage of solar radiation pressure forces . In January 1991 , OTS 2 was moved out of the geostationary ring and into a graveyard orbit .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Orbital_Test_Satellite", "rank": 71, "score": 89234 }, { "content": "Title: Satellites (song) Content: `` Satellites '' is the first single by September from her second album In Orbit and is the first single released under her contract with Catchy Tunes . The single was a success in Sweden and Finland and was later released in variety of countries worldwide , such as Poland , Romania , Spain , Israel , the United Kingdom and the United States , being September 's first international release . `` Satellites '' is considered September 's second biggest hit to date ( after `` Cry for You '' ) , becoming a hit in almost all countries it was released in . Portuguese television network SIC used the song to promote its now discontinued WAP service , SIC Música . This helped the song gain popularity in Portugal resulting in it becoming a hit , being one of the most played songs on Portuguese radio stations in 2007 .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Satellites_(song)", "rank": 72, "score": 89208 }, { "content": "Title: Satellite (P.O.D. album) Content: Satellite is the fourth studio album and the second major label release by the band P.O.D. . The album was released on September 11 , 2001 , debuting at No. 6 on the Billboard 200 chart with over 133,000 copies sold . It spent five consecutive weeks in the Top 10 of that chart . It went on to sell over three million copies in the U.S. , and over seven million worldwide , making it the band 's album . Satellite was placed at No. 137 on the Billboard 's top 200 albums of the decade . It was the 117th best-selling album of 2001 and the 26th best-selling album of 2002 in the United States .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Satellite_(P.O.D._album)", "rank": 73, "score": 89140 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 74, "score": 89106 }, { "content": "Title: Array of Low Energy X-ray Imaging Sensors Content: The Array of Low Energy X-ray Imaging Sensors ( ALEXIS ) X-ray telescopes feature curved mirrors whose multilayer coatings reflect and focus low-energy X-rays or extreme ultraviolet light the way optical telescopes focus visible light . The satellite and payloads were funded by the United States Department of Energy and built by Los Alamos National Laboratory in collaboration with Sandia National Laboratories and the University of California-Space Sciences Lab . The satellite bus was built by AeroAstro , Inc. of Herndon , VA. . The Launch was provided by the United States Air Force Space Test Program on a Pegasus Booster on April 25 , 1993 . The mission is entirely controlled from a small groundstation at LANL .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Array_of_Low_Energy_X-ray_Imaging_Sensors", "rank": 75, "score": 89044 }, { "content": "Title: DS-P1-Yu Content: DS-P1-Yu was a series of Soviet satellites developed by the Yuzhnoye Design Office of Ukraine , for use in calibrating the Dnestr space surveillance and early-warning radar system . Between 1964 and 1976 , a total of 79 satellites were launched on Kosmos launchers , with seven failing to reach orbit . The dodecahedral satellites had a mass of 193 - and an operational lifetime of 60 days . They were covered in solar panels and a metallic mesh transparent to visible spectrum light and opaque to radio frequencies . The DS-P1-Yu replaced the similar DS-P1 , of which four were launched between 1962 and 1964 , with one failure to reach orbit .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "DS-P1-Yu", "rank": 76, "score": 89034 }, { "content": "Title: Suzaku (satellite) Content: Suzaku ( formerly ASTRO-EII ) was an X-ray astronomy satellite developed jointly by NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center and the Institute of Space and Aeronautical Science at JAXA to probe high energy X-ray sources , such as supernova explosions , black holes and galactic clusters . It was launched on 10 July 2005 aboard the M-V-6 rocket . After its successful launch , the satellite was renamed Suzaku after the mythical Vermilion bird of the South . Just weeks after launch , on 29 July 2005 the first of a series of cooling system malfunctions occurred . These ultimately caused the entire reservoir of liquid helium to boil off into space by 8 August 2005 . This effectively shut down the X-ray Spectrometer ( XRS ) , which was the spacecraft 's primary instrument . The two other instruments , the X-ray Imaging Spectrometer ( XIS ) and the Hard X-ray Detector ( HXD ) , were unaffected by the malfunction . As a result , another XRS was integrated into the Hitomi X-ray satellite , launched in 2016 . On 26 August 2015 , JAXA announced that communications with Suzaku had been intermittent since 1 June , and that the resumption of scientific operations would be difficult to accomplish given the spacecraft 's condition . Mission operators decided to complete the mission imminently , as Suzaku had exceeded its design lifespan by eight years at this point . The mission came to an end on 2 September 2015 , when JAXA commanded the radio transmitters on Suzaku to switch themselves off .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Suzaku_(satellite)", "rank": 77, "score": 88909 }, { "content": "Title: Solar power in Brazil Content: The total installed solar power in Brazil was estimated to be 69 MWp at the end of 2015 , but generates less than 0.01 percent of the country 's electricity demand . Changes to net metering rules for small-scale solar were announced in November 2015 although there were only 1,300 grid-connected systems at that time . Brazil expects to have 1.2 million systems in the year 2024 . Brazil has one of the highest solar incidence in the world , ranging from 4.25 to 6.5 sun hours/day . Source : Solar energy has great potential in Brazil , due to high levels of sunlight . Brazil 's least sunny city still receives 40 % more sunlight compared to the sunniest city in Germany -LSB- 4 -RSB- . However , solar energy accounts for over 7 % of the energy production in Germany , compared to the 0.01 % in Brazil -LSB- 5 -RSB- .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Solar_power_in_Brazil", "rank": 78, "score": 88878 }, { "content": "Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Global_dimming", "rank": 79, "score": 88832 }, { "content": "Title: Edison Demonstration of Smallsat Networks Content: Edison Demonstration of Smallsat Networks ( EDSN ) is a CubeSat Satellite constellation by NASA Ames developed as a technology demonstration of satellite networking . The constellation will consist of 8 identical satellites . The satellites follow the CubeSat specifications for a 1.5 U CubeSat . EDSN is funded through the Small Spacecraft Technology Program ( SSTP ) . Additionally , NASA Ames has partnered with NASA Marshall , Montana State University , and Santa Clara University . All 8 CubeSats were destroyed during a launch failure of the Super Strypi rocket on November 3 , 2015 .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Edison_Demonstration_of_Smallsat_Networks", "rank": 80, "score": 88814 }, { "content": "Title: Short Satellite Content: The Short S. 4 Satellite was a small British two-seater sporting monoplane , produced in 1924 to take part in the Air Ministry 's Two-Seater Light Aeroplane competition on 27 September of that year .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Short_Satellite", "rank": 81, "score": 88807 }, { "content": "Title: Reimei Content: Reimei ( ` Dawn ' ) is the in-flight name for a small Japanese satellite known during development as INDEX ( INnovative-technology Demonstration Experiment ) , developed in-house at JAXA both to serve as a demonstration of small-satellite technologies ( particularly high-performance and high-accuracy attitude control ) and to perform simultaneous optical and charged-particle observation of the aurora . A notable feature is the 25 µm-thick polyimide mirrors used for concentrating sunlight onto the solar arrays . It is and weighs 72 kilograms . The construction budget was $ 4 million . The satellite was launched into a near-sun-synchronous 630 km orbit on 24 August 2005 as a piggyback on the OICETS launch .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Reimei", "rank": 82, "score": 88695 }, { "content": "Title: Hydroelectric power in Colombia Content: With seventy percent of Colombia 's power generation , hydroelectric power is a very important national energy source . The total large hydropower potential for Colombia is estimated at 93GW , with an additional 25GW of small hydropower ( < 20MW ) . However , the potential for large hydropower faces difficulties , as the best sites have already been developed , also due to the escalating environmental and social costs associated with large dams , and the likely impacts of climate change and climate variability on the hydrological regime of the country ( drastic increases in surface temperature in the Andes , changes in precipitation patterns , and increases in the intensity and frequency of El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) signals driving prolonged periods of drought ) .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Hydroelectric_power_in_Colombia", "rank": 83, "score": 88661 }, { "content": "Title: Satellite (moth) Content: The Satellite ( Eupsilia transversa ) is a moth of the family Noctuidae . It is distributed throughout the Palearctic . This is a fairly variable species with greyish or reddish brown forewings , often marked with darker bands . The common name derives from the prominent stigma , ranging in colour from white or yellow to red , which has two smaller spots close to it , apparently `` in orbit '' . The hindwings are brown with a paler fringe . The wingspan is 40 -- 48 mm . This species flies at night from September to April and is active on mild nights throughout the winter . It will come to light but is more strongly attracted to sugar and various flowers .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Satellite_(moth)", "rank": 84, "score": 88631 }, { "content": "Title: Elektro–L Content: Elektro -- L is a new-generation series of meteorological satellites developed for the Russian Federal Space Agency by NPO Lavochkin . The first satellite , Elektro-L No. 1 , was launched on 20 January 2011 . It is the first Russian weather satellite that successfully operates in geostationary orbit , and is currently the second operational Russian weather satellite . The satellites have a mass of about 1620 kg and are designed to operate for 10 years each . They are capable of producing images of the Earth 's whole hemisphere in both visible and infrared frequencies , providing data for climate change and ocean monitoring in addition to their primary weather forecasting role .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Elektro–L", "rank": 85, "score": 88451 }, { "content": "Title: United States House Select Committee on Energy Independence and Global Warming Content: The House Select Committee on Energy Independence and Global Warming was a select committee of the United States House of Representatives . It was established March 8 , 2007 through adoption of a resolution by a 269 -- 150 vote of the full House . The committee existed from 2007 to 2011 , and was not renewed when the Republicans gained control of the House for the 112th Congress .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "United_States_House_Select_Committee_on_Energy_Independence_and_Global_Warming", "rank": 86, "score": 88445 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 87, "score": 88435 }, { "content": "Title: Gaofen 1 Content: Gaofen-1 is a high resolution Chinese Earth observation satellite . Gaofen-1 was launched on April 26 , 2013 at 4:13 UTC with a Long March 2D carrier rocket from the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center along with the three small experimental satellites : Turksat 3USat ( Turkey ) , CubeBug-1 ( Argentina ) and NEE-01 Pegaso ( Ecuador ) in a sun-synchronous orbit . The civilian HDEOS ( High-Definition Earth Observation Satellite ) program was proposed in 2006 and received approval in 2010 . Gaofen-1 is the first of six planned HDEOS spacecraft to be launched between 2013 and 2016 . The satellite 's primary goal is to provide NRT ( Near-Real-Time ) observations for disaster prevention and relief , climate change monitoring , geographical mapping , environmental and resource surveying , as well as precision agriculture support .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Gaofen_1", "rank": 88, "score": 88418 }, { "content": "Title: MHW-RTG Content: The Multihundred-Watt radioisotope thermoelectric generators ( MHW RTG ) is a type of US radioisotope thermoelectric generator ( RTG ) developed for the Voyager spacecrafts , Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 . Each RTG had a total weight of 37.7 kg including about 4.5 kg of Pu-238 . It uses 24 pressed plutonium-238 oxide spheres and provides enough heat to generate approximately 157 watts of electrical power initially - halving every 87.7 years . Each RTG generated about 2400 Watts of thermal power . Conversion of the decay heat of the plutonium to electrical power used 312 silicon-germanium ( SiGe ) thermoelectric couples . The initial thermoelectric couple hot junction temperature was 1273 K ( 1832 ° F ) with a cold junction temperature of 573 K ( 572 ° F ) . Each Voyager spacecraft has 3 RTGs . Collectively , the RTGs supplied each Voyager spacecraft with 470 watts at launch . MHW-RTGs were used on the Lincoln Experimental Satellites 8 and 9 , and continue to provide power on Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 . Subsequent US spacecraft used the GPHS-RTG which used similar SiGe thermoelectic devices but a different packaging of the fuel . Another later RTG was the MMRTG", "qid": "3090", "docid": "MHW-RTG", "rank": 89, "score": 88359 }, { "content": "Title: Explorer 6 Content: Explorer 6 , or S-2 , was an American satellite launched on August 7 , 1959 . It was a small , spheroidal satellite designed to study trapped radiation of various energies , galactic cosmic rays , geomagnetism , radio propagation in the upper atmosphere , and the flux of micrometeorites . It also tested a scanning device designed for photographing the Earth 's cloud cover , and transmitted the first pictures of Earth from orbit . The satellite was launched into a highly elliptical orbit with an initial local time of apogee of 2100 h . The satellite was spin-stabilized at 2.8 rps , with the direction of the spin axis having a right ascension of 217 degrees and a declination of 23 degrees . Four solar cell paddles mounted near its equator recharged the storage batteries while in orbit . Each experiment except the television scanner had two outputs , digital and analog . A UHF transmitter was used for the digital telemetry and the TV signal . Two VHF transmitters were used to transmit the analog signal . The VHF transmitters were operated continuously . The UHF transmitter was operated for only a few hours each day . Only three of the solar cell paddles fully erected , and this occurred during spin up rather than prior to spin up as planned . Consequently , initial operation of the payload power supply was 63 % nominal , and this decreased with time . The decreased power caused a lower signal-to-noise ratio affecting most of the data , especially near apogee . One VHF transmitter failed on September 11 , 1959 , and the last contact with the payload was made on October 6 , 1959 , at which time the solar cell charging current had fallen below that required to maintain the satellite equipment . In 1959 an anti-satellite missile test of the Bold Orion rocket used Explorer 6 as a target . The missile successfully passed within 6.4 km of the satellite . Bold Orion 's ASAT mission occurred on Tuesday , 13 October 1959 . Launch took place within the Atlantic Missile Range Drop Zone ( AMR DZ ) . The altitude , latitude and longitude of the drop point were 35,000 ft , 29 ° North and 79 ° West , respectively . Bold Orion successfully intercepted the Explorer 6 satellite , passing its target at a range of less than 3.5 nmi and an altitude of 136 nmi . The satellite 's orbit decayed on July 1 , 1961 . A total of 827 hours of analog and 23 hours of digital data were obtained .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Explorer_6", "rank": 90, "score": 88339 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of the energy industry Content: The environmental impact of the energy industry is diverse . Energy has been harnessed by human beings for millennia . Initially it was with the use of fire for light , heat , cooking and for safety , and its use can be traced back at least 1.9 million years . In recent years there has been a trend towards the increased commercialization of various renewable energy sources . Consumption of fossil fuel resources leads to global warming and climate change . In most parts of the world little change is being made to slow these changes . If the peak oil theory proves true , and more explorations of viable alternative energy sources are made , our impact could be less hostile to our environment . Rapidly advancing technologies can achieve a transition of energy generation , water and waste management , and food production towards better environmental and energy usage practices using methods of systems ecology and industrial ecology .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry", "rank": 91, "score": 88330 }, { "content": "Title: Nuclear power in space Content: Nuclear power in space is the use of nuclear power in outer space , typically either small fission systems or radioactive decay for electricity or heat . Another use is for scientific observation , as in a Mössbauer spectrometer . One common type is a radioisotope thermoelectric generator , which has been used on many space probes and on manned lunar missions , and another is small fission reactors for Earth observation satellites such as the TOPAZ nuclear reactor . A radioisotope heater unit provides heat from radioactive decay of a material and can potentially produce heat for decades . Russia has sent about 40 reactors into space and its TOPAZ-II reactor can produce 10 kilowatts . The Romashka reactor family uses uranium and direct thermoelectric conversion to electricity , rather than using a heated fluid to drive a turbine . The United States tested a nuclear reactor in space for 43 days in 1965 . While not yet tested in space , the test of the Demonstration Using Flattop Fission ( DUFF ) on September 13 , 2012 was the first test of a nuclear reactor power system for space since then . Examples of nuclear power for space propulsion systems include nuclear electric rocket ( nuclear electric propulsion ) , radioisotope rocket , and radioisotope electric propulsion ( REP ) . One of the more explored is the nuclear thermal rocket , which was tested in the NERVA program . See also : Category : Nuclear spacecraft propulsion ( category link ) . Nuclear pulse propulsion was the subject of Project Orion ( nuclear propulsion )", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Nuclear_power_in_space", "rank": 92, "score": 88274 }, { "content": "Title: MightySat-1 Content: MightSat-1 was a small spacecraft developed by the U.S. Air Force 's Phillips Laboratory ( now part of the Air Force Research Laboratory Space Vehicles Directorate ) to test technology for small satellites , including advanced dual-junction solar cells , a composite structure , a micrometeorite and debris detector , low-power electronics and a low-shock release device . The 140-pound satellite was launched from the Space Shuttle Endeavour in December 1998 , during the 12th day of the STS-88 mission and performed robustly in orbit , with no spacecraft anomalies during its mission . Lt. Barbara Braun of the AFRL was the program manager for the satellite . MightySat-1 's mission ended when it re-entered the atmosphere at 17:11 UTC on November 21 , 1999 .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "MightySat-1", "rank": 93, "score": 87919 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of wind power Content: The environmental impact of wind power when compared to the environmental impacts of fossil fuels , is relatively minor . Compared with other low carbon power sources , wind turbines have some of the lowest global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated . According to the IPCC , in assessments of the life-cycle global warming potential of energy sources , wind turbines have a median value of between 15 and 11 ( geq/kWh ) depending on whether off - or onshore turbines are being assessed . While wind turbine installations may cover a large area , they are compatible with many land uses such as farming and grazing , as only small areas of turbine foundations and infrastructure are made unavailable for use . Wind turbines generate some noise . At a residential distance of 300 m this may be around 45 dB , which is slightly louder than a refrigerator . At 1.5 km distance most wind turbines become inaudible . From a fundamental biological point of view , it is known that loud noise increases stress and stress causes diseases . Peer-reviewed research has generally supported the view that when properly sited wind turbines do not affect human health from noise . However , when improperly sited , data from the monitoring of two groups of growing geese revealed substantially lower body weights and higher concentrations of a stress hormone in the blood of the first group of geese who were situated 50 meters away compared to a second group which was at a distance of 500 meters from the turbine . Aesthetic aspects of wind turbines and resulting changes of the visual landscape can be significant . Conflicts arise especially in scenic and heritage protected landscapes . Siting restrictions ( such as setbacks ) have often been implemented to limit any intrusive environmental impacts . There are reports of bird and bat mortality at wind turbines as there are around other artificial structures . The scale of the ecological impact may or may not be significant , depending on specific circumstances . Prevention and mitigation of wildlife fatalities , and protection of peat bogs , affect the siting and operation of wind turbines .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_wind_power", "rank": 94, "score": 87611 }, { "content": "Title: USA-50 Content: USA-50 , also known as GPS II-6 and GPS SVN-18 , was an American navigation satellite which formed part of the Global Positioning System . It was the sixth of nine Block II GPS satellites to be launched , which were the first operational GPS satellites to fly . USA-50 was launched at 22:55:01 UTC on 24 January 1990 , atop a Delta II carrier rocket , flight number D191 , flying in the 6925 configuration . The launch took place from Launch Complex 17A at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station , and placed USA-50 into a transfer orbit . The satellite raised itself into medium Earth orbit using a Star-37XFP apogee motor . On 25 February 1990 , USA-50 was in an orbit with a perigee of 20087 km , an apogee of 20275 km , a period of 717.92 minutes , and 54.6 degrees of inclination to the equator . The satellite had a mass of 840 kg , and generated 710 watts of power . It had a design life of 7.5 years , and was retired from service on 18 August 2000 .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "USA-50", "rank": 95, "score": 87500 }, { "content": "Title: KickSat Content: KickSat is a small-satellite ( femtosatellite ) project inaugurated in early October , 2011 , to launch a large number of very small satellites from a 3U CubeSat . The satellites have been characterized as being the size of a large postage stamp . and also as `` cracker size '' . The mission launch was originally scheduled for late 2013 and was launched April 18 , 2014 . Kicksat reached its orbit and transmitted beacon signals that were received by radio amateurs , telemetry data allowed the prediction of the orbit and the reentry on 15 May 2014 at about 01:30 UTC . Due to a clock reset , however , the femtosatellites were not deployed but burned up inside the KickSat mothership .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "KickSat", "rank": 96, "score": 87361 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 97, "score": 87317 }, { "content": "Title: MidSTAR-1 Content: MidSTAR-1 is an artificial satellite produced by the United States Naval Academy Small Satellite Program . It was sponsored by the United States Department of Defense ( DoD ) Space Test Program ( STP ) , and was launched on March 8 , 2007 at 11:32 Eastern Standard Time , aboard an Atlas V expendable launch vehicle from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station . MidSTAR-1 flew along with FalconSat 3 , STPSat 1 , and CFESat as secondary payloads ; the primary payload was Orbital Express .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "MidSTAR-1", "rank": 98, "score": 87172 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 99, "score": 87083 }, { "content": "Title: Polar (satellite) Content: The Global Geospace Science ( GGS ) Polar Satellite was a NASA science spacecraft designed to study the polar magnetosphere and aurora . It was launched into orbit in February 1996 , and continued operations until the program was terminated in April 2008 . The spacecraft remains in orbit , though it is now inactive . Polar is the sister ship to GGS Wind .", "qid": "3090", "docid": "Polar_(satellite)", "rank": 100, "score": 87009 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Remote Sensing Systems Content: Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) is a private research company founded in 1974 by Frank Wentz . It processes microwave data from a variety of NASA satellites . Most of their research is supported by the Earth Science Enterprise program . The company is based in Santa Rosa , California . They are a widely cited source of data , on the satellite temperature record . Their data is one source of evidence for global warming . Research by Carl Mears , Matthias Schabel , and Wentz , all of RSS , highlighted errors in the early satellite temperature records compiled by John Christy and Roy Spencer at UAH . The UAH data had previously showed no significant temperature trend , bringing the derived satellite data into closer agreement with surface temperature trends , radiosonde data and computer models . The UAH data is now closer to the RSS data but differences remain , for example the Lower Troposphere global average trend since 1979 , RSS currently have +0.133 K/decade while UAH have 0.140 K/decade , while the mid troposphere difference is even more marked at 0.079 K/decade and 0.052 K/decade respectively . However , in a recent online YouTube video , Dr. Carl Mears , a senior scientist with the team behind the satellite data , explained how he believes his data set needed correction . I would have to say that the surface data seems that it 's more accurate , because a number of groups analyze the surface data , including some who set out to prove the other ones wrong , and they all get more or less the same answer .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Remote_Sensing_Systems", "rank": 1, "score": 136089 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave sounding unit Content: The Microwave sounding unit was the predecessor to the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit ( AMSU ) . The MSU was first launched aboard the TIROS-N satellite in late 1978 and provided global coverage ( from Pole to Pole ) . It carries a 4-channel microwave radiometer , operating between 50 and 60 GHz . Spatial resolution on the ground was 2.5 deg in longitude and latitude ( about 250 km circle ) . There were 9 different MSUs launched ; the most recent one on NOAA-14 . They provided measurements of the temperature of the troposphere and lower stratosphere until 1998 , when the first AMSU was deployed . AMSU provides many more channels and finer resolution ( about 50 km ) . Category : Spacecraft instruments Category : Satellite meteorology and remote sensing Category : Microwave technology", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Microwave_sounding_unit", "rank": 2, "score": 134966 }, { "content": "Title: History of metamaterials Content: The history of metamaterials begins with artificial dielectrics in microwave engineering as it developed just after World War II . Yet , there are seminal explorations of artificial materials for manipulating electromagnetic waves at the end of the 19th century . Hence , the history of metamaterials is essentially a history of developing certain types of manufactured materials , which interact at radio frequency , microwave , and later optical frequencies . As the science of materials has advanced , photonic materials have been developed which use the photon of light as the fundamental carrier of information . This has led to photonic crystals , and at the beginning of the new millennium , the proof of principle for functioning metamaterials with a negative index of refraction in the microwave range at 10.5 Gigahertz . This was followed by the first proof of principle for metamaterial cloaking ( shielding an object from view ) , also in the microwave range , about six years later . However , a cloak that can conceal objects across the entire electromagnetic spectrum is still decades away . Many physics and engineering problems need to be solved . Nevertheless , negative refractive materials have led to the development of metamaterial antennas and metamaterial microwave lenses for miniature wireless system antennas which are more efficient than their conventional counterparts . Also , metamaterial antennas are now commercially available . Meanwhile , subwavelength focusing with the superlens is also a part of present-day metamaterials research .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "History_of_metamaterials", "rank": 3, "score": 133753 }, { "content": "Title: Ionospheric pierce point Content: Most global navigation satellite systems ( GNSS ) are subjected to errors induced by the ionosphere . Because ionospheric delay affects the speed of microwave signals differently depending on their frequency -- a characteristic known as dispersion , delays measured on two or more frequency bands can be used to measure dispersion , and this measurement can then be used to estimate the delay at each frequency . The principal source of the dispersion comes from the total electron content ( TEC ) in the ionosphere , along the line of sight from the satellite to the receiver . Because it is difficult to measure the TEC along the line of sight , instead a prediction can be made using a simplified model of the ionosphere . This model assumes that the ionosphere is a thin , uniform-density shell about the earth , located near the mean altitude H of maximum TEC ( approx . 350 km ) . Using geometry , a slant intersection with this shell model can be determined and a vertical TEC measurement inferred . The intersection between line of sight and this shell is called the ionospheric pierce point ( IPP ) . It perpendicular projection onto earth 's surface is called subionospheric point .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Ionospheric_pierce_point", "rank": 4, "score": 126830 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA-6 Content: NOAA-6 , designated NOAA-A before launch , was a weather satellite operated by NOAA as part of its National Operational Environmental Satellite System . It was launched into a Sun-synchronous orbit by NASA aboard an Atlas F launch vehicle on 27 June 1979 from Vandenberg Air Force Base SLC-3W . Based on the experimental TIROS-N satellite , it performed monitoring of ice and snow cover , agriculture , oceanography , volcanism , ozone and the space environment , in addition to its regular meteorological observations . Its instruments included the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR/1 ) for global cloud cover observations , the TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) suite for atmospheric temperature and water vapor profiling , the Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) for measuring proton and electron fluxes , and the Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) for relaying data from balloons and ocean buoys . The TOVS suite consists of three subsystems : the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder 2 ( HIRS/2 ) , the Stratospheric Sounding Unit ( SSU ) , and the Microwave Sounding Unit ( MSU ) . The HIRS/2 instrument failed on 19 September 1983 , and the spacecraft was placed in reserve in early 1984 as NOAA prioritized operations of NOAA-7 and NOAA-8 . It was returned to operational status after NOAA-8 failed in June 1984 , and continued to return data until its decommissioning on 31 March 1987 .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "NOAA-6", "rank": 5, "score": 126001 }, { "content": "Title: PERSIANN Content: PERSIANN , `` Precipitation Estimation from Remotely Sensed Information using Artificial Neural Networks '' , is a satellite-based precipitation retrieval algorithm that provides near real-time rainfall information . The algorithm uses infrared ( IR ) satellite data from global geosynchronous satellites as the primary source of precipitation information . Precipitation from IR images is based on statistical relationship between cloud top temperature and precipitation rates . The IR-based precipitation estimates are then calibrated using satellite microwave data available from low Earth orbit satellites ( e.g. , Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission Microwave Imager , Special Sensor Microwave Imager , Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer‐Earth observing system ) . The calibration technique relies on an adaptive training algorithm that updates the retrieval parameters when microwave observations become available ( approximately at 3 hours intervals ) . The PERSIANN satellite precipitation data sets have been validated with ground-based observations and other satellite data products . The PERSIANN data has been used in a wide variety of studies including hydrologic modeling , drought monitoring , soil moisture analysis , and flood forecasting . The PERSIANN data are freely available to the public .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "PERSIANN", "rank": 6, "score": 125687 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric Infrared Sounder Content: The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder ( AIRS ) is one of six instruments flying on board NASA 's Aqua satellite , launched on May 4 , 2002 . The instrument is designed to support climate research and improve weather forecasting . Working in combination with its partner microwave instrument , the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit ( AMSU-A ) , AIRS observes the global water and energy cycles , climate variation and trends , and the response of the climate system to increased greenhouse gases . AIRS uses infrared technology to create three-dimensional maps of air and surface temperature , water vapor , and cloud properties . AIRS can also measure trace greenhouse gases such as ozone , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , and methane . AIRS and AMSU-A share the Aqua satellite with the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) , Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) , and the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-EOS ( AMSR-E ) . Aqua is part of NASA 's `` A-train , '' a series of high-inclination , Sun-synchronous satellites in low Earth orbit designed to make long-term global observations of the land surface , biosphere , solid Earth , atmosphere , and ocean . AIRS data is free and available to the public through the Goddard Earth Sciences Data Information and Services Center . NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena , California , manages AIRS for NASA 's Science Mission Directorate in Washington , D.C.", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Atmospheric_Infrared_Sounder", "rank": 7, "score": 124729 }, { "content": "Title: Sea ice emissivity modelling Content: With increased interest in sea ice and its effects on the global climate , efficient methods are required to monitor both its extent and exchange processes . Satellite-mounted , microwave radiometers , such SSMI , AMSR and AMSU , are an ideal tool for the task because they can see through cloud cover , and they have frequent , global coverage . A passive microwave instrument detects objects through emitted radiation since different substance have different emission spectra . To help us detect sea ice more efficiently , we need to model these emission processes . The interaction of sea ice with electromagnetic radiation in the microwave range is still not well understood . In general is collected information limited because of the large-scale variability due to the emissivity of sea ice .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Sea_ice_emissivity_modelling", "rank": 8, "score": 122447 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave radiometer Content: A microwave radiometer ( MWR ) is a radiometer that measures energy emitted at sub-millimetre-to-centimetre wavelengths ( at frequencies of 1 -- 1000 GHz ) known as microwaves . Microwave radiometers are very sensitive receivers designed to measure thermal electromagnetic radiation emitted by atmospheric gases . They are usually equipped with multiple receiving channels in order to derive the characteristic emission spectrum of the atmosphere or extraterrestrial objects . Microwave radiometers are utilized in a variety of environmental and engineering applications , including weather forecasting , climate monitoring , radio astronomy and radio propagation studies . Using the microwave spectral range between 1 and 300 GHz provides complementary information to the visible and infrared spectral range . Most importantly , the atmosphere and also vegetation is semi-transparent in the microwave spectral range . This means its components like dry gases , water vapor , or hydrometeors interact with microwave radiation but overall even the cloudy atmosphere is not completely opaque in this frequency range . For weather and climate monitoring , microwave radiometers are operated from space as well as from the ground . As remote sensing instruments , they are designed to operate continuously and autonomously often in combination with other atmospheric remote sensors like for example cloud radars and lidars . They allow to derive important meteorological quantities such as vertical temperature and humidity profile , columnar water vapor amount , or columnar liquid water path with a high temporal resolution in the order of seconds to minutes under nearly all weather conditions .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Microwave_radiometer", "rank": 9, "score": 122080 }, { "content": "Title: Frank Wentz Content: Frank Wentz is the CEO and director of Remote Sensing Systems , a company he founded in 1974 . Remote Sensing Systems specializes in satellite microwave remote sensing research . Together with Carl Mears , he is best known for developing a satellite temperature record from MSU and AMSU . Intercomparison of this record with the earlier UAH satellite temperature record , developed by John Christy and Roy Spencer , revealed deficiencies in the earlier work ; specifically , the warming trend in the RSS version is larger than the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) one . From 1978 to 1982 Frank was a member of NASA 's SeaSat Experiment Team involved in the development of physically based retrieval methods for microwave scatterometers and radiometers . He has also investigated the effect of climate change on satellite-derived evaporation , precipitation and surface wind values . His findings are different from most climate change model predictions .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Frank_Wentz", "rank": 10, "score": 121343 }, { "content": "Title: Special sensor microwave/imager Content: The special sensor microwave/imager ( SSM/I ) is a seven-channel , four-frequency , linearly polarized passive microwave radiometer system . It is flown on board the United States Air Force Defense Meteorological Satellite Program ( DMSP ) Block 5D-2 satellites . The instrument measures surface/atmospheric microwave brightness temperatures ( TBs ) at 19.35 , 22.235 , 37.0 and 85.5 GHz . The four frequencies are sampled in both horizontal and vertical polarizations , except the 22 GHz which is sampled in the vertical only . The SSM/I has been a very successful instrument , superseding the across-track and Dicke radiometer designs of previous systems . Its combination of constant-angle rotary-scanning and total power radiometer design has become standard for passive microwave imagers , e.g. TRMM Microwave Imager , AMSR . Its predecessor , the scanning multichannel microwave radiometer ( SMMR ) , provided similar information . Its successor , the Special Sensor Microwave Imager / Sounder ( SSMIS ) , is an enhanced eleven-channel , eight-frequency system .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Special_sensor_microwave/imager", "rank": 11, "score": 120536 }, { "content": "Title: Scanning multichannel microwave radiometer Content: The Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer ( SMMR ) -LSB- pronounced simmer -RSB- was a five-frequency microwave radiometer flown on the Seasat and Nimbus 7 satellites . Both were launched in 1978 , with the Seasat mission lasting less than six months until failure of the primary bus . The Nimbus 7 SMMR lasted from 25 October 1978 until 20 August 1987 . It measured dual-polarized microwave radiances , at 6.63 , 10.69 , 18.0 , 21.0 , and 37.0 GHz , from the Earth 's atmosphere and surface . Its primary legacy has been the creation of areal sea-ice climatologies for the Arctic and Antarctic . The final few months of operation was considerably fortuitous as it allowed the calibration of the radiometers and their products with the first results from the SSMI .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Scanning_multichannel_microwave_radiometer", "rank": 12, "score": 119713 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave humidity sounder Content: The Microwave Humidity Sounder ( MHS ) is an instrument launched on NOAA 's POES satellite series starting with NOAA-18 launched in May 2005 and European Space Agency 's MetOp series starting with MetOp-A launched in October 2006 and continuing with MetOp-B launched in September 2012 . It is a five-channel passive microwave radiometer , with channels from 89 to 190 GHz . It is very similar in design to the AMSU-B instrument , but some channel frequencies have been altered . It is used to study profiles of atmospheric water vapor and provide improved input data to the cloud-clearing algorithms in IR/MW sounder suites . The Microwave Humidity Sounder has been designed and developed by Astrium EU in Portsmouth UK , under contract to EUMETSAT .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Microwave_humidity_sounder", "rank": 13, "score": 118212 }, { "content": "Title: Planck (spacecraft) Content: Planck was a space observatory operated by the European Space Agency ( ESA ) from 2009 to 2013 , which mapped the anisotropies of the cosmic microwave background ( CMB ) at microwave and infra-red frequencies , with high sensitivity and small angular resolution . The mission substantially improved upon observations made by the NASA Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe ( WMAP ) . Planck provided a major source of information relevant to several cosmological and astrophysical issues , such as testing theories of the early Universe and the origin of cosmic structure ; as of 2013 it has provided the most accurate measurements of several key cosmological parameters , including the average density of ordinary matter and dark matter in the Universe . The project was started around 1996 and was initially called COBRAS/SAMBA : the Cosmic Background Radiation Anisotropy Satellite/Satellite for Measurement of Background Anisotropies . It was later renamed in honour of the German physicist Max Planck ( 1858 -- 1947 ) , who derived the formula for black-body radiation . Built at the Cannes Mandelieu Space Center by Thales Alenia Space , and created as a medium-sized mission for ESA 's Horizon 2000 long-term scientific programme , Planck was launched in May 2009 , reaching the Earth/Sun by July , and by February 2010 had successfully started a second all-sky survey . On 21 March 2013 , the mission 's first all-sky map of the cosmic microwave background was released , with an expanded release including polarization data in February 2015 . At the end of its mission Planck was put into a heliocentric orbit and passivated to prevent it from endangering any future missions . The final deactivation command was sent to Planck in October 2013 .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Planck_(spacecraft)", "rank": 14, "score": 118152 }, { "content": "Title: High Resolution Microwave Survey Content: The High Resolution Microwave Survey was a NASA project that was to scan ten million frequencies using radio telescopes . A decade in the making , the objective was to find transmissions from alien intelligences . The primary point of observation for the project was the Arecibo Ionospheric Observatory in Puerto Rico . The project began in October 1992 with SETI researcher Jill Tarter on board . However , a year later , first-term Nevada Senator Richard Bryan succeeded in shutting down the project .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "High_Resolution_Microwave_Survey", "rank": 15, "score": 117942 }, { "content": "Title: Electrically scanning microwave radiometer Content: The electrically scanning microwave radiometer ( ESMR ) was an instrument carried by the Nimbus-5 satellite , precursor to the scanning multichannel microwave radiometer ( SMMR ) and special sensor microwave/imager ( SSM/I ) instruments . The ESMR instrument only senses horizontally polarized radiation at a frequency of 19 GHz , and can be used to calculate sea ice concentration . However , results are difficult to intercompare to SMMR / SSMI . The ESMR scanned along the satellite track , leading to a wide range of incident angles ; SMMR scanned with a constant angle of 50 degrees , allowing both horizontally and vertically polarised data to be received ; SMMR also had 5 instead of one channels , leading to improved sea ice retrievals .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Electrically_scanning_microwave_radiometer", "rank": 16, "score": 114590 }, { "content": "Title: Seasat Content: Seasat was the first Earth-orbiting satellite designed for remote sensing of the Earth 's oceans and had on board the first spaceborne synthetic aperture radar ( SAR ) . The mission was designed to demonstrate the feasibility of global satellite monitoring of oceanographic phenomena and to help determine the requirements for an operational ocean remote sensing satellite system . Specific objectives were to collect data on sea-surface winds , sea-surface temperatures , wave heights , internal waves , atmospheric water , sea ice features and ocean topography . Seasat was managed by NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and was launched on 27 June 1978 into a nearly circular 800 km orbit with an inclination of 108 ° . Seasat operated for 106 days until 10 October 1978 , when a massive short circuit in the satellite 's electrical system ended the mission . Seasat carried five major instruments designed to return the maximum information from ocean surfaces : Radar altimeter to measure spacecraft height above the ocean surface Microwave scatterometer to measure wind speed and direction Scanning multichannel microwave radiometer to measure sea surface temperature Visible and infrared radiometer to identify cloud , land and water features Synthetic Aperture Radar ( SAR ) L-band , HH polarization , fixed look angle to monitor the global surface wave field and polar sea ice conditions -LCB- the antenna is the light parallelogram in the picture -RCB- . The SAR support structure was designed and manufactured by Northrop Grumman Astro Aerospace in Carpinteria , CA . The structure deployed on orbit . Many later remote sensing missions owe their legacy to Seasat . These include imaging radars flown on NASA 's Space Shuttle , altimeters on Earth-orbiting satellites such as TOPEX/Poseidon , and scatterometers on NASA Scatterometer ( NSCAT ) , QuikSCAT , and Jason 1 .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Seasat", "rank": 17, "score": 114457 }, { "content": "Title: S band Content: The S band is part of the microwave band of the electromagnetic spectrum . It is defined by an IEEE standard for radio waves with frequencies that range from 2 to 4 GHz , crossing the conventional boundary between UHF and SHF at 3.0 GHz . The S band is used by weather radar , surface ship radar , and some communications satellites , especially those used by NASA to communicate with the Space Shuttle and the International Space Station . The 10 cm radar short-band ranges roughly from 1.55 to 5.2 GHz .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "S_band", "rank": 18, "score": 113921 }, { "content": "Title: Sputnik crisis Content: The Sputnik crisis was a period of public fear and anxiety about the perceived technological gap between the United States and Soviet Union caused by the launch of Sputnik 1 , the world 's first artificial satellite . The crisis was a key event in the early Cold War that triggered the creation of NASA and Space Race between the two superpowers . The satellite was launched on October 4 , 1957 from the Baikonur Cosmodrome . The term was coined by then US President Dwight D. Eisenhower .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Sputnik_crisis", "rank": 19, "score": 113907 }, { "content": "Title: Satellite temperature measurements Content: The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Satellite_temperature_measurements", "rank": 20, "score": 113637 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave Sounding Unit temperature measurements Content: Microwave Sounding Unit temperature measurements refers to temperature measurement using the Microwave Sounding Unit instrument and is one of several methods of measuring Earth atmospheric temperature from satellites. Microwave measurements have been obtained from the troposphere since 1979, when they were included within NOAA weather satellites, starting with TIROS-N. By comparison, the usable balloon (radiosonde) record begins in 1958 but has less geographic coverage and is less uniform. Microwave brightness measurements do not directly measure temperature. They measure radiances in various wavelength bands, which must then be mathematically inverted to obtain indirect inferences of temperature. The resulting temperature profiles depend on details of the methods that are used to obtain temperatures from radiances. As a result, different groups that have analyzed the satellite data have obtained different temperature trends. Among these groups are Remote Sensing Systems (RSS) and the University of Alabama in Huntsville (UAH). The satellite series is not fully homogeneous – the record is constructed from a series of satellites with similar but not identical instrumentation. The sensors deteriorate over time, and corrections are necessary for satellite drift in orbit. Particularly large differences between reconstructed temperature series occur at the few times when there is little temporal overlap between successive satellites, making intercalibration difficult.", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Microwave_Sounding_Unit_temperature_measurements", "rank": 21, "score": 112988 }, { "content": "Title: 2.5-millimeter band Content: The 2.5 millimeter or 122 GHz band is a portion of the EHF ( microwave ) radio spectrum internationally allocated to amateur radio use on a secondary basis . The amateur radio band is between 122.250 GHz and 123.000 GHz . Amateur satellite operations are not permitted , and the ITU 's allocation is the same in all three ITU regions . The 122 GHz band coincides with a molecular resonance of oxygen which causes significant atmospheric propagation losses , similar to the 60 GHz band .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "2.5-millimeter_band", "rank": 22, "score": 112231 }, { "content": "Title: Cosmic Background Imager Content: The Cosmic Background Imager ( or CBI ) was a 13-element interferometer perched at an elevation of 5,080 metres ( 16,700 feet ) at Llano de Chajnantor Observatory in the Chilean Andes . It started operations in 1999 to study the cosmic microwave background radiation and ran until 2008 . CBI conducted measurements at frequencies between 26 and 36 GHz in ten bands of 1 GHz bandwidth . It had a resolution of better than 1/10 of a degree . ( In comparison , the pioneering COBE satellite , which produced the first detection of fluctuations in the microwave background in 1992 , had a resolution of about 7 degrees . ) Among the key findings of the CBI is the fact that fluctuations which have a small size on the sky are weaker than fluctuations which have a large size on the sky , which confirmed earlier theoretical predictions . More technically , CBI was the first experiment to detect intrinsic anisotropy in the microwave background on mass scales of galaxy clusters ; it provided the first detection of the Silk damping tail ; it found a hint of excess power at high-l multipoles ( CBI-excess ) than expected from the ΛCDM model ; and it detected fluctuations in the polarization of the microwave background obtaining the first detailed E-mode polarization spectrum providing evidence that it is out of phase with the total intensity mode spectrum . The CBI was built at the California Institute of Technology , and employed sensitive radio amplifiers from the National Radio Astronomy Observatory ; two similar experiments are the Very Small Array , operated on the island of Tenerife , and the Degree Angular Scale Interferometer , operated in Antarctica . Both of these experiments used radio interferometry to measure CMB fluctuations at lower resolution over larger areas of the sky . Another experiment operated from Antarctica , the Arcminute Cosmology Bolometer Array Receiver , used total power ( bolometric ) detection and a single antenna at higher frequency and similar angular resolution to obtain results comparable to the CBI . The confluence of these and other CMB experiments employing different measurement techniques in recent years is a great triumph of observational cosmology . CBI was a collaboration among a number of institutions in the US and Europe . It still closely collaborates with Chilean institutions Universidad de Chile and Universidad de Concepción through the Chajnantor Observatory . In 2006 , new 1.4 m antennas replaced the old 0.9 m dishes for more high-resolution studies in total intensity mode . During this stage , CBI was called CBI-2 . In June 2008 , CBI-2 stopped the observations and the 13-antenna instrument was removed from its mount . The new QUIET telescope instrument was installed in August 2008 on the CBI mount , replacing CBI-2 .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Cosmic_Background_Imager", "rank": 23, "score": 111954 }, { "content": "Title: Radio wave Content: Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum longer than infrared light . Radio waves have frequencies as high as 300 GHz to as low as 3 kHz , though some definitions describe waves above 1 or 3 GHz as microwaves , or include waves of any lower frequency . At 300 GHz , the corresponding wavelength is 1 mm , and at 3 kHz is 100 km . Like all other electromagnetic waves , they travel at the speed of light . Naturally occurring radio waves are generated by lightning , or by astronomical objects . Artificially generated radio waves are used for fixed and mobile radio communication , broadcasting , radar and other navigation systems , communications satellites , computer networks and innumerable other applications . Radio waves are generated by radio transmitters and received by radio receivers . Different frequencies of radio waves have different propagation characteristics in the Earth 's atmosphere ; long waves can diffract around obstacles like mountains and follow the contour of the earth ( ground waves ) , shorter waves can reflect off the ionosphere and return to earth beyond the horizon ( skywaves ) , while much shorter wavelengths bend or diffract very little and travel on a line of sight , so their propagation distances are limited to the visual horizon . To prevent interference between different users , the artificial generation and use of radio waves is strictly regulated by law , coordinated by an international body called the International Telecommunications Union ( ITU ) , which defines radio waves as `` electromagnetic waves of frequencies arbitrarily lower than 3 000 GHz , propagated in space without artificial guide '' . The radio spectrum is divided into a number of radio bands on the basis of frequency , allocated to different uses .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Radio_wave", "rank": 24, "score": 111810 }, { "content": "Title: Super high frequency Content: Super high frequency ( SHF ) is the ITU designation for radio frequencies ( RF ) in the range between 3 GHz and 30 GHz . This band of frequencies is also known as the centimetre band or centimetre wave as the wavelengths range from one to ten centimetres . These frequencies fall within the microwave band , so radio waves with these frequencies are called microwaves . The small wavelength of microwaves allows them to be directed in narrow beams by aperture antennas such as parabolic dishes , so they are used for point-to-point communication and data links and for radar . This frequency range is used for most radar transmitters , wireless LANs , satellite communication , microwave radio relay links , and numerous short range terrestrial data links . Wireless USB technology is anticipated to use approximately one-third of this spectrum . Frequencies in the SHF range are often referred to by their IEEE radar band designations : S , C , X , Ku , K , or Ka band , or by similar NATO or EU designations .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Super_high_frequency", "rank": 25, "score": 110843 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave transmission Content: Microwave transmission is the transmission of information or energy by microwave radio waves . Although an experimental 64 km ( 40 mile ) microwave telecommunication link across the English Channel was demonstrated in 1931 , the development of radar in World War II provided the technology for practical exploitation of microwave communication . In the 1950s , large transcontinental microwave relay networks , consisting of chains of repeater stations linked by line-of-sight beams of microwaves were built in Europe and America to relay long distance telephone traffic and television programs between cities . Communication satellites which transferred data between ground stations by microwaves took over much long distance traffic in the 1960s . In recent years there has been an explosive increase in use of the microwave spectrum by new telecommunication technologies such as wireless networks , and direct-broadcast satellites which broadcast television and radio directly into consumers ' homes .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Microwave_transmission", "rank": 26, "score": 110681 }, { "content": "Title: Timeline of the Space Race Content: This is a timeline of first achievements in spaceflight from the first intercontinental ballistic missile through the first multinational human-crewed mission -- spanning the era of the Space Race . Two days after the United States announced its intention to launch an artificial satellite , on July 31 , 1956 , the Soviet Union announced its intention to do the same . Sputnik 1 was launched on October 4 , 1957 , beating the United States and stunning people all over the world .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Timeline_of_the_Space_Race", "rank": 27, "score": 110343 }, { "content": "Title: Sky Polarization Observatory Content: The Sky Polarization Observatory ( SPOrt ) was an Italian instrument planned for launch to the International Space Station in for a planned 2-year mission beginning in 2007 . There it would observe 80 % of the sky for the Cosmic microwave background radiation in the frequency range from 20 -- 100 GHz . Apart from detecting large scale CMB polarization it will also provide maps of Galactic synchrotron emission at lowest frequencies . The project was headed by Stefano Cortiglioni of the IASF-CNR in Bologna and completely funded by the Italian Space Agency . Due to the project 's reliance on the Space Shuttle , and the setback of the Columbia disaster , timely launch was unlikely . Cortiglioni therefore canceled the project in 2005 to allow his team to seek more promising research avenues .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Sky_Polarization_Observatory", "rank": 28, "score": 110285 }, { "content": "Title: 2-millimeter band Content: The 2 millimeter band is a portion of the EHF ( microwave ) radio spectrum internationally allocated to amateur radio and amateur satellite use . The amateur radio and amateur satellite band is between 134 GHz and 141 GHz . Amateurs operate on a primary basis between 134 GHz and 136 GHz , and on a secondary basis in the rest of the band . Also , amateurs must protect the radio astronomy service from harmful interference between 136 GHz and 141 GHz . The ITU 's allocations are the same in all three ITU Regions .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "2-millimeter_band", "rank": 29, "score": 110193 }, { "content": "Title: RELIKT-1 Content: RELIKT-1 ( sometimes RELICT-1 from РЕЛИКТ-1 ) - a Soviet cosmic microwave background anisotropy experiment on board the Prognoz 9 satellite ( launched 1 July 1983 ) gave upper limits on the large-scale anisotropy . A reanalysis of the data in the later years claimed a confident blackbody form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation . Results have been reported in January 1992 at the All-Moscow Astronomy Seminar held at Sternberg Astronomical Institute , and published , for example , in issue 4/1992 of the `` Science in USSR '' journal and in Soviet Astronomy Letters in May -- June 1992 . Nevertheless , the Nobel Prize in Physics for 2006 was awarded to a team of American scientists , who announced the fact on April 23 , 1992 based on data taken by the COBE spacecraft . This experiment was prepared by the Space Research Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences and supervised by Dr. Igor Strukov . A map of the sky at 37 GHz was built using an 8 mm band Dicke-type modulation radiometer . The radiometer could not conduct multi-band astronomical observations . The entire sky was observed in 6 months . The angular resolution was 5.5 degrees , with a temperature resolution of 0.6 mK . The galactic microwave flux was measured and the CMB dipole observed . A quadrupole moment was found between 17 and 95 microkelvins rms , with 90 % confidence level . The heat radiation map of the Universe served as the emblem of the 1989 international conference `` The Cosmic Wave Background : 25 Years Later '' in L'Aquila , Italy . The discovery of anisotropy by the RELIKT-1 spacecraft was first reported officially in January 1992 at the All-Moscow Astronomy Seminar held at Sternberg Astronomical Institute . As a follow-up to RELIKT-1 , it was decided in 1986 to study the anisotropy of CMB as part of the Relikt-2 project . The sensitivity of the equipment had greatly increased . The spacecraft was scheduled to launch in 1993-1994 , but the launch never took place because of the Soviet Union 's break-up and lack of funding .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "RELIKT-1", "rank": 30, "score": 109826 }, { "content": "Title: Timeline of artificial satellites and space probes Content: This timeline of artificial satellites and space probes includes unmanned spacecraft including technology demonstrators , observatories , lunar probes , and interplanetary probes . First satellites from each country are included . Not included are most earth science satellites , commercial satellites or manned missions . Key : Year -- Origin -- Target -- Status -- Description", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Timeline_of_artificial_satellites_and_space_probes", "rank": 31, "score": 109554 }, { "content": "Title: MSU temperature measurements Content: Microwave sounding unit temperature measurements have been obtained from the troposphere since 1979 , when they were included within NOAA weather satellites . By comparison , the usable balloon ( radiosonde ) record begins in 1958 but has less geographic coverage and is less uniform . Satellites do not measure temperature . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands , which must then be mathematically inverted to obtain indirect inferences of temperature . The resulting temperature profiles depend on details of the methods that are used to obtain temperatures from radiances . As a result , different groups that have analyzed the satellite data have obtained different temperature trends . Among these groups are Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) and the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) . The satellite series is not fully homogeneous - the record is constructed from a series of satellites with similar but not identical instrumentation . The sensors deteriorate over time , and corrections are necessary for satellite drift in orbit . Particularly large differences between reconstructed temperature series occur at the few times when there is little temporal overlap between successive satellites , making intercalibration difficult . To compare to the trend from the surface temperature record ( approximately +0.07 ° C/decade over the past century and +0.15 -0.16 ° C/decade since 1979 ) it is most appropriate to derive trends for the part of the atmosphere nearest the surface , i.e. , the lower troposphere . Doing this , through January 2012 : RSS v3 .3 finds a trend of +0.137 ° C/decade . UAH v5 .4 finds a trend of +0.136 ° C/decade . An alternative adjustment introduced by Fu et al. ( 2004 ) finds trends ( 1979 -- 2011 ) of +0.14 ° C/decade when applied to the RSS data set and +0.11 ° C/decade when applied to the UAH data set . Using the T2 channel ( which include significant contributions from the stratosphere , which has cooled ) , Mears et al. of Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) find ( through January 2012 ) a trend of +0.082 ° C/decade . Spencer and Christy of the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) , find a smaller trend of +0.046 ° C/decade . A no longer updated analysis of Vinnikov and Grody found +0.20 ° C/decade ( 1978 -- 2005 ) . Another satellite temperature analysis is provided by NOAA/NESDIS STAR Center for Satellite Application and Research and use simultaneous nadir overpasses ( SNO ) to remove satellite intercalibration biases yielding more accurate temperature trends . The SNO analysis finds a 1979-2011 trend of +0.128 ° C/decade for T2 channel . The satellite records have the advantage of greater spatial coverage , whereas the radiosonde record is longer . There have been complaints of data problems with both records , and difficulty reconciling climate model predictions with the observed data .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "MSU_temperature_measurements", "rank": 32, "score": 109545 }, { "content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network", "rank": 33, "score": 109523 }, { "content": "Title: SSMIS Content: The Special Sensor Microwave Imager / Sounder ( SSMIS ) is a 24-channel , 21-frequency , linearly polarized passive microwave radiometer system . The instrument is flown on board the United States Air Force Defense Meteorological Satellite Program ( DMSP ) F-16 , F-17 , F-18 and F-19 satellites , which became operational in November 2005 , March 2008 March 2016 and May 2016 , respectively . It is the successor to the Special Sensor Microwave/Imager ( SSM/I ) . The SSMIS on the F17 satellite stopped producing useful data in April 2016 .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "SSMIS", "rank": 34, "score": 109325 }, { "content": "Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming", "rank": 35, "score": 108955 }, { "content": "Title: 3-centimeter band Content: The 3 centimeter or 10 GHz band is a portion of the SHF ( microwave ) radio spectrum internationally allocated to amateur radio and amateur satellite use on a secondary basis . The amateur radio band is between 10.00 GHz and 10.50 GHz , and the amateur satellite band is between 10.45 GHz and 10.50 GHz . The allocations are the same in all three ITU regions .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "3-centimeter_band", "rank": 36, "score": 108514 }, { "content": "Title: 1-millimeter band Content: The 1 millimeter band is a portion of the EHF ( microwave ) radio spectrum internationally allocated to amateur radio and amateur satellite use . The amateur radio and amateur satellite band is between 241 GHz and 250 GHz . Amateurs operate on a primary basis between 248 GHz and 250 GHz and on a secondary basis in the rest of the band . Also , amateurs must protect the radio astronomy service from harmful interference between 241 GHz and 248 GHz . The ITU 's allocations are the same in all three ITU Regions .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "1-millimeter_band", "rank": 37, "score": 108367 }, { "content": "Title: 13-centimeter band Content: The 13 centimeter , 2.3 GHz or 2.4 GHz band is a portion of the UHF ( microwave ) radio spectrum internationally allocated to amateur radio and amateur satellite use on a secondary basis . The amateur radio band is between 2300 MHz and 2450 MHz . The amateur satellite band is between 2400 MHz and 2450 MHz , and its use by satellite operations is on a non-interference basis to other radio users ( ITU footnote 5.282 ) . The license privileges of amateur radio operators include the use of frequencies and a wide variety of modes within these ranges for telecommunication . The allocations are the same in all three ITU Regions . In the 2300-2400 MHz range the band is also allocated to the Mobile service on a Primary basis which in practice leads to some challenging sharing scenarios and inconsistent allocations to amateurs at national level . Above 2400 MHz amateur stations must accept harmful interference caused by industrial , scientific , and medical equipment operating in the band . The most common ISM devices that operate in the band are microwave ovens .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "13-centimeter_band", "rank": 38, "score": 107707 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave Radiometer (Juno) Content: Microwave Radiometer ( MWR ) is an instrument on the Juno orbiter sent to planet Jupiter . MWR is a multi-wavelength microwave radiometer for making observations of Jupiter 's deep atmosphere . MWR can observe from 1.37 to 50 cm when describing light by a wavelength , and from 600 MHz to 22 GHz when describing light by frequencies . This supports its goal of observing the previously un-seen atmospheric features and chemical abundances hundreds of miles/km into Jupiter 's atmosphere . MWR is designed to detect six different frequencies in that range using separate antennas . Determining the features and abundances of oxygen , nitrogen , and sulfur at up to 100 Bars of pressure will shed light on the origins and nature of Jupiter . It is also designed to detect the amount water and ammonia deep inside Jupiter . It should also be able to provide a temperature profile of atmosphere down to 200 bar . Overall MWR is designed to look down as deep as 1,000 atmospheres which is about 342 miles ( 550 kilometers ) on Jupiter . MWR views Jupiter in microwave light wavelengths so it can see up to hundreds of miles deep into the planet . In August 2016 , as Juno swung closely by the planet MWR achieved a penetration of 200 to 250 miles ( 350 to 400 kilometers ) below the surface cloud layer . MWR is designed to make observations below the cloud-tops , especially detecting the abundances of certain chemicals and determine dynamic features . The region has not been observed like this previously . MWR was launched aboard the Juno spacecraft on August 5 , 2011 ( UTC ) from Cape Canaveral , USA , as part of the New Frontiers program , and after an interplanetary journey that including a swingby of Earth , entered a polar orbit of Jupiter on July 5 , 2016 ( UTC ) , The electronics for MWR are located inside the Juno Radiation Vault , which uses titanium to protect it and other spacecraft electronics . The antennas and transmission lines are designed to handle the radiation environment at Jupiter so the instrument can function . At the time of its use in the 2010s , it was one of only four microwave radiometers to have been flown on interplanetary spacecraft . The first was Mariner 2 , which used a microwave instrument to determine the high surface temperature of Venus was coming from the surface not higher up in the atmosphere . There is also radiometer type instruments on Rosetta comet probe , and Cassini-Huygens . Previously , the Galileo Probe directly measured Jupiter 's atmosphere in situ as it descended into the atmosphere , but only down to 22 bars of pressure . However , MWR is designed to look down as deep as 1000 bar of pressure . MWR used six separate antennas of different size that are mounted to the sides of the Juno spacecraft body . As the spacecraft turns ( it is a spin-stabilzed spacecraft ) each antenna takes a `` swath '' of observations of the giant . Five of the six antennas are all on one side of the spacecraft . The sixth and biggest antenna fills the whole side of another side the Juno body .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Microwave_Radiometer_(Juno)", "rank": 39, "score": 107594 }, { "content": "Title: Roy Spencer (scientist) Content: Roy Warren Spencer ( born December 20 , 1955 ) is a meteorologist , Principal Research Scientist at the University of Alabama in Huntsville , and the U.S. Science Team leader for the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer ( AMSR-E ) on NASA 's Aqua satellite . He has served as Senior Scientist for Climate Studies at NASA 's Marshall Space Flight Center . He is known for his satellite-based temperature monitoring work , for which he was awarded the American Meteorological Society 's Special Award .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Roy_Spencer_(scientist)", "rank": 40, "score": 107385 }, { "content": "Title: 6-millimeter band Content: The 6 millimeter or 47 GHz band is a portion of the EHF ( microwave ) radio spectrum internationally allocated to amateur radio and amateur satellite use on a primary basis . The amateur radio and amateur satellite band is between 47.0 GHz and 47.2 GHz , and the allocation is the same in all three ITU regions .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "6-millimeter_band", "rank": 41, "score": 107288 }, { "content": "Title: Earth observation satellites transmission frequencies Content: The earth is constantly being monitored by a great number satellites operating in the earth exploration-satellite service ( EESS ) or space research service ( SRS ) . These artificial satellites have onboard space radio stations from which they gather data . The data is transmitted back to earth via feeder links . This article lists a number of current active Earth observation satellites and their downlink transmission frequencies .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Earth_observation_satellites_transmission_frequencies", "rank": 42, "score": 107253 }, { "content": "Title: W band Content: The W band of the microwave part of the electromagnetic spectrum ranges from 75 to 110 GHz , wavelength ≈ 2.7 -- 4 mm . It sits above the U.S. IEEE-designated V band ( 50 -- 75 GHz ) in frequency , and overlaps the NATO designated M band ( 60 -- 100 GHz ) . The W band is used for satellite communications , millimeter-wave radar research , military radar targeting and tracking applications , and some non-military applications . A number of passive millimeter-wave cameras for concealed weapons detection operate at 94 GHz . A frequency around 77 GHz is used for automotive cruise control radar . The atmospheric radio window at 94 GHz is used for imaging millimeter-wave radar applications in astronomy , defense , and security applications . Less-than-lethal weaponry exists that uses millimeter waves to heat a thin layer of human skin to an intolerable temperature so as to make the targeted person move away . A two-second burst of the 95 GHz focused beam heats the skin to a temperature of 130 ° F ( 54 ° C ) at a depth of 1/64 of an inch ( 0.4 mm ) . The United States Air Force and Marines are currently using this type of Active Denial System . In terms of communications capability , W band offers high data rate throughput when used at high altitudes and in space . ( The 71 -- 76 GHz81 -- 86 GHz segment of the W band is allocated by the International Telecommunication Union to satellite services . ) Because of increasing spectrum and orbit congestion at lower frequencies , W-band satellite allocations are of increasing interest to commercial satellite operators , although no commercial project has yet been implemented in these bands .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "W_band", "rank": 43, "score": 107078 }, { "content": "Title: Space law Content: Space law encompasses national and international law governing activities in outer space . International lawyers have been unable to agree on a uniform definition of the term `` outer space '' , although most lawyers agree that outer space generally begins at the lowest altitude above sea level at which objects can orbit the Earth , approximately 100 km ( the Kármán line ) . The inception of the field of space law began with the launch of the world 's first artificial satellite by the Soviet Union in October 1957 . Named Sputnik 1 , the satellite was launched as part of the International Geophysical Year . Since that time , space law has evolved and assumed more importance as mankind has increasingly come to use and rely on space-based resources .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Space_law", "rank": 44, "score": 107014 }, { "content": "Title: Communications satellite Content: A communications satellite is an artificial satellite that relays and amplifies radio telecommunications signals via a transponder ; it creates a communication channel between a source transmitter and a receiver at different locations on Earth . Communications satellites are used for television , telephone , radio , internet , and military applications . There are over 2,000 communications satellites in Earth 's orbit , used by both private and government organizations . Wireless communication uses electromagnetic waves to carry signals . These waves require line-of-sight , and are thus obstructed by the curvature of the Earth . The purpose of communications satellites is to relay the signal around the curve of the Earth allowing communication between widely separated points . Communications satellites use a wide range of radio and microwave frequencies . To avoid signal interference , international organizations have regulations for which frequency ranges or `` bands '' certain organizations are allowed to use . This allocation of bands minimizes the risk of signal interference .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Communications_satellite", "rank": 45, "score": 106550 }, { "content": "Title: Sputnik 41 Content: Sputnik 41 ( Спутник 41 , Spoutnik 41 ) , also known as Sputnik Jr 2 and Radio Sputnik 18 ( RS-18 ) , was a Franco-Russian amateur radio satellite which was launched in 1998 to commemorate the hundredth anniversary of the Aéro-Club de France , and the forty-first anniversary of the launch of Sputnik 1 , the world 's first artificial satellite . A 4 kg one-third scale model of Sputnik 1 , Sputnik 41 was deployed from the Mir space station on 10 November 1998 . Sputnik 41 was launched aboard Progress M-40 at 04:14 UTC on 25 October 1998 , along with supplies for Mir and the Znamya-2 .5 reflector experiment . A Soyuz-U carrier rocket placed the spacecraft into orbit , flying from Site 1/5 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan : the same launch pad used by Sputnik 1 . Progress M-40 docked to Mir on 27 October , and the satellite was transferred to the space station . At about 19:30 UTC on 10 November , during an extra-vehicular activity , Sputnik 41 was deployed by cosmonauts Gennady Padalka and Sergei Avdeyev . On 24 November , a fortnight after deployment , Sputnik 41 was in a low Earth orbit with a perigee of 339 km , an apogee of 352 km , an inclination of 51.6 degrees , and a period of 91.44 minutes . The satellite was given the International Designator 1998-062C , and was catalogued by the United States Space Command as 25533 . Having ceased operations on 11 December 1998 after its batteries expired , Sputnik 41 decayed from orbit on 11 January 1999 . Sputnik 41 was originally intended to be built aboard Mir , based on a satellite launched in October 1997 as a backup for Sputnik 40 . That spacecraft had been stored aboard the space station for a year after the successful deployment of Sputnik 40 , and it was intended that it would be fitted with upgraded electronics and deployed . By the time of launch , the project had grown to involve a complete satellite , and the Sputnik 40 backup was never deployed .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Sputnik_41", "rank": 46, "score": 106182 }, { "content": "Title: AI Mk. VIII radar Content: Airborne Interception radar , Mark VIII , or AI Mk . VIII for short , was the first operational microwave-frequency air-to-air radar . It was used by Royal Air Force night fighters from late 1941 until the end of World War II . The basic concept , using a moving parabolic antenna to search for targets and track them accurately , remained in use by most airborne radars well into the 1980s . Low-level development began in 1939 but was greatly sped after the introduction of the cavity magnetron in early 1940 . This operated at 9.1 cm wavelength ( 3 GHz ) , much shorter than the 1.5 m wavelength of the earlier AI Mk . IV . Shorter wavelengths allowed it to use smaller and much more directional antennas . This provided the important advantage of allowing the radar to avoid ground reflections simply by pointing the antenna upward . The Mk . IV 's semi-directional antennas were blinded by noise from the signal reflecting off the ground while flying at low altitude , while the Mk . VIII could see anything above the fighter 's altitude . The design was just beginning to mature in late 1941 when the Luftwaffe began low-level attacks . A prototype version , the Mk . VII , entered service on the Bristol Beaufighter in November 1941 . A small number of these were sent to units across the UK to provide coverage at low altitudes while Mk . IV equipped aircraft operated at higher altitudes . After a small run of the improved Mk . VIIIA , the definitive Mk . VIII arrived in early 1942 , offering higher power as well as a host of electronic and packaging upgrades . It arrived just as supplies of the De Havilland Mosquito began to improve , quickly displacing the older units in RAF squadrons . Mk . VIII equipped Mosquitoes would be the premier night fighter from 1943 through the rest of the war . The Mk . VIII spawned a number of variants , notably the AI Mk . IX which included a lock-on feature to ease interceptions . A series of events , including a deadly friendly fire incident , so greatly delayed the Mk . IX that it never entered service . During the late-war period , many UK aircraft adopted the US SCR-720 under the name AI Mk . X . This worked along the same general principles as the Mk . VIII , but used a different display system that offered several advantages . Development of the basic system continued , and the Mk . IX would eventually briefly re-appear in greatly advanced form as the AI .17 during the 1950s .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "AI_Mk._VIII_radar", "rank": 47, "score": 106073 }, { "content": "Title: C band (IEEE) Content: The IEEE C-band is a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum in the microwave range of frequencies ranging from 4.0 to 8.0 gigahertz ( GHz ) ; however , this definition is the one followed by radar manufacturers and users , not necessarily by microwave radio telecommunications users . The IEEE C-band ( 4 to 8 GHz ) and its slight variations contain frequency ranges that are used for many satellite communications transmissions , some Wi-Fi devices , some cordless telephones , and some weather radar systems . The communications C-band was the first frequency band that was allocated for commercial telecommunications via satellites . The same frequencies were already in use for terrestrial microwave radio relay chains . Nearly all C-band communication satellites use the band of frequencies from 3.7 to 4.2 GHz for their downlinks , and the band of frequencies from 5.925 to 6.425 GHz for their uplinks . Note that by using the band from 3.7 to 4.0 GHz , this C-band overlaps somewhat into the IEEE S-band for radars . The C-band communication satellites typically have 24 radio transponders spaced 20 MHz apart , but with the adjacent transponders on opposite polarizations . Hence , the transponders on the same polarization are always 40 MHz apart . Of this 40 MHz , each transponder utilizes about 36 MHz . ( The unused 4.0 MHz between the pairs of transponders acts as `` guard bands '' for the likely case of imperfections in the microwave electronics . ) The C-band is primarily used for open satellite communications , whether for full-time satellite television networks or raw satellite feeds , although subscription programming also exists . This use contrasts with direct-broadcast satellite , which is a completely closed system used to deliver subscription programming to small satellite dishes that are connected with proprietary receiving equipment . The satellite communications portion of the C-band is highly associated with television receive-only satellite reception systems , commonly called `` big dish '' systems , since small receiving antennas are not optimal for C-band systems . Typical antenna sizes on C-band capable systems ranges from 7.5 to 12 feet ( 2.5 to 3.5 meters ) on consumer satellite dishes , although larger ones also can be used . For satellite communications , the microwave frequencies of the C-band perform better under adverse weather conditions in comparison with the Ku band ( 11.2 GHz to 14.5 GHz ) , microwave frequencies used by other communication satellites . Rain fade -- the collective name for the negative effects of adverse weather conditions on transmission -- is mostly a consequence of precipitation and moisture in the air . The C-band frequencies of 5.4 GHz band -LSB- 5.15 to 5.35 GHz , 5.47 to 5.725 GHz , or 5.725 to 5.875 GHz , depending on the region of the world -RSB- are used for IEEE 802.11 a Wi-Fi and cordless telephone applications , leading to occasional interference with some weather radars that are also allocated to the C-band .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "C_band_(IEEE)", "rank": 48, "score": 105416 }, { "content": "Title: Ariel 3 Content: Ariel 3 was the first artificial satellite designed and constructed in the United Kingdom . it was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base on 5 May 1967 aboard a Scout rocket . Ariel 3 had an orbital period of approximately 95 minutes , with an apogee of 608 km and a perigee of 497 km . It initially spun at 31 rpm for stability , though by the time the Ariel 3 deorbited , it had slowed to a rate of about 1 rpm . Ariel 3 carried five experiments . The experiments measured properties of the thermosphere as well as detected `` terrestrial radio noise '' from thunderstorms and measured large-scale galactic radio frequency noise . Experimental data was recorded on an onboard tape recorder , then later transmitted to waiting observers on Earth . Ariel 3 was also fitted with a series of mirrors to allow easy observation of the satellite . On 24 October 1967 the tape recorder aboard Ariel 3 began to malfunction . This restricted observation to real-time operation only . Ariel 3 suffered from a significant power failure in December 1968 , restricting the satellite 's operation to daylight hours only . The satellite was completely shut down in September 1969 . Its orbit decayed steadily until on 14 December 1970 when Ariel 3 re-entered Earth 's atmosphere .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Ariel_3", "rank": 49, "score": 105303 }, { "content": "Title: Ka band Content: The Ka band ( `` kay-ay band '' ) covers the radio frequencies of 26.5 -- 40 GHz , i.e. wavelengths from slightly over one centimeter down to 7.5 millimeters . The Ka band is part of the K band of the microwave band of the electromagnetic spectrum . This symbol refers to `` K-above '' : in other words , the band directly above the K-band . The 30/20 GHz band is used in communications satellites , uplink in either the 27.5 GHz and 31 GHz bands , and high-resolution , close-range targeting radars aboard military airplanes . Some frequencies in this radio band are used for vehicle speed detection by law enforcement . The Kepler Mission uses this frequency range to downlink the scientific data collected by the space telescope . The designation `` Ka-band '' is from Kurz-above , which stems from the German word `` kurz '' meaning short . In satellite communications , the Ka band allows higher bandwidth communication . It is used in the Inmarsat I-5 system and will be used in the Iridium Next satellite series , as well as the James Webb Space Telescope . The Ka band is more susceptible to rain attenuation than is the , which in turn is more susceptible than the C band .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Ka_band", "rank": 50, "score": 105035 }, { "content": "Title: QUIJOTE CMB Experiment Content: The QUIJOTE CMB Experiment is an ongoing experiment started in November 2012 , with the goal of characterizing the polarization of the cosmic microwave background ( CMB ) and other galactic and extragalactic emission in the frequency range 10 to 40 GHz , at angular scales of 1 ° . These measurements will complement at low frequency and correct from galactic contamination those obtained by the Planck satellite from 2009 to 2013 . The two QUIJOTE telescopes are placed at the Teide Observatory , run by the Spanish Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias ( IAC ) . Both telescopes were produced by the IDOM company in Spain .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "QUIJOTE_CMB_Experiment", "rank": 51, "score": 104846 }, { "content": "Title: 1.2-centimeter band Content: The 1.2 centimeter or 24 GHz band is a portion of the SHF ( microwave ) radio spectrum internationally allocated to amateur radio and amateur satellite use . The amateur radio band is between 24.00 GHz and 24.25 GHz , and the amateur satellite band is between 24.00 GHz and 24.05 GHz . Amateurs operate on a primary basis between 24.00 GHz and 24.05 GHz and on a secondary basis in the rest of the band . Amateur stations must accept harmful interference from ISM users . The allocations are the same in all three ITU regions .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "1.2-centimeter_band", "rank": 52, "score": 104660 }, { "content": "Title: Humidity Sounder for Brazil Content: The Humidity Sounder for Brazil ( HSB ) was an instrument launched on NASA 's Earth Observing System satellite Aqua launched in May 2002 . It was a four-channel passive microwave radiometer , with one channel at 150 GHz and three channels at 183 GHz . It was very similar in design to the AMSU-B instrument , except it lacked the 89 GHz surface sounding channel . It was intended to study profiles of atmospheric water vapor and provide improved input data to the cloud-clearing algorithms in the Unified AIRS Retrieval Suite , but the scan mirror motor failed on February 5 , 2003 . It worked with the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder and AMSU-A to form the AIRS Sounding Suite . HSB was manufactured by Matra Marconi Space , Limited ( MMS ) , in the United Kingdom under a contract with the Brazilian National Institute for Space Research ( INPE ) .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Humidity_Sounder_for_Brazil", "rank": 53, "score": 104462 }, { "content": "Title: GPS signals Content: Global Positioning System ( GPS ) satellites broadcast microwave signals to enable GPS receivers on or near the Earth 's surface to determine location , velocity , and time . The GPS system itself is operated by the U.S. Department of Defense ( DoD ) for use by both the military and the general public . GPS signals include ranging signals , used to measure the distance to the satellite , and navigation messages . The navigation messages include ephemeris data , used to calculate the position of each satellite in orbit , and information about the time and status of the entire satellite constellation , called the almanac . There are four signals available for civilian use . In order of date of introduction , these are : L1 C/A , L2C , L5 and L1C . L1 C/A is also called the legacy signal and is broadcast by all satellites . The other signals are called modernized signals and not broadcast by all satellites . In addition , there are restricted signals , also broadcast to the general public , but whose encoding is secret and are intended to be used only by authorized parties . Nonetheless , some limited use of restricted signals can be made by civilians without access to the secret encoding details ; this is called codeless and semi-codeless access , and is officially supported . The interface to the User Segment ( GPS receivers ) is described in the Interface Control Documents ( ICD ) . The format of civilian signals is described in the Interface Specification ( IS ) which is a subset of the ICD .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "GPS_signals", "rank": 54, "score": 104410 }, { "content": "Title: List of climate research satellites Content: The invention of climate research through the use of satellite remote telemetry began in the 1960s through development of space probes to study other planets . During the U.S. economic decline in 1977 , with much of NASA 's money going toward the Shuttle program , the Reagan Administration proposed to reduce spending on planetary exploration . During this time , new scientific evidence emerged from ice and sediment cores that Earth 's climate had experienced rapid changes in temperature , running contrary to the previously held belief that the climate changed on a geological time scale . These changes increased political interest in gathering remote-sensing data on the Earth itself and stimulated the science of climatology .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "List_of_climate_research_satellites", "rank": 55, "score": 104020 }, { "content": "Title: Horn antenna Content: A horn antenna or microwave horn is an antenna that consists of a flaring metal waveguide shaped like a horn to direct radio waves in a beam . Horns are widely used as antennas at UHF and microwave frequencies , above 300 MHz . They are used as feed antennas ( called feed horns ) for larger antenna structures such as parabolic antennas , as standard calibration antennas to measure the gain of other antennas , and as directive antennas for such devices as radar guns , automatic door openers , and microwave radiometers . Their advantages are moderate directivity , low standing wave ratio ( SWR ) , broad bandwidth , and simple construction and adjustment . One of the first horn antennas was constructed in 1897 by Indian radio researcher Jagadish Chandra Bose in his pioneering experiments with microwaves . The modern horn antenna was invented independently in 1938 by Wilmer Barrow and G. C. Southworth The development of radar in World War 2 stimulated horn research to design feed horns for radar antennas . The corrugated horn invented by Kay in 1962 has become widely used as a feed horn for microwave antennas such as satellite dishes and radio telescopes . An advantage of horn antennas is that since they have no resonant elements , they can operate over a wide range of frequencies , a wide bandwidth . The usable bandwidth of horn antennas is typically of the order of 10:1 , and can be up to 20:1 ( for example allowing it to operate from 1 GHz to 20 GHz ) . The input impedance is slowly varying over this wide frequency range , allowing low voltage standing wave ratio ( VSWR ) over the bandwidth . The gain of horn antennas ranges up to 25 dBi , with 10 - 20 dBi being typical .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Horn_antenna", "rank": 56, "score": 103925 }, { "content": "Title: Project Echo Content: Project Echo was the first passive communications satellite experiment . Each of the two American spacecraft , launched in 1960 and 1964 , was a metalized balloon satellite acting as a passive reflector of microwave signals . Communication signals were bounced off them from one point on Earth to another .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Project_Echo", "rank": 57, "score": 103666 }, { "content": "Title: 9-centimeter band Content: The 9-centimeter band is a portion of the SHF ( microwave ) radio spectrum internationally allocated to amateur radio and amateur satellite use . The amateur radio band , in ITU regions 1 and 2 , is between 3,300 MHz and 3,500 MHz , and it is available only on a secondary basis . The amateur satellite band is between 3,400 MHz and 3,410 MHz , and it is only available in ITU Regions 1 and 2 , on a non-interference basis to other users ( ITU footnote 5.282 ) . In Germany and Israel , the band 3,400 - 3,475 MHz is also allocated to the amateur service on a secondary basis ( ITU footnote 5.431 ) . In CEPT 's `` European Common Allocation Table '' , footnote EU17 allocates 3,400 MHz to 3,410 MHz to European amateurs on a secondary basis .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "9-centimeter_band", "rank": 58, "score": 103456 }, { "content": "Title: Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe Content: The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe ( WMAP ) , originally known as the Microwave Anisotropy Probe ( MAP ) , was a spacecraft operating from 2001 to 2010 which measured temperature differences across the sky in the cosmic microwave background ( CMB ) -- the radiant heat remaining from the Big Bang . Headed by Professor Charles L. Bennett of Johns Hopkins University , the mission was developed in a joint partnership between the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center and Princeton University . The WMAP spacecraft was launched on June 30 , 2001 from Florida . The WMAP mission succeeded the COBE space mission and was the second medium-class ( MIDEX ) spacecraft in the NASA Explorers program . In 2003 , MAP was renamed WMAP in honor of cosmologist David Todd Wilkinson ( 1935 -- 2002 ) , who had been a member of the mission 's science team . After 9 years of operations , WMAP was switched off in 2010 , following the launch of the more advanced Planck spacecraft by ESA in 2009 . WMAP 's measurements played a key role in establishing the current Standard Model of Cosmology : the Lambda-CDM model . The WMAP data are very well fit by a universe that is dominated by dark energy in the form of a cosmological constant . Other cosmological data are also consistent , and together tightly constrain the Model . In the Lambda-CDM model of the universe , the age of the universe is billion years . The WMAP mission 's determination of the age of the universe to better than 1 % precision . The current expansion rate of the universe is ( see Hubble constant ) of . The content of the universe presently consists of ordinary baryonic matter ; cold dark matter ( CDM ) that neither emits nor absorbs light ; and of dark energy in the form of a cosmological constant that accelerates the expansion of the universe . Less than 1 % of the current contents of the universe is in neutrinos , but WMAP 's measurements have found , for the first time in 2008 , that the data prefers the existence of a cosmic neutrino background with an effective number of neutrino species of . The contents point to a Euclidean flat geometry , with curvature of . The WMAP measurements also support the cosmic inflation paradigm in several ways , including the flatness measurement . The mission has won various awards : according to Science magazine , the WMAP was the Breakthrough of the Year for 2003 . This mission 's results papers were first and second in the `` Super Hot Papers in Science Since 2003 '' list . Of the all-time most referenced papers in physics and astronomy in the INSPIRE-HEP database , only three have been published since 2000 , and all three are WMAP publications . Bennett , Lyman A. Page , Jr. , and David N. Spergel , the latter both of Princeton University , shared the 2010 Shaw Prize in astronomy for their work on WMAP . Bennett and the WMAP science team were awarded the 2012 Gruber Prize in cosmology . As of October 2010 , the WMAP spacecraft is derelict in a heliocentric graveyard orbit after 9 years of operations . All WMAP data are released to the public and have been subject to careful scrutiny . The final official data release was the nine-year release in 2012 . Some aspects of the data are statistically unusual for the Standard Model of Cosmology . For example , the largest angular-scale measurement , the quadrupole moment , is somewhat smaller than the Model would predict , but this discrepancy is not highly significant . A large cold spot and other features of the data are more statistically significant , and research continues into these .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Wilkinson_Microwave_Anisotropy_Probe", "rank": 59, "score": 103094 }, { "content": "Title: MOS-1 (satellite) Content: Marine Observation Satellite 1 ( MOS-1 ) , also known as Momo-1 , was Japan 's first Earth observation satellite . It was launched on 19 February 1987 on a N-II rocket from Tanegashima Space Center and was operated by the National Space Development Agency of Japan . It has three instruments : `` Multi-Spectral Electronic Self-Scanning Radiometer ( MESSR ) '' which offers 50m resolution in two visible and two infra-red spectral bands over two 100 km swathes ; `` Visible and Thermal Infrared Radiometer ( VTIR ) '' which has a much lower resolution in one visible and three IR bands over a 1500 km swathe ; `` Micro Scanning Radiometer ( MSR ) '' which measures microwave emission in the 23 GHz and 31 GHz bands . Its NORAD ID is 17527 ; it is in a polar orbit at roughly 900 km altitude , but has not been active since November 1995 .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "MOS-1_(satellite)", "rank": 60, "score": 103081 }, { "content": "Title: Val O'Donovan Content: Michael Valentine ( Val ) O'Donovan , CM ( February 14 , 1936 -- February 5 , 2005 ) was a Canadian businessman and Chancellor of the University of Waterloo . Born in Cork , Ireland , he started working at Pye Telecommunications in 1959 after graduating as an electrical engineer from the Cambridge College of Technology . In 1962 , he invented a new type of microwave multiplexer , and a paper he wrote describing the invention won the best paper award in the Journal of the Institution of Electronic and Radio Engineers . Soon after graduating , he met Sheila and they were married in 1960 . In 1963 , O'Donovan , his pregnant wife and their two infant sons immigrated to Canada where he joined RCA . By 1971 , he was manager of RCA 's satellite transponder department , which was responsible for designing the payloads used in the innovative Canada/United States communications technology satellite and the first domestic United States satellites . Drawing on his expertise , he co-authored a book ( with Chandra Kudsia ) titled Microwave Filters for Communications Systems . After working in the satellite division at RCA in Montreal , Val , with two partners , founded COM DEV in 1972 and , under his guidance , it has become a global leader in satellite communications technology . On Halloween in 1979 , COM DEV , along with 44 families , moved to Cambridge , Ontario . Under Val 's leadership COM DEV continued to thrive , and in 1996 became a publicly listed company ( symbol CDV on the Toronto Stock Exchange ) . In 1998 , O'Donovan retired as CEO of COM DEV but continued on as Chairman of the Board until December 2004 . In 1992 , O'Donovan was awarded the McNaughton Gold Medal by the Institution of Electrical and Electronic Engineers . In 1993 , he received the Laurier Outstanding Business Leader Award from Wilfrid Laurier University . In 1995 , the University of Waterloo awarded him the degree of Doctor of Engineering ( Honoris Causa ) . In 2001 , Val was awarded with the John H. Chapman Award from the Canadian Space Agency . In 2003 , O'Donovan was made a Member of the Order of Canada , Canada 's highest civilian honour . From 1997-2003 , O'Donovan was Chancellor at the University of Waterloo , where he relished giving degrees to many thousands of students , to each of whom he had something special to say . In 1998 , O'Donovan and Sheila started a charitable foundation to establish a residential hospice in Waterloo Region for terminally ill cancer patients . In July 2000 , Lisaard House ( lisaard.com ) was open for its first residents . O'Donovan 's special interests included his rose garden , his bookshelves and his wine cellar . On February 5 , 2005 , O'Donovan died at his home in Bermuda .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Val_O'Donovan", "rank": 61, "score": 103060 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave Content: Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from one meter to one millimeter ; with frequencies between 300 MHz and 300 GHz . Different sources define different frequency ranges as microwaves ; the above broad definition includes both UHF and EHF ( millimeter wave ) bands . A more common definition in radio engineering is the range between 1 and 100 GHz ( 300 and 3 mm ) . In all cases , microwaves include the entire SHF band ( 3 to 30 GHz , or 10 to 1 cm ) at minimum . Frequencies in the microwave range are often referred to by their IEEE radar band designations : S , C , X , Ku , K , or Ka band , or by similar NATO or EU designations . The prefix in microwave is not meant to suggest a wavelength in the micrometer range . It indicates that microwaves are `` small '' , compared to the radio waves used prior to microwave technology , in that they have shorter wavelengths . The boundaries between far infrared , terahertz radiation , microwaves , and ultra-high-frequency radio waves are fairly arbitrary and are used variously between different fields of study . Microwaves travel by line-of-sight ; unlike lower frequency radio waves they do not diffract around hills , follow the earth 's surface as ground waves , or reflect from the ionosphere , so terrestrial microwave communication links are limited by the visual horizon to about 40 miles ( 64 km ) . At the high end of the band they are absorbed by gases in the atmosphere , limiting practical communication distances to around a kilometer . Microwaves are extremely widely used in modern technology . They are used for point-to-point communication links , wireless networks , microwave radio relay networks , radar , satellite and spacecraft communication , medical diathermy and cancer treatment , remote sensing , radio astronomy , particle accelerators , spectroscopy , industrial heating , collision avoidance systems , garage door openers and keyless entry systems , and for cooking food in microwave ovens .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Microwave", "rank": 62, "score": 102794 }, { "content": "Title: David Todd Wilkinson Content: David Todd Wilkinson ( 13 May 1935 -- 5 September 2002 ) was a world-renowned pioneer in the field of cosmology , specializing in the study of the cosmic microwave background radiation ( CMB ) left over from the Big Bang . He was born in Hillsdale , Michigan , and earned his Ph.D. in physics at the University of Michigan under the supervision of H. Richard Crane . He was a Professor of Physics at Princeton University from 1965 until his retirement in 2002 . He made fundamental contributions to many major CMB experiments , including two NASA satellites , the Cosmic Background Explorer ( COBE ) and the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe ( WMAP ) , which was named in his honor after his death due to cancer . His numerous accolades include the Princeton President 's Award for Distinguished Teaching , election to the National Academy of Sciences in 1983 , and the James Craig Watson Medal ( 2001 ) .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "David_Todd_Wilkinson", "rank": 63, "score": 102387 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave ablation Content: Microwave Ablation ( MWA ) is a form of thermal ablation used in interventional radiology to treat cancer . MWA uses electromagnetic waves in the microwave energy spectrum ( 300 MHz to 300 GHz ) to produce tissue-heating effects . The oscillation of polar molecules produces frictional heating , ultimately generating tissue necrosis within solid tumors . It is generally used for the treatment and/or palliation of solid tumors in patients who are nonsurgical candidate .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Microwave_ablation", "rank": 64, "score": 102185 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave auditory effect Content: The microwave auditory effect , also known as the microwave hearing effect or the Frey effect , consists of audible clicks ( or , with speech modulation , spoken words ) induced by pulsed/modulated microwave frequencies . The clicks are generated directly inside the human head without the need of any receiving electronic device . The effect was first reported by persons working in the vicinity of radar transponders during World War II . During the Cold War era , the American neuroscientist Allan H. Frey studied this phenomenon and was the first to publish information on the nature of the microwave auditory effect . Pulsed microwave radiation can be heard by some workers ; the irradiated personnel perceive auditory sensations of clicking or buzzing . The cause is thought to be thermoelastic expansion of portions of the auditory apparatus . Competing theories explain the results of interferometric holography tests differently . In 2003 -- 04 , the WaveBand Corp. had a contract from the U.S. Navy for the design of a MAE system they called MEDUSA ( Mob Excess Deterrent Using Silent Audio ) intended to remotely , temporarily incapacitate personnel . The project was cancelled in 2005 .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Microwave_auditory_effect", "rank": 65, "score": 102143 }, { "content": "Title: Sputnik 40 Content: Sputnik 40 ( Спутник 40 , Spoutnik 40 ) , also known as Sputnik Jr , PS-2 and Radio Sputnik 17 ( RS-17 ) , was a Franco-Russian amateur radio satellite which was launched in 1997 to commemorate the fortieth anniversary of the launch of Sputnik 1 , the world 's first artificial satellite . A 4 kg one-third scale model of Sputnik 1 , Sputnik 40 was deployed from the Mir space station on 3 November 1997 . Built by students , the spacecraft was constructed at the Polytechnic Laboratory of Nalchik in Kabardino-Balkaria , whilst its transmitter was assembled by Jules Reydellet College in Réunion with technical support from AMSAT-France .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Sputnik_40", "rank": 66, "score": 101844 }, { "content": "Title: Satellite Content: In context of spaceflight , a satellite is an artificial object which has been intentionally placed into orbit . Such objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as Earth 's Moon . In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the world 's first artificial satellite , Sputnik 1 . Since then , about 6,600 satellites from more than 40 countries have been launched . According to a 2013 estimate , 3,600 remained in orbit . Of those , about 1,000 were operational ; while the rest have lived out their useful lives and became space debris . Approximately 500 operational satellites are in low-Earth orbit , 50 are in medium-Earth orbit ( at 20,000 km ) , and the rest are in geostationary orbit ( at 36,000 km ) . A few large satellites have been launched in parts and assembled in orbit . Over a dozen space probes have been placed into orbit around other bodies and become artificial satellites to the Moon , Mercury , Venus , Mars , Jupiter , Saturn , a few asteroids , and the Sun . Satellites are used for many purposes . Common types include military and civilian Earth observation satellites , communications satellites , navigation satellites , weather satellites , and space telescopes . Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites . Satellite orbits vary greatly , depending on the purpose of the satellite , and are classified in a number of ways . Well-known ( overlapping ) classes include low Earth orbit , polar orbit , and geostationary orbit . A launch vehicle is a rocket that throws a satellite into orbit . Usually it lifts off from a launch pad on land . Some are launched at sea from a submarine or a mobile maritime platform , or aboard a plane ( see air launch to orbit ) . Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled systems . Satellite subsystems attend many tasks , such as power generation , thermal control , telemetry , attitude control and orbit control .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Satellite", "rank": 67, "score": 101750 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 68, "score": 101597 }, { "content": "Title: 4-millimeter band Content: The 4 millimeter band is a portion of the EHF ( microwave ) radio spectrum internationally allocated to amateur radio and amateur satellite use . The amateur radio and amateur satellite band is between 76.0 GHz and 81.0 GHz . Amateurs operate on a primary basis between 77.5 GHz and 78.0 GHz and on a secondary basis in the rest of the band . Also , 81.0 GHz to 81.5 GHz is allocated by ITU footnote 5.561 A to the amateur and amateur-satellite services on a secondary basis . The ITU 's allocations are the same in all three ITU regions . Until 2006 , 75.5 GHz to 76.0 GHz was also allocated by the ITU to amateurs on a primary basis . In response to this change , CEPT added footnote EU35 to the `` European Common Allocation Table '' , which provides a continued allocation of this segment to European amateurs .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "4-millimeter_band", "rank": 69, "score": 101137 }, { "content": "Title: SCR-584 radar Content: The SCR-584 ( short for Signal Corps Radio # 584 ) was an automatic-tracking microwave radar developed by the MIT Radiation Laboratory during World War II . It was one of the most advanced ground based radar of its era , and became one of the primary gun laying radars used worldwide well into the 1950s . The system traces its history to a request from the British Army for a new gun-laying radar using the cavity magnetron , which had recently been introduced to the US during the Tizard Mission . Coordinating with their counterparts in Canada , they decided that the Canadians would develop a simple system for rapid deployment , while the Radiation Laboratory at MIT would be given an additional year to develop a much more advanced model . The radars were intended to be introduced in late 1942 and late 1943 , respectively . Various delays meant the SCR-584 did not reach field units until early 1944 . They began replacing the earlier and much more complex SCR-268 as the US Army 's primary anti-aircraft gun laying system as quickly as they could be produced . They proved dramatically easier to use in the field than the less advanced Canadian/British GL Mk . III radar , and many were rushed to England where they were an invaluable part of the defences developed to counter the V1 flying bomb . By the end of the war they had been used to track artillery shells in flight , detect vehicles , and dramatically reduce the manpower needed to guide anti-aircraft guns .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "SCR-584_radar", "rank": 70, "score": 101123 }, { "content": "Title: 23-centimeter band Content: The 23 centimeter , 1200 MHz or 1.2 GHz band is a portion of the UHF ( microwave ) radio spectrum internationally allocated to amateur radio and amateur satellite use on a secondary basis . The amateur radio band is between 1240 MHz and 1300 MHz . The amateur satellite band is between 1260 MHz and 1270 MHz , and its use by satellite operations is only for up-links on a non-interference basis to other radio users ( ITU footnote 5.282 ) . The allocations are the same in all three ITU regions . In the United Kingdom the band is between 1240 MHz and 1325 MHz . Most modes of communication used in amateur radio can be found in the 23 cm band . Some of the more common modes include voice , data , EME ( moonbounce ) , as well as ATV .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "23-centimeter_band", "rank": 71, "score": 100987 }, { "content": "Title: Cosmic Background Explorer Content: The Cosmic Background Explorer ( COBE -LSB- ˈkoʊbi -RSB- ) , also referred to as Explorer 66 , was a satellite dedicated to cosmology , which operated from 1989 to 1993 . Its goals were to investigate the cosmic microwave background radiation ( CMB ) of the universe and provide measurements that would help shape our understanding of the cosmos . COBE 's measurements provided two key pieces of evidence that supported the Big Bang theory of the universe : that the CMB has a near-perfect black-body spectrum , and that it has very faint anisotropies . Two of COBE 's principal investigators , George Smoot and John Mather , received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2006 for their work on the project . According to the Nobel Prize committee , `` the COBE-project can also be regarded as the starting point for cosmology as a precision science '' . Later , COBE has been followed by two more advanced spacecraft : WMAP operated from 2001-2010 , and Planck from 2009-2013 .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Cosmic_Background_Explorer", "rank": 72, "score": 100815 }, { "content": "Title: Odin (satellite) Content: Odin is a Swedish satellite working in two disciplines : astrophysics and aeronomy , and it was named after Odin of Norse mythology . Within the field of astrophysics , Odin was used until the spring of 2007 aiding in the study of star formation . Odin is still used for aeronomical observations , including exploration of the depletion of the ozone layer and effects of global warming . In February 2016 it celebrated 15 years in Earth orbit , and was still functioning nominally . The main instrument on Odin is a radiometer using a 1.1 m telescope , designed to be used for both the astronomy and aeronomy missions . The radiometer works at 486 -- 580 GHz and at 119 GHz . The second instrument on board is the OSIRIS ( Optical Spectrograph and InfraRed Imager System ) . Odin was developed by the Space Systems Division of Swedish Space Corporation ( now OHB Sweden ) as part of an international project involving the space agencies of Sweden ( SNSB ) , Finland ( TEKES ) , Canada ( CSA ) and France ( CNES ) . Odin was launched on a START-1 rocket on February 20 , 2001 from Svobodny , Russia . In April 2007 , astronomers announced that Odin had made the first ever detection of molecular oxygen in interstellar clouds . The spacecraft was still functioning nominally in 2010 . It continued to function and as of February 20 , 2016 , was still functioning nominally . International partners : Agencies or organizations involved in Odin : Swedish National Space Board Swedish Space Corporation Canadian Space Agency Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council ( of Canada ) National Technology Agency of Finland CNES ( France ) Obejectives : Astronomy Aeronomy applications Atmospheric research Stratospheric ozone chemistry Mesospheric ozone science Summer mesospheric science Coupling of atmospheric regions", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Odin_(satellite)", "rank": 73, "score": 100498 }, { "content": "Title: 5-centimeter band Content: The 5 centimeter or 5 GHz band is a portion of the SHF ( microwave ) radio spectrum internationally allocated to amateur radio and amateur satellite use on a secondary basis . In ITU regions 1 and 3 , the amateur radio band is between 5,650 MHz and 5,850 MHz . In ITU region 2 , the amateur radio band is between 5,650 MHz and 5,925 MHz . The amateur satellite service is allocated 5,830 to 5,850 MHz , for down-links only on a secondary basis , and it is also allocated 5,650 to 5,670 MHz , for up-links only on a non-interference basis to other users ( ITU footnote 5.282 ) . Amateur stations must accept harmful interference from ISM users operating in the band . The band is within the IEEE C Band spectrum . The 5 cm band in the United States overlaps part of the U-NII band and all of 5 GHz ISM band . Both overlapping bands are available for license-free applications such as WiFi or Part 15 devices . 5 cm is one of the primary bands for high-speed multimedia radio , as most U-NII and Part 15 equipment may be re-tuned to amateur frequencies .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "5-centimeter_band", "rank": 74, "score": 100406 }, { "content": "Title: Heinz Kaminski Content: Heinz Kaminski ( born 15 June 1921 in Bochum ; died 17 February 2002 in Arnsberg ) was a German chemical engineer and space researcher . On 5 October 1957 , Kaminski received signals in Bochum from the Sputnik satellite , the first person outside of the Soviet area of influence to do so . Heinz Kaminski founded and later directed the Bochum Observatory . He also busied himself with environmental research . Although Kaminski was only an amateur astronomer and not a professional , the press constantly treated him as a source of information on astronomical events . At the end of the 1970s and the beginning of the 1980s , Kaminski took an active interest in politics - at first in the Green Party , then in the Bürgerpartei . In the cellar of his house , Kaminski , a former naval radio operator , had built a receiving station from old wooden tables and in the meadow in front of his house in the Bochum district of Sundern erected an antenna assisted by three co-workers , with whose help he listened in to radio signals from space . During the night of 5 October 1957 , Kaminski became the first person outside of the Soviet territories to receive signals from Sputnik 1 , the first artificial satellite in space . The tape recording from Bochum was proof of the start of space travel . In 1961 , Kaminski took over the leadership of the Volkssternwarte Bochum ( Bochum People 's Observatory ) , which had been founded by himself . During the years he built the grounds around the Volkssternwarte into an Institute and made sure that it managed a connection to international space research . At the Bochum Station , signals from a variety of space vehicles from the Sputniks , Luniks up to Vostok and Voskhod could be received , as well as in 1963 ( for the first time in Europe ) satellite pictures from the US weather satellite TIROS-8 . In 1967 Kaminski installed a 20-meter parabolic antenna in a radome , with which all Apollo missions were followed . When his Institut was denied subsidies in 1982 , Kaminski changed the Volkssternwarte Bochum into the private `` Institut für Umwelt - und Zukunftsforschung '' ( IUZ ) ( Institute for Environmental and Future Research ) , which over the years has developed into a top-rate educational institution . Due to the efforts of Kaminski , the city of Bochum erected in 1964 the first post-war large planetarium in Deutschland ( equipped at the time with a Zeiss Mod . IV ) . Kaminski was nominated as the first direktor and occupied this position until his retirement in 1986 . In 1972 Kaminski became an honorary professor in the Physics Department at the University of Essen and gave lectures until the Winter semester 1999/2000 on `` Environmental Research via Satellite - Results and Political Consequences '' . On 17 February 2002 , Kaminski died at the age of 80 . He had three children .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Heinz_Kaminski", "rank": 75, "score": 99946 }, { "content": "Title: United States Space Surveillance Network Content: The United States Space Surveillance Network detects , tracks , catalogs and identifies artificial objects orbiting Earth , e.g. active/inactive satellites , spent rocket bodies , or fragmentation debris . The system is the responsibility of the Joint Functional Component Command for Space , part of the United States Strategic Command ( USSTRATCOM ) . Space surveillance accomplishes the following : Predict when and where a decaying space object will re-enter the Earth 's atmosphere ; Prevent a returning space object , which to radar looks like a missile , from triggering a false alarm in missile-attack warning sensors of the U.S. and other countries ; Chart the present position of space objects and plot their anticipated orbital paths ; Detect new man-made objects in space ; Correctly map objects travelling in the Earth 's orbit ; Produce a running catalog of man-made space objects ; Determine which country owns a re-entering space object ; Inform NASA whether or not objects may interfere with satellites and International Space Station orbits . The SPACETRACK program represents a worldwide Space Surveillance Network ( SSN ) of dedicated , collateral , and contributing electro-optical , passive radio frequency ( RF ) and radar sensors . The SSN is tasked to provide space object cataloging and identification , satellite attack warning , timely notification to U.S. forces of satellite fly-over , space treaty monitoring , and scientific and technical intelligence gathering . The continued increase in satellite and orbital debris populations , as well as the increasing diversity in launch trajectories , non-standard orbits , and geosynchronous altitudes , necessitates continued modernization of the SSN to meet existing and future requirements and ensure their cost-effective supportability . SPACETRACK also developed the systems interfaces necessary for the command and control , targeting , and damage assessment of a potential future U.S. anti-satellite weapon ( ASAT ) system . There is an Image Information Processing Center and Supercomputing facility at the Air Force Maui Optical Station ( AMOS ) . The resources and responsibility for the HAVE STARE Radar System development were transferred to SPACETRACK from an intelligence program per Congressional direction in FY93 .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "United_States_Space_Surveillance_Network", "rank": 76, "score": 99942 }, { "content": "Title: Archeops Content: Archeops was a balloon-borne instrument dedicated to measuring the Cosmic microwave background ( CMB ) temperature anisotropies . The study of this radiation is essential to obtain precise information on the evolution of the Universe : density , Hubble constant , age of the Universe , etc. . To achieve this goal , measurements were done with devices cooled down at 100mK temperature placed at the focus of a warm telescope . To avoid atmospheric disturbance the whole apparatus is placed on a gondola below a helium balloon that reaches 40 km altitude . Archeops has four bands in the millimeter domain ( 143 , 217 , 353 and 545 GHz ) with a high angular resolution ( about 15 arcminutes ) in order to constrain small anisotropy scales , as well as a large sky coverage fraction ( 30 % ) in order to minimize the intrinsic cosmic variance .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Archeops", "rank": 77, "score": 99936 }, { "content": "Title: Radarsat-1 Content: RADARSAT-1 is Canada 's first commercial Earth observation satellite . It utilized synthetic aperture radar ( SAR ) to obtain images of the Earth 's surface to manage natural resources and monitor global climate change . As of March 2013 , the satellite was declared non-operational and is no longer collecting data .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Radarsat-1", "rank": 78, "score": 99878 }, { "content": "Title: Maser Content: A maser ( -LSB- ˈmeɪzər -RSB- , an acronym for `` microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation '' ) is a device that produces coherent electromagnetic waves through amplification by stimulated emission . The first maser was built by Charles H. Townes , James P. Gordon , and H. J. Zeiger at Columbia University in 1953 . Townes , Nikolay Basov and Alexander Prokhorov were awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Physics for theoretical work leading to the maser . Masers are used as the timekeeping device in atomic clocks , and as extremely low-noise microwave amplifiers in radio telescopes and deep space spacecraft communication ground stations . Modern masers can be designed to generate electromagnetic waves at not only microwave frequencies but also radio and infrared frequencies . For this reason Charles Townes suggested replacing `` microwave '' with the word `` molecular '' as the first word in the acronym maser . The laser works by the same principle as the maser , but produces higher frequency coherent radiation at visible wavelengths . The maser was the forerunner of the laser , inspiring theoretical work by Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow that led to the invention of the laser in 1960 . When the coherent optical oscillator was first imagined in 1957 , it was originally called the `` optical maser . '' This was ultimately changed to laser for `` Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation . '' Gordon Gould is credited with creating this acronym in 1957 .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Maser", "rank": 79, "score": 99856 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave engineering Content: Microwave engineering pertains to the study and design of microwave circuits , components , and systems . Fundamental principles are applied to analysis , design and measurement techniques in this field . The short wavelengths involved distinguish this discipline from Electronic engineering . This is because there are different interactions with circuits , transmissions and propagation characteristics at microwave frequencies . Some theories and devices that pertain to this field are antennas , radar , transmission lines , space based systems ( remote sensing ) , measurements , microwave radiation hazards and safety measures . During World War II microwave engineering played a significant role in developing radar that could accurately locate enemy ships and planes with a focused beam of EM radiation . The foundations of this discipline are found in Maxwell 's equations and the work of Heinrich Hertz , William Thomson 's waveguide theory , J.C. Bose , the klystron from Russel and Varian Bross , as well as contributions from Perry Spencer , and others .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Microwave_engineering", "rank": 80, "score": 99771 }, { "content": "Title: Standard frequency and time signal-satellite service Content: Standard frequency and time signal-satellite service ( short : SFTSS ) is , according to Article 1.54 of the International Telecommunication Union ´ s ( ITU ) Radio Regulations ( RR ) , defined as A radiocommunication service using space stations on earth satellites for the same purposes as those of the standard frequency and time signal service . An example to this were experiments of time synchronisation ( Global Transmission Services GTS-2 ) onboard International Space Station . However , in accordance to the ubiquitous availability , GNSS-satellite signals will be used in practice ( see also : GPS disciplined oscillator ) . See also", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Standard_frequency_and_time_signal-satellite_service", "rank": 81, "score": 99553 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 82, "score": 99402 }, { "content": "Title: H. Paul Shuch Content: H. Paul Shuch ( born May 23 , 1946 ) is an American scientist and engineer who has coordinated radio amateurs to help in the search for extraterrestrial intelligence ( SETI ) . Shuch , an aerospace engineer and microwave technologist is believed by colleague Jack Unger to be the creator of the world 's first commercial home satellite TV receiver . Recently a visiting professor at Lycoming College and Heidelberg University of Applied Sciences , Shuch continues to volunteer as the Executive Director Emeritus of The SETI League , Inc. . He has taught physics , astronomy , and engineering on various university campuses for over four decades . He is also active in science fiction fandom and filk music .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "H._Paul_Shuch", "rank": 83, "score": 99377 }, { "content": "Title: Holmdel Horn Antenna Content: The Holmdel Horn Antenna is a large microwave horn antenna that was used as a radio telescope during the 1960s at Bell Telephone Laboratories in Holmdel Township , Monmouth County , New Jersey , United States . It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1988 because of its association with the research work of two radio astronomers , Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson . In 1965 while using this antenna , Penzias and Wilson discovered the microwave background radiation that permeates the universe . This was one of the most important discoveries in physical cosmology since Edwin Hubble demonstrated in the 1920s that the universe was expanding . It provided the evidence that confirmed George Gamow 's and Abbe Georges Lemaitre 's `` Big Bang '' theory of the creation of the universe . This helped change the science of cosmology , the study of the history of the universe , from a field for unlimited theoretical speculation into a discipline of direct observation . In 1978 Penzias and Wilson received the Nobel Prize for Physics for their discovery .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Holmdel_Horn_Antenna", "rank": 84, "score": 98766 }, { "content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster", "rank": 85, "score": 98362 }, { "content": "Title: Badr-1 Content: Badr-1 ( -LSB- , meaning Full Moon-1 ) was the first artificial and the first digital communication satellite launched by Pakistan 's supreme national space authority -- the SUPARCO -- in 1990 . The Badr-I was Pakistan 's first indigenously developed and manufactured digital communications and an experimental artificial satellite which was launched into low Earth orbit by Pakistan on 16 July 1990 , through a Chinese rocket carrier . The launch ushered new military , technological , and scientific developments in Pakistan and also provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere . Originally planned to be launched from the United States in 1986 , the Challenger disaster furthered delayed the launch of the satellite which changed the plan . After the People 's Republic of China offered Pakistan to use its facility , the Badr-I was finally launched from XLSC in 1990 on Long March 2E ( LM2E ) . Badr-I travelled at 61,500 miles per hour , taking 96.3 minutes to complete an orbit , and emitted radio signals at the 145 to 435 MHz bands which were operated by Pakistan Amateur Radio Society ( PARS ) . The Badr-I successfully completed its designed life , and a new satellite was proposed to be developed .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Badr-1", "rank": 86, "score": 98284 }, { "content": "Title: Neal H. Williams Content: Neal Hooker Williams ( 1870 -- 1956 ) was a physicist notable for the very first spectroscopic measurements at microwave frequencies . He carried this out with a magnetron and investigated the spectrum of gaseous ammonia together with his student Claud E. Cleeton . This formed the groundwork for the later inventions of the radar and the gas laser .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Neal_H._Williams", "rank": 87, "score": 98171 }, { "content": "Title: CloudSat Content: CloudSat is a NASA Earth observation satellite , which was launched on a Delta II rocket on April 28 , 2006 . It uses radar to measure the altitude and properties of clouds , adding to information on the relationship between clouds and climate in order to help resolve questions about global warming . CloudSat flies in formation in the `` A Train '' , with several other satellites : Aqua , Aura , CALIPSO and the French PARASOL . The mission was selected under NASA 's Earth System Science Pathfinder program in 1999 . Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. in Boulder , Colorado , designed and built the spacecraft . CloudSat 's primary mission was scheduled to continue for 22 months in order to allow more than one seasonal cycle to be observed .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "CloudSat", "rank": 88, "score": 98073 }, { "content": "Title: Space mirror (climate engineering) Content: The use of space mirrors as an anti-global warming measure is a proposed technology for climate change mitigation by deflection of sunlight . It was one of a series of proposals for controlling global warming made to the United States government in 2001 . At the `` Response Options to Rapid or Severe Climate Change '' round-table meeting organized by the President 's Climate Change Technology Program in September 2001 to gather ideas for averting climate change , one of the proposals was to station one or more wire-mesh `` mirrors '' in orbit to deflect sunlight back into space or to filter it . The idea was proposed by Lowell Wood , a senior staff scientist at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory , who calculated that deflecting 1 % of sunlight would restore climatic stability , and that that would require either a single mirror 600000 sqmi in area or several smaller ones . Wood had been researching the idea for more than ten years but considered it so infeasible that it should only be a back-up plan for solving the global warming problem . In January 2007 , The Guardian reported that the US government was recommending that research on sunlight deflection , including space mirrors , be continued as `` insurance '' and that the next United Nations Report on Climate Change advocate such a strategy . In addition to the space mirror , suggested sunlight-reducing techniques included launching thousands of highly reflective balloons and pumping sulphate droplets into the upper atmosphere to emulate volcanic emissions . Space mirrors were first considered in the 1980s as a way to cool the climate of Venus . James Early , also at Livermore , in 1989 proposed using a `` space shade '' 2,000 kilometers in diameter orbiting at Lagrangian Point L1 . He estimated the cost at between one and ten trillion US dollars and suggested manufacturing it on the moon using moon rock . Using space mirrors as a space sunshade to reduce the impact of sunlight falls into the category of geoengineering : deliberately modifying the earth 's climate . At a conference on the topic organized by Daniel Schrag of Harvard University and David Keith of the University of Calgary in November 2007 , the consensus was that it was worth studying such ideas further despite their high cost , the doubtful feasibility of some including the space mirror , and the risk of their distracting attention from reduction of greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Space_mirror_(climate_engineering)", "rank": 89, "score": 98066 }, { "content": "Title: List of space telescopes Content: This list of space telescopes ( astronomical space observatories ) is grouped by major frequency ranges : gamma ray , x-ray , ultraviolet , visible , infrared , microwave and radio . Telescopes that work in multiple frequency bands are included in all of the appropriate sections . Space telescopes that collect particles , such as cosmic ray nuclei and/or electrons , as well as instruments that aim to detect gravitational waves , are also listed . Missions with specific targets within the Solar System ( e.g. our Sun and its planets ) , are excluded ; see List of Solar System probes for these , and List of Earth observation satellites for missions targeting our planet . Two values are provided for the dimensions of the initial orbit . For telescopes in Earth orbit , the min and max altitude are given in kilometers . For telescopes in solar orbit , the minimum distance ( periapsis ) and the maximum distance ( apoapsis ) between the telescope and the center of mass of the sun are given in astronomical units ( AU ) .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "List_of_space_telescopes", "rank": 90, "score": 97781 }, { "content": "Title: COSMOSOMAS Content: COSMOSOMAS is a circular scanning astronomical microwave experiment to investigate the Cosmic Microwave Background anisotropy and diffuse emission from the Galaxy on angular scales from 1 to 5 degrees . It was designed and built by the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias ( IAC ) in Tenerife , Spain , in 1998 . Its name comes from `` COSMOlogical Structures On Medium Angular Scales '' referring to CMB fluctuations . This experiment grew out experience of the previous Tenerife Experiment with the need to go to smaller angular scales with greater sensitivity . The experiment consists of two instruments , COSMO15 ( three channels at 12.7 , 14.7 and 16.3 GHz ) and COSMO11 ( two hands of linear polarization at 10.9 GHz ) . Both instruments are based on a circular scanning sky strategy , consisting of a 60 rpm spinning flat mirror directing the sky radiation into an off-axis paraboloidal antenna , whose size is 1.8-m in the COSMO15 and 2.4-m in the COSMO11 . These antennas focus the radiation on to cryogenically cooled HEMT-based receivers , both at an operating temperature of 20K ( -253 C ) and in the frequency range of 10 -- 12 GHz for COSMO11 , and 12 -- 18 GHz for COSMO15 . In the COSMO15 instrument , the signal is split by a set of three filters , allowing simultaneous observations at 13 , 15 and 17 GHz . Thus , four 1-degree resolution sky maps complete in right ascension and covering 20 degrees in declination are obtained every day at these frequencies . The most important result to come from this experiment is the cleanest detection of `` spinning dust '' in the Perseus molecular cloud . These are very small dust grains which can spin thousands of million times a second . If they have an asymmetrical electrical charge they can radiate like a lot of tiny dipole antennas . This cloud is very bright at infra-red wavelengths due to thermal emission from the large dust grains , but very little emission would be expected at microwave wavelengths by this type of dust . Instead there is a broad bump of signal centered on 22 GHz , a factor of 50 above the expected level of signal .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "COSMOSOMAS", "rank": 91, "score": 97710 }, { "content": "Title: Yubileiny Content: Yubileiny ( Юбиле́йный , lit . Jubilee ) is an educational Russian satellite built by NPO PM to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the launch of Sputnik 1 , the first artificial satellite to be placed into Earth orbit . The satellite was launched on 23 May 2008 aboard a Rokot class rocket from the LC-133 launch facility at the Plesetsk Cosmodrome , after being delayed since the end of 2007 . It was a secondary payload accompanying a cluster of three Gonets communication satellites , and utilised the excess capacity of the carrier . The satellite mission was to broadcast audio and video about the Soviet and Russian space programmes , as well as to imitate the beeping call signals of Sputnik 1 . These signals are intended for being receipted by amateur radio enthusiasts .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Yubileiny", "rank": 92, "score": 97612 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave chemistry Content: Microwave chemistry is the science of applying microwave radiation to chemical reactions . Microwaves act as high frequency electric fields and will generally heat any material containing mobile electric charges , such as polar molecules in a solvent or conducting ions in a solid . Polar solvents are heated as their component molecules are forced to rotate with the field and lose energy in collisions . Semiconducting and conducting samples heat when ions or electrons within them form an electric current and energy is lost due to the electrical resistance of the material . Microwave heating in the laboratory began to gain wide acceptance following papers in 1986 , although the use of microwave heating in chemical modification can be traced back to the 1950s . Although occasionally known by such acronyms as MAOS ( Microwave-Assisted Organic Synthesis ) , MEC ( Microwave-Enhanced Chemistry ) or MORE synthesis ( Microwave-organic Reaction Enhancement ) , these acronyms have had little acceptance outside a small number of groups .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Microwave_chemistry", "rank": 93, "score": 97470 }, { "content": "Title: The E and B Experiment Content: The E and B Experiment ( EBEX ) will measure the cosmic microwave background radiation of a part of the sky during two sub-orbital ( high-altitude ) balloon flights . It is an experiment to make large , high-fidelity images of the CMB polarization anisotropies . By using a telescope which flies at over 42,000 metres high , it is possible to reduce the atmospheric absorption of microwaves to a minimum . This allows massive cost reduction compared to a satellite probe , though only a small part of the sky can be scanned and for shorter duration than a typical satellite mission such as WMAP . The first flight was an engineering flight over North America in 2009 . For the science flight , EBEX was launched on 29 December 2012 , near McMurdo Station in Antarctica . It circled around the South Pole using the polar vortex winds before landing on 24 January 2013 about 400 miles from McMurdo .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "The_E_and_B_Experiment", "rank": 94, "score": 97395 }, { "content": "Title: Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation Content: The accidental discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964 is a major development in modern physical cosmology . Although predicted by earlier theoretical work around 1950 , it was first discovered accidentally by American radio astronomers Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson as they experimented with the Holmdel Horn Antenna . The discovery was important evidence for a hot early Universe ( big bang theory ) and was evidence against the rival steady state theory . In 1978 , Penzias and Wilson were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for their joint discovery .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Discovery_of_cosmic_microwave_background_radiation", "rank": 95, "score": 96887 }, { "content": "Title: AATSR Content: The Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer ( AATSR ) is one of the Announcement of Opportunity ( AO ) instruments on board the European Space Agency ( ESA ) 's Envisat satellite . This instrument is a multi-channel imaging radiometer with the principal objective of providing data concerning global Sea Surface Temperature ( SST ) to the high levels of accuracy and stability required for monitoring and carrying out research into the behaviour of the Earth 's climate . AATSR can measure Earth 's surface temperature to a precision of 0.3 K-change , for climate research . Among the secondary objectives of AATSR is the observation of environmental parameters such as aerosols , clouds , fires , gas flares , water content , biomass , and vegetal health and growth . AATSR is the successor of ATSR-1 and ATSR-2 , payloads of ERS-1 and ERS-2 .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "AATSR", "rank": 96, "score": 96794 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling (disambiguation) Content: Global cooling was a 1970s conjecture about global climate change . Global cooling may also refer to : In general , one of the means by which Earth can undergo climate change Climate change denial , including contrarian views about global warming in the 20th and 21st centuries Cooling periods on the multimillion-year scale in the geologic temperature record Geophysical global cooling , a conjecture about the formation of natural features that was made obsolete by the theory of plate tectonics Little Ice Age , a period from the 16th to 19th centuries characterized by cooling and coincident with below average sunspots frequency", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Global_cooling_(disambiguation)", "rank": 97, "score": 96452 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave Imaging Radiometer with Aperture Synthesis Content: Microwave Imaging Radiometer with Aperture Synthesis ( MIRAS ) is the major instrument on the Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity satellite ( SMOS ) . MIRAS employs a planar antenna composed of a central body ( the so-called hub ) and three telescoping , deployable arms , in total 69 receivers on the Unit . Each receiver is composed of one LICEF module , which detects radiation in the microwave L-band , both in horizontal and vertical polarizations . The aperture on the LICEF detectors , planar in arrangement on MIRAS , point directly toward the Earth 's surface as the satellite orbits . The arrangement and orientation of MIRAS makes the instrument a 2-D interferometric radiometer that generates brightness temperature images , from which both geophysical variables are computed . The salinity measurement requires demanding performance of the instrument in terms of calibration and stability . The MIRAS instrument 's prime contractor was EADS CASA Espacio , manufacturing the payload of SMOS under ESA 's contract .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Microwave_Imaging_Radiometer_with_Aperture_Synthesis", "rank": 98, "score": 96278 }, { "content": "Title: Mongoose-V Content: The Mongoose-V 32-bit microprocessor for spacecraft onboard computer applications is a radiation-hardened and expanded 10 -- 15 MHz version of the MIPS R3000 CPU . Mongoose-V was developed by Synova , Inc. of Melbourne , Florida , USA , with support from the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center . The Mongoose-V processor first flew on NASA 's Earth Observing-1 ( EO-1 ) satellite launched in November 2000 where it functioned as the main flight computer . A second Mongoose-V controlled the satellite 's solid-state data recorder . The Mongoose-V requires 5 volts and is packaged into a 256-pin ceramic quad flatpack ( CQFP ) . Examples of spacecraft that use the Mongoose-V include : Earth Observing-1 ( EO-1 ) NASA 's Microwave Anisotropy Probe ( MAP ) , launched in June 2001 , carried a Mongoose-V flight computer similar to that on EO-1 . NASA 's Space Technology 5 series of microsatellites CONTOUR TIMED Pluto probe New Horizons", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Mongoose-V", "rank": 99, "score": 96250 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave Bypass (company) Content: Microwave Bypass , Inc. pioneered the world 's first wireless Ethernet solution ( WWAN ) in 1987 , dubbed the `` EtherWave Transceiver . '' It enabled 802.3 Ethernet networks to connect at the then full speed of 10 megabits per second , and for initial distances up to 4.3 miles . The company was founded in March 1986 by David S. Theodore ( 24 ) , and had its offices at One Kendall Square , Cambridge , Massachusetts . Its wireless Ethernet solution consisted of an FCC licensed , wide band microwave radio ( 23 GHz ) from International Microwave , modified from video and coupled with Microwave Bypass ' EtherWave Transceiver . The system met the then highest Ethernet throughput , was protocol independent , and could transmit 4.3 miles , the limit being set by the 802.3 propagation delay allowance ( 46.4 µs ) . Beta testing of Microwave Bypass tech occurred at Massachusetts General Hospital in 1987 , at the invitation of network manager , David Murphy , and with Network World 's Laura DiDio and representatives of Harvard University and Boston University 's Dr. Mikhail Orlov in attendance . After a successful demo the first two production links were installed in parallel between Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston and Harvard 's Cardiac Computer Center , 2.5 miles across the Charles River . This also marked the first wireless transmission of MR images . In 1988 , Microwave Bypass collaborated with Cisco Systems on a full-duplex EtherWave Transceiver to eliminate 802.3 collision detection and permit longer distance connections as far as the microwave could reach . This first full-duplex design was developed for an application at MIT , between its main campus and Lincoln Laboratories . Later that year Microwave Bypass completed an exclusive deal , announced by Motorola , for the transfer of its EtherWave Transceiver and LAN-LINK 1000 Bridge technologies . Company Highlights : • Microwave Bypass built a wireless triangle between Harvard , MIT and Boston University , which became the New England Academic and Research Network with over 40 nodes ( NEARnet ) . • Designed a Smithsonian Award winning K-12 network for Desert Sands Unified School District ( CA ) , built the network for the Space Shuttle Project ( Edwards AFB ) , provided the first internet access to Interop , and installed the first residential fixed wireless connection , notably for Bill Joy of Sun Microsystems . • Microwave Bypass was selected one of the top ten industry leaders by `` LAN Times , '' in 1990 and was highly regarded by analysts , including the Aberdeen Group , which estimated the company 's market share at 70 % .", "qid": "3091", "docid": "Microwave_Bypass_(company)", "rank": 100, "score": 96198 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Dielectric heating Content: Dielectric heating , also known as electronic heating , RF ( radio frequency ) heating , and high-frequency heating , is the process in which a high-frequency alternating electric field , or radio wave or microwave electromagnetic radiation heats a dielectric material . At higher frequencies , this heating is caused by molecular dipole rotation within the dielectric . RF dielectric heating at intermediate frequencies , due to its greater penetration over microwave heating , shows greater promise than microwave systems as a method of very rapidly heating and uniformly preparing certain food items , and also killing parasites and pests in certain harvested crops .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Dielectric_heating", "rank": 1, "score": 280367 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave cavity Content: A microwave cavity or radio frequency ( RF ) cavity is a special type of resonator , consisting of a closed ( or largely closed ) metal structure that confines electromagnetic fields in the microwave region of the spectrum . The structure is either hollow or filled with dielectric material . The microwaves bounce back and forth between the walls of the cavity . At the cavity 's resonant frequencies they reinforce to form standing waves in the cavity . Therefore , the cavity functions similarly to an organ pipe or sound box in a musical instrument , oscillating preferentially at a series of frequencies , its resonant frequencies . Thus it can act as a bandpass filter , allowing microwaves of a particular frequency to pass while blocking microwaves at nearby frequencies . A microwave cavity acts similarly to a resonant circuit with extremely low loss at its frequency of operation , resulting in quality factors ( Q factors ) up to the order of 106 , compared to 102 for circuits made with separate inductors and capacitors at the same frequency . They are used in place of resonant circuits at microwave frequencies , since at these frequencies discrete resonant circuits can not be built because the values of inductance and capacitance needed are too low . They are used in oscillators and transmitters to create microwave signals , and as filters to separate a signal at a given frequency from other signals , in equipment such as radar equipment , microwave relay stations , satellite communications , and microwave ovens . RF cavities can also manipulate charged particles passing through them by application of acceleration voltage and are thus used in particle accelerators and microwave vacuum tubes such as klystrons and magnetrons .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Microwave_cavity", "rank": 2, "score": 231963 }, { "content": "Title: Cavity magnetron Content: The cavity magnetron is a high-powered vacuum tube that generates microwaves using the interaction of a stream of electrons with a magnetic field while moving past a series of open metal cavities ( cavity resonators ) . Electrons pass by the openings to these cavities and cause radio waves to oscillate within , similar to the way a guitar resonates sound from its sound box via the oscillation of its strings . The frequency of the microwaves produced , the resonant frequency , is determined by the cavities ' physical dimensions . Unlike other vacuum tubes such as a klystron or a traveling-wave tube ( TWT ) , the magnetron can not function as an amplifier in order to increase the intensity of an applied microwave signal ; the magnetron serves solely as an oscillator , generating a microwave signal from direct current electricity supplied to the vacuum tube . An early form of magnetron was invented by H. Gerdien in 1910 . Another form of magnetron tube , the split-anode magnetron , was invented by Albert Hull in 1920 , but it was n't capable of high frequencies and was of little use . Similar devices were experimented with by many teams through the 1920s and 1930s . On November 27 , 1935 , Hans Erich Hollmann applied for a patent for the first multiple-cavity magnetron , which he received on July 12 , 1938 , but the more stable klystron was preferred for most German radars during World War II . The cavity magnetron tube was later improved by John Randall and Harry Boot in 1940 at the University of Birmingham , England . The high power of pulses from their device made centimeter-band radar practical for the Allies of World War II , with shorter wavelength radars allowing detection of smaller objects from smaller antennas . The compact cavity magnetron tube drastically reduced the size of radar sets so that they could be more easily installed in night-fighter aircraft , anti-submarine aircraft and escort ships . In the post-war era the magnetron became less widely used in the radar role . This was because the magnetron 's output changes from pulse to pulse , both in frequency and phase . This makes the signal unsuitable for pulse-to-pulse comparisons , which is widely used for detecting and removing `` clutter '' from the radar display . The magnetron remains in use in some radars , but has become much more common as a low-cost microwave source for microwave ovens . In this form , approximately one billion magnetrons are in use today .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Cavity_magnetron", "rank": 3, "score": 230235 }, { "content": "Title: Dielectric resonator Content: A dielectric resonator is a piece of dielectric ( nonconductive ) material , usually ceramic , that is designed to function as a resonator for radio waves , generally in the microwave and millimeter wave bands . The microwaves are confined inside the resonator material by the abrupt change in permittivity at the surface , and bounce back and forth between the sides . At certain frequencies , the resonant frequencies , the microwaves form standing waves in the resonator , oscillating with large amplitudes . Dielectric resonators generally consist of a `` puck '' of ceramic that has a large dielectric constant and a low dissipation factor . The resonant frequency is determined by the overall physical dimensions of the resonator and the dielectric constant of the material . Dielectric resonators function similarly to cavity resonators , hollow metal boxes that are also widely used as resonators at microwave frequencies , except that the radio waves are reflected by the large change in permittivity rather than by the conductivity of metal . At millimeter wave frequencies , metal surfaces become lossy reflectors , so dielectric resonators are used at these frequencies . Dielectric resonators ' main use is in millimeter-wave electronic oscillators ( dielectric resonator oscillator , DRO ) to control the frequency of the radio waves generated . They are also used as bandpass filters as well as antennas .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Dielectric_resonator", "rank": 4, "score": 212319 }, { "content": "Title: Dielectric resonator antenna Content: A dielectric resonator antenna ( DRA ) is a radio antenna mostly used at microwave frequencies and higher , that consists of a block of ceramic material of various shapes , the dielectric resonator , mounted on a metal surface , a ground plane . Radio waves are introduced into the inside of the resonator material from the transmitter circuit and bounce back and forth between the resonator walls , forming standing waves . The walls of the resonator are partially transparent to radio waves , allowing the radio power to radiate into space . An advantage of dielectric resonator antennas is they lack metal parts , which become lossy at high frequencies , dissipating energy . So these antennas can have lower losses and be more efficient than metal antennas at high microwave and millimeter wave frequencies . Dielectric waveguide antennas are used in some compact portable wireless devices , and military millimeter-wave radar equipment . The antenna was first proposed by Robert Richtmyer in 1939 . In 1982 , Long et al. did the first design and test of dielectric resonator antennas considering a leaky waveguide model assuming magnetic conductor model of the dielectric surface . An antenna like effect is achieved by periodic swing of electrons from its capacitive element to the ground plane which behaves like an inductor . The authors further argued that the operation of a dielectric antenna resembles the antenna conceived by Marconi , the only difference is that inductive element is replaced by the dielectric material .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Dielectric_resonator_antenna", "rank": 5, "score": 205511 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave ablation Content: Microwave Ablation ( MWA ) is a form of thermal ablation used in interventional radiology to treat cancer . MWA uses electromagnetic waves in the microwave energy spectrum ( 300 MHz to 300 GHz ) to produce tissue-heating effects . The oscillation of polar molecules produces frictional heating , ultimately generating tissue necrosis within solid tumors . It is generally used for the treatment and/or palliation of solid tumors in patients who are nonsurgical candidate .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Microwave_ablation", "rank": 6, "score": 202649 }, { "content": "Title: Backward-wave oscillator Content: A backward wave oscillator ( BWO ) , also called carcinotron ( a trade name for tubes manufactured by CSF , now Thales ) or backward wave tube , is a vacuum tube that is used to generate microwaves up to the terahertz range . It belongs to the traveling-wave tube family . It is an oscillator with a wide electronic tuning range . An electron gun generates an electron beam that is interacting with a slow-wave structure . It sustains the oscillations by propagating a traveling wave backwards against the beam . The generated electromagnetic wave power has its group velocity directed oppositely to the direction of motion of the electrons . The output power is coupled out near the electron gun . It has two main subtypes , the M-type ( M-BWO ) , the most powerful , and the O-type ( O-BWO ) . The output power of the O-type is typically in the range of 1 mW at 1000 GHz to 50 mW at 200 GHz . Carcinotrons are used as powerful and stable microwave sources . Due to the good quality wavefront they produce ( see below ) , they find use as illuminators in terahertz imaging . The backward wave oscillators were demonstrated in 1951 , M-type by Bernard Epsztein and O-type by Rudolf Kompfner . The M-type BWO is a voltage-controlled non-resonant extrapolation of magnetron interaction , both types are tunable over a wide range of frequencies by varying the accelerating voltage . They can be swept through the band fast enough to be appearing to radiate over all the band at once , which makes them suitable for effective radar jamming , quickly tuning into the radar frequency . Carcinotrons allowed airborne radar jammers to be highly effective . However , frequency-agile radars can hop frequencies fast enough to force the jammer to use barrage jamming , diluting its output power over a wide band and significantly impairing its efficiency . Carcinotrons are used in research , civilian and military applications . For example , the Czechoslovak air defense detection systems Kopac passive sensor and Ramona passive sensor employed carcinotrons in their receiver systems .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Backward-wave_oscillator", "rank": 7, "score": 196033 }, { "content": "Title: Outline of radio Content: The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to radio : Radio -- transmission of signals by modulation of electromagnetic waves with frequencies below those of visible light . Electromagnetic radiation travels by means of oscillating electromagnetic fields that pass through the air and the vacuum of space . Information is carried by systematically changing ( modulating ) some property of the radiated waves , such as amplitude , frequency , phase , or pulse width . When radio waves pass an electrical conductor , the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor . This can be detected and transformed into sound or other signals that carry information .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Outline_of_radio", "rank": 8, "score": 187516 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave chemistry Content: Microwave chemistry is the science of applying microwave radiation to chemical reactions . Microwaves act as high frequency electric fields and will generally heat any material containing mobile electric charges , such as polar molecules in a solvent or conducting ions in a solid . Polar solvents are heated as their component molecules are forced to rotate with the field and lose energy in collisions . Semiconducting and conducting samples heat when ions or electrons within them form an electric current and energy is lost due to the electrical resistance of the material . Microwave heating in the laboratory began to gain wide acceptance following papers in 1986 , although the use of microwave heating in chemical modification can be traced back to the 1950s . Although occasionally known by such acronyms as MAOS ( Microwave-Assisted Organic Synthesis ) , MEC ( Microwave-Enhanced Chemistry ) or MORE synthesis ( Microwave-organic Reaction Enhancement ) , these acronyms have had little acceptance outside a small number of groups .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Microwave_chemistry", "rank": 9, "score": 183024 }, { "content": "Title: Opto-electronic oscillator Content: An opto-electronic oscillator ( OEO ) is an optoelectronic circuit that produces repetitive electronic sine wave and/or modulated optical continuous wave signals . An opto-electronic oscillator is based on converting the continuous light energy from a pump laser to radio frequency ( RF ) , microwave or mm-wave signals . The OEO is characterized by having very high quality factor ( Q ) and stability , as well as other functional characteristics that are not readily achieved with electronic oscillators . Its unique behavior results from the use of electro-optical ( E/O ) and photonic components , which are generally characterized with high efficiency , high speed , and low dispersion in the microwave frequency regime . OEO is device where the phase noise of the oscillator does not increase with the frequency that is subject to other implementations by electronic oscillators such as quartz crystal oscillators , dielectric resonators , sapphire resonators or air-dielectric resonators .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Opto-electronic_oscillator", "rank": 10, "score": 181669 }, { "content": "Title: Frequency selective surface Content: A frequency-selective surface ( FSS ) is any thin , repetitive surface ( such as the screen on a microwave oven ) designed to reflect , transmit or absorb electromagnetic fields based on the frequency of the field . In this sense , an FSS is a type of optical filter or metal-mesh optical filters in which the filtering is accomplished by virtue of the regular , periodic ( usually metallic , but sometimes dielectric ) pattern on the surface of the FSS . Though not explicitly mentioned in the name , FSS 's also have properties which vary with incidence angle and polarization as well - these are unavoidable consequences of the way in which FSS 's are constructed . Frequency-selective surfaces have been most commonly used in the radio frequency region of the electromagnetic spectrum and find use in applications as diverse as the aforementioned microwave oven , antenna radomes and modern metamaterials . Sometimes frequency selective surfaces are referred to simply as periodic surfaces and are a 2-dimensional analog of the new periodic volumes known as photonic crystals . Many factors are involved in understanding the operation and application of frequency selective surfaces . These include analysis techniques , operating principles , design principles , manufacturing techniques and methods for integrating these structures into space , ground and airborne platforms .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Frequency_selective_surface", "rank": 11, "score": 181540 }, { "content": "Title: Klystron Content: A klystron is a specialized linear-beam vacuum tube , invented in 1937 by American electrical engineers Russell and Sigurd Varian , which is used as an amplifier for high radio frequencies , from UHF up into the microwave range . Low-power klystrons are used as oscillators in terrestrial microwave relay communications links , while high-power klystrons are used as output tubes in UHF television transmitters , satellite communication , and radar transmitters , and to generate the drive power for modern particle accelerators . In a klystron , an electron beam interacts with radio waves as it passes through resonant cavities , metal boxes along the length of a tube . The electron beam first passes through a cavity to which the input signal is applied . The energy of the electron beam amplifies the signal , and the amplified signal is taken from a cavity at the other end of the tube . The output signal can be coupled back into the input cavity to make an electronic oscillator to generate radio waves . The gain of klystrons can be high , 60 dB ( one million ) or more , with output power up to tens of megawatts , but the bandwidth is narrow , usually a few percent although it can be up to 10 % in some devices . A reflex klystron is an obsolete type in which the electron beam was reflected back along its path by a high potential electrode , used as an oscillator . The name klystron comes from the stem form κλυσ - ( klys ) of a Greek verb referring to the action of waves breaking against a shore , and the suffix - τρον ( `` tron '' ) meaning the place where the action happens . The name `` klystron '' was suggested by Hermann Fränkel , a professor in the classics department at Stanford University when the klystron was under development .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Klystron", "rank": 12, "score": 180686 }, { "content": "Title: Microwaves (disambiguation) Content: Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths ranging from as long as one meter to as short as one millimeter . Microwave or Microwaves may also refer to : Microwave oven or simply `` microwave '' , a kitchen appliance that cooks or heats food by dielectric heating Cosmic microwave background radiation ( CMBR ) , a form of electromagnetic radiation that fills the universe Microwave chemistry , the science of applying microwave irradiation to chemical reactions Microwave landing system ( MLS ) , an all-weather , precision aircraft landing system Microwave spectroscopy , studies the absorption and emission of microwave electromagnetic radiation Microwave transmission , the technology of transmitting information using microwaves by employing various electronic technologies `` The Microwave '' , nickname of former NBA basketball player Vinnie Johnson Microwave ( band ) , American band", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Microwaves_(disambiguation)", "rank": 13, "score": 177860 }, { "content": "Title: History of metamaterials Content: The history of metamaterials begins with artificial dielectrics in microwave engineering as it developed just after World War II . Yet , there are seminal explorations of artificial materials for manipulating electromagnetic waves at the end of the 19th century . Hence , the history of metamaterials is essentially a history of developing certain types of manufactured materials , which interact at radio frequency , microwave , and later optical frequencies . As the science of materials has advanced , photonic materials have been developed which use the photon of light as the fundamental carrier of information . This has led to photonic crystals , and at the beginning of the new millennium , the proof of principle for functioning metamaterials with a negative index of refraction in the microwave range at 10.5 Gigahertz . This was followed by the first proof of principle for metamaterial cloaking ( shielding an object from view ) , also in the microwave range , about six years later . However , a cloak that can conceal objects across the entire electromagnetic spectrum is still decades away . Many physics and engineering problems need to be solved . Nevertheless , negative refractive materials have led to the development of metamaterial antennas and metamaterial microwave lenses for miniature wireless system antennas which are more efficient than their conventional counterparts . Also , metamaterial antennas are now commercially available . Meanwhile , subwavelength focusing with the superlens is also a part of present-day metamaterials research .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "History_of_metamaterials", "rank": 14, "score": 177805 }, { "content": "Title: Vircator Content: A vircator ( VIRtual CAthode oscillaTOR ) is a microwave generator that is capable of generating brief pulses of tunable , narrow band microwaves at very high power levels . A typical vircator is built inside an evacuated resonant cavity or waveguide . An electrode , a cold cathode , at one end injects an intense electron beam , such as from a Marx generator or a flux compression generator , optionally with a suitable pulse forming network , e.g. a Blumlein . The pulse has magnitude in the range of hundred or more kilovolts and duration of about 50-150 nanoseconds . The electrons are attracted to a thin anode , such as an aluminized PET film or a stainless steel mesh , that is connected to the grounded waveguide body . The unit is surrounded by a magnet . Due to the intensity of the electron beam , many electrons pass through the anode into the region beyond it , forming a virtual cathode . The electron beam must be so intense as to exceed the space charge limiting current in that region , causing oscillations that generate microwaves . The frequency , efficiency and other characteristics of the emitted beam depend on the precise physical configuration and operating parameters . A coaxial design exists where the cathode forms an outer ring surrounding the anode cylinder , with the virtual cathode forming along the cylinder 's axis . Such design can be directly integrated with a waveguide . The frequencies are usually in the region of 0.5-1 .5 , 2-6 , 3 , or 5-18 GHz . Other frequencies are also possible . Lower frequencies are usable for jamming communications , higher frequencies can be harnessed for their destructive effects on electronics . Vircators have been used as electromagnetic pulse generators and for generating X-rays . Power levels on the order of 1010 to 1012 watts are possible . A design successor of a vircator is a reditron , which has higher efficiency and narrower bandwidth .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Vircator", "rank": 15, "score": 177078 }, { "content": "Title: HIRF Content: HIRF is an acronym for High Intensity Radiated Fields and refers to radio frequency energy of a strength sufficient to adversely affect either a living organism or the performance of a device subjected to it . A microwave oven is an example of this principle put to controlled , safe use . Radio-Frequency Energy is non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation , its effects on tissue are through heating . Electronic components are Affected via -LSB- Rectifier | rectification -RSB- of the RF and a corresponding shift in the bias points of the components in the field . The U.S. Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) , and U.S. Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) set limits for the amounts of Radio Frequency Energy exposure permitted in a standard work-day .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "HIRF", "rank": 16, "score": 174360 }, { "content": "Title: RF resonant cavity thruster Content: A radio frequency ( RF ) resonant cavity thruster , also known as an EmDrive , is a controversial proposed type of electromagnetic thruster where an anisotropic electromagnetic field inside the microwave cavity purportedly produces thrust . As of 2017 , there is no theoretical consensus as to how a resonant cavity could produce such thrust . Despite this , inventors have tried to develop such a drive because of the possibility of supporting long voyages in space , where propellant is a primary limiting factor . Conventional rocket engines expel propellant , such as when ships move masses of water , aircraft move masses of air , or rockets expel exhaust . A drive which does not expel propellant in order to produce a reaction force , providing thrust while being a closed system with no external interaction , would be a reactionless drive . Such a drive would violate the conservation of momentum and Newton 's third law , leading many physicists to believe it to be impossible , labeling the idea pseudoscience . On the other hand , a drive that interacts with an external field would be part of an open system , propellantless but not reactionless , like a sail catching and redirecting existing winds to move a ship . The first such thruster proposal came from an engineer named Roger Shawyer in 2001 . He invented a design with a conical cavity , calling it the EmDrive . Guido Fetta later invented the Cannae Drive , with a pillbox-shaped cavity . Since 2008 , a few physicists have tested their own models , trying to confirm results claimed by Shawyer and Fetta . Juan Yang at Xi'an 's Northwestern Polytechnical University ( NWPU ) initially reported thrust from a model they built , but retracted her claims in 2016 after a measurement error was identified and an improved setup measured no significant thrust . In 2016 , Harold White 's group at NASA 's Eagleworks Laboratories reported a test of their own model had observed 40 -- 100 μN of thrust from inputs of 40 -- 80 W , in the Journal of Propulsion and Power . In December 2016 , Yue Chen , part of the communication satellite division of the China Academy of Space Technology ( CAST ) , said his team had tested several prototypes using an `` experimental verification platform '' , observed thrust , and was carrying out in-orbit verification . Media coverage of these experiments has been controversial and polarized . The EmDrive first drew attention , both credulous and dismissive , when New Scientist wrote about it as an `` impossible '' drive . Media outlets were later criticised for misleading claims that a resonant cavity thruster had been `` validated by NASA '' following White 's first tentative test reports in 2014 . Scientists have continued to note the lack of unbiased coverage , from both polarized sides .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "RF_resonant_cavity_thruster", "rank": 17, "score": 173754 }, { "content": "Title: Hydrogen line Content: The hydrogen line , 21-centimeter line or H I line refers to the electromagnetic radiation spectral line that is created by a change in the energy state of neutral hydrogen atoms . This electromagnetic radiation is at the precise frequency of , which is equivalent to the vacuum wavelength of in free space . This wavelength falls within the microwave radio region of the electromagnetic spectrum , and it is observed frequently in radio astronomy , since those radio waves can penetrate the large clouds of interstellar cosmic dust that are opaque to visible light . The microwaves of the hydrogen line come from the atomic transition of an electron between the two hyperfine levels of the hydrogen 1s ground state that have an energy difference of ~ . It is called the spin-flip transition . The frequency , , of the quanta that are emitted by this transition between two different energy levels is given by the Planck -- Einstein relation . According to that relation , the photon energy of a 1,420,405,751.7667 Hz photon is ~ 5.87433 µeV . The constant of proportionality , , is known as the Planck constant .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Hydrogen_line", "rank": 18, "score": 173478 }, { "content": "Title: Electromagnetic radiation Content: In physics , electromagnetic radiation ( EM radiation or EMR ) refers to the waves ( or their quanta , photons ) of the electromagnetic field , propagating ( radiating ) through space carrying electromagnetic radiant energy . It includes radio waves , microwaves , infrared , ( visible ) light , ultraviolet , X - , and gamma radiation . Classically , electromagnetic radiation consists of electromagnetic waves , which are synchronized oscillations of electric and magnetic fields that propagate at the speed of light through a vacuum . The oscillations of the two fields are perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of energy and wave propagation , forming a transverse wave . The wavefront of electromagnetic waves emitted from a point source ( such as a lightbulb ) is a sphere . The position of an electromagnetic wave within the electromagnetic spectrum could be characterized by either its frequency of oscillation or its wavelength . The electromagnetic spectrum includes , in order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength : radio waves , microwaves , infrared radiation , visible light , ultraviolet radiation , X-rays and gamma rays . Electromagnetic waves are produced whenever charged particles are accelerated , and these waves can subsequently interact with other charged particles . EM waves carry energy , momentum and angular momentum away from their source particle and can impart those quantities to matter with which they interact . Quanta of EM waves are called photons , whose rest mass is zero , but whose energy , or equivalent total ( relativistic ) mass , is not zero so they are still affected by gravity . Electromagnetic radiation is associated with those EM waves that are free to propagate themselves ( `` radiate '' ) without the continuing influence of the moving charges that produced them , because they have achieved sufficient distance from those charges . Thus , EMR is sometimes referred to as the far field . In this language , the near field refers to EM fields near the charges and current that directly produced them , specifically , electromagnetic induction and electrostatic induction phenomena . In the quantum theory of electromagnetism , EMR consists of photons , the elementary particles responsible for all electromagnetic interactions . Quantum effects provide additional sources of EMR , such as the transition of electrons to lower energy levels in an atom and black-body radiation . The energy of an individual photon is quantized and is greater for photons of higher frequency . This relationship is given by Planck 's equation E = hν , where E is the energy per photon , ν is the frequency of the photon , and h is Planck 's constant . A single gamma ray photon , for example , might carry ~ 100,000 times the energy of a single photon of visible light . The effects of EMR upon chemical compounds and biological organisms depend both upon the radiation 's power and its frequency . EMR of visible or lower frequencies ( i.e. , visible light , infrared , microwaves , and radio waves ) is called non-ionizing radiation , because its photons do not individually have enough energy to ionize atoms or molecules . The effects of these radiations on chemical systems and living tissue are caused primarily by heating effects from the combined energy transfer of many photons . In contrast , high ultraviolet , X-rays and gamma rays are called ionizing radiation since individual photons of such high frequency have enough energy to ionize molecules or break chemical bonds . These radiations have the ability to cause chemical reactions and damage living cells beyond that resulting from simple heating , and can be a health hazard .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Electromagnetic_radiation", "rank": 19, "score": 173194 }, { "content": "Title: Pasotron Content: A Plasma-assisted slow-wave oscillator ( Pasotron ) is a directed energy device that produces high-power , long-pulse microwave energy . Because the device does not require any externally produced magnetic fields to confine the electron beam used to generate the microwaves , it can be constructed to be smaller and lighter than other high-power microwave sources . In the early 1990s , pasotrons began to be considered as a possible directed energy weapon applicable to missile defense , radio jamming and other military uses .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Pasotron", "rank": 20, "score": 171518 }, { "content": "Title: Barkhausen–Kurz tube Content: The Barkhausen -- Kurz tube , also called the retarding-field tube , reflex triode , B -- K oscillator , and Barkhausen oscillator was a high frequency vacuum tube electronic oscillator invented in 1920 by German physicists Heinrich Georg Barkhausen and Karl Kurz . It was the first oscillator that could produce radio power in the ultra-high frequency ( UHF ) portion of the radio spectrum , above 300 MHz . It was also the first oscillator to exploit electron transit time effects . It was used as a source of high frequency radio waves in research laboratories , and in a few UHF radio transmitters through World War 2 . Its output power was low which limited its applications . However it inspired research that led to other more successful transit time tubes such as the klystron .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Barkhausen–Kurz_tube", "rank": 21, "score": 170867 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave oven Content: A microwave oven ( commonly referred to as a microwave ) is a kitchen appliance that heats and cooks food by exposing it to microwave radiation in the electromagnetic spectrum . This induces polar molecules in the food to rotate and produce thermal energy in a process known as dielectric heating . Microwave ovens heat foods quickly and efficiently because excitation is fairly uniform in the outer of a homogeneous , high water content food item ; food is more evenly heated throughout ( except in heterogeneous , dense objects ) than generally occurs in other cooking techniques . Percy Spencer is generally credited with inventing the modern microwave oven after World War II from radar technology developed during the war . Named the `` Radarange '' , it was first sold in 1946 . Raytheon later licensed its patents for a home-use microwave oven that was first introduced by Tappan in 1955 , but these units were still too large and expensive for general home use . The countertop microwave oven was first introduced in 1967 by the Amana Corporation , and their use has spread into commercial and residential kitchens around the world . Microwave ovens are popular for reheating previously cooked foods and cooking a variety of foods . They are also useful for rapid heating of otherwise slowly prepared cooking items , such as hot butter , fats , and chocolate . Unlike conventional ovens , microwave ovens usually do not directly brown or caramelize food , since they rarely attain the necessary temperatures to produce Maillard reactions . Exceptions occur in rare cases where the oven is used to heat frying-oil and other very oily items ( such as bacon ) , which attain far higher temperatures than that of boiling water . Microwave ovens have a limited role in professional cooking , because the boiling-range temperatures produced in especially hydrous foods impede flavors produced by the higher temperatures of frying , browning , or baking . However , additional heat sources can be added to microwave ovens , or into combination microwave ovens , to produce these other heating effects , and microwave heating may cut the overall time needed to prepare such dishes . Some modern microwave ovens are part of over-the-range units with built-in extractor hoods .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Microwave_oven", "rank": 22, "score": 170608 }, { "content": "Title: Surface-wave-sustained mode Content: Plasma that are excited by propagation of electromagnetic surface waves are called surface-wave-sustained . Surface wave plasma sources can be divided into two groups depending upon whether the plasma generates part of its own waveguide by ionisation or not . The former is called a self-guided plasma . The surface wave mode allows to generate uniform high-frequency-excited plasmas in volumes whose lateral dimensions extends over several wavelengths of the electromagnetic wave , e.g. for microwaves of 2.45 GHz in vacuum the wavelength amounts to 12.2 cm . For a long time , microwave plasma sources without magnetic field have not been considered suitable for the generation of high density plasmas . Electromagnetic waves can not propagate in over-dense plasmas . The wave is reflected at the plasma surface due to the skin effect and becomes an evanescent wave . Its penetration depth corresponds to the skin depth , which can be approximated by The non-vanishing penetration depth of an evanescent wave opens an alternative way of heating a plasma : Instead of traversing the plasma , the conductivity of the plasma enables the wave to propagate along the plasma surface . The wave energy is then transferred to the plasma by an evanescent wave which enters the plasma perpendicular to its surface and decays exponentially with the skin depth . ` Transfer mechanism allows to generate over-dense plasmas with electron densities beyond the critical density . Surface-wave-sustained plasmas ( SWP ) can be operated in a large variety of recipient geometries . The pressure range accessible for surface-wave-excited plasmas depends on the process gas and the diameter of the recipient . The larger the chamber diameter , the lower the minimal pressure necessary for the SWP mode . Analogously , the maximal pressure where a stable SWP can be operated decreases with increasing diameter . The numerical modelling of SWPs is quite involved . The plasma is created by the electromagnetic wave , but it also reflects and guides this same wave . Therefore , a truly self-consistent description is necessary . Category : Waves in plasmas", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Surface-wave-sustained_mode", "rank": 23, "score": 170106 }, { "content": "Title: RF and microwave filter Content: Radio frequency ( RF ) and microwave filters represent a class of electronic filter , designed to operate on signals in the megahertz to gigahertz frequency ranges ( medium frequency to extremely high frequency ) . This frequency range is the range used by most broadcast radio , television , wireless communication ( cellphones , Wi-Fi , etc. ) , and thus most RF and microwave devices will include some kind of filtering on the signals transmitted or received . Such filters are commonly used as building blocks for duplexers and diplexers to combine or separate multiple frequency bands .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "RF_and_microwave_filter", "rank": 24, "score": 167323 }, { "content": "Title: Radio transmitter design Content: A radio transmitter is an electronic device which , when connected to an antenna , produces an electromagnetic signal such as in radio and television broadcasting , two way communications or radar . Heating devices , such as a microwave oven , although of similar design , are not usually called transmitters , in that they use the electromagnetic energy locally rather than transmitting it to another location .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Radio_transmitter_design", "rank": 25, "score": 167305 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave burn Content: Microwave burns are burn injuries caused by thermal effects of microwave radiation absorbed in a living organism . In comparison with radiation burns caused by ionizing radiation , where the dominant mechanism of tissue damage is internal cell damage caused by free radicals , the primary damage mechanism of microwave radiation is thermal , by dielectric heating . Microwave damage can manifest with a delay ; pain and/or signs of skin damage can show some time after microwave exposure .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Microwave_burn", "rank": 26, "score": 166553 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave radiometer Content: A microwave radiometer ( MWR ) is a radiometer that measures energy emitted at sub-millimetre-to-centimetre wavelengths ( at frequencies of 1 -- 1000 GHz ) known as microwaves . Microwave radiometers are very sensitive receivers designed to measure thermal electromagnetic radiation emitted by atmospheric gases . They are usually equipped with multiple receiving channels in order to derive the characteristic emission spectrum of the atmosphere or extraterrestrial objects . Microwave radiometers are utilized in a variety of environmental and engineering applications , including weather forecasting , climate monitoring , radio astronomy and radio propagation studies . Using the microwave spectral range between 1 and 300 GHz provides complementary information to the visible and infrared spectral range . Most importantly , the atmosphere and also vegetation is semi-transparent in the microwave spectral range . This means its components like dry gases , water vapor , or hydrometeors interact with microwave radiation but overall even the cloudy atmosphere is not completely opaque in this frequency range . For weather and climate monitoring , microwave radiometers are operated from space as well as from the ground . As remote sensing instruments , they are designed to operate continuously and autonomously often in combination with other atmospheric remote sensors like for example cloud radars and lidars . They allow to derive important meteorological quantities such as vertical temperature and humidity profile , columnar water vapor amount , or columnar liquid water path with a high temporal resolution in the order of seconds to minutes under nearly all weather conditions .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Microwave_radiometer", "rank": 27, "score": 166421 }, { "content": "Title: Waveguide (electromagnetism) Content: In electromagnetics and communications engineering , the term waveguide may refer to any linear structure that conveys electromagnetic waves between its endpoints . However , the original and most common meaning is a hollow metal pipe used to carry radio waves . This type of waveguide is used as a transmission line mostly at microwave frequencies , for such purposes as connecting microwave transmitters and receivers to their antennas , in equipment such as microwave ovens , radar sets , satellite communications , and microwave radio links . A dielectric waveguide employs a solid dielectric rod rather than a hollow pipe . An optical fibre is a dielectric guide designed to work at optical frequencies . Transmission lines such as microstrip , coplanar waveguide , stripline or coaxial cable may also be considered to be waveguides . The electromagnetic waves in a ( metal-pipe ) waveguide may be imagined as travelling down the guide in a zig-zag path , being repeatedly reflected between opposite walls of the guide . For the particular case of rectangular waveguide , it is possible to base an exact analysis on this view . Propagation in a dielectric waveguide may be viewed in the same way , with the waves confined to the dielectric by total internal reflection at its surface . Some structures , such as non-radiative dielectric waveguides and the Goubau line , use both metal walls and dielectric surfaces to confine the wave .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Waveguide_(electromagnetism)", "rank": 28, "score": 165526 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave Content: Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths ranging from one meter to one millimeter ; with frequencies between 300 MHz and 300 GHz . Different sources define different frequency ranges as microwaves ; the above broad definition includes both UHF and EHF ( millimeter wave ) bands . A more common definition in radio engineering is the range between 1 and 100 GHz ( 300 and 3 mm ) . In all cases , microwaves include the entire SHF band ( 3 to 30 GHz , or 10 to 1 cm ) at minimum . Frequencies in the microwave range are often referred to by their IEEE radar band designations : S , C , X , Ku , K , or Ka band , or by similar NATO or EU designations . The prefix in microwave is not meant to suggest a wavelength in the micrometer range . It indicates that microwaves are `` small '' , compared to the radio waves used prior to microwave technology , in that they have shorter wavelengths . The boundaries between far infrared , terahertz radiation , microwaves , and ultra-high-frequency radio waves are fairly arbitrary and are used variously between different fields of study . Microwaves travel by line-of-sight ; unlike lower frequency radio waves they do not diffract around hills , follow the earth 's surface as ground waves , or reflect from the ionosphere , so terrestrial microwave communication links are limited by the visual horizon to about 40 miles ( 64 km ) . At the high end of the band they are absorbed by gases in the atmosphere , limiting practical communication distances to around a kilometer . Microwaves are extremely widely used in modern technology . They are used for point-to-point communication links , wireless networks , microwave radio relay networks , radar , satellite and spacecraft communication , medical diathermy and cancer treatment , remote sensing , radio astronomy , particle accelerators , spectroscopy , industrial heating , collision avoidance systems , garage door openers and keyless entry systems , and for cooking food in microwave ovens .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Microwave", "rank": 29, "score": 164047 }, { "content": "Title: Goubau line Content: A Goubau line or Sommerfeld-Goubau line , or G-line for short , is a single wire transmission line used to conduct radio waves at UHF and microwave frequencies . The dielectric coated transmission line was invented by F. Harms in 1907 and George J. E. Goubau in 1950 , based on work on surface waves on wires from 1899 by Arnold Sommerfeld . It is used as a feedline at UHF to link high frequency transmitters and receivers to their antennas , and in scientific research .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Goubau_line", "rank": 30, "score": 163935 }, { "content": "Title: Pulsed radiofrequency Content: Pulsed radiofrequency is the technique whereby radio frequency ( RF ) oscillations are gated at a rate of pulses per second ( cycles per second , defined as a hertz ( Hz ) ) . Radio frequency energies occupy 1.0 x 104 Hz to 3.0 x 1011 Hz of the electromagnetic spectrum . Radio frequency electromagnetic energy is routinely produced by RF electrical circuits connected to a transducer usually called an antenna .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Pulsed_radiofrequency", "rank": 31, "score": 163747 }, { "content": "Title: Armstrong oscillator Content: The Armstrong oscillator ( also known as the Meissner oscillator ) is an LC electronic oscillator circuit which uses an inductor and capacitor to generate an oscillation . It is the earliest oscillator circuit , invented by US engineer Edwin Armstrong in 1912 and independently by Austrian engineer Alexander Meissner in 1913 , and was used in the first vacuum tube radio transmitters . It is sometimes called a tickler oscillator because its distinguishing feature is that the feedback signal needed to produce oscillations is magnetically coupled into the tank inductor in the input circuit by a `` tickler coil '' ( L2 , right ) in the output circuit . Assuming the coupling is weak , but sufficient to sustain oscillation , the oscillation frequency f is determined primarily by the tank circuit ( L1 and C in the figure on the right ) and is approximately given by This circuit was widely used in the regenerative radio receiver , popular until the 1940s . In that application , the input radio frequency signal from the antenna is magnetically coupled into the tank circuit by an additional winding , and the feedback is reduced with an adjustable gain control in the feedback loop , so the circuit is just short of oscillation . The result is a narrow-band radio-frequency filter and amplifier . The non-linear characteristic of the transistor or tube also demodulated the RF signal to produce the audio signal . The circuit diagram shown is a modern implementation , using a field-effect transistor as the amplifying element . Armstrong 's original design used a triode vacuum tube . Note that in the Meissner variant , the LC resonant ( tank ) circuit is exchanged with the feedback coil , i.e. in the output path ( vacuum tube plate , field effect transistor drain , or bipolar transistor collector ) of the amplifier ( e.g. Grebennikov , Fig. 2.8 ) . Many publications , however , embrace both variants with either name . Apparently , the English speakers using Armstrong , and the German speakers Meißner .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Armstrong_oscillator", "rank": 32, "score": 162994 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave Power Module Content: A Microwave Power Module ( MPM ) is a microwave device used to amplify radio frequency signals to high power levels . It is a hybrid combination of solid-state and vacuum tube electronics , which encloses a solid-state driver amplifier ( SSPA ) , traveling wave tube amplifier ( TWTA ) and electronic power conditioning ( EPC ) modules into a single unit . Their average output power capability falls between that of solid-state power amplifiers ( SSPAs ) and dedicated Traveling Wave Tube ( TWT ) amplifiers . They may be applied wherever high power microwave amplification is required , and space is at a premium . They are available in various frequency ranges , from S band up to W band . Typical output power at ranges from 20W to 1 kW .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Microwave_Power_Module", "rank": 33, "score": 162669 }, { "content": "Title: Super high frequency Content: Super high frequency ( SHF ) is the ITU designation for radio frequencies ( RF ) in the range between 3 GHz and 30 GHz . This band of frequencies is also known as the centimetre band or centimetre wave as the wavelengths range from one to ten centimetres . These frequencies fall within the microwave band , so radio waves with these frequencies are called microwaves . The small wavelength of microwaves allows them to be directed in narrow beams by aperture antennas such as parabolic dishes , so they are used for point-to-point communication and data links and for radar . This frequency range is used for most radar transmitters , wireless LANs , satellite communication , microwave radio relay links , and numerous short range terrestrial data links . Wireless USB technology is anticipated to use approximately one-third of this spectrum . Frequencies in the SHF range are often referred to by their IEEE radar band designations : S , C , X , Ku , K , or Ka band , or by similar NATO or EU designations .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Super_high_frequency", "rank": 34, "score": 162567 }, { "content": "Title: Artificial dielectrics Content: Artificial dielectrics are fabricated electromagnetic materials consisting of synthetic substances , usually constructed in an orderly arrangement , such as array . The arranged materials , and the distances between them are usually evenly spaced on , or within , a substrate . Hence , the arrays of inclusions are in a periodic or lattice structure . Also , the lattice spacing is smaller than the impinging electromagnetic wavelength . These were first conceptualized , constructed and deployed for interaction in the microwave frequency range in the 1940s and 1950s . The constructed medium , the artificial dielectric , has an effective permittivity and effective permeability , as intended . In addition , some artificial dielectrics may consist of irregular lattices , random mixtures , or a non-uniform concentration of particles . Artificial dielectrics came into use with the radar microwave technologies developed between the 1940s and 1970s . The term `` artificial dielectrics '' came into use because these are macroscopic analogues of naturally occurring dielectrics . The difference between the natural and artificial substance is that the atoms or molecules are artificially ( human ) constructed materials . Artificial dielectrics were proposed because of the need for lightweight structures and components for various microwave delivery devices . Artificial dielectrics are a direct historical link to metamaterials .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Artificial_dielectrics", "rank": 35, "score": 162067 }, { "content": "Title: Wireless electronic devices and health Content: The World Health Organization ( WHO ) has acknowledged the `` anxiety and speculation '' regarding electromagnetic fields ( EMFs ) and their alleged effects on public health . In response to public concern , the WHO established the International EMF Project in 1996 to assess the scientific evidence of possible health effects of EMF in the frequency range from 0 to 300 GHz . They have stated that although extensive research has been conducted into possible health effects of exposure to many parts of the frequency spectrum , all reviews conducted so far have indicated that , as long as exposures are below the limits recommended in the ICNIRP ( 1998 ) EMF guidelines , which cover the full frequency range from 0 -- 300 GHz , such exposures do not produce any known adverse health effect . Of course , by the very definition of such limits , stronger or more frequent exposures to EMF can be unhealthy , and in fact serve as the basis for electromagnetic weaponry . International guidelines on exposure levels to microwave frequency EMFs such as ICNIRP limit the power levels of wireless devices and it is uncommon for wireless devices to exceed the guidelines . These guidelines only take into account thermal effects , as nonthermal effects have not been conclusively demonstrated . The official stance of the British Health Protection Agency is that `` -LSB- T -RSB- here is no consistent evidence to date that WiFi and WLANs adversely affect the health of the general population '' , but also that `` ... it is a sensible precautionary approach ... to keep the situation under ongoing review ... '' . In 2011 , International Agency for Research on Cancer ( IARC ) , an agency of the World Health Organization , classified wireless radiation as Group 2B -- possibly carcinogenic . That means that there `` could be some risk '' of carcinogenicity , so additional research into the long-term , heavy use of wireless devices needs to be conducted .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Wireless_electronic_devices_and_health", "rank": 36, "score": 161394 }, { "content": "Title: Wave Content: In physics , a wave is an oscillation accompanied by a transfer of energy that travels through a medium ( space or mass ) . Frequency refers to the addition of time . Wave motion transfers energy from one point to another , which displace particles of the transmission medium -- that is , with little or no associated mass transport . Waves consist , instead , of oscillations or vibrations ( of a physical quantity ) , around almost fixed locations . A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy through matter or space . There are two main types of waves . Mechanical waves propagate through a medium , and the substance of this medium is deformed . Restoring forces then reverse the deformation . For example , sound waves propagate via air molecules colliding with their neighbors . When the molecules collide , they also bounce away from each other ( a restoring force ) . This keeps the molecules from continuing to travel in the direction of the wave . The second main type , electromagnetic waves , do not require a medium . Instead , they consist of periodic oscillations of electrical and magnetic fields originally generated by charged particles , and can therefore travel through a vacuum . These types vary in wavelength , and include radio waves , microwaves , infrared radiation , visible light , ultraviolet radiation , X-rays and gamma rays . Waves are described by a wave equation which sets out how the disturbance proceeds over time . The mathematical form of this equation varies depending on the type of wave . Further , the behavior of particles in quantum mechanics are described by waves . In addition , gravitational waves also travel through space , which are a result of a vibration or movement in gravitational fields . A wave can be transverse , where a disturbance creates oscillations that are perpendicular to the propagation of energy transfer , or longitudinal : the oscillations are parallel to the direction of energy propagation . While mechanical waves can be both transverse and longitudinal , all electromagnetic waves are transverse in free space .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Wave", "rank": 37, "score": 161266 }, { "content": "Title: Radiometer Content: A radiometer or roentgenometer is a device for measuring the radiant flux ( power ) of electromagnetic radiation . Generally , a radiometer is an infrared radiation detector or ultraviolet detector . A microwave radiometer operates in the microwave wavelengths . While the term Radiometer can refer to any device that measures electromagnetic radiation ( e.g. light ) , the term is often used to refer specifically to a Crookes radiometer ( `` light-mill '' ) , a device invented in 1873 in which a rotor ( having vanes which are dark on one side , and light on the other ) in a partial vacuum spins when exposed to light . A common belief ( one originally held even by Crookes ) is that the momentum of the absorbed light on the black faces makes the radiometer operate . If this were true however , the radiometer would spin away from the non-black faces , since the photons bouncing off those faces impart more momentum than the photons absorbed on the black faces . Photons do exert radiation pressure on the faces , but those forces are dwarfed by other effects . The currently accepted explanation depends on having just the right degree of vacuum , and relates to the transfer of heat rather than the direct effect of photons . A Nichols radiometer does demonstrate photon pressure . It is much more sensitive than the Crookes radiometer and it operates in a complete vacuum , whereas operation of the Crookes radiometer requires an imperfect vacuum . The MEMS radiometer , invented by Patrick Jankowiak , can operate on the principles of Nichols or Crookes and can operate over a wide spectrum of wavelength and particle energy levels .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Radiometer", "rank": 38, "score": 159741 }, { "content": "Title: Gyrotron Content: A gyrotron is a high-power linear-beam vacuum tube which generates millimeter-wave electromagnetic waves by the cyclotron resonance of electrons in a strong magnetic field . Output frequencies range from about 20 to 527 GHz , covering wavelengths from microwave to the edge of the terahertz gap . Typical output powers range from tens of kilowatts to 1 -- 2 megawatts . Gyrotrons can be designed for pulsed or continuous operation .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Gyrotron", "rank": 39, "score": 159679 }, { "content": "Title: Dielectric wireless receiver Content: Dielectric wireless receiver is a type of radiofrequency receiver front-end featuring a complete absence of electronic circuitry and metal interconnects . It offers immunity against damage from intense electromagnetic radiation , produced by EMP and HPM sources . This receiver is known as ADNERF ( an acronym used to signify an All-Dielectric Non-Electronic Radio Front-End ) . ADNERF is a type of Electro-Magnetic Pulse Tolerant Microwave Receiver ( EMPiRe ) .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Dielectric_wireless_receiver", "rank": 40, "score": 158535 }, { "content": "Title: Radio Content: Radio is the technology of using radio waves to carry information , such as sound , by systematically modulating properties of electromagnetic energy waves transmitted through space , such as their amplitude , frequency , phase , or pulse width . When radio waves strike an electrical conductor , the oscillating fields induce an alternating current in the conductor . The information in the waves can be extracted and transformed back into its original form . Radio systems need a transmitter to modulate ( change ) some property of the energy produced to impress a signal on it , for example using amplitude modulation or angle modulation ( which can be frequency modulation or phase modulation ) . Radio systems also need an antenna to convert electric currents into radio waves , and radio waves into an electric current . An antenna can be used for both transmitting and receiving . The electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios allow individual stations to be selected . The electromagnetic wave is intercepted by a tuned receiving antenna . A radio receiver receives its input from an antenna and converts it into a form that is usable for the consumer , such as sound , pictures , digital data , measurement values , navigational positions , etc. . Radio frequencies occupy the range from a 3 kHz to 300 GHz , although commercially important uses of radio use only a small part of this spectrum . A radio communication system sends signals by radio . The radio equipment involved in communication systems includes a transmitter and a receiver , each having an antenna and appropriate terminal equipment such as a microphone at the transmitter and a loudspeaker at the receiver in the case of a voice-communication system .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Radio", "rank": 41, "score": 158229 }, { "content": "Title: Isolator (microwave) Content: An isolator is a two-port device that transmits microwave or radio frequency power in one direction only . It is used to shield equipment on its input side , from the effects of conditions on its output side ; for example , to prevent a microwave source being detuned by a mismatched load .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Isolator_(microwave)", "rank": 42, "score": 156766 }, { "content": "Title: Hopfield dielectric Content: Hopfield dielectric -- in quantum mechanics a model of dielectric consisting of quantum harmonic oscillators interacting with the modes of the quantum electromagnetic field . The collective interaction of the charge polarization modes with the vacuum excitations , photons leads to the perturbation of both the linear dispersion relation of photons and constant dispersion of charge waves by the avoided crossing between the two dispersion lines of polaritons . Similarly to the acoustic and the optical phonons and far from the resonance one branch is photon-like while the other charge wave-like . Mathematically the Hopfield dielectric for the one mode of excitation is equivalent to the Trojan wave packet in the harmonic approximation . The Hopfield model of the dielectric predicts the existence of eternal trapped frozen photons similar to the Hawking radiation inside the matter with the density proportional to the strength of the matter-field coupling .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Hopfield_dielectric", "rank": 43, "score": 156743 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave Radiometer (Juno) Content: Microwave Radiometer ( MWR ) is an instrument on the Juno orbiter sent to planet Jupiter . MWR is a multi-wavelength microwave radiometer for making observations of Jupiter 's deep atmosphere . MWR can observe from 1.37 to 50 cm when describing light by a wavelength , and from 600 MHz to 22 GHz when describing light by frequencies . This supports its goal of observing the previously un-seen atmospheric features and chemical abundances hundreds of miles/km into Jupiter 's atmosphere . MWR is designed to detect six different frequencies in that range using separate antennas . Determining the features and abundances of oxygen , nitrogen , and sulfur at up to 100 Bars of pressure will shed light on the origins and nature of Jupiter . It is also designed to detect the amount water and ammonia deep inside Jupiter . It should also be able to provide a temperature profile of atmosphere down to 200 bar . Overall MWR is designed to look down as deep as 1,000 atmospheres which is about 342 miles ( 550 kilometers ) on Jupiter . MWR views Jupiter in microwave light wavelengths so it can see up to hundreds of miles deep into the planet . In August 2016 , as Juno swung closely by the planet MWR achieved a penetration of 200 to 250 miles ( 350 to 400 kilometers ) below the surface cloud layer . MWR is designed to make observations below the cloud-tops , especially detecting the abundances of certain chemicals and determine dynamic features . The region has not been observed like this previously . MWR was launched aboard the Juno spacecraft on August 5 , 2011 ( UTC ) from Cape Canaveral , USA , as part of the New Frontiers program , and after an interplanetary journey that including a swingby of Earth , entered a polar orbit of Jupiter on July 5 , 2016 ( UTC ) , The electronics for MWR are located inside the Juno Radiation Vault , which uses titanium to protect it and other spacecraft electronics . The antennas and transmission lines are designed to handle the radiation environment at Jupiter so the instrument can function . At the time of its use in the 2010s , it was one of only four microwave radiometers to have been flown on interplanetary spacecraft . The first was Mariner 2 , which used a microwave instrument to determine the high surface temperature of Venus was coming from the surface not higher up in the atmosphere . There is also radiometer type instruments on Rosetta comet probe , and Cassini-Huygens . Previously , the Galileo Probe directly measured Jupiter 's atmosphere in situ as it descended into the atmosphere , but only down to 22 bars of pressure . However , MWR is designed to look down as deep as 1000 bar of pressure . MWR used six separate antennas of different size that are mounted to the sides of the Juno spacecraft body . As the spacecraft turns ( it is a spin-stabilzed spacecraft ) each antenna takes a `` swath '' of observations of the giant . Five of the six antennas are all on one side of the spacecraft . The sixth and biggest antenna fills the whole side of another side the Juno body .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Microwave_Radiometer_(Juno)", "rank": 44, "score": 156683 }, { "content": "Title: Vacuum Rabi oscillation Content: A vacuum Rabi oscillation is a damped oscillation of an initially excited atom coupled to an electromagnetic resonator or cavity in which the atom alternately emits photon ( s ) into a single-mode electromagnetic cavity and reabsorbs them . The atom interacts with a single-mode field confined to a limited volume V in an optical cavity . Spontaneous emission results as a consequence of coupling between the atom and the vacuum fluctuations of the cavity field . The vacuum Rabi frequency is given by where R is the location of the atom , f ( R ) = exp ( i k.R ) for plane-wave fields , ε is the field polarization , = -LSB- ħ ωk / ( 2 ε0 V ) -RSB- 1/2 is the electric field per photon , and < p.ε > is the dipole matrix element .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Vacuum_Rabi_oscillation", "rank": 45, "score": 156646 }, { "content": "Title: Microstrip Content: Microstrip is a type of electrical transmission line which can be fabricated using printed circuit board technology , and is used to convey microwave-frequency signals . It consists of a conducting strip separated from a ground plane by a dielectric layer known as the substrate . Microwave components such as antennas , couplers , filters , power dividers etc. can be formed from microstrip , with the entire device existing as the pattern of metallization on the substrate . Microstrip is thus much less expensive than traditional waveguide technology , as well as being far lighter and more compact . Microstrip was developed by ITT laboratories as a competitor to stripline ( first published by Grieg and Engelmann in the December 1952 IRE proceedings ) . The disadvantages of microstrip compared with waveguide are the generally lower power handling capacity , and higher losses . Also , unlike waveguide , microstrip is not enclosed , and is therefore susceptible to cross-talk and unintentional radiation . For lowest cost , microstrip devices may be built on an ordinary FR-4 ( standard PCB ) substrate . However it is often found that the dielectric losses in FR4 are too high at microwave frequencies , and that the dielectric constant is not sufficiently tightly controlled . For these reasons , an alumina substrate is commonly used . On a smaller scale , microstrip transmission lines are also built into monolithic microwave integrated circuits . Microstrip lines are also used in high-speed digital PCB designs , where signals need to be routed from one part of the assembly to another with minimal distortion , and avoiding high cross-talk and radiation . Microstrip is one of many forms of planar transmission line , others include stripline and coplanar waveguide , and it is possible to integrate all of these on the same substrate . A differential microstrip -- a balanced signal pair of microstrip lines -- is often used for high-speed signals such as DDR2 SDRAM clocks , USB Hi-Speed data lines , PCI Express data lines , LVDS data lines , etc. , often all on the same PCB . Most PCB design tools support such differential pairs .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Microstrip", "rank": 46, "score": 156354 }, { "content": "Title: Wideband materials Content: Wideband material refers to material that can convey Microwave signals ( light/sound ) over a variety of wavelengths . These materials possess exemplary attenuation and dielectric constants , and are excellent dielectrics for semiconductor gates . Examples of such material include gallium nitride ( GaN ) and silicon carbide ( SiC ) . SiC has been used extensively in the creation of lasers for several years . However , it performs poorly ( providing limited brightness ) because it has an indirect band gap . GaN has a wide band gap ( ~ 3.4 eV ) , which usually results in high energies for structures which possess electrons in the conduction band .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Wideband_materials", "rank": 47, "score": 155694 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave heat distribution Content: The microwave heat distribution is a term for the actual distribution ( allocation ) of the heat release inside the microwave absorptive material irradiated with high intensive microwaves . The pattern of microwave heat distribution depends on many physical parameters , which may include the electromagnetic field , the specific absorption rate and structure of the processed material , the geometrical dimensions of the processing cavity , etc. . Most of the industrial microwave heating applications need a uniform heat distribution . For example , the uniformity of microwave heat distribution is key parameter in microwave food sterilization , due to the potential danger directly related to human health if the food has not been heated evenly up to desirable temperature for neutralization of possible bacteria population . There are many different methods for achieving uniform heat distribution inside the irradiated material . They may involve computer simulation and different mechanical mechanisms such as turntables and stirrers . The proper microwave energy pattern is necessary for attaining a uniform heat release .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Microwave_heat_distribution", "rank": 48, "score": 154765 }, { "content": "Title: Askaryan effect Content: The Askaryan effect is the phenomenon whereby a particle traveling faster than the phase velocity of light in a dense dielectric ( such as salt , ice or the lunar regolith ) produces a shower of secondary charged particles which contain a charge anisotropy and thus emits a cone of coherent radiation in the radio or microwave part of the electromagnetic spectrum . It is similar to the Cherenkov effect . It is named after Gurgen Askaryan , a Soviet-Armenian physicist who postulated it in 1962 . The effect was first observed experimentally in 2000 , 38 years after its theoretical prediction . So far the effect has been observed in silica sand , rock salt , ice , and Earth 's atmosphere . The effect is of primary interest in using bulk matter to detect ultra-high energy neutrinos . The Antarctic Impulse Transient Antenna ( ANITA ) experiment uses antennas attached to a balloon flying over Antarctica to detect the Askaryan radiation produced as cosmic neutrinos travel through the ice . Several experiments have also used the Moon as a neutrino detector based on detection of the Askaryan radiation .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Askaryan_effect", "rank": 49, "score": 154085 }, { "content": "Title: RF switch Content: RF Switch or Microwave Switch An RF ( Radio Frequency ) and microwave switch is a device to route high frequency signals through transmission paths . RF and microwave switches are used extensively in microwave test systems for signal routing between instruments and devices under test ( DUT ) . Incorporating a switch into a switch matrix system enables you to route signals from multiple instruments to single or multiple DUTs . This allows multiple tests to be performed with the same setup , eliminating the need for frequent connects and disconnects . The entire testing process can be automated , increasing the throughput in high-volume production environments . Like other electrical switches , RF and microwave switches provide different configurations for many different applications . Below is a list of typical switch configurations and usage : Single pole , double throw ( SPDT or 1:2 ) switches route signals from one input to two output paths . Multiport switches or single pole , multiple throw ( SPnT ) switches allow a single input to multiple ( three or more ) output paths . Transfer switches or double pole , double throw ( DPDT ) switches can serve various purposes . Bypass switches insert or remove a test component from a signal path .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "RF_switch", "rank": 50, "score": 154006 }, { "content": "Title: Horn antenna Content: A horn antenna or microwave horn is an antenna that consists of a flaring metal waveguide shaped like a horn to direct radio waves in a beam . Horns are widely used as antennas at UHF and microwave frequencies , above 300 MHz . They are used as feed antennas ( called feed horns ) for larger antenna structures such as parabolic antennas , as standard calibration antennas to measure the gain of other antennas , and as directive antennas for such devices as radar guns , automatic door openers , and microwave radiometers . Their advantages are moderate directivity , low standing wave ratio ( SWR ) , broad bandwidth , and simple construction and adjustment . One of the first horn antennas was constructed in 1897 by Indian radio researcher Jagadish Chandra Bose in his pioneering experiments with microwaves . The modern horn antenna was invented independently in 1938 by Wilmer Barrow and G. C. Southworth The development of radar in World War 2 stimulated horn research to design feed horns for radar antennas . The corrugated horn invented by Kay in 1962 has become widely used as a feed horn for microwave antennas such as satellite dishes and radio telescopes . An advantage of horn antennas is that since they have no resonant elements , they can operate over a wide range of frequencies , a wide bandwidth . The usable bandwidth of horn antennas is typically of the order of 10:1 , and can be up to 20:1 ( for example allowing it to operate from 1 GHz to 20 GHz ) . The input impedance is slowly varying over this wide frequency range , allowing low voltage standing wave ratio ( VSWR ) over the bandwidth . The gain of horn antennas ranges up to 25 dBi , with 10 - 20 dBi being typical .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Horn_antenna", "rank": 51, "score": 152791 }, { "content": "Title: Vivaldi antenna Content: A Vivaldi antenna is a co-planar broadband-antenna , which is made from a dielectric plate metalized on both sides . The feeding line excites a circular space via a microstrip line , terminated with a sector-shaped area . From the circular resonant area the energy reaches an exponential pattern via a symmetrical slot line . Vivaldi antennas can be made for linear polarized waves or -- using two devices arranged in orthogonal direction -- for transmitting / receiving both polarization orientations . If fed with 90-degree phase-shifted signals , orthogonal devices can transmit/receive circular-oriented electromagnetic waves . Vivaldi antennas are useful for any frequency , as all antennas are scalable in size for use at any frequency . Printed circuit technology makes this type antenna cost effective at microwave frequencies exceeding 1 GHz . Advantages of Vivaldi antennas are their broadband characteristics ( suitable for ultra-wideband signals ) , their easy manufacturing process using common methods for PCB production , and their easy impedance matching to the feeding line using microstrip line modeling methods . The MWEE collection of EM simulation benchmarks includes a Vivaldi antenna .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Vivaldi_antenna", "rank": 52, "score": 152718 }, { "content": "Title: Diathermy Content: Diathermy is electrically induced heat or the use of high-frequency electromagnetic currents as a form of physical or occupational therapy and in surgical procedures . The field was pioneered in 1907 by German physician Karl Franz Nagelschmidt , who coined the term diathermy from the Greek words dia and θέρμη therma , literally meaning `` heating through '' ( adj. , diather ´ mal , diather ´ mic ) . Diathermy is commonly used for muscle relaxation , and to induce deep heating in tissue for therapeutic purposes in medicine . It is used in physical therapy and occupational therapy to deliver moderate heat directly to pathologic lesions in the deeper tissues of the body . Diathermy is produced by three techniques : ultrasound ( ultrasonic diathermy ) , short-wave radio frequencies in the range 1 -- 100 MHz ( shortwave diathermy ) or microwaves typically in the 915 MHz or 2.45 GHz bands ( microwave diathermy ) , the methods differing mainly in their penetration capability . It exerts physical effects and elicits a spectrum of physiological responses . The same techniques are also used to create higher tissue temperatures to destroy neoplasms ( cancer and tumors ) , warts , and infected tissues ; this is called hyperthermia treatment . In surgery diathermy is used to cauterize blood vessels to prevent excessive bleeding . The technique is particularly valuable in neurosurgery and surgery of the eye .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Diathermy", "rank": 53, "score": 152306 }, { "content": "Title: Antenna (radio) Content: In radio and electronics , an antenna ( plural antennae or antennas ) , or aerial , is an electrical device which converts electric power into radio waves , and vice versa . It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver . In transmission , a radio transmitter supplies an electric current oscillating at radio frequency ( i.e. a high frequency alternating current ( AC ) ) to the antenna 's terminals , and the antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic waves ( radio waves ) . In reception , an antenna intercepts some of the power of an electromagnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminals , that is applied to a receiver to be amplified . Antennas are essential components of all equipment that uses radio . They are used in systems such as radio broadcasting , broadcast television , two-way radio , communications receivers , radar , cell phones , and satellite communications , as well as other devices such as garage door openers , wireless microphones , Bluetooth-enabled devices , wireless computer networks , baby monitors , and RFID tags on merchandise . Typically an antenna consists of an arrangement of metallic conductors ( elements ) , electrically connected ( often through a transmission line ) to the receiver or transmitter . An oscillating current of electrons forced through the antenna by a transmitter will create an oscillating magnetic field around the antenna elements , while the charge of the electrons also creates an oscillating electric field along the elements . These time-varying fields radiate away from the antenna into space as a moving transverse electromagnetic field wave . Conversely , during reception , the oscillating electric and magnetic fields of an incoming radio wave exert force on the electrons in the antenna elements , causing them to move back and forth , creating oscillating currents in the antenna . Antennas can be designed to transmit and receive radio waves in all horizontal directions equally ( omnidirectional antennas ) , or preferentially in a particular direction ( directional or high gain antennas ) . In the latter case , an antenna may also include additional elements or surfaces with no electrical connection to the transmitter or receiver , such as parasitic elements , parabolic reflectors or horns , which serve to direct the radio waves into a beam or other desired radiation pattern . The first antennas were built in 1888 by German physicist Heinrich Hertz in his pioneering experiments to prove the existence of electromagnetic waves predicted by the theory of James Clerk Maxwell . Hertz placed dipole antennas at the focal point of parabolic reflectors for both transmitting and receiving . He published his work in Annalen der Physik und Chemie ( vol . 36 , 1889 ) .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Antenna_(radio)", "rank": 54, "score": 151855 }, { "content": "Title: Electromagnetic absorption by water Content: The absorption of electromagnetic radiation by water depends on the state of the water . The absorption in the gas phase occurs in three regions of the spectrum . Rotational transitions are responsible for absorption in the microwave and far-infrared , vibrational transitions in the mid-infrared and near-infrared . Vibrational bands have rotational fine structure . Electronic transitions occur in the vacuum ultraviolet regions . Liquid water has no rotational spectrum but does absorb in the microwave region .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Electromagnetic_absorption_by_water", "rank": 55, "score": 151508 }, { "content": "Title: Alexander Meissner Content: Alexander Meissner ( in German : Alexander Meißner ) ( September 14 , 1883 -- January 3 , 1958 ) was Austrian engineer and physicist . He was born in Vienna and died in Berlin . His field of interest was : antenna design , amplification and detection advanced the development of radio telegraphy . In March 1913 he discovered the principle of positive feedback independently of Edwin Armstrong , and applying positive feedback to vacuum tube amplifiers co-invented the electronic oscillator , which became the basis of radio transmission by 1920 and has innumerable uses today . The inductively-coupled oscillator circuit he invented is today known as the Meissner oscillator .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Alexander_Meissner", "rank": 56, "score": 151404 }, { "content": "Title: Electrophonic hearing Content: Electrophonic hearing is the direct stimulation of the auditory nerves by external electromagnetic fields . In 1962 Allan H Frey carried out a series of experiments which proved that microwaves can produce the sound even in those who are deaf . The theory is unable to explain why only the sense of hearing is affected - though there are rare reports of people noting odd smells accompanying an aurora display . See also the discussion of the Electrophonic effect/Microwave auditory effect which covers various mechanisms in detail .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Electrophonic_hearing", "rank": 57, "score": 150113 }, { "content": "Title: Reradiation Content: In telecommunication , the term reradiation has the following meanings : Electromagnetic radiation , at the same or different wavelengths , i.e. , frequencies , of energy received from an incident wave . Undesirable radiation of signals locally generated in a radio receiver . This type of radiation might cause interference or reveal the location of the device.Near-field effects of an AM antenna may extend out two miles ( 3 km ) or more . Cellular and microwave towers within this radius can reflect the AM signal out at a different frequency . This process results in interfering frequencies called reradiation '' ' . Category : Radio communications", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Reradiation", "rank": 58, "score": 150086 }, { "content": "Title: William Alden Edson Content: William Alden Edson ( October 30 , 1912 -- April 13 , 2012 ) was a scientist and engineer specializing in vacuum tube oscillators , radar , antennas and microwave technologies . His work spans universities , research institutions and commercial ventures . He taught at Illinois Institute of Technology , Georgia Institute of Technology and Stanford University . He was a researcher at Bell Laboratories and later at the Stanford Research Institute ( now SRI International ) . He also worked at General Electric and EMTECH , a company that he helped to found . His books , articles and patents have advanced technology in computers , radar detection and communications , for both civilian and defense applications . His works have been widely cited in scientific literature .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "William_Alden_Edson", "rank": 59, "score": 149447 }, { "content": "Title: Radio propagation Content: Radio propagation is the behavior of radio waves as they travel , or are propagated , from one point to another , or into various parts of the atmosphere . As a form of electromagnetic radiation , like light waves , radio waves are affected by the phenomena of reflection , refraction , diffraction , absorption , polarization , and scattering . Understanding the effects of varying conditions on radio propagation has many practical applications , from choosing frequencies for international shortwave broadcasters , to designing reliable mobile telephone systems , to radio navigation , to operation of radar systems . Several different types of propagation are used in practical radio transmission systems . Line-of-sight propagation means radio waves which travel in a straight line from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna . Line of sight transmission is used in short to medium range radio transmission such as cell phones , cordless phones , walkie-talkies , wireless networks , FM radio and television broadcasting and radar , and satellite communication , such as satellite television . Line-of-sight transmission on the surface of the Earth is limited to the distance to the visual horizon , which depends on the height of transmitting and receiving antennas . It is the only propagation method possible at microwave frequencies and above . At microwave frequencies moisture in the atmosphere ( rain fade ) can degrade transmission . At lower frequencies in the MF , LF , and VLF bands , due to diffraction radio waves can bend over obstacles like hills , and travel beyond the horizon as surface waves which follow the contour of the Earth . These are called ground waves . AM broadcasting stations use ground waves to cover their listening areas . As the frequency gets lower the attenuation with distance decreases , so very low frequency ( VLF ) and extremely low frequency ( ELF ) ground waves can be used to communicate worldwide . VLF and ELF waves can penetrate significant distances through water and earth , and these frequencies are used for mine communication and military communication with submerged submarines . At medium wave and shortwave frequencies ( MF and HF bands ) radio waves can refract from a layer of charged particles ( ions ) high in the atmosphere , called the ionosphere . So radio waves transmitted at an angle into the sky can be reflected back to Earth beyond the horizon , at great distances , even transcontinental distances . This is called skywave or `` skip '' propagation . It is used by amateur radio operators to talk to other countries , and shortwave broadcasting stations that broadcast internationally . Skywave communication is variable , dependent on conditions in the upper atmosphere ; it is most reliable at night and in the winter . Due to its unreliability , since the advent of communication satellites in the 1960s many long range communication needs that previously used skywaves now use satellites . In addition there are several less common radio propagation mechanisms , such as tropospheric scattering ( troposcatter ) and near vertical incidence skywave ( NVIS ) which are used in specialized communication systems .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Radio_propagation", "rank": 60, "score": 148749 }, { "content": "Title: Sutton tube Content: A Sutton tube , or reflex klystron , is a type of vacuum tube used to generate microwaves . It is a low-power device used primarily for two purposes ; one is to provide a tuneable low-power frequency source for the local oscillators in receiver circuits , and the other , with minor modifications , as a switch that could turn on and off another microwave source . The second use , sometimes known as a soft Sutton tube or rhumbatron switch , was a key component in the development of microwave radar during World War II . Microwave switches of all designs , including these , are more generally known as T/R tubes or T/R cells . The Sutton tube is named for one of its inventors , Robert Sutton , an expert in vacuum tube design . The original klystron designs had been developed in the late 1930s in the US , and Sutton was asked to develop a tuneable version . He developed the first models in late 1940 while working at the Admiralty Signals Establishment . Sutton tubes were widely used in a variety of forms during World War II and through the 1960s . Their role has since been taken over by solid state devices like the Gunn diode , which started to become available in the 1970s . `` Rhumbatron '' refers to the resonant cavity design that was part of many klystrons , referring to the rhumba because of the dance-like motion of the electrons .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Sutton_tube", "rank": 61, "score": 148471 }, { "content": "Title: Radio-frequency induction Content: '' For the common use of RF induction process of heating a metal object by electromagnetic induction , see induction heating Radio-frequency induction or RF induction is the use of a radio frequency magnetic field to transfer energy by means of electromagnetic induction in the near field . A radio-frequency alternating current is passed through a coil of wire that acts as the transmitter , and a second coil or conducting object , magnetically coupled to the first coil , acts as the receiver .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Radio-frequency_induction", "rank": 62, "score": 148243 }, { "content": "Title: Induction heating Content: Induction heating is the process of heating an electrically conducting object ( usually a metal ) by electromagnetic induction , through heat generated in the object by eddy currents . An induction heater consists of an electromagnet , and an electronic oscillator that passes a high-frequency alternating current ( AC ) through the electromagnet . The rapidly alternating magnetic field penetrates the object , generating electric currents inside the conductor called eddy currents . The eddy currents flowing through the resistance of the material heat it by Joule heating . In ferromagnetic ( and ferrimagnetic ) materials like iron , heat may also be generated by magnetic hysteresis losses . The frequency of current used depends on the object size , material type , coupling ( between the work coil and the object to be heated ) and the penetration depth . An important feature of the induction heating process is that the heat is generated inside the object itself , instead of by an external heat source via heat conduction . Thus objects can be heated very rapidly . In addition there need not be any external contact , which can be important where contamination is an issue . Induction heating is used in many industrial processes , such as heat treatment in metallurgy , Czochralski crystal growth and zone refining used in the semiconductor industry , and to melt refractory metals which require very high temperatures . It is also used in induction cooktops for heating containers of food ; this is called induction cooking .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Induction_heating", "rank": 63, "score": 147964 }, { "content": "Title: Pulsed electron paramagnetic resonance Content: Pulsed electron paramagnetic resonance ( EPR ) is a electron paramagnetic resonance technique that involves the alignment of the net magnetization vector of the electron spins in a constant magnetic field . This alignment is perturbed by applying a short oscillating field , usually a microwave pulse . One can then measure the emitted microwave signal which is created by the sample magnetization . Fourier transformation of the microwave signal yields an EPR spectrum in the frequency domain . With a vast variety of pulse sequences it is possible to gain extensive knowledge on structural and dynamical properties of paramagnetic compounds . Pulsed EPR techniques such as electron spin echo envelope modulation ( ESEEM ) or pulsed electron nuclear double resonance ( ENDOR ) can reveal the interactions of the electron spin with its surrounding nuclear spins .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Pulsed_electron_paramagnetic_resonance", "rank": 64, "score": 147153 }, { "content": "Title: Optical downconverter Content: Optical DownConverter ( ODC ) is an example of a non-linear optical process , in which two beams of light of different frequencies and interact , creating microwave with frequency . It is a generalization of microwave . In the latter , , both of which can be provided by a single light source . From a quantum mechanical perspective , ODC can be seen as result of deferencing two photons to produce a microwave . Since the energy of a photon is given by the frequency summing is simply a statement that energy is conserved . In a common ODC application , light from a tunable infrared laser is combined with light from a fixed frequency visible laser to produce a microwave created by a wave mixing process . The ODC use milimeteric microwave cavity that include photonic crystal that provide by two signal frequency light source . The microwave is detected by the cavity antenna .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Optical_downconverter", "rank": 65, "score": 146555 }, { "content": "Title: Crystal oscillator Content: A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a precise frequency . This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time , as in quartz wristwatches , to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits , and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers . The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal , so oscillator circuits incorporating them became known as crystal oscillators , but other piezoelectric materials including polycrystalline ceramics are used in similar circuits . A crystal oscillator , particularity one made of quartz crystal , works by being distorted by an electric field when voltage is applied to an electrode near or on the crystal . This property is known as electrostriction or inverse piezoelectricity . When the field is removed , the quartz - which oscillates in a precise frequency - generates an electric field as it returns to its previous shape , and this can generate a voltage . The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like an RLC circuit . Quartz crystals are manufactured for frequencies from a few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz . More than two billion crystals are manufactured annually . Most are used for consumer devices such as wristwatches , clocks , radios , computers , and cellphones . Quartz crystals are also found inside test and measurement equipment , such as counters , signal generators , and oscilloscopes .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Crystal_oscillator", "rank": 66, "score": 146400 }, { "content": "Title: W band Content: The W band of the microwave part of the electromagnetic spectrum ranges from 75 to 110 GHz , wavelength ≈ 2.7 -- 4 mm . It sits above the U.S. IEEE-designated V band ( 50 -- 75 GHz ) in frequency , and overlaps the NATO designated M band ( 60 -- 100 GHz ) . The W band is used for satellite communications , millimeter-wave radar research , military radar targeting and tracking applications , and some non-military applications . A number of passive millimeter-wave cameras for concealed weapons detection operate at 94 GHz . A frequency around 77 GHz is used for automotive cruise control radar . The atmospheric radio window at 94 GHz is used for imaging millimeter-wave radar applications in astronomy , defense , and security applications . Less-than-lethal weaponry exists that uses millimeter waves to heat a thin layer of human skin to an intolerable temperature so as to make the targeted person move away . A two-second burst of the 95 GHz focused beam heats the skin to a temperature of 130 ° F ( 54 ° C ) at a depth of 1/64 of an inch ( 0.4 mm ) . The United States Air Force and Marines are currently using this type of Active Denial System . In terms of communications capability , W band offers high data rate throughput when used at high altitudes and in space . ( The 71 -- 76 GHz81 -- 86 GHz segment of the W band is allocated by the International Telecommunication Union to satellite services . ) Because of increasing spectrum and orbit congestion at lower frequencies , W-band satellite allocations are of increasing interest to commercial satellite operators , although no commercial project has yet been implemented in these bands .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "W_band", "rank": 67, "score": 146387 }, { "content": "Title: Rusty bolt effect Content: The rusty bolt effect is radio interference due to interactions with dirty connections or corroded parts . It is more properly known as passive intermodulation , and can result from a variety of different causes such as ferromagnetic conduction metals , or nonlinear microwave absorbers and loads . Corroded materials on antennas , waveguides , or even structural elements , can act as one or more diodes . ( Crystal sets , early radio receivers , used the semiconductor properties of natural galena to demodulate the radio signal , and copper oxide was used in power rectifiers . ) This gives rise to undesired interference , including the generation of harmonics or intermodulation . Rusty objects that should not be in the signal-path , including antenna structures , can also reradiate radio signals with harmonics and other unwanted signals . As with all out-of-band noise , these spurious emissions can interfere with receivers . This effect can cause radiated signals out of the desired band , even if the signal into a passive antenna is carefully band-limited .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Rusty_bolt_effect", "rank": 68, "score": 146364 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave volumetric heating Content: Microwave Volumetric Heating ( MVH ) is a method of using microwaves to evenly heat the entire volume of a flowing liquid , suspension or semi-solid . The process is known as MVH because the microwaves penetrate uniformly throughout the volume of the product being heated , thus delivering energy evenly into the body of the material . This is in contrast to traditional thermal processing , which relies on conduction and convection from hot surfaces to deliver energy into the product . Liquids , suspensions , or semi-solids heated by MVH do not come into contact with hot surfaces ; this minimizes thermal damage to functional components , and allows thick and viscous products to be heated without fouling . Processing temperatures can be very accurately controlled by varying the flow rate of the product through the MVH treatment chamber . The slower the flow , the higher the final product temperature . Flowing liquids move continuously through a unique treatment chamber , thereby heating the product .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Microwave_volumetric_heating", "rank": 69, "score": 146330 }, { "content": "Title: Traveling-wave tube Content: A traveling-wave tube ( TWT , pronounced `` twit '' ) or traveling-wave tube amplifier ( TWTA , pronounced `` tweeta '' ) is a specialized vacuum tube that is used in electronics to amplify radio frequency ( RF ) signals in the microwave range . The TWT belongs to a category of `` linear beam '' tubes , such as the klystron , in which the radio wave is amplified by absorbing power from a beam of electrons as it passes down the tube . Although there are various types of TWT , two major categories are : Helix TWT In which the radio waves interact with the electron beam while traveling down a wire helix which surrounds the beam . These have wide bandwidth , but output power is limited to a few hundred watts . Coupled cavity TWT In which the radio wave interacts with the beam in a series of cavity resonators through which the beam passes . These function as narrowband power amplifiers . A major advantage of the TWT over some other microwave tubes is its ability to amplify a wide range of frequencies , a wide bandwidth . The bandwidth of the helix TWT can be as high as two octaves , while the cavity versions have bandwidths of 10 -- 20 % . Operating frequencies range from 300 MHz to 50 GHz . The power gain of the tube is on the order of 40 to 70 decibels , and output power ranges from a few watts to megawatts . TWTs account for over 50 % of the sales volume of all microwave vacuum tubes . They are widely used as the power amplifiers and oscillators in radar systems , communication satellite and spacecraft transmitters , and electronic warfare systems .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Traveling-wave_tube", "rank": 70, "score": 146282 }, { "content": "Title: Magnetoquasistatic field Content: A magnetoquasistatic field is a class of electromagnetic field in which a slowly oscillating magnetic field is dominant . A magnetoquasistatic field is typically generated by low-frequency induction from a magnetic dipole or a current loop . The magnetic near-field of such an emitter behaves differently from the more commonly used far-field electromagnetic radiation . At low frequencies the rate of change of the instantaneous field strength with each cycle is relatively slow , giving rise to the name `` magneto-quasistatic '' . The near field or quasistatic region typically extends no more than a wavelength from the antenna , and within this region the electric and magnetic fields are approximately decoupled . Weakly conducting non-magnetic bodies , including the human body and many mineral rocks , are effectively transparent to magnetoquasistatic fields , allowing for the transmission and reception of signals through such obstacles . Also , long-wavelength ( i.e. low-frequency ) signals are better able to propagate round corners than shorter-wave signals . Communication therefore need not be line-of-sight . The communication range of such signals depends on both the wavelength and the electromagnetic properties of the intervening medium at the chosen frequency , and is typically limited to a few tens of meters .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Magnetoquasistatic_field", "rank": 71, "score": 146219 }, { "content": "Title: Maser Content: A maser ( -LSB- ˈmeɪzər -RSB- , an acronym for `` microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation '' ) is a device that produces coherent electromagnetic waves through amplification by stimulated emission . The first maser was built by Charles H. Townes , James P. Gordon , and H. J. Zeiger at Columbia University in 1953 . Townes , Nikolay Basov and Alexander Prokhorov were awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Physics for theoretical work leading to the maser . Masers are used as the timekeeping device in atomic clocks , and as extremely low-noise microwave amplifiers in radio telescopes and deep space spacecraft communication ground stations . Modern masers can be designed to generate electromagnetic waves at not only microwave frequencies but also radio and infrared frequencies . For this reason Charles Townes suggested replacing `` microwave '' with the word `` molecular '' as the first word in the acronym maser . The laser works by the same principle as the maser , but produces higher frequency coherent radiation at visible wavelengths . The maser was the forerunner of the laser , inspiring theoretical work by Townes and Arthur Leonard Schawlow that led to the invention of the laser in 1960 . When the coherent optical oscillator was first imagined in 1957 , it was originally called the `` optical maser . '' This was ultimately changed to laser for `` Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation . '' Gordon Gould is credited with creating this acronym in 1957 .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Maser", "rank": 72, "score": 145478 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave engineering Content: Microwave engineering pertains to the study and design of microwave circuits , components , and systems . Fundamental principles are applied to analysis , design and measurement techniques in this field . The short wavelengths involved distinguish this discipline from Electronic engineering . This is because there are different interactions with circuits , transmissions and propagation characteristics at microwave frequencies . Some theories and devices that pertain to this field are antennas , radar , transmission lines , space based systems ( remote sensing ) , measurements , microwave radiation hazards and safety measures . During World War II microwave engineering played a significant role in developing radar that could accurately locate enemy ships and planes with a focused beam of EM radiation . The foundations of this discipline are found in Maxwell 's equations and the work of Heinrich Hertz , William Thomson 's waveguide theory , J.C. Bose , the klystron from Russel and Varian Bross , as well as contributions from Perry Spencer , and others .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Microwave_engineering", "rank": 73, "score": 144930 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave News Content: Microwave News reports on the health and environmental impacts of electromagnetic fields ( EMFs ) and other types of non-ionizing radiation , with special emphasis on cell phones and power lines . It also covers radar , radio and TV broadcast towers and many related topics . Its headquarters is in New York City .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Microwave_News", "rank": 74, "score": 144835 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave auditory effect Content: The microwave auditory effect , also known as the microwave hearing effect or the Frey effect , consists of audible clicks ( or , with speech modulation , spoken words ) induced by pulsed/modulated microwave frequencies . The clicks are generated directly inside the human head without the need of any receiving electronic device . The effect was first reported by persons working in the vicinity of radar transponders during World War II . During the Cold War era , the American neuroscientist Allan H. Frey studied this phenomenon and was the first to publish information on the nature of the microwave auditory effect . Pulsed microwave radiation can be heard by some workers ; the irradiated personnel perceive auditory sensations of clicking or buzzing . The cause is thought to be thermoelastic expansion of portions of the auditory apparatus . Competing theories explain the results of interferometric holography tests differently . In 2003 -- 04 , the WaveBand Corp. had a contract from the U.S. Navy for the design of a MAE system they called MEDUSA ( Mob Excess Deterrent Using Silent Audio ) intended to remotely , temporarily incapacitate personnel . The project was cancelled in 2005 .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Microwave_auditory_effect", "rank": 75, "score": 144755 }, { "content": "Title: Resonator Content: A resonator is a device or system that exhibits resonance or resonant behavior , that is , it naturally oscillates at some frequencies , called its resonant frequencies , with greater amplitude than at others . The oscillations in a resonator can be either electromagnetic or mechanical ( including acoustic ) . Resonators are used to either generate waves of specific frequencies or to select specific frequencies from a signal . Musical instruments use acoustic resonators that produce sound waves of specific tones . Another example is quartz crystals used in electronic devices such as radio transmitters and quartz watches to produce oscillations of very precise frequency . A cavity resonator is one in which waves exist in a hollow space inside the device . In electronics and radio , microwave cavities consisting of hollow metal boxes are used in microwave transmitters , receivers and test equipment to control frequency , in place of the tuned circuits which are used at lower frequencies . Acoustic cavity resonators , in which sound is produced by air vibrating in a cavity with one opening , are known as Helmholtz resonators .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Resonator", "rank": 76, "score": 144688 }, { "content": "Title: Extended interaction oscillator Content: The extended interaction oscillator ( EIO ) is a linear-beam vacuum tube designed to convert direct current to RF power . The conversion mechanism is the space charge wave process whereby velocity modulation in an electron beam transforms to current or density modulation with distance . The tubes contain a single resonator . The complete cavity is a rectangular box containing a ladder-like structure through which the electron beam passes . Such a cavity has a large number of resonances but in the resonant mode used , large RF fields are developed in the gaps between the rungs . The phase advance from gap to gap is selected in such a way that an electron sees the same field at every gap , and it is described as being synchronous . In this context , the same field means a field of the same phase but not necessarily the same magnitude . An electron beam which enters an RF excited cavity with approximately synchronous velocity will receive cumulative velocity modulation at each gap . After some distance into the resonator , repeatedly accelerated electrons will be catching up with electrons repeatedly decelerated , and bunches will form . These bunches will have a velocity close to the beam velocity . If the electron velocity is somewhat greater than synchronous , the bunches will start to cross gaps when the field is retarding , rather than zero . When this happens , the electrons are slowed ; their lost energy is gained by the cavity and sustained oscillations become possible . As the velocity of the beam entering the cavity is increased further , more energy is transferred to the cavity and the frequency of oscillation rises somewhat . Eventually , however , the bunches punch through the retarding fields and oscillations cease abruptly . Reducing the beam velocity ( voltage ) will cause the tube to resume oscillation . However , it is necessary to reduce the beam velocity below the value at which oscillations ceased before oscillation will start again . This phenomenon is known as hysteresis and is similar to that observed in many reflex klystrons . The frequency change which occurs as the beam voltage is raised is referred to as electronic tuning , and is typically 0.2 % of the operating frequency measured from half power to cessation of oscillation . For larger frequency changes mechanical tuning is used which is obtained by moving one wall of the cavity . The moveable wall is , in fact , a piston which can be moved in a tunnel whose cross-section is that of the wall which it replaces . The range of mechanical tuning is usually limited by parasitic resonances which occur when the oscillating frequency and the frequency of one of the many other cavity resonances coincide . When this happens , serious loss is introduced , often sufficient enough to suppress oscillation completely . Typically , a mechanical tuning range of 4 % can be obtained but greater ranges have been demonstrated . Apart from the resonant cavity , the Extended Interaction Oscillator is very similar to more conventional klystrons . An electron gun produces a narrow beam of electrons which is maintained at the required diameter by a magnetic field while it passes through the RF section . Thereafter , the beam enters a relatively field-free region where it spreads out and is collected by an appropriately cooled collector . Many of these oscillators have electrically isolated anodes and in these cases , the voltage between the cathode and anode determines the tube current which in turn determines the maximum power output . Category : Vacuum tubes Category : Electron beam Category : Oscillators", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Extended_interaction_oscillator", "rank": 77, "score": 144300 }, { "content": "Title: Radio wave Content: Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum longer than infrared light . Radio waves have frequencies as high as 300 GHz to as low as 3 kHz , though some definitions describe waves above 1 or 3 GHz as microwaves , or include waves of any lower frequency . At 300 GHz , the corresponding wavelength is 1 mm , and at 3 kHz is 100 km . Like all other electromagnetic waves , they travel at the speed of light . Naturally occurring radio waves are generated by lightning , or by astronomical objects . Artificially generated radio waves are used for fixed and mobile radio communication , broadcasting , radar and other navigation systems , communications satellites , computer networks and innumerable other applications . Radio waves are generated by radio transmitters and received by radio receivers . Different frequencies of radio waves have different propagation characteristics in the Earth 's atmosphere ; long waves can diffract around obstacles like mountains and follow the contour of the earth ( ground waves ) , shorter waves can reflect off the ionosphere and return to earth beyond the horizon ( skywaves ) , while much shorter wavelengths bend or diffract very little and travel on a line of sight , so their propagation distances are limited to the visual horizon . To prevent interference between different users , the artificial generation and use of radio waves is strictly regulated by law , coordinated by an international body called the International Telecommunications Union ( ITU ) , which defines radio waves as `` electromagnetic waves of frequencies arbitrarily lower than 3 000 GHz , propagated in space without artificial guide '' . The radio spectrum is divided into a number of radio bands on the basis of frequency , allocated to different uses .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Radio_wave", "rank": 78, "score": 144224 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave transmission Content: Microwave transmission is the transmission of information or energy by microwave radio waves . Although an experimental 64 km ( 40 mile ) microwave telecommunication link across the English Channel was demonstrated in 1931 , the development of radar in World War II provided the technology for practical exploitation of microwave communication . In the 1950s , large transcontinental microwave relay networks , consisting of chains of repeater stations linked by line-of-sight beams of microwaves were built in Europe and America to relay long distance telephone traffic and television programs between cities . Communication satellites which transferred data between ground stations by microwaves took over much long distance traffic in the 1960s . In recent years there has been an explosive increase in use of the microwave spectrum by new telecommunication technologies such as wireless networks , and direct-broadcast satellites which broadcast television and radio directly into consumers ' homes .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Microwave_transmission", "rank": 79, "score": 143840 }, { "content": "Title: Non-thermal microwave effect Content: Non-thermal microwave effects or specific microwave effects have been posited in order to explain unusual observations in microwave chemistry . As the name suggests , the effects are supposed not to require the transfer of microwave energy into thermal energy . Instead , the microwave energy itself directly couples to energy modes within the molecule or lattice . Non-thermal effects in liquids are almost certainly non-existent , as the time for energy redistribution between molecules in a liquid is much less than the period of a microwave oscillation . A 2005 review has illustrated this in application to organic chemistry , though clearly supports the existence of non-thermal effects . It has been shown that such non-thermal effects exist in the reaction of O + HCl ( DCl ) - > OH ( OD ) + Cl in the gas phase and the authors suggest that some mechanisms may also be present in the condensed phase . Non-thermal effects in solids are still part of an ongoing debate . It is likely that , through focusing of electric fields at particle interfaces , microwaves cause plasma formation and enhance diffusion in solids via second-order effects . As a result , they may enhance solid-state sintering processes . Debates continued in 2006 about non-thermal effects of microwaves that have been reported in solid-state phase transitions . A 2013 essay concluded the effect did not exist in organic synthesis involving liquid phases . A 2015 perspective discusses the non-thermal microwave effect ( a resonance process ) in relation to selective heating by Debye relaxation processes .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Non-thermal_microwave_effect", "rank": 80, "score": 143208 }, { "content": "Title: Ronold W. P. King Content: Ronold Wyeth Percival King ( September 19 , 1905 -- April 10 , 2006 ) was an American applied physicist , known for his contributions to the theory and application of microwave antennas . He published twelve books and over three hundred articles in his area , as well as mentored one hundred doctoral dissertations . Born in Williamstown , Massachusetts , he moved to Rochester , New York , where his father worked as a professor of German . He earned an A.B. ( 1927 ) and S.M. ( 1929 ) degree in physics from the University of Rochester . He was an exchange student at the University of Munich ( 1928-29 ) and attended Cornell University ( 1929-30 ) , before completing his graduate studies at University of Wisconsin -- Madison ( 1932 ) where he obtained a Ph.D. on the thesis Characteristics of Vacuum Tube Circuits Having Distributed Constants at Ultra-Radio Frequencies advised by Edward Bennett and subsequently was a research assistant ( 1932-34 ) . King was an instructor and assistant professor in physics at Lafayette College ( 1934-37 ) , and a Guggenheim Fellow overseas ( 1937 , 1958 ) . He joined Harvard University as an instructor ( 1938 ) , as assistant professor ( 1939 ) , associate ( 1942 ) , and as Gordon McKay Professor of Applied Physics ( 1946-72 , taken over by his former student Tai Tsun Wu ) , and professor emeritus ( 1972 ) . He resided at Winchester , Massachusetts , and wrote the autobiography A Man of the 20th Century . His research group at Harvard spent the 1940s and 1950s developing the theory of antenna ( radio ) , using the cylindrical antenna as a boundary value problem subject to Maxwell 's equations . Also , scattering and diffraction of electromagnetic waves from spheres , cylinders , strips , and disks , conducted within earth , under water or in tissue . King is responsible for the inverted-F antenna , the most widely used antenna in mobile phones . However , he did not develop this antenna for that purpose . Rather the intended use was missile telemetry .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Ronold_W._P._King", "rank": 81, "score": 143168 }, { "content": "Title: Radio frequency power transmission Content: Radio frequency power transmission is the transmission of the output power of a transmitter to an antenna . When the antenna is not situated close to the transmitter , special transmission lines are required . The most common type of transmission line for this purpose is large-diameter coaxial cable . At high-power transmitters , cage lines are used . Cage lines are a kind of overhead line similar in construction to coaxial cables . The interior conductor is held by insulators mounted on a circular device in the middle . On the circular device , there are wires for the other pole of the line . Cage lines are used at high-power transmitters in Europe , like longwave transmitter Topolna , longwave-transmitter Solec Kujawski and some other high-power transmitters for long - , medium - and shortwave . For UHF and VHF , Goubau lines are sometimes used . They consist of an insulated single wire mounted on insulators . On a Goubau line , the wave travels as longitudinal currents surrounded by transverse EM fields . For microwaves , waveguides are used .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Radio_frequency_power_transmission", "rank": 82, "score": 142064 }, { "content": "Title: Electronic oscillator Content: An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a periodic , oscillating electronic signal , often a sine wave or a square wave . Oscillators convert direct current ( DC ) from a power supply to an alternating current ( AC ) signal . They are widely used in many electronic devices . Common examples of signals generated by oscillators include signals broadcast by radio and television transmitters , clock signals that regulate computers and quartz clocks , and the sounds produced by electronic beepers and video games . Oscillators are often characterized by the frequency of their output signal : A low-frequency oscillator ( LFO ) is an electronic oscillator that generates a frequency below approximately 20 Hz . This term is typically used in the field of audio synthesizers , to distinguish it from an audio frequency oscillator . An audio oscillator produces frequencies in the audio range , about 16 Hz to 20 kHz . An RF oscillator produces signals in the radio frequency ( RF ) range of about 100 kHz to 100 GHz . Oscillators designed to produce a high-power AC output from a DC supply are usually called inverters . There are two main types of electronic oscillator -- the linear or harmonic oscillator and the nonlinear or relaxation oscillator .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Electronic_oscillator", "rank": 83, "score": 141894 }, { "content": "Title: Susceptor Content: A susceptor is a material used for its ability to absorb electromagnetic energy and convert it to heat ( which is sometimes designed to be re-emitted as infrared thermal radiation ) . This energy is typically radiofrequency or microwave radiation used in industrial heating processes , and also occasionally in microwave cooking . The name is derived from susceptance , an electrical property of materials that measures their tendency to convert electromagnetic energy to heat .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Susceptor", "rank": 84, "score": 141811 }, { "content": "Title: Special sensor microwave/imager Content: The special sensor microwave/imager ( SSM/I ) is a seven-channel , four-frequency , linearly polarized passive microwave radiometer system . It is flown on board the United States Air Force Defense Meteorological Satellite Program ( DMSP ) Block 5D-2 satellites . The instrument measures surface/atmospheric microwave brightness temperatures ( TBs ) at 19.35 , 22.235 , 37.0 and 85.5 GHz . The four frequencies are sampled in both horizontal and vertical polarizations , except the 22 GHz which is sampled in the vertical only . The SSM/I has been a very successful instrument , superseding the across-track and Dicke radiometer designs of previous systems . Its combination of constant-angle rotary-scanning and total power radiometer design has become standard for passive microwave imagers , e.g. TRMM Microwave Imager , AMSR . Its predecessor , the scanning multichannel microwave radiometer ( SMMR ) , provided similar information . Its successor , the Special Sensor Microwave Imager / Sounder ( SSMIS ) , is an enhanced eleven-channel , eight-frequency system .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Special_sensor_microwave/imager", "rank": 85, "score": 141778 }, { "content": "Title: Rain fade Content: Rain fade refers primarily to the absorption of a microwave radio frequency ( RF ) signal by atmospheric rain , snow or ice , and losses which are especially prevalent at frequencies above 11 GHz . It also refers to the degradation of a signal caused by the electromagnetic interference of the leading edge of a storm front . Rain fade can be caused by precipitation at the uplink or downlink location . However , it does not need to be raining at a location for it to be affected by rain fade , as the signal may pass through precipitation many miles away , especially if the satellite dish has a low look angle . From 5 to 20 percent of rain fade or satellite signal attenuation may also be caused by rain , snow or ice on the uplink or downlink antenna reflector , radome or feed horn . Rain fade is not limited to satellite uplinks or downlinks , it also can affect terrestrial point to point microwave links ( those on the earth 's surface ) . Rain fade is usually estimated experimentally and also can be calculated theoretically using scattering theory of rain drops . Rain drop size distribution ( DSD ) is an important consideration for studying rain fade characteristics . Various mathematical forms such as Gamma function , lognormal or exponential forms are usually used to model the DSD . Mie or Rayleigh scattering theory with point matching or t-matrix approach is used to calculate the scattering cross section , and specific rain attenuation . Since rain is a non-homogeneous process in both time and space , specific attenuation varies with location , time and rain type . Total rain attenuation is also dependent upon the spatial structure of rain field . Horizontal as well vertical extension of rain again varies for different rain type and location . Limit of the vertical rain region is usually assumed to coincide with 0 degree isotherm and called rain height . Melting layer height is also used as the limits of rain region and can be estimated from the bright band signature of radar reflectivity . The horizontal rain structure is assumed to have a cellular form , called rain cell . Rain cell sizes can vary from a few hundred meters to several kilometers and dependent upon the rain type and location . Existence of very small size rain cells are recently observed in tropical rain . Possible ways to overcome the effects of rain fade are site diversity , uplink power control , variable rate encoding , receiving antennas larger ( i.e. higher gain ) than the required size for normal weather conditions , and hydrophobic coatings . Only superhydrophobic , Lotus effect surfaces repel snow and ice .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Rain_fade", "rank": 86, "score": 141591 }, { "content": "Title: Transmitter Content: In electronics and telecommunications a transmitter or radio transmitter is an electronic device which generates a radio frequency alternating current . When a connected antenna is excited by this alternating current , the antenna emits radio waves . In addition to their use in broadcasting , transmitters are necessary component parts of many electronic devices that communicate by radio , such as cell phones , wireless computer networks , Bluetooth enabled devices , garage door openers , two-way radios in aircraft , ships , spacecraft , radar sets and navigational beacons . The term transmitter is usually limited to equipment that generates radio waves for communication purposes ; or radiolocation , such as radar and navigational transmitters . Generators of radio waves for heating or industrial purposes , such as microwave ovens or diathermy equipment , are not usually called transmitters even though they often have similar circuits . The term is popularly used more specifically to refer to a broadcast transmitter , a transmitter used in broadcasting , as in FM radio transmitter or television transmitter . This usage typically includes both the transmitter proper , the antenna , and often the building it is housed in . An unrelated use of the term is in industrial process control , where a `` transmitter '' is a telemetry device which converts measurements from a sensor into a signal , and sends it , usually via wires , to be received by some display or control device located a distance away .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Transmitter", "rank": 87, "score": 141459 }, { "content": "Title: High Resolution Microwave Survey Content: The High Resolution Microwave Survey was a NASA project that was to scan ten million frequencies using radio telescopes . A decade in the making , the objective was to find transmissions from alien intelligences . The primary point of observation for the project was the Arecibo Ionospheric Observatory in Puerto Rico . The project began in October 1992 with SETI researcher Jill Tarter on board . However , a year later , first-term Nevada Senator Richard Bryan succeeded in shutting down the project .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "High_Resolution_Microwave_Survey", "rank": 88, "score": 141371 }, { "content": "Title: Radiofrequency coil Content: Radiofrequency coils ( RF coils ) are the receivers , and sometimes also the transmitters , of radiofrequency ( RF ) signals in equipment used in magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) . The MR signal in MRI is produced by the process of resonance , which is the result of radiofrequency coils . They consist of two electromagnetic coils , the transmitter and receiver , which generate the field and receive the resulting signal . Atomic nuclei of interest in MRI studies have their own resonant frequencies , in the radiofrequency portion of the electromagnetic spectrum . Although the electromagnetic fields produced by the transmitting coil are in the RF range of tens of megahertz ( often in the shortwave radio portion of the electromagnetic spectrum ) at powers usually exceeding the highest powers used by amateur radio , there is very little RF interference produced by the MRI machine . The reason for this is that the MRI is a very poor radio transmitter , and is without an antenna . The RF frequency electromagnetic field produced in the `` transmitting coil '' is a magnetic near-field with very little associated changing electric field component ( such as all conventional radio wave transmissions have ) . Thus , the high-powered electromagnetic field produced in the MRI transmitter coil does not produce much electromagnetic radiation at its RF frequency , and the RF power is confined to the coil space and not radiated as `` radio waves . '' Thus , the transmitting coil is a good EM near-field generator at radio frequency , but a poor EM radiation transmitter at radio frequency . The receiver coil picks up the RF electromagnetic radiation produced by nuclear relaxation inside the subject . The signal acquired by the coil is an induced emf , and is not the result of picking up radio waves . This is a common misconception , and unfortunately , has propagated through the literature . MRI scanners are generally situated in metal mesh lined rooms which act as Faraday cages . )", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Radiofrequency_coil", "rank": 89, "score": 140462 }, { "content": "Title: Extremely low frequency Content: Extremely low frequency ( ELF ) is the ITU designation for electromagnetic radiation ( radio waves ) with frequencies from 3 to 30 Hz , and corresponding wavelengths of 100,000 to 10,000 kilometers , respectively . In atmospheric science , an alternative definition is usually given , from 3 Hz to 3 kHz . In the related magnetosphere science , the lower frequency electromagnetic oscillations ( pulsations occurring below ~ 3 Hz ) are considered to lie in the ULF range , which is thus also defined differently from the ITU radio bands . ELF radio waves are generated by lightning and natural disturbances in Earth 's magnetic field , so they are a subject of research by atmospheric scientists . Because of the difficulty of building antennas that can radiate such long waves , ELF frequencies have been used in only a very few human-made communication systems . ELF waves can penetrate seawater , which makes them useful in communication with submarines . The US , Russia , and India are the only nations known to have constructed ELF communication facilities . The U.S. facilities were used between 1985 and 2004 but are now decommissioned . ELF waves can also penetrate significant distances into earth or rock , and `` through-the-earth '' underground mine communication systems use frequencies of 300 to 3000 Hz . The frequency of alternating current flowing in electric power grids , 50 or 60 Hz , also falls within the ELF band , making power grids an unintentional source of ELF radiation .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Extremely_low_frequency", "rank": 90, "score": 140410 }, { "content": "Title: Rectenna Content: A rectenna is a rectifying antenna -- a special type of antenna that is used for converting electromagnetic energy into direct current ( DC ) electricity . They are used in wireless power transmission systems that transmit power by radio waves . A simple rectenna element consists of a dipole antenna with an RF diode connected across the dipole elements . The diode rectifies the AC current induced in the antenna by the microwaves , to produce DC power , which powers a load connected across the diode . Schottky diodes are usually used because they have the lowest voltage drop and highest speed and therefore have the lowest power losses due to conduction and switching . Large rectennas consist of an array of many such dipole elements . The invention of the rectenna in the 1960s made long distance wireless power transmission feasible . The rectenna was invented in 1964 and patented in 1969 by US electrical engineer William C. Brown , who demonstrated it with a model helicopter powered by microwaves transmitted from the ground , received by an attached rectenna . Since the 1970s , one of the major motivations for rectenna research has been to develop a receiving antenna for proposed solar power satellites , which would harvest energy from sunlight in space with solar cells and beam it down to Earth as microwaves to huge rectenna arrays . A proposed military application is to power drone reconnaissance aircraft with microwaves beamed from the ground , allowing them to stay aloft for long periods . In recent years , interest has turned to using rectennas as power sources for small wireless microelectronic devices . The largest current use of rectennas is in RFID tags , proximity cards and contactless smart cards , which contain an integrated circuit ( IC ) which is powered by a small rectenna element . When the device is brought near an electronic reader unit , radio waves from the reader are received by the rectenna , powering up the IC , which transmits its data back to the reader .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Rectenna", "rank": 91, "score": 139944 }, { "content": "Title: Eimac Content: Eimac is a trade mark of Eimac Products , part of the Microwave Power Products Division of Communications & Power Industries . It produces power vacuum tubes for radio frequency applications such as broadcast and radar transmitters .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Eimac", "rank": 92, "score": 139617 }, { "content": "Title: K band (IEEE) Content: The IEEE K band is a portion of the radio spectrum in the microwave range of frequencies ranging between 18 and 27 GHz . The range of frequencies in the center of the K band between 18 and 26.5 GHz is absorbed by water vapor ( H2O in the atmosphere due to its resonance peak at 22.24 GHz , 1.35 cm ) . Therefore these frequencies experience high atmospheric attenuation and can not be used for long distance applications . For this reason the original K band has been split into three bands , as detailed below .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "K_band_(IEEE)", "rank": 93, "score": 139487 }, { "content": "Title: RF front end Content: In a radio receiver circuit , the RF front end is a generic term for all the circuitry between the antenna up to and including the mixer stage . It consists of all the components in the receiver that process the signal at the original incoming radio frequency ( RF ) , before it is converted to a lower intermediate frequency ( IF ) . In microwave and satellite receivers it is often called the low-noise block ( LNB ) or low-noise downconverter ( LND ) and is often located at the antenna , so that the signal from the antenna can be transferred to the rest of the receiver at the more easily handled intermediate frequency . For most superheterodyne architectures , the RF front end consists of : A ` gentle ' band-pass filter ( BPF ) to reduce strong out-of-band signals and image frequency response ; An RF amplifier , often called the low-noise amplifier ( LNA ) . Its primary responsibility is to increase the sensitivity of the receiver by amplifying weak signals without contaminating them with noise , so that they can stay above the noise level in succeeding stages . It must have a very low noise figure ( NF ) . The RF amplifier may not be needed and is often omitted ( or switched off ) for frequencies below 30 MHz , where the signal-to-noise ratio is defined by atmospheric and man-made noise . A local oscillator ( LO ) which generates a radio frequency signal at an offset from the incoming signal , which is mixed with the incoming signal . The mixer , which mixes the incoming signal with the signal from the local oscillator to convert the signal to the intermediate frequency ( IF ) . In many modern integrated receivers , particularly those in wireless devices such as cell phones and Wifi receivers , the intermediate frequency is digitized ; sampled and converted to a binary digital form , and the rest of the processing - IF filtering and demodulation - is done by digital filters ( digital signal processing , DSP ) , as these are smaller , use less power and can have more selectivity . In this type of receiver the RF front end is defined as everything from the antenna to the analog to digital converter ( ADC ) which digitizes the signal . The general trend is to do as much of the signal processing in digital form as possible , and some receivers digitize the RF signal directly , without down-conversion to an IF , so here the front end is merely an RF filter .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "RF_front_end", "rank": 94, "score": 139369 }, { "content": "Title: Wobbulator Content: A wobbulator is an electronic device primarily used for the alignment of receiver or transmitter intermediate frequency strips . It is usually used in conjunction with an oscilloscope , to enable a visual representation of a receiver 's passband to be seen , hence simplifying alignment ; it was used to tune early consumer AM radios . The term `` wobbulator '' is a portmanteau of wobble and oscillator . A `` wobbulator '' ( without capitalization ) is a generic term for the swept-output RF oscillator described above , a frequency-modulated oscillator , also called a `` sweep generator '' by most professional electronics engineers and technicians . A wobbulator was used in some old microwave signal generators to create what amounted to frequency modulation . It physically altered the size of the klystron cavity , therefore changing the frequency . When capitalized , `` Wobbulator '' refers to the trade name of a specific brand of RF/IF alignment generator . The Wobbulator was made by a company known as `` TIC '' ( Tel-Instrument Company ) although some units branded `` Allen B. Du Mont Laboratories '' and `` Stromberg-Carlson '' are rumored to exist . These were apparently made under some form of license and branded with the name of the licensee , much as Radio Corporation of America through subsidiary Hazeltine Corp. , licensed its KCS-20A television chassis design ( used in models 630TS , 8TS30 , etc. ) to other television manufacturers ( Air King , Crosley , Fada , et al. ) for production under their brand names . The Wobbulator generator , designated model 1200A , combined sweep and marker functions into a single self-contained pushbutton-controlled device which , when connected to an oscilloscope and television receiver under test , would display a representation of the receiver 's RF/IF response curves with `` markers '' defining critical frequency reference points as a response curve on the oscilloscope screen . Such an amplitude-versus-frequency graph is also often referred to as a Bode ( pronounced `` bodee '' ) plot or Bode graph .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Wobbulator", "rank": 95, "score": 139119 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave Imaging Radiometer with Aperture Synthesis Content: Microwave Imaging Radiometer with Aperture Synthesis ( MIRAS ) is the major instrument on the Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity satellite ( SMOS ) . MIRAS employs a planar antenna composed of a central body ( the so-called hub ) and three telescoping , deployable arms , in total 69 receivers on the Unit . Each receiver is composed of one LICEF module , which detects radiation in the microwave L-band , both in horizontal and vertical polarizations . The aperture on the LICEF detectors , planar in arrangement on MIRAS , point directly toward the Earth 's surface as the satellite orbits . The arrangement and orientation of MIRAS makes the instrument a 2-D interferometric radiometer that generates brightness temperature images , from which both geophysical variables are computed . The salinity measurement requires demanding performance of the instrument in terms of calibration and stability . The MIRAS instrument 's prime contractor was EADS CASA Espacio , manufacturing the payload of SMOS under ESA 's contract .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Microwave_Imaging_Radiometer_with_Aperture_Synthesis", "rank": 96, "score": 138996 }, { "content": "Title: Dielectric Content: A dielectric ( or dielectric material ) is an electrical insulator that can be polarized by an applied electric field . When a dielectric is placed in an electric field , electric charges do not flow through the material as they do in a conductor , but only slightly shift from their average equilibrium positions causing dielectric polarization . Because of dielectric polarization , positive charges are displaced toward the field and negative charges shift in the opposite direction . This creates an internal electric field that reduces the overall field within the dielectric itself . If a dielectric is composed of weakly bonded molecules , those molecules not only become polarized , but also reorient so that their symmetry axes align to the field . The study of dielectric properties concerns storage and dissipation of electric and magnetic energy in materials . Dielectrics are important for explaining various phenomena in electronics , optics , solid-state physics , and cell biophysics .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Dielectric", "rank": 97, "score": 138563 }, { "content": "Title: Stub (electronics) Content: In microwave and radio-frequency engineering , a stub or resonant stub is a length of transmission line or waveguide that is connected at one end only . The free end of the stub is either left open-circuit or ( always in the case of waveguides ) short-circuited . Neglecting transmission line losses , the input impedance of the stub is purely reactive ; either capacitive or inductive , depending on the electrical length of the stub , and on whether it is open or short circuit . Stubs may thus function as capacitors , inductors and resonant circuits at radio frequencies . Stubs work by means of standing waves of radio waves along their length . Their reactive properties are determined by their physical length in relation to the wavelength of the radio waves . Therefore stubs are most commonly used in UHF or microwave circuits in which the wavelengths are short enough that the stub is conveniently small . They are often used to replace discrete capacitors and inductors , because at UHF and microwave frequencies lumped components perform poorly due to parasitic reactance . Stubs are commonly used in antenna impedance matching circuits , frequency selective filters , and resonant circuits for UHF electronic oscillators and RF amplifiers . Stubs can be constructed with any type of transmission line : parallel conductor line ( where they are called Lecher lines ) , coaxial cable , stripline , waveguide , and dielectric waveguide . Stub circuits can be designed using a Smith chart , a graphical tool which can determine what length line to use to obtain a desired reactance .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Stub_(electronics)", "rank": 98, "score": 138485 }, { "content": "Title: Ground-penetrating radar Content: Ground-penetrating radar ( GPR ) is a geophysical method that uses radar pulses to image the subsurface . This nondestructive method uses electromagnetic radiation in the microwave band ( UHF/VHF frequencies ) of the radio spectrum , and detects the reflected signals from subsurface structures . GPR can have applications in a variety of media , including rock , soil , ice , fresh water , pavements and structures . In the right conditions , practitioners can use GPR to detect subsurface objects , changes in material properties , and voids and cracks . GPR uses high-frequency ( usually polarized ) radio waves , usually in the range 10 MHz to 2.6 GHz . A GPR transmitter emits electromagnetic energy into the ground . When the energy encounters a buried object or a boundary between materials having different permittivities , it may be reflected or refracted or scattered back to the surface . A receiving antenna can then record the variations in the return signal . The principles involved are similar to seismology , except GPR methods implement electromagnetic energy rather than acoustic energy , and energy may be reflected at boundaries where subsurface electrical properties change rather than subsurface mechanical properties as is the case with seismic energy . The electrical conductivity of the ground , the transmitted center frequency , and the radiated power all may limit the effective depth range of GPR investigation . Increases in electrical conductivity attenuate the introduced electromagnetic wave , and thus the penetration depth decreases . Because of frequency-dependent attenuation mechanisms , higher frequencies do not penetrate as far as lower frequencies . However , higher frequencies may provide improved resolution . Thus operating frequency is always a trade-off between resolution and penetration . Optimal depth of subsurface penetration is achieved in ice where the depth of penetration can achieve several thousand metres ( to bedrock in Greenland ) at low GPR frequencies . Dry sandy soils or massive dry materials such as granite , limestone , and concrete tend to be resistive rather than conductive , and the depth of penetration could be up to 15 m . In moist and/or clay-laden soils and materials with high electrical conductivity , penetration may be as little as a few centimetres . Ground-penetrating radar antennas are generally in contact with the ground for the strongest signal strength ; however , GPR air-launched antennas can be used above the ground . Cross borehole GPR has developed within the field of hydrogeophysics to be a valuable means of assessing the presence and amount of soil water .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Ground-penetrating_radar", "rank": 99, "score": 138438 }, { "content": "Title: Primary time standard Content: In telecommunications , a primary time standard is a time standard that does not require calibration against another time standard . Examples of primary time , ( i.e. , frequency standards ) are caesium standards and hydrogen masers . The international second is based on the microwave frequency ( 9,192,631,770 Hz ) associated with the atomic resonance of the hyperfine ground state levels of the caesium-133 atom in a magnetically neutral environment . Realizable caesium frequency standards use a strong electromagnet to deliberately introduce a magnetic field which overwhelms that of the Earth . The presence of this strong magnetic field introduces a slight , but known , increase in the atomic resonance frequency . However , very small variations in the calibration of the electric current in the electromagnet introduce minuscule frequency variations among different caesium oscillators .", "qid": "3093", "docid": "Primary_time_standard", "rank": 100, "score": 138342 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: HadGEM1 Content: HadGEM1 ( abbreviation for Hadley Centre Global Environmental Model , version 1 ) is a coupled climate model developed at the Met Office 's Hadley Centre in 2006 and used in IPCC Fourth Assessment Report on climate change . It represents a significant scientific advance on its predecessor , HadCM3 . HadGEM1 also provides a basis for further development of models , particularly involving enhanced resolution and full Earth System modelling . The current version is HadGEM3 .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "HadGEM1", "rank": 1, "score": 232802 }, { "content": "Title: HadCM3 Content: HadCM3 ( abbreviation for Hadley Centre Coupled Model , version 3 ) is a coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model ( AOGCM ) developed at the Hadley Centre in the United Kingdom . It was one of the major models used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report in 2001 . Unlike earlier AOGCMs at the Hadley Centre and elsewhere ( including its predecessor HadCM2 ) , HadCM3 does not need flux adjustment ( additional `` artificial '' heat and freshwater fluxes at the ocean surface ) to produce a good simulation . The higher ocean resolution of HadCM3 is a major factor in this ; other factors include a good match between the atmospheric and oceanic components ; and an improved ocean mixing scheme ( Gent and McWilliams ) . HadCM3 has been run to produce simulations for periods of over a thousand years , showing little drift in its surface climate . HadCM3 is composed of two components : the atmospheric model HadAM3 and the ocean model HadOM3 ( which includes a sea ice model ) . Simulations use a 360-day calendar , where each month is 30 days .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "HadCM3", "rank": 2, "score": 222113 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: Climate Change 2007 , the Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , is the fourth in a series of reports intended to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects , and options for adaptation and mitigation . The report is the largest and most detailed summary of the climate change situation ever undertaken , produced by thousands of authors , editors , and reviewers from dozens of countries , citing over 6,000 peer-reviewed scientific studies . It supersedes the Third Assessment Report ( 2001 ) , and is superseded by the Fifth Assessment Report . The headline findings of the report were : `` warming of the climate system is unequivocal '' , and `` most of the observed increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations . ''", "qid": "3099", "docid": "IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 3, "score": 221844 }, { "content": "Title: Richard A. Betts Content: Richard A. Betts is Head of the Climate Impacts strategic area at the Met Office Hadley Centre in Exeter , United Kingdom . He is also Chair in Climate Impacts at the University of Exeter and the Principal Investigator of the EU FP7 project HELIX ( High-End cLimate Impacts and eXtremes ) . He was a lead author for Working Group I and a contributing author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . He was a lead author for Working Group II of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report . He is an editor for the International Journal of Global Warming , the Journal of Environmental Investing , and for Earth System Dynamics . After studying physics at the University of Bristol , Betts switched to meteorology at the University of Birmingham and then studied for a doctorate in meteorology at the University of Reading . He is noted for engaging with critics of climate science on Twitter and was selected by TIME as one of the 140 best Twitter feeds of 2012 .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Richard_A._Betts", "rank": 4, "score": 201803 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Third Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Third Assessment Report , Climate Change 2001 , is an assessment of available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change by the IPCC . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the UN 's World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) '' ... to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant for the understanding of climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' -LSB- IPCC website -RSB- The Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) is the third of a series of assessments ; it has been superseded by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , released in 2007 . Statements of the IPCC or information from the TAR are often used as a reference showing a scientific consensus on the subject of global warming , although a small minority of scientists take issue with the UN assessments ( see also Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming ) .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "IPCC_Third_Assessment_Report", "rank": 5, "score": 193620 }, { "content": "Title: John T. Houghton Content: Sir John Theodore Houghton ( born 30 December 1931 ) is a Welsh scientist who was the co-chair of the Nobel Peace Prize winning Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's ( IPCC ) scientific assessment working group . He was the lead editor of first three IPCC reports . He was professor in atmospheric physics at the University of Oxford , former Director General at the Met Office and founder of the Hadley Centre . He is the president of the John Ray Initiative , an organisation `` connecting Environment , Science and Christianity '' , where he has compared the stewardship of the Earth , to the stewardship of the Garden of Eden by Adam and Eve . He is a founder member of the International Society for Science and Religion . He is also the current president of the Victoria Institute .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "John_T._Houghton", "rank": 6, "score": 189561 }, { "content": "Title: HadCRUT Content: HadCRUT is the dataset of monthly instrumental temperature records formed by combining the sea surface temperature records compiled by the Hadley Centre of the UK Met Office and the land surface air temperature records compiled by the Climatic Research Unit ( CRU ) of the University of East Anglia . The data is provided on a grid of boxes covering the globe , with values provided for only those boxes containing temperature observations in a particular month and year . Interpolation is not applied to infill missing values . The first version of HadCRUT initially spanned the period 1881 -- 1993 , and this was later extended to begin in 1850 and to be regularly updated to the current year/month in near real-time .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "HadCRUT", "rank": 7, "score": 187027 }, { "content": "Title: Criticism of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Content: The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) is a report on climate change created with the help of a large number of contributors , both scientists and governmental representatives . There has been considerable political controversy over a small number of errors found in the report , and there have been calls for review of the process used to formulate the report . The overwhelming majority view of scientists with expertise in climate change is that errors , when found , are corrected , and the issues as identified do not undermine the conclusions of the report that the climate system is warming in response to increased levels of greenhouse gases , largely due to human activities .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Criticism_of_the_IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 8, "score": 182771 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Thorne (climatologist) Content: Peter William Thorne is a climatologist and professor of physical geography in the Department of Geography , Maynooth University . He graduated with a BSc in Environmental Sciences from the University of East Anglia in 1998 , and a PhD from the School of Environmental Sciences in 2001 . He previously worked at the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research and the National Climatic Data Center , and he was a senior scientist at the Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Center , Bergen , Norway . He is the chair of the International Surface Temperature Initiative which consists of an interdisciplinary effort to create a suite of improved Land Surface Air Temperature products to meet science needs and societal expectations in the era of climate services . Thorne is co-chair of the GCOS Working Group on the Global Climate Observing System Reference Upper Air Network ( GRUAN ) , and he is also the project lead on the Horizon 2020 GAIA-CLIM project which aims to use such measurements to better characterise satellite measurements . He is a Lead Author of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Peter_Thorne_(climatologist)", "rank": 9, "score": 175781 }, { "content": "Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "North_Report", "rank": 10, "score": 173383 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Fifth Assessment Report Content: The Fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is the fifth in a series of such reports . The IPCC was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) to assess scientific , technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change , its potential effects and options for adaptation and mitigation . The Fifth Assessment Report was finalized in 2014 . As had been the case in the past , the outline of the AR5 was developed through a scoping process which involved climate change experts from all relevant disciplines and users of IPCC reports ; in particular representatives from governments . Governments and organizations involved in the Fourth Report were asked to submit comments and observations in writing with the submissions analysed by the panel . The report was delivered in stages , starting with Working Group I 's report on the physical science basis , based on 9,200 peer-reviewed studies . The summaries for policy makers were released on 27 September 2013 for the first report , on 31 March 2014 for the second report entitled `` Impacts , Adaptation , and Vulnerability '' , and on 14 April 2014 for the third report entitled `` Mitigation of Climate Change '' . The Synthesis Report was released on 2 November 2014 , in time to pave the way for negotiations on reducing carbon emissions at the UN Climate Change Conference in Paris during late 2015 .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "IPCC_Fifth_Assessment_Report", "rank": 11, "score": 171262 }, { "content": "Title: Vicky Pope Content: Vicky Pope is head of the climate predictions programme at the Hadley Centre . She spent 6 years as manager of atmospheric climate model development and evaluation . Since October 2004 she has been Head of the Climate Prediction Programme which provides independent scientific advice on climate change . Her research interests include developing and validating climate models . In an interview for The Guardian newspaper , she said : `` very few '' scientists disputed the latest IPCC report . `` The consensus on warming since the 1850s is that a large part is due to man 's activities , '' she said . `` That 's the line of the IPCC report and that position is strengthening . It is a very widespread consensus . There are a few very vocal people who are sceptics , only some of whom are actually scientists . Sceptics obviously have a place in the community . '' link", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Vicky_Pope", "rank": 12, "score": 170036 }, { "content": "Title: David Parker (climatologist) Content: David Parker is head of climate monitoring at the Hadley Centre , Exeter , England . He has published extensively on the land and marine temperature record and its consistency . In 2002 , he was an organiser of a `` Workshop on Advances in the Use of Historical Marine Climate Data '' . In 2004 , he has published a paper in Nature , showing that the urban heat island effect has not affected the historical temperature record . In this article , Parker shares his observations of the minimum temperature over 24 hours worldwide since 1950 that were expressed as anomalies . Also it includes his reasoning to why urbanization has not systematically exaggerated the observed global warming trends in minimum temperature . He further goes on to mention how the criterion for `` calm '' was changed while the global trend for minimum temperature remained unchanged . From his analysis he finds that windy and calm nights warmed at the same rate . Both the windy and calm increased at a rate of ( 0.16 + 0.03 C ) . He compares his small sample of 26 stations in North America and Siberia with global trends from 1950 to 1953 , covering over 5,000 stations . Estimates of recent global warming , supported by Parker 's analysis shows that urban warming has not introduced significant biases . `` The reality and magnitude of global-scale warming is supported by the near-equality of temperature trends on windy nights with trends based on all data . '' ( Parker ) This paper has been commented on by Roger Pielke , Sr. , et al. .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "David_Parker_(climatologist)", "rank": 13, "score": 168001 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Second Assessment Report Content: The Second Assessment Report ( SAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 1996 , is an assessment of the then available scientific and socio-economic information on climate change . It was superseded by the Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "IPCC_Second_Assessment_Report", "rank": 14, "score": 165694 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC First Assessment Report Content: The First Assessment Report ( FAR ) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) was completed in 1990 . It served as the basis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The report was issued in three main sections , corresponding to the three Working Groups of scientists that the IPCC had established . Working Group I : Scientific Assessment of Climate Change , edited by J.T. Houghton , G.J. Jenkins and J.J. Ephraums Working Group II : Impacts Assessment of Climate Change , edited by W.J. McG . Tegart , G.W. Sheldon and D.C. Griffiths Working Group III : The IPCC Response Strategies Each section included a summary for policymakers . This format was followed in subsequent Assessment Reports . The executive summary of the policymakers ' summary of the WG I report includes : We are certain of the following : there is a natural greenhouse effect ... ; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases : CO2 , methane , CFCs and nitrous oxide . These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect , resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth 's surface . The main greenhouse gas , water vapour , will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it . We calculate with confidence that : ... CO2 has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect ; long-lived gases would require immediate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60 % to stabilise their concentrations at today 's levels ... Based on current models , we predict : under -LSB- BAU -RSB- increase of global mean temperature during the -LSB- 21st -RSB- century of about 0.3 oC per decade ( with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 oC per decade ) ; this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years ; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls , rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 oC -LSB- to -RSB- about 0.1 oC per decade . There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing , magnitude and regional patterns of climate change , due to our incomplete understanding of : sources and sinks of GHGs ; clouds ; oceans ; polar ice sheets . Our judgement is that : global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 oC over the last 100 years ... ; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predictions of climate models , but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability . Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability ; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming . The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more . under the IPCC business as usual emissions scenario , an average rate of global mean sea level rise of about 6 cm per decade over the next century ( with an uncertainty range of 3 -- 10 cm per decade ) , mainly due to thermal expansion of the oceans and the melting of some land ice . The predicted rise is about 20 cm ... by 2030 , and 65 cm by the end of the next century .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "IPCC_First_Assessment_Report", "rank": 15, "score": 164208 }, { "content": "Title: Jonathan M. Gregory Content: Jonathan M. Gregory FRS is a climate modeller working on mechanisms of global and large-scale change in climate and sea level on multidecadal and longer timescales . He is currently a senior scientist in the Climate Division of NERC 's National Centre for Atmospheric Science ( NCAS-Climate ) , located in the Department of Meteorology at the University of Reading ; and a Research Fellow in climate change at the Met Office Hadley Centre . A 2004 study , led by Gregory and published in the journal Nature , predicted that the Greenland ice sheet is likely to be eliminated as a consequence of global warming , resulting in a rise in global sea-levels by 7 meters over the next 1000 years or more . He was a co-ordinating Lead Author of the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report chapter 11 Changes in Sea Level , and a contributing author to the sea level chapter in the IPCC Second Assessment Report '' . Gregory was also a co-Lead Author of the 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report chapter 5 Observations : Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , and chapter 10 Global Climate Projections . IPCC was a co-recipient ( with Al Gore ) of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for its work on climate change . In 2010 Jonathan Gregory was awarded an Advanced Grant by the European Research Council to carry out research on sea level change . In 2017 Jonathan Gregory was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Jonathan_M._Gregory", "rank": 16, "score": 163571 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Hockey_stick_graph", "rank": 17, "score": 162359 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years", "rank": 18, "score": 160471 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 19, "score": 159865 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Global_warming_hiatus", "rank": 20, "score": 156292 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 21, "score": 152520 }, { "content": "Title: United States House Science Subcommittee on Energy Content: The Science Subcommittee on Energy is one of six subcommittees of the United States House Committee on Science , Space and Technology . In 2007 , the subcommittee held the first Congressional hearing on global climate change for the 110th Congress . The Hearing on the State of Climate Change Science 2007 : The Findings of the Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , Working Group I Report , included four climate scientists who authored the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) assessment report and Speaker Nancy Pelosi .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "United_States_House_Science_Subcommittee_on_Energy", "rank": 22, "score": 149424 }, { "content": "Title: Kevin E. Trenberth Content: Kevin Edward Trenberth ( born November 8 , 1944 ) is part of the Climate Analysis Section at the US NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research . He was a lead author of the 2001 and 2007 IPCC Scientific Assessment of Climate Change ( see IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ) and serves on the Scientific Steering Group for the Climate Variability and Predictability ( CLIVAR ) program . He chaired the WCRP Observation and Assimilation Panel from 2004 to 2010 and chaired the Global Energy and Water Exchanges ( GEWEX ) scientific steering group from 2010-2013 ( member 2007-14 ) . In addition , he served on the Joint Scientific Committee of the World Climate Research Programme , and has made significant contributions to research into El Niño-Southern Oscillation . Kevin 's work is highly cited and he has an h-index of 100 ( 100 papers have over 100 citations ) .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Kevin_E._Trenberth", "rank": 23, "score": 149168 }, { "content": "Title: Reasons for concern Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has organized many of the risks of climate change into five `` reasons for concern . '' The reasons for concern show that these risks increase with increases in the Earth 's global mean temperature ( i.e. , global warming ) . The IPCC 's five reasons for concern are : threats to endangered species and unique systems , damages from extreme climate events , effects that fall most heavily on developing countries and the poor within countries , global aggregate impacts ( i.e. , various measurements of total social , economic and ecological impacts ) , and large-scale high-impact events . The five reasons for concern are described in more detail below . The following descriptions are based on information from the IPCC 's Third ( TAR ) and Fourth Assessment Reports ( AR4 ) , published in 2001 and 2007 , respectively .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Reasons_for_concern", "rank": 24, "score": 148103 }, { "content": "Title: Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Coupled Model Content: GFDL CM2.X ( Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Coupled Model , version 2 . X ) is a coupled atmosphere-ocean general circulation model ( AOGCM ) developed at the NOAA Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in the United States . It is one of the leading climate models used in the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC , along with models developed at the Max Planck Institute for Climate Research , the Hadley Centre and the National Center for Atmospheric Research .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Geophysical_Fluid_Dynamics_Laboratory_Coupled_Model", "rank": 25, "score": 146752 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC supplementary report, 1992 Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change supplementary report of 1992 was published to contribute to the debate on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change at the 1992 Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro . The report updated and revised some of the data contained in the IPCC First Assessment Report , and included six new climate change scenarios , including an update of the 1990 reference scenario . The major conclusion was that research since 1990 did `` not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment '' . It noted that transient ( time-dependent ) simulations , which had been very preliminary in the FAR , were now improved , but did not include aerosol or ozone changes .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "IPCC_supplementary_report,_1992", "rank": 26, "score": 146646 }, { "content": "Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Simon_Tett", "rank": 27, "score": 143577 }, { "content": "Title: List of authors of Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis Content: This is a list of the 620 authors contributing to Climate Change 2007 : The Physical Science Basis , which was the 996 page contribution of Working Group I to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . Their report describes the causes and climate consequences of global warming . This list is limited to people acknowledged as authors or editors on the report . The additional several hundred reviewers acknowledged in Annex III of the report are not included on this list . Author affiliations and nationalities are summarized from the list in Annex II of the report . Each author may have contributed to one or more sections and had one or more roles during the writing process . In the table below abbreviations are used to denote the roles and sections :", "qid": "3099", "docid": "List_of_authors_of_Climate_Change_2007:_The_Physical_Science_Basis", "rank": 28, "score": 142630 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change", "rank": 29, "score": 141912 }, { "content": "Title: Description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports Content: The description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports has changed since the first report in 1990 as scientific understanding of the temperature record of the past 1000 years has improved . The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) and Little Ice Age ( LIA ) are the best-known temperature fluctuations in the last millennium . Critics of the `` hockey stick graph '' of all subsequent reports have claimed that the record of the MWP and LIA were suppressed in the IPCC Third Assessment Report , although every report has discussed the phenomena .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Description_of_the_Medieval_Warm_Period_and_Little_Ice_Age_in_IPCC_reports", "rank": 30, "score": 141427 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy", "rank": 31, "score": 139588 }, { "content": "Title: Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation Content: The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) published a special report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation ( SRREN ) on May 9 , 2011 . The report developed under the leadership of Ottmar Edenhofer evaluates the global potential for using renewable energy to mitigate climate change . This IPCC special report provides broader coverage of renewable energy than was included in the IPCC 's 2007 climate change assessment report , as well as stronger renewable energy policy coverage . Renewable energy can contribute to `` social and economic development , energy access , secure energy supply , climate change mitigation , and the reduction of negative environmental and health impacts '' . Under favourable circumstances , cost savings in comparison to non-renewable energy use exist .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Renewable_Energy_Sources_and_Climate_Change_Mitigation", "rank": 32, "score": 137291 }, { "content": "Title: John F. B. Mitchell Content: John Francis Brake Mitchell OBE FRS ( born 7 October 1948 ) is a British climatologist and climate modeller . He studied Applied Mathematics at Queen 's University Belfast in 1970 , staying on to gain a PhD in Theoretical Physics in 1973 . In 1978 , he was appointed head of the Climate Change group in what is now the Met Office 's Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research . He was Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2008 and Director of Climate Science from 2008 to 2010 . He is the most cited scientist regarding the topic of global warming . He was a convening lead author for the first and third IPCC Working Group I reports and lead author for the second . He was also chair of the World Meteorological Organization JSC/CLIVAR Working Group on Climate Modelling and a member of WMO Executive Council from 2005 to 2008 . He now ( 2014 ) works part-time as Principal Research Fellow , advising the Met Office Chief Scientist on climate change and is Visiting Professor at the University of Reading .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "John_F._B._Mitchell", "rank": 33, "score": 135933 }, { "content": "Title: Global Historical Climatology Network Content: The Global Historical Climatology Network ( GHCN ) is a database of temperature , precipitation and pressure records managed by the National Climatic Data Center , Arizona State University and the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center . The aggregate data are collected from many continuously reporting fixed stations at the Earth 's surface and represent the input of approximately 6000 temperature stations , 7500 precipitation stations and 2000 pressure stations . This work has often been used as a foundation for reconstructing past global temperatures , and was used in previous versions of two of the best-known reconstructions , that prepared by the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) , and that prepared by NASA as its Goddard Institute for Space Studies ( GISS ) temperature set . The average temperature record is 60 years long with ~ 1650 records greater than 100 years and ~ 220 greater than 150 years ( based on GHCN v2 in 2006 ) . The earliest data included in the database were collected in 1697 .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Global_Historical_Climatology_Network", "rank": 34, "score": 135622 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Science Program Content: The Climate Change Science Program ( CCSP ) was the program responsible for coordinating and integrating research on global warming by U.S. government agencies from February 2002 to June 2009 . Toward the end of that period , CCSP issued 21 separate climate assessment reports that addressed climate observations , changes in the atmosphere , expected climate change , impacts and adaptation , and risk management issues . Shortly after President Obama took office , the program 's name was changed to U.S. Global Change Research Program ( USGCRP ) which was also the program 's name before 2002 . Nevertheless , the Obama Administration generally embraced the CCSP products as sound science providing a basis for climate policy . Because those reports were mostly issued after the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , and in some cases focused specifically on the United States , they were generally viewed within the United States as having an importance and scientific credibility comparable to the IPCC assessments for the first few years of the Obama Administration .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Climate_Change_Science_Program", "rank": 35, "score": 135449 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC report Content: IPCC report may refer to : IPCC First Assessment Report , 1990 IPCC Second Assessment Report , 1995 IPCC Third Assessment Report , 2001 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report , 2007 IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , 2014 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report , expected in 2022", "qid": "3099", "docid": "IPCC_report", "rank": 36, "score": 135154 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Emissions Scenarios Content: The Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) is a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) that was published in 2000 . The greenhouse gas emissions scenarios described in the Report have been used to make projections of possible future climate change . The SRES scenarios , as they are often called , were used in the IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , published in 2001 , and in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , published in 2007 . The SRES scenarios were designed to improve upon some aspects of the IS92 scenarios , which had been used in the earlier IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . The SRES scenarios are `` baseline '' ( or `` reference '' ) scenarios , which means that they do not take into account any current or future measures to limit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions ( e.g. , the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ) . Emissions projections of the SRES scenarios are broadly comparable in range to the baseline emissions scenarios that have been developed by the scientific community . The SRES scenarios , however , do not encompass the full range of possible futures : emissions may change less than the scenarios imply , or they could change more . SRES was superseded by Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) in 2014 .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Emissions_Scenarios", "rank": 37, "score": 134240 }, { "content": "Title: John Hadley (chemist) Content: John Hadley ( 1731 -- 5 November 1764 ) was a British chemist and physician . Born in London to Henry Hadley , he was educated at Queens College , Cambridge , graduating B.A. in 1753 . In 1756 he was appointed the fourth Professor of Chemistry at Cambridge University , the oldest continuously occupied chair of Chemistry in the UK . During his time there he co-operated in 1758 with Benjamin Franklin on a series of experiments to investigate latent heat . They found that a mercury thermometer sprayed with ether which was then evaporated by blowing could fall to − 7 degrees Celsius in a warm room . The Professorship was unpaid so Hadley studied medicine and obtained in 1758 a Physick Fellowship . He then moved to London in 1760 and got a post as Assistant Physician at St Thomas ' Hospital . In 1763 he became full Physician to Charterhouse School and became a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians . In 1758 he was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society . He died in 1764 of a fever at the age of 33 .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "John_Hadley_(chemist)", "rank": 38, "score": 133928 }, { "content": "Title: Global temperature Content: In its AR4 , WG1 report , Chapter3 , the IPCC explains global temperature in these words :", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Global_temperature", "rank": 39, "score": 133581 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change litigation and the California Environmental Quality Act Content: Litigation related to climate change and greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions has become increasingly common in federal and state courts . Following adoption of the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) and publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , additional pressure was placed on California public agencies to evaluate potential adverse effects to global climate change caused by GHG emissions . In particular , several lawsuits have been filed against agencies for failure to analyze GHG emissions generated by projects subject to the California Environmental Quality Act ( CEQA ) . Court decisions prior to the 2010 revisions to the CEQA guidelines gave early insights as to how CEQA would be used as a vehicle to identify and mitigate GHG emissions within the state . Decisions issued after adoption of the revised guidelines are now being used to interpret CEQA 's new requirement to evaluate GHG emissions and climate change .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Climate_change_litigation_and_the_California_Environmental_Quality_Act", "rank": 40, "score": 132986 }, { "content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change (2005 conference) Content: In 2005, an international conference titled Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change: A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration and global warming and its effects. The conference name was derived from Article 2 of the charter for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change The conference explored the possible impacts at different levels of greenhouse gas emissions and how the climate might be stabilized at a desired level. The conference took place under the United Kingdom's presidency of the G8, with the participation of around 200 \"internationally renowned\" scientists from 30 countries. It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter, from 1 February to 3 February. The conference was one of many meetings leading up to the 2015 Paris Agreement, at which the international community agreed to limit global warming to no more than 2C in order to have a 50-50 chance of avoiding dangerous climate change. However, a 2018 published study points at a threshold at which temperatures could rise to 4 or 5 degrees through self-reinforcing feedbacks in the climate system, suggesting it is below the 2 degree temperature target.", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change_(2005_conference)", "rank": 41, "score": 132641 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline", "rank": 42, "score": 132534 }, { "content": "Title: Harry F. Lins Content: Harry F. Lins ( born 1948 ) is a hydrologist with the U.S. Geological Survey . Since joining USGS in 1971 , his work has spanned several Earth science disciplines , including coastal processes , surface water hydrology , and hydroclimatology . Although most of his career has been spent conducting research , he managed the USGS Global Change Hydrology Program from 1989 to 1997 , and served as Co-Chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Hydrology and Water Resources Working Group for the First Assessment Report . In 1999 , he and USGS colleague David Wolock developed `` WaterWatch '' , the Nation 's first website depicting maps and graphs of water resources conditions in near real-time . Lins currently serves as President of the World Meteorological Organization 's ( WMO ) Commission for Hydrology . Since the early 1980s , Lins ' research has focused principally on characterizing the surface water response to climate , with an emphasis on regional streamflow variability , long-term trends , and the statistical techniques appropriate for such analyses . Lins ' most controversial research , which has not been fully embraced by the climate science community , suggests that the significance of climate trends may be greatly overstated because it does not consider the possibility that long-term persistence is a component of climatic variations . Lins holds a B.S. in Geography from the University of Maryland ( 1971 ) , an M.S. in Geography from the University of Delaware , ( 1978 ) , and a Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences from the University of Virginia ( 1993 ) .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Harry_F._Lins", "rank": 43, "score": 132486 }, { "content": "Title: David Carson (climatologist) Content: David John Carson is a climatologist . He has been director of the Hadley Centre ( around 1990-1996 ) , director of Numerical Weather Prediction at the UKMO ( around 1999-2000 ) , and was director of the World Climate Research Programme from 2000-2005 . Carson joined the UK Meteorological Office in 1969 , following his Ph.D from the Department of Applied Mathematics , University of Liverpool , working on the structure and evolution of the atmospheric boundary layer . He did early research on the development of atmospheric general circulation models . In 1982 , he was appointed to Assistant Director within the Met Office , and led the Boundary Layer Research Branch and later the Dynamical Climatology Branch . For 1987 -- 1989 Carson was seconded to the Natural Environment Research Council ( NERC ) as their first Programme Director for atmospheric sciences . He returned to the Met . Office in January 1990 and became Director of Climate Research and then first Director of the Hadley Centre .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "David_Carson_(climatologist)", "rank": 44, "score": 131666 }, { "content": "Title: Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research Content: The Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Change -- named in honour of George Hadley -- is one of the United Kingdom 's leading centres for the study of scientific issues associated with climate change . It is part of , and based at the headquarters of the Met Office in Exeter .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Hadley_Centre_for_Climate_Prediction_and_Research", "rank": 45, "score": 131189 }, { "content": "Title: List of environmental reports Content: This is a list of notable environmental reports . In this context they relate to the impacts of human activity on the environment . City-level Decoupling : Urban Resource Flows and the Governance of Infrastructure Transitions - by the International Resource Panel Clean Energy Trends - a series of reports by Clean Edge - beginning in 2002 Copeland Report - for the U.S. government , completed in 1933 Copenhagen Diagnosis - written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries Dioxin Reassessment Report - by the United States Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Impact of the Big Cypress Swamp Jetport ( `` Leopold Report '' ) - United States Department of the Interior ( 1969 ) Environmental Risks and Challenges of Anthropogenic Metals Flows and Cycles - by the International Resource Panel Forest Principles - United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) The Global 2000 Report to the President - Council on Environmental Quality ( 1981 ) Global Environment Outlook - United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) Hirsch report ( Peaking of World Oil Production : Impacts , Mitigation , and Risk Management ) - United States Department of Energy Index of Leading Environmental Indicators - Pacific Research Institute IPCC First Assessment Report - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) IPCC supplementary report , 1992 - IPCC IPCC Second Assessment Report - IPCC IPCC Third Assessment Report Climate Change 2001 - IPCC ( 2001 ) IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Climate Change 2007 - IPCC ( 2007 ) IPCC Fifth Assessment Report ( 2014 ) Leopold Report ( `` Wildlife Management in the National Parks '' ) - Special Advisory Board on Wildlife Management ( 1963 ) Livestock 's Long Shadow - Environmental Issues and Options - United Nations ( 2006 ) Living Planet Report - WWF , every two years Making Sweden an Oil-Free Society - Government of Sweden ( 2006 ) Meat Atlas - published by the Heinrich Böll Foundation and Friends of the Earth Europe Nuclear Power and the Environment - UK Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution - 1976 Our Common Future - World Commission on Environment and Development ( 1987 ) Outlook On Renewable Energy In America ( 2 volumes ) - American Council on Renewable Energy - 2007 Phase I Environmental Site Assessment - generic Planning Policy Statement 10 : Planning for Sustainable Waste Management ( PPS 10 ) - British Government Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation - United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) - planned for 2010 Report of the Royal Commission on Genetic Modification - Royal Commission on Genetic Modification ( 2001 ) State of the Climate - NOAA/NCDC ( published annually ) The State of the World - Worldwatch Institute ( published yearly since 1984 ) Wegman Report - to validate criticisms of reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years Windscale : Britain 's Biggest Nuclear Disaster ( 2007 ) World Climate Report - Greening Earth Society The World 's 25 Most Endangered Primates - selected and published by the IUCN Species Survival Commission Primate Specialist Group ( IUCN/SSC PSG ) , the International Primatological Society ( IPS ) , and Conservation International ( CI )", "qid": "3099", "docid": "List_of_environmental_reports", "rank": 46, "score": 131074 }, { "content": "Title: Climate risk Content: Climate risk means a risk resulting from climate change and affecting natural and human systems and regions . In the course of increasing global temperature and extreme weather phenomena the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has been founded by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) and the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) for a better understanding of climate change and meeting concerns of these observations . Its main aim is evaluating climate risks and exploring strategies for the prevention of these risks .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Climate_risk", "rank": 47, "score": 129668 }, { "content": "Title: Hadley cell Content: The Hadley cell , named after George Hadley , is a global scale tropical atmospheric circulation that features air rising near the equator , flowing poleward at 10 -- 15 kilometers above the surface , descending in the subtropics , and then returning equatorward near the surface . This circulation creates the trade winds , tropical rain-belts and hurricanes , subtropical deserts and the jet streams . In each hemisphere , there is one primary circulation cell known as a Hadley cell and two secondary circulation cells at higher latitudes , between 30 ° and 60 ° latitude known as the Ferrel cell , and beyond 60 ° as the Polar cell . Each Hadley cell operates between zero and 30 to 40 degrees north and south and is mainly responsible for the weather in the equatorial regions of the world .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Hadley_cell", "rank": 48, "score": 128416 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 49, "score": 127799 }, { "content": "Title: Michael E. Mann Content: Michael E. Mann ( born 1965 ) is an American climatologist and geophysicist , currently director of the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University , who has contributed to the scientific understanding of historic climate change based on the temperature record of the past thousand years . He has pioneered techniques to find patterns in past climate change , and to isolate climate signals from noisy data . As lead author of a paper produced in 1998 with co-authors Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , Mann used advanced statistical techniques to find regional variations in a hemispherical climate reconstruction covering the past 600 years . In 1999 the same team used these techniques to produce a reconstruction over the past 1,000 years ( MBH99 ) which was dubbed the `` hockey stick graph '' because of its shape . He was one of eight lead authors of the `` Observed Climate Variability and Change '' chapter of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Scientific Assessment Report published in 2001 . A graph based on the MBH99 paper was highlighted in several parts of the report , and was given wide publicity . The IPCC acknowledged that his work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . Mann was organizing committee chair for the National Academy of Sciences Frontiers of Science in 2003 and has received a number of honors and awards including selection by Scientific American as one of the fifty leading visionaries in science and technology in 2002 . In 2012 he was inducted as a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and was awarded the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . In 2013 he was elected a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society , and awarded the status of distinguished professor in Penn State 's College of Earth and Mineral Sciences . Mann is author of more than 200 peer-reviewed and edited publications . He has also published three books : Dire Predictions : Understanding Global Warming ( 2008 ) , The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines ( 2012 ) , and , together with co-author Tom Toles , The Madhouse Effect : How Climate Change Denial Is Threatening Our Planet , Destroying Our Politics , and Driving Us Crazy ( 2016 ) . In 2012 , the European Geosciences Union described his publication record as `` outstanding for a scientist of his relatively young age '' . Mann is also a co-founder and contributor to the climatology blog RealClimate .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Michael_E._Mann", "rank": 50, "score": 126485 }, { "content": "Title: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change Content: Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change : A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric greenhouse gas concentration , and the 2 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) ceiling on global warming thought necessary to avoid the most serious effects of global warming . Previously this had generally been accepted as being 550 ppm . The conference took place under the United Kingdom 's presidency of the G8 , with the participation of around 200 ` internationally renowned ' scientists from 30 countries . It was chaired by Dennis Tirpak and hosted by the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research in Exeter , from 1 February to 3 February .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Avoiding_Dangerous_Climate_Change", "rank": 51, "score": 126117 }, { "content": "Title: Post-Attack Command and Control System Facility, Hadley Content: Post-Attack Command and Control System Facility , Hadley is a defunct Post-Attack Command and Control System facility that operated from June 2 , 1958 until 1970 . It is located on and under Bare Mountain in Hadley , Massachusetts . The facility was known by many different names : 8th Air Force Combat Operations Center ( COC ) , `` The Notch '' , and `` Westover Communications Annex '' since it was related to nearby Westover Air Force Base .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Post-Attack_Command_and_Control_System_Facility,_Hadley", "rank": 52, "score": 126112 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 53, "score": 126080 }, { "content": "Title: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Content: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) is a scientific and intergovernmental body under the auspices of the United Nations , set up at the request of member governments , dedicated to the task of providing the world with an objective , scientific view of climate change and its political and economic impacts . It was first established in 1988 by two United Nations organizations , the World Meteorological Organization ( WMO ) and the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , and later endorsed by the United Nations General Assembly through Resolution 43/53 . Membership of the IPCC is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP . The IPCC produces reports that support the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which is the main international treaty on climate change . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic -LSB- i.e. , human-induced -RSB- interference with the climate system '' . IPCC reports cover `` the scientific , technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change , its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation . '' The IPCC does not carry out its own original research , nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself . The IPCC bases its assessment on the published literature , which includes peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed sources . Thousands of scientists and other experts contribute ( on a voluntary basis , without payment from the IPCC ) to writing and reviewing reports , which are then reviewed by governments . IPCC reports contain a `` Summary for Policymakers '' , which is subject to line-by-line approval by delegates from all participating governments . Typically this involves the governments of more than 120 countries . The IPCC provides an internationally accepted authority on climate change , producing reports which have the agreement of leading climate scientists and the consensus of participating governments . The 2007 Nobel Peace Prize was shared , in equal parts , between the IPCC and Al Gore .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 54, "score": 125862 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 55, "score": 125456 }, { "content": "Title: UAH satellite temperature dataset Content: The UAH satellite temperature dataset , developed at the University of Alabama in Huntsville , infers the temperature of various atmospheric layers from satellite measurements of radiance . It was the first global temperature datasets developed from satellite information and has been used as a tool for research into surface and atmospheric temperature changes . The dataset is published by John Christy et al. and formerly jointly with Roy Spencer .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "UAH_satellite_temperature_dataset", "rank": 56, "score": 125058 }, { "content": "Title: Instrumental temperature record Content: The instrumental temperature record provides the temperature of Earth 's climate system from the historical network of in situ measurements of surface air temperatures and ocean surface temperatures . Data are collected at thousands of meteorological stations , buoys and ships around the globe . The longest-running temperature record is the Central England temperature data series , that starts in 1659 . The longest-running quasi-global record starts in 1850 . In recent decades more extensive sampling of ocean temperatures at various depths have begun allowing estimates of ocean heat content but these do not form part of the global surface temperature datasets .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Instrumental_temperature_record", "rank": 57, "score": 124749 }, { "content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Global_temperature_record", "rank": 58, "score": 124346 }, { "content": "Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Roger_Pulwarty", "rank": 59, "score": 124223 }, { "content": "Title: European Climate Assessment and Dataset Content: The European Climate Assessment and Dataset ( ECA&D ) is a database of daily meteorological station observations across Europe and is gradually being extended to countries in the Middle East and North Africa . ECA&D has attained the status of Regional Climate Centre for high-resolution observation data in World Meteorological Organization Region VI ( Europe and the Middle East ) -RSB- . The objective of ECA&D is to monitor and analyze climate and changes in climate with a focus on climate extremes while making the data publicly available to download . Included in the database is a collection of daily series observations obtained from climatological divisions of National Meteorological and Hydrological Services ( NMHSs ) , observatories and research centres throughout Europe and the Mediterranean . The daily series of observations is combined with quality control and analysis of extremes via climate change indices . The ECA&D project is initiated by the European Climate Support Network ( ECSN ) and is coordinated at the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute ( Dutch : Koninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Instituut or KNMI ) which now funds the project after it was initially funded by the Network of European Meteorological Services ( EUMETNET ) .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "European_Climate_Assessment_and_Dataset", "rank": 60, "score": 124200 }, { "content": "Title: Seita Emori Content: Seita Emori ( born 1970 in Kanagawa , Japan ) is a Japanese environmental scientist whose most noted work focuses upon the worldwide effects of Global Warming . He completed his Doctorate at the University of Tokyo in 1997 and thereafter joined the National Institute of Environmental Studies , Japan where he is currently the Chief of the Climate Risk Assessment Research Section at the Center for Global Environmental Research . Emori is a contributing author to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and a member of the IPCC Steering Committee for the `` Expert Meeting on New Scenarios '' , for which the IPCC received a Noble Prize in 2007 . Among Emori 's publications are the academic paper `` Sensitivity Map of LAI to Precipitation and Surface Air Temperature Variations in a Global Scale '' ( co-authored with his Japans colleague Hiroshi Kanzawa and Jiahua Zhang and Congbin Fu of the START , Institute of Atmospheric Physics in Beijing , China ) .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Seita_Emori", "rank": 61, "score": 121595 }, { "content": "Title: Hadley Center Historic District Content: The Hadley Center Historic District is an expansive , 2500 acre historic district encompassing the village center of Hadley , Massachusetts . When it was first listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1977 , the district encompassed the town green and 17 buildings that faced it , at the junction of Russell Street ( Massachusetts Route 9 ) and Middle Street ( Massachusetts Route 47 ) . The district was expanded significantly in 1994 , adding more than 400 buildings representative of the village 's growth from colonial days into the first decades of the 20th century . This expansion encompasses the entirety of a tongue of land extending west from East Street and bounded by a bend in the Connecticut River , which separates Hadley from Northampton . Its oldest property , the Samuel Porter House on West Street , was built in 1713 .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Hadley_Center_Historic_District", "rank": 62, "score": 120380 }, { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 63, "score": 119719 }, { "content": "Title: Representative Concentration Pathways Content: Representative Concentration Pathways ( RCPs ) are four greenhouse gas concentration ( not emissions ) trajectories adopted by the IPCC for its fifth Assessment Report ( AR5 ) in 2014 . It supersedes Special Report on Emissions Scenarios ( SRES ) projections published in 2000 . The pathways are used for climate modeling and research . They describe four possible climate futures , all of which are considered possible depending on how much greenhouse gases are emitted in the years to come . The four RCPs , RCP2 .6 , RCP4 .5 , RCP6 , and RCP8 .5 , are named after a possible range of radiative forcing values in the year 2100 relative to pre-industrial values ( +2.6 , +4.5 , +6.0 , and +8.5 W/m2 , respectively ) .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Representative_Concentration_Pathways", "rank": 64, "score": 119112 }, { "content": "Title: PRECIS Content: PRECIS ( Providing REgional Climates for Impacts Studies , pronounced pray-sea ) is developed at the Hadley Centre at the UK Met Office , PRECIS is a regional climate modelling system designed to run on a Linux based PC . PRECIS can be applied to any area of the globe to generate detailed climate change projections .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "PRECIS", "rank": 65, "score": 118988 }, { "content": "Title: Carl Mears Content: Carl Mears is a Senior Scientist , at Remote Sensing Systems , since 1998 . He has worked on validation of SSM/I derived winds , and rain-flagging algorithm for the QuikScat scatterometer . He is best known for his work with Frank Wentz in developing a satellite temperature record from MSU and AMSU . Intercomparison of this record with the earlier UAH satellite temperature record , developed by John Christy and Roy Spencer , revealed deficiencies in the earlier work ; specifically , the warming trend in the RSS version is larger than the UAH one . Mears was a major contributor to Temperature Trends in the Lower Atmosphere : Steps for Understanding and Reconciling Differences , the first released report from the US Climate Change Science Program . He also contributed to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Working Group one report , Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Carl_Mears", "rank": 66, "score": 118728 }, { "content": "Title: Peter A. Stott Content: Peter A. Stott is a climate scientist who leads the Climate Monitoring and Attribution team of the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research at the Met Office in Exeter , UK . He is an expert on anthropogenic and natural causes of climate change . He was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I report , chapter 9 , for the AR4 released in 2007 and is an editor of the Journal of Climate . Peter has an undergraduate degree in Mathematics from Durham University and completed Part III of the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge . He was awarded a PhD by Imperial College London for work on atmospheric modelling of the environmental consequences of the Chernobyl disaster . After his PhD he carried out postdoctoral research at the University of Edinburgh on stratospheric ozone depletion .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Peter_A._Stott", "rank": 67, "score": 118549 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Change Conference, Moscow Content: The World Climate Change Conference was held in Moscow from September 29 to October 3 , 2003 . The initiative of convening the Conference was taken by Vladimir Putin , the President of the Russian Federation . The Conference was convened by the Russian Federation , and supported by international bodies including the United Nations . It should not be confused with the World Climate Conferences . The conference summary report , which was endorsed at concluding session of the Conference , October 3 , 2003 , endorsed the consensus represented by the IPCC TAR : The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) has provided the basis for much of our present understanding of knowledge in this field in its Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) in 2001 . A large majority of the international scientific community has accepted its general conclusions that climate change is occurring , is primarily a result of human emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols , and that this represents a threat to people and ecosystems . Some divergent scientific interpretations were brought forward and discussed in the Conference . Andreas Fischlin , conference participant and IPCC author was critical of the conference , saying : However , concerning the scientific content of the conference , we had also to struggle with considerable difficulties . Unfortunately , there were not only leading scientists present , but also some colleagues who used the conference to express personal , political opinions based on value judgement instead of scientific facts and rigorously derived , scientific insights and thorough understanding . Thereby , I believe , principles of proper scientific conduct were violated too often and sometimes , I am afraid having to say so , even systematically . This contrasts sharply with the principles upheld by the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) , which allow only to assess the current knowledge based on the best available , peer reviewed scientific literature and which do not allow for any non-scientific value judgements , let alone policy recommendations .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "World_Climate_Change_Conference,_Moscow", "rank": 68, "score": 118012 }, { "content": "Title: 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference Content: The 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference , subtitled Implications of a Global Climate Change of 4 + Degrees for People , Ecosystems and the Earth-system , was held 28 -- 30 September 2009 at Oxford , United Kingdom . < ref name = `` 4DC '' > 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference , Implications of a Global Climate Change of 4 + Degrees for People , Ecosystems and the Earth-system , University of Oxford , 28-29 Sept. 2009 . </ref> The three-day conference had about 140 science , government , NGO and private sector delegates , and included 35 oral presentations and 18 poster presentations . The conference website includes a page for downloading abstracts , presentations , audio recordings , and the programme . Links to a number of news stories are also provided . The conference was sponsored by the University of Oxford , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , and the Met Office Hadley Centre . Video podcasts of all oral presentations are posted on a University of Oxford website ; however , to find videos by presenter names the above cited program must first be consulted to find the presentation title . In January 2011 , eleven papers and three introductory articles resulting from the conference were published as a special issue of Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society , Four degrees and beyond : the potential for a global temperature increase of four degrees and its implications . Many of the papers are free downloads . The contents of the special issue are listed later in this article . In July 2011 , a follow-up conference , Four Degrees Or More ? Australia in a Hot World , was held at the University of Melbourne , Australia .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "4_Degrees_and_Beyond_International_Climate_Conference", "rank": 69, "score": 117837 }, { "content": "Title: Hadley–Apennine Content: Hadley -- Apennine is a region on the near side of Earth 's Moon that served as the landing site for the American Apollo 15 mission , the fourth manned landing on the Moon and the first of the `` J-missions '' , in July 1971 . The site is located on the eastern edge of Mare Imbrium on a lava plain known as Palus Putredinis . Hadley-Apennine is bordered by the Montes Apenninus ( often referred to as ` Apennine Front ' ) , a mountain range , and Hadley Rille , a meandering channel , on the east and west , respectively . Data obtained from the composition of soil samples collected on Apollo 15 show that most ( about 90 % ) of the samples from the Apennine Front are brown-glass breccias , and approximately 60-70 % obtained from the mare surface are basalt . Although the basalts seem to vary in their texture , their ages appear to be approximately the same . Most of the samples obtained on the Apennine Front are KREEP ( potassium , rare earth elements , phosphorus ) materials , anorthosites , recrystallized norite , or recrystallized breccia .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Hadley–Apennine", "rank": 70, "score": 117153 }, { "content": "Title: Held-Hou Model Content: The Held-Hou Model is a model for the Hadley circulation of the atmosphere that would exist in the absence of atmospheric turbulence . The model was developed by Isaac Held and Arthur Hou in 1980 . The essence of the model is that air rising from the surface at the equator conserves its angular momentum as it moves poleward . This distribution of wind , in turn , determines the distribution of temperature , which determines the latitudinal extent of the circulation by requiring energy conservation . This stands in contrast to George Hadley 's original conception of the circulation , which he argued reached the poles . The Hadley circulation has a cooling effect at and near the equator and a warming effect at higher latitudes within the Hadley Cell . This energy transport can be converted into a mass transport , to determine the strength of the circulation , by normalizing by the appropriate vertical stability . The effects of moisture and seasons on the model have been studied . Earth 's atmosphere violates the underlying assumptions of the model : angular momentum is not conserved and the tropical atmosphere is not energetically closed . As such , the Held-Hou model is a conceptual model that does not make quantitatively accurate predictions of the sensitivity of the Hadley circulation to changes in atmospheric parameters .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Held-Hou_Model", "rank": 71, "score": 116609 }, { "content": "Title: Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment Content: The Indian Network on Climate Change Assessment ( INCCA ) is a proposed network of scientists in India to be set up to publish peer-reviewed findings on climate change in India . It was announced on 7 October 2009 , saying : It was re-announced on 25 January 2012 by an official of the climate change division in the Environment Ministry after a strategy meeting chaired by Joint Secretary ( Climate ) J.M. Mausker , which also dealt with the framing of India 's National Action Plan on Climate Change ( NAPCC ) . On 4 February 2010 India 's environment minister Jairam Ramesh announced that it would bring together 250 scientists from 125 Indian research institutions and collaborate with international organisations.its first assessment of greenhouse gas emission was released on May 11 , 2010 and Its second climate assessment to be published in November 2010 would include reports on the Himalayas , the coastline of India , the Western Ghat highlands and the north-eastern region of India . He said it would operate as a `` sort of Indian IPCC '' , but will not rival the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Ramesh also announced the initiation of an Indian National Institute of Himalayan Glaciology . He said that although he respected the IPCC , it was unequal to the task and its weakness was that it did not conduct its own research . Ramesh also indicated its biases made it insensitive to regional realities , and instead relied on compiling assessments of other reports , which , led to `` goof-ups '' on the Amazon forests , Himalayan glaciers , and ice caps .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Indian_Network_on_Climate_Change_Assessment", "rank": 72, "score": 116432 }, { "content": "Title: Global Scenario Group Content: The Global Scenario Group ( GSG ) was an international , interdisciplinary body convened in 1995 by the Tellus Institute and the Stockholm Environment Institute to develop scenarios for world development in the twenty-first century . The GSG 's underlying scenario development work was rooted in the long-range integrated scenario analysis that Tellus Institute and Stockholm Environment Institute had undertaken through the PoleStar Project . Initially conceived in 1991 as a tool for integrated sustainability planning and long-range scenario analysis , PoleStar was inspired by the 1987 Brundtland Commission report Our Common Future , which first put the concept of `` sustainable development '' on the international agenda . The work of the Global Scenario Group was widely adopted in high-level intergovernmental settings . The scenarios informed numerous international assessments , including the World Water Council 's World Water Vision report in 1999 -- 2000 , the OECD Environmental Outlook in 2001 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's greenhouse gas emission mitigation assessment in 2001 , the United Nations Environment Programme 's Third GEO Report in 2002 , and the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment in 2005 . Several of the GSG participants who actively participated in the IPCC assessments have been recognized for contributing to the 2007 award of the Nobel Peace Prize to the IPCC .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Global_Scenario_Group", "rank": 73, "score": 115845 }, { "content": "Title: Hadley railway station Content: Hadley railway station was a railway station serving the village of Hadley in Shropshire , England . The station served both the former Stafford to Shrewsbury Line and was the start of the branch to Coalport . The station was opened in 1849 and closed in 1964 . The line through Hadley was closed from 1964 , with the last remaining stretches of track being taken up in 1991 . In the late 2000s a stretch of track was relaid to the Telford International Railfreight Park for freight purposes only . The current closest station is Wellington , or a little further afield are both Oakengates or Telford .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Hadley_railway_station", "rank": 74, "score": 114591 }, { "content": "Title: Google Public Data Explorer Content: Google 's Public Data Explorer provides public data and forecasts from a range of international organizations and academic institutions including the World Bank , OECD , Eurostat and the University of Denver . These can be displayed as line graphs , bar graphs , cross sectional plots or on maps . The product was launched on March 8 , 2010 as an experimental visualization tool in Google Labs . In 2011 the Public Data Explorer was made available for anyone to upload , share and visualize data sets . To facilitate this , Google created a new data format , the Dataset Publishing Language ( DSPL ) . Once the data is imported , a dataset can be visualized , embedded in external websites , and shared with others like a Google Doc . In 2016 , this toolset was enhanced with the Google Analytics Suite , particularly Data Studio 360 , whose release expanded to a free public beta in May 2016 , which enabled import of public or individual datasets and overlaid user-friendly ( non-coding ) data visualization tools .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Google_Public_Data_Explorer", "rank": 75, "score": 114210 }, { "content": "Title: Apollo 15 operations on the Lunar surface Content: Apollo 15 lunar surface operations were conducted from July 30 to August 2 , 1971 , by Apollo 15 Commander David Scott and lunar module Pilot James Irwin , who used the first lunar rover to make three exploratory trips away from their landing site at the base of the Apennine Mountains , near Hadley Rille . They collected a total of 77 kg of lunar surface material during 18 1/2 hours outside their lunar module , Falcon .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Apollo_15_operations_on_the_Lunar_surface", "rank": 76, "score": 114120 }, { "content": "Title: Steve Running Content: Steven W. Running , ( born 1950 ) Regents Professor , Forest Ecology , College of Forestry & Conservation at the University of Montana , and Director of the Numerical Terradynamics Simulation Group , is responsible for developing the earth observing-oriented algorithms used by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) on board NASA 's satellites , Terra and Aqua . He continues to be the lead investigator on this project . Running 's MOD17 algorithms are used to provide accurate and continuous global monitoring of the terrestrial biosphere , specifically , generating near-real-time data sets for repeated monitoring of vegetation primary production on vegetated land at 1-km resolution at 8-day intervals . These datasets are unique in that they provide global data on primary productivity and span a decade . A recognized expert in global ecosystem monitoring , Running was invited to serve on the board of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . In 2007 , the IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize `` for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change , and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change '' . Running made the following statement about winning the prize : `` We 've got to get past all the petty bickering and get to work . This is about a big transition for society over the next 50 years . The path we are on is unsustainable . What the Nobel committee is saying is that we 've got to wake up . We 've got to change the course of the whole world . '' Steve Running is co-author of the 2007 book , Forest Ecosystems , and has published over 240 scientific papers . In 2012 , Running suggested a tenth planetary boundary , the annual net global primary production of all terrestrial plants , as an easily determinable measure integrating many variables that will give `` a clear signal about the health of ecosystems '' .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Steve_Running", "rank": 77, "score": 113590 }, { "content": "Title: GO-ESSP Content: The Global Organization of Earth System Science Portals or ( GO-ESSP ) is an international collaboration , formed in 2003 , that is developing software infrastructure to support the distribution , and analysis of climate model data and related observations . GO-ESSP is playing a central role in coordinating United States and European efforts to document and distribute data for the 5th coupled model intercomparison project , which will be part of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "GO-ESSP", "rank": 78, "score": 113358 }, { "content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén", "rank": 79, "score": 112611 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 80, "score": 112410 }, { "content": "Title: John Hadley (disambiguation) Content: John Hadley may refer to : John Hadley ( 1682-1744 ) , British mathemation , inventor of the octant . John Hadley ( chemist ) ( 1731 -- 1764 ) , British chemist and physician John Hadley ( Mayor of London ) , Mayor and MP for London , father-in-law of William Pecche John Hadley ( philosopher ) , an Australian ethicist", "qid": "3099", "docid": "John_Hadley_(disambiguation)", "rank": 81, "score": 112392 }, { "content": "Title: Central England temperature Content: The Central England Temperature ( CET ) record is a meteorological dataset originally published by Professor Gordon Manley in 1953 and subsequently extended and updated in 1974 , following many decades of painstaking work . The monthly mean surface air temperatures , for the Midlands region of England , are given ( in degrees Celsius ) from the year 1659 to the present . This record represents the longest series of monthly temperature observations in existence . It is a valuable dataset for meteorologists and climate scientists . It is monthly from 1659 , and a daily version has been produced from 1772 . The monthly means from November 1722 onwards are given to a precision of 0.1 ° C . The earliest years of the series , from 1659 to October 1722 inclusive , for the most part only have monthly means given to the nearest degree or half a degree , though there is a small ` window ' of 0.1 degree precision from 1699 to 1706 inclusive . This reflects the number , accuracy , reliability and geographical spread of the temperature records that were available for the years in question .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Central_England_temperature", "rank": 82, "score": 112283 }, { "content": "Title: Arturo Villavicencio Content: Arturo Villavicencio is an Ecuadorian environmental researcher . He was nominated by Denmark in 1995 for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and contributed to its fourth assessment report ( the work of the IPCC , including the contributions of many scientists , was recognised by the joint award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize ) .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Arturo_Villavicencio", "rank": 83, "score": 112241 }, { "content": "Title: David Vaughan (glaciologist) Content: David Glyn Vaughan OBE is a climate scientist at the British Antarctic Survey . His research focus is the role of ice sheets in the Earth system and the societal threat of climate change and rising sea levels . He is a co-ordinating Lead Author of the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report . His research work includes the mapping of the bed under Pine Island Glacier and the discovery of a subglacial volcano . Vaughan was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 2017 New Year Honours for services to glaciology .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "David_Vaughan_(glaciologist)", "rank": 84, "score": 111870 }, { "content": "Title: Hadley Rille meteorite Content: The Hadley Rille meteorite was a meteorite discovered on the Moon at coordinates 26 ° 26 ' 0 '' N , 3 ° 39 ' 20 '' E , during the Apollo 15 mission in 1971 . It was the second meteorite to be discovered on a solar system body other than the Earth . The first was the Bench Crater meteorite , discovered in 1969 .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Hadley_Rille_meteorite", "rank": 85, "score": 111824 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Texas", "rank": 86, "score": 111669 }, { "content": "Title: International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project Content: The International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project ( ISCCP ) was established as the first project of the World Climate Research Program ( WCRP ) . Since its inception in 1982 , there have been two phases , 1983 -- 1995 and 1995 -- 2009 . The project is responsible for collection and analysis of weather satellite radiance measurements . It infers clouds ' global distribution and properties , along with their diurnal , seasonal , and interannual variations . The results are studied to understand clouds in climate , including their effects on radiative energy exchanges , plus their role in the global water cycle . These datasets provide a systematic view of cloud behavior . The ISCCP headquarters are located at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York City . ISCCP data is stored at the ISCCP Central Archive and at NASA . While the data are typically used for climate study , they are also a valuable resource for astronomical pursuits . From 1983 , institutions from around the world have collected and analyzed satellite radiance measurements from two polar orbiting and five geostationary satellites .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "International_Satellite_Cloud_Climatology_Project", "rank": 87, "score": 111279 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions Content: Climate Change : Global Risks , Challenges and Decisions was a conference on Climate Change held at the Bella Center by the University of Copenhagen . The event was organised with the assistance of other universities in the International Alliance of Research Universities . The stated aim of the conference was to provide `` a summary of existing scientific knowledge two years after the last IPCC report . '' The conference took place on 10 -- 12 March 2009 .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Climate_Change:_Global_Risks,_Challenges_and_Decisions", "rank": 88, "score": 110726 }, { "content": "Title: Monthly Climatic Data for the World Content: Monthly Climatic Data for the World ( MCDW ) is a monthly publication of the National Climatic Data Center ( NCDC ) division of the National Environmental Satellite , Data , and Information Service ( NESDIS ) division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) of the United States . According to the website , each monthly issue `` contains monthly mean temperature , pressure , precipitation , vapor pressure , and sunshine for approximately 2,000 surface data collection stations worldwide and monthly mean upper air temperatures , dew point depressions , and wind velocities for approximately 500 observing sites . This is the final quality controlled copy and generally has a 4 - 6 month time lag . '' The issues are available for download in portable document format .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Monthly_Climatic_Data_for_the_World", "rank": 89, "score": 110142 }, { "content": "Title: Seatbelt basalt Content: Lunar Sample 15016 , better known as the `` Seatbelt Basalt '' , is a lunar sample discovered and collected on the Apollo 15 mission in 1971 in the Hadley-Apennine region of the moon . The rock is a 0.923 kg vesicular olivine basalt . It is so named because mission commander , David Scott , noticed it on the surface while driving the lunar rover and stopped to collect it , but said to mission control that he was just fastening his seatbelt . This unplanned stop was later designated geology station 3 , located about 125 meters west of Rhysling crater . The seatbelt basalt is currently stored at the Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center . A piece of it is on display at the National Air and Space Museum in Washington , DC .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Seatbelt_basalt", "rank": 90, "score": 109915 }, { "content": "Title: Hap Hadley Content: Alvan Cordell `` Hap '' Hadley ( March 16 , 1895 , Findlay , Illinois -- August 4 , 1976 , Los Angeles , California ) was an American artist specializing in pen and ink representations of popular subjects . He created posters for various films , including Buster Keaton 's The General ( 1926 ) and Charlie Chaplin 's The Circus ( 1928 ) , as well as promotional posters for the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus and billboards for Roy Rogers . A movie poster of The General was sold by Christie 's East on December 5 , 1994 , for $ 46,000 . He was also an actor , performing in the 1920-1921 Broadway revue The Greenwich Village Follies of 1920 at the Shubert Theatre in New York City and the 1924 film Floodgates .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Hap_Hadley", "rank": 91, "score": 109784 }, { "content": "Title: International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set Content: The International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set ( ICOADS ) is a digital database of 261 million weather observations made by ships , weather ships , and weather buoys spanning the years 1662 to 2007 . The database was initially constructed in 1985 and continues to be expanded upon and updated on a regular basis . From the original data , gridded datasets were created . ICOADS information has been useful in determining the reliability of ship and buoy wind measurements , helping to determine temperature trends in the sea surface temperature field , and updating the Atlantic hurricane database .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "International_Comprehensive_Ocean-Atmosphere_Data_Set", "rank": 92, "score": 109023 }, { "content": "Title: Hadley Upland Content: Hadley Upland is a triangular shaped remnant plateau with an undulating surface , 1500 to , in southern Graham Land , Antarctica . It is bounded by Windy Valley and Martin Glacier , Gibbs Glacier and Lammers Glacier . The existence of this upland was known to the United States Antarctic Service , 1939 -- 41 , Finn Ronne and Carl R. Eklund having travelled along Lammers and Gibbs Glaciers in January 1941 . The upland was surveyed by the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey in 1948 -- 50 and 1958 , and was named by the UK Antarctic Place-Names Committee after John Hadley , an English mathematician who , at the same time as Thomas Godfrey , independently invented the quadrant ( the forerunner of the sextant ) , in 1730 -- 31 .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Hadley_Upland", "rank": 93, "score": 108876 }, { "content": "Title: Human Security Report 2005 Content: The Human Security Report 2005 is a report outlining declining world trends of global violence from the early 1990s to 2003 . The study reported major worldwide declines in the number of armed conflicts , genocides , military coups , and international crises , as well as in the number of battle-related deaths per armed conflict . Three years in the making and launched in 2005 , the report was produced at the Human Security Centre at the University of British Columbia 's Liu Institute for Global Issues by the Human Security Report Project ( HSRP ) , which moved in May 2007 to join Simon Fraser University 's School for International Studies . The Human Security Report covers similar ground to the long-running Peace and Conflict series . According to the 2005 Report , the world saw a shift in global security after the end of the Cold War , with a 40 % decrease in the number of armed conflicts being waged around the world since the early 1990s , and an 80 % decrease of genocides between 1998 and 2001 . Some critics have questioned the relevance of this data , noting that conflict and violence are still significant obstacles for human development , worldwide security , and sustainable peace . For example , a recent Human Development Report from the United Nations Development Programme agrees that the number of conflicts has declined in the last decade , but claims that the wars of the past 15 years have exterminated a larger number of human lives . The Human Security Report argues that there is no evidence to support such a contention . The Report claims that the average number of battle-related deaths per conflict has declined from some 38,000 in 1950 to less than 500 in 2007 . Individual fatality tolls may well be inaccurate ; the trends , however , are indisputable . There are no accurate data on the ( much larger ) number of people who die from war-exacerbated disease and malnutrition , but the Report argues that there are good reasons for believing that these have declined as well . Some critics have argued that there was too much focus on battle-related `` direct '' deaths in the Report . However , an entire section discusses the large number of `` indirect '' deaths caused by war-exacerbated malnutrition and disease . In some cases , the Report says , the ratio of indirect to direct deaths is higher than 10:1 . The Report argues that conflict-driven disease and malnutrition are greater threats to human security than bombs and bullets . But it also argues that indirect deaths have declined over the past 15 years , along with battle-related deaths . Indirect deaths -- the hidden cost of war -- is one of the two main themes of the later Human Security Report 2009/2010 . Indirect deaths are driven by the intensity and scope of political violence . The 2009/2010 Report argues that , since humanitarian assistance has increased on a per capita basis and since recent peacetime health interventions -- primarily immunization -- reduce death tolls in wartime , it is highly likely that indirect deaths from war-exacerbated disease and malnutrition have declined to a greater degree than have `` direct '' deaths from violent injuries . Since the 2005 Report appeared , the data on armed conflict trends , which comes from the Uppsala Conflict Data Program , indicates that there has been a 25 % increase in the overall number of conflicts in which a state is one of the warring parties , but that the number of high-intensity conflicts ( those generating 1,000 or more battle deaths in a year ) have continued to decline and are now some 68 % lower than at the end of the Cold War .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Human_Security_Report_2005", "rank": 94, "score": 107945 }, { "content": "Title: IPCC Summary for Policymakers Content: The Summary for policymakers ( SPM ) is a summary of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports intended to aid policymakers . The form is approved line by line by governments : `` Negotiations occur over wording to ensure accuracy , balance , clarity of message , and relevance to understanding and policy . ''", "qid": "3099", "docid": "IPCC_Summary_for_Policymakers", "rank": 95, "score": 107596 }, { "content": "Title: The Soft Centre Content: The Soft Centre is a work of detective fiction by James Hadley Chase , first published in Great Britain by Robert Hale Ltd. in 1964 . The novel in set in Chase 's fictional city `` Paradise City '' and was the first novel to introduce Detective Tom Lepski .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "The_Soft_Centre", "rank": 96, "score": 107062 }, { "content": "Title: Index (crater) Content: Index is a feature on Earth 's Moon , a crater in the Hadley -- Apennine region . Astronauts David Scott and James Irwin landed the Lunar Module Falcon northwest of it in 1971 , on the Apollo 15 mission , but they did not visit it . They intended to land closer to Index , but actually landed next to Last crater . Index is the southernmost of a line of four craters which were used by the astronauts as landmarks during descent to the surface . The other three are called Luke , Mark , and Matthew , after three of the four major Gospels of the Bible . They were not allowed to call the crater John due to the fact that atheist Madalyn Murray O'Hair had sued NASA for astronauts reading from Genesis during Apollo 8 . The name Index was formally adopted by the IAU in 1973 , but the other three crater names were not .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Index_(crater)", "rank": 97, "score": 106701 }, { "content": "Title: World Digital Magnetic Anomaly Map Content: The World Digital Magnetic Anomaly Map ( WDMAM ) was first made available by the Commission for the Geological Map of the World in 2007 . Compiled with data from governments and institutes , the project was coordinated by the International Association of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy , and was presented by Mike Purucker of NASA and Colin Reeves of the Netherlands . As of 2007 , it was considered to be `` the first truly global compilation of lithospheric magnetic field observations . '' and further improvements dated to 2009 relate to the full spectrum magnetic anomaly grid of the United States and also data of global marine magnetic anomaly . Some of the magnetic anomalies shown in the WDMAM generally relates to the altitude level of 5 km . Some of the significant features represented are of the Bangui Anomaly in the Central African Republic , the Chicxulub crater , the Thromsberg anomaly , the Richat Structure , the Atlantic ridge , the Bay of Biscay , the Sunda Arc and the Paris Basin .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "World_Digital_Magnetic_Anomaly_Map", "rank": 98, "score": 106474 }, { "content": "Title: Ggplot2 Content: ggplot2 is a data visualization package for the statistical programming language R. Created by Hadley Wickham in 2005 , ggplot2 is an implementation of Leland Wilkinson 's Grammar of Graphics -- a general scheme for data visualization which breaks up graphs into semantic components such as scales and layers . ggplot2 can serve as a replacement for the base graphics in R and contains a number of defaults for web and print display of common scales . Since 2005 , ggplot2 has grown in use to become one of the most popular R packages . It is licensed under GNU GPL v2 .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Ggplot2", "rank": 99, "score": 106429 }, { "content": "Title: Irish Peatland Conservation Council Content: The Irish Peatland Conservation Council ( IPCC ; ) is a national organisation established in 1982 to conserve and protect a representative sample of Irish bogs . Having been for many years in Dublin city centre , the Council 's headquarters are currently located at the Bog of Allen Nature Centre , Lullymore , Rathangan , Co. . Kildare . The Bog of Allen Nature Centre was acquired by IPCC in 2003 and since then work has been ongoing to develop an internationally recognised centre for peatland conservation , education and research . IPCC 's conservation aims and objectives are set out in a series of Action Plans , the most recent being Bogs and Fens of Ireland Conservation Plan 2005 . An account of the first fifteen years of the Save the Bogs Campaign is contained in Save the Bogs Story , with all IPCC publications orderable through the charity 's website . IPCC also produces a twice-yearly campaign newsletter Peatland News which goes out to Friends of the Bog . The Friend of the Bog scheme is one means by which members of the public can become involved in and help the Save the Bogs Campaign . Other fundraising methods include special appeals , sale of symbolic share certificates in Irish bogs , a Save the Bogs card and gift catalogue , raffles , open days and sales of work , visits to the Bog of Allen Nature Centre . The IPCC is a registered charity , It is not state-funded and so relies on public support to ensure its independence and influence .", "qid": "3099", "docid": "Irish_Peatland_Conservation_Council", "rank": 100, "score": 106145 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Melt (Rascal Flatts album) Content: Melt is the second studio album from the American country music group Rascal Flatts . It was released on October 29 , 2002 ( see 2002 in country music ) on Lyric Street Records and sold 3,073,000 copies in the United States up to May 2009 . The lead-off single `` These Days '' was the group 's first Number One hit on the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts ( and reached number 23 on the Pop charts ) . The follow-ups , `` Love You out Loud '' and `` I Melt '' , respectively reached number 3 ( number 30 Pop ) and number 2 ( number 34 Pop ) , while `` Mayberry '' was also a Number One ( and number 21 Pop ) . A music video was also made for `` My Worst Fear '' though it was never released as a single .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Melt_(Rascal_Flatts_album)", "rank": 1, "score": 96318 }, { "content": "Title: Whiteout: Melt Content: Whiteout : Melt is the title of a comic book limited series written by Greg Rucka , illustrated by Steve Lieber , and published by Oni Press in 2000 . It is the sequel to Whiteout . Like Whiteout , the illustrations are all in black and white , capturing the starkness of the Antarctic landscape .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Whiteout:_Melt", "rank": 2, "score": 93652 }, { "content": "Title: WASH-740 Content: WASH-740 was a report published by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission ( USAEC ) in 1957 . This report , called `` Theoretical Possibilities and Consequences of Major Accidents in Large Nuclear Power Plants '' ( also known as `` The Brookhaven Report '' ) , estimated maximum possible damage from a meltdown with no containment building at a large nuclear reactor . The conclusions of this study estimated the possible effects of a `` maximum credible accident '' for nuclear reactors then envisioned as being 3400 deaths , 43,000 injuries and property damage of $ 7 billion ( $ 57bn adjusted for inflation in 2012 since 1957 ) . The estimate of probability was one in a hundred thousand to one in a billion per reactor-year . When WASH-740 was revised in 1964-65 to account for the larger reactors then being designed , the new figures indicated that there could be as many as 45,000 deaths , 100,000 injuries , and $ 17 billion in property damage ( $ 125bn adjusted for inflation since 1964 ) . However ; the assumptions underlying the results were unrealistic ( including the worst meteorological conditions , no containment building , and that half the reactor core is released into the atmosphere as micrometre-sized pellets without any examination of how this might occur ) . These were due to conservatism ( estimating the maximum possible damage ) and the need to use atomic bomb fallout data , which had been collected from tests ( computers in 1955 being greatly insufficient to do the calculations ) . As knowledge , models and computers improved the conclusions of this report were replaced by those of first WASH-1400 ( 1975 , The Rasmussen Report ) , then CRAC-II ( 1982 ) , and most recently NUREG-1150 ( 1991 ) . Now all of these studies are considered obsolete ( see the disclaimer to NUREG-1150 ) , and are being replaced by the State-of-the-Art Reactor Consequence Analyses study .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "WASH-740", "rank": 3, "score": 93499 }, { "content": "Title: Manson crater Content: The Manson impact crater is near the site of Manson , Iowa where an asteroid or comet nucleus struck the Earth during the Cretaceous Period , 74 Ma ( million years ago ) . It was one of the largest known impact events to have happened in North America . Previously it was thought to have led to the extinction of the dinosaurs until isotopic ages proved that it was too old . No surface evidence exists due to comparatively recent coverage by glacial till , and the site where the crater lies buried is now a flat landscape . But , hidden about 20 to below the surface is a buried structure about 38 km in diameter . It lies under the southeast corner of Pocahontas County and extends under portions of three adjoining counties . That an anomalous structure underlaid the area was known from unusual water well drill cuttings in 1912 of deformed rock , `` crystalline clast breccia with a melt matrix '' as a later report described it . A research investigation was started in 1955 , and it was labeled a `` cryptovolcanic structure '' ( a hypothetical volcanic steam explosion ) . Further investigation was undertaken by Robert S. Dietz who proposed an impact origin in 1959 and by Nicholas Short in 1966 who produced evidence of shocked quartz grains which confirmed the impact origin of the structure . In 1991 and 1992 the U.S. Geological Survey along with others including the Iowa Geological Survey conducted detailed research in part to test the possible connection of the Manson Crater with the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event . The / isotope ratio dating of the core from the impact structure gave an age of about 74 Ma , or about 10 Ma older than the K -- T boundary . The impactor is considered to have been a stoney meteorite about 2 km in diameter . The site at the time was the shore of a shallow inland sea the Western Interior Seaway . The impact disrupted granite , gneiss , and shales of the Precambrian basement as well as sedimentary formations of Paleozoic age , Devonian through Cretaceous . Limestone layers that give the rest of Iowa hard water were instantaneously vaporized down to the basement rocks , giving Manson the anomalous soft water that it has today .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Manson_crater", "rank": 4, "score": 92903 }, { "content": "Title: Melting (EP) Content: Melting is the second EP by South Korean singer Hyuna , released on October 21 , 2012 . It features the number one single , `` Ice Cream '' . The release date was originally scheduled for October 22 , 2012 but due to a leak it was digitally released a day earlier by Cube Entertainment .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Melting_(EP)", "rank": 5, "score": 92895 }, { "content": "Title: The Incredible Melting Man Content: The Incredible Melting Man is a 1977 American science fiction horror film directed and written by William Sachs . The plot concerns an astronaut whose body begins to melt after he is exposed to radiation during a space flight to Saturn , driving him to commit murders and consume human flesh to survive . During post-production , the producers reshot scenes without Sachs ' participation . The film starred Alex Rebar as the main character , alongside Burr DeBenning as a scientist trying to help him and Myron Healey as a United States Air Force general seeking to capture him . While writing and shooting , Sachs was influenced by The Night of the Living Dead . With the changes by the producers , the final film has been described as a remake of First Man into Space ( 1959 ) , which in turn was directly influenced by The Quatermass Xperiment , even though Sachs had never seen either of those films . The screenplay which Sachs dramatized was originally intended as a parody of horror films , but comedic scenes were edited out during production and new horror scenes added . Sachs claimed that the producers decided during shooting that a straight horror film would be more financially successful , and that the film suffered as a result . The Incredible Melting Man was produced by American International Pictures , which also handled the theatrical distribution . The film includes several homages to science fiction and horror films of the 1950s . Makeup artist Rick Baker provided the gory makeup effects for the film . He originally created four distinct stages of makeup design so that the main character 's body would appear to melt gradually , but the stages were ultimately cut from the final film . The film was commercially successful , but it received largely negative reviews , although even critical reviews complimented Baker 's makeup effects . According to writer/director Sachs , many scenes that were re-shot and changed by the producers proved problematic due to their inferior acting . The Incredible Melting Man was featured in the comedy It Came from Hollywood ( 1982 ) and inspired the makeup effects for a scene in the science fiction-action film RoboCop ( 1987 ) . It was also featured in a season 7 episode of the comedy television series Mystery Science Theater 3000 .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "The_Incredible_Melting_Man", "rank": 6, "score": 92845 }, { "content": "Title: Anecdotal evidence Content: Anecdotal evidence is evidence from anecdotes , i.e. , evidence collected in a casual or informal manner and relying heavily or entirely on personal testimony . When compared to other types of evidence , anecdotal evidence is generally regarded as limited in value due to a number of potential weaknesses , but may be considered within the scope of scientific method as some anecdotal evidence can be both empirical and verifiable , e.g. in the use of case studies in medicine . Other anecdotal evidence , however , does not qualify as scientific evidence , because its nature prevents it from being investigated by the scientific method . Where only one or a few anecdotes are presented , there is a larger chance that they may be unreliable due to cherry-picked or otherwise non-representative samples of typical cases . Similarly , psychologists have found that due to cognitive bias people are more likely to remember notable or unusual examples rather than typical examples . Thus , even when accurate , anecdotal evidence is not necessarily representative of a typical experience . Accurate determination of whether an anecdote is `` typical '' requires statistical evidence . Misuse of anecdotal evidence is an informal fallacy and is sometimes referred to as the `` person who '' fallacy ( `` I know a person who ... '' ; `` I know of a case where ... '' etc. ) which places undue weight on experiences of close peers which may not be typical . Compare with hasty generalization . The term is sometimes used in a legal context to describe certain kinds of testimony which are uncorroborated by objective , independent evidence such as notarized documentation , photographs , audio-visual recordings , etc. . When used in advertising or promotion of a product , service , or idea , anecdotal reports are often called a testimonial , which are highly regulated or banned in some jurisdictions .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Anecdotal_evidence", "rank": 7, "score": 92501 }, { "content": "Title: Late Imbrian Content: In the Lunar geologic timescale , the Late Imbrian epoch occurred between 3800 million years ago to about 3200 million years ago . It was the epoch during which the mantle below the lunar basins partially melted and filled them with basalt . The melting is thought to have occurred because the impacts of the Early Imbrian thinned the overlying rock - either causing the mantle to rise because of the reduced pressure on it , bringing molten material closer to the surface ; or the top melting as heat flowed upwards through the mantle because of reduced overlying thermal insulation . The majority of lunar samples returned to earth for study come from this epoch . The Earth equivalent consists of half of the Archean eon . Category : Lunar geologic periods", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Late_Imbrian", "rank": 8, "score": 91928 }, { "content": "Title: Late Heavy Bombardment Content: The Late Heavy Bombardment ( abbreviated LHB and also known as the lunar cataclysm ) is an event thought to have occurred approximately 4.1 to 3.8 billion years ( Ga ) ago , at a time corresponding to the Neohadean and Eoarchean eras on Earth . During this interval , a disproportionately large number of asteroids are theorized to have collided with the early terrestrial planets in the inner Solar System , including Mercury , Venus , Earth , and Mars . The LHB happened after the Earth and other rocky planets had formed and accreted most of their mass , but still quite early in Earth 's history . Evidence for the LHB derives from lunar samples brought back by the Apollo astronauts . Isotopic dating of Moon rocks implies that most impact melts occurred in a rather narrow interval of time . Several hypotheses attempt to explain the apparent spike in the flux of impactors ( i.e. asteroids and comets ) in the inner Solar System , but no consensus yet exists . The Nice model , popular among planetary scientists , postulates that the giant planets underwent orbital migration and in doing so , scattered objects in the asteroid and/or Kuiper belts into eccentric orbits , and into the path of the terrestrial planets . Other researchers argue that the lunar sample data do not require a cataclysmic cratering event near 3.9 Ga , and that the apparent clustering of impact-melt ages near this time is an artifact of sampling materials retrieved from a single large impact basin . They also note that the rate of impact cratering could differ significantly between the outer and inner zones of the Solar System .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Late_Heavy_Bombardment", "rank": 9, "score": 91912 }, { "content": "Title: I Melt Content: `` I Melt '' is a song written by Gary LeVox , Wendell Mobley and Neil Thrasher and recorded by American country music group Rascal Flatts . It was released in July 2003 as the third single from their album Melt . It peaked at number 2 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks , becoming their seventh entry on that chart .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "I_Melt", "rank": 10, "score": 91594 }, { "content": "Title: Meltdown (2004 film) Content: Meltdown ( also known as American Meltdown ) is television film directed by Jeremiah Chechik , which aired on FOX on 6 June 2004 . The action-drama-thriller film is about the terrorist take-over of the fictional San Juan Nuclear Plant in southern California .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Meltdown_(2004_film)", "rank": 11, "score": 91410 }, { "content": "Title: Melt! (Siouxsie and the Banshees song) Content: `` Melt ! '' is a song by English post-punk band Siouxsie and the Banshees . It was released in 1982 by record label Polydor as a double A-sided single with the song `` Il est né , le divin Enfant '' and is the second and final single from the band 's fifth studio album , A Kiss in the Dreamhouse ( `` Il est né , le divin Enfant '' does not appear on that album ) .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Melt!_(Siouxsie_and_the_Banshees_song)", "rank": 12, "score": 91271 }, { "content": "Title: Melting Millions Content: Melting Millions was a 1927 American adventure film serial directed by Spencer Gordon Bennet . It is considered to be lost .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Melting_Millions", "rank": 13, "score": 91059 }, { "content": "Title: Melt (Straitjacket Fits album) Content: Melt was the second album from Dunedin , New Zealand band Straitjacket Fits , and the last to feature the original line-up of Shayne Carter , Andrew Brough , John Collie and David Wood ; Brough was to leave before the third album , Blow . The album reached no. 13 on the New Zealand music charts . The album would later sell a respectable 40,000 copies in the United States . The album spawned three singles , `` Bad Note for a Heart '' , `` Down in Splendour '' , and `` Roller Ride '' . Of these , only `` Bad Note for a Heart '' charted ( reaching no. 25 in the New Zealand charts ) , yet the Andrew Brough single `` Down in Splendour '' was later listed at number 32 in 2001 on the Australasian Performing Rights Association 's 75th anniversary poll of New Zealand 's top 100 songs of all time . The music video for `` Bad Note for a Heart '' won the award for best New Zealand music video of 1990 . The album was seen as being truer to the band 's sound than the previous album ( Hail ) , and closer to the live sound and to the sound of the band 's debut EP Life in One Chord . The album was described as '' ... a culmination of searing guitars that never collide and are always textured with the rhythm section 's simple powerful backbone . ''", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Melt_(Straitjacket_Fits_album)", "rank": 14, "score": 89718 }, { "content": "Title: Melter Content: The Melter is the name of three fictional characters appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics . The first and the original Melter , Bruno Horgan , is a supervillain who first appeared in Tales of Suspense # 47 ( November 1963 ) .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Melter", "rank": 15, "score": 89328 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull Content: The 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull were volcanic events at Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland which , although relatively small for volcanic eruptions , caused enormous disruption to air travel across western and northern Europe over an initial period of six days in April 2010 . Additional localised disruption continued into May 2010 . The eruption was declared officially over in October 2010 , when snow on the glacier did not melt . From 14 -- 20 April , ash from the volcanic eruption covered large areas of northern Europe . About 20 countries closed their airspace to commercial jet traffic and it affected about 10 million travellers . Seismic activity started at the end of 2009 and gradually increased in intensity until on 20 March 2010 , a small eruption started rated as a 1 on the volcanic explosivity index . Beginning on 14 April 2010 , the eruption entered a second phase and created an ash cloud that led to the closure of most of the European IFR airspace from 15 until 20 April 2010 . Consequently , a very high proportion of flights within , to , and from Europe were cancelled , creating the highest level of air travel disruption since the Second World War . The second phase resulted in an estimated 250 e6m3 ( 0.25 km3 ) of ejected tephra and an ash plume that rose to a height around 9 km , which rates the explosive power of the eruption as a 4 on the volcanic explosivity index . By 21 May 2010 , the second eruption phase had subsided to the point that no further lava or ash was being produced . By the evening of 6 June 2010 , a small , new crater had opened up on the west side of the main crater . Explosive activity from this new crater was observed with emission of small quantities of ash . Seismic data showed that the frequency and intensity of earth tremors still exceeded the levels observed before the eruption , therefore scientists at the Icelandic Meteorological Office ( IMO ) and the Institute of Earth Sciences , University of Iceland ( IES ) continued to monitor the volcano . In October 2010 , Ármann Höskuldsson , a scientist at the University of Iceland Institute of Earth Sciences , stated that the eruption was officially over , although the area was still geothermally active and might erupt again .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "2010_eruptions_of_Eyjafjallajökull", "rank": 16, "score": 89139 }, { "content": "Title: Sayh al Uhaymir 169 Content: Sayh al Uhaymir 169 ( SaU 169 ) is a 206 grams lunar meteorite found in the Sayh al Uhaymir region of the Sultanate of Oman in January 2002 . This stone is an impact-melt breccia with exceedingly high concentrations of thorium and other incompatible elements ; phosphorus , rare earth elements , and the three most important naturally occurring radioactive elements , potassium , thorium , and uranium have been segregated in the liquid phase when the lunar minerals crystallized . The impact that eventually sent this stone to the Earth is dated at 3.9 billion years and could be the Imbrium impact . It collided with the Earth less than 9,700 years ago . It is complete , a light gray-greenish rounded stone , dimensions 70 × and mass 206 g , found on January 16 , 2002 , in the central desert of Oman at 20 ° 34.391 'N and 57 ° 19.400 ' E. According to geologist Edwin Gnos and coworkers , the meteorite 's origin can be pinpointed to the vicinity of the Lalande impact crater ; isotopic analysis shows a complex history of four distinct lunar impacts : `` Crystallization of the impact melt occurred at 3909 ± 13 Ma , followed by exhumation by a second impact at 2800 Ma , which raised the sample to a regolith position at unconstrained depth . A third impact at 200 Ma moved the material closer to the lunar surface , where it mixed with solar-wind -- containing regolith . It was launched into space by a fourth impact at < 0.34 Ma '' .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Sayh_al_Uhaymir_169", "rank": 17, "score": 89109 }, { "content": "Title: Melting (album) Content: Melting is the first studio album by South Korean girl group Mamamoo . It was released by Rainbow Bridge World on February 26 , 2016 and distributed by CJ E&M Music . It contains twelve songs , including the single `` You 're the Best '' , which was used to promote the album . The album was preceded by two additional singles , `` I Miss You '' and `` Taller Than You '' .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Melting_(album)", "rank": 18, "score": 88759 }, { "content": "Title: Joseph Cloud Content: Joseph Cloud ( August 27 , 1770 -- July 3 , 1845 ) held the office of melter and refiner at the U.S. Mint at Philadelphia Mint from 1797 to 1836 .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Joseph_Cloud", "rank": 19, "score": 88030 }, { "content": "Title: 1999 Pentecost flood Content: The 1999 Pentecost flood ( Pfingsthochwasser 1999 ) was a 100-year flood around the Pentecost season in 1999 that mostly affected Bavaria , Vorarlberg and Tirol . It was caused by heavy rainfall coinciding with the regular Alpine meltwater . By late May , the annual spring meltwater from the Alps meant many Bavarian rivers were already at a high water level . On May 22 the rainstorm `` Quartus '' hit the northern Alps , bringing an additional 180 litres/m ² , causing the Ammersee and the Amper and Isar rivers to expand and flood large areas . These flooded areas expanded quickly covering parts of the Oberallgäu on the river Iller . The flood then continued downstream to some of the more inhabited areas in Bavaria . The water level of the Isar , which flows through Munich , was lowered by the Sylvensteinspeicher reservoir near Bad Tölz . However causeways on the Iller failed , flooding Sonthofen , parts of Augsburg and Neustadt . In Hindelang-Hinterstein the flood reached a peak not recorded in the previous 250 years . A subsequent Alpine highwater on 23-24 August 2005 again did damage to these areas . In the Vorarlberg area the Rhine flood affected Lake Constance damaging Hard and Bregenz . In Tirol the village Pflach in Lechtal was flooded .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "1999_Pentecost_flood", "rank": 20, "score": 87994 }, { "content": "Title: Galactic Melt Content: Galactic Melt is the debut studio album by American electronic musician Com Truise , released on June 5 , 2011 by the independent record label Ghostly International .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Galactic_Melt", "rank": 21, "score": 87994 }, { "content": "Title: The Big Melt Content: The Big Melt is a documentary film about the Sheffield steel industry which combines archive footage with a live soundtrack . It was made by Jarvis Cocker and filmmaker Martin Wallace for the 20th annual Sheffield Doc/Fest in 2013 , to celebrate the centenary of the steel industry . The film was made using footage from the BFI National Archive . The film was commissioned by BBC Storyville and BBC North in association with the BFI , using public funding from the National Lottery through Arts Council England .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "The_Big_Melt", "rank": 22, "score": 87993 }, { "content": "Title: Big Muley Content: Lunar Sample 61016 , better known as `` Big Muley '' , is a lunar sample discovered and collected on the Apollo 16 mission in 1972 in the Descartes Highlands , on the rim of Plum crater , near Flag crater . It is the largest sample returned from the Moon as part of the Apollo program . The rock , an 11.7 kg breccia consisting mainly of shocked anorthosite attached to a fragment of troctolitic `` melt rock '' , is named after Bill Muehlberger , the Apollo 16 field geology team leader . Big Muley is currently stored at the Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Big_Muley", "rank": 23, "score": 87969 }, { "content": "Title: The Melted Coins Content: The Melted Coins is Volume 23 in the original The Hardy Boys Mystery Stories published by Grosset & Dunlap . This book was written for the Stratemeyer Syndicate by Leslie McFarlane in 1944 . Between 1959 and 1973 the first 38 volumes of this series were systematically revised as part of a project directed by Harriet Adams , Edward Stratemeyer 's daughter . The original version of this book was rewritten in 1970 by Andrew E. Svenson resulting in two different stories with the same title .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "The_Melted_Coins", "rank": 24, "score": 87541 }, { "content": "Title: Meltdown (Red Dwarf) Content: `` Meltdown '' is the sixth , and final , episode of science fiction sitcom Red Dwarf Series IV and the twenty-fourth episode in the series run . It was first broadcast on the British television channel BBC2 on 21 March 1991 . Written by Rob Grant and Doug Naylor , and directed by Ed Bye . The episode , featuring Wax-Droids of famous historical figures involved in a war of good versus evil , was originally supposed to open the series but was postponed due to the Gulf War conflict .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Meltdown_(Red_Dwarf)", "rank": 25, "score": 87258 }, { "content": "Title: Melt (Melanie C song) Content: `` Melt '' is a song by British singer-songwriter Melanie C . It was released as the third and final single from her second solo album , Reason ( 2003 ) . The song was released as a double A-side with `` Yeh Yeh Yeh '' in the United Kingdom . In other countries , `` Yeh Yeh Yeh '' was serviced on its own as the final single . The black and white music video , directed by Jamie Vickery , features behind the scenes footage from the Reason Tour .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Melt_(Melanie_C_song)", "rank": 26, "score": 87106 }, { "content": "Title: Investigations into the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster Content: Investigations into the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster ( or Accident ) began on March 11 , 2011 when a series of equipment failures , core melt and down , and releases of radioactive materials occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station from the 2011 off the Pacific coast of Tohoku Earthquake and tsunami on the same day .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Investigations_into_the_Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster", "rank": 27, "score": 86617 }, { "content": "Title: Air travel disruption after the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption Content: In response to concerns that volcanic ash ejected during the 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland would damage aircraft engines , the controlled airspace of many European countries was closed to instrument flight rules traffic , resulting in the largest air-traffic shut-down since World War II . The closures caused millions of passengers to be strand #Verb not only in Europe , but across the world . With large parts of European airspace closed to air traffic , many more countries were affected as flights to and from Europe were cancelled . After an initial uninterrupted shutdown over much of northern Europe from 15 to 23 April , airspace was closed intermittently in different parts of Europe in the following weeks , as the path of the ash cloud was tracked . The ash cloud caused further disruptions to air travel operations in Ireland , Northern Ireland and Scotland on 4 and 5 May and in Spain , Portugal , northern Italy , Austria and southern Germany on 9 May . Irish and UK airspace closed again on 16 May and reopened on 17 May . The eruption occurred beneath glacial ice . The cold water from the melting ice chilled the lava quickly , causing it to fragment into very small particles of glass ( silica ) and ash , which were carried into the eruption plume . The extremely fine ash particles and the large volume of steam from the glacial meltwater sent an ash plume hazardous to aircraft rapidly high into the upper atmosphere . The presence and location of the plume depended upon the state of the eruption and the winds . The large amount of glacial meltwater flowing into the eruption vent made this eruption so explosive that it injected its ash plume directly into the jet stream , which was unusually stable and south-easterly . The ash was then carried over Europe into one of the busiest airspace in the world . The International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) estimated that the airline industry worldwide would lose a day during the disruption . IATA stated that the total loss for the airline industry was around US$ 1.7 billion ( # 1.1 billion , $ 1.3 billion ) . The Airport Operators Association ( AOA ) estimated that airports lost # 80 million over the six-and-a-half days . Over 95,000 flights had been cancelled all across Europe during the six-day travel ban , with later figures suggesting 107,000 flights cancelled during an 8-day period , accounting for 48 % of total air traffic and roughly 10 million passengers .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Air_travel_disruption_after_the_2010_Eyjafjallajökull_eruption", "rank": 28, "score": 86488 }, { "content": "Title: Melting Pot (The Charlatans album) Content: Melting Pot is a greatest hits album by the British alternative rock band The Charlatans ( known in the United States as The Charlatans UK ) . Featuring tracks from their time on Beggars Banquet Records between 1990 and 1997 , the album was released on 23 February 1998 . The cover features a picture of The Weaverdale cafe ( subsequently renamed The Melting Pot , but closed in November 2016 , and serving now as a florist ) in Northwich , the site of the group 's first meeting after signing to Beggars in 1990 . The song `` Opportunity Three '' is a remix by Flood of the song `` Opportunity '' from the Some Friendly album that otherwise only appeared on the Over Rising EP . The album was re-released on 20 May 2002 with a slipcase to match the artwork of B-sides compilation Songs from the Other Side . No changes were made to the album artwork or track listing .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Melting_Pot_(The_Charlatans_album)", "rank": 29, "score": 86462 }, { "content": "Title: Melton (horse) Content: Melton ( 1882 -- 1910 ) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse and sire . In a career that lasted from 1884 to 1886 he ran eighteen times and won eleven races . In 1885 he won the second two legs of the English Triple Crown , the Derby at Epsom and the St Leger at Doncaster . At the end of the 1886 season he was retired to stud where he had considerable success in both Italy and Great Britain .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Melton_(horse)", "rank": 30, "score": 86350 }, { "content": "Title: Three Mile Island: Thirty Minutes to Meltdown Content: Three Mile Island : Thirty Minutes to Meltdown is a 1982 book by Daniel Ford . Ford presents a `` meticulous post-mortem of the events that nearly led to a meltdown '' at the Metropolitan Edison station near Harrisburg in March 1979 . He analyses the complex of people , technology , customs and regulations involved . Ford identifies regulatory failure and industry cost-cutting as the underlying causes of the Three Mile Island accident . Daniel Ford is an economist and former director of the Union of Concerned Scientists .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Three_Mile_Island:_Thirty_Minutes_to_Meltdown", "rank": 31, "score": 86332 }, { "content": "Title: Melton by-election, 1956 Content: The 1956 Melton by-election was held on 19 December 1956 after the resignation of the incumbent Conservative MP Anthony Nutting over a disagreement with his party over the Suez Crisis . The by-election was won by the Conservative candidate Mervyn Pike .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Melton_by-election,_1956", "rank": 32, "score": 86101 }, { "content": "Title: Melt Yourself Down Content: Melt Yourself Down are a London-based band who incorporate elements of North African musical styles , punk , jazz and funk . Founded in January 2012 , the band is led by saxophonist Pete Wareham , former leader of now defunct jazz/punk band Acoustic Ladyland and saxophonist in British jazz band Polar Bear . The original line-up included saxophonist Shabaka Hutchings ( Sons Of Kemet , The Comet Is Coming , The Heliocentrics ) , drummer Tom Skinner ( Sons of Kemet , Mulatu Astatke , Hello Skinny ) , vocalist Kushal Gaya ( Zun Zun Egui ) , bassist Ruth Goller ( Acoustic Ladyland ) and percussionist Satin Singh ( Fela ! , Transglobal Underground ) . Hutchings and Skinner have been replaced by George Crowley and Dave Smith respectively . They are signed to The Leaf Label and released their debut album on 17 June 2013 , followed by Live At The New Empowering Church on 19 April 2014 . Their second studio album , Last Evenings On Earth , was released on 29 April 2016 .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Melt_Yourself_Down", "rank": 33, "score": 85992 }, { "content": "Title: Meltdown (1986 video game) Content: Meltdown is a 1986 isometric computer game developed by Alligata Software for the Amstrad CPC . There are two English language versions , a 64k version with a little basic speech synthesis and a 128k version featuring much more speech synthesis . A version was also released in French called Le Syndrome .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Meltdown_(1986_video_game)", "rank": 34, "score": 85793 }, { "content": "Title: The Melting Pot (1915 film) Content: The Melting Pot is a lost 1915 silent film drama based on the novel and 1909 Broadway play by Israel Zangwill . The film starred stage actor Walker Whiteside reprising his role from the Broadway play .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "The_Melting_Pot_(1915_film)", "rank": 35, "score": 85678 }, { "content": "Title: The Melting Pot (television programme) Content: The Melting Pot was an ill-fated television situation comedy on BBC in 1975 . It starred Spike Milligan , and was written by him and Neil Shand . Milligan played Mr. Van Gogh , one of two Asian illegal immigrants shown as landing on a beach in Britain , and making it to a district of London known as `` the melting pot '' in the first episode . It was supposed to be a series of six episodes , but was cancelled after the screening of the first episode and the remaining five have never been broadcast . It was considered by some to handle racial issues in an insensitive way .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "The_Melting_Pot_(television_programme)", "rank": 36, "score": 85544 }, { "content": "Title: L'Estaque, Melting Snow Content: L'Estaque , Melting Snow is a c. 1871 oil-on-canvas painting by French Post-Impressionist artist Paul Cézanne . It shows a view from the outskirts of L'Estaque , a small village near Marseille , with a steep hillside covered in a drift of melting snow underneath a foreboding dark grey sky . Filled with intense emotion , the painting has been described as similar to the work of Vincent van Gogh the following decade , and a painting more formally similar to early 20th-century than contemporaneous art . L'Estaque , Melting Snow was painted in a single session . It is one of only two snow-laden winter subjects Cézanne painted . Cézanne moved to Provence in 1870 to evade military service during the Franco-Prussian War . He soon moved to L'Estaque , where he painted a number of landscapes . Critics differ in their interpretation of this painting , some see it as wholly personal , other as a response to the war with Prussia . Supporting the latter view , Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka saw the painting as making a statement on social and political transformation and wrote of the political context in which it was created , `` what is our response to those red-roofed houses which are held , as if in a vice , between a leaden sky and a sliding block of snow ? '' The colors are oppressively dark , while the thickly painted , quick brushwork adds to the urgent violence of the scene . With the exception of the red rooftops and the greens of the trees in the foreground , the colors and the tones are monotonous and gloomy . The whites , greys and blacks are used mostly for emotional impact . Though L'Estaque , Melting Snow evidences Cézanne 's new-found facility in depicting the deep space of a landscape , it is marked by an emotional intensity closer in spirit to the turbulence of his early figure works than to the structural complexity of the later landscape paintings . The diagonal of the hill cuts across the painting from left to right , dividing avalanche on one side and gloom on the other . The hill sweeps down until it rests just above the red roof of a barely visible house at its foot -- an effect that art critic Meyer Schapiro described as giving `` a rushing force to the image . '' The dark brown trees on the slope 's ledge have twisted trunks and rest on unsteady ground , while the trees in the mid-ground are painted in black and form a descending arch which moves inwards towards the center of the canvas before merging with the ominous overhanging clouds . Given the angle of the hill and the depth from which the houses are viewed , it is difficult to imagine where the observer is supposed to be positioned . Writer Ronald Berman drew comparison between Cézanne 's treatment of this landscape and the way Ernest Hemingway imbues the Irati River in Navarre with emotional scope in his 1926 novel on the lost generation , The Sun Also Rises . In both , the landscape is subjective and the viewpoint of the observer is paramount -- the landscape is representational and perceived differently by each character . According to Berman , `` The foreground is the observer 's space '' . In the Cézanne , nature becomes an extension of the observer 's mental landscape , and in Hemingway it is a representation of each viewer 's need for inclusion within the natural order .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "L'Estaque,_Melting_Snow", "rank": 37, "score": 85451 }, { "content": "Title: Anecdotal value Content: In communication studies , science communication , psycholinguistics and choice theory , anecdotal value refers to the primarily social and political value of an anecdote or anecdotal evidence in promoting understanding of a social , cultural , or economic phenomenon . While anecdotal evidence is typically unscientific , in the last several decades the evaluation of anecdotes has received sustained academic scrutiny from economists and scholars such as Felix Salmon S. G. Checkland ( on David Ricardo ) , Steven Novella , R. Charleton , Hollis Robbins , Kwamena Kwansah-Aidoo , and others . These academics seek to quantify the value of the use of c awareness of a disease . More recently , economists studying choice models have begun assessing anecdotal value in the context of framing ; Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky suggest that choice models may be contingent on stories or anecdotes that frame or influence choice . As an example , consider Joseph Stalin 's apocryphal quote : The death of one man is a tragedy , the death of millions is a statistic .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Anecdotal_value", "rank": 38, "score": 85346 }, { "content": "Title: 1977 Yokohama F-4 crash Content: The occurred on 27 September 1977 , in Yokohama , Japan . In the crash , a United States Marine Corps RF-4B-41-MC , BuNo 157344 , c/n 3717 , ` RF611 ' , of VMFP-3 , a ( reconnaissance variant of the McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II ) flown by a United States Marine Corps crew based at nearby Naval Air Facility Atsugi , en route to USS Midway in Sagami Bay , suffered a mechanical malfunction , the port engine caught fire , and crashed into a residential neighborhood . The crash killed two boys , ages 1 and 3 , and injured seven others , several seriously . The two-man crew of the aircraft , Capt. J. E. Miller , of Mendota , Illinois , and 1st Lt. D. R. Durbin , of Natchitoches , Louisiana , ejected and were not seriously injured . The crash , which occurred near present-day Eda Station , destroyed several houses . The two young boys initially survived the crash into their home , but died later from severe burns . The boys ' mother was also severely burned . Due to the fear that she would be adversely affected during her recovery by the shock , she was not told until 29 January 1979 , that her sons had died . The mother died in 1982 , aged 31 , from complications related to her injuries .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "1977_Yokohama_F-4_crash", "rank": 39, "score": 85314 }, { "content": "Title: Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (Unit 1 Reactor) Content: The was a series of equipment failures , nuclear meltdowns , and releases of radioactive materials at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant , following the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami on 11 March 2011 . It is the largest nuclear disaster since the Chernobyl disaster of 1986 . The plant comprises six separate boiling water reactors originally designed by General Electric ( GE ) , and maintained by the Tokyo Electric Power Company ( TEPCO ) . At the time of the quake , Reactor 4 had been de-fueled while 5 and 6 were in cold shutdown for planned maintenance . Immediately after the earthquake , the remaining reactors 1-3 shut down automatically , and emergency generators came online to control electronics and coolant systems . However , the tsunami following the earthquake quickly flooded the low-lying rooms in which the emergency generators were housed . The flooded generators failed , cutting power to the critical pumps that must continuously circulate coolant water through a nuclear reactor for several days in order to keep it from melting down after being shut down . As the pumps stopped , the reactors overheated due to the normal high radioactive decay heat produced in the first few days after nuclear reactor shutdown ( smaller amounts of this heat normally continue to be released for years , but are not enough to cause fuel melting ) . At this point , only prompt flooding of the reactors with seawater could have cooled the reactors quickly enough to prevent meltdown . Salt water flooding was delayed because it would ruin the costly reactors permanently . Flooding with seawater was finally commenced only after the government ordered that seawater be used , and at this point it was already too late to prevent meltdown . As the water boiled away in the reactors and the water levels in the fuel rod pools dropped , the reactor fuel rods began to overheat severely , and to melt down . In the hours and days that followed , Reactors 1 , 2 and 3 experienced full meltdown . In the intense heat and pressure of the melting reactors , a reaction between the nuclear fuel metal cladding and the remaining water surrounding them produced explosive hydrogen gas . As workers struggled to cool and shut down the reactors , several hydrogen-air chemical explosions occurred . Concerns about the repeated small explosions , the atmospheric venting of radioactive gasses , and the possibility of larger explosions led to a 20 km-radius evacuation around the plant . During the early days of the accident workers were temporarily evacuated at various times for radiation safety reasons . At the same time , sea water that had been exposed to the melting rods was returned to the sea heated and radioactive in large volumes for several months until recirculating units could be put in place to repeatedly cool and re-use a limited quantity of water for cooling . The earthquake damage and flooding in the wake of the tsunami hindered external assistance . Electrical power was slowly restored for some of the reactors , allowing for automated cooling . Japanese officials initially assessed the accident as Level 4 on the International Nuclear Event Scale ( INES ) despite the views of other international agencies that it should be higher . The level was later raised to 5 and eventually to 7 , the maximum scale value . The Japanese government and TEPCO have been criticized in the foreign press for poor communication with the public and improvised cleanup efforts . On 20 March , the Chief Cabinet Secretary Yukio Edano announced that the plant would be decommissioned once the crisis was over . The Japanese government estimates the total amount of radioactivity released into the atmosphere was approximately one-tenth as much as was released during the Chernobyl disaster . Significant amounts of radioactive material have also been released into ground and ocean waters . Measurements taken by the Japanese government 30 -- 50 km from the plant showed caesium-137 levels high enough to cause concern , leading the government to ban the sale of food grown in the area . Tokyo officials temporarily recommended that tap water should not be used to prepare food for infants . In May 2012 , TEPCO reported that at least 900 PBq had been released `` into the atmosphere in March last year -LSB- 2011 -RSB- alone '' although it has been said staff may have been told to lie , and give false readings to try and cover up true levels of radiation . A few of the plant 's workers were severely injured or killed by the disaster conditions resulting from the earthquake . There were no immediate deaths due to direct radiation exposures , but at least six workers have exceeded lifetime legal limits for radiation and more than 300 have received significant radiation doses . Predicted future cancer deaths due to accumulated radiation exposures in the population living near Fukushima have ranged from none to 100 to a non-peer-reviewed `` guesstimate '' of 1,000 . On 16 December 2011 , Japanese authorities declared the plant to be stable , although it would take decades to decontaminate the surrounding areas and to decommission the plant altogether . On 5 July 2012 , the parliament appointed The Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission ( NAIIC ) submitted its inquiry report to the Japanese parliament , while the government appointed Investigation Committee on the Accident at the Fukushima Nuclear Power Stations of Tokyo Electric Power Company submitted its final report to the Japanese government on 23 July 2012 . Tepco admitted for the first time on 12 October 2012 that it had failed to take stronger measures to prevent disasters for fear of inviting lawsuits or protests against its nuclear plants .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster_(Unit_1_Reactor)", "rank": 40, "score": 85130 }, { "content": "Title: Meltdown Records Content: Meltdown Records was a small independent record label established by Massey University student Peter Shepherd in Palmerston North , New Zealand in 1985 . The first recording was by a band called Dosage B which was led by Jeremy Corbett who subsequently became a well known radio host in New Zealand . Meltdown released 10 records in a 4-year period including an EP by The Remarkables and an album by Three Leaning Men titled Fun in the Key of E , both early bands of New Zealand musician Alan Gregg . Another highlight was an EP by the Pterodactyls which featured ex Chills member Martin Kean .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Meltdown_Records", "rank": 41, "score": 84727 }, { "content": "Title: The Melting Pot (play) Content: The Melting Pot is a play by Israel Zangwill , first staged in 1908 . It depicts the life of a Russian-Jewish immigrant family , the Quixanos . David Quixano has survived a pogrom , which killed his mother and sister , and he wishes to forget this horrible event . He composes an `` American Symphony '' and wants to look forward to a society free of ethnic divisions and hatred , rather than backward at his traumatic past . David , the hero of the play proclaims : `` There she lies , the great Melting Pot -- listen ! Ca n't you hear the roaring and the bubbling ? There gapes her mouth -LSB- _ He points east _ -RSB- -- the harbour where a thousand mammoth feeders come from the ends of the world to pour in their human freight . Ah , what a stirring and a seething ! Celt and Latin , Slav and Teuton , Greek and Syrian , -- black and yellow - '' VERA : `` Jew and Gentile - '' DAVID : `` Yes , East and West , and North and South , the palm and the pine , the pole and the equator , the crescent and the cross -- how the great Alchemist melts and fuses them with his purging flame ! Here shall they all unite to build the Republic of Man and the Kingdom of God . Ah , Vera , what is the glory of Rome and Jerusalem where all nations and races come to worship and look back , compared with the glory of America , where all races and nations come to labour and look forward ! '' . '' '' ' Although the idea of `` melting '' as a metaphor for ethnic assimilation had been used before , Zangwill 's play popularized the term `` melting pot '' as a symbol for this occurrence in American society.The Melting Pot '' opened in Washington , DC , on October 5 , 1908 . President Theodore Roosevelt , in attendance that night , is said to have shouted `` That 's a great play , Mr. Zangwill . '' It opened at the Comedy Theatre in New York on September 6 , 1909 , and ran for 136 performances . It was produced by Liebler & Co. and staged ( directed ) by Hugh Ford . As in the original production , Walker Whiteside played David , Henry Vogel played Herr Pappelmeister and Chrystal Herne ( daughter of James A. Herne ) played Vera . In the play , David emigrates to America in the wake of the 1903 Kishinev pogrom in which his entire family is killed . He writes a great symphony called `` The Crucible '' expressing his hope for a world in which all ethnicity has melted away , and falls in love with a beautiful Russian Christian immigrant named Vera . The dramatic peak of the play is the moment when David meets Vera 's father , who turns out to be the Russian officer responsible for the annihilation of David 's family . Vera 's father admits his guilt , the symphony is performed to accolades , David and Vera live happily ever after , or , at least , agree to wed and kiss as the curtain falls .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "The_Melting_Pot_(play)", "rank": 42, "score": 84564 }, { "content": "Title: Melty Blood Content: , is a visual novel and fighting game , co-developed by dōjin circles Type-Moon and French-Bread , originally released at Comiket in December 2002 . It is shortened as simply . Based on Type Moon 's visual novel game , Tsukihime , it later spawned an arcade version titled Act Cadenza , developed by Ecole Software and has also been ported to the PlayStation 2 , the first Type-Moon title to receive a console release . A manga version by Takeru Kirishima has been serialized in Kadokawa Shoten 's Comp Ace .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Melty_Blood", "rank": 43, "score": 84243 }, { "content": "Title: Ice Age: The Meltdown Content: Ice Age : The Meltdown is a 2006 American computer-animated comedy adventure film produced by Blue Sky Studios and released by 20th Century Fox . As the first sequel to the 2002 film Ice Age , it focuses on the herd escaping an upcoming flood , during which Manny finds love . It was directed by Carlos Saldanha , co-director of the first film , with the music composed by John Powell . The original voice cast -- Ray Romano , John Leguizamo , Denis Leary and Chris Wedge -- is joined by Queen Latifah , Seann William Scott and Josh Peck . The film premiered in Belgium on March 1 , 2006 . It was eventually released in 70 countries , with the last release being in China , on June 9 , 2006 . The Meltdown received mixed critical reaction but was a box office success by earning over $ 660 million . Three more sequels were released -- Ice Age : Dawn of the Dinosaurs in 2009 , Ice Age : Continental Drift in 2012 and Ice Age : Collision Course in 2016 .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Ice_Age:_The_Meltdown", "rank": 44, "score": 84186 }, { "content": "Title: Body Melt Content: Body Melt is a 1993 satirical Australian horror film directed by Philip Brophy and written by Brophy and Rod Bishop ( both ex - → ↑ → ) , influenced by `` splatstick '' Peter Jackson films like Bad Taste and Braindead .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Body_Melt", "rank": 45, "score": 84095 }, { "content": "Title: I Melt with You (film) Content: I Melt with You is a 2011 American arthouse thriller film directed by Mark Pellington . It completed filming in September 2010 . It premiered at the Sundance Film Festival in January 2011 . The film was critically panned .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "I_Melt_with_You_(film)", "rank": 46, "score": 83980 }, { "content": "Title: Tollmann's hypothetical bolide Content: Alexander Tollmann 's bolide , proposed by Kristan-Tollmann and Tollmann in 1994 , is a hypothesis presented by Austrian geologist Alexander Tollmann , suggesting that one or several bolides ( asteroids or comets ) struck the Earth at 7640 BCE ( ± 200 ) , with a much smaller one at 3150 BCE ( ± 200 ) . If true , this hypothesis explains early Holocene extinctions and possibly legends of the Universal Deluge . The claimed evidence for the event includes stratigraphic studies of tektites , dendrochronology , and ice cores ( from Camp Century , Greenland ) containing hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid ( indicating an energetic ocean strike ) as well as nitric acids ( caused by extreme heating of air ) . Christopher Knight and Robert Lomas in their book , Uriel 's Machine , argue that the 7640 BCE evidence is consistent with the dates of formation of a number of extant salt flats and lakes in dry areas of North America and Asia . They argue that these lakes are the result remains of multiple-kilometer-high waves that penetrated deeply into continents as the result of oceanic strikes that they proposed occurred .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Tollmann's_hypothetical_bolide", "rank": 47, "score": 83907 }, { "content": "Title: Ralph Flores Content: Ralph V. Flores ( October 24 , 1921 -- September 20 , 1997 ) was a Mexican-born pilot from California who crashed his private plane in the wilds of Canada 's Yukon Territory in February 1963 while on a trip from Fairbanks , Alaska to California . He survived , along with his passenger Helen Klaben , for 49 days , subsisting mostly on melted snow . Flores , a new convert to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints , told the Jewish Klaben that they would be rescued if she would read the New Testament . Soon after Klaben had supposedly finished the last page of the Book of Revelation , a passing pilot , a Mr. Hamilton , finally noticed the giant SOS that Flores had stamped into the snow of a nearby clearing . His grandson , BJ Flores , is a professional boxer .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Ralph_Flores", "rank": 48, "score": 83896 }, { "content": "Title: Melted Content: Melted is the third album by American garage rock singer-songwriter Ty Segall . It was released on June 15th , 2010 on Goner Records , on CD/LP formats . The songs `` My Sunshine '' and `` Caesar '' were officially released as singles , and `` Girlfriend '' had an official music video .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Melted", "rank": 49, "score": 83513 }, { "content": "Title: I Melt with You Content: `` I Melt with You '' is a song by the British post-punk/new wave band Modern English . The song , produced by Hugh Jones , was a single from the 1982 album After the Snow .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "I_Melt_with_You", "rank": 50, "score": 83427 }, { "content": "Title: The Melting Pot (comics) Content: The Melting Pot is a graphic novel by Kevin Eastman , Simon Bisley and Eric Talbot . Eastman and Talbot collaborated on the story , while Eastman and Bisley worked together on the painted artwork . The series spent several years in development , with advertisements promoting its release appearing in Mirage Studios books from as far back as 1989 . It was eventually serialized in four issues released in 1993 and 1994 by Kitchen Sink Press . A 144-page paperback volume collecting the series with a foreword by Mike Allred followed in 1995 . In November 2007 , Eastman published a new 170-page version of the story , filling an entire issue of Heavy Metal magazine . The 2007 version is substantially different from the original series , with an expanded , more coherent narrative and new artwork by Eastman , Bisley , and Rob Prior .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "The_Melting_Pot_(comics)", "rank": 51, "score": 83386 }, { "content": "Title: Melting Pot (song) Content: `` Melting Pot '' is the 1969 debut single from UK pop group Blue Mink . The song was written by Blue Mink 's lead singer Roger Cook and long-time songwriter partner Roger Greenaway . The song peaked at number three in the UK Singles chart in the first week of 1970 , and also reached Number 11 in Ireland . It became the opening track on the group 's 1969 debut album , also titled Melting Pot . While the song has assimilationist undertones , it is generally considered a plea for racial harmony . However in 2015 , BBC Three Counties DJ Iain Lee apologized for playing the song , which includes the lyric `` yellow Chinkees '' .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Melting_Pot_(song)", "rank": 52, "score": 83093 }, { "content": "Title: Acid Mothers Temple & The Melting Paraiso U.F.O. 1 Content: Acid Mothers Temple & The Melting Paraiso U.F.O. 1 is a cassette by Acid Mothers Temple & the Melting Paraiso U.F.O. released in February 1997 by the band 's own label in a limited edition of 50 copies , along with its companion release Acid Mothers Temple & The Melting Paraiso U.F.O. 2 . The cassette includes some of the first sessions of the band , recorded at Acid Mothers Temple from 1995 to 1997 . Most of the songs were later released in different forms on the band 's eponymous debut album and other recordings . The material on the cassette was reissued by Synesthetic Recordings in 2007 as part of the compilation The Early Acid Mothers Temple Recordings 1995-1997 .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Acid_Mothers_Temple_&_The_Melting_Paraiso_U.F.O._1", "rank": 53, "score": 83021 }, { "content": "Title: Melted Love Content: is a Japanese manga written and illustrated by You Takumi . It is licensed in North America by Digital Manga Publishing , which released the manga through its imprint , Juné , on 22 September 2007 .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Melted_Love", "rank": 54, "score": 82965 }, { "content": "Title: Rube Melton Content: Reuben Franklin Melton ( February 27 , 1917 -- September 11 , 1971 ) was a pitcher from 1941 to 1947 with the Brooklyn Dodgers and Philadelphia Phillies . Melton led the league in walks and wild pitches during the 1942 season . Due to his arm injury from World War 2 , this made it harder for him to play ball . He was forced to make his career short but will certainly not be forgotten . Melton died in an automobile accident in Greer , South Carolina in 1971 .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Rube_Melton", "rank": 55, "score": 82675 }, { "content": "Title: Quick, Before It Melts Content: Quick , Before It Melts is a 1964 Panavision and Metrocolor comedy film directed by Delbert Mann , written by Dale Wasserman , starring Robert Morse , George Maharis , and Anjanette Comer and released by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer . It was based on a novel of the same title by Philip Benjamin .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Quick,_Before_It_Melts", "rank": 56, "score": 82672 }, { "content": "Title: Meltdown (Image Comics) Content: Meltdown is a two-part comic book mini-series published in December 2006 ( issue 1 ) and January 2007 ( issue 2 ) by Image Comics . Written by David Schwartz and illustrated by Sean Wang .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Meltdown_(Image_Comics)", "rank": 57, "score": 82670 }, { "content": "Title: Carstensz expedition Content: The Carstensz expedition was made in 1936 by Anton Colijn , Jean Jacques Dozy and Frits Wissel . They left on October 29 , 1936 from Aika , a town on the southern coast of Dutch New Guinea on December 24 and returned . The aim of the expedition was reached by climbing the highest peak of the Carstenzgebergte , which at the time was the snow-covered peak of Ngga Pulu ( then about 4,900 m ) . Since 1936 , massive snow melt has caused the nearby rocky spires of Carstensz Pyramid ( a.k.a. Puncak Jaya ) ( 4,882 m ) , which the expedition was unable to climb , to become the highest summit . Dozy was the geologist of the expedition , and he discovered the Ore Mountains : the world 's largest gold deposit . Because of the inhospitable area it took years before mining of the gold was started .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Carstensz_expedition", "rank": 58, "score": 82620 }, { "content": "Title: Acid Mothers Temple & The Melting Paraiso U.F.O. 2 Content: Acid Mothers Temple & The Melting Paraiso U.F.O. 2 is a cassette by Acid Mothers Temple & the Melting Paraiso U.F.O. released in February 1997 by the band 's own label in a limited edition of 50 copies , along with its companion release Acid Mothers Temple & The Melting Paraiso U.F.O. 1 . The cassette includes some of the first sessions of the band , recorded at Acid Mothers Temple from 1995 to 1997 . Most of the songs were later released in different forms on the band 's eponymous debut album and other recordings . The material on the cassette was reissued by Synesthetic Recordings in 2007 as part of the compilation The Early Acid Mothers Temple Recordings 1995-1997 .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Acid_Mothers_Temple_&_The_Melting_Paraiso_U.F.O._2", "rank": 59, "score": 82573 }, { "content": "Title: Meltdown (book) Content: Meltdown is a book on the global financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008 by historian Thomas Woods , with a foreword by Rep. Ron Paul . The book was published on February 9 , 2009 by Regnery Publishing .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Meltdown_(book)", "rank": 60, "score": 82392 }, { "content": "Title: Stac Fada Member Content: The Stac Fada Member is a distinctive layer towards the top of the Mesoproterozoic Bay of Stoer Formation , part of the Torridonian Supergroup . This rock unit is 10 to 15 metres thick and is made of sandstone that contains accretionary lapilli and many dark green glassy fragments of mafic composition . Evidence for a bolide impact centered on Ullapool was published by a combined team of scientists from the University of Oxford and the University of Aberdeen , in March 2008 . The evidence is centred on Ullapool , a harbour town on Loch Broom in the Ross and Cromarty district of the Highland council area of northwest Scotland . It may have been the largest known bolide impact ever to strike what are now the British Isles . The impact , which has been dated to about 1.18 Ga , melted rock at the site and left parallel shock fractures in quartz and biotite and a tell-tale trace of iridium . Centered on the impact crater , a wide ejecta field has been traced , some 50 km across , forming the Stac Fada member within the Stoer Group of the Torridonian . The affected layer of rock , which on land stretches from Gairloch in the south to Stoer in the north is six to 22 metres thick . Until recently , these anomalous formations were unsatisfactorily credited to an isolated instance of volcanism . The crater , preserved under sedimentary layers of sandstone , is currently presumed to lie under the Minch , the waterway that separates the Isle of Lewis in the Outer Hebrides from the north-west Highlands of Scotland . It has been estimated that the crater is about 10 km across . The impact would have created a blast with the force of 145,000 megatons and that the shock wave would have created winds of 420 km/h as far away as the site of modern Aberdeen .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Stac_Fada_Member", "rank": 61, "score": 82366 }, { "content": "Title: USCGC Mendota (1929) Content: The USCGC Mendota ( 1930 ) was a belonging to the United States Coast Guard launched on 20 Jun 1928 and commissioned on 23 Mar 1929 . After 12 years of service to the Coast Guard , she was transferred to the British Royal Navy as part of the Lend-Lease Act . She was ultimately sunk in January 1942 when struck by two torpedoes fired by U-105 .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "USCGC_Mendota_(1929)", "rank": 62, "score": 82123 }, { "content": "Title: Melt-Banana Content: Melt-Banana is a Japanese noise rock band that is known for playing extremely fast grindcore and noise music mixed with experimental , electronica and pop-based song structures . Since forming in 1992 the band has released ten albums and toured worldwide extensively .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Melt-Banana", "rank": 63, "score": 81899 }, { "content": "Title: Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (Unit 3 Reactor) Content: The was a series of equipment failures , nuclear meltdowns , and releases of radioactive materials at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant , following the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami on 11 March 2011 . It is the largest nuclear disaster since the Chernobyl disaster of 1986 . The plant comprises six separate boiling water reactors originally designed by General Electric ( GE ) , and maintained by the Tokyo Electric Power Company ( TEPCO ) . At the time of the quake , Reactor 4 had been de-fueled while 5 and 6 were in cold shutdown for planned maintenance . Immediately after the earthquake , the remaining reactors 1-3 shut down automatically , and emergency generators came online to control electronics and coolant systems . However the tsunami following the earthquake quickly flooded the low-lying rooms in which the emergency generators were housed . The flooded generators failed , cutting power to the critical pumps that must continuously circulate coolant water through a nuclear reactor for several days in order to keep it from melting down after being shut down . As the pumps stopped , the reactors overheated due to the normal high radioactive decay heat produced in the first few days after nuclear reactor shutdown ( smaller amounts of this heat normally continue to be released for years , but are not enough to cause fuel melting ) . At this point , only prompt flooding of the reactors with seawater could have cooled the reactors quickly enough to prevent meltdown . Salt water flooding was delayed because it would ruin the costly reactors permanently . Flooding with seawater was finally commenced only after the government ordered that seawater be used , and at this point it was already too late to prevent meltdown . As the water boiled away in the reactors and the water levels in the fuel rod pools dropped , the reactor fuel rods began to overheat severely , and to melt down . In the hours and days that followed , Reactors 1 , 2 and 3 experienced full meltdown . In the intense heat and pressure of the melting reactors , a reaction between the nuclear fuel metal cladding and the remaining water surrounding them produced explosive hydrogen gas . As workers struggled to cool and shut down the reactors , several hydrogen-air chemical explosions occurred . Concerns about the repeated small explosions , the atmospheric venting of radioactive gasses , and the possibility of larger explosions led to a 20 km-radius evacuation around the plant . During the early days of the accident workers were temporarily evacuated at various times for radiation safety reasons . At the same time , sea water that had been exposed to the melting rods was returned to the sea heated and radioactive in large volumes for several months until recirculating units could be put in place to repeatedly cool and re-use a limited quantity of water for cooling . The earthquake damage and flooding in the wake of the tsunami hindered external assistance . Electrical power was slowly restored for some of the reactors , allowing for automated cooling . Japanese officials initially assessed the accident as Level 4 on the International Nuclear Event Scale ( INES ) despite the views of other international agencies that it should be higher . The level was later raised to 5 and eventually to 7 , the maximum scale value . The Japanese government and TEPCO have been criticized in the foreign press for poor communication with the public and improvised cleanup efforts . On 20 March , the Chief Cabinet Secretary Yukio Edano announced that the plant would be decommissioned once the crisis was over . The Japanese government estimates the total amount of radioactivity released into the atmosphere was approximately one-tenth as much as was released during the Chernobyl disaster . Significant amounts of radioactive material have also been released into ground and ocean waters . Measurements taken by the Japanese government 30 -- 50 km from the plant showed caesium-137 levels high enough to cause concern , leading the government to ban the sale of food grown in the area . Tokyo officials temporarily recommended that tap water should not be used to prepare food for infants . In May 2012 , TEPCO reported that at least 900 PBq had been released `` into the atmosphere in March last year -LSB- 2011 -RSB- alone '' although it has been said staff may have been told to lie , and give false readings to try and cover up true levels of radiation . An `` Official Use Only '' report obtained by FOIA from the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission ( 3/18/2011 ) written one week after the tsunami hit Fukushima states , `` The source term provided to NARAC was : ( 1 ) 25 % of the total fuel in unit 2 released to the atmosphere , ( 2 ) 50 % of the total spent fuel from unit 3 was released to the atmosphere , and ( 3 ) 100 % of the total spent fuel was released to the atmosphere from unit 4 . '' http://pbadupws.nrc.gov/docs/ML1212/ML12122A949.pdf NARAC produced a `` worst case '' speculative model based on these assumptions . However , this model did not include an assumption of a release from Unit 1 , and the assumption of `` 100 % of the total spent fuel was released to the atmosphere from unit 4 '' has since been proven incorrect with the subsequent removal of the fuel from the spent pool fuel . A few of the plant 's workers were severely injured or killed by the disaster conditions resulting from the earthquake . There were no immediate deaths due to direct radiation exposures , but at least six workers have exceeded lifetime legal limits for radiation and more than 300 have received significant radiation doses . Predicted future cancer deaths due to accumulated radiation exposures in the population living near Fukushima have ranged from none to 100 to a non-peer-reviewed `` guesstimate '' of 1,000 . On 16 December 2011 , Japanese authorities declared the plant to be stable , although it would take decades to decontaminate the surrounding areas and to decommission the plant altogether . On 5 July 2012 , the parliament appointed The Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission ( NAIIC ) submitted its inquiry report to the Japanese parliament , while the government appointed Investigation Committee on the Accident at the Fukushima Nuclear Power Stations of Tokyo Electric Power Company submitted its final report to the Japanese government on 23 July 2012 . Tepco admitted for the first time on October 12 , 2012 that it had failed to take stronger measures to prevent disasters for fear of inviting lawsuits or protests against its nuclear plants .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster_(Unit_3_Reactor)", "rank": 64, "score": 81717 }, { "content": "Title: Telegraph Melts Content: Telegraph Melts is the twelfth album and first release of 1986 by musician Jandek . It was released as Corwood Industries # 0750 .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Telegraph_Melts", "rank": 65, "score": 81669 }, { "content": "Title: Meltem Arıkan Content: Meltem Arıkan ( born January 7 , 1968 in Ankara ) is a Turkish novelist and playwright .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Meltem_Arıkan", "rank": 66, "score": 81645 }, { "content": "Title: Berwyn Mountain UFO incident Content: On 23 January 1974 on the Berwyn Mountains in Llandrillo , Merionethshire , Wales , lights and noises were observed that were alleged to be related to a UFO sighting on Cadair Berwyn and Cadair Bronwen . Scientific evidence indicates that the event was generated by an earthquake combined with sightings of a bright meteor widely observed over Wales and northern England at the time .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Berwyn_Mountain_UFO_incident", "rank": 67, "score": 81636 }, { "content": "Title: Meltem Akar Content: Meltem Akar ( born May 12 , 1982 ) is a Turkish female boxer competing in the light flyweight ( 48 kg ) division . She is the daughter of Şenol Akar , who was between 1975-1980 an active amateur boxer in Giresun . Meltem Akar started boxing in 2006 . She is coached by Metin Kısa . At the 2011 Women 's European Union Amateur Boxing Championships held in Katowice , Poland , she became champion . Currently , she is a student of physical education and sports at the Black Sea Technical University .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Meltem_Akar", "rank": 68, "score": 81307 }, { "content": "Title: February 1987 nor'easter Content: The February 1987 nor'easter was a significant winter storm in the US that impacted the Mid-Atlantic States around the end of the month . It delivered 8 -- 12 hours of heavy , wet snowfall to several states from West Virginia to New York between February 22 and February 24 . The storm was both preceded and followed by relatively warm temperatures , causing the snow to rapidly melt . The mild conditions were the result of a moderate anticyclone over the region that deteriorated as the nor'easter approached . Cold air damming likely took place prior to the storm 's formation . The nor'easter evolved from a complex series of low pressure areas . Eventually , the multiple center consolidated and a primary cyclone took hold along the Carolina coast . This low rapidly strengthened as it tracked northeastward . Upon reaching the Maryland coast , it turned more towards the east and intensified further to attain a minimum barometric pressure of 964 millibars by 1800 UTC on February 23 . The heaviest precipitation , occasionally accompanied by thunder and lightning , along with gusty winds , occurred between 0000 UTC and 1800 UTC . Snowfall accumulations exceeding 10 in were reported in eastern West Virginia , northern Virginia , north-central Maryland , northern Delaware , southern Pennsylvania , central and southern New Jersey , and Long Island . Most of the interior Northeast was spared a substantial impact from the storm . However , lighter totals extended as far north as central Massachusetts . The weight of the wet snow caused extensive damage to trees and power lines , and hundreds of thousands were reportedly left without power . At Washington , D.C. , 11 in of snow fell , having widespread effects . Limited states of emergency were declared in certain areas . MV Balsa 24 , a 345 ft long freighter , was lost February 25 , 1987 after it capsized in the storm . 18 sailors were killed and there was 1 survivor , who was rescued by the nuclear submarine USS Scamp ( SSN-588 ) . Fishing vessel Delores Marie was also lost , killing 3 .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "February_1987_nor'easter", "rank": 69, "score": 81297 }, { "content": "Title: I-94 derecho Content: The I-94 derecho was a progressive derecho that moved through the Upper Mississippi Valley on July 19 , 1983 . It is so called because the derecho moved through Minnesota and Wisconsin with I-94 as its axis . The derecho formed as an area of disturbed weather in eastern Montana moved eastward . It moved into northwestern North Dakota at around 7 A.M. CDT forming a small bow echo . Williston and Minot reported winds up to 70 mph ( 110 km/h ) . Further development formed two and three bow echo segments as the storm moved into Minnesota . Winds of 100 mph ( 160 km/h ) were recorded at the Alexandria airport . The winds damaged and destroyed hangars . It continued southeast and arrived at Minneapolis , Minnesota at around 4 P.M. CDT and left 250,000 people without power . Trees were blown over and buildings damaged as the derecho raced through Wisconsin . A meteorologist working at the University of Wisconsin -- Madison saw the derecho approach from the southeastern shore of Lake Mendota near Madison , Wisconsin . On the university 's campus , the windows were blown out of the second and third stories of the library . Tiles from the roof were blown off and landed several blocks to the southeast . The strong winds resulted in 4 foot ( 1.2 m ) waves on Lake Mendota . The derecho started moving into northern Illinois at around 9 P.M. CDT . A retired National Weather Service meteorologist observed the storm . He wrote in his weather diary that the temperature dropped 14 ° F in 20 minutes ( 83 ° F at 9:30 to 68 ° F at 9:50 , or about 28 ° C to 20 ° C ) . He also wrote that the wind had gusted to around 70 mph ( 110 km/h ) . The derecho winds were still strong as it moved into northwestern side of Chicago . A wind gust of 69 mph ( 110 km/h ) was recorded at O'Hare International Airport . The derecho finally died out over northwestern Indiana at around midnight on July 20 . Thirty-four people were injured in Minnesota and Wisconsin . Of these injuries , 12 were from mobile homes being blown over and 8 were from trees falling on people and vehicles .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "I-94_derecho", "rank": 70, "score": 80929 }, { "content": "Title: Acerinox accident Content: The Acerinox accident was an incident of radioactive contamination in Cádiz ( Spain ) . In May 1998 , a caesium-137 source managed to pass through the monitoring equipment in an Acerinox scrap metal reprocessing plant in Los Barrios , Spain . When melted , the caesium-137 caused the release of a radioactive cloud . The Acerinox chimney detectors failed to detect it , but it was eventually detected in France , Italy , Switzerland , Germany and Austria . The radioactive levels measured were up to 1000 times higher than normal . The accident contaminated the scrap metal reprocessing plant , plus two other steel mills where it sent its waste for decontamination . According to independent laboratories , the ashes produced by the Acerinox factory had between 640 and 1420 becquerels per gram ( the Euratom norm is 10 Bq/g ) , high enough to be a threat to the public . On the radiological consequences of this event , six people were exposed to slight levels of caesium-137 contamination . The estimated total costs for clean-up , waste storage , and lost production in the factory were around 26 million US dollars ( most of it due to the lost production ) .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Acerinox_accident", "rank": 71, "score": 80801 }, { "content": "Title: North American blizzard of 1996 Content: The Blizzard of 1996 was a severe nor'easter that paralyzed the U.S. East Coast with up to 4 ft of wind-driven snow from January 6 to January 8 , 1996 . It was followed by another storm , an Alberta Clipper , on January 12 , then unusually warm weather and torrential rain which caused rapid melting and river flooding . Along with the March Superstorm of 1993 , it is one of only two snowstorms to receive the top rating of 5 , or `` Extreme '' , on the Northeast Snowfall Impact Scale ( NESIS ) .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "North_American_blizzard_of_1996", "rank": 72, "score": 80790 }, { "content": "Title: Melton Memorial Observatory Content: Melton Memorial Observatory is an astronomical observatory owned and operated by University of South Carolina . It is named after Dr. William Davis Melton and built in 1928 . It is located in Columbia , South Carolina ( USA ) .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Melton_Memorial_Observatory", "rank": 73, "score": 80732 }, { "content": "Title: SS Dollart Content: Dollart was a coaster that was built in 1912 by Stettiner Oderwerke AG , Stettin , Germany for German owners . She was seized by the Allies in May 1945 , passed to the Ministry of War Transport ( MoWT ) and was renamed Empire Constancy . In 1947 , she was sold into merchant service and renamed Polzeath . In 1951 , she was sold to Turkey and renamed Meltem . Further sales saw her renamed Yener 9 in 1956 and Yarasli in 1959 . She went missing in the Ionian Sea in January 1961 .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "SS_Dollart", "rank": 74, "score": 80710 }, { "content": "Title: Three Mile Island accident Content: The Three Mile Island accident was caused by a nuclear meltdown that occurred on March 28 , 1979 , in reactor number 2 of Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station ( TMI-2 ) in Dauphin County , Pennsylvania , United States . It was the most significant accident in U.S. commercial nuclear power plant history . The incident was rated a five on the seven-point International Nuclear Event Scale : Accident With Wider Consequences . The accident began with failures in the non-nuclear secondary system , followed by a stuck-open pilot-operated relief valve in the primary system , which allowed large amounts of nuclear reactor coolant to escape . The mechanical failures were compounded by the initial failure of plant operators to recognize the situation as a loss-of-coolant accident due to inadequate training and human factors , such as human-computer interaction design oversights relating to ambiguous control room indicators in the power plant 's user interface . In particular , a hidden indicator light led to an operator manually overriding the automatic emergency cooling system of the reactor because the operator mistakenly believed that there was too much coolant water present in the reactor and causing the steam pressure release . The accident crystallized anti-nuclear safety concerns among activists and the general public , resulted in new regulations for the nuclear industry , and has been cited as a contributor to the decline of a new reactor construction program that was already underway in the 1970s . The partial meltdown resulted in the release of radioactive gases and radioactive iodine into the environment . Worries were expressed by anti-nuclear movement activists ; however , epidemiological studies analyzing the rate of cancer in and around the area since the accident , determined there was a small statistically non-significant increase in the rate and thus no causal connection linking the accident with these cancers has been substantiated . Cleanup started in August 1979 , and officially ended in December 1993 , with a total cleanup cost of about $ 1 billion .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Three_Mile_Island_accident", "rank": 75, "score": 80654 }, { "content": "Title: Melting Pot (Booker T album) Content: Melting Pot is a 1971 studio album recorded by Booker T. & the M.G. 's for Stax Records . It is the last album to feature the group 's classic lineup of Jones , Cropper , Dunn , and Jackson and the first of their albums to contain longer , jam-oriented compositions .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Melting_Pot_(Booker_T_album)", "rank": 76, "score": 80556 }, { "content": "Title: Maine flood of 1987 Content: A pair of spring storms in March and April 1987 , combined with snow-melt , resulted in heavy flooding in Maine , New Hampshire , and Massachusetts .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Maine_flood_of_1987", "rank": 77, "score": 80524 }, { "content": "Title: Mount Melton Content: Mount Melton is a squarish mountain 1.3 nmi west of Tent Peak in the Kyle Hills of Ross Island , Antarctica . The feature rises to about 2000 m on the north side of Lofty Promenade . The mountain was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names in 2000 after Terry Melton , a power plant mechanic/facilities engineer at Palmer Station , June 1981 to January 1983 . Melton worked nine WINFLY/summer seasons at McMurdo Sound as Williams Field facilities engineer/site supervisor , McMurdo operations superintendent , and McMurdo area manager , 1984 -- 93 , and then as National Science Foundation McMurdo Station manager from October 1998 to October 1999 .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Mount_Melton", "rank": 78, "score": 80468 }, { "content": "Title: Meltem Hocaoğlu Content: Meltem Hocaoğlu ( born January 15 , 1992 ) is a Turkish female karateka competing in the kumite +68 kg division .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Meltem_Hocaoğlu", "rank": 79, "score": 80196 }, { "content": "Title: Meltdown Monday Content: Meltdown Monday is a term used by some financial news outlets to describe Mondays with large losses in financial markets . In the late 1980s and early 1990s , the term was used most often in reference to October 19 , 1987 , which later became known as Black Monday 1987 ( a reference to the older term with a similar meaning , Black Monday ) . Several events which were initially referred to as Meltdown Mondays by the press have since been referred to most often as Black Mondays .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Meltdown_Monday", "rank": 80, "score": 80143 }, { "content": "Title: 2000 Marsa Brega Short 360 crash Content: The 2000 Marsa Brega Short 360 crash occurred on 13 January 2000 when a full-loaded Swiss-registered Short 360 leased by Avisto ditched into the sea near Marsa Brega in Libya . The aircraft was chartered by Sirte Oil Company to transport oil workers to the city . It was carrying 41 people consisted of 38 passengers and 3 crews . Most of the passengers were foreigners . As both engines failed in mid-flight , the crew chose to ditch the aircraft . The crash claimed the lives of 21 people . An official investigation concluded that the de-icing device on the aircraft was not activated . The aircraft flew into an adverse weather condition and an icing condition occurred in mid-flight . The ice melted and flooded the engine , causing both engines to fail . The Libyan Civil Aviation Authority also blamed the pilots for conducting conversation unrelated to the flight .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "2000_Marsa_Brega_Short_360_crash", "rank": 81, "score": 79941 }, { "content": "Title: SL-1 Content: The SL-1 , or Stationary Low-Power Reactor Number One , was a United States Army experimental nuclear power reactor in the United States which underwent a steam explosion and meltdown on January 3 , 1961 , killing its three operators . The direct cause was the improper withdrawal of the central control rod , responsible for absorbing neutrons in the reactor core . The event is the only reactor incident in the U.S. which resulted in immediate fatalities . The incident released about 80 Ci of iodine-131 , which was not considered significant due to its location in the remote high desert of eastern Idaho . About 1100 Ci of fission products were released into the atmosphere . The facility , located at the National Reactor Testing Station ( NRTS ) approximately 40 mi west of Idaho Falls , Idaho , was part of the Army Nuclear Power Program and was known as the Argonne Low Power Reactor ( ALPR ) during its design and build phase . It was intended to provide electrical power and heat for small , remote military facilities , such as radar sites near the Arctic Circle , and those in the DEW Line . The design power was 3 MW ( thermal ) , but some 4.7 MW tests were performed in the months prior to the accident . Operating power was 200 kW electrical and 400 kW thermal for space heating . During the incident the core power level reached nearly 20 GW in just four milliseconds , precipitating the steam explosion .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "SL-1", "rank": 82, "score": 79874 }, { "content": "Title: Meltwater (company) Content: Meltwater is a software as a service ( SaaS ) company that develops and markets media monitoring and business intelligence software . The company was founded in Oslo , Norway , by Jørn Lyseggen , in 2001 and is headquartered in San Francisco , California , with additional offices across Europe , North America , Asia/Pacific , Australia , and Africa . The company employs more than 1000 people and has more than 23,000 clients internationally . The Meltwater Foundation , a non-profit branch of the company , provides entrepreneurial and software training to promising young African students at the Meltwater Entrepreneurial School of Technology ( MEST ) in Accra , Ghana .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Meltwater_(company)", "rank": 83, "score": 79863 }, { "content": "Title: Acid Mother's Temple & The Melting Paraiso U.F.O. Content: Acid Mother 's Temple & The Melting Paraiso U.F.O. is a cassette by Acid Mother 's Temple & The Melting Paraiso U.F.O. released in 1996 by the band 's own label in a limited edition of only 10 copies , which were sold at a show where band leader Kawabata Makoto played . The band name was written with an apostrophe on this cassette , but this was later changed . The cassette features the band 's first sessions , recorded at Acid Mothers Temple from 1995 to 1996 . Two of the tracks were reissued by Synesthetic Recordings in 2007 on the Triple Trip Edition bonus LP of the compilation The Early Acid Mothers Temple Recordings 1995-1997 '' . The remaining track , `` Psycho Line '' , was considered to be of inferior musical value and was omitted from this reissue on the request of Kawabata Makoto .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Acid_Mother's_Temple_&_The_Melting_Paraiso_U.F.O.", "rank": 84, "score": 79801 }, { "content": "Title: James Melton Content: James Melton ( January 2 , 1904 -- April 21 , 1961 ) , a popular singer in the 1920s and early 1930s , later began a career as an operatic singer when tenor voices went out of style in popular music around 1932 -- 35 . His singing talent was similar to that of Richard Crooks , John Charles Thomas or Nelson Eddy . Melton usually catered to popular music fans , singing romantic songs and popular ballads in a sweet style . He was born in Moultrie , Georgia but was raised in Citra , Florida , where his parents grew melons and handled hogs . In 1920 , he graduated from high school in Ocala , Florida and then attended college at the University of Florida , Vanderbilt University and the University of Georgia . He received vocal instruction from Gaetano de Luca in Nashville from 1923 to 1927 before moving to New York where he studied with Beniamino Gigli 's teacher , Enrico Rosati . Melton also worked in dance bands , playing saxophone in a college jazz ensemble and performing with Francis Craig 's Orchestra in Atlanta in 1926 .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "James_Melton", "rank": 85, "score": 79726 }, { "content": "Title: Trinitite Content: Trinitite , also known as atomsite or Alamogordo glass , is the glassy residue left on the desert floor after the plutonium-based Trinity nuclear bomb test on July 16 , 1945 , near Alamogordo , New Mexico . The glass is primarily composed of arkosic sand composed of quartz grains and feldspar ( both microcline and smaller amount of plagioclase with small amount of calcite , hornblende and augite in a matrix of sandy clay ) that was melted by the atomic blast . It is usually a light green , although color can vary . It is mildly radioactive but safe to handle . In the late 1940s and early 1950s , samples were gathered and sold to mineral collectors as a novelty . Traces of the material may be found at the Trinity Site today , although most of it was bulldozed and buried by the United States Atomic Energy Commission in 1953 . It is now illegal to take the remaining material from the site ; however , material that was taken prior to this prohibition is still in the hands of collectors .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Trinitite", "rank": 86, "score": 79488 }, { "content": "Title: UFC 43 Content: UFC 43 : Meltdown was a mixed martial arts event held by the Ultimate Fighting Championship on June 6 , 2003 , at the Thomas and Mack Center in Las Vegas , Nevada . The event was broadcast live on pay-per-view in the United States , and later released on DVD .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "UFC_43", "rank": 87, "score": 79278 }, { "content": "Title: Melton Rural District Content: Melton was a rural district in Leicestershire , England from 1894 to 1935 . It was created in 1894 under the Local Government Act 1894 as a successor to the Melton Rural Sanitary District . It entirely surrounded , but did not include , Melton Mowbray Under the County Review Orders of the 1930s it was merged with the Belvoir Rural District to form a larger Melton and Belvoir Rural District , with Eye Kettleby and parts of other parishes going to Melton Mowbray Urban District .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Melton_Rural_District", "rank": 88, "score": 79256 }, { "content": "Title: Melta Point Content: Melta Point ( Nos Melta \\ ` nos ` mel-ta \\ ) is a rocky point on the coast of Hero Bay , Livingston Island , formed by an offshoot of Teres Ridge . Adjacent ice-free area 116 ha . The point is named after the ancient Melta , ancestor of the present town of Lovech in Northern Bulgaria . This is one of the Bulgarian names bestowed on hitherto nameless geographical features by the Tangra 2004/05 Expedition .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Melta_Point", "rank": 89, "score": 79215 }, { "content": "Title: Eltanin impact Content: The Eltanin impact was an asteroid impact in the eastern part of the South Pacific Ocean during the late Pliocene 2.51 ± 0.07 million years ago . The location was at the edge of the Bellingshausen Sea 1500 km southwest of Chile . The asteroid was estimated to be about 1 -- 4 km in diameter and the impact would have left a crater approximately 35 km across . The impact was first discovered in 1981 as an iridium anomaly in sediment cores collected by the research vessel Eltanin , after which the impact and asteroid are named . Later studies were done by the vessel Polarstern . Sediment at the bottom of the 5 km deep ocean in the area had an iridium enrichment , a strong sign of extraterrestrial contamination . Debris from the asteroid is spread over an area of 500 sqkm . Sediments from the Eocene and Paleocene were mixed up and deposited again chaotically . Also mixed in were melted and fragmented meteorite matter . The area near the Freeden Seamounts over 20000 km2 has a meteorite material surface density of 10 -- 60 kg/m2 . Of this , 87 % is melted and 13 % only fragmented . This is the region of the Earth 's surface with the highest density of meteorite material coverage . The disturbed sediment had three layers . The bottommost layer SU IV is a chaotic mixture of broken up sediments in the form of a breccia . Above this is layer SU III consisting of layered sand deposited from turbulently flowing water . Above this is SU II layer with meteorite fragments and graded silt and clay that settled out of still but dirty water .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Eltanin_impact", "rank": 90, "score": 78863 }, { "content": "Title: Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster Content: The was an energy accident at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant in Fukushima , initiated primarily by the tsunami following the Tōhoku earthquake on 11 March 2011 . Immediately after the earthquake , the active reactors automatically shut down their sustained fission reactions . However , the tsunami disabled the emergency generators that would have provided power to control and operate the pumps necessary to cool the reactors . The insufficient cooling led to three nuclear meltdowns , hydrogen-air chemical explosions , and the release of radioactive material in Units 1 , 2 and 3 from 12 March to 15 March . Loss of cooling also caused the pool for storing spent fuel from Reactor 4 to overheat on 15 March due to the decay heat from the fuel rods . On 5 July 2012 , the Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission ( NAIIC ) found that the causes of the accident had been foreseeable , and that the plant operator , Tokyo Electric Power Company ( TEPCO ) , had failed to meet basic safety requirements such as risk assessment , preparing for containing collateral damage , and developing evacuation plans . On 12 October 2012 , TEPCO admitted for the first time that it had failed to take necessary measures for fear of inviting lawsuits or protests against its nuclear plants . The Fukushima disaster was the most significant nuclear incident since April 26 , 1986 the Chernobyl disaster and the second disaster to be given the Level 7 event classification of the International Nuclear Event Scale . Though there have been no fatalities linked to radiation due to the accident , the eventual number of cancer deaths , according to the linear no-threshold theory of radiation safety , that will be caused by the accident is expected to be around 130 -- 640 people in the years and decades ahead . The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation and World Health Organization report that there will be no increase in miscarriages , stillbirths or physical and mental disorders in babies born after the accident . However , an estimated 1,600 deaths are believed to have occurred due to the resultant evacuation conditions . There are no clear plans for decommissioning the plant , but the plant management estimate is 30 or 40 years . A frozen soil barrier has been constructed in an attempt to prevent further contamination of seeping groundwater , but in July 2016 TEPCO revealed that the ice wall had failed to stop groundwater from flowing in and mixing with highly radioactive water inside the wrecked reactor buildings , adding that they are `` technically incapable of blocking off groundwater with the frozen wall '' . In February 2017 , TEPCO released images taken inside Reactor 2 by a remote-controlled camera , that show there is a 2-meter hole in the metal grating under the pressure vessel in the reactor 's primary containment vessel , which could have been caused by fuel escaping the pressure vessel . Radiation levels of about 210 Sv per hour were subsequently detected inside the Unit 2 containment vessel .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster", "rank": 91, "score": 78802 }, { "content": "Title: 1946 Indianapolis 500 Content: The 30th International 500-Mile Sweepstakes was held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway on Thursday , May 30 , 1946 . This was the first Indianapolis 500 presided over by new track owner Tony Hulman . The track had closed in late 1941 due to World War II , and over the next four years , the facility fell into a terrible state of disrepair . Hulman purchased the Speedway in November 1945 , and quickly went to work cleaning up the grounds , which had become overwhelmed by overgrowth and weeds . The Speedway re-opened , and the 1946 race was considered a rousing success . Race winner George Robson would be killed in a racing crash just months after the victory . The 1946 running of the 500 was the first of sixty-one consecutive years ( 1946-2006 ) that featured popular fixture Tom Carnegie on the Speedway public address system . During the pre-race ceremonies , James Melton performed the song `` Back Home Again in Indiana . '' It was the first time the traditional song had been performed before the start of the race .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "1946_Indianapolis_500", "rank": 92, "score": 78734 }, { "content": "Title: Meltdown (EP) Content: Meltdown is an extended play ( EP ) by American rapper Pitbull , released on November 22 , 2013 through Mr. 305 , Polo Grounds , and RCA Records .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Meltdown_(EP)", "rank": 93, "score": 78704 }, { "content": "Title: Goat Paddock crater Content: Goat Paddock is a 5 km-diameter near-circular bowl-shaped depression in a range of gently dipping Proterozoic sandstone in the Kimberley Region of northern Western Australia , 106 km west-southwest of Halls Creek . It is interpreted as an ancient meteorite impact crater , the evidence including breccia containing melted rocks , silica glass , shatter cones and shocked quartz . Drilling shows that the crater is filled with about 200 m of ancient lake sediments containing Early Eocene pollen , this age thus giving a minimum estimate for the age of the crater itself . The crater is not perfectly circular , but slightly elongated in a north -- south direction , suggesting that the projectile struck at low angle from either the north or south .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Goat_Paddock_crater", "rank": 94, "score": 78649 }, { "content": "Title: Meltdown (Ash album) Content: Meltdown is the fourth studio album by Ash , which was initially released on 17 May 2004 through Infectious Records . On 8 March 2005 the album was released in the United States . It is a darker and heavier sounding record than Free All Angels .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Meltdown_(Ash_album)", "rank": 95, "score": 78635 }, { "content": "Title: Melting Stones Content: Melting Stones , a fantasy novel by young adult author Tamora Pierce , was released by Full Cast Audio as an audiobook original in October 2007 , and was released in print form by Scholastic in the summer of 2008 . The book takes place after the events of Street Magic and the 2013 novel Battle Magic , and around the same time as the 2005 novel The Will of the Empress . It follows characters Evumeimei Dingzai ( nicknamed Evvy ) and Rosethorn , former travel companions of Briar Moss , in their journey to the Battle Islands to investigate the death of the local plantlife and an impending volcano eruption . It was Pierce 's suggestion that she write an original novel for Full Cast Audio , and when she first heard young actress Grace Kelly ( actual name ) read the part of Evvy during rehearsals for Street Magic . The author decided to recast what she had already written from third to first person so that Kelly could actually narrate the recording . Bruce Coville , publisher of Full Cast Audio , served as editor for the text , and Pierce herself directed the recording .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Melting_Stones", "rank": 96, "score": 78542 }, { "content": "Title: The Snows They Melt the Soonest Content: `` The Snows They Melt the Soonest '' ( Roud 3154 ) is a British folk song dating back at least as far as 1821 . It was mentioned , along with the lyrics , in Blackwood 's Magazine ( Edinburgh ) of that year .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "The_Snows_They_Melt_the_Soonest", "rank": 97, "score": 78488 }, { "content": "Title: Don't Go Out into the Rain (You're Going to Melt) Content: `` Do n't Go Out into the Rain ( You 're Going to Melt ) '' is a 1967 hit single by Herman 's Hermits . The song was written by Brill Building songsmith Kenny Young who himself made the original recording of the song -- as `` Do n't Go Out into the Rain ( You 're Gon na Melt ) '' -- leading a session group credited as the Seagulls . This version broke in the Miami area in December 1966 and was consequently picked up for national release by Date Records failing to garner enough regional attention to reach the Billboard Hot 100 . Herman 's Hermits -- who had scored a 1965 hit with Kenny Young 's `` Just a Little Bit Better '' -- recorded `` Do n't Go Out into the Rain ( You 're Going to Melt ) '' for single release in June 1967 ; the followup to the million-seller `` There 's a Kind of Hush '' , `` Do n't Go Out into the Rain ... '' just reached the Top 20 on the Billboard Hot 100 with a No. 18 peak evidencing the eclipsing of the `` British Invasion '' acts with the shift in the American musical focus punctuated by the `` Summer of Love '' . The Herman 's Hermits version of `` Do n't Go Out into the Rain ... '' was not released as a single in the UK , single versions of the song being released there by both the Swinging Blue Jeans in August 1967 and David Garrick in September 1967 , with the respective titles of these versions being `` Do n't Go Out into the Rain ( You 're Gon na Melt ) '' and `` Do n't Go Out into the Rain ( You 're Gon na Melt , Sugar ) '' . Although neither version reached the UK Top 50 Garrick was afforded an international hit with his version which in early 1968 charting in Germany ( # 26 ) and the Netherlands ( # 22 ) . In Malaysia , Garrick 's `` Do n't Go Out into the Rain ... '' single rose as high as No. 4 in February 1968 and was then superseded by a version by the Swinging Blue Jeans ' version which reached No. 1 . The song was also recorded in 1967 by Finnish singer Johnny -- as '' Älä Pelkää , En Sua Syö '' -- and in Swedish as `` Du ska bara tro på hälften '' by the Hootenanny Singers ; Swedish group the Fabulous Four also recorded the song in its original English -LSB- 1967 -RSB- . The Groovie Ghoulies remade `` Do n't Go Out into the Rain '' for their 1989 album Appetite for Adrenochrome . In 1967 , Les Sinners a group from Quebec has made a French cover `` Ne reste pas sous la pluie '' .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "Don't_Go_Out_into_the_Rain_(You're_Going_to_Melt)", "rank": 98, "score": 78448 }, { "content": "Title: The Early Acid Mothers Temple Recordings 1995–1997 Content: The Early Acid Mothers Temple Recordings 1995 -- 1997 is a compilation of recordings by Acid Mothers Temple & the Melting Paraiso U.F.O. released in 2007 by Synesthetic Recordings . The compilation was released as a double LP ( SYRE 011 ) in a limited edition of 408 copies . A special Triple Trip Edition ( SYRETRIPP 011 ) including a third bonus LP and a poster , limited to only 100 copies , was issued at the same time . A double CD version ( SYRE 012 ) is planned for release in 2011 . The compilation features the first sessions of the band , recorded at Acid Mothers Temple from 1995 to 1997 . Disc 1 was originally released as Acid Mothers Temple & The Melting Paraiso U.F.O. 1 ( AMT-001 ) and disc 2 originally released as Acid Mothers Temple & The Melting Paraiso U.F.O. 2 ( AMT-002 ) , two companion cassettes issued by the Acid Mothers Temple label in February 1997 in limited editions of 50 copies each . The bonus material on disc 3 was recorded at Acid Mothers Temple from 1995 to 1996 and originally released on Acid Mother 's Temple & The Melting Paraiso U.F.O. , a cassette issued in 1996 in a limited edition of 10 copies . The cassette also featured a track called `` Psycho Line '' , but it was considered to be of inferior musical value and was omitted from this reissue on the request of band leader Kawabata Makoto . Most of the songs were later released in different forms on the band 's eponymous debut album and other recordings .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "The_Early_Acid_Mothers_Temple_Recordings_1995–1997", "rank": 99, "score": 78363 }, { "content": "Title: The Melton Building Society Content: The Melton is a building society based in Melton Mowbray , Leicestershire in the East Midlands . The Melton was established in 1875 and is one of the oldest surviving building societies in the United Kingdom with over 65,000 members . It provides mortgages , savings , insurance and investment products from its principal office and three branches in Melton Mowbray , Oakham and Grantham . The society has a subsidiary , named MBS Lending Limited , which provides mortgage finance to customers who do not meet the criteria to become society members and accounts for approximately 14 % of total outstanding loans ( December 2015 ) . The Melton is a mutual organisation owned by its more than 40,000 members . The Society is a member of the Building Societies Association .", "qid": "3102", "docid": "The_Melton_Building_Society", "rank": 100, "score": 78295 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Roger A. Pielke Jr. Content: Roger A. Pielke Jr. ( born November 2 , 1968 ) is an American political scientist and professor and the director of the Sports Governance Center within the Department of Athletics at the Center for Science and Technology Policy Research at the University of Colorado Boulder . He previously served in the Environmental Studies Program and was a Fellow of the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences ( CIRES ) where he served as Director of the Center for Science and Technology Policy Research at the University of Colorado Boulder from 2001 to 2007 . Pielke was a visiting scholar at Oxford University 's Saïd Business School in the 2007-2008 academic year . His interests include understanding the politicization of science ; decision making under uncertainty ; policy education for scientists in areas such as climate change , disaster mitigation , and world trade ; and research on the governance of sports organizations , including FIFA and the NCAA .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Roger_A._Pielke_Jr.", "rank": 1, "score": 170569 }, { "content": "Title: Pielke Content: Pielke may refer to : Roger A. Pielke ( born 1946 ) , atmospheric climatologist Roger A. Pielke , Jr. ( born 1968 , son of Roger A. Pielke ) , writer on climate change policy Emil B. Pielke , politician in Maryland , US", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Pielke", "rank": 2, "score": 164856 }, { "content": "Title: Roger A. Pielke Content: Roger A. Pielke Sr. ( born October 22 , 1946 ) is an American meteorologist with interests in climate variability and climate change , environmental vulnerability , numerical modeling , atmospheric dynamics , land/ocean -- atmosphere interactions , and large eddy/turbulent boundary layer modeling . He particularly focuses on mesoscale weather and climate processes but also investigates on the global , regional , and microscale . Pielke is an ISI Highly Cited Researcher .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Roger_A._Pielke", "rank": 3, "score": 159323 }, { "content": "Title: The Hartwell Paper Content: The Hartwell Paper calls for a reorientation of climate policy after the perceived failure in 2009 of the UNFCCC climate conference in Copenhagen . The paper was published in May 2010 by the London School of Economics in cooperation with the University of Oxford . The authors are 14 natural and social scientists from Asia , Europe and North America , including Mike Hulme , Roger A. Pielke ( Jr ) , Nico Stehr and Steve Rayner , who met under the Chatham House Rule . The paper argues that `` decarbonisation will only be achieved successfully as a benefit contingent upon other goals which are politically attractive and relentlessly pragmatic . '' It emphasizes human dignity as a necessary guiding principle for climate policy : `` To reframe the climate issue around matters of human dignity is not just noble or necessary . It is also likely to be more effective than the approach of framing around human sinfulness -- which has failed and will continue to fail . '' It has three main objectives : 1 . Energy access for all The paper advocates taking investments in the innovations of renewable energy to decrease energy costs and to make them more affordable to society . Only this diversification of energy could extend the access to energy , especially in undeveloped countries . 2 . Clean energy 3 . Dealing with climate change The ultimate goal is `` to develop non-carbon energy supplies at unsubsidised costs less than those using fossil fuels . '' The Hartwell Paper recommends achieving this goal by introducing low carbon taxes . Moreover this money should be used to develop a CO2 free energy supply .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "The_Hartwell_Paper", "rank": 4, "score": 142639 }, { "content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster", "rank": 5, "score": 136862 }, { "content": "Title: Roger Pielke Content: Roger Pielke may refer to : Roger A. Pielke ( born 1946 ) , American meteorologist Roger A. Pielke , Jr. ( born 1968 ) , American political scientist", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Roger_Pielke", "rank": 6, "score": 125225 }, { "content": "Title: Field Notes from a Catastrophe Content: Field Notes from a Catastrophe : Man , Nature , and Climate Change is a 2006 non-fiction book by Elizabeth Kolbert . The book attempts to bring attention to the causes and effects of global climate change . Kolbert travels around the world where climate change is affecting the environment in significant ways . These locations include Alaska , Greenland , the Netherlands , and Iceland . The environmental effects that are apparent consist of rising sea levels , thawing permafrost , diminishing ice shelves , changes in migratory patterns , and increasingly devastating forest fires due to loss of precipitation . She also speaks with many leading scientists about their individual research and findings . Kolbert brings to attention the attempts of large corporations such as Exxon Mobil and General Motors to influence politicians and discredit scientists . She also writes about America 's reluctance in the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions . Leading this resistance , she explained , was the Bush administration , which was opposed to the Kyoto protocol since it was ratified in 2005 . Kolbert concludes the book by examining the events surrounding the events of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 and arguing that governments have the knowledge and technologies to prepare for such disasters but choose to ignore the signs until it is too late .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Field_Notes_from_a_Catastrophe", "rank": 7, "score": 109113 }, { "content": "Title: Disaster Movie Content: Disaster Movie is a 2008 American comedy film written and directed by Jason Friedberg and Aaron Seltzer , and stars Matt Lanter , Vanessa Minnillo , Gary `` G Thang '' Johnson , Crista Flanagan , Ike Barinholtz , Carmen Electra , Tony Cox , and Kim Kardashian in her feature film acting debut . The film was heavily panned by critics and audiences alike for its forced humor , excessive references and poor directing . The movie received six nominations for the 29th Golden Raspberry Awards . It received a 1 % score on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes and is considered by some to be one of the worst films of all time . It grossed nearly $ 35 million against a budget of $ 20 million .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Disaster_Movie", "rank": 8, "score": 101049 }, { "content": "Title: Petr Chýlek Content: Petr Chýlek is a researcher for Space and Remote Sensing Sciences at Los Alamos National Laboratory . Prior to becoming a government researcher in 2001 , Chýlek was a Professor at several US and Canadian universities including SUNY Albany , Purdue University , University of Oklahoma and Dalhousie University in Halifax , Canada . Chýlek has published over 100 first authored scientific papers in remote sensing , atmospheric radiation , climate change , cloud and aerosol physics , applied laser physics and ice core analysis . His work has been cited more than 4000 times . Chylek is best known for his work in remote sensing , aerosols and climate change . In 2006 , Chýlek served as Chairman , Scientific Program Committee for The Second International Conference on Global Warming and the Next Ice Age held at Los Alamos National Laboratory in Santa Fe , NM . Speakers included Venkatachalam Ramaswamy , Chris Folland , Gerald North , Roger A. Pielke , William M. Gray and Jan Veizer . The conference included a two-day workshop on climate prediction uncertainties . The papers presented at the 2006 Conference were published in a special section of the Journal of Geophysical Research - Atmospheres in 2007 . In 2007 , Chýlek and co-authors published a peer-reviewed paper estimating climate sensitivity to doubled atmospheric CO2 to be significantly less than the IPCC estimate . Chýlek received his diploma in theoretical physics from Charles University in Prague , Czech Republic . He received his Ph.D. in physics from UC Riverside in 1970 .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Petr_Chýlek", "rank": 9, "score": 100434 }, { "content": "Title: List of disasters by cost Content: Disasters can be particularly notable for the high costs associated with responding to and recovering from them . This page lists the economic costs of relatively recent disasters . 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami , Japan : estimated more than $ 300 billion . 2008 Sichuan earthquake , China , $ 148 billion 1995 Great Hanshin earthquake $ 102.5 billion . Deepwater Horizon oil spill , Gulf of Mexico , 2010 : Between $ 60 and $ 100billion . Hurricane Katrina , United States , August 2005 : insurances compensated $ 45 billion . 2011 Thailand floods : $ 45.7 billion ( World Bank estimate of total economic damages and losses ) . 2011 Christchurch earthquake , New Zealand , $ 40 billion . Hurricane Ike , United States , September 2008 , $ 29.6 billion . 1998 Yangtze River floods , China : $ 26 billion . Hurricane Andrew , United States , August 1992 : $ 25 billion . September 11 terrorist attacks , 2001 : $ 20.7 billion . 1994 Northridge earthquake , CA , United States , January 1994 : $ 20 billion . Chernobyl disaster , 1986 : $ 15 billion estimated cost of direct loss . It is estimated that the damages could accumulate to $ 235 billion for Ukraine and $ 201 billion for Belarus in the thirty years following the accident . 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami , many nations , $ 15 billion . Armero tragedy , Colombia , 1985 , $ 7 billion . 2013 Alberta floods , Canada , 2013 , estimated $ 3 billion - $ 5 billion . Exxon Valdez oil spill , 1989 : The clean-up of the oil spill cost an estimated $ 2.5 billion ; recovery for settlements , $ 1.1 billion ; and the economic loss ( fisheries , tourism , etc. ) suffered due to the damage to the Alaskan ecosystem was estimated at $ 2.8 billion . Cedar Fire , United States , 2003 , $ 2 billion . AZF chemical plant explosion , Toulouse , France , 2001 : $ 1.8 billion . 2011 Slave Lake wildfire , Canada , $ 1.8 billion . The costs of disasters vary considerably depending on a range of factors , such as the geographical location where they occur . When a disaster occurs in a densely populated area in a wealthy country , the financial damage might be huge , but when a comparable disaster occurs in a densely populated area in a poorer country , the actual financial damage might be relatively small , in part due to a lack of insurance . For example , the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami , with a death toll of over 230,000 people , cost a ` mere ' $ 15 billion , whereas in the Deepwater Horizon oil spill , in which 11 people died , the damages were six-fold .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "List_of_disasters_by_cost", "rank": 10, "score": 97782 }, { "content": "Title: Pietà (book) Content: Pietà is a collection of essays by the Hungarian-Swedish biologist , George Klein , first published in Sweden in 1989 . It includes nine essays by Klein , several touching broadly on the theme of whether life is worth living . The introduction opens with a quote from Albert Camus in The Myth of Sisyphus ( 1942 ) : `` There is but one truly philosophical problem , and that is suicide . Judging whether life is or is not worth living amounts to answering the fundamental question of philosophy . '' After the introduction , the first essay , `` Pista , '' is about the suicide of a cousin and childhood friend in Hungary . It is followed by essays on the poet Attila Jozsef ; the power of poetry and literature , with discussions on Rainer Maria Rilke , Friedrich Nietzsche , Thomas Mann , and Edgar Allan Poe ; the role of German scientists during the Holocaust ; an interview with Rudolf Vrba ( the Auschwitz escapee ) ; essays on AIDS and biological individuality ; and reflections on Klein 's own experience of the Holocaust in Budapest .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Pietà_(book)", "rank": 11, "score": 96027 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental emergency Content: Environmental emergencies are defined as `` sudden-onset disasters or accidents resulting from natural , technological or human-induced factors , or a combination of these , that causes or threatens to cause severe environmental damage as well as loss of human lives and property . '' ( UNEP/GC .22 / INF/5 , 13 November 2002 . ) Following a disaster or conflict , an environmental emergency can occur when people 's health and livelihoods are at risk due to the release of hazardous and noxious substances , or because of significant damage to the ecosystem . Examples include fires , oil spills , chemical accidents , toxic-waste dumping and groundwater pollution . The environmental risks can be acute and life-threatening . According to the International Disaster Database ( EM-DAT ) , between 2003 and 2013 , there were 380 industrial accidents reported , affecting 207 668 people and resulting in over US$ 22 million in losses . Climate change is having an unprecedented effect on the occurrence of natural disasters and the associated risk of environmental emergencies . With climate change already stretching the disaster relief system , future climate-related emergency events will generate increased and more costly demands for assistance .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Environmental_emergency", "rank": 12, "score": 95703 }, { "content": "Title: Die Wolke Content: Die Wolke ( The Cloud ) is a novel by German author Gudrun Pausewang , published in German in 1987 . The story was published after the Chernobyl disaster of 1986 when nuclear fallout fell on much of Europe . Sales of the book surged in 2011 in response to the nuclear disaster in Japan .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Die_Wolke", "rank": 13, "score": 95596 }, { "content": "Title: Dav Pilkey Content: David Murray `` Dav '' Pilkey Jr. ( born March 4 , 1966 ) is an American author and illustrator of children 's literature . Pilkey is best known as the author and illustrator of the children 's book series Captain Underpants and Dumb Bunnies , the latter of which are written under the name Sue Denim .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Dav_Pilkey", "rank": 14, "score": 94799 }, { "content": "Title: Catastrophe: Risk and Response Content: Catastrophe : Risk and Response is a 2004 nonfiction book by Judge Richard Posner , in which Posner advocates the use of a cost -- benefit framework to address potential major disasters such as runaway global warming and planet-obliterating asteroids .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Catastrophe:_Risk_and_Response", "rank": 15, "score": 94305 }, { "content": "Title: Roger Pulwarty Content: Roger S. Pulwarty is a scientist from Trinidad and Tobago and contributed to the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . He is the director of the US National Integrated Drought Information System at the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) in Boulder , Colorado . Roger Pulwarty earned a B.S. degree ( Hons . ) in Atmospheric Sciences from York University in Toronto in 1986 and a Ph.D. in Climatology from the University of Boulder at Colorado in 1994 , where he worked under Professors Roger Barry and Herbert Riehl . His research and publications are on climate , climate impacts and adaptation policy in Western North America , Latin America and the Caribbean . From 1998-2002 he was the program director for the NOAA Regional Integrated Sciences and Assessments . He is Professor Adjunct at the University of Colorado at Boulder and the University of the West Indies . Dr. Pulwarty is a lead author on Chapter 17 of the 2007 IPCC Working Group II on Impacts , Adaptation and Vulnerability , on the IPCC 2008 Technical Report on Climate Change and Water and on Synthesis and Assessments Reports of the US Global Change Research Program . The IPCC is an intergovernmental body mandated by the UN to study the origins and effects of climate change on society and ecosystems . Dr. Pulwarty has served on Committees of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , and has provided testimonies before the U.S. Congress on climate , water resources and adaptation . Dr. Pulwarty acts in advisory roles on climate , natural resources , and disaster management to several U.S. and international interests including the Western Governors Association , the Department of the Interior , the governments of CARICOM ( the Caribbean Economic Community ) , the Organization of American States , the UNDP , UNEP and the World Bank .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Roger_Pulwarty", "rank": 16, "score": 92849 }, { "content": "Title: Roger Levy Content: Roger Levy is a British science fiction writer . He is published by Gollancz . His books are deeply melancholic , and explore issues of belief ( with a focus on religion ) and the nature of reality . He has been compared to Philip K. Dick in that regard , though he could be said to operate more within the British disaster novel tradition .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Roger_Levy", "rank": 17, "score": 92413 }, { "content": "Title: Disaster! (musical) Content: Disaster ! is a musical comedy created by Seth Rudetsky , and written by Seth Rudetsky and Jack Plotnick . Earthquakes , tidal waves , infernos and the unforgettable songs of the '70s take center stage in this homage to classic disaster films . The show debuted at Triad Theatre , now renamed Stage 72 , with choreography by Denis Jones and music supervision by Steve Marzullo on January 22 , 2012 and ran through March 25 in its first production . A second production ran from November 2013 through April 2014 at New York 's St. Luke 's Theatre . The show opened on Broadway at the Nederlander Theatre on March 8 , 2016 , with previews beginning on February 9 , 2016 . The show stars Rudetsky , along with Roger Bart , Kerry Butler , Kevin Chamberlin , Adam Pascal , Faith Prince , Rachel York , Max Crumm , and Jennifer Simard . Baylee Littrell ( the son of Brian Littrell ) and Lacretta Nicole make their Broadway debut . Disaster ! parodies and pays comedic tribute to the genre of 1970s disaster films . In this musical , a group of New Yorkers attends the opening of a floating casino and discothèque that quickly succumbs to multiple disasters . These calamities correlate with plots of various disaster films of the 1970s such as earthquakes or killer bee incidents echoing situations from the films Earthquake and The Swarm respectively . Additionally , this play keeps with a 1970s theme by being a jukebox musical , using popular songs of the decade as musical numbers .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Disaster!_(musical)", "rank": 18, "score": 92225 }, { "content": "Title: Loss and damage Content: The term Loss and damage denotes impacts of climate-related stressors that occur despite efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to climatic changes . Loss and damage can result from sudden-onset events ( climate disasters , such as cyclones ) as well as slow-onset processes ( such as sea level rise ) . Loss and damage can occur in human systems ( such as livelihoods ) as well as natural systems ( such as biodiversity ) , though the emphasis in research and policy is on human impacts . Within the realm of loss and damage to human systems , a distinction is made between economic losses and non-economic losses . The main difference between the two is that non-economic losses involve things that are not commonly traded in markets . At the 18th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2012 in Doha , Qatar , it took 36 hours of negotiation between 195 nations to arrive at a plan to address loss and damage associated with adverse effects of climate change particularly in countries most vulnerable to climate change . A new website was launched at the conference by the Loss and Damage Vulnerable Countries Initiative . It described its aim as being `` the first dedicated site for news , resources and opinion on the issue of loss and damage associated with the adverse impacts of climate change '' . Examples of types of loss and damage include farmers who can no longer grow crops to eat , or grass to feed cattle , because their soil has become too salty , and fishermen who have lost their livelihoods because rivers have dried up . In popular press , and in statements by some parties in the climate negotiations , the terms loss and damage is often associated with liability and compensation . This explains why the topic raises heated debates , and tends to widen the divide between developed countries , which are historically responsible for most greenhouse gas emissions , and developing countries that are more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . For vulnerable countries , loss and damage is most of all about recognizing that past and current efforts to avoid dangerous climate change , and that there are limits and constraints to adaptation . The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change has developed a work programme on loss and damage which aims to find ways to address the issue in developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change . On 12 -- 14 September 2013 , it held a meeting in Fiji to consider how best to address loss and damage from ` slow-onset events ' . These are impacts of climate change that occur over time , such as sea-level rise , rather than in a single , destructive event . Bangladesh is already suffering from loss and damage resulting from sea-level rise , due to its flat terrain in the coastal region . At the 19th Conference of the Parties meeting of the UNFCCC in 2013 in Warsaw , Poland , the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage associated with Climate Change Impacts was established . At the 20th Conference of the Parties in Lima , Peru ( 2014 ) , the work plan of the executive committee of the Warsaw International Mechanism was approved . The 5th Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , published in 2013-2014 had no separate chapter on loss and damage , but WG2 Chapter 16 about adaptation limits and constraints , is very relevant for people interested in loss and damage . A qualitative data analysis ( QDA ) of what the IPCC 5th Assessment Report has to say about loss and damage surprisingly showed that the term was used much more often in statements about Annex 1 countries ( e.g. US , Australia or European countries ) than in text about non-Annex 1 countries ( most countries in Africa , Asia Latin America and the Pacific ) , which tend to be more vulnerable to impacts of climate change . Whether or not the IPCC 6th Assessment Report will have a chapter on loss and damage has not yet been decided .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Loss_and_damage", "rank": 19, "score": 91800 }, { "content": "Title: Roger Miret and The Disasters Content: Roger Miret and the Disasters are a street punk group formed by Agnostic Front frontman Roger Miret . The band started when Miret was writing songs that were not a style suitable for Lady Luck ( a band fronted by his wife Denise ) or Agnostic Front , so he starting recording them on his own on a Boss recorder . Johnny Rioux had previously mentioned he would like to work with him , so Rioux helped Miret on what originally started as a solo project . Then Miret met Rhys Kill , who liked the material and joined in on the project . The band then recorded a demo tape , with Miret and Kill on guitar , Rioux on bass and Matt Kelly from the Dropkick Murphys on drums . That six-song demo found reviewed by Lars Frederiksen , who passed it off to his Rancid bandmate Tim Armstrong . He asked Miret to put his project out on Hellcat Records . As Kelly could not continue with Miret due to his commitments with Dropkick Murphys , Miret asked Johnny Kray of The Krays and New York Rel-X to join on drums . After a couple rehearsals , they decided to make it a band . Their first recorded appearances were in 2001 , with `` It 's Alright '' , from the six-song demo with Matt Kelly , appearing on Scene Killer 3 and covers of Cock Sparrer 's `` England Belongs to Me '' ( dubbed `` New York Belongs to Me '' ) and Blitz 's `` Voice of a Generation '' appearing on The Worldwide Tribute to the Real Oi ! Volume 2 . Their debut release was their self-titled album , which came out in September 2002 . The band 's first lineup change came with Joey Nails replacing Rioux on bass by August 2003 . It was then announced in January 2004 that Chris Watson replaced Nails and then Brian Darwas took over for drums as of April 2004 , leaving only Miret and Kill as original members . Following one more lineup change , with Darwas moving over to bass and Mike Mulieri taking over drums as of September 2004 , the band recorded their second album in Fall 2004 . The album , 1984 , was released early the next year and became their last release on Hellcat . The next year , they released My Riot on Sailor 's Grave Records . In January 2011 , the band released their fourth album , Got ta Get Up Now , on German label People Like You Records .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Roger_Miret_and_The_Disasters", "rank": 20, "score": 90746 }, { "content": "Title: Regional Atmospheric Modeling System Content: The Regional Atmospheric Modeling System ( RAMS ) is a set of computer program that simulates the atmosphere for weather and climate research and for numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) . Other components include a data analysis and a visualization package . RAMS was developed in the 1980s at Colorado State University ( CSU ) , spearheaded by William R. Cotton and Roger A. Pielke , for mesoscale meteorological modeling . Subsequent development is primarily done by Robert L. Walko and Craig J. Tremback under the supervision of Cotton and Pielke . It is a comprehensive non-hydrostatic model . It is written primarily in Fortran with some C code and it runs best under the Unix operating system . Version 6 was released in 2009 . RAMS is the basis for a system simulating the Martian atmosphere that is named MRAMS .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Regional_Atmospheric_Modeling_System", "rank": 21, "score": 90586 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Denial Disorder Content: Climate Change Denial Disorder ( CCDD ) is a satirical short film which parodies climate change denial and perspectives on climate change through discussion of a fictional disease . The film stars actors Ed Begley Jr. , Timothy Brennan , and Susan Yeagley . It was directed by Carly Usdin , written by Nicol Paone , and produced by Brianne Trosie . The film was released on April 14 , 2015 , by the comedy video website and film/TV production company Funny or Die and on April 16 to YouTube . Climate Change Denial Disorder was recognized by the Environmental Media Association with a nomination in the 2015 Environmental Media Awards for Best Digital Short . Environmental news website EcoWatch highlighted the film among the highest viewed environmental videos of 2015 .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Climate_Change_Denial_Disorder", "rank": 22, "score": 90209 }, { "content": "Title: Brian Clegg (writer) Content: Brian Clegg ( born 1955 ) is an English science writer . He is the author of popular science books on topics including light , infinity , quantum entanglement and surviving the impact of climate change , and biographies of Roger Bacon and Eadweard Muybridge .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Brian_Clegg_(writer)", "rank": 23, "score": 89729 }, { "content": "Title: The Long Emergency Content: The Long Emergency : Surviving the Converging Catastrophes of the Twenty-first Century is a book by James Howard Kunstler ( Grove/Atlantic , 2005 ) exploring the consequences of a world oil production peak , coinciding with the forces of climate change , resurgent diseases , water scarcity , global economic instability and warfare to cause major trouble for future generations . The book 's principal theme explores the effects of a peak in oil production , predicted by many geologists , on American society as well as the rest of the world . In both this book and in his other writings , Kunstler argues that the economic upheavals caused by peak oil will force Americans to live in more localized , self-sufficient communities .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "The_Long_Emergency", "rank": 24, "score": 88534 }, { "content": "Title: Roger Kelke Content: Roger Kelke ( 1524 -- 1576 ) was an English churchman and academic , a Marian exile and Master of Magdalene College , Cambridge from 1558 and Archdeacon of Stow from 1563 .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Roger_Kelke", "rank": 25, "score": 87780 }, { "content": "Title: Peter A. Stott Content: Peter A. Stott is a climate scientist who leads the Climate Monitoring and Attribution team of the Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research at the Met Office in Exeter , UK . He is an expert on anthropogenic and natural causes of climate change . He was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group I report , chapter 9 , for the AR4 released in 2007 and is an editor of the Journal of Climate . Peter has an undergraduate degree in Mathematics from Durham University and completed Part III of the Mathematical Tripos at the University of Cambridge . He was awarded a PhD by Imperial College London for work on atmospheric modelling of the environmental consequences of the Chernobyl disaster . After his PhD he carried out postdoctoral research at the University of Edinburgh on stratospheric ozone depletion .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Peter_A._Stott", "rank": 26, "score": 87385 }, { "content": "Title: Burtoni Award Content: The Burtoni Award was created in 2003 by a group of leading experts and policy makers in the field of climate change . Its purpose is to recognize outstanding contributions to the science of adaptation to climate change . The award is named after the first recipient of the award , Ian Burton , an Emeritus Professor at the University of Toronto and a pioneer in the field of adaptation to climate change and extreme events and disasters . Ian has contributed to three Assessment Reports of the IPCC ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) and the recent Special Report on Extremes ( SREX ) . Subsequent recipients of the Burtoni Award are : Roger Jones ( Australia ) 2005 . Saleemul Huq ( Bangladesh ) 2007 . Coleen Vogel ( South Africa ) 2010 . Karen O'Brien ( Norway/USA ) 2012 . Mark Pelling ( United Kingdom ) 2015 . Richard J.T. Klein ( the Netherlands ) 2016 . Short biographies of the awardees follow : Roger Jones is Professorial Research Fellow at the Centre for Strategic Economic Research , Victoria University Australia . He was a Coordinating Lead Author in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and has the same role in the Fifth Assessment Report . The Burtoni was awarded in recognition of his innovations in research methods for assessing adaptation to climate change , particularly in the application of risk management to adaptation . Saleemul Huq is a Senior Fellow with the International Institute for Environment and Development in London and Director of ICCCD ( International Centre for Climate Change and Development in Dhaka , Bangladesh . He received the award for his work linking adaptation and development , his research on decision making and his efforts to build capacity . It was awarded during a three-day workshop on Community-based Adaptation to Climate Change in Dhaka . Coleen Vogel is an Independent Consultant and previously Professor of Sustainability at the University of Witwatersrand , Johannesburg . She was Lead Author for the IPCC 4th assessment Report Working Group 2 Chapter on Africa , and she chaired the International Scientific Committee of the International Human Dimensions Programme on Climate Change . Karen O'Brien is Professor in the Department of Sociology and Human Geography at the University of Oslo , Norway . She was Lead Author of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report for Working Group II ( Chapter 20 : Climate-resilient pathways : adaptation , mitigation , and sustainable development ) . She was a Coordinating Lead Author of the IPCC Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation ( SREX ) in Chapter 8 ` Towards a Resilient and Sustainable Future ' . She was Chair of the Global Environmental Change and Human Security ( GECHS ) project of the IHDP from 2005-2010 . Mark Pelling is Professor of Geography at King 's College London . His research interests are in the institutions and social relationships that shape vulnerability and adaptation to natural disasters , including those associated with climate change , and in the ways in which conflicting values and practices of development inform resilience and transformation in the face of environmental change . He served as a coordinating author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Special Report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation ( SREX ) and its Fifth Assessment Report . He also sits on the Scientific Steering Committees for the IGBP-IHDP core project Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone ( LOICZ ) and the ICSU core project Integrated Research on Disaster Risk ( IRDR ) . Richard J.T. Klein is a Senior Research Fellow at the Stockholm Environment Institute and Editor-in-Chief of the journal Climate and Development . He was awarded the Burtoni in recognition of his work to advance knowledge through international research , capacity-building and educational collaborations , including as co-director and chief scientist of the Nordic Centre of Excellence for Strategic Adaptation Research ( NORD-STAR ) and as a member , until 2015 , of the Scientific Steering Committee of the Global Programme of Research on Climate Change Vulnerability , Impacts and Adaptation ( PROVIA ) . He was only 24 when he became lead author of a chapter in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Second Assessment Report , published in 1994 . He has been a lead author or coordinating lead author of every IPCC Assessment Report since , as well as two Special Reports .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Burtoni_Award", "rank": 27, "score": 87339 }, { "content": "Title: Feeding Everyone No Matter What Content: Feeding Everyone No Matter What : Managing Food Security After Global Catastrophe is a book written by David Denkenberger and Joshua M. Pearce and published by Elsevier under their Academic Press . Food storage for the entire global population is the only historical solution for a global disruption of conventional agriculture due to global catastrophes such as abrupt climate change and nuclear winter , despite three decades of awareness of the problem . But for large global catastrophes , at least five years of supplies are needed because agriculture would be hampered for that time . This large of a stockpile is economically prohibitive on a global scale or even within the US . The number of global catastrophes that apply is large and the book analyzed five crop-destroying catastrophes ( sudden climate change , super-weeds , super-bacteria , super-pests and super-pathogens ) and three sunlight-extinguishing events ( supervolcano eruption , asteroid or comet impact , and nuclear winter ) . The book Feeding Everyone No Matter What proposes more than 10 solutions for providing the global food supply according to Discovery News . The study that is the foundation of the book involves interdisciplinarity and gives instructions for the survivalism movement . Feeding Everyone No Matter What has been covered extensively by the international media .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Feeding_Everyone_No_Matter_What", "rank": 28, "score": 87216 }, { "content": "Title: Requiem for a Species Content: Requiem for a Species : Why We Resist the Truth about Climate Change is a 2010 non-fiction book by Australian academic Clive Hamilton which explores climate change denial and its implications . It argues that climate change will bring about large-scale , harmful consequences for habitability for life on Earth including humans , which it is too late to prevent . Hamilton explores why politicians , corporations and the public deny or refuse to act on this reality . He invokes a variety of explanations , including wishful thinking , ideology , consumer culture and active lobbying by the fossil fuel industry . The book builds on the author 's fifteen-year prior history of writing about these subjects , with previous books including Growth Fetish and Scorcher : The Dirty Politics of Climate Change . Requiem for a Species has been reviewed in Resurgence magazine , Socialist Review , Sydney Morning Herald , The Age , The Common Review , and Times Higher Education , which named it `` Book of the Week '' . Extracts of the book have appeared in The Guardian and Geographical magazine . The book won a 2010 Queensland Premier 's Literary Award .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Requiem_for_a_Species", "rank": 29, "score": 86626 }, { "content": "Title: The Disaster Artist Content: The Disaster Artist is an award-winning 2013 non-fiction book written by Greg Sestero and Tom Bissell . Sestero reveals the troubled development and production of the 2003 cult film The Room while detailing his own struggles as a starving young actor and his relationship with the mysterious Tommy Wiseau . The book focuses on the difficulties and odd experiences Sestero had behind the scenes and his unlikely friendship with Wiseau . A film adaptation of the same name developed by Seth Rogen with James Franco directing , producing and starring as Tommy Wiseau along with Dave Franco as Greg Sestero premiered at South by Southwest on March 12 , 2017 to a standing ovation .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "The_Disaster_Artist", "rank": 30, "score": 86486 }, { "content": "Title: Disaster (song) Content: `` Disaster '' is a song recorded by American recording artist JoJo and released as a buzz single initially for her third studio album . The song was written by Gino Barletta , along with JoJo , Marc Himmel , and Mario Marchetti . The song was Produced by Mario Marchetti . `` Disaster '' premiered on US radio on August 29 , 2011 via Interscope Records and it was made available for digital download on September 6 , 2011 . Musically , `` Disaster '' is a mid-tempo pop ballad with R&B and pop rock influences . The song 's lyrics describe a relationship that has gone from happy and blissful to tumultuous and disastrous . The song received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics , who noted its similarities to JoJo 's 2006 single , `` Too Little Too Late '' , and Jordin Sparks 's `` Battlefield '' . However , the song was also criticized for not showing any progression after a five-year hiatus . The single debuted at number 87 on the Billboard Hot 100 , giving JoJo her first charting single since `` Too Little Too Late '' . The single also charted on the Billboard Pop Songs , peaking at number 29 . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Benny Boom and shot in downtown Los Angeles . It premiered on JoJo 's official website on November 1 , 2011 , and made available for viewing on VEVO on November 2 , 2011 JoJo performed `` Disaster '' for the first time on Good Day Dallas on September 29 , 2011 . A digital remixes EP containing 5 official remixes of the song was released on March 13 , 2012 .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Disaster_(song)", "rank": 31, "score": 86373 }, { "content": "Title: Thani Ahmed Al-Zeyoudi Content: Thani Ahmed Alzeyoudi is the Minister of Climate Change and Environment for the United Arab Emirates . He has a Master 's degree in Project Management from the British University in Dubai , a Master 's Degree in Business Administration from New York Institute of Technology and a Bachelor 's Degree in Petroleum Engineering from the University of Tulsa .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Thani_Ahmed_Al-Zeyoudi", "rank": 32, "score": 85863 }, { "content": "Title: Why We Disagree About Climate Change Content: Why We Disagree About Climate Change : Understanding Controversy , Inaction and Opportunity was written by Mike Hulme and was published by the Cambridge University Press in 2009 . As of November 2012 it has sold over 15,000 copies . In 2009 it was selected by The Economist magazine as one of its science and technology ` Books of the Year ' and in 2010 was jointly awarded the Gerald L Young Prize for the best book in human ecology .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Why_We_Disagree_About_Climate_Change", "rank": 33, "score": 85317 }, { "content": "Title: Disaster (film) Content: Disaster is a 1948 American drama film directed by William H. Pine and written by Thomas Ahearn . The film stars Richard Denning , Trudy Marshall , Damian O'Flynn , Will Wright , James Millican and Jack Lambert . The film was released on December 3 , 1948 , by Paramount Pictures .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Disaster_(film)", "rank": 34, "score": 85147 }, { "content": "Title: The Day After Tomorrow Content: The Day After Tomorrow is a 2004 American climate science fiction disaster film co-written , directed , and produced by Roland Emmerich and starring Dennis Quaid , Jake Gyllenhaal , Ian Holm , Emmy Rossum , and Sela Ward . The film depicts catastrophic climatic effects following the disruption of the North Atlantic Ocean circulation in a series of extreme weather events that usher in global cooling and lead to a new ice age . Filmed in Toronto and Montreal , it is the highest-grossing Hollywood film made in Canada ( adjusted for inflation ) . Originally slated for release in the summer of 2003 , The Day After Tomorrow opened in Mexico City on May 17 , 2004 , and was released worldwide from May 26 to May 28 ( except in South Korea and Japan , where it was released on June 4 and 5 ) . A major commercial success , the film became the sixth highest-grossing film of 2004 . It received mixed reviews upon release , with critics highly praising the film 's special effects but criticizing numerous scientific inaccuracies .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "The_Day_After_Tomorrow", "rank": 35, "score": 84969 }, { "content": "Title: Piel morena Content: `` Piel Morena '' ( `` Brown Skin '' ) is a song written by Kike Santander , produced by Emilio Estefan Jr. and recorded by Thalía . It was released as the lead single of her fourth studio album En éxtasis , which was her international debut . This is her first single under the label EMI . `` Piel Morena '' is considered one of her signature songs , reaching number one in over 25 countries . The single becomes a huge Thalia 's crossover hit , and also peaked at number seven on the Billboard 's Hot Latin Tracks , and number one on The Latin America United Chart . This song opened the door of her international career in Latin America and Europe . It became a popularity phenomenon in the Latin market and intensified the comparisons of Thalia as the `` Latina Madonna '' . `` Piel morena '' was remixed by The Hitmakers , and by Emilio Estefan Jr. `` Piel Morena '' earned a nomination for Pop Song of the Year at the Lo Nuestro Awards of 1996 .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Piel_morena", "rank": 36, "score": 84418 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change (album) Content: Climate Change is the tenth studio album by rapper and songwriter Pitbull . It was released on March 17 , 2017 . through RCA Records , Polo Grounds Music and Mr. 305 Inc. . It features Enrique Iglesias , Flo Rida , Jennifer Lopez and Jason Derulo .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Climate_Change_(album)", "rank": 37, "score": 84412 }, { "content": "Title: Storms of My Grandchildren Content: Storms of My Grandchildren : The Truth About the Coming Climate Catastrophe and Our Last Chance to Save Humanity is climate scientist James Hansen 's first book , published by Bloomsbury Press in 2009 . The book is about threats to people and habitability for life on earth from global warming .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Storms_of_My_Grandchildren", "rank": 38, "score": 84349 }, { "content": "Title: Artists' Project Earth Content: Artists ' Project Earth is a UK registered charity which recruits internationally known musicians and artists through albums , concerts , art exhibitions and art related projects to raise awareness of climate change and funds for campaigns and disaster relief .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Artists'_Project_Earth", "rank": 39, "score": 84347 }, { "content": "Title: The Weather Makers Content: The Weather Makers : The History and Future Impact of Climate Change is a 2005 book by Tim Flannery . The book received critical acclaim . It won the major prize at the 2006 New South Wales Premier 's Literary Awards , and was short-listed for the 2010 Jan Michalski Prize for Literature .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "The_Weather_Makers", "rank": 40, "score": 84253 }, { "content": "Title: High and Dry (book) Content: High and Dry : John Howard , Climate Change and the Selling of Australia 's Future is a 2007 book written by Guy Pearse . In the book , Pearse accuses Prime Minister John Howard of `` wilful blindness '' on the issue of global warming . According to the book , the Prime Minister and several of his key ministers were `` captured by a group of industries and their lobbyists , known as the greenhouse mafia '' . Guy Pearse was a longtime member of the Liberal Party and was speechwriter for Robert Hill , Australia 's Environment Minister from 1997-2000 .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "High_and_Dry_(book)", "rank": 41, "score": 83794 }, { "content": "Title: Roland Emmerich Content: Roland Emmerich ( -LSB- ˈʁoːlant ˈɛməʁɪç -RSB- ; born November 10 , 1955 ) is a German film director , screenwriter , and producer , widely known for his disaster films . His films , most of which are English-language Hollywood productions , have made more than $ 3 billion worldwide , including just over $ 1 billion in the United States , making him the country 's 11th-highest grossing director of all time . He began his work in the film industry by directing the film The Noah 's Ark Principle ( 1984 ) as part of his university thesis and also co-founded Centropolis Entertainment in 1985 with his sister . He is a collector of art and an active campaigner for the LGBT community , and is openly gay . He is also a campaigner for awareness of global warming and human rights .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Roland_Emmerich", "rank": 42, "score": 83711 }, { "content": "Title: Yoon Je-kyoon Content: Youn Je-kyun ( born 1969 ) is a South Korean film director . His debut My Boss , My Hero is about a gangster who is sent back to school , while Sex Is Zero has been compared with American Pie . However , his disaster movie Haeundae ( 2009 ) , which has been billed as South Korea 's first disaster film , had a $ 16 million budget , and was nominated for several awards -- including Best Film and Best Director -- at the 2009 Black Dragon Awards ; the film won the award for Best Special Effects .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Yoon_Je-kyoon", "rank": 43, "score": 83682 }, { "content": "Title: Theun de Vries Content: Theunis Uilke ( Theun ) de Vries ( 26 April 1907 -- 21 January 2005 ) , was a Dutch writer and poet .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Theun_de_Vries", "rank": 44, "score": 83622 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Argentina Content: According to scientists , global warming is predicted to have significant effects on the climate of Argentina . Though temperatures have increased at a slower rate than the global average , nonetheless these impacts have occurred in many areas . If these trends continue , it is predicted that climate change will exacerbate existing natural disasters such as increasing the intensity and frequency of floods or create new ones .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Argentina", "rank": 45, "score": 83447 }, { "content": "Title: Iben Browning Content: Iben Browning ( January 9 , 1918 -- July 18 , 1991 ) was an American business consultant and author . He is most notable for having made various failed predictions of disasters involving climate , volcanoes , and earthquakes .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Iben_Browning", "rank": 46, "score": 83000 }, { "content": "Title: Music for Relief Content: ` Music for Relief ' was founded by the band Linkin Park in response to the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami . Since inception in 2005 MFR has responded to more than 25 natural disasters across four continents including Hurricane Katrina , China 's Wenchuan earthquake , a cholera outbreak in Zimbabwe , earthquakes in Haiti in 2010 and Japan in 2011 , and most recently the Nepal earthquakes in 2015 . Music for Relief has also planted over 1.3 million trees to help reduce climate change . Recognizing the consequences of global climate change , Music for Relief expanded its focus to environmental protection and restoration in 2007 . Through programs like Power the World , a collaboration with the United Nations Foundation aimed at providing sustainable energy solutions to vulnerable populations , Music for Relief is helping people , wildlife , and the environment . Rooted in the music community , Music for Relief leverages its unique position to reach artists and countless fans around the world to raise funds and awareness for humanitarian causes .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Music_for_Relief", "rank": 47, "score": 82818 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change adaptation Content: Climate change adaptation is a response to global warming and climate change , that seeks to reduce the vulnerability of social and biological systems to relatively sudden change and thus offset the effects of global warming . Even if emissions are stabilized relatively soon , global warming and its effects will last many years , and adaptation will be necessary to the resulting changes in climate . Adaptation is especially important in developing countries since those countries are predicted to bear the brunt of the effects of global warming . That is , the capacity and potential for humans to adapt ( called adaptive capacity ) is unevenly distributed across different regions and populations , and developing countries generally have less capacity to adapt ( Schneider et al. , 2007 ) . Furthermore , the degree of adaptation correlates to the situational focus on environmental issues . Therefore , adaptation requires the situational assessment of sensitivity and vulnerability to environmental impacts . Adaptive capacity is closely linked to social and economic development ( IPCC , 2007 ) . The economic costs of adaptation to climate change are likely to cost billions of dollars annually for the next several decades , though the amount of money needed is unknown . Donor countries promised an annual $ 100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change . However , while the fund was set up during COP16 in Cancún , concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming . The adaptation challenge grows with the magnitude and the rate of climate change . Another response to climate change , known as climate change mitigation ( Verbruggen , 2007 ) is to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions and/or enhance the removal of these gases from the atmosphere ( through carbon sinks ) . Even the most effective reductions in emissions , however , would not prevent further climate change impacts , making the need for adaptation unavoidable ( Klein et al. , 2007 ) . In a literature assessment , Klein et al. ( 2007 ) assessed options for adaptation . They concluded , with very high confidence , that in the absence of mitigation efforts , the effects of climate change would reach such a magnitude as to make adaptation impossible for some natural ecosystems . Others are concerned that climate adaptation programs might interfere with the existing development programs and thus lead to unintended consequences for vulnerable groups . For human systems , the economic and social costs of unmitigated climate change would be very high .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Climate_change_adaptation", "rank": 48, "score": 82761 }, { "content": "Title: A Change of Climate Content: A Change of Climate is a novel by English author Hilary Mantel , first published in 1994 by Viking Books . At the time The Observer described it as the best book she had written . It was published in the United States by Henry Holt in 1997 and was recognised by the New York Times Book Review as one of the notable books of that year . The novel has also been identified as one of the best of the 1990s .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "A_Change_of_Climate", "rank": 49, "score": 82643 }, { "content": "Title: Htun Lwin Content: Dr. Htun Lwin or Tun Lwin is a Burmese meteorologist . He holds a PhD in Physics and has worked in Burma 's Department of Meteorology and Hydrology since he was 17 years old in 1965 for 44 years until 2009 when he retired from his ( then ) position as Director General . Dr Tun Lwin is a well-known , active `` netizen '' in Myanmar who operates a free , non-profit online service called Myanmar Climate Change Watch ( MCCW ) . Through various social media platforms such as Facebook and his website , he primarily gives weather and climate updates as well as some posts and updates about his own personal life and opinions . He has written numerous successful books on weather in Myanmar , works with local radio stations on weather-related segments and regularly writes articles on various topics not limited to just weather updates in Burmese magazines and newspaper journals . His book , The Girl Called La Niña and Articles about Natural Disasters , won the Science Knowledge Prize in the Thuta Swesone literary awards in 2007 . He also gives presentations at talks and seminars relating to climate change frequently both locally and internationally , in cities and villages in rural areas . On December 10 -- 11 , 2009 , Lwin presented his 30-page paper at a seminar hosted by the International Centre for Water Hazard ( ICHARM ) in Tsukuba , Japan , stressing the importance of awareness of storms , tsunamis and flooding in delta regions and potential atural disaster preparedness strategies in the region . In October 2010 he spoke to the Burmese media about the expected path of Cyclone Giri . He currently resides in Yangon , Myanmar with his wife , Mu Mu Than , and three children , two daughters and one son , of which the eldest is married with three children of her own .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Htun_Lwin", "rank": 50, "score": 82447 }, { "content": "Title: Alan Carlin Content: Alan Carlin ( born 1937 ) , is an American economist specializing in cost-benefit analysis and the economics of global climate change control .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Alan_Carlin", "rank": 51, "score": 82027 }, { "content": "Title: Scorcher: The Dirty Politics of Climate Change Content: Scorcher : The Dirty Politics of Climate Change is a 2007 book by Clive Hamilton which contends that Australia rather than the United States is the major stumbling block to a more effective Kyoto Protocol . In the final chapter of the book Hamilton argues that `` the Howard Government has been actively working to destroy the Kyoto Protocol '' . Scorcher is an updated version of Hamilton 's 2001 book , Running from the Storm . Other books by Clive Hamilton include Requiem for a Species , Silencing Dissent , Growth Fetish , Affluenza and The Freedom Paradox .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Scorcher:_The_Dirty_Politics_of_Climate_Change", "rank": 52, "score": 81697 }, { "content": "Title: Mark Lynas Content: Mark Lynas ( born 1973 ) is a British author , journalist and environmental activist who focuses on climate change . He is a contributor to New Statesman , The Ecologist , Granta and Geographical magazines , and The Guardian and The Observer newspapers in the UK ; he also worked on the film The Age of Stupid . He was born in Fiji , grew up in Peru and the United Kingdom and holds a degree in history and politics from the University of Edinburgh . He lives in Oxford , England . He has published several books including Six Degrees : Our Future on a Hotter Planet ( 2007 ) and The God Species : Saving the Planet in the Age of Humans ( 2011 ) . He has stated `` I think there is a 50 -- 50 chance we can avoid a devastating rise in global temperature . ''", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Mark_Lynas", "rank": 53, "score": 81605 }, { "content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)", "rank": 54, "score": 81590 }, { "content": "Title: Roger Miret and The Disasters (album) Content: Roger Miret and the Disasters is the eponymous debut album by Roger Miret and the Disasters . It was released on September 10 , 2002 . `` New York Belongs to Me '' is a cover of Cock Sparrer 's `` England Belongs to Me '' , with a few word changes . The cover originally appeared on Worldwide Tribute to the Real Oi , Vol . 2", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Roger_Miret_and_The_Disasters_(album)", "rank": 55, "score": 81422 }, { "content": "Title: Robert C. Paehlke Content: Robert C. Paehlke ( born 1941 ) is an American/Canadian political scientist , environmentalist , Emeritus Professor of Environmental and Resource Studies and Political Science at the Trent University , Canada , and author , best known for his work on environmentalism and progressive politics .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Robert_C._Paehlke", "rank": 56, "score": 80483 }, { "content": "Title: Alfred Poulin Content: Alfred A. Poulin , Jr. or A. Poulin ( 1938 -- 1996 ) was an American poet , translator , and editor noted for his translation of Rainer Maria Rilke 's Duino Elegies and the Sonnets to Orpheus . Poulin studied at St. Francis College in Maine , Loyola University in Chicago , Illinois , and at the University of Iowa Writers ' Workshop . He later taught as a professor at the State University of New York at Brockport . His translation work focused on translating poetry from French and German into English .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Alfred_Poulin", "rank": 57, "score": 80310 }, { "content": "Title: Newsfail Content: Newsfail : Climate Change , Feminism , Gun Control , and Other Fun Stuff We Talk About Because Nobody Else Will is a book written by Jamie Kilstein and Allison Kilkenny , hosts of internet radio show Citizen Radio . The book was published by Simon & Schuster in 2014 .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Newsfail", "rank": 58, "score": 80207 }, { "content": "Title: Robert Balling Content: Robert C. Balling , Jr. is a professor of geography at Arizona State University , and the former director of its Office of Climatology . His research interests include climatology , global climate change , and geographic information systems . Balling has declared himself one of the scientists who oppose the consensus on global warming , arguing in a 2009 book that anthropogenic global warming `` is indeed real , but relatively modest '' , and maintaining that there is a publication bias in the scientific literature .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Robert_Balling", "rank": 59, "score": 80117 }, { "content": "Title: Gustav Falke Content: Gustav Falke ( 11 January 1853 -- 8 February 1916 ) was a German writer .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Gustav_Falke", "rank": 60, "score": 80107 }, { "content": "Title: Johann Gottlieb Tielke Content: Johann Gottlieb Tielke ( 2 July 1731 , Tautenburg near Jena -- 6 November 1787 , Freiberg ) was an army officer and an internationally recognized military writer .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Johann_Gottlieb_Tielke", "rank": 61, "score": 79771 }, { "content": "Title: Robert Wolke Content: Robert L. Wolke ( April 2 , 1928 ) is an American chemist , currently professor emeritus of chemistry at the University of Pittsburgh . He is a food columnist for The Washington Post , and has written multiple books , which aim to explain everyday phenomena in non-technical terms : What Einstein Did n't Know : Scientific Answers to Everyday Questions contains answers to everyday questions ( e.g. . Why do car batteries go dead in winter ? , Why does warm beer go flat ? ) , attempting to explain them scientifically but without using technical terms ( though it often shows technical terms after their definitions ) . In addition , it also contains bar bets and `` Try it '' experiments related to the current subject . What Einstein Told His Barber : More Scientific Answers to Everyday Questions is a nonfiction book written by Robert Wolke . It is the sequel to What Einstein Did n't Know : Scientific Answers to Everyday Questions . What Einstein Told His Cook : Kitchen Science Explained provides answers to common food science questions . The book also contains recipes by Robert Wolke 's wife , Marlene Parrish . Both the James Beard Foundation and International Association of Culinary Professionals have nominated this book as 2005 's best technical or reference book . What Einstein Told His Cook 2 , The Sequel : Further Adventures in Kitchen Science ( ISBN 0-393-05869-7 ) is a nonfiction book and sequel to What Einstein Told His Cook : Kitchen Science Explained ; this book provides answers to common questions related to kitchen science . Wolke has won awards such as the American Chemical Society 's 2005 James T. Grady-James H. Stack Award for Interpreting Chemistry for the Public , International Association of Culinary Professionals ' Bert Greene Award , and the James Beard Foundation 's award for the best newspaper column .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Robert_Wolke", "rank": 62, "score": 79684 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Capitalism Content: Climate Capitalism : Capitalism in the Age of Climate Change is a 2011 book by L. Hunter Lovins and Boyd Cohen . It presents positive stories and examples of how profit-seeking companies are helping to save the planet , and says that `` the best way to rebuild America 's economy , cities and job markets is to invest in energy efficiency and renewable energy resources , whether climate change is happening or not '' . However , reviewer Gail Whiteman is unconvinced by the argument that naked greed and market forces will drive businesses to cut their greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Climate_Capitalism", "rank": 63, "score": 79659 }, { "content": "Title: 1984 (Roger Miret and The Disasters album) Content: 1984 is the second album by Roger Miret and the Disasters . It was released on February 22 , 2005 .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "1984_(Roger_Miret_and_The_Disasters_album)", "rank": 64, "score": 79585 }, { "content": "Title: José Luis Espinosa Piña Content: José Luis Espinosa Piña ( born December 2 , 1968 in Morelia , Michoacán de Ocampo ) is a Mexican politician -- member of the National Action Party ( PAN ) -- and current Director-General of the Latin American Institute of Educational Communication ( ILCE , by its Spanish acronym ) . He studied law at Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo ( one of Mexico 's top state-funded universities ) from 1990 to 1995 . In 2006 he was elected by the 10th district of his native city , Morelia , to the Mexican Chamber of Deputies . Here he was appointed secretary to the Environment and Natural Resources committee , from which he fostered measures to deal with climate change both nationally and internationally . He actively participated in parliamentary diplomacy , which led him to build close ties with GLOBE International -- an international organisation backed by the G8 +5 and the World Bank whose mission is to tackle climate change globally by promoting legislation amongst national parliaments . At the end of 2008 he was invited by Elliot Morley , the former GLOBE International 's President , to be part of the new International Commission on Climate and Energy Security that was launched in Washington DC to back the works of Lars Løkke Rasmussen , Prime Minister of Denmark , in advance of the Copenhagen Conference on Climate Change that would take place at the end of 2009 . On June of that same year , during the GLOBE Rome Forum held in the Italian parliament , Espinosa was asked to give a speech regarding the Mexican Green Fund proposal . A few days later , Gordon Brown , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , delivered a speech on the Roadmap to Copenhagen where he pointed to the Mexican Green Fund as an example of the kind of financial mechanisms that could be agreed upon in order to tackle climate change . As part of his last legislative projects , Espinosa also conceived the idea to create GLOBE Mexico -- a national branch of GLOBE International -- within the Mexican Congress . However , because Mexican deputies serve for three years and there is no legislative re-election in Mexico , Espinosa had to leave his seat at the Chamber of Deputies on August 31 , 2009 . On that same day , Espinosa was appointed Director-General of ILCE , an international organisation based in Mexico City that promotes education throughout Latin America by means of communication technologies and innovative pedagogical models . From his new position , Espinosa has continued supporting the works of GLOBE ( Global Legislators Organisation for a Balanced Environment ) -- now as special adviser to this organisation -- and the formal establishment of GLOBE Mexico within both the Mexican Chamber of Deputies and Senate .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "José_Luis_Espinosa_Piña", "rank": 65, "score": 79350 }, { "content": "Title: Gremlins 2: The New Batch Content: Gremlins 2 : The New Batch is a 1990 American comedy horror film , and the sequel to Gremlins ( 1984 ) . It was directed by Joe Dante and written by Charles S. Haas , with creature designs by Rick Baker . It stars Zach Galligan , Phoebe Cates , John Glover , Robert Prosky , Haviland Morris , Dick Miller , Jackie Joseph , Robert Picardo and Christopher Lee ; additionally , the film features Tony Randall and Frank Welker providing the voices for two gremlins . The story continues the adventures of the creature Gizmo ( once again voiced by Howie Mandel ) , who spawns numerous small monsters when wet . In the first film , Gizmo 's offspring rampaged through a small fictional town . In Gremlins 2 , Gizmo multiplies within a skyscraper in New York City . The new creatures thus pose a serious threat to the city should they be able to leave the building , and much of the story involves the human characters ' efforts to prevent this disaster . As with the first film , Gremlins 2 is a live action horror comedy film ; however , Dante put effort into taking the sequel in new anarchic directions . The film is meant to be more cartoon-like and less dark than the original , and the violence is fairly slapstick . There are also a number of parodies of other films and stories , most notably Gremlins itself , as well as the Rambo films , The Wizard of Oz , Marathon Man and The Phantom of the Opera . As with the first film , critical response varied . Some critics who thought the first film was too dark gave Gremlins 2 better reviews , but it received a colder reception from fans who thought otherwise .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Gremlins_2:_The_New_Batch", "rank": 66, "score": 79271 }, { "content": "Title: George Marshall (environmentalist) Content: George Marshall ( born 1964 ) is a British environmental campaigner , communications specialist and writer . He is the founder of Climate Outreach and is a specialist in climate change communications . He is the author of Carbon Detox ( 2007 ) and Do n't Even Think About It : Why Our Brains Are Wired to Ignore Climate Change ( 2014 ) . He lives in mid-Wales .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "George_Marshall_(environmentalist)", "rank": 67, "score": 78997 }, { "content": "Title: Silver Car Crash (Double Disaster) Content: Silver Car Crash ( Double Disaster ) is a 1963 serigraph by the American artist Andy Warhol . In November 2013 it sold for $ 105m ( # 65.5 m ) at auction , setting a new highest price for a work by Warhol .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Silver_Car_Crash_(Double_Disaster)", "rank": 68, "score": 78989 }, { "content": "Title: Disasters (journal) Content: Disasters is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal published by Wiley-Blackwell for the Overseas Development Institute ( ODI ) . Disasters is managed by the Humanitarian Policy Group at the ODI . The journal was established in 1977 and covers aspects of disaster studies , policy and management . Disasters publishes field reports , case study articles and academic papers . It is currently edited by Sara Pantuliano ( Overseas Development Institute ) , Helen Young ( Tufts University ) , and John Twigg ( University College London ) . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2011 impact factor of 0.692 , ranking it 36th out of 54 journals in the category `` Planning & Development '' .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Disasters_(journal)", "rank": 69, "score": 78807 }, { "content": "Title: Disaster Financial Assistance Arrangements Content: Disaster Financial Assistance Arrangements ( DFAA ) is a program of the Government of Canada that provides financial assistance to provincial and territorial governments following large-scale natural disasters . Provinces can apply to the program for assistance when eligible costs exceed one dollar per capita , at which point the federal government will share 50 % of the cost . If the costs exceed $ 3 per capita this rises to 75 % , and when costs reach $ 5 per capita , the federal government is required to pay 90 per cent of the costs . Since its inception in 1970 , a 2011 -- 12 report stated that the program had paid out $ 2 billion in post-disaster assistance . Following the 2013 Alberta floods , $ 2 billion was earmarked for the province and the government sought a $ 689-million increase in funding for the program from parliament . The program has come under criticism for favouring some provinces over others , and for not including public health emergencies in its remit . Events that have received funding include 1996 Saguenay Flood , 1997 Red River Flood , 2010 Hurricane Igor in Newfoundland and the 2011 Assiniboine River Flood .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Disaster_Financial_Assistance_Arrangements", "rank": 70, "score": 78592 }, { "content": "Title: The Disaster Area Content: The Disaster Area is a collection of short stories by British author J. G. Ballard .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "The_Disaster_Area", "rank": 71, "score": 78516 }, { "content": "Title: John Casey (climate change author) Content: John L. Casey is an American author . Casey 's literary works include Dark Winter and Cold Sun . His current residence is Orlando , Florida .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "John_Casey_(climate_change_author)", "rank": 72, "score": 78488 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Change Denial: Heads in the Sand Content: Climate Change Denial : Heads in the Sand is a non-fiction book about climate change denial , coauthored by Haydn Washington and John Cook , with a foreword by Naomi Oreskes . Washington had a background in environmental science prior to authoring the work , and Cook was educated in physics and founded the website Skeptical Science which compiles peer-reviewed evidence of global warming . The book was first published in hardcover and paperback formats in 2011 by Earthscan , a division of Routledge . The book presents an in-depth analysis and refutation of climate change denial , going over several arguments point-by-point and disproving them with peer-reviewed evidence from the scientific consensus for climate change . The authors assert that those denying climate change engage in tactics including cherry picking data purported to support their specific viewpoints , and attacking the integrity of climate scientists . They use social science theory to examine the phenomenon of climate change denial in the wider public , and call this phenomenon a form of pathology . The book traces financial support for climate change denial to the fossil fuel industry , asserting these companies have attempted to influence public opinion on the matter . Washington and Cook write that politicians have a tendency to use weasel words as part of a propaganda tactic through use of spin , as a way to deflect public interest away from climate change and remain passive on the issue . The authors conclude that if the public ceased engaging in denial , the problem of climate change could be realistically addressed . For his research on the book , and efforts in communicating the essence of climate change science to the general public , John Cook won the 2011 Australian Museum Eureka Prize for Advancement of Climate Change Knowledge . Climate Change Denial received a positive reception in reviews from publications including : The Ecologist , ECOS magazine , academic journal Natures Sciences Sociétés , the journal Education published by the New South Wales Teachers Federation , . An article in The New American was critical , describing the labels of `` deniers '' and `` denialists '' as cruel and forms of character assassination .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Climate_Change_Denial:_Heads_in_the_Sand", "rank": 73, "score": 78337 }, { "content": "Title: Anna Rose Content: Anna Rose ( born 14 April 1983 ) is an Australian author , activist and environmentalist . She co-founded the Australian Youth Climate Coalition ( AYCC ) in late 2006 and was , until recently , the Chair of the AYCC board . In 2012 she co-starred in an ABC documentary , I Can Change Your Mind on Climate Change and released her first full-length book , Madlands : A Journey to Change the Mind of a Climate Sceptic . Rose is the convenor of the Vice-Chancellor 's Leadership & Influence course at the Australian National University .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Anna_Rose", "rank": 74, "score": 78212 }, { "content": "Title: Bill McKibben Content: William Ernest `` Bill '' McKibben ( born December 8 , 1960 ) is an American environmentalist , author , and journalist who has written extensively on the impact of global warming . He is the Schumann Distinguished Scholar at Middlebury College and leader of the anti-carbon campaign group 350 . org . He has authored a dozen books about the environment , including his first , The End of Nature ( 1989 ) , about climate change . In 2009 , he led 350 . org 's organization of 5,200 simultaneous demonstrations in 181 countries . In 2010 , McKibben and 350 . org conceived the 10/10/10 Global Work Party , which convened more than 7,000 events in 188 countries as he had told a large gathering at Warren Wilson College shortly before the event . In December 2010 , 350 . org coordinated a planet-scale art project , with many of the 20 works visible from satellites . In 2011 and 2012 he led the environmental campaign against the proposed Keystone XL pipeline project and spent three days in jail in Washington , D.C. . It was one of the largest civil disobedience actions in America for decades . Two weeks later he was inducted into the literature section of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . He was awarded the Gandhi Peace Award in 2013 . Foreign Policy magazine named him to its inaugural list of the 100 most important global thinkers in 2009 and MSN named him one of the dozen most influential men of 2009 . In 2010 , the Boston Globe called him `` probably the nation 's leading environmentalist '' and Time magazine book reviewer Bryan Walsh described him as `` the world 's best green journalist '' .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Bill_McKibben", "rank": 75, "score": 77855 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 76, "score": 77692 }, { "content": "Title: Patricia Polacco Content: Patricia Barber Polacco ( born July 11 , 1944 , Lansing , Michigan ) is an American author and illustrator . She struggled in school because she was unable to read until age 14 due to dyslexia ; she found relief by expressing herself through art . Polacco endured teasing and hid her disability until a school teacher recognized that she could not read and began to help her . Her book Thank You , Mr. Falker is Polacco 's retelling of this encounter and its outcome . She also wrote such books as Mr. Lincoln 's Way and The Lemonade Club .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Patricia_Polacco", "rank": 77, "score": 77663 }, { "content": "Title: The Changing Land Content: The Changing Land is fantasy novel by American writer Roger Zelazny , first published in 1981 . The novel resolves the storyline from the various Dilvish , the Damned short stories ( collected in 1982 as Dilvish , the Damned ) . It was nominated for the Locus Award Elements of the story intentionally reflect the work of H. P. Lovecraft and Frank Belknap Long , including the Hounds of Tindalos , here called the `` Hounds of Thandalos '' , and the appearance of the Old Gods .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "The_Changing_Land", "rank": 78, "score": 77607 }, { "content": "Title: Jan Wolkers Content: Jan Hendrik Wolkers ( Oegstgeest , 26 October 1925 -- Texel , 19 October 2007 ) was a Dutch author , sculptor and painter . Wolkers is considered one of the `` Great Four '' writers of post-World War II Dutch literature , alongside Willem Frederik Hermans , Harry Mulisch and Gerard Reve ( the latter authors are also known as the `` Great Three '' ) . He became noted as an author in the 1960s mainly for his graphic descriptions of sexual acts . His 1969 novel Turks Fruit was translated into ten different languages and published in English as Turkish Delight . It was also made into a highly successful movie , the Paul Verhoeven-directed Turks Fruit ( 1972 ) which was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film and in 1999 won the award for Best Dutch Film of the Century . Wolkers declined several literary awards . In 1982 he refused the Constantijn Huygensprijs , and in 1989 he refused the P.C. Hooftprijs . From 1980 until his death , Wolkers resided on the Dutch island of Texel . He died on 19 October 2007 , aged 81 , at his Texel home and was cremated in Amsterdam at De Nieuwe Ooster cemetery . A number of his outdoor sculptures in the Netherlands have been subject to vandalism , presumably due to his use of glass as a construction material . Some examples are the Auschwitz monument in Amsterdam and the monument on the dike at Ceres on Texel . In reaction to the destruction of the monument in 2003 , Wolkers announced that he would use less glass and more steel for such monuments in future . The Jac . P. Thijsse monument on Texel does contain more steel , but glass is still a substantial part of the artwork .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Jan_Wolkers", "rank": 79, "score": 77604 }, { "content": "Title: The Book of Images Content: The Book of Images ( Das Buch der Bilder ) is a collection of poetry by the Bohemian-Austrian poet and novelist Rainer Maria Rilke ( 1875-1926 ) . It was first published in 1902 by Axel Juncker Verlag . It consists of individual poems written from 1899 and forward . An extended version was published in 1906 , after Rilke had written The Book of Hours , with which scholars link The Book of Images as a phase in the poet 's writing .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "The_Book_of_Images", "rank": 80, "score": 77536 }, { "content": "Title: David Nelken Content: David Nelken is the Distinguished Professor of Legal Institutions and Social Change ( Professore Ordinario , di chiara fama ) Faculty of Political Science , University of Macerata and the Distinguished Visiting Research Professor , Faculty of Law , Cardiff University . His work focuses primarily on comparative criminal justice and comparative sociology of law .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "David_Nelken", "rank": 81, "score": 77520 }, { "content": "Title: The Big Bopper Content: Jiles Perry `` J. P. '' Richardson Jr. ( October 24 , 1930 -- February 3 , 1959 ) , known as The Big Bopper , was an American musician , songwriter , and disc jockey whose big rockabilly look , style , voice , and exuberant personality made him an early rock and roll star . He is best known for his 1958 recording of `` Chantilly Lace '' . On February 3 , 1959 , Richardson died in a plane crash in Clear Lake , Iowa , along with music stars Buddy Holly and Ritchie Valens and pilot Roger Peterson . The accident was famously referred to as `` The Day the Music Died '' in Don McLean 's 1971 song `` American Pie '' .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "The_Big_Bopper", "rank": 82, "score": 77396 }, { "content": "Title: Emil B. Pielke Content: Emil B. Pielke ( born March 4 , 1942 ) was appointed in 2002 to represent District 9B , which covers a portion of Baltimore County , Maryland .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Emil_B._Pielke", "rank": 83, "score": 77366 }, { "content": "Title: The Disaster Artist (film) Content: The Disaster Artist is a 2017 American biographical comedy film directed , produced by , and starring James Franco . Based on Greg Sestero 's non-fiction book of the same name , the film chronicles the making of the 2003 cult film The Room . The film stars James and Dave Franco as Wiseau and Sestero , respectively , alongside a supporting cast featuring Seth Rogen , Josh Hutcherson , Ari Graynor , Jacki Weaver , Hannibal Buress , Andrew Santino , Zac Efron , Alison Brie , Sharon Stone and Bryan Cranston . Principal photography of the film began on December 8 , 2015 . It had its world premiere at South by Southwest on March 12 , 2017 . It is scheduled to be released in a limited release on December 1 , 2017 , by A24 .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "The_Disaster_Artist_(film)", "rank": 84, "score": 77332 }, { "content": "Title: Roger Donaldson Content: Roger Donaldson ( born 15 November 1945 ) is an Australian-born New Zealand film director , producer and writer whose films include The World 's Fastest Indian ( 2005 ) , acclaimed 1981 relationship drama Smash Palace , and a run of titles shot in the United States , including the Kevin Costner films No Way Out ( 1987 ) and Thirteen Days ( 2000 ) , and the 1997 disaster film Dante 's Peak .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Roger_Donaldson", "rank": 85, "score": 77280 }, { "content": "Title: Jaroslav Hilbert Content: Jaroslav Hilbert ( 19 January 1871 in Louny -- 10 May 1936 in Prague ) was a Czech dramatist and writer . His most famous works include Guilt ( 1896 ) the Pariahs ( 1900 ) , Falkenstein ( 1903 ) and Nest in the storm ( 1919 ) .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Jaroslav_Hilbert", "rank": 86, "score": 77254 }, { "content": "Title: Herman Fowlkes, Jr. Content: Herman Fowlkes , Jr. ( September 21 , 1919 -- April 3 , 1993 ) was an American jazz musician and educator from Chicago , Illinois .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Herman_Fowlkes,_Jr.", "rank": 87, "score": 77040 }, { "content": "Title: Helke Sander Content: Helke Sander ( born January 31 , 1937 in Berlin ) is a German feminist film director and writer . She is known primarily for her documentary work and contributions to the women 's movement in the seventies and eighties . Helke Sander 's work is characterized by her emphasis of the experimental over the narrative arc . In her essay `` Feminists and Film ( 1977 ) , '' Helke Sanders states the motivation for her work : `` To put it in other terms : women 's most authentic act today -- in all areas including the arts -- consists not in standardizing and harmonizing the means , but rather in destroying them . Where women are true , they break things . '' Sander 's work is concerned with the breakage of conventional ideas and forms .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Helke_Sander", "rank": 88, "score": 77039 }, { "content": "Title: Natural disasters in Japan Content: Japan is one of the countries most affected by natural disasters . Two out of the five most expensive natural disasters in recent history have occurred in Japan , costing $ 181 billion in the years 2011 and 1995 only . Japan has also been the site of some of the 10 worst natural disasters of the 21st century . The types of natural disasters in Japan include tsunamis , floods , typhoons , earthquakes , cyclones and volcanic eruptions . The country has gone through many years of natural disasters , affecting its economy , development , and social life .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Natural_disasters_in_Japan", "rank": 89, "score": 77023 }, { "content": "Title: Howard Lindsay Content: Howard Lindsay , born Herman Nelke , ( March 29 , 1889 -- February 11 , 1968 ) was an American theatrical producer , playwright , librettist , director and actor . He is best known for his writing work as part of the collaboration of Lindsay and Crouse , and for his performance , with his wife Dorothy Stickney , in the long-running play Life With Father .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Howard_Lindsay", "rank": 90, "score": 77005 }, { "content": "Title: A Girl Named Disaster Content: A Girl Named Disaster is a 1996 novel by Nancy Farmer . In 1997 , Farmer won the Newbery Honor for the novel , which was also a finalist for the National Book Award for Young People 's Literature . The book explores the qualities needed to survive in a hostile environment ( particularly by a woman ) , coming-of-age and the availability of spiritual guidance .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "A_Girl_Named_Disaster", "rank": 91, "score": 76963 }, { "content": "Title: Rainer Maria Rilke Content: René Karl Wilhelm Johann Josef Maria Rilke ( 4 December 1875 -- 29 December 1926 ) -- better known as Rainer Maria Rilke ( -LSB- ˈʁaɪnɐ maˈʁiːa ˈʁɪlkə -RSB- ) -- was a Bohemian-Austrian poet and novelist , `` widely recognized as one of the most lyrically intense German-language poets '' , writing in both verse and highly lyrical prose . Several critics have described Rilke 's work as inherently `` mystical '' . His writings include one novel , several collections of poetry , and several volumes of correspondence in which he invokes haunting images that focus on the difficulty of communion with the ineffable in an age of disbelief , solitude , and profound anxiety . These deeply existential themes tend to position him as a transitional figure between the traditional and the modernist writers . Rilke was born in the Austro-Hungarian Empire , travelled extensively throughout Europe , including Russia , Spain , Germany , France , Italy , and in his later years settled in Switzerland -- settings that were key to the genesis and inspiration for many of his poems . While Rilke is most known for his contributions to German literature , over 400 poems were originally written in French and dedicated to the canton of Valais in Switzerland . Among English-language readers , his best-known works include the poetry collections Duino Elegies and Sonnets to Orpheus , the semi-autobiographical novel The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge , and a collection of ten letters that was published after his death under the title Letters to a Young Poet . In the later 20th century , his work found new audiences through its use by New Age theologians and self-help authors , and through frequent quoting in television programs , books and motion pictures . In the United States , Rilke remains among the more popular , best-selling poets .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Rainer_Maria_Rilke", "rank": 92, "score": 76910 }, { "content": "Title: Flirting with Disaster (American Dad!) Content: `` Flirting with Disaster '' is the eighteenth episode of the sixth season and the 114th overall episode of the animated comedy series American Dad ! . It aired on Fox in the United States on May 15 , 2011 , and is written by Keith Heisler and directed by Pam Cooke . In the episode , Francine begins working at the CIA office with Stan , which makes Stan uncomfortable . Meanwhile , Steve and Roger build birdhouses for cash .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Flirting_with_Disaster_(American_Dad!)", "rank": 93, "score": 76902 }, { "content": "Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Economic_impacts_of_climate_change", "rank": 94, "score": 76891 }, { "content": "Title: Roger Revelle Prize Content: The Roger Revelle Prize is a prize given out by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography to people who have made outstanding contributions that advance or promote scientific research in fields such as oceanography , climatology and other planetary sciences . This prize is named for Roger Revelle , a scientist who served as director of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography and was instrumental in the founding of the University of California , San Diego . He was an important oceanographer and a pioneer in climate change research . The inaugural recipient of this prize was Al Gore , the former Vice President of the United States . He was awarded the prize on 6 March 2009 for his efforts to bring climate change and environmental issues to a worldwide audience . The second recipient of this prize was Prince Albert of Monaco . He was awarded the prize on 23 October 2009 for his efforts to promote scientific research and protection of the environment .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Roger_Revelle_Prize", "rank": 95, "score": 76884 }, { "content": "Title: Disaster Content: A disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human , material , economic or environmental loss and impacts , which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources . In contemporary academia , disasters are seen as the consequence of inappropriately managed risk . These risks are the product of a combination of both hazards and vulnerability . Hazards that strike in areas with low vulnerability will never become disasters , as in the case of uninhabited regions . Developing countries suffer the greatest costs when a disaster hits -- more than 95 percent of all deaths caused by hazards occur in developing countries , and losses due to natural hazards are 20 times greater ( as a percentage of GDP ) in developing countries than in industrialized countries .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Disaster", "rank": 96, "score": 76864 }, { "content": "Title: Disaster books Content: Disaster books are a literary genre involving detailed descriptions of major historical disasters , often based on the historical records or personal testimonies of survivors . Since reportage of both natural disasters and man-made disasters is commonplace , authors tend to be journalists who develop their news reports into books . While usually well written , they can lose sight of the causes , especially in man-made catastrophes where poor engineering , human error or negligence have combined to cause failure . On the other hand , authors who have been directly involved in an accident can reveal facts which have not been widely known , and provide insight into the problem .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Disaster_books", "rank": 97, "score": 76854 }, { "content": "Title: The Surface Content: The Surface is a 2014 American drama thriller film directed by Gil Cates Jr. , and starring Sean Astin , Mimi Rogers , Chris Mulkey , and Jeff Gendelman . Gendelman also served as the films writer and producer .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "The_Surface", "rank": 98, "score": 76844 }, { "content": "Title: Roger Miret Content: Roger Miret ( born June 30 , 1964 ) is the vocalist for New York Hardcore band Agnostic Front , the street punk group Roger Miret and the Disasters , and the hardcore band The Alligators . He was born in Havana , Cuba . Agnostic Front is considered to be one of the bands that created New York hardcore . Miret was incarcerated on a drug charge in the late 1980s . He is also the older half-brother of Madball spearhead , Freddy Cricien .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "Roger_Miret", "rank": 99, "score": 76713 }, { "content": "Title: The Great Derangement: Climate Change and the Unthinkable Content: The Great Derangement is a non-fiction book addressing climate change by Indian writer Amitav Ghosh published in 2016 .", "qid": "3103", "docid": "The_Great_Derangement:_Climate_Change_and_the_Unthinkable", "rank": 100, "score": 76711 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Satellite temperature measurements Content: The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Satellite_temperature_measurements", "rank": 1, "score": 188445 }, { "content": "Title: MSU temperature measurements Content: Microwave sounding unit temperature measurements have been obtained from the troposphere since 1979 , when they were included within NOAA weather satellites . By comparison , the usable balloon ( radiosonde ) record begins in 1958 but has less geographic coverage and is less uniform . Satellites do not measure temperature . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands , which must then be mathematically inverted to obtain indirect inferences of temperature . The resulting temperature profiles depend on details of the methods that are used to obtain temperatures from radiances . As a result , different groups that have analyzed the satellite data have obtained different temperature trends . Among these groups are Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) and the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) . The satellite series is not fully homogeneous - the record is constructed from a series of satellites with similar but not identical instrumentation . The sensors deteriorate over time , and corrections are necessary for satellite drift in orbit . Particularly large differences between reconstructed temperature series occur at the few times when there is little temporal overlap between successive satellites , making intercalibration difficult . To compare to the trend from the surface temperature record ( approximately +0.07 ° C/decade over the past century and +0.15 -0.16 ° C/decade since 1979 ) it is most appropriate to derive trends for the part of the atmosphere nearest the surface , i.e. , the lower troposphere . Doing this , through January 2012 : RSS v3 .3 finds a trend of +0.137 ° C/decade . UAH v5 .4 finds a trend of +0.136 ° C/decade . An alternative adjustment introduced by Fu et al. ( 2004 ) finds trends ( 1979 -- 2011 ) of +0.14 ° C/decade when applied to the RSS data set and +0.11 ° C/decade when applied to the UAH data set . Using the T2 channel ( which include significant contributions from the stratosphere , which has cooled ) , Mears et al. of Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) find ( through January 2012 ) a trend of +0.082 ° C/decade . Spencer and Christy of the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) , find a smaller trend of +0.046 ° C/decade . A no longer updated analysis of Vinnikov and Grody found +0.20 ° C/decade ( 1978 -- 2005 ) . Another satellite temperature analysis is provided by NOAA/NESDIS STAR Center for Satellite Application and Research and use simultaneous nadir overpasses ( SNO ) to remove satellite intercalibration biases yielding more accurate temperature trends . The SNO analysis finds a 1979-2011 trend of +0.128 ° C/decade for T2 channel . The satellite records have the advantage of greater spatial coverage , whereas the radiosonde record is longer . There have been complaints of data problems with both records , and difficulty reconciling climate model predictions with the observed data .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "MSU_temperature_measurements", "rank": 2, "score": 168995 }, { "content": "Title: Remote Sensing Systems Content: Remote Sensing Systems ( RSS ) is a private research company founded in 1974 by Frank Wentz . It processes microwave data from a variety of NASA satellites . Most of their research is supported by the Earth Science Enterprise program . The company is based in Santa Rosa , California . They are a widely cited source of data , on the satellite temperature record . Their data is one source of evidence for global warming . Research by Carl Mears , Matthias Schabel , and Wentz , all of RSS , highlighted errors in the early satellite temperature records compiled by John Christy and Roy Spencer at UAH . The UAH data had previously showed no significant temperature trend , bringing the derived satellite data into closer agreement with surface temperature trends , radiosonde data and computer models . The UAH data is now closer to the RSS data but differences remain , for example the Lower Troposphere global average trend since 1979 , RSS currently have +0.133 K/decade while UAH have 0.140 K/decade , while the mid troposphere difference is even more marked at 0.079 K/decade and 0.052 K/decade respectively . However , in a recent online YouTube video , Dr. Carl Mears , a senior scientist with the team behind the satellite data , explained how he believes his data set needed correction . I would have to say that the surface data seems that it 's more accurate , because a number of groups analyze the surface data , including some who set out to prove the other ones wrong , and they all get more or less the same answer .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Remote_Sensing_Systems", "rank": 3, "score": 162540 }, { "content": "Title: Troposphere Content: The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth 's atmosphere , and is also where nearly all weather takes place . It contains approximately 75 % of the atmosphere 's mass and 99 % of the total mass of water vapor and aerosols . The average depths of the troposphere are 20 km in the tropics , 17 km in the mid latitudes , and 7 km in the polar regions in winter . The lowest part of the troposphere , where friction with the Earth 's surface influences air flow , is the planetary boundary layer . This layer is typically a few hundred meters to 2 km deep depending on the landform and time of day . Atop the troposphere is the tropopause , which is the border between the troposphere and stratosphere . The tropopause is an inversion layer , where the air temperature ceases to decrease with height and remains constant through its thickness . The word troposphere derives from the for `` turn , turn toward , trope '' and '' - sphere '' ( as in , the Earth ) , reflecting the fact that rotational turbulent mixing plays an important role in the troposphere 's structure and behaviour . Most of the phenomena associated with day-to-day weather occur in the troposphere .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Troposphere", "rank": 4, "score": 161898 }, { "content": "Title: Stratosphere Content: The stratosphere ( -LSB- ˈstrætəˌsfɪər , _ - toʊ - -RSB- ) is the second major layer of Earth 's atmosphere , just above the troposphere , and below the mesosphere . About 20 % of the atmosphere 's mass is contained in the stratosphere . The stratosphere is stratified in temperature , with warmer layers higher and cooler layers closer to the Earth . The increase of temperature with altitude is a result of the absorption of the Sun 's ultraviolet radiation by the ozone . This is in contrast to the troposphere , near the Earth 's surface , where temperatures decreases with altitude . The border between the troposphere and stratosphere , the tropopause , marks where this temperature inversion begins . Near the equator , the stratosphere starts at 18 km ; at mid latitudes , it starts at 10 - and ends at 50 km ; at the poles , it starts at about 8 km . Temperatures vary within the stratosphere with the seasons , in particular with the polar night ( winter ) . The greatest variation of temperature takes place over the poles in the lower stratosphere ; those variations are largely steady at lower latitudes and higher altitudes .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Stratosphere", "rank": 5, "score": 160339 }, { "content": "Title: Thermopause Content: The thermopause is the atmospheric boundary of Earth 's energy system , located at the top of the thermosphere . The temperature of the thermopause could range up to absolute zero to 987.548 C. Below this , the atmosphere is defined to be active on the insolation received , due to the increased presence of heavier gases such as monatomic oxygen . The solar constant is thus expressed at the thermopause . Beyond ( above ) this , the exosphere describes the thinnest remainder of atmospheric particles with large mean free path , mostly hydrogen and helium . As a limit for the exosphere this boundary is also called exobase . The exact altitude varies by the energy inputs of location , time of day , solar flux , season , etc. and can be between 500 and high at a given place and time because of these . A portion of the magnetosphere dips below this layer as well . Although these are all named layers of the atmosphere , the pressure is so negligible that the chiefly-used definitions of outer space are actually below this altitude . Orbiting satellites do not experience significant atmospheric heating , but their orbits do decay over time , depending on orbit altitude . Space missions such as the ISS , space shuttle , and Soyuz operate under this layer .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Thermopause", "rank": 6, "score": 158965 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave Sounding Unit temperature measurements Content: Microwave Sounding Unit temperature measurements refers to temperature measurement using the Microwave Sounding Unit instrument and is one of several methods of measuring Earth atmospheric temperature from satellites. Microwave measurements have been obtained from the troposphere since 1979, when they were included within NOAA weather satellites, starting with TIROS-N. By comparison, the usable balloon (radiosonde) record begins in 1958 but has less geographic coverage and is less uniform. Microwave brightness measurements do not directly measure temperature. They measure radiances in various wavelength bands, which must then be mathematically inverted to obtain indirect inferences of temperature. The resulting temperature profiles depend on details of the methods that are used to obtain temperatures from radiances. As a result, different groups that have analyzed the satellite data have obtained different temperature trends. Among these groups are Remote Sensing Systems (RSS) and the University of Alabama in Huntsville (UAH). The satellite series is not fully homogeneous – the record is constructed from a series of satellites with similar but not identical instrumentation. The sensors deteriorate over time, and corrections are necessary for satellite drift in orbit. Particularly large differences between reconstructed temperature series occur at the few times when there is little temporal overlap between successive satellites, making intercalibration difficult.", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Microwave_Sounding_Unit_temperature_measurements", "rank": 7, "score": 158773 }, { "content": "Title: Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer Content: Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer or TES is a satellite instrument designed to measure the state of the earth 's troposphere . It is an infrared Fourier Transform spectrometer and provides key data for studying tropospheric chemistry , troposphere-biosphere interaction , and troposphere-stratosphere exchanges . TES is built for NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory , California Institute of Technology in Pasadena , California . It was successfully launched into polar orbit aboard NASA 's third Earth Observing Systems spacecraft ( EOS-Aura ) at 10:02 UTC on July 15 , 2004 .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Tropospheric_Emission_Spectrometer", "rank": 8, "score": 153842 }, { "content": "Title: Special Sensor Ultraviolet Limb Imager Content: The Special Sensor Ultraviolet Limb Imager ( SSULI ) is an imaging spectrometer that is used to observe the earth 's ionosphere and thermosphere . These sensors provide vertical intensity profiles of airglow emissions in the extreme ultraviolet and far ultraviolet spectral range of 800 to 1700 Angstrom ( 80 to 170 nanometre ) and scan from 75 km to 750 km tangent altitude . The data from these sensors will be used to infer altitude profiles of ion , electron and neutral density . The Naval Research Laboratory ( NRL ) has developed five ultraviolet remote sensing instruments for the Air Force Defense Meteorological Satellite Program ( DMSP ) . These instruments known as SSULI ( Special Sensor Ultraviolet Limb Imager ) will launch aboard the DMSP block of 5D3 satellites , which started in 2003 . SSULI measures vertical profiles of the natural airglow radiation from atoms , molecules and ions in the upper atmosphere and ionosphere by viewing the Earth 's limb at a tangent altitude of approximately 50 km to 750 km . The second SSULI flight was launched on November 4 , 2006 . The remaining sensors are scheduled for launch approximately every 24 months .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Special_Sensor_Ultraviolet_Limb_Imager", "rank": 9, "score": 152889 }, { "content": "Title: Lowest temperature recorded on Earth Content: The lowest natural temperature ever directly recorded at ground level on Earth is − 89.2 C , which was at the Soviet Vostok Station in Antarctica by ground measurements . A 2009 study estimated that under exceptional climate conditions similar to those recorded at Vostin 1983 , temperatures higher on the plateau around Dome Argus could potentially drop lower than − 95 C. On August 10 , 2010 , satellite observations measured a surface temperature of − 93.2 C at 81.8 ° S 59.3 ° E , along a ridge between Dome Argus and Dome Fuji , at 3,900 m elevation . The result was reported at the 46th annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco , in December 2013 ; it is a provisional figure , and may be subject to revision . The value may not be listed as the record coldest temperature as it was measured by remote sensing satellites and not by ground-based thermometers , unlike the 1983 record . The temperature announced reflects that of the ice surface , while the Vostok readings measured the air above the ice , and so the two are not directly comparable . However , it is most likely that the real temperature on the site was lower than that recorded at Vostok .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Lowest_temperature_recorded_on_Earth", "rank": 10, "score": 151668 }, { "content": "Title: Explorer 8 Content: Explorer 8 was an American research satellite launched on November 3 , 1960 . It was intended to study the temporal and spatial distribution of the electron density , the electron temperature , the ion concentration , the ion mass , the micrometeorite distribution , and the micrometeorite mass in the ionosphere at altitudes between 400 and 1600 km and their variation from full sunlit conditions to full shadow , or nighttime , conditions . The payload was in the form of two truncated cones with the bases attached to a cylindrical equator . The outer shell was aluminum and had a diameter of 76 cm and a height of 76 cm . The 108.00 MHz transmitter had 100 mW average power , and it functioned for the life of the battery pack ( 54 days ) . The data system included telemetry consisting of continuous operation with real-time transmission . To avoid the possibility of effects on the experiments by asymmetrical charging on solar cell surfaces , solar cells were not used . Experiment instrumentation included an RF impedance probe , an ion current monitor , a retarding potential probe , a two-element and a three-element electron temperature probe , an electron current monitor , a photomultiplier-type and a microphone-type micrometeorite detector , an electric field meter , a solar horizon sensor , and thermistor temperature probes . Simultaneous measurements of electron and ion concentration were used to resolve the question of neutrality of the medium . Battery power failed on December 27 , 1960 . Considerable difficulty was encountered with decommutating the telemetered data to make machine processing possible . As a result of these difficulties , the data were mostly processed by hand . In spite of these difficulties , considerable new knowledge about the ionosphere was gained from operation of the satellite . Explorer 8 decayed from orbit on 28 March 2012 . A replica is on display at the Smithsonian in Washington , DC .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Explorer_8", "rank": 11, "score": 150052 }, { "content": "Title: Mesosphere Content: The mesosphere ( -LSB- ˈmɛsoʊsfɪər -RSB- from Greek mesos `` middle '' and sphaira `` sphere '' ) is the layer of the Earth 's atmosphere that is directly above the stratosphere and directly below the mesopause . In the mesosphere , temperature decreases as the altitude increases . The upper boundary of the mesosphere is the mesopause , which can be the coldest naturally occurring place on Earth with temperatures below -143 C . The exact upper and lower boundaries of the mesosphere vary with latitude and with season , but the lower boundary of the mesosphere is usually located at heights of about 50 km above the Earth 's surface and the mesopause is usually at heights near 100 km , except at middle and high latitudes in summer where it descends to heights of about 85 km . The stratosphere , mesosphere and lowest part of the thermosphere are collectively referred to as the `` middle atmosphere '' , which spans heights from approximately 10 km to 100 km . The mesopause , at an altitude of 80 - , separates the mesosphere from the thermosphere -- the second-outermost layer of the Earth 's atmosphere . This is also around the same altitude as the turbopause , below which different chemical species are well mixed due to turbulent eddies . Above this level the atmosphere becomes non-uniform ; the scale heights of different chemical species differ by their molecular masses .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Mesosphere", "rank": 12, "score": 149355 }, { "content": "Title: AATSR Content: The Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer ( AATSR ) is one of the Announcement of Opportunity ( AO ) instruments on board the European Space Agency ( ESA ) 's Envisat satellite . This instrument is a multi-channel imaging radiometer with the principal objective of providing data concerning global Sea Surface Temperature ( SST ) to the high levels of accuracy and stability required for monitoring and carrying out research into the behaviour of the Earth 's climate . AATSR can measure Earth 's surface temperature to a precision of 0.3 K-change , for climate research . Among the secondary objectives of AATSR is the observation of environmental parameters such as aerosols , clouds , fires , gas flares , water content , biomass , and vegetal health and growth . AATSR is the successor of ATSR-1 and ATSR-2 , payloads of ERS-1 and ERS-2 .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "AATSR", "rank": 13, "score": 149265 }, { "content": "Title: Special sensor microwave/imager Content: The special sensor microwave/imager ( SSM/I ) is a seven-channel , four-frequency , linearly polarized passive microwave radiometer system . It is flown on board the United States Air Force Defense Meteorological Satellite Program ( DMSP ) Block 5D-2 satellites . The instrument measures surface/atmospheric microwave brightness temperatures ( TBs ) at 19.35 , 22.235 , 37.0 and 85.5 GHz . The four frequencies are sampled in both horizontal and vertical polarizations , except the 22 GHz which is sampled in the vertical only . The SSM/I has been a very successful instrument , superseding the across-track and Dicke radiometer designs of previous systems . Its combination of constant-angle rotary-scanning and total power radiometer design has become standard for passive microwave imagers , e.g. TRMM Microwave Imager , AMSR . Its predecessor , the scanning multichannel microwave radiometer ( SMMR ) , provided similar information . Its successor , the Special Sensor Microwave Imager / Sounder ( SSMIS ) , is an enhanced eleven-channel , eight-frequency system .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Special_sensor_microwave/imager", "rank": 14, "score": 147922 }, { "content": "Title: Upper-atmospheric models Content: Upper-atmospheric models are simulations of the Earth 's atmosphere between 20 and 100 km ( 65,000 and 328,000 feet ) that comprises the stratosphere , mesosphere , and the lower thermosphere . Whereas most climate models simulate a region of the Earth 's atmosphere from the surface to the stratopause , there also exist numerical models which simulate the wind , temperature and composition of the Earth 's tenuous upper atmosphere , from the mesosphere to the exosphere , including the ionosphere . This region is affected strongly by the 11 year Solar cycle through variations in solar UV/EUV/Xray radiation and solar wind leading to high latitude particle precipitation and aurora . It has been proposed that these phenomena may have an effect on the lower atmosphere , and should therefore be included in simulations of climate change . For this reason there has been a drive in recent years to create whole atmosphere models to investigate whether or not this is the case .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Upper-atmospheric_models", "rank": 15, "score": 147180 }, { "content": "Title: Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer Content: ASTER ( Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer ) is a Japanese sensor which is one of five remote sensory devices on board the Terra satellite launched into Earth orbit by NASA in 1999 . The instrument has been collecting data since February 2000 . ASTER provides high-resolution images of the planet Earth in 14 different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum , ranging from visible to thermal infrared light . The resolution of images ranges between 15 and 90 meters . ASTER data are used to create detailed maps of surface temperature of land , emissivity , reflectance , and elevation . The ASTER Global Digital Elevation Model ( GDEM ) is available at no charge to users worldwide via electronic download .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Advanced_Spaceborne_Thermal_Emission_and_Reflection_Radiometer", "rank": 16, "score": 146739 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric Infrared Sounder Content: The Atmospheric Infrared Sounder ( AIRS ) is one of six instruments flying on board NASA 's Aqua satellite , launched on May 4 , 2002 . The instrument is designed to support climate research and improve weather forecasting . Working in combination with its partner microwave instrument , the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit ( AMSU-A ) , AIRS observes the global water and energy cycles , climate variation and trends , and the response of the climate system to increased greenhouse gases . AIRS uses infrared technology to create three-dimensional maps of air and surface temperature , water vapor , and cloud properties . AIRS can also measure trace greenhouse gases such as ozone , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , and methane . AIRS and AMSU-A share the Aqua satellite with the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) , Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) , and the Advanced Microwave Scanning Radiometer-EOS ( AMSR-E ) . Aqua is part of NASA 's `` A-train , '' a series of high-inclination , Sun-synchronous satellites in low Earth orbit designed to make long-term global observations of the land surface , biosphere , solid Earth , atmosphere , and ocean . AIRS data is free and available to the public through the Goddard Earth Sciences Data Information and Services Center . NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena , California , manages AIRS for NASA 's Science Mission Directorate in Washington , D.C.", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Atmospheric_Infrared_Sounder", "rank": 17, "score": 146098 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA-18 Content: NOAA-18 , known before launch as NOAA-N , is a weather forecasting satellite run by NOAA . NOAA-N ( 18 ) was launched on May 20 , 2005 , into a sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of 854 km above the Earth , with an orbital period of 102 minutes . It hosts the AMSU-A , MHS , AVHRR , Space Environment Monitor SEM/2 instrument and High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder ( HIRS ) instruments , as well as the SBUV/2 ozone-monitoring instrument . It is the first NOAA POES satellite to use MHS in place of AMSU-B . APT transmission frequency is 137.9125 MHz ( NOAA-18 changed frequencies with NOAA-19 on June 23 , 2009 ) .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "NOAA-18", "rank": 18, "score": 144271 }, { "content": "Title: Thermosphere Content: The thermosphere is the layer of the Earth 's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere . The exosphere is above that but is a minor layer of the atmosphere . Within this layer of the atmosphere , ultraviolet radiation causes photoionization/photodissociation of molecules , creating ions in the ionosphere . Taking its name from the Greek θερμός ( pronounced thermos ) meaning heat , the thermosphere begins about 85 km above the Earth . At these high altitudes , the residual atmospheric gases sort into strata according to molecular mass ( see turbosphere ) . Thermospheric temperatures increase with altitude due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation . Temperatures are highly dependent on solar activity , and can rise to 2000 C. Radiation causes the atmosphere particles in this layer to become electrically charged ( see ionosphere ) , enabling radio waves to be refracted and thus be received beyond the horizon . In the exosphere , beginning at 500 to above the Earth 's surface , the atmosphere turns into space , although by the criteria set for the definition of the Karman line , the thermosphere itself is part of space . The highly diluted gas in this layer can reach 2500 C during the day . Even though the temperature is so high , one would not feel warm in the thermosphere , because it is so near vacuum that there is not enough contact with the few atoms of gas to transfer much heat . A normal thermometer might be significantly below 0 C , at least at night , because the energy lost by thermal radiation would exceed the energy acquired from the atmospheric gas by direct contact . In the anacoustic zone above 160 km , the density is so low that molecular interactions are too infrequent to permit the transmission of sound . The dynamics of the thermosphere are dominated by atmospheric tides , which are driven by the very significant diurnal heating . Atmospheric waves dissipate above this level because of collisions between the neutral gas and the ionospheric plasma . The International Space Station orbits the Earth within the middle of the thermosphere , between 330 and .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Thermosphere", "rank": 19, "score": 144138 }, { "content": "Title: Super Low Altitude Test Satellite Content: SLATS , the Super Low Altitude Test Satellite , is a JAXA satellite intended to demonstrate operations in very low Earth orbit ( below 200 km ) , using ion engines to cancel out aerodynamic drag and equipped with sensors to determine atomic oxygen density , an exposure facility to measure material degradation in the 200 km orbit , and a small camera . Initial designs had conventional , though slightly canted , solar panels ( compare to the aerodynamic shape and on-body solar panels of GOCE , which flew in a 255 km orbit ) . SLATS will be launched on a H-IIA rocket alongside the GCOM-C satellite to a 630 km orbit , followed by orbit-lowering manoeuvres by a combination of chemical propulsion and aerobraking , with final operation at an altitude below 180 km . The launch is to take place on early 2017 . As of December 2015 , the satellite is manifested for ` FY2016 or later ' on JAXA 's launch schedule page .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Super_Low_Altitude_Test_Satellite", "rank": 20, "score": 144022 }, { "content": "Title: Near space Content: Near space is the region of Earth 's atmosphere that lies between 20 and 100 km ( 65,000 and 328,000 feet ) above sea level , encompassing the stratosphere , mesosphere , and the lower thermosphere . It extends roughly from the Armstrong limit above which humans need a pressure suit to survive , up to the Kármán line where astrodynamics must take over from aerodynamics in order to achieve flight . The definition of near space can vary depending on the source , but in general near space comprises the altitudes above where commercial airliners fly but below orbiting satellites . The terms `` near space '' and `` upper atmosphere '' are generally considered synonymous . However , some sources distinguish between the two . Where such a distinction is made , only the layers closest to the Karman line are called near space , while only the remaining layers between the lower atmosphere and near space are called the upper atmosphere .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Near_space", "rank": 21, "score": 141380 }, { "content": "Title: Earth observation satellite Content: Earth observation satellites are satellites specifically designed for Earth observation from orbit , similar to spy satellites but intended for non-military uses such as environmental monitoring , meteorology , map making etc. . Most Earth observation satellites carry instruments that should be operated at a relatively low altitude . Altitudes below 500-600 kilometers are in general avoided , though , because of the significant air-drag at such low altitudes making frequent orbit reboost maneuvres necessary . The Earth observation satellites ERS-1 , ERS-2 and Envisat of European Space Agency as well as the MetOp spacecraft of EUMETSAT are all operated at altitudes of about 800 km . The Proba-1 , Proba-2 and SMOS spacecraft of European Space Agency are observing the Earth from an altitude of about 700 km . The Earth observation satellites of UAE , DubaiSat-1 & DubaiSat-2 are also placed in Low Earth Orbits ( LEO ) orbits and providing satellite imagery of various parts of the Earth . To get ( nearly ) global coverage with a low orbit it must be a polar orbit or nearly so . A low orbit will have an orbital period of roughly 100 minutes and the Earth will rotate around its polar axis with about 25 deg between successive orbits , with the result that the ground track is shifted towards west with these 25 deg in longitude . Most are in sun-synchronous orbits . Spacecraft carrying instruments for which an altitude of 36000 km is suitable sometimes use a geostationary orbit . Such an orbit allows uninterrupted coverage of more than 1/3 of the Earth . Three geostationary spacecraft at longitudes separated with 120 deg can cover the whole Earth except the extreme polar regions . This type of orbit is mainly used for meteorological satellites .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Earth_observation_satellite", "rank": 22, "score": 141090 }, { "content": "Title: EduSAT Content: EduSAT is an Italian microsatellite which was launched in August 2011 . The satellite was built and is operated by the Sapienza University of Rome in conjunction with the Italian Space Agency ASI , and is primarily used for educational outreach and technology demonstration . EduSAT is a 10 kg satellite , measuring 31.5 x . The spacecraft is powered by surface-mounted solar cells . It carries an experimental analogue sun sensor , a magnetometer and a temperature sensor . The satellite also tested a prototype PocketQube deployer and a passive deorbit mechanism . As of September 2013 it remained operational . EduSAT was launched aboard a Dnepr carrier rocket from Site 370/13 at the Dombarovsky launch site in Russia . The launch was conducted by Kosmotras with liftoff occurring at 07:12:20 on 17 August 2011 . The rocket carried six other satellites , with an additional payload bolted to the upper stage . The satellite was placed into a sun-synchronous low Earth orbit . As of 22 November 2013 it was in an orbit with a perigee of 644 km , an apogee of 699 km , 98.20 degrees inclination and a period of 98.04 minutes .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "EduSAT", "rank": 23, "score": 140934 }, { "content": "Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Iris_hypothesis", "rank": 24, "score": 140920 }, { "content": "Title: Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower Content: The Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower ( CCT ) is a 34-meter research tower installed in Ny-Ålesund , Svalbard , Norway , for the study of various physical parameters in the boundary layer of the lower troposphere . In particular it continuously measured meteorological parameters ( temperature , relative humidity , intensity and direction of the wind ) at four different levels of height , and the four components of solar radiation and infrared at the top of the tower itself . They also measure the height of the layer of snow and its temperature at two depths . The tower was funded by the Department of Earth and Environment ( DTA ) of the National Research Council of Italy ( CNR ) and installed by Kings Bay in science village of Ny-Ålesund on Svalbard island . The inauguration took place on30 April 2009 . The CCT is an important point of reference for the study of the energy balance at the surface , and the processes of interaction and exchange between the various components of the climate system . The structure is dedicated to the Arctic expeditions of Norwegian Roald Amundsen and Italian Umberto Nobile explorers .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Amundsen-Nobile_Climate_Change_Tower", "rank": 25, "score": 139796 }, { "content": "Title: Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite Content: The Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite ( UARS ) was a NASA-operated orbital observatory whose mission was to study the Earth 's atmosphere , particularly the protective ozone layer . The 5900 kg satellite was deployed from Space Shuttle Discovery during the STS-48 mission on 15 September 1991 . It entered Earth orbit at an operational altitude of 600 km , with an orbital inclination of 57 degrees . The original mission duration was to be only three years , but was extended several times . When the mission finally ended in June 2005 due to funding cuts , 14 years after the satellite 's launch , six of its ten instruments were still operational . A final orbit-lowering burn was performed in early December 2005 to prepare the satellite for deorbit . On 26 October 2010 , the International Space Station performed a debris-avoidance maneuver in response to a conjunction with UARS . The decommissioned satellite re-entered Earth 's atmosphere on 24 September 2011 . Considerable media attention surrounded the event , largely due to NASA 's predictions that substantial parts of the satellite might reach the ground , potentially endangering inhabited areas . However , the satellite ultimately impacted in a remote area of the Pacific Ocean .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Upper_Atmosphere_Research_Satellite", "rank": 26, "score": 138932 }, { "content": "Title: Seasat Content: Seasat was the first Earth-orbiting satellite designed for remote sensing of the Earth 's oceans and had on board the first spaceborne synthetic aperture radar ( SAR ) . The mission was designed to demonstrate the feasibility of global satellite monitoring of oceanographic phenomena and to help determine the requirements for an operational ocean remote sensing satellite system . Specific objectives were to collect data on sea-surface winds , sea-surface temperatures , wave heights , internal waves , atmospheric water , sea ice features and ocean topography . Seasat was managed by NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and was launched on 27 June 1978 into a nearly circular 800 km orbit with an inclination of 108 ° . Seasat operated for 106 days until 10 October 1978 , when a massive short circuit in the satellite 's electrical system ended the mission . Seasat carried five major instruments designed to return the maximum information from ocean surfaces : Radar altimeter to measure spacecraft height above the ocean surface Microwave scatterometer to measure wind speed and direction Scanning multichannel microwave radiometer to measure sea surface temperature Visible and infrared radiometer to identify cloud , land and water features Synthetic Aperture Radar ( SAR ) L-band , HH polarization , fixed look angle to monitor the global surface wave field and polar sea ice conditions -LCB- the antenna is the light parallelogram in the picture -RCB- . The SAR support structure was designed and manufactured by Northrop Grumman Astro Aerospace in Carpinteria , CA . The structure deployed on orbit . Many later remote sensing missions owe their legacy to Seasat . These include imaging radars flown on NASA 's Space Shuttle , altimeters on Earth-orbiting satellites such as TOPEX/Poseidon , and scatterometers on NASA Scatterometer ( NSCAT ) , QuikSCAT , and Jason 1 .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Seasat", "rank": 27, "score": 138866 }, { "content": "Title: Carl Mears Content: Carl Mears is a Senior Scientist , at Remote Sensing Systems , since 1998 . He has worked on validation of SSM/I derived winds , and rain-flagging algorithm for the QuikScat scatterometer . He is best known for his work with Frank Wentz in developing a satellite temperature record from MSU and AMSU . Intercomparison of this record with the earlier UAH satellite temperature record , developed by John Christy and Roy Spencer , revealed deficiencies in the earlier work ; specifically , the warming trend in the RSS version is larger than the UAH one . Mears was a major contributor to Temperature Trends in the Lower Atmosphere : Steps for Understanding and Reconciling Differences , the first released report from the US Climate Change Science Program . He also contributed to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report Working Group one report , Climate Change 2007 - The Physical Science Basis .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Carl_Mears", "rank": 28, "score": 136977 }, { "content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Mesopause", "rank": 29, "score": 136872 }, { "content": "Title: FORTE Content: The Fast On-orbit Rapid Recording of Transient Events ( FORTE , occasionally stylized as FORTÉ ) is a lightweight satellite which was launched at about 8:30 AM on August 29 , 1997 into a circular 800 km low Earth orbit which is inclined 70 degrees relative to the Earth 's equator , using a Pegasus XL rocket . It was developed and launched by the Sandia National Laboratory in cooperation with Los Alamos National Laboratory , as a testbed for technologies applicable to U.S. nuclear detonation detection systems used to monitor compliance with arms control treaties , and later to study lightning from space . The project was sponsored by the United States Department of Energy , and cost about US$ 35 million . It utilizes optical sensors , RF sensors , and an `` event classifier '' in order to make observations , including monitoring Very High Frequency ( VHF ) lightning emissions in the ionosphere occurring from between 50 to above the surface of the Earth , and it will be a component of the VHF Global Lightning and Severe Storm Monitor ( V-GLASS ) system . Its primary mission is to record and analyze bursts of RF energy rising from the surface of the Earth . FORTE is 7 ft tall , weighs 470 lb , and is the first all-composite spacecraft , its framework being made entirely of graphite-reinforced epoxy . It consists of three decks with aluminum honeycomb cores , and composite facing to support the onboard instruments .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "FORTE", "rank": 30, "score": 136710 }, { "content": "Title: Remote sensing atmospheric boundary layer Content: Remote sensing of the planetary boundary layer refers to the utilization of ground based , flight based , or satellite based remote sensing instruments to measure properties of the planetary boundary layer including boundary layer height , aerosols and clouds . Satellite remote sensing of the atmosphere has the advantage of being able to provide global coverage of atmospheric planetary boundary layer properties while simultaneously providing relatively high temporal sampling rates . Advancements in satellite remote sensing have provided greater vertical resolution which enables higher accuracy for planetary boundary layer measurements . The radiative forcing for marine boundary layer ( MBL ) clouds is imperative for understanding any global warming changes . Low-level clouds , including MBL clouds , have the largest net radiative forcing of all clouds . The albedo of these low level clouds is much higher than the albedo of the underlying ocean surface and correctly modeling these clouds is needed to limit the uncertainty in climate model predictions . The remote sensing of the planetary boundary layer , especially clouds and aerosols within the planetary boundary layer can help verify and improve climate models .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Remote_sensing_atmospheric_boundary_layer", "rank": 31, "score": 136637 }, { "content": "Title: UAH satellite temperature dataset Content: The UAH satellite temperature dataset , developed at the University of Alabama in Huntsville , infers the temperature of various atmospheric layers from satellite measurements of radiance . It was the first global temperature datasets developed from satellite information and has been used as a tool for research into surface and atmospheric temperature changes . The dataset is published by John Christy et al. and formerly jointly with Roy Spencer .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "UAH_satellite_temperature_dataset", "rank": 32, "score": 136090 }, { "content": "Title: SBUV/2 Content: The Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet Radiometer , or SBUV/2 , is a series of operational remote sensors on NOAA weather satellites in Sun-synchronous orbits which have been providing global measurements of stratospheric total ozone , as well as ozone profiles , since March 1985 . The SBUV/2 instruments were developed from the SBUV experiment flown on the Nimbus-7 spacecraft which improved on the design of the original BUV instrument on Nimbus-4 . These are nadir viewing radiometric instruments operating at mid to near UV wavelengths . SBUV/2 data sets overlap with data from SBUV and TOMS instruments on the Nimbus-7 spacecraft . These extensive data sets ( January 1979 to the present ) measure the density and vertical distribution of ozone in the Earth 's atmosphere from six to 30 miles . SBUV/2 looks down at the Earth 's atmosphere and the reflected sunlight at wavelengths characteristic of ozone . The SBUV/2 wavelength `` channels '' range from 252 nanometer ( nm ) to 340 nm . Ozone is measured as a ratio of sunlight incident on the atmosphere to the amount of sunlight scattered back into space . From this information , the total ozone between the instrument and the ground can be calculated . The SBUV/2 measures solar irradiance and Earth radiance ( backscattered solar energy ) in the near ultraviolet spectrum ( 160 to 400 nm ) . The SBUV is capable of determining the global ozone concentration in the stratosphere to an absolute accuracy of 1 percent ; the vertical distribution of atmospheric ozone to an absolute accuracy of 5 percent ; the long-term solar spectral irradiance from 160 to 400 nm Photochemical process and the influence of `` trace '' constituents on the ozone layer . The Ball Aerospace-built SBUV/2 helped to discover the ozone hole over Antarctica in 1987 , and continues to monitor this phenomenon . Atmospheric ozone absorbs the sun 's ultraviolet rays , which are believed to cause gene mutations , skin cancer , and cataracts in humans . Ultraviolet rays may also damage crops and aquatic ecosystems . The first SBUV/2 instrument was launched on NOAA-9 in December 1984 and the last instrument in this series was launched in February 2009 aboard the NOAA-19 spacecraft .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "SBUV/2", "rank": 33, "score": 135729 }, { "content": "Title: Deep Space Climate Observatory Content: Deep Space Climate Observatory ( DSCOVR ; formerly known as Triana , unofficially known as GoreSat ) is a NOAA Earth observation and space weather satellite launched by SpaceX on a Falcon 9 launch vehicle on February 11 , 2015 from Cape Canaveral . It was originally developed as a NASA satellite proposed in 1998 by then-Vice President Al Gore for the purpose of Earth observation . It is in a Lissajous orbit at the Sun-Earth Lagrangian point , 1500000 km from Earth , to monitor variable solar wind condition , provide early warning of approaching coronal mass ejections and observe phenomena on Earth including changes in ozone , aerosols , dust and volcanic ash , cloud height , vegetation cover and climate . At this location it has a continuous view of the Sun and the sunlit side of the Earth . The satellite is orbiting the Sun-Earth point in a six-month period , with a spacecraft-Earth-Sun angle varying from 4 to 15 degrees . It takes full-Earth pictures about every two hours and is able to process them faster than other Earth observation satellites . DSCOVR started orbiting around by June 8 , 2015 , just over 100 days after launch . After the spacecraft arrived on site and entered its operational phase , NASA began releasing near-real time images of Earth through the EPIC instrument 's website .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Deep_Space_Climate_Observatory", "rank": 34, "score": 135326 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA-17 Content: NOAA-17 was a weather forecasting satellite operated by NOAA . It was launched on 24 June 2002 , in a sun-synchronous orbit , 824 km above the Earth , orbiting every 101 minutes . It hosted the AMSU , AVHRR and High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder ( HRIS ) instruments . The satellite was retired in 2013 . Automatic Picture Transmission frequency was 137.5 MHz . NOAA-17 was decommissioned on 10 April 2013 .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "NOAA-17", "rank": 35, "score": 134689 }, { "content": "Title: Frank Wentz Content: Frank Wentz is the CEO and director of Remote Sensing Systems , a company he founded in 1974 . Remote Sensing Systems specializes in satellite microwave remote sensing research . Together with Carl Mears , he is best known for developing a satellite temperature record from MSU and AMSU . Intercomparison of this record with the earlier UAH satellite temperature record , developed by John Christy and Roy Spencer , revealed deficiencies in the earlier work ; specifically , the warming trend in the RSS version is larger than the University of Alabama in Huntsville ( UAH ) one . From 1978 to 1982 Frank was a member of NASA 's SeaSat Experiment Team involved in the development of physically based retrieval methods for microwave scatterometers and radiometers . He has also investigated the effect of climate change on satellite-derived evaporation , precipitation and surface wind values . His findings are different from most climate change model predictions .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Frank_Wentz", "rank": 36, "score": 134422 }, { "content": "Title: Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite Content: The Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite ( VIIRS ) is a sensor designed and manufactured by the Raytheon Company on board the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership ( Suomi NPP ) weather satellite . VIIRS is one of five key instruments associated with the Suomi NPP that was launched on October 28 , 2011 . VIIRS is a whiskbroom scanning radiometer that collects imagery and radiometric measurements of the land , atmosphere , cryosphere , and oceans in the visible and infrared bands of the electromagnetic spectrum . VIIRS is capable of generating two data processing streams that result in two different sets of land products . One is produced by NOAA , and provides operational data for use by the National Weather Service . These are known as environmental data records ( EDRs ) . The other stream is from NASA , and is intended to contribute to the larger scientific community . These are known as Earth System Data Records ( ESDRs ) .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Visible_Infrared_Imaging_Radiometer_Suite", "rank": 37, "score": 134361 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment Content: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment ( SORCE ) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measures incoming X-ray , ultraviolet , visible , near-infrared , and total solar radiation . These measurements specifically address long-term climate change , natural variability and enhanced climate prediction , and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation . These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun , its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind . The SORCE spacecraft launched on January 25 , 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) with precise measurements of solar radiation . SORCE measures the Sun 's output using radiometers , spectrometers , photodiodes , detectors , and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory . The SORCE satellite orbits the Earth accumulating solar data . Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun 's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter . Data obtained by the SORCE experiment can be used to model the Sun 's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun 's radiation on the Earth 's atmosphere and climate . Flying in a 645 km , 40 degree orbit , SORCE is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Colorado . It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements . SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 nm to 2000 nm , accounting for 95 % of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance . SORCE carries four instruments including the Total Irradiance Monitor ( TIM ) , Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment ( SOLSTICE ) , Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SIM ) , and the XUV Photometer System ( XPS ) .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Solar_Radiation_and_Climate_Experiment", "rank": 38, "score": 133967 }, { "content": "Title: MOPITT Content: MOPITT ( Measurements of Pollution in the Troposphere ) is a payload scientific instrument launched into Earth orbit by NASA on board the Terra satellite in 1999 . It is designed to monitor changes in pollution patterns and its effect in the lower atmosphere of the Earth . The instrument was funded by the Space Science Division of the Canadian Space Agency .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "MOPITT", "rank": 39, "score": 133452 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Mesosphere Explorer Content: The Solar Mesosphere Explorer ( also known as Explorer 64 ) was a United States unmanned spacecraft to investigate the processes that create and destroy ozone in Earth 's upper atmosphere . The mesosphere is a layer of the atmosphere extending from the top of the stratosphere to an altitude of about 80 km . The spacecraft carried five instruments to measure ozone , water vapor and incoming solar radiation . Launched on October 6 , 1981 , on a Delta rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base , in California , the satellite returned data until April 4 , 1989 . The spacecraft reentered Earth 's atmosphere on March 5 , 1991 . Managed for NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory , the Solar Mesosphere Explorer was built by Ball Space Systems and operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics of the University of Colorado where one hundred undergraduate and graduate students were involved . Mass : 437 kilograms ( 963 pounds ) Power : Solar panels which charged NiCad batteries Configuration : Cylinder 1.25 meter ( 4.1 ft ) diameter by 1.7 meter ( 5.6 ft ) high Science instruments : Ultraviolet ozone spectrometer , 1.27 micrometre spectrometer , nitrogen dioxide spectrometer , four-channel infrared radiometer , solar ultraviolet monitor , solar proton alarm detector", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Solar_Mesosphere_Explorer", "rank": 40, "score": 132585 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA-7 Content: NOAA-7 , designated NOAA-C before launch , was an American weather satellite launched in June 1981 as part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Polar Operational Environmental Satellites ( POES ) program . It was used to support the Global Atmospheric Research Program ( GARP ) during 1978 -- 1984 . An earlier launch , NOAA-B , was scheduled to become NOAA-7 , however NOAA-B failed to reach its required orbit . The launch of NOAA-7 took place at 10:52:59 UTC ( 3:53 a.m. PST ) on 23 June 1981 from Space Launch Complex 3W at the Vandenberg Air Force Base in California . NOAA-7 was launched atop an Atlas E/F rocket with a Star-37S-ISS upper stage . The NOAA-7 satellite had a mass of 588.9 kg . The satellite 's design provided an economical and stable sun synchronous platform for advanced operational instruments to measure the Earth 's atmosphere , its surface and cloud cover , and the near space environment . The primary sensors included an Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR ) and a TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) . One of the primary mission sensors , the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder ( HIRS ) , failed 7 February 1985 . There were a number of secondary experiments on-board NOAA-7 . These include a Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) and a Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) . The United States Air Force also provided a contamination monitor to assess contamination sources , levels and effects for consideration on future spacecraft . NOAA-7 was based upon the Block 5D spacecraft bus developed for the U.S. Air Force . The satellite was capable of maintaining an earth-pointing accuracy of better than ± 0.1 ° with a motion rate of less than 0.035 degrees/second . NOAA-7 was withdrawn from use in June 1986 after its power system malfunctioned . In August 1997 the decommissioned satellite experienced an abrupt 1 second change in orbital period . At the same time 3 new debris particles were observed . It is unclear if this was caused by an internal release of energy or collision with an unidentified object . As of 8 December 2013 , the derelict satellite remains in a 834 by orbit , inclined at 98.87 degrees and with a period of 101.62 minutes .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "NOAA-7", "rank": 41, "score": 132344 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite Content: The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Greenhouse_Gases_Observing_Satellite", "rank": 42, "score": 132324 }, { "content": "Title: Geostationary balloon satellite Content: Geostationary balloon satellites ( GBS ) are atmosphere analogues to satellites that float in the stratosphere ( 60,000 to above sea level ) at a fixed point over the Earth 's surface . At that altitude , air density is 1/10 of what it is at sea level . The average wind speed at these levels is less than that at the surface . A propulsion system would allow the balloon to move into and maintain its position . The GBS would be powered with solar panels en route to its location and then receive laser power from a cell tower it hovers over . A GBS could be used to provide broadband Internet access over a large area . Laser broadband would connect the GBS to the network , which could then provide a large area of coverage because of its wider line of sight over the curvature of the Earth and unimpeded Fresnel zone .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Geostationary_balloon_satellite", "rank": 43, "score": 131936 }, { "content": "Title: Odin-OSIRIS Content: OSIRIS ( Optical Spectrograph and InfraRed Imager System ) is an instrument that measures vertical profiles of spectrally dispersed , limb scattered sunlight from the upper troposphere into the lower mesosphere . OSIRIS is one of two instruments on the Odin satellite , launched February , 2001 ( the other instrument being a sub-mm radiometer ) into a sun-synchronous , 6 pm/6 am local time orbit at 600 km . This restricts OSIRIS sunlit observations to the Northern hemisphere in May , June , July August and the Southern hemisphere in November , December , January and February . Global coverage from 82 ° S to 82 ° N occurs on the months adjoining the equinoxes . OSIRIS measurements began November , 2001 and continue to the present .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Odin-OSIRIS", "rank": 44, "score": 131743 }, { "content": "Title: Medium Earth orbit Content: Medium Earth orbit ( MEO ) , sometimes called intermediate circular orbit ( ICO ) , is the region of space around the Earth above low Earth orbit ( altitude of 2000 km ) and below geostationary orbit ( altitude of 35786 km ) . The most common use for satellites in this region is for navigation , communication , and geodetic/space environment science . The most common altitude is approximately 20200 km ) , which yields an orbital period of 12 hours , as used , for example , by the Global Positioning System ( GPS ) . Other satellites in medium Earth orbit include Glonass ( with an altitude of 19100 km ) and Galileo ( with an altitude of 23222 km ) constellations . Communications satellites that cover the North and South Pole are also put in MEO . The orbital periods of MEO satellites range from about 2 to nearly 24 hours . Telstar 1 , an experimental satellite launched in 1962 , orbited in MEO . The orbit is home to a number of artificial satellites .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Medium_Earth_orbit", "rank": 45, "score": 131380 }, { "content": "Title: Weather satellite Content: The weather satellite is a type of satellite that is primarily used to monitor the weather and climate of the Earth . Satellites can be polar orbiting , covering the entire Earth asynchronously , or geostationary , hovering over the same spot on the equator . Meteorological satellites see more than clouds and cloud systems . City lights , fires , effects of pollution , auroras , sand and dust storms , snow cover , ice mapping , boundaries of ocean currents , energy flows , etc. . Other types of environmental information are collected using weather satellites . Weather satellite images helped in monitoring the volcanic ash cloud from Mount St. Helens and activity from other volcanoes such as Mount Etna . Smoke from fires in the western United States such as Colorado and Utah have also been monitored . Other environmental satellites can detect changes in the Earth 's vegetation , sea state , ocean color , and ice fields . For example , the 2002 Prestige oil spill off the northwest coast of Spain was watched carefully by the European ENVISAT , which , though not a weather satellite , flies an instrument ( ASAR ) which can see changes in the sea surface . El Niño and its effects on weather are monitored daily from satellite images . The Antarctic ozone hole is mapped from weather satellite data . Collectively , weather satellites flown by the U.S. , Europe , India , China , Russia , and Japan provide nearly continuous observations for a global weather watch .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Weather_satellite", "rank": 46, "score": 130981 }, { "content": "Title: Polar Operational Environmental Satellites Content: The Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite ( POES ) project operates a constellation of weather satellites in polar orbits around the Earth . It is a joint effort between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) and the European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites ( EUMETSAT ) . Spacecraft for the project are provided by NASA and the European Space Agency . NASA 's Goddard Space Flight Center oversees the manufacture , integration and test of the NASA-provided TIROS satellites . The launch of the first polar-orbiting weather satellites in attempt to improve the accuracy and detail of weather analysis and forecasting began with FL . TIROS 1 ( Television Infrared Observation Satellite ) on April 1 , 1960 . On-orbit satellite operation of these is performed by NOAA 's Office of Satellite and Product Operations ( OSPO ) . The POES constellation also includes an ESA-provided MetOp satellite operated by EUMETSAT . To protect the satellite from solar and terrestrial anomalies such as solar radiation belts and fluctuations of charged particles at altitude , the POES project is equipped with the Space Environment Monitor 2 ( SEM-2 ) which provides awareness of these anomalies that may impair the operation of the satellite and its other sensors . The POES program will be superseded by the Joint Polar Satellite System ( JPSS ) .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Polar_Operational_Environmental_Satellites", "rank": 47, "score": 129287 }, { "content": "Title: Ghrsst-pp Content: The Group for High Resolution SST ( GHRSST ) is a follow on activity form the Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment ( GODAE ) high-resolution sea surface temperature pilot project ( GHRSST-PP ) provides a new generation of global high-resolution ( < 10 km ) SST data products to the operational oceanographic , meteorological , climate and general scientific community , in real time and delayed mode . See GHRSST for full details . Sea surface temperature ( SST ) measured from Earth Observation Satellites in considerable spatial detail and at high frequency , is increasingly required for use in the context of operational monitoring and forecasting of the ocean , for assimilation into coupled ocean-atmosphere model systems and for applications in short-term numerical weather prediction and longer term climate change detection . Currently there are many different SST data sets available derived from satellite systems . But , scientists and operational agencies alike are presented with a bewidering set of options in terms of SST product content , coverage , spatial resolution , timeliness , format and accuracy . The international GODAE steering committee realised that SST data products were not adequate for GODAE forecast systems and initiated the GODAE High Resolution SST Pilot Project ( GHRSST-PP ) . User Requirements were collected together to define the optimal SST data products that could be developed to suit the widest possible number of applications . In 2008 the GHRSST-PP Science Team agreed to close the Pilot Project as the GODAE project was completed . A follow on activity called the Group for High Resolution SST is now continuing the coordination of GHRSST activities .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Ghrsst-pp", "rank": 48, "score": 128722 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA-15 Content: NOAA-15 ( designated NOAA-K before launch ) is one of the NASA-provided TIROS series of weather forecasting satellite run by NOAA . It was launched on 13 May 1998 , and is currently operational , in a sun-synchronous orbit , 807 km above the Earth , orbiting every 101 minutes . It hosts the AMSU-A and AMSU-B instruments , the AVHRR and High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder ( HIRS/3 ) instruments , as well as a Space Environment Monitor ( SEM/2 ) . APT transmission frequency is 137.62 MHz . Due to problems with the S-band transmitter high-gain antennas , NOAA-15 has been configured for High Resolution Picture Transmission using the S-Band Transmitter # 2 ( 1702.5 MHz ) omnidirectional antenna .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "NOAA-15", "rank": 49, "score": 128616 }, { "content": "Title: Demeter (satellite) Content: DEMETER ( Detection of Electro-Magnetic Emissions Transmitted from Earthquake Regions ) is a French micro-satellite operated by CNES devoted to the investigation of the ionospheric disturbances due to seismic and volcanic activity . It was launched on June 29 , 2004 on a quasi Sun-synchronous circular orbit with an inclination of about 98.23 ° and an altitude of about 710 km . The altitude was changed to about 660 km in December , 2005 . Due to the specific orbit , DEMETER is always located either shortly before the local noon ( 10:30 local time ) or local midnight ( 22:30 local time ) . The satellite performs 14 orbits per day and measures continuously between -65 ° and +65 ° of invariant latitude . DEMETER observed an increase in ultra low frequency radio waves in the month before the 2010 Haiti earthquake . During the 2010 eruption of Mount Merapi , DEMETER noted anomalies in the ionosphere . Scientific operations ended December 9 , 2010 .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Demeter_(satellite)", "rank": 50, "score": 128550 }, { "content": "Title: Explorer 7 Content: Explorer 7 was launched October 13 , 1959 at 10:36 a.m. Eastern Time by a Juno II rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station to an orbit of 573 km by 1073 km and inclination of 50.27 ° . It was designed to measure solar x-ray and Lyman-alpha flux , trapped energetic particles , and heavy primary cosmic rays . Also Secondary objectives included collecting data on micrometeoroid penetration and molecular sputtering and studying the Earth-atmosphere heat balance . Launch was originally scheduled for late September 1959 , but the mission was delayed for a week after a Jupiter IRBM test on an adjacent pad failed shortly after liftoff , causing flying debris to hit Explorer 7 's launch vehicle . However , the damage to the booster was minor and could be easily repaired . Significantly , it also carried Verner Suomi 's flat-plate radiometer , improved with the help of Robert Parent , that took the first Earth radiation budget measurements from space and initiated the era of satellite studies of the climate . Using both satellite observations of the Earth 's heat balance and atmospheric cooling rates measured by net flux radiosondes , Suomi established the important role played by clouds in absorbing radiated solar energy . These observations established that Earth 's energy budget varies markedly due to the effect of clouds , the surface albedo , and other absorbing constituents . Using these instruments , Suomi and his team discovered that the Earth absorbed more of the Sun 's energy than originally thought and demonstrated that it was possible to measure and quantify seasonal changes in the global heat budget . The satellite weighed 41.5 kg , was 75 cm high and 75 cm wide . Powered by solar cells it also carried 15 nickel-cadmium batteries around its equator . It transmitted data continuously through to February 1961 and went dead on August 24 , 1961 . It is still in orbit .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Explorer_7", "rank": 51, "score": 127671 }, { "content": "Title: RTTOV (radiative transfer code) Content: RTTOV - the fast radiative transfer model for calculations of radiances for satellite infrared or microwave nadir scanning radiometers ( see push broom scanner ) . Given an atmospheric profile of temperature , variable gas concentrations , cloud and surface properties RTTOV calculates radiances and brightness temperatures . The only mandatory input is water vapour . Optionally ozone , carbon dioxide , nitrous oxide , methane and carbon monoxide can be variable with all other constituents assumed to be constant . The range of temperatures and water vapour concentrations over which the optical depth computations are valid depends on the training datasets which were used . The spectral range of the RTTOV9 .1 model is 3-20 micrometres ( 500 -- 3000 cm-1 ) in the infrared . RTTOV contains forward , tangent linear , adjoint and K ( full Jacobian matrices ) versions of the model ; the latter three modules for variational assimilation or retrieval applications . One of several applications of RTTOV are retrievals of brightness temperature and sea surface temperature from Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer sensor .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "RTTOV_(radiative_transfer_code)", "rank": 52, "score": 127300 }, { "content": "Title: Heat Capacity Mapping Mission Content: The Heat Capacity Mapping Mission ( HCMM ) was the first Applications Explorer Mission . HCMM provided comprehensive , accurate , high-spatial-resolution thermal surveys of the surface of the Earth . HCCM was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base on April 26 , 1978 by a Scout-F rocket . Its mass was 117.0 kg . The HCMM spacecraft was placed in a circular sun-synchronous orbit , allowing the spacecraft to sense surface temperatures near the maximum and minimum of the diurnal cycle . There was no on-board data storage capability , so only real-time data were transmitted when the satellite came within reception range of seven ground stations . During February 21 -- 23 , 1980 , the HCMM orbital altitude was lowered from 620 km to 540 km to stop the drift of the orbit plane to unfavorable sun angles which in turn reduced the power collection capability of the solar panels . The operations of the spacecraft were terminated on September 30 , 1980 .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Heat_Capacity_Mapping_Mission", "rank": 53, "score": 127060 }, { "content": "Title: CLARREO Content: CLARREO ( Climate Absolute Radiance and Refractivity Observatory ) is a high-priority NASA decadal survey mission , originally selected as such by the National Research Council in 2007 . The CLARREO mission is intended to provide a metrology laboratory in orbit to accurately quantify and attribute Earth 's climate change ( see List of climate research satellites ) . If launched at the earliest opportunity , CLARREO 's observations could be used to detect the largest of climate trends above natural variability by the year 2039 . Then it may go on to further test , validate , and improve prediction by climate models . The mission also might provide the first orbiting radiometers with enough accuracy to serve as reference calibration standards that can fine-tune other spaceborne sensors and climate research , making climate trends apparent in their data sets within a 30-year time frame . Due to funding cuts in announced for the 2012 budget , the CLARREO mission was significantly scaled back , while remaining spaceborne projects were eyed to fill the gap . In the President 's FY16 budget request , CLARREO was provided $ 76.9 M to demonstrate essential measurement technologies of the CLARREO Tier 1 Decadal Survey mission . That funding will potentially support the flight of two instruments , Reflected Solar ( RS ) and Infrared ( IR ) spectrometers , hosted on the International Space Station in FY 2019 .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "CLARREO", "rank": 54, "score": 126958 }, { "content": "Title: NOAA-6 Content: NOAA-6 , designated NOAA-A before launch , was a weather satellite operated by NOAA as part of its National Operational Environmental Satellite System . It was launched into a Sun-synchronous orbit by NASA aboard an Atlas F launch vehicle on 27 June 1979 from Vandenberg Air Force Base SLC-3W . Based on the experimental TIROS-N satellite , it performed monitoring of ice and snow cover , agriculture , oceanography , volcanism , ozone and the space environment , in addition to its regular meteorological observations . Its instruments included the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR/1 ) for global cloud cover observations , the TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder ( TOVS ) suite for atmospheric temperature and water vapor profiling , the Space Environment Monitor ( SEM ) for measuring proton and electron fluxes , and the Data Collection and Platform Location System ( DCPLS ) for relaying data from balloons and ocean buoys . The TOVS suite consists of three subsystems : the High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder 2 ( HIRS/2 ) , the Stratospheric Sounding Unit ( SSU ) , and the Microwave Sounding Unit ( MSU ) . The HIRS/2 instrument failed on 19 September 1983 , and the spacecraft was placed in reserve in early 1984 as NOAA prioritized operations of NOAA-7 and NOAA-8 . It was returned to operational status after NOAA-8 failed in June 1984 , and continued to return data until its decommissioning on 31 March 1987 .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "NOAA-6", "rank": 55, "score": 126845 }, { "content": "Title: European Remote-Sensing Satellite Content: European remote sensing satellite ( ERS ) was the European Space Agency 's first Earth-observing satellite programme using a polar orbit . The first satellite was launched on 17 July 1991 into a Sun-synchronous polar orbit at an altitude of 782 -- 785 km .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "European_Remote-Sensing_Satellite", "rank": 56, "score": 126800 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth", "rank": 57, "score": 126775 }, { "content": "Title: Dynamic Ionosphere CubeSat Experiment Content: The Dynamic Ionosphere CubeSat Experiment ( DICE ) is a scientific mission consisting of two Miniaturized Satellites DICE-1 and DICE-2 flying in formation . The satellites are an unusual 1.5 U variant of the CubeSat design for microsatellites . Both satellites were launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base in October 2011 atop a Delta II rocket . This was a multi-payload mission with four other CubeSats , AubieSat-1 , M-Cubed , Explorer-1_Prime and RAX-2 . The satellites are intended to map changes in the Earth 's Plasmasphere caused by Geomagnetic storms . On board control is provided by a Pumpkin FM430 flight control module containing a Texas Instruments MPS430 microcontroller . Communications are provided by a half-duplex UHF modem with a 1.5 Mbit/s downlink ( 465 MHz ) and 19.2 kbit/s uplink ( 450 MHz ) . The satellites carry four Electric Field Probe sensors on telescopic booms , two DC Langmuir probes for detection of ions and a three-axis magnetometer for measuring magnetic fields .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Dynamic_Ionosphere_CubeSat_Experiment", "rank": 58, "score": 126673 }, { "content": "Title: Microwave sounding unit Content: The Microwave sounding unit was the predecessor to the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit ( AMSU ) . The MSU was first launched aboard the TIROS-N satellite in late 1978 and provided global coverage ( from Pole to Pole ) . It carries a 4-channel microwave radiometer , operating between 50 and 60 GHz . Spatial resolution on the ground was 2.5 deg in longitude and latitude ( about 250 km circle ) . There were 9 different MSUs launched ; the most recent one on NOAA-14 . They provided measurements of the temperature of the troposphere and lower stratosphere until 1998 , when the first AMSU was deployed . AMSU provides many more channels and finer resolution ( about 50 km ) . Category : Spacecraft instruments Category : Satellite meteorology and remote sensing Category : Microwave technology", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Microwave_sounding_unit", "rank": 59, "score": 126453 }, { "content": "Title: Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer Content: The Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer ( GOCE ) was the first of ESA 's Living Planet Programme satellites intended to map in unprecedented detail the Earth 's gravity field . The spacecraft 's primary instrumentation was a highly sensitive gravity gradiometer consisting of three pairs of accelerometers which measured gravitational gradients along three orthogonal axes . GOCE mapped the deep structure of the Earth 's mantle and probed hazardous volcanic regions . It brought new insight into ocean behaviour ; this in particular , was a major driver for the mission . By combining the gravity data with information about sea surface height gathered by other satellite altimeters , scientists were able to track the direction and speed of geostrophic ocean currents . The low orbit and high accuracy of the system greatly improved the known accuracy and spatial resolution of the geoid ( the theoretical surface of equal gravitational potential on the Earth ) . The satellite 's unique arrow shape and fins helped keep GOCE stable as it flew through the upper thermosphere at an altitude of 255 km . Additionally , an ion propulsion system continuously compensated for the variable deceleration due to air drag without the vibration of a conventional chemically powered rocket engine , thus limiting the errors in gravity gradient measurements caused by non-gravitational forces and restoring the path of the craft as closely as possible to a purely inertial trajectory . After running out of propellant , the satellite began dropping out of orbit and made an uncontrolled reentry on 11 November 2013 .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Gravity_Field_and_Steady-State_Ocean_Circulation_Explorer", "rank": 60, "score": 126395 }, { "content": "Title: Radarsat-1 Content: RADARSAT-1 is Canada 's first commercial Earth observation satellite . It utilized synthetic aperture radar ( SAR ) to obtain images of the Earth 's surface to manage natural resources and monitor global climate change . As of March 2013 , the satellite was declared non-operational and is no longer collecting data .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Radarsat-1", "rank": 61, "score": 125979 }, { "content": "Title: Meteor (satellite) Content: The Meteor spacecraft are weather observation satellites launched by the USSR and Russia . The Meteor satellite series was developed during the 1960s . The Meteor satellites were designed to monitor atmospheric and sea-surface temperatures , humidity , radiation , sea ice conditions , snow-cover , and clouds .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Meteor_(satellite)", "rank": 62, "score": 125723 }, { "content": "Title: Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment Content: The Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment ( SAGE ) is a series of remote sensing satellite instruments used to study the chemical composition of earth 's atmosphere . Specifically , SAGE has been used to study the Earth 's ozone layer and aerosols at the troposphere through the stratosphere . The SAGE instruments use solar occultation measurement technique to determine chemical concentrations in the atmosphere . Solar occultation measurement technique measures sunlight through the atmosphere and ratios that measurement with a sunlight measurement without atmospheric attenuation . This is achieved by observing sunrises and sunsets during a satellite orbit . Physically , the SAGE instruments measure ultraviolet/visible energy and this is converted via algorithms to determine chemical concentrations . SAGE data has been used to study the atmospheres aerosols , ozone , water vapor , and other trace gases .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Stratospheric_Aerosol_and_Gas_Experiment", "rank": 63, "score": 125703 }, { "content": "Title: List of climate research satellites Content: The invention of climate research through the use of satellite remote telemetry began in the 1960s through development of space probes to study other planets . During the U.S. economic decline in 1977 , with much of NASA 's money going toward the Shuttle program , the Reagan Administration proposed to reduce spending on planetary exploration . During this time , new scientific evidence emerged from ice and sediment cores that Earth 's climate had experienced rapid changes in temperature , running contrary to the previously held belief that the climate changed on a geological time scale . These changes increased political interest in gathering remote-sensing data on the Earth itself and stimulated the science of climatology .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "List_of_climate_research_satellites", "rank": 64, "score": 124938 }, { "content": "Title: Aura (satellite) Content: Aura ( EOS CH-1 ) is a multi-national NASA scientific research satellite in orbit around the Earth , studying the Earth 's ozone layer , air quality and climate . It is the third major component of the Earth Observing System ( EOS ) following on Terra ( launched 1999 ) and Aqua ( launched 2002 ) . Aura follows on from the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite ( UARS ) . The name `` Aura '' comes from the Latin word for air . The satellite was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base on July 15 , 2004 , aboard a Delta II 7920-10L rocket . The Aura spacecraft has a mass of about 1765 kg . The body is 6.9 m long with the extended single solar panel about 15 m long . Aura flies in a sun-synchronous orbit , in formation with 6 other satellites , collectively known as the `` A Train '' . The other satellites in the formation are : Aqua CALIPSO CloudSat GCOM-W1 OCO-2 PARASOL All satellites have an equatorial crossing time at about 1:30 in the afternoon , thus the name ' A ( Afternoon ) Train ' .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Aura_(satellite)", "rank": 65, "score": 124737 }, { "content": "Title: Polar mesospheric summer echoes Content: Polar mesospheric summer echoes ( PMSE ) is the phenomenon of anomalous radar echoes found between 80-90 km in altitude from May through early August in the Arctic , and from November through to February in the Antarctic . These strong radar echoes are associated with the extremely cold temperatures that occur above continental Antarctica during the summer . Rocket and radar measurements indicate that a partial reflection from a multitude of ion layers and constructive interference causes at least some of the PMSE . Generally PMSE exhibits dramatic variations in height and intensity as well as large variations in Doppler shift . PMSE exhibit strong signal power enhancements of scattering cross section at VHF radar frequencies in the range 50 MHz to 250 MHz , at times even to over 1 GHz , that occur in summer at high latitudes . The peak PMSE height is slightly below the summer mesopause temperature minimum at 88 km , and above the noctilucent cloud ( NLC ) and/or polar mesospheric cloud ( PMC ) layer at 83 -- 84 km . The usual instrument for observing PMSE is the a VHF Mesosphere-Stratosphere-Troposphere ( MST ) radar , although LIDARs and sounding rockets have also been used . PMSE is believed to be caused by structural irregularities in the ionospheric electron density at lower altitudes . The exact cause of PMSE is not yet known , although theorists have proposed steep electron density gradients , heavy positive ions , dressed aerosols , gravity waves and turbulence as possible explanations . PMSE occurs in both the Arctic and Antarctic regions , and is sometimes accompanied by noctilucent clouds .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Polar_mesospheric_summer_echoes", "rank": 66, "score": 124642 }, { "content": "Title: Ionospheric pierce point Content: Most global navigation satellite systems ( GNSS ) are subjected to errors induced by the ionosphere . Because ionospheric delay affects the speed of microwave signals differently depending on their frequency -- a characteristic known as dispersion , delays measured on two or more frequency bands can be used to measure dispersion , and this measurement can then be used to estimate the delay at each frequency . The principal source of the dispersion comes from the total electron content ( TEC ) in the ionosphere , along the line of sight from the satellite to the receiver . Because it is difficult to measure the TEC along the line of sight , instead a prediction can be made using a simplified model of the ionosphere . This model assumes that the ionosphere is a thin , uniform-density shell about the earth , located near the mean altitude H of maximum TEC ( approx . 350 km ) . Using geometry , a slant intersection with this shell model can be determined and a vertical TEC measurement inferred . The intersection between line of sight and this shell is called the ionospheric pierce point ( IPP ) . It perpendicular projection onto earth 's surface is called subionospheric point .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Ionospheric_pierce_point", "rank": 67, "score": 124158 }, { "content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Polar_amplification", "rank": 68, "score": 123937 }, { "content": "Title: List of temperature sensors Content:", "qid": "3104", "docid": "List_of_temperature_sensors", "rank": 69, "score": 123907 }, { "content": "Title: Infrared atmospheric sounding interferometer Content: The infrared atmospheric sounding interferometer ( IASI ) is a Fourier transform spectrometer based on the Michelson interferometer , associated with an integrated imaging system ( IIS ) . As part of the payload of the MetOp series of polar-orbiting meteorological satellites , there are currently two IASI instruments in operation : on MetOp-A ( launched 19 October 2006 ) and on Met-Op B ( launched 17 September 2012 ) with the third due for launch in 2018 . IASI is a nadir-viewing instrument recording infrared emission spectra from 645 to 2760 cm − 1 at 0.25 cm − 1 resolution ( 0.5 cm − 1 after apodisation ) . Although primarily intended to provide information in near real-time on atmospheric temperature and water vapour to support weather forecasting , the concentrations of various trace gases can also be retrieved from the spectra .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Infrared_atmospheric_sounding_interferometer", "rank": 70, "score": 123825 }, { "content": "Title: Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Content: The Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment ( GRACE ) , a joint mission of NASA and the German Aerospace Center , has been making detailed measurements of Earth 's gravity field anomalies since its launch in March 2002 . By measuring gravity anomalies , GRACE shows how mass is distributed around the planet and how it varies over time . Data from the GRACE satellites is an important tool for studying Earth 's ocean , geology , and climate . GRACE is a collaborative endeavor involving the Center for Space Research at the University of Texas , Austin ; NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , Pasadena , Calif. ; the German Space Agency and Germany 's National Research Center for Geosciences , Potsdam . The Jet Propulsion Laboratory is responsible for the overall mission management under the NASA ESSP program . The principal investigator is Dr. Byron Tapley of the University of Texas Center for Space Research , and the co-principal investigator is Dr. Christoph Reigber of the GeoForschungsZentrum ( GFZ ) Potsdam . The GRACE satellites were launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome , Russia on a Rockot ( SS-19 + Breeze upper stage ) launch vehicle , on 17 March 2002 . The spacecraft were launched to an initial altitude of approximately 500 km at a near-polar inclination of 89 ° . The satellites are separated by approximately 200 km along their orbit track . GRACE has far exceeded its designed five-year lifespan . the GRACE spacecrafts orbit has decayed by 150 km , and is continuing to decay at 30 km/year . Its successor , GRACE Follow-On , is expected to launch in 2017/18", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Gravity_Recovery_and_Climate_Experiment", "rank": 71, "score": 123634 }, { "content": "Title: High Earth orbit Content: A high Earth orbit is a geocentric orbit with an altitude entirely above that of a geosynchronous orbit ( 35,786 km ) . The orbital periods of such orbits are greater than twenty-four hours , therefore satellites in such orbits have an apparent retrograde motion -- that is , even if they are in a prograde orbit ( 90 ° > inclination > = 0 ° ) , their orbital velocity is lower than Earth 's rotational speed , causing their ground track to move westward on Earth 's surface .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "High_Earth_orbit", "rank": 72, "score": 123500 }, { "content": "Title: Venera 8 Content: Venera 8 ( Венера-8 meaning Venus 8 ) ( manufacturer 's designation : 3V ( V-72 ) ) was a probe in the Soviet Venera program for the exploration of Venus and was the first robotic space probe to conduct a successful landing on the surface of Venus . Venera 8 was a Venus atmospheric probe and lander . Its instrumentation included temperature , pressure , and light sensors as well as an altimeter , gamma ray spectrometer , gas analyzer , and radio transmitters . The spacecraft took 117 days to reach Venus with one mid-course correction on 6 April 1972 , separating from the bus ( which contained a cosmic ray detector , solar wind detector , and ultraviolet spectrometer ) and entering the atmosphere on 22 July 1972 at 08:37 UT . A refrigeration system attached to the bus was used to pre-chill the descent capsule 's interior prior to atmospheric entry in order to prolong its life on the surface . Descent speed was reduced from 41,696 km/h to about 900 km/h by aerobraking . The 2.5 meter diameter parachute opened at an altitude of 60 km .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Venera_8", "rank": 73, "score": 123468 }, { "content": "Title: Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate Content: Constellation Observing System for Meteorology , Ionosphere , and Climate ( COSMIC ) is a program designed to provide advances in meteorology , ionospheric research , climatology , and space weather by using GPS satellites in conjunction with low Earth orbiting ( LEO ) satellites . The term `` COSMIC '' may refer to either the organization itself or the constellation of satellites ( also known as FORMOSAT-3 , 福爾摩沙衛星三號 , in Taiwan ) . The constellation is a joint U.S.-Taiwanese project with major participants including the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research ( UCAR ) , the National Science Foundation , the Naval Research Laboratory ( NRL ) , the Air Force Research Laboratory ( AFRL ) on the U.S. side and the National Space Organization ( NSPO ) on the Taiwanese side . The total cost of the project is US$ 100 million , 80 % of which is being provided by NSPO , and the remainder by various U.S. agencies . After experiencing several delays , the launch of the COSMIC satellite constellation atop a Minotaur launch vehicle from Vandenberg AFB occurred at 01:40 GMT , on April 15 , 2006 , despite heavy fog . The satellites , which orbit at an altitude of 500 miles , required over a year to move into the correct positions to provide full global coverage .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Constellation_Observing_System_for_Meteorology,_Ionosphere,_and_Climate", "rank": 74, "score": 123450 }, { "content": "Title: Geostationary orbit Content: A geostationary orbit , geostationary Earth orbit or geosynchronous equatorial orbit ( GEO ) is a circular orbit 35786 km above the Earth 's equator and following the direction of the Earth 's rotation . An object in such an orbit has an orbital period equal to the Earth 's rotational period ( one sidereal day ) and thus appears motionless , at a fixed position in the sky , to ground observers . Communications satellites and weather satellites are often placed in geostationary orbits , so that the satellite antennas ( located on Earth ) that communicate with them do not have to rotate to track them , but can be pointed permanently at the position in the sky where the satellites are located . Using this characteristic , ocean color satellites with visible and near-infrared light sensors ( e.g. the Geostationary Ocean Color Imager ( GOCI ) ) can also be operated in geostationary orbit in order to monitor sensitive changes of ocean environments . A geostationary orbit is a particular type of geosynchronous orbit , the distinction being that while an object in geosynchronous orbit returns to the same point in the sky at the same time each day , an object in geostationary orbit never leaves that position .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Geostationary_orbit", "rank": 75, "score": 123153 }, { "content": "Title: Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer Content: The Multi-angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer ( MISR ) is a scientific instrument on the Terra satellite launched by NASA on December 18 , 1999 . This device is designed to measure the intensity of solar radiation reflected by the Earth system ( planetary surface and atmosphere ) in various directions and spectral bands ; it became operational in February 2000 . Data generated by this sensor have been proven useful in a variety of applications including atmospheric sciences , climatology and monitoring terrestrial processes . The MISR instrument consists of an innovative configuration of nine separate digital cameras that gather data in four different spectral bands of the solar spectrum . One camera points toward the nadir , while the others provide forward and aftward view angles at 26.1 ° , 45.6 ° , 60.0 ° , and 70.5 ° . As the instrument flies overhead , each region of the Earth 's surface is successively imaged by all nine cameras in each of four wavelengths ( blue , green , red , and near-infrared ) . The data gathered by MISR are useful in climatological studies concerning the disposition of the solar radiation flux in the Earth 's system . MISR is specifically designed to monitor the monthly , seasonal , and long-term trends of atmospheric aerosol particle concentrations including those formed by natural sources and by human activities , upper air winds and cloud cover , type , height , as well as the characterization of land surface properties , including the structure of vegetation canopies , the distribution of land cover types , or the properties of snow and ice fields , amongst many other biogeophysical variables .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Multi-angle_Imaging_SpectroRadiometer", "rank": 76, "score": 122894 }, { "content": "Title: Advanced very-high-resolution radiometer Content: Advanced very-high-resolution radiometer ( AVHRR ) instruments are a type of space-borne sensor that measure the reflectance of the Earth in five spectral bands that are relatively wide by today 's standards . Most AVHRR instruments are or have been carried by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) family of polar orbiting platforms ( POES ) . The first two are centered on the red ( 0.6 micrometres , 500 THz ) and near-infrared ( 0.9 micrometres , 300 THz ) regions , the third one is located around 3.5 micrometres , and the last two sample the thermal radiation emitted by the planet , around 11 and 12 micrometres , respectively . The NOAA satellite has equator crossing times of 0730 and 1930 local solar time . The first AVHRR instrument was a four-channel radiometer , while the latest version ( known as AVHRR/3 , first carried on the NOAA-15 platform launched in May 1998 ) acquires data in a 6th channel located at 1.6 micrometres .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Advanced_very-high-resolution_radiometer", "rank": 77, "score": 122748 }, { "content": "Title: C/NOFS Content: C/NOFS , or Communications/Navigation Outage Forecasting System was an American satellite developed by the Air Force Research Laboratory Space Vehicles Directorate to investigate and forecast scintillations in the Earth 's ionosphere . It was launched by an Orbital Sciences Corporation Pegasus-XL rocket at 17:01 GMT on 16 April 2008 . It decayed on 28 November 2015 . The satellite , which was operated by the USAF STP , allowed the US military to predict the effects of ionospheric activity on signals from communication and navigation satellites , outages of which could potentially cause problems in battlefield situations . C/NOFS had a three-axis stabilisation system , and was equipped with seven sensors . It was placed into a low Earth orbit with orbital inclination of 13 ° , a perigee of 400 km and an apogee of 850 km . It carried the CINDI experiment for NASA . Launch was originally scheduled for 2003 , but was delayed due to a number of issues .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "C/NOFS", "rank": 78, "score": 122730 }, { "content": "Title: Megha-Tropiques Content: Megha-Tropiques is a satellite mission to study the water cycle in the tropical atmosphere in the context of climate change A collaborative effort between Indian Space Research Organisation ( ISRO ) and French Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales ( CNES ) , Megha-Tropiques was successfully deployed into orbit by a PSLV rocket in October 2011 . Megha-Tropiques was initially scrapped in 2003 , but later revived in 2004 after India increased its contribution and overall costs were lowered . With the progress made by GEWEX ( Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment ) , Megha-Tropiques is designed to understand tropical meteorological and climatic processes , by obtaining reliable statistics on the water and energy budget of the tropical atmosphere . Megha-Tropiques complements other data in the current regional monsoon projects such as MAHASRI and the completed GAME project . Megha-Tropiques also seeks to describe the evolution of major tropical weather systems . The focus will be the repetitive measurement of the tropics .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Megha-Tropiques", "rank": 79, "score": 122558 }, { "content": "Title: Satellite Cloud Image Content: A Satellite Cloud Image is an image based on data from meteorological satellite instruments . It captures the distribution of clouds in the atmosphere , to find the weather system and verify the correctness of surface weather maps that have been drawn . It can also be used with observations of sea ice distribution to determine the sea surface temperature and the medium-and long-term weather forecast oceanographic data . This technology can be a single image to show a variety of scales of weather phenomena to provide a very useful remote sensing data , weather analysis and forecasting . In general , the satellite cloud can be divided into the Infra-red satellite , visible satellite cloud images and color enhancement of satellite cloud . Category : Weather prediction", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Satellite_Cloud_Image", "rank": 80, "score": 122385 }, { "content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model", "rank": 81, "score": 122124 }, { "content": "Title: Satellite surface salinity Content: Satellite surface salinity refers to measurements of surface salinity made by remote sensing satellites . The radiative properties of the ocean surface are exploited in order to estimate the salinity of the water 's surface layer . The depth of the water column that a satellite surface salinity measurement is sensitive to depends on the frequency ( or wavelength ) of the radiance that is being measured . For instance , the optical depth for seawater at the 1.413 GHz microwave frequency , used for the Aquarius mission , is about 1 -- 2 cm .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Satellite_surface_salinity", "rank": 82, "score": 121828 }, { "content": "Title: ExoCube (CP-10) Content: ExoCube ( CP-10 ) is a space weather satellite developed by the California Polytechnic State University -- San Luis Obispo and sponsored by the National Science Foundation . It is one of many miniaturized satellites that adhere to the CubeSat standard . ExoCube 's primary mission is to measure the density of hydrogen , oxygen , helium , and nitrogen in the Earth 's exosphere . It is characterizing -LSB- O -RSB- , -LSB- H -RSB- , -LSB- He -RSB- , -LSB- N2 -RSB- , -LSB- O + -RSB- , -LSB- H + -RSB- , -LSB- He + -RSB- , -LSB- NO + -RSB- , as well as the total ion density above ground stations , incoherent scatter radar ( ISR ) stations , and periodically throughout the entire orbit . It was launched aboard a Delta II rocket with the NASA SMAP primary payload from Vandenberg AFB in California on January 31 , 2015 .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "ExoCube_(CP-10)", "rank": 83, "score": 121710 }, { "content": "Title: Badr-B Content: The Badr-B ( -LSB- ; also known as Badr-II , meaning Full Moon-2 ) is the second spacecraft and the first earth observation satellite launched into Earth orbit on 10 December 2001 at 09:15 by the SUPARCO -- Pakistan 's national space agency . Badr-B is a microsatellite , with a mass of ~ 70 kg , and contained the supercomputerized system to conduct the studies on the gravity gradient . Badr-B is a research satellite to explore the upper atmosphere and the near space , and carried a large array of instruments for geophysical research . The Badr-B payload was equipped with several CCD cameras , compact dosimeter , a telemetry system , charge detector and a temperature control unit . It is intended to complete and update the Islamabad Mission Control Center ( IMCC ) , and to test the remote sensing CCD instruments .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Badr-B", "rank": 84, "score": 121164 }, { "content": "Title: CloudSat Content: CloudSat is a NASA Earth observation satellite , which was launched on a Delta II rocket on April 28 , 2006 . It uses radar to measure the altitude and properties of clouds , adding to information on the relationship between clouds and climate in order to help resolve questions about global warming . CloudSat flies in formation in the `` A Train '' , with several other satellites : Aqua , Aura , CALIPSO and the French PARASOL . The mission was selected under NASA 's Earth System Science Pathfinder program in 1999 . Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. in Boulder , Colorado , designed and built the spacecraft . CloudSat 's primary mission was scheduled to continue for 22 months in order to allow more than one seasonal cycle to be observed .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "CloudSat", "rank": 85, "score": 121005 }, { "content": "Title: Array of Low Energy X-ray Imaging Sensors Content: The Array of Low Energy X-ray Imaging Sensors ( ALEXIS ) X-ray telescopes feature curved mirrors whose multilayer coatings reflect and focus low-energy X-rays or extreme ultraviolet light the way optical telescopes focus visible light . The satellite and payloads were funded by the United States Department of Energy and built by Los Alamos National Laboratory in collaboration with Sandia National Laboratories and the University of California-Space Sciences Lab . The satellite bus was built by AeroAstro , Inc. of Herndon , VA. . The Launch was provided by the United States Air Force Space Test Program on a Pegasus Booster on April 25 , 1993 . The mission is entirely controlled from a small groundstation at LANL .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Array_of_Low_Energy_X-ray_Imaging_Sensors", "rank": 86, "score": 120769 }, { "content": "Title: Glory (satellite) Content: The Glory satellite was a planned NASA satellite mission that would have collected data on the chemical , micro-physical and optical properties -- and the spatial and temporal distributions -- of sulfate and other aerosols , and would have collected solar irradiance data for the long-term climate record . The science focus areas served by Glory included : atmospheric composition ; carbon cycle , ecosystems , and biogeochemistry ; climate variability and change ; and water and energy cycles . The US$ 424 million satellite was lost on March 4 , 2011 , when its Taurus XL carrier rocket malfunctioned . A subsequent investigation revealed that the fairing system failed to open fully , causing the satellite to reenter the atmosphere at which point it likely broke up and burned .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Glory_(satellite)", "rank": 87, "score": 120380 }, { "content": "Title: Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System Content: Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) is NASA climatological experiment from Earth orbit . The CERES are scientific satellite instruments , part of the NASA 's Earth Observing System ( EOS ) , designed to measure both solar-reflected and Earth-emitted radiation from the top of the atmosphere ( TOA ) to the Earth 's surface . Cloud properties are determined using simultaneous measurements by other EOS instruments such as the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) . Results from the CERES and other NASA missions , such as the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment ( ERBE ) , could lead to a better understanding of the role of clouds and the energy cycle in global climate change .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Clouds_and_the_Earth's_Radiant_Energy_System", "rank": 88, "score": 120370 }, { "content": "Title: GOES-16 Content: GOES-16 , previously known as GOES-R , is an American weather satellite , which , upon completion of testing , will form part of the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite ( GOES ) system operated by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . It is the first of the next generation of geosynchronous environmental satellite . It is expected to provide atmospheric and surface measurements of the Earth 's Western Hemisphere for weather forecasting , severe storm tracking , space weather monitoring and meteorological research . GOES-16 launched at approximately 23:42 UTC on November 19 , 2016 from the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station , Florida , United States .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "GOES-16", "rank": 89, "score": 120242 }, { "content": "Title: Tropical rain belt Content: Rainfall and the tropical climate dominate the tropical rain belt , which oscillates from the northern to the southern tropics over the course of the year , roughly following the solar equator . The tropical rain belt is an area of active rain that is positioned mostly around the tropics . According to the website Journey North , the reason the rain belt is situated near the tropics can be attributed to the fact that most of the sun 's radiation is directed toward the equator , which is located in the middle of the tropics . This solar radiation generates large amounts of heat near the equator providing tropical regions with higher temperatures than most other regions on Earth . With all this solar radiation , the air around the tropics begins to warm up . Because hot air is less dense than cold air , the hot air rises into the upper levels of the atmosphere and as a result , cold air filters down into the lower levels of the atmosphere . The dynamics that provide the tropics with the rain belt are founded on the principal that warmer air is able to retain more moisture than colder air . When the colder air replaces the warmer air in the lower atmosphere , the abundant moisture from the tropics loses the ability to be stored in the atmosphere . As a result , the excess moisture that can not be held by the colder air is then turned into thunderstorms and rain showers . These thunderstorms and rain showers are usually located along the equator , but they will extend out to the Tropic of Cancer , which is the 23.5 north latitude , as well as the Tropic of Capricorn , which is the 23.5 south latitude . It is largely a manifestation of the ITCH ( incorrect citation ) . The tropical rain belt lies in the southern hemisphere of the Indian ocean and western Pacific ocean roughly from October to March , and during this time the northern tropics experience a dry season in which precipitation is very rare , and days are typically hot and sunny throughout . From April to September , the rain belt lies in the northern hemisphere , and a wet season occurs there , while the southern tropics experience their dry season . The rain belt reaches roughly as far north as the Tropic of Cancer and as far south as the Tropic of Capricorn in the western Pacific ocean . Its variation in the Western Hemisphere is minimal , roughly between the equator and the 15th parallel north latitude . Near these latitudes , there is one wet season and one dry season annually . On the equator , there are two wet and two dry seasons as the rain belt passes over twice a year , one moving north and one moving south . Between the tropics and the equator , locations may experience both a short wet and a long wet season . Local geography may substantially modify these climate patterns .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Tropical_rain_belt", "rank": 90, "score": 119506 }, { "content": "Title: Lifted index Content: The lifted index ( LI ) is the temperature difference between the environment Te ( p ) and an air parcel lifted adiabatically Tp ( p ) at a given pressure height in the troposphere ( lowest layer where most weather occurs ) of the atmosphere , usually 500 hPa ( mb ) . The temperature is measured in Celsius . When the value is positive , the atmosphere ( at the respective height ) is stable and when the value is negative , the atmosphere is unstable .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Lifted_index", "rank": 91, "score": 119002 }, { "content": "Title: Low Earth orbit Content: A low Earth orbit ( LEO ) is an orbit around Earth with an altitude between the Earth 's surface and 2000 km , with an orbital period of between about 84 and 127 minutes . Objects below approximately 160 km will experience very rapid orbital decay and altitude loss . With the exception of the 24 astronauts who flew lunar flights in the Apollo program during the four-year period spanning 1968 through 1972 , all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO or below . The International Space Station conducts operations in LEO . The altitude record for a human spaceflight in LEO was Gemini 11 with an apogee of 1374.1 km . All crewed space stations to date , as well as the majority of satellites , have been in LEO .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Low_Earth_orbit", "rank": 92, "score": 118959 }, { "content": "Title: Geocorona Content: The geocorona is the luminous part of the outermost region of the Earth 's atmosphere , the exosphere . It is seen primarily via far-ultraviolet light ( Lyman-alpha ) from the Sun that is scattered from neutral hydrogen . It extends to at least 15.5 Earth radii . The geocorona has been studied from outer space by the Astrid satellites and the Galileo spacecraft ( among others ) , using its ultraviolet spectrometer ( UVS ) during an Earth flyby .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Geocorona", "rank": 93, "score": 118716 }, { "content": "Title: X-ray astronomy satellite Content: An X-ray astronomy satellite studies X-ray emissions from celestial objects , as part of a branch of space science known as X-ray astronomy . Satellites are needed because X-radiation is absorbed by the Earth 's atmosphere , so instruments to detect X-rays must be taken to high altitude by balloons , sounding rockets , and satellites . A detector is placed on a satellite which is then put into orbit well above the Earth 's atmosphere . Unlike balloons , instruments on satellites are able to observe the full range of the X-ray spectrum . Unlike sounding rockets , they can collect data for as long as the instruments continue to operate . For example , the Chandra X-ray Observatory has been operational for more than fifteen years .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "X-ray_astronomy_satellite", "rank": 94, "score": 118642 }, { "content": "Title: Resurs-DK No.1 Content: Resurs-DK No. 1 , often incorrectly translated as Resurs-DK1 is a commercial Earth observation satellite capable of transmitting high-resolution imagery ( up to 0.9 m ) to the ground stations as it passes overhead . The spacecraft is operated by NTs OMZ , the Russian Research Center for Earth Operative Monitoring . The satellite is designed for multi-spectral remote sensing of the Earth 's surface aimed at acquiring high-quality visible images in near real-time as well as on-line data delivery via radio link and providing a wide range of consumers with value-added processed data . The Russian space tracking service , ASPOS OKP , reported that the spacecraft 's onboard systems and attitude control had been terminated in February 2016 . Tracking of the satellite was discontinued on 1 March .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Resurs-DK_No.1", "rank": 95, "score": 118450 }, { "content": "Title: Community Radiative Transfer Model Content: Community Radiative Transfer Model ( CRTM ) is a fast radiative transfer model for calculations of radiances for satellite infrared or microwave radiometers . Given an atmospheric profile of temperature , variable gas concentrations , cloud and surface properties CRTM calculates radiances and brightness temperatures . The only mandatory inputs in terms of variable gases are water vapor and ozone . The range of temperatures and water vapour concentrations over which the optical depth computations are valid depends on the training datasets which were used . CRTM contains forward , tangent linear , adjoint and K ( full Jacobian matrices ) versions of the model ; the latter three modules are used in inversion methods , including variational assimilation and satellite retrievals . One of several applications of CRTM are retrievals of brightness temperature and sea surface temperature from Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer sensor .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Community_Radiative_Transfer_Model", "rank": 96, "score": 118218 }, { "content": "Title: Suomi NPP Content: The Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership or Suomi NPP , previously known as the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System Preparatory Project ( NPP ) and NPP-Bridge , is a weather satellite operated by the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . Originally intended as a pathfinder for the NPOESS programme , which was to have replaced NOAA 's Polar Operational Environmental Satellites and the U.S. Air Force 's Defense Meteorological Satellite Program , Suomi was launched in 2011 after the cancellation of NPOESS to serve as a gapfiller between the POES satellites and the Joint Polar Satellite System which will replace them . Its instruments provide climate measurements that continue prior observations by NASA 's Earth Observing System . The satellite is named after Verner E. Suomi , a meteorologist at the University of Wisconsin -- Madison . The name was announced on January 24 , 2012 , three months after the satellite 's launch . The satellite was launched from Space Launch Complex 2W at Vandenberg Air Force Base in California by a United Launch Alliance Delta II 7920-10C on October 28 , 2011 . The satellite was placed into a sun-synchronous orbit 824 km ( 512 miles ) above the Earth .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Suomi_NPP", "rank": 97, "score": 118144 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric temperature Content: Atmospheric temperature is a measure of temperature at different levels of the Earth 's atmosphere . It is governed by many factors , including incoming solar radiation , humidity and altitude . When discussing surface temperature , the annual atmospheric temperature range at any geographical location depends largely upon the type of biome , as measured by the Köppen climate classification .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "Atmospheric_temperature", "rank": 98, "score": 118103 }, { "content": "Title: GOES-G Content: GOES-G was a weather satellite to be operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . The satellite was designed to sense and monitor meteorological conditions from a geostationary orbit , intended to replace GOES-5 and provide continuous vertical profiles of atmospheric temperature and moisture . It was lost due to the launch failure of a Delta 3914 rocket on 3 May 1986 .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "GOES-G", "rank": 99, "score": 118094 }, { "content": "Title: NPOESS Content: The National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System ( NPOESS ) was to be the United States ' next-generation satellite system that would monitor the Earth 's weather , atmosphere , oceans , land , and near-space environment . NPOESS satellites were to host proven technologies and operational versions of sensors that are currently under operational-prototyping by NASA . The estimated launch date for the first NPOESS satellite , `` C1 '' or `` Charlie 1 '' was around 2013 . Issues with sensor developments were the primary cited reason for delays and cost-overruns . NPOESS was to be operated by the NOAA / NESDIS / NPOESS Program Executive Office Flight Operations at the NOAA Satellite Operations Facility ( NSOF ) in Suitland , MD. . Northrop Grumman Aerospace Systems ( NGAS ) was the primary system integrator for the NPOESS project . Raytheon , Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. and Boeing were developing the sensors . NPOESS was to be a replacement for both the United States Department of Defense 's DMSP and the NOAA Polar Operational Environmental Satellites ( POES ) series . The NPOESS Preparatory Project ( NPP ) was planned as a pathfinder mission for NPOESS . The project had to go through three Nunn-McCurdy reviews , Congressional hearings that are automatically triggered when a program goes over budget by more than 25 % . It was launched five years behind schedule , on October 28 , 2011 . The White House announced on February 1 , 2010 , that the NPOESS satellite partnership was to be dissolved , and that two separate lines of polar-orbiting satellites to serve military and civilian users would be pursued instead : The NOAA/NASA portion is called the Joint Polar Satellite System ( JPSS ) . The JPSS-1 spacecraft will be constructed by Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. , under a fixed price contract of $ 248 million with a performance period through Feb. 1 , 2015 . The common ground system will be constructed by Raytheon . Its launch has slipped to 2017 . The Defense Department 's portion is called DWSS ( Defense Weather Satellite System ) . In January 2012 , the US Air Force cancelled the program .", "qid": "3104", "docid": "NPOESS", "rank": 100, "score": 117577 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 1, "score": 160542 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Taylor (environmentalist) Content: Peter Taylor ( b. 24 Jan 1948 ) is a UK environmentalist with a long track record of public activism and scholarship on issues ranging from nuclear safety , ocean pollution , biodiversity strategies , renewable energy and climate change . His recent work on global warming has been questioned by environmentalists . His 2009 book Chill : a reassessment of global warming theory argued that most of the recent documented warming is caused by peaking natural cycles , that there is also a potential for global cooling and that adaptation not mitigation should be a priority . His views received widespread coverage in the media -- with front page on the Daily Express , and articles in the online versions of The Mail , The Times and an Al Jazeera video .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Peter_Taylor_(environmentalist)", "rank": 2, "score": 157854 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 3, "score": 147721 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 4, "score": 145888 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 5, "score": 129883 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 6, "score": 129563 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming conspiracy theory Content: A global warming conspiracy theory invokes claims that scientific consensus on global warming is based on conspiracies to produce false data or suppress dissent . It is one of a number of tactics used in climate change denial to legitimize political controversy disputing this consensus . Global warming conspiracy theorists typically allege that , through worldwide acts of professional and criminal misconduct , the science behind global warming has been invented or distorted for ideological or financial reasons , or both .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Global_warming_conspiracy_theory", "rank": 7, "score": 128376 }, { "content": "Title: Paolo Vineis Content: Paolo Vineis is a professor of Environmental Epidemiology at Imperial College London . His main work is on the impact of environmental changes ( including air pollution and climate change ) on human health and molecules . This includes the use of omics technologies in epidemiological studies , that is the quantitative measurement of global sets of molecules in biological samples using high-throughput techniques , in combination with advanced biostatistics and bioinformatics tools . In particular , the study of epigenomic changes in DNA is currently one of the most promising fields for the identification of long-term environmental fingerprints . The development of the concept of exposome ( with Chris Wild , Director of the World Health Organization 's International Agency for Research on Cancer , and Stephen Rappaport and Martyn Smith of University of California , Berkeley 's School of Public Health ) , led to Professor Vineis being awarded a grant from the European Commission ( Seventh Framework Programme ) in 2012 on exposome research ( EXPOsOMICS ) . The exposome refers to the totality of internal and external exposures which interact at a cellular and systems level to generate a metabolic / molecular signature which can be used to gain new understanding of the transition from health to disease . Paolo Vineis is also the coordinator of the Horizon 2020 LIFEPATH project , whose aim is to understand the determinants of diverging ageing pathways among individuals belonging to different socio-economic groups . This is achieved by integrating social science approaches with biology , using omics measurements ( particularly epigenomics ) . Paolo Vineis is also the director of the Unit of Molecular and Genetic Epidemiology , HuGeF Foundation , Turin , Italy . Professor Vineis has published many research articles on environmental risks and has written several books on health , causality and the ethics of health care .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Paolo_Vineis", "rank": 8, "score": 128101 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 9, "score": 127699 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 10, "score": 127186 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming", "rank": 11, "score": 127180 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Doran Content: Peter Doran , Ph.D. is Professor of Geology and Geophysics at Louisiana State University . Doran specializes in polar regions , especially Antarctic climate and ecosystems . Doran was the lead author of a research paper about Antarctic temperatures that was published in the journal Nature in January 2002 . Because he and his colleagues found that some parts of Antarctica had cooled between 1964 and 2000 , his paper has been frequently cited by opponents of the global warming theory , such as Ann Coulter and Michael Crichton . In an opinion piece in the July 27 , 2006 New York Times , Doran characterized this as a `` misinterpretation '' and stated , `` I have never thought such a thing ... I would like to remove my name from the list of scientists who dispute global warming . '' ( The temporary phenomenon is related to the `` hole '' in the ozone . As the `` hole heals '' the Antarctic will dramatically warm quickly . ) Doran and his grad student Maggie Kendall Zimmerman also published a paper in the Jan 27 , 2009 issue of EOS showing that active climate researchers almost unanimously agree that humans have had a significant impact on the Earth 's climate . Both an Antarctic stream and glacier were named for Doran by the U.S. Geological Survey to commemorate his many significant research contributions conducted on the continent .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Peter_Doran", "rank": 12, "score": 126314 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change", "rank": 13, "score": 126128 }, { "content": "Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change", "rank": 14, "score": 125427 }, { "content": "Title: The Real Global Warming Disaster Content: The Real Global Warming Disaster ( Is the Obsession with ` Climate Change ' Turning Out to Be the Most Costly Scientific Blunder in History ? ) is a 2009 book by English journalist and author Christopher Booker in which he asserts that global warming can not be attributed to humans , and then alleges how the scientific opinion on climate change was formulated . From a standpoint of environmental scepticism , Booker seeks to combine an analysis of the science of global warming with the consequences of political decisions to reduce emissions and claims that , as governments prepare to make radical changes in energy policies , the scientific evidence for global warming is becoming increasingly challenged . He asserts that global warming is not supported by a significant number of climate scientists , and criticises how the UN 's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) presents evidence and data , in particular citing its reliance on potentially inaccurate global climate models to make temperature projections . Booker concludes , `` it begins to look very possible that the nightmare vision of our planet being doomed '' may be imaginary , and that , if so , `` it will turn out to be one of the most expensive , destructive , and foolish mistakes the human race has ever made '' . The book 's claims were strongly criticised by science writer Philip Ball , but the book was praised by several columnists . The book opens with an erroneous quotation , which Booker subsequently acknowledged and promised to correct in future editions . The book was Amazon UK 's fourth bestselling environment book of the decade 2000 -- 10 .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "The_Real_Global_Warming_Disaster", "rank": 15, "score": 123926 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 16, "score": 123717 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Climate_change", "rank": 17, "score": 123523 }, { "content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Climate_system", "rank": 18, "score": 122380 }, { "content": "Title: Climate ethics Content: Climate ethics is an area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change ( also known as global warming ) , and concepts such as climate justice . Human-induced climate change raises many profound ethical questions , yet many believe that these ethical issues have not been addressed adequately in climate change policy debates or in the scientific and economic literature on climate change ; and that , consequently , ethical questions are being overlooked or obscured in climate negotiations , policies and discussions . It has been pointed out that those most responsible for climate change are not the same people as those most vulnerable to its effects . Terms such as climate justice and ecological justice ( ` eco justice ' ) are used worldwide , and have been adopted by various groups .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Climate_ethics", "rank": 19, "score": 122319 }, { "content": "Title: Jerry Taylor Content: Jerome Cogburn `` Jerry '' Taylor ( born August 2 , 1962 ) is an American environmental activist and policy analyst . Taylor is the president of the Niskanen Center , a Washington , D.C. based think tank that advocates for market environmentalism and the adoption of a carbon tax system to combat global warming . Before founding the Niskanen Center in 2015 , Taylor was a senior fellow at the Cato Institute , where he previously espoused a skeptical position on environmental issues . Taylor 's case is notable as an example of a former climate-change skeptic who came to embrace policies to address climate change after researching the scientific consensus behind man-made global warming . During the 1990s and 2000s Taylor made regular media appearances as a global warming skeptic , including on Penn and Teller 's show Bullshit as well as a special edition of the John Stossel show devoted to attacking climate science . Taylor changed his prior beliefs because `` the scientific evidence became stronger and stronger over time . '' In 2015 , Taylor published a recantation entitled the `` Conservative Case for a Carbon Tax '' in which he espoused a global carbon taxation system , enforced by tariffs and implemented as a revenue neutral tax swap . Taylor attended the University of Iowa as a political science major . He is also a board game designer who has released three wargames , Hammer of the Scots , Crusader Rex , and Richard III . He resides in Arlington , Virginia with his wife and their children .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Jerry_Taylor", "rank": 20, "score": 122238 }, { "content": "Title: Copenhagen Diagnosis Content: The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a report written by twenty-six climate scientists from eight countries . It was published in 2009 and was a summary of the peer-reviewed literature to date . The Copenhagen Diagnosis is a follow-up of the previous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's Working Group 1 Report . The studies summarized , which date back to the cutoff point of the Working Group 1 Report , are those that authors viewed most relevant to the discussions at the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . The Copenhagen Diagnosis served as the midpoint between IPCC -- AR4 and IPCC-AR5 . In total , the Copenhagen Diagnosis contains eight main sections , which are : Surging Greenhouse gas emissions Since 1990 , the combined global emission of carbon dioxide from various origins , such as cement production , deforestation , and fossil fuel burning , has increased 27 % . Human-induced warming Studies conducted by Lee and Rind show that only 10 % of global warming over the past century was due to the Sun . Acceleration of melting ice caps Glaciers and melting ice caps can contribute to about 8/10ths of a meter to global sea level rise . Rapid Arctic sea-ice decline According to simulations run by NCAR Climate System Model version 3 , the Arctic summer is expected to be ice-free by 2040 . Underestimation of changing sea levels In contrast to previous IPCC , the rate of sea level rise ( 3.4 mm/yr over the past 15 years ) has increased around 80 % faster than previously predicted . Damage due to inaction A region of permafrost , called the Yedoma , stores about 500 Gt of CO2 and , once released due to rising global temperatures , will increase global temperatures even more . Turning point must come soon The largest climate science conference , held in 2009 , has stated , `` Temperature rises above 2 ° C will be difficult for contemporary societies to cope with , and are likely to cause major societal and environmental disruptions through the rest of the century and beyond . '' The Future By 2100 , global mean air-temperature is projected to warm by 2 ° C -- 7 ° C above pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Copenhagen_Diagnosis", "rank": 21, "score": 121912 }, { "content": "Title: Seasonal Attribution Project Content: The Seasonal Attribution Project is a Climateprediction.net sub-project , with support from the WWF . It runs a high resolution model in order to try to determine the extent to which extreme weather events are attributable to human-induced global warming . The project did cease giving out more work , however there has been a project extension to try a fourth sea surface temperature pattern . Current work will still be accepted and used for collaborations and possibly revisions of papers during the review process . A further extension will start soon .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Seasonal_Attribution_Project", "rank": 22, "score": 121181 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 23, "score": 120670 }, { "content": "Title: Geophysical global cooling Content: Before the concept of plate tectonics , global cooling was a geophysical theory by James Dwight Dana , also referred to as the contracting earth theory . It suggested that the Earth had been in a molten state , and features such as mountains formed as it cooled and shrank . As the interior of the Earth cooled and shrank , the rigid crust would have to shrink and crumple . The crumpling could produce features such as mountain ranges .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Geophysical_global_cooling", "rank": 24, "score": 120554 }, { "content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar", "rank": 25, "score": 119637 }, { "content": "Title: Atsumu Ohmura Content: is a Japanese climatologist , known for his discovery and contributions to the theory of global dimming . Ohmura was born in the Bunkyō ward of Tokyo in 1942 . In 1965 he graduated with a B.Sc from the University of Tokyo and in 1969 received an M.Sc from McGill University . He later received a Dr.sc.nat from the ETH Zurich . Ohmura is a professor emeritus of the Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science at ETH Zurich , where he was the leader of the institute 's climate research group . The group has strong interests in the planetary boundary layer and the cryosphere including its interaction with the atmosphere and ocean . The group maintains a general circulation model . Ohmura also initiated the Baseline Surface Radiation Network ( BSRN ) .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Atsumu_Ohmura", "rank": 26, "score": 118855 }, { "content": "Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Iris_hypothesis", "rank": 27, "score": 117605 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Greenhouse_effect", "rank": 28, "score": 117065 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Global_warming_(disambiguation)", "rank": 29, "score": 116942 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 30, "score": 116448 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans", "rank": 31, "score": 116212 }, { "content": "Title: James Hansen Content: James Edward Hansen ( born 29 March 1941 ) is an American adjunct professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia University . He is best known for his research in climatology , his 1988 Congressional testimony on climate change that helped raise broad awareness of global warming , and his advocacy of action to avoid dangerous climate change . In recent years he has become a climate activist to mitigate the effects of climate change , on a few occasions leading to his arrest . In 2000 , Hansen advanced an alternative view of global warming over the last 100 years , arguing that during that time frame the negative forcing via aerosols and the positive forcing via largely balanced each other out , and that the 0.74 ± 0.18 ° C net rise in average global temperatures could mostly be explained by greenhouse gases other than carbon dioxide , such as methane and chlorofluorocarbons . However , even then he wrote `` the future balance of forcings is likely to shift toward dominance of CO2 over aerosols ''", "qid": "3105", "docid": "James_Hansen", "rank": 32, "score": 114419 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 33, "score": 113792 }, { "content": "Title: Early anthropocene Content: The Early Anthropocene Hypothesis ( sometimes called Early Anthropogenic ) was proposed by William Ruddiman . It posits that the Anthropocene era , as some scientists call the most recent period in Earth 's history when the activities of the human race first began to have a significant global impact on Earth 's climate and ecosystems , did not begin in the eighteenth century with advent of coal-burning factories and power plants of the industrial era , as was commonly assumed , but dates back to 8,000 years ago , triggered by intense farming activities after agriculture became widespread . It was at that time that atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations stopped following the periodic pattern of rises and falls that had accurately characterized their past long-term behavior , a pattern that is explained by natural variations in Earth 's orbit known as Milankovitch cycles .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Early_anthropocene", "rank": 34, "score": 113789 }, { "content": "Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Global_dimming", "rank": 35, "score": 113124 }, { "content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Polar_amplification", "rank": 36, "score": 111673 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 37, "score": 111471 }, { "content": "Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Runaway_climate_change", "rank": 38, "score": 110301 }, { "content": "Title: Richard C. Duncan Content: Richard Duncan is chief author of the Olduvai theory , a prediction of rapidly declining world energy production . He has an MS in Electrical Engineering ( 1969 ) and a PhD in Systems Engineering ( 1973 ) from the University of Washington . The Olduvai theory holds that the ratio of world energy production per capita , which he denotes by the metric e , will peak as the extraction rates of fossil fuels fall increasingly behind demand , causing catastrophic social and economic collapse , starting with massive electrical blackouts worldwide . He suggests that humans would eventually revert to a stone-age style of living after the majority of the world 's population dies off over the coming century . In 1996 , Duncan claimed that e had peaked around 1978 . In 2000 , the theory was revised to hold that the ratio would begin to decline around 2007 . The peak was again revised in 2013 to have occurred in 2012 . He bases his theory on the fact that a steep rise in global population and petroleum use almost parallel each other but population increases at a slightly faster rate than does energy use . Duncan 's research data , compiled in partnership with geologist Dr. Walter Youngquist , have become widely used resources for those studying past and current trends in oil production and depletion .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Richard_C._Duncan", "rank": 39, "score": 110032 }, { "content": "Title: Lavoisier Group Content: The Lavoisier Group is an Australian organisation formed by politicians and dominated by retired industrial businesspeople and engineers . It does not accept the science of global warming and works to influence attitudes of policy makers and politicians . The organisation downplays the risk of the effects of global warming , rejects the scientific conclusion that human activity causes it , and opposes policies designed to curtail it . Some members regard climate change as a `` scam . '' The group was named after French scientist Antoine Lavoisier ( 1743-1794 ) , the father of modern chemistry who disproved the Phlogiston theory of combustion .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Lavoisier_Group", "rank": 40, "score": 109913 }, { "content": "Title: The Revenge of Gaia Content: The Revenge of Gaia : Why the Earth is Fighting Back -- and How we Can Still Save Humanity ( 2006 ) is a book by James Lovelock . Some editions of the book have a different , less optimistic subtitle : `` Earth 's Climate Crisis and the Fate of Humanity . '' The book introduces the concept of the anti-CLAW hypothesis . Lovelock proposed that instead of providing negative feedback in the climate system , the components of the CLAW hypothesis may act to create a positive feedback loop . Under future global warming , increasing temperature may stratify the world ocean , decreasing the supply of nutrients from the deep ocean to its productive euphotic zone . Consequently , phytoplankton activity will decline with a concomitant fall in the production of DMS . In a reverse of the CLAW hypothesis , this decline in DMS production will lead to a decrease in cloud condensation nuclei and a fall in cloud albedo . The consequence of this will be further climate warming which may lead to even less DMS production ( and further climate warming ) . The figure to the right shows a summarising schematic diagram . Evidence for the anti-CLAW hypothesis is constrained by similar uncertainties as those of the sulfur cycle feedback loop of the CLAW hypothesis . However , researchers simulating future oceanic primary production have found evidence of declining production with increasing ocean stratification , leaving open the possibility that such a mechanism may exist .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "The_Revenge_of_Gaia", "rank": 41, "score": 109715 }, { "content": "Title: Leipzig Declaration Content: The Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change is a statement made in 1995 , seeking to refute the claim there is a scientific consensus on the global warming issue . It was issued in an updated form in 1997 and revised again in 2005 , claiming to have been signed by 80 scientists and 25 television news meteorologists while the posting of 33 additional signatories was pending verification that those 33 additional scientists still agreed with the statement . All versions of the declaration , which opposes the global warming hypothesis and the Kyoto Protocol , were penned by Fred Singer 's Science and Environmental Policy Project ( SEPP ) . The first declaration was based on a November 9 -- 10 , 1995 conference , organized by Helmut Metzner in Leipzig , Germany . The second declaration was additionally based on a successor conference in Bonn , Germany on November 10 -- 11 , 1997 . The conferences were cosponsored by SEPP and the European Academy for Environmental Affairs and titled International Symposium on the Greenhouse Controversy .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Leipzig_Declaration", "rank": 42, "score": 109680 }, { "content": "Title: The Chilling Stars Content: The Chilling Stars is a non-fiction book about the possible causes and effects of global climate change by Henrik Svensmark and Nigel Calder . The paperback version was published by Totem Books on March 19 , 2003 . An updated version titled The Chilling Stars : A New Theory of Climate Change was published in 2007 . Svensmark is otherwise known as a Danish physicist and professor while Calder has worked as a science journalist . The authors argue that cloud cover changes caused by variations in cosmic rays are a major contributor to global temperature increases , and they state that human influences have been exaggerated .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "The_Chilling_Stars", "rank": 43, "score": 109635 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 44, "score": 109535 }, { "content": "Title: World Climate Report Content: World Climate Report , a newsletter edited by Patrick Michaels , was produced by the Greening Earth Society , a non-profit organization created by the Western Fuels Association . Early editions were paper based ; it was then transferred to a web-only format , having ceased publication as a physically based report with Volume 8 in 2002 . It continues to exist in blog form at www.worldclimatereport.com , although the website itself has not been updated since late 2012 . World Climate Report presents a scientific skeptical view of populist anthropogenic-driven mass global climate change , or as it describes , ` Global Warming Alarmism ' . However , it does not reject the concepts of global climate change or greenhouse theory ( or other well-established and widely accepted scientific theories or empirical studies ) , in general attempting to engender itself as giving a well balanced and scientific view of the sources ( though often at a contrary expense of its perceived adversaries : the aforementioned alleged ` Global Warming Alarmists ' ) . WCR says of itself : World Climate Report , a concise , hard-hitting and scientifically correct response to the global change reports which gain attention in the literature and popular press . As the nation 's leading publication in this realm , World Climate Report is exhaustively researched , impeccably referenced , and always timely . This popular biweekly newsletter points out the weaknesses and outright fallacies in the science that is being touted as `` proof '' of disastrous warming . It 's the perfect antidote against those who argue for proposed changes to the Rio Climate Treaty , such as the Kyoto Protocol , which are aimed at limiting carbon emissions from the United States ... World Climate Report has become the definitive and unimpeachable source for what nature now calls the `` mainstream skeptic '' point of view . . In addition to Patrick Michaels ( chief editor ) , the staff is listed as Robert C. Balling , Jr ( contributing editor ) , Robert Davis ( contributing editor ) , and Paul Knappenberger ( Administrator ) . New Hope Environmental Services , an advocacy science consulting firm , claims WCR as its biweekly newsletter .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "World_Climate_Report", "rank": 45, "score": 109331 }, { "content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years", "rank": 46, "score": 109196 }, { "content": "Title: The Discovery of Global Warming Content: The Discovery of Global Warming is a book by the physicist and historian Spencer R. Weart published in 2003 ; revised and updated edition , 2008 . It traces the history of scientific discoveries that led to the current scientific opinion on climate change . It has been translated into Spanish , Japanese , Italian , Arabic , Chinese and Korean .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "The_Discovery_of_Global_Warming", "rank": 47, "score": 109103 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change", "rank": 48, "score": 109089 }, { "content": "Title: The Great Warming Content: The Great Warming is a 2006 documentary film directed by Michael Taylor . The film was hosted by Alanis Morissette and Keanu Reeves and even before its November 3 , 2006 première helped establish an alliance between Democrats and Evangelicals trying to shake the administration out of its inertia on Climate change mitigation . It is also the anchor for a broad , pro-active coalition ranging from Friends of the Earth to Union of Concerned Scientists to Churches of Christ . Theatre giant Regal Cinemas released the film in its top 50 markets on the weekend of November 4 to November 5 , 2006 , which makes the launch three times larger than for any other film of its kind , and highlights the growing currency of the global warming issues in the mainstream.A special program was developed for faith communities , and the film was distributed to over 500 churches , synagogues and mosques across the US . Featuring elements of the 2005 Public Broadcasting Service special Global Warming : the Signs and the Science , The Great Warming ( produced by the same team ) , it talks to key researchers and reports on social justice and day-to-day impacts as well as emission statistics . It 's also populated with everyday people from all over the United States and the planet who are feeling the brunt of global warming , and/or finding innovative ways to tackle it . While making the movie , producer Karen Coshof was determined not to lose sight of her most important advocate , the person on the street , to make the issue of global warming resonate in every household around the globe . Every person should `` feel empowered to act . '' In media interviews , Coshof explained that the film attracted an unprecedented coalition of leaders in science , religion , business , environmental activism and education . They have built bridges over historic gaps to support the message of this film to believe in the individual and collective moral responsibility to reverse the growing threats to the environment , and to the health and quality of life . The effort goes beyond the documentary : with a release timed just before the United States House elections , 2006 , the website featured a Questions for Candidates link where voters could send a questionnaire on energy , environment , and taxation to their federal and state candidates . The campaign also includes a Call to Action signed by leaders from every arena of public life , and which can be signed online by anyone who chooses . Advance DVD screenings at schools , churches , and town halls across the country have already mobilized thousands of people to change personal habits and demand action , and coalition members are working to track the effort .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "The_Great_Warming", "rank": 49, "score": 108915 }, { "content": "Title: Plows, Plagues and Petroleum Content: Plows , Plagues and Petroleum : How Humans Took Control of Climate is a 2005 book published by Princeton University Press and written by William Ruddiman , a paleoclimatologist and Professor Emeritus at the University of Virginia . He has authored and co-authored several books and academic papers on the subject of climate change . Scientists often refer to this period as the `` Anthropocene '' and define it as the era in which humans first began to alter the earth 's climate and ecosystems . Ruddiman contends that human induced climate change began as a result of the advent of agriculture thousands of years ago and resulted in warmer temperatures that could have possibly averted another ice age ; this is the early anthropocene hypothesis .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Plows,_Plagues_and_Petroleum", "rank": 50, "score": 108734 }, { "content": "Title: Troposphere Content: The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth 's atmosphere , and is also where nearly all weather takes place . It contains approximately 75 % of the atmosphere 's mass and 99 % of the total mass of water vapor and aerosols . The average depths of the troposphere are 20 km in the tropics , 17 km in the mid latitudes , and 7 km in the polar regions in winter . The lowest part of the troposphere , where friction with the Earth 's surface influences air flow , is the planetary boundary layer . This layer is typically a few hundred meters to 2 km deep depending on the landform and time of day . Atop the troposphere is the tropopause , which is the border between the troposphere and stratosphere . The tropopause is an inversion layer , where the air temperature ceases to decrease with height and remains constant through its thickness . The word troposphere derives from the for `` turn , turn toward , trope '' and '' - sphere '' ( as in , the Earth ) , reflecting the fact that rotational turbulent mixing plays an important role in the troposphere 's structure and behaviour . Most of the phenomena associated with day-to-day weather occur in the troposphere .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Troposphere", "rank": 51, "score": 108279 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change denial Content: Climate change denial , or global warming denial , is part of the global warming controversy . It involves denial , dismissal , unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which strongly depart from the scientific opinion on climate change , including the extent to which it is caused by humans , its impacts on nature and human society , or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions . Some deniers do endorse the term , but others often prefer the term climate change skepticism , although this is a misnomer for those who deny anthropogenic global warming . In effect , the two terms form a continuous , overlapping range of views , and generally have the same characteristics : both reject , to a greater or lesser extent , mainstream scientific opinion on climate change . Climate change denial can also be implicit , when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action . Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism . Campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science has been described as a `` denial machine '' of industrial , political and ideological interests , supported by conservative media and skeptical bloggers in manufacturing uncertainty about global warming . In the public debate , phrases such as climate skepticism have frequently been used with the same meaning as climate denialism . The labels are contested : those actively challenging climate science commonly describe themselves as `` skeptics '' , but many do not comply with common standards of scientific skepticism and , regardless of evidence , persistently deny the validity of human caused global warming . Although scientific opinion on climate change is that human activity is extremely likely to be the primary driver of climate change , the politics of global warming have been affected by climate change denial , hindering efforts to prevent climate change and adapt to the warming climate . Those promoting denial commonly use rhetorical tactics to give the appearance of a scientific controversy where there is none . Of the world 's countries , the climate change denial industry is most powerful in the United States . Since January 2015 , the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works has been chaired by oil lobbyist and climate change denier Jim Inhofe . Inhofe is notorious for having called climate change `` the greatest hoax ever perpetrated against the American people '' and for having claimed to have debunked the alleged hoax in February 2015 when he brought a snowball with him in the Senate chamber and tossed it across the floor . Organised campaigning to undermine public trust in climate science is associated with conservative economic policies and backed by industrial interests opposed to the regulation of emissions . Climate change denial has been associated with the fossil fuels lobby , the Koch brothers , industry advocates and libertarian think tanks , often in the United States . More than 90 % of papers sceptical on climate change originate from right-wing think tanks . The total annual income of these climate change counter-movement-organizations is roughly $ 900 million . Between 2002 and 2010 , nearly $ 120 million ( # 77 million ) was anonymously donated via the Donors Trust and Donors Capital Fund to more than 100 organisations seeking to undermine the public perception of the science on climate change . In 2013 the Center for Media and Democracy reported that the State Policy Network ( SPN ) , an umbrella group of 64 U.S. think tanks , had been lobbying on behalf of major corporations and conservative donors to oppose climate change regulation . Since the late 1970s , oil companies have published research broadly in line with the standard views on global warming . Despite this , oil companies organized a climate change denial campaign to disseminate public disinformation for several decades , a strategy that has been compared to the organized denial of the hazards of tobacco smoking by tobacco companies .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Climate_change_denial", "rank": 52, "score": 108264 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Carbon_rift", "rank": 53, "score": 107955 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 54, "score": 107926 }, { "content": "Title: Terraforming of Venus Content: The terraforming of Venus is the hypothetical process of engineering the global environment of the planet Venus in such a way as to make it suitable for human habitation . Terraforming Venus was first seriously proposed by the astronomer Carl Sagan in 1961 , although fictional treatments , such as The Big Rain by Poul Anderson , preceded it . Adjustments to the existing environment of Venus to support human life would require at least three major changes to the planet . These three changes are closely interrelated , because Venus 's extreme temperature is due to the greenhouse effect caused by its dense carbon-dioxide atmosphere : Reducing Venus 's surface temperature of 462 C. Eliminating most of the planet 's dense 9.2 MPa carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide atmosphere , via removal or conversion to some other form . Addition of breathable oxygen to the atmosphere .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Terraforming_of_Venus", "rank": 55, "score": 107764 }, { "content": "Title: Sergei Petrovskii Content: Sergei Petrovskii is a Russian-born British mathematician who researches the modeling of natural phenomena . He is a professor of Applied Mathematics at the University of Leicester . In 2015 , he led a study that found that if the ocean temperature were to increase by about six degrees Celsius due to global warming , phytoplankton might stop producing oxygen . This would lead to shortages of oxygen in the atmosphere , which could be very harmful to humans . Petrovskii said , `` About two thirds of the planet 's total atmospheric oxygen is produced by ocean phytoplankton - and therefore cessation would result in the depletion of atmospheric oxygen on a global scale . This would likely result in the mass mortality of animals and humans . '' Petrovskii 's study appeared in the Bulletin of Mathematical Biology . Another stream of his research is modelling of biological invasions where he discovered a new phenomenon called `` patchy invasion '' . Contrary to a commonly used paradigm of alien species spread by a travelling population front , in the patchy invasion the invasive species spreads into new areas by creating individual patches not preceded by a front propagation . Patchy invasion has been observed in several invasions of insects and birds and has been studied theoretically using a variety of growth-dispersal models .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Sergei_Petrovskii", "rank": 56, "score": 107578 }, { "content": "Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change", "rank": 57, "score": 107485 }, { "content": "Title: Deglaciation Content: Deglaciation describes the transition from full glacial conditions during ice ages , to warm interglacials , characterized by global warming and sea level rise due to change in continental ice volume ( IPCC AR5 ) . Thus , it refers to the retreat of a glacier , an ice sheet or frozen surface layer , and the resulting exposure of the Earth 's surface . The decline of the cryosphere due to ablation can occur on any scale from global to localized to a particular glacier . After the Last Glacial Maximum ( ca. 21k years ago ) , the last deglaciation begun , which lasted until the early Holocene . The previous deglaciation took place between approximately 22ka until 11.5 ka . This occurred when there was an annual mean atmospheric temperature on the earth that increased by roughly 5 ° C , which was also accompanied by regional high-latitude warming that exceeded 10 ° C . This was also followed by noteworthy deep-sea and tropical-se warming , between about 1-2 ° C ( deep-sea ) and 2-4 ° C ( tropical sea ) . Not only did this warming occur , but the global hydrological budget also experienced noticeable changes and regional precipitation patters changed . As a result of all of this , the worlds main ice sheets , including the ones located in Eurasia , North America and parts of the Antarctic Ice Sheets melted . As a consequence , sea levels rose roughly 120 metres ) . These processes did not occur steadily , and they also did not occur at the same time .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Deglaciation", "rank": 58, "score": 107213 }, { "content": "Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Abrupt_climate_change", "rank": 59, "score": 107157 }, { "content": "Title: The Cloud Mystery Content: The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish . This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "The_Cloud_Mystery", "rank": 60, "score": 107140 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 61, "score": 106777 }, { "content": "Title: James Croll Content: James Croll , FRS , ( 2 January 1821 -- 15 December 1890 ) was a 19th-century Scottish scientist who developed a theory of climate change based on changes in the Earth 's orbit .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "James_Croll", "rank": 62, "score": 106660 }, { "content": "Title: Walker circulation Content: The Walker circulation , also known as the Walker cell , is a conceptual model of the air flow in the tropics in the lower atmosphere ( troposphere ) . According to this model , parcels of air follow a closed circulation in the zonal and vertical directions . This circulation , which is roughly consistent with observations , is caused by differences in heat distribution between ocean and land . It was discovered by Gilbert Walker . In addition to motions in the zonal and vertical direction the tropical atmosphere also has considerable motion in the meridional direction as part of , for example , the Hadley Circulation . The term `` Walker circulation '' was coined in 1969 by the Norwegian-American meteorologist Jacob Bjerknes .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Walker_circulation", "rank": 63, "score": 106382 }, { "content": "Title: Brewer-Dobson circulation Content: Brewer-Dobson circulation is a model of atmospheric circulation , proposed by Alan Brewer in 1949 and Gordon Dobson in 1956 , which attempts to explain why tropical air has less ozone than polar air , even though the tropical stratosphere is where most atmospheric ozone is produced . It is a simple circulation model that posits the existence of a slow current in the winter hemisphere which redistributes air from the tropics to the extratropics . The Brewer-Dobson circulation is driven by atmospheric waves and may be speeding up due to climate change .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Brewer-Dobson_circulation", "rank": 64, "score": 105904 }, { "content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)", "rank": 65, "score": 105652 }, { "content": "Title: CLAW hypothesis Content: The CLAW hypothesis proposes a negative feedback loop that operates between ocean ecosystems and the Earth 's climate . The hypothesis specifically proposes that particular phytoplankton that produce dimethyl sulfide are responsive to variations in climate forcing , and that these responses act to stabilise the temperature of the Earth 's atmosphere . The CLAW hypothesis was originally proposed by Robert Jay Charlson , James Lovelock , Meinrat Andreae and Stephen G. Warren , and takes its acronym from the first letter of their surnames .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "CLAW_hypothesis", "rank": 66, "score": 105123 }, { "content": "Title: Global Day of Action Content: Global Day of Action is a direct action protest format . Environmentalism initiatives begun to use it in 2005 in connection with Global Climate Campaign . They aimed to focus world attention on the anthropogenic effect that humans are having on global warming . Its main objective is to spearhead demands that elected representatives of their respective governments honor commitments set forth by the Kyoto Protocol , by conducting in unison peaceful demonstrations around the world . The demonstration , or rallies , are intended to coincide with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , a meeting of world leaders from 189 nations , that meet annually to discuss climate change .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Global_Day_of_Action", "rank": 67, "score": 104856 }, { "content": "Title: Global change Content: Global change refers to planetary-scale changes in the Earth system . The system consists of the land , oceans , atmosphere , polar regions , life , the planet 's natural cycles and deep Earth processes . These constituent parts influence one another . The Earth system now includes human society , so global change also refers to large-scale changes in society . More completely , the term `` global change '' encompasses : population , climate , the economy , resource use , energy development , transport , communication , land use and land cover , urbanization , globalization , atmospheric circulation , ocean circulation , the carbon cycle , the nitrogen cycle , the water cycle and other cycles , sea ice loss , sea-level rise , food webs , biological diversity , pollution , health , over fishing , and more .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Global_change", "rank": 68, "score": 104778 }, { "content": "Title: Anthroposphere Content: The anthroposphere ( sometimes also referred as technosphere ) is that part of the environment that is made or modified by humans for use in human activities and human habitats . It is one of the Earth 's spheres . As human technology becomes more evolved , such as the greater ability of technology to cause deforestation , the impact of human activities on the environment potentially increases .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Anthroposphere", "rank": 69, "score": 104485 }, { "content": "Title: How Global Warming Works Content: How Global Warming Works is a website developed by Michael Ranney , a professor of cognitive psychology at the University of California , Berkeley in Berkeley , California , United States . The stated goal of the website is to educate the public on the mechanisms of global warming , which was motivated by research Ranney and colleagues conducted on attitudes towards and understanding of global warming .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "How_Global_Warming_Works", "rank": 70, "score": 104458 }, { "content": "Title: Global climate regime Content: A global climate regime is a global framework that aims at regulating the interaction of human activity with the global climate system , to mitigate global climate change .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Global_climate_regime", "rank": 71, "score": 104374 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Volcanic_winter", "rank": 72, "score": 104207 }, { "content": "Title: Earth immune system Content: The Earth immune system is a controversial proposal , claimed to be a consequence of the Gaia hypothesis . The Gaia hypothesis holds that the entire earth may be considered a single organism ( Gaia ) . As a self-maintaining organism , Earth would have an immune system of some sort in order to maintain its health . Some proponents of this speculative concept , for example , hold that humankind can be considered an `` infection '' of Gaia , and that AIDS is an attempt by this immune system to reject the infection . `` Cancer '' might be a more accurate term , as humans evolved within Gaia , and are not external invaders . An opposite view is that humankind is Gaia 's immune system itself , perhaps evolved to avert future catastrophes such as the Permian and Cretaceous mass extinctions of species . James Lovelock 's book `` The Revenge of Gaia '' suggests that Gaia has many mechanisms for eliminating civilizations that do harm through greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , but suggests that with increasing heat being received from the sun , Gaia 's ability to `` bounce back '' as it did after the Permian and Cretaceous extinction events , may be increasingly compromised . Paul Hawken suggests in Blessed Unrest that when Earth is considered a living system then Earth 's immune system is made up of the million or so organizations all around the globe that are working for social justice , the environment , and indigenous people 's rights . Many of these groups are linked through the Internet and other means so there is a vast network of interconnected people and groups working to protect the planet , its people , and all beings . For example , one organization that serves to link groups working on sustainable energy is Inforse in Denmark .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Earth_immune_system", "rank": 73, "score": 104094 }, { "content": "Title: Low-pressure area Content: A low-pressure area , low , or depression is a region where the topographic map is atmospheric pressure is lower than that of surrounding locations . Low-pressure systems form under areas of wind divergence that occur in the upper levels of the troposphere . The formation process of a low-pressure area is known as cyclogenesis . Within the field of meteorology , atmospheric divergence aloft occurs in two areas . The first area is on the east side of upper troughs , which form half of a Rossby wave within the Westerlies ( a trough with large wavelength that extends through the troposphere ) . A second area of wind divergence aloft occurs ahead of embedded shortwave troughs , which are of smaller wavelength . Diverging winds aloft ahead of these troughs cause atmospheric lift within the troposphere below , which lowers surface pressures as upward motion partially counteracts the force of gravity . Thermal lows form due to localized heating caused by greater sunshine over deserts and other land masses . Since localized areas of warm air are less dense than their surroundings , this warmer air rises , which lowers atmospheric pressure near that portion of the Earth 's surface . Large-scale thermal lows over continents help drive monsoon circulations . Low-pressure areas can also form due to organized thunderstorm activity over warm water . When this occurs over the tropics in concert with the Intertropical Convergence Zone , it is known as a monsoon trough . Monsoon troughs reach their northerly extent in August and their southerly extent in February . When a convective low acquires a well-hot circulation in the tropics it is termed a tropical cyclone . Tropical cyclones can form during any month of the year globally , but can occur in either the northern or southern hemisphere during November . Atmospheric lift will also generally produce cloud cover through adiabatic cooling once the air becomes saturated as it rises , although the low-pressure area typically brings cloudy skies , which act to minimize diurnal temperature extremes . Since clouds reflect sunlight , incoming shortwave solar radiation decreases , which causes lower temperatures during the day . At night the absorptive effect of clouds on outgoing longwave radiation , such as heat energy from the surface , allows for warmer diurnal low temperatures in all seasons . The stronger the area of low pressure , the stronger the winds experienced in its vicinity . Globally , low-pressure systems are most frequently located over the Tibetan Plateau and in the lee of the Rocky mountains . In Europe ( particularly in the United Kingdom ) , recurring low-pressure weather systems are typically known as `` depressions '' .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Low-pressure_area", "rank": 74, "score": 103531 }, { "content": "Title: William Kininmonth (meteorologist) Content: William Robert Kininmonth is an Australian retired meteorologist noted for his views as an opponent of anthropogenic global warming theory and for his frequent writings on the topic of climate change .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "William_Kininmonth_(meteorologist)", "rank": 75, "score": 103516 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in popular culture Content: The issue of climate change and global warming , their possible effects , and related human-environment interaction have entered popular culture since the late 20th century . Science historian Naomi Oreskes has noted , `` There 's a huge disconnect between what professional scientists have studied and learned in the last 30 years , and what is out there in the popular culture . '' An academic study contrasts the relatively rapid acceptance of ozone depletion as reflected in popular culture with the much slower acceptance of the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Climate_change_in_popular_culture", "rank": 76, "score": 103433 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle", "rank": 77, "score": 102914 }, { "content": "Title: El Niño–Southern Oscillation Content: El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) is an irregularly periodical variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean , affecting much of the tropics and subtropics . The warming phase is known as El Niño and the cooling phase as La Niña . Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric component , coupled with the sea temperature change : El Niño is accompanied with high , and La Niña with low air surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific . The two periods last several months each ( typically occur every few years ) and their effects vary in intensity . The two phases relate to the Walker circulation , discovered by Gilbert Walker during the early twentieth century . The Walker circulation is caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the eastern Pacific Ocean , and a low pressure system over Indonesia . When the Walker circulation weakens or reverses , an El Niño results , causing the ocean surface to be warmer than average , as upwelling of cold water occurs less or not at all . An especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña , resulting in cooler ocean temperatures due to increased upwelling . Mechanisms that cause the oscillation remain under study . The extremes of this climate pattern 's oscillations cause extreme weather ( such as floods and droughts ) in many regions of the world . Developing countries dependent upon agriculture and fishing , particularly those bordering the Pacific Ocean , are the most affected .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "El_Niño–Southern_Oscillation", "rank": 78, "score": 102907 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal low Content: Thermal lows , or heat lows , are non-frontal low-pressure areas that occur over the continents in the subtropics during the warm season , as the result of intense heating when compared to their surrounding environments . Thermal lows occur near the Sonoran Desert , on the Mexican plateau , in California 's Great Central Valley , the Sahara , over north-west Argentina in South America , over the Kimberley region of north-west Australia , the Iberian peninsula , and the Tibetan plateau . Over land , intense , rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum . The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air . This , combined with the rising of the hot air , results in the formation of a low pressure area . Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude . Over the water , instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body . Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations , and can extend to 3100 m in height . Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America , northern Africa , and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer monsoon conditions . Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of sea breezes . Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Thermal_low", "rank": 79, "score": 102727 }, { "content": "Title: Ozone depletion and climate change Content: Ozone depletion and climate change , or Ozone hole and global warming in more popular terms , are environmental challenges whose connections have been explored and which have been compared and contrasted , for example in terms of global regulation , in various studies and books . There is widespread scientific interest in better regulation of climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution , as in general the human relationship with the biosphere is deemed of major historiographical and political significance . Already by 1994 the legal debates about respective regulation regimes on climate change , ozone depletion and air pollution were being dubbed `` monumental '' and a combined synopsis provided . There are some parallels between atmospheric chemistry and anthropogenic emissions in the discussions which have taken place and the regulatory attempts which have been made . Most important is that the gases causing both problems have long lifetimes after emission to the atmosphere , thus causing problems which are difficult to reverse . However , the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol that amended it are seen as success stories , while the Kyoto Protocol on anthropogenic climate change has largely failed . Currently efforts are being undertaken to assess the reasons and to use synergies , for example with regard to data reporting and policy design and further exchanging of information . While the general public tends to see global warming as a subset of ozone depletion , in fact ozone and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons ( CFCs ) and other halocarbons , which are held responsible for ozone depletion , are important greenhouse gasses . Furthermore , natural levels of ozone in both the stratosphere and troposphere have a warming effect .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Ozone_depletion_and_climate_change", "rank": 80, "score": 102509 }, { "content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Climate_inertia", "rank": 81, "score": 102483 }, { "content": "Title: Stratosphere Content: The stratosphere ( -LSB- ˈstrætəˌsfɪər , _ - toʊ - -RSB- ) is the second major layer of Earth 's atmosphere , just above the troposphere , and below the mesosphere . About 20 % of the atmosphere 's mass is contained in the stratosphere . The stratosphere is stratified in temperature , with warmer layers higher and cooler layers closer to the Earth . The increase of temperature with altitude is a result of the absorption of the Sun 's ultraviolet radiation by the ozone . This is in contrast to the troposphere , near the Earth 's surface , where temperatures decreases with altitude . The border between the troposphere and stratosphere , the tropopause , marks where this temperature inversion begins . Near the equator , the stratosphere starts at 18 km ; at mid latitudes , it starts at 10 - and ends at 50 km ; at the poles , it starts at about 8 km . Temperatures vary within the stratosphere with the seasons , in particular with the polar night ( winter ) . The greatest variation of temperature takes place over the poles in the lower stratosphere ; those variations are largely steady at lower latitudes and higher altitudes .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Stratosphere", "rank": 82, "score": 102451 }, { "content": "Title: Stockholm Memorandum Content: The Stockholm Memorandum is a document signed in May 2011 by many Nobel Laureates based on the verdict from the trial of humanity , which opened the 3rd Nobel Laureate Symposium . The jury of Nobel laureates concluded that Earth has entered a new geological age , which it calls the Anthropocene , in which humans are the most significant driver of global climate change , and in which human collective actions could have abrupt and irreversible consequences for human communities and ecological systems . The memorandum was signed by 20 winner of the Nobel Prize winners or the Sveriges Riksbank Prize for Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel ( six in Chemistry , five in Physics , three in Physiology or Medicine , one in Literature , one Peace Prize winner and four in Economic Sciences ) was submitted to the United Nations High Level Panel on global sustainability . `` We are the first generation with the insight of the new global risks facing humanity , that people and societies are the biggest drivers of global change . The basic analysis is not in question : we can not continue on our current path and need to take action quickly . Science can guide us in identifying the pathway to global sustainability , provided that it also engages in an open dialogue with society , '' says Professor Mario Molina , who acted as judge and received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1995 .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Stockholm_Memorandum", "rank": 83, "score": 102286 }, { "content": "Title: Cryosphere Content: The cryosphere ( from the Greek κρύος kryos , `` cold '' , `` frost '' or `` ice '' and σφαῖρα sphaira , `` globe , ball '' ) is those portions of Earth 's surface where water is in solid form , including sea ice , lake ice , river ice , snow cover , glaciers , ice caps , ice sheets , and frozen ground ( which includes permafrost ) . Thus , there is a wide overlap with the hydrosphere . The cryosphere is an integral part of the global climate system with important linkages and feedbacks generated through its influence on surface energy and moisture fluxes , clouds , precipitation , hydrology , atmospheric and oceanic circulation . Through these feedback processes , the cryosphere plays a significant role in the global climate and in climate model response to global changes . The term deglaciation describes the retreat of cryospheric features . Cryology is the study of cryospheres .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Cryosphere", "rank": 84, "score": 102132 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation Content: Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the magnitude or rate of long-term climate change . Climate change mitigation generally involves reductions in human ( anthropogenic ) emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . Mitigation may also be achieved by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks , e.g. , through reforestation . Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the risks associated with human-induced global warming . According to the IPCC 's 2014 assessment report , `` Mitigation is a public good ; climate change is a case of the ` tragedy of the commons . Effective climate change mitigation will not be achieved if each agent ( individual , institution or country ) acts independently in its own selfish interest ( see international cooperation and emissions trading ) , suggesting the need for collective action . Some adaptation actions , on the other hand , have characteristics of a private good as benefits of actions may accrue more directly to the individuals , regions , or countries that undertake them , at least in the short term . Nevertheless , financing such adaptive activities remains an issue , particularly for poor individuals and countries . '' Examples of mitigation include phasing out fossil fuels by switching to low-carbon energy sources , such as renewable and nuclear energy , and expanding forests and other `` sinks '' to remove greater amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere . Energy efficiency may also play a role , for example , through improving the insulation of buildings . Another approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . Scientific analysis can provide information on the impacts of climate change , but deciding which impacts are dangerous requires value judgments . In 2010 , Parties to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to below 2.0 ° C ( 3.6 ° F ) relative to the pre-industrial level . With the Paris Agreement of 2015 this was confirmed , but was revised with a new target laying down `` parties will do the best '' to achieve warming below 1.5 ° C . The current trajectory of global greenhouse gas emissions does not appear to be consistent with limiting global warming to below 1.5 or 2 ° C . Other mitigation policies have been proposed , some of which are more stringent or modest than the 2 ° C limit .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation", "rank": 85, "score": 102009 }, { "content": "Title: Wind-induced surface heat exchange Content: The wind-induced surface heat exchange ( WISHE ) is a positive feedback mechanism between the ocean and atmosphere in which a stronger ocean-to-atmosphere heat flux results in a stronger atmospheric circulation , which results in a strong heat flux . It has been hypothesized that this is the mechanism by which low pressure areas in the tropics develop into tropical cyclones .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Wind-induced_surface_heat_exchange", "rank": 86, "score": 101995 }, { "content": "Title: Migration and global environmental change (Report) Content: Migration and Global Environmental Change was a report about the influence of climate change on patterns of human migration and displacement published in 2011 . The report was produced by the Foresight unit at the UK 's Government Office of Science . It became known colloquially as ` The Foresight Report ' among people working in the field of climate-linked migration . The report was led by Professor Richard Black of Sussex University . The report was one of the first assessments of all the existing evidence and research on the connections between climate change and migration . The report authors also commissioned a number of new peer reviewed articles on migration and climate change , significant adding to the evidence base of the topic . The report attracted significant media attention on its release . The report was critical of previous predictions of the number of people who could be forced to move by climate change . It argued that making such numerical predictions was impossible because attributing climate change as the sole cause of someone 's migration was difficult . The report popularized the idea of trapped populations . The report argued that as well as being forced to move by climate change impacts , people might also be forced to stay where they are . The report drew on evidence showing that as people become poorer as a result of a degraded environment , they become less able to migrate . The idea of trapped populations had been present in the academic literature for sometime , however the media attention results from the release of the report brought the idea to a wider public for the first time . The report also popularized the idea of migration as climate change adaptation . Again , the authors drew on existing academic literature on the topic . They made the case that migration should be seen as a legitimate and empowering way for some people to adapt to the impacts of climate change .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Migration_and_global_environmental_change_(Report)", "rank": 87, "score": 101933 }, { "content": "Title: European Academy of Environmental Affairs Content: The European Academy for Environmental Affairs ( also known as European Academy of Environmental Affairs ) is a private organization which cosponsored the 1995 conference that produced the Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change , a SEPP-initiated document in which some scientists argue against global warming theories . Founder and president of the Academy was the late Prof. Dr. hc . Helmut Metzner ( 1925-1999 ) , who was professor for chemical plant physiology . Metzner was accused of having connections to the Studienzentrum Weikersheim , a right-wing think-tank in Baden-Württemberg . In 1993 the Academy also held a conference in Mannheim under the title `` Globale Erwärmung - Tatsache oder Behauptung ? '' ( Global warming -- fact or fiction ? ) . The Academy was recognized in a consultative function by the Council of Europe , but the status was withdrawn because of the Academy 's failure to comply with its obligations . The Academy has no active web pages , and it may be defunct . A list of textbooks on ecology issued by the Academy is available online .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "European_Academy_of_Environmental_Affairs", "rank": 88, "score": 101875 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 89, "score": 101821 }, { "content": "Title: Bjørn Lomborg Content: Bjørn Lomborg ( -LSB- bjɶɐ̯n ˈlʌmbɒˀw -RSB- ; born 6 January 1965 ) is a Danish author and adjunct professor at the Copenhagen Business School as well as President of the Copenhagen Consensus Center . He is former director of the Danish government 's Environmental Assessment Institute ( EAI ) in Copenhagen . He became internationally known for his best-selling and controversial book , The Skeptical Environmentalist ( 2001 ) , in which he argues that many of the costly measures and actions adopted by scientists and policy makers to meet the challenges of global warming will ultimately have minimal impact on the world 's rising temperature . In 2002 , Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus , a project-based conference where prominent economists sought to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methods based on the theory of welfare economics . In 2009 , Business Insider cited Lomborg as one of `` The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics '' . While Lomborg campaigned against the Kyoto Protocol and other measures to cut carbon emissions in the short-term , he argued for adaptation to short-term temperature rises , and for spending money on research and development for longer-term environmental solutions . His issue is not with the reality of climate change , but rather with the economic and political approaches being taken ( or not taken ) to meet the challenges of that climate change . He is a strong advocate for focusing attention and resources on what he perceives as far more pressing world problems , such as AIDS , malaria and malnutrition . In his critique of the 2012 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development , Lomborg stated : `` Global warming is by no means our main environmental threat . '' In 2011 and 2012 , Lomborg was named a Top 100 Global Thinker by Foreign Policy `` for looking more right than ever on the politics of climate change '' .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Bjørn_Lomborg", "rank": 90, "score": 101762 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on human health Content: The effects of global warming include effects on human health . The observed and projected increased frequency and severity of climate related impacts will further exacerbate the effects on human health . This article describes some of those effects on individuals and populations .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_human_health", "rank": 91, "score": 101728 }, { "content": "Title: Vladimir Paar Content: Vladimir Paar ( born 1942 ) is a Croatian physicist and university professor . Paar was born in Zagreb . He graduated from the Faculty of Science , University of Zagreb , where he is currently a professor . He is a full member of the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts since 1992 . His scientific interests include theoretical nuclear physics , chaos theory in physics and technology , computer modeling in clinical medicine , energetics , and history of physics . To the general public he is known as a popularizer of science , being the author of two books , hundreds of newspaper articles and several television series in the field of popular science . Paar is a global warming skeptic and is an advocate of a new ice age hypothesis . He argues that the rise of carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere is the effect - rather than the cause - of global climate change , and that the true cause lies in the change of Earth 's orbit due to gravitational pull of Jupiter and other planets of the Solar System . Paar believes that the evidence against anthropogenic global warming is being deliberately suppressed .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Vladimir_Paar", "rank": 92, "score": 101691 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 93, "score": 101510 }, { "content": "Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Hypercane", "rank": 94, "score": 101454 }, { "content": "Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Clathrate_gun_hypothesis", "rank": 95, "score": 101410 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 96, "score": 100985 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming: What You Need to Know Content: Global Warming What You Need to Know is a 2006 global warming ( climate change ) documentary , directed by Nicolas Brown , starring Tom Brokaw , James Hansen , Michael Oppenheimer , and Mark Serreze . The film focuses on impacts from climate change , and Tom Brokaw interviews scientists . The documentary premiered on Discovery Channel , 16 July 2006 .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Global_Warming:_What_You_Need_to_Know", "rank": 97, "score": 100820 }, { "content": "Title: World Wide Views on Global Warming Content: World Wide Views on Global Warming : A global project initiated by The Danish Board of Technology on the occasion of the United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP15 ) held in Copenhagen December 2009 . World Wide Views on Global Warming ( or just WWViews ) was an international citizens involvement project based on methods developed by The Danish Board of Technology for the purpose of involving citizens in the political decision-making processes .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "World_Wide_Views_on_Global_Warming", "rank": 98, "score": 100755 }, { "content": "Title: Climate Dynamics Content: Climate Dynamics is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Springer Science + Business Media . It covers all aspects of the dynamics of global climate systems , including analytical and numerical modeling research on the structure and behavior of the atmosphere , oceans , cryosphere , biomass , and land surface as interacting components of the dynamics of global climate . The journal also publishes reviews and papers emphasizing an integrated view of the physical and biogeochemical processes governing climate and climate change .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "Climate_Dynamics", "rank": 99, "score": 100720 }, { "content": "Title: An Appeal to Reason Content: An Appeal to Reason : A Cool Look at Global Warming is a 2008 book by Nigel Lawson . In it , Lawson argues that global warming is happening , but that the science is far from settled . He opposes the scientific consensus as summarized by the IPCC . He also argues that warming will bring both benefits and negative consequences , and that the impact of these changes will be relatively moderate rather than apocalyptic . He criticizes politicians and scientists who predict catastrophe unless urgent action is taken , and he calls for gradual adaptation instead . The book has been criticized by some climatologists , including IPCC authors Jean Palutikof and Robert Watson .", "qid": "3105", "docid": "An_Appeal_to_Reason", "rank": 100, "score": 100563 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Fugitive_emissions", "rank": 1, "score": 94305 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_leakage", "rank": 2, "score": 93573 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Low-carbon_emission", "rank": 3, "score": 93528 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 4, "score": 89565 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_shifting", "rank": 5, "score": 86723 }, { "content": "Title: Kyogami Content: Kyogami is a board game based around the issue of climate change and the Kyoto Protocol , which considered reducing greenhouse gas emissions without hindering economic growth . The game was designed to raise awareness of this and most of the game components are made out of recyclable materials . The basic aim of the game is for the players to expand their businesses without increasing emissions , by cleaning up their plants by trading carbon dioxide quotas and using ` flexible mechanisms ' as outlined in the protocol , the winner being the first player to own four factories without chimneys .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Kyogami", "rank": 6, "score": 85402 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007", "rank": 7, "score": 84525 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_governance_in_England", "rank": 8, "score": 84450 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States", "rank": 9, "score": 84359 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 10, "score": 83349 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Disclosure Project Content: The CDP ( formerly the `` Carbon Disclosure Project '' ) is an organisation based in the United Kingdom which works with shareholders and corporations to disclose the greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions of major corporations . As disclosure of emission related data as CDP 's primary activity , the quality of the data reported to CDP is key . In 2014 , nearly 2000 businesses reported climate change data to CDP . The value of CDP 's reports for investors and NGOs is contested . Furthermore , the quality of the data on which CDP 's reports are premised is questionable .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_Disclosure_Project", "rank": 11, "score": 83233 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 12, "score": 83178 }, { "content": "Title: Chinese national carbon trading scheme Content: The Chinese national carbon trading scheme is a cap and trade system for carbon dioxide emissions set to be implemented in July 2017 . This emission trading scheme ( ETS ) creates a carbon market where emitters can buy and sell emission credits . From this scheme , China can limit emissions , but allow economic freedom for emitters to reduce emissions or purchase emission allowances from other emitters . China is currently the largest emitter of greenhouse gases and many major Chinese cities have severe air pollution . With this plan , China will soon be the largest market in carbon trading . The scheme will limit emissions from six of China 's top carbon dioxide emitting industries , including coal-fired power plants . China was able to gain experience in drafting and implementation of an ETS plan from the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , where China was part of the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) . From this experience with carbon markets , and lengthy discussions with the next largest carbon market , the European Union ( EU ) , as well as analysis of small scale pilot markets in major Chinese cities and provinces , China 's national ETS will be the largest of its kind and will help China achieve its Intended Nationally Determined Contribution ( INDC ) from the Paris Agreement in 2016 .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme", "rank": 13, "score": 82953 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme Content: The Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme ( or CPRS ) was a cap-and-trade emissions trading scheme for anthropogenic greenhouse gases proposed by the Rudd government , as part of its climate change policy , which had been due to commence in Australia in 2010 . It marked a major change in the energy policy of Australia . The policy began to be formulated in April 2007 , when the federal Labor Party was in Opposition and the six Labor-controlled states commissioned an independent review on energy policy , the Garnaut Climate Change Review , which published a number of reports . After Labor won the 2007 federal election and formed government , it published a Green Paper on climate change for discussion and comment . The Federal Treasury then modelled some of the financial and economic impacts of the proposed CPRS scheme . The Rudd government published a final White Paper on 15 December 2008 , and announced that legislation was intended to take effect in July 2010 ; but the legislation for the CPRS ( aka ETS ) failed to gain the numbers in the Senate and was twice rejected creating a double dissolution election trigger . A bitter political debate within the Coalition Opposition saw Opposition leader Malcolm Turnbull lose the leadership to the anti-CPRS Tony Abbott . The Rudd government did not call an election and in April 2010 , Rudd deferred plans for the CPRS . After the 2010 federal election , the Gillard Government was able to get the Carbon Pricing Mechanism ( CPM ) passed into law as part of the Clean Energy Futures Package ( CEF ) in 2011 , and became effective on 1 July 2012 . However , after the 2013 federal election there was a change in government , and the Abbott Government repealed the CEF package on 17 July 2014 . Due to the great deal of policy uncertainty surrounding the scheme , organizations in Australia responded in a rather informal and tepid manner and largely withheld from making any large-scale investments in emissions reductions technology during the scheme 's operation .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_Pollution_Reduction_Scheme", "rank": 14, "score": 82860 }, { "content": "Title: Flue-gas stack Content: A flue-gas stack is a type of chimney , a vertical pipe , channel or similar structure through which combustion product gases called flue gases are exhausted to the outside air . Flue gases are produced when coal , oil , natural gas , wood or any other fuel is combusted in an industrial furnace , a power plant 's steam-generating boiler , or other large combustion device . Flue gas is usually composed of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor as well as nitrogen and excess oxygen remaining from the intake combustion air . It also contains a small percentage of pollutants such as particulate matter , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides . The flue gas stacks are often quite tall , up to 400 metres ( 1300 feet ) or more , so as to disperse the exhaust pollutants over a greater area and thereby reduce the concentration of the pollutants to the levels required by governmental environmental policy and environmental regulation . When the flue gases are exhausted from stoves , ovens , fireplaces , or other small sources within residential abodes , restaurants , hotels , or other public buildings and small commercial enterprises , their flue gas stacks are referred to as chimneys .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Flue-gas_stack", "rank": 15, "score": 82622 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions", "rank": 16, "score": 81500 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation", "rank": 17, "score": 81392 }, { "content": "Title: Chimney Content: A chimney is a structure that provides ventilation for hot flue gases or smoke from a boiler , stove , furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere . Chimneys are typically vertical , or as near as possible to vertical , to ensure that the gases flow smoothly , drawing air into the combustion in what is known as the stack , or chimney effect . The space inside a chimney is called a flue . Chimneys may be found in buildings , steam locomotives and ships . In the United States , the term smokestack ( colloquially , stack ) is also used when referring to locomotive chimneys or ship chimneys , and the term funnel can also be used . The height of a chimney influences its ability to transfer flue gases to the external environment via stack effect . Additionally , the dispersion of pollutants at higher altitudes can reduce their impact on the immediate surroundings . In the case of chemically aggressive output , a sufficiently tall chimney can allow for partial or complete self-neutralization of airborne chemicals before they reach ground level . The dispersion of pollutants over a greater area can reduce their concentrations and facilitate compliance with regulatory limits .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Chimney", "rank": 18, "score": 81023 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon emission label Content: A carbon emission label or carbon label describes the carbon dioxide emissions created as a by-product of manufacturing , transporting , or disposing of a consumer product . This information is important to consumers wishing to minimize their ecological footprint and contribution to global warming made by their purchases .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_emission_label", "rank": 19, "score": 80824 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon emissions reporting Content: Human activities continue to impact Earth 's climate through the emission of greenhouse gases . One of the proposed ways to combat this climate change is through reporting by businesses on the impact of their activities . Large power stations and manufacturing plants are often required to report their emissions to appropriate government entities , for example to the European Union as part of the Emissions Trading System or to the US EPA as part of the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Program . In the United Kingdom , Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( Defra ) has described climate change as the `` greatest environmental challenge facing the world today , '' and it is now a legal requirement for all quoted companies to report their annual greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_emissions_reporting", "rank": 20, "score": 79722 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon retirement Content: Carbon retirement involves retiring allowances from emission trading schemes as a method for offsetting carbon emissions . Under schemes such as the European Union Emission Trading Scheme , EU Emission Allowances ( EUAs ) represent the right to release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere , and are issued to all the largest polluters . Buying these allowances and permanently removing them forces industrial companies to reduce their emissions . Over time , the scheme will offer fewer allowances , making it much harder for industrial companies to sustain high emission levels without incurring financial penalties . Unlike traditional offsetting projects , retirement is straightforward and transparent . There are no complex projects , methodologies , brokers or intermediaries and the issue of additionality is overcome . Category : Carbon finance", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_retirement", "rank": 21, "score": 79337 }, { "content": "Title: Zero-emissions vehicle Content: A zero-emissions vehicle , or ZEV , is a vehicle that emits no tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power . Harmful pollutants to the health and the environment include particulates ( soot ) , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , ozone , lead , and various oxides of nitrogen . Although not considered emission pollutants by the original California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) or U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) definitions , the most recent common use of the term also includes volatile organic compounds , several air toxics ( most notably 1,3-Butadiene ) , and global pollutants such as carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases . Examples of zero emission vehicles include muscle-powered vehicles such as bicycles ; gravity racers ; battery electric vehicles , which typically shift emissions to the location where the electricity is generated e.g. coal or natural gas power plant ; and fuel cell vehicles powered by hydrogen , which typically shift emissions to the location where the hydrogen is generated . Hydrogen-powered vehicles are not strictly zero-emissions , as they do emit water or water vapor , although they are still usually included in this category . Emissions from the manufacturing process are ignored in this definition , although the emissions that are created during manufacture are of an order of magnitude that is comparable to the one of the emissions that are created during a vehicle 's operating lifetime .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Zero-emissions_vehicle", "rank": 22, "score": 79266 }, { "content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Global_Carbon_Project", "rank": 23, "score": 79171 }, { "content": "Title: 1966 New York City smog Content: The 1966 New York City smog was a historic air-pollution event in New York City that occurred from November 23 -- 26 , that year 's Thanksgiving holiday weekend . It was the third major smog in New York City , following events of similar scale in 1953 and 1963 . On November 23 , a large mass of stagnant air over the East Coast trapped pollutants in the city 's air . For three full days , New York City experienced severe smog with high levels of carbon monoxide , sulfur dioxide , smoke , and haze . Smaller pockets of air pollution pervaded the New York metropolitan area throughout other parts of New York , New Jersey , and Connecticut . On November 25 , regional leaders initiated a `` first-stage alert '' in the city , state , and neighboring states . During the alert , leaders of local and state governments asked residents and industry to take voluntary steps to minimize emissions . People with respiratory or heart conditions were advised by health officials to stay indoors . The city 's garbage incinerators were shut off , requiring massive hauling of garbage to landfills . A cold front dispersed the smog on November 26 and the alert ended . A medical research group conducted a study estimating that 10 percent of the city 's population suffered some negative health effects from the smog , such as stinging eyes , coughing , and respiratory distress . City health officials initially maintained that the smog had not caused any deaths . However , a statistical analysis indicated that 168 people likely died because of the smog , and another study found 366 people likely had their lives shortened . The smog served as a catalyst for greater national awareness of air pollution as a serious health problem and political issue . New York City updated its local laws on air pollution control , and a similar weather event passed in 1969 without major smog . Prompted by the smog , President Lyndon B. Johnson and members of Congress worked to pass federal legislation regulating air pollution in the United States , culminating in the 1967 Air Quality Act and the 1970 Clean Air Act . The 1966 smog is a milestone that has been used for comparison with other recent pollution events , including the health effects of pollution from the September 11 attacks and pollution in China .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "1966_New_York_City_smog", "rank": 24, "score": 79145 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon finance Content: Carbon finance is a new branch of Environmental finance . Carbon finance explores the financial implications of living in a carbon-constrained world , a world in which emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) carry a price . Financial risks and opportunities impact corporate balance sheets , and market-based instruments are capable of transferring environmental risk and achieving environmental objectives . Issues regarding climate change and GHG emissions must be addressed as part of strategic management decision-making . The general term is applied to investments in GHG emission reduction projects and the creation ( origination ) of financial instruments that are tradeable on the carbon market .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_finance", "rank": 25, "score": 79055 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 26, "score": 78907 }, { "content": "Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Kaya_identity", "rank": 27, "score": 78725 }, { "content": "Title: Emission intensity Content: An emission intensity is the average emission rate of a given pollutant from a given source relative to the intensity of a specific activity ; for example grams of carbon dioxide released per megajoule of energy produced , or the ratio of greenhouse gas emissions produced to gross domestic product ( GDP ) . Emission intensities are used to derive estimates of air pollutant or greenhouse gas emissions based on the amount of fuel combusted , the number of animals in animal husbandry , on industrial production levels , distances traveled or similar activity data . Emission intensities may also be used to compare the environmental impact of different fuels or activities . The related terms emission factor and carbon intensity are often used interchangeably , but `` factors '' exclude aggregate activities such as GDP , and `` carbon '' excludes other pollutants . One commonly used figure is carbon intensity per kilowatt-hour , or CIPK , which is used to compare different sources of electrical power .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Emission_intensity", "rank": 28, "score": 78713 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact", "rank": 29, "score": 78593 }, { "content": "Title: American Electric Power Co. v. Connecticut Content: American Electric Power Company v. Connecticut , , was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court , in an 8 -- 0 decision , held that corporations can not be sued for greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) under federal common law , primarily because the Clean Air Act ( CAA ) delegates the management of carbon dioxide and other GHG emissions to the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . Brought to court in July 2004 in the Southern District of New York , this was the first global warming case based on a public nuisance claim .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "American_Electric_Power_Co._v._Connecticut", "rank": 30, "score": 78458 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_tax", "rank": 31, "score": 78349 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_neutrality", "rank": 32, "score": 78293 }, { "content": "Title: Smog Content: Smog is a type of air pollutant . The word `` smog '' was coined in the early 20th century as a portmanteau of the words smoke and fog to refer to smoky fog , its opacity , and odour . The word was then intended to refer to what was sometimes known as pea soup fog , a familiar and serious problem in London from the 19th century to the mid 20th century . This kind of visible air pollution is composed of nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , ozone , smoke or particulates among others ( less visible pollutants include carbon monoxide , CFCs and radioactive sources ) . Human-made smog is derived from coal emissions , vehicular emissions , industrial emissions , forest and agricultural fires and photochemical reactions of these emissions . Modern smog , as found for example in Los Angeles , is a type of air pollution derived from vehicular emission from internal combustion engines and industrial fumes that react in the atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog . In certain other cities , such as Delhi , smog severity is often aggravated by stubble burning in neighboring agricultural areas . The atmospheric pollution levels of Los Angeles , Beijing , Delhi , Mexico City , Tehran and other cities are increased by inversion that traps pollution close to the ground . It is usually highly toxic to humans and can cause severe sickness , shortened life or death .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Smog", "rank": 33, "score": 78269 }, { "content": "Title: Embedded emissions Content: One way of attributing greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions is to measure the embedded emissions of goods that are being consumed ( also referred to as `` embodied emissions '' ) . This is different from the question of to what extent the policies of one country to reduce emissions affect emissions in other countries ( the `` spillover effect '' and `` carbon leakage '' of an emissions reduction policy ) . The UNFCCC measures emissions according to production , rather than consumption ( UK Parliament , 2010 ) . Consequently , embedded emissions on imported goods are attributed to the exporting , rather than the importing , country . The question of whether to measure emissions on production instead of consumption is partly an issue of equity , i.e. , who is responsible for emissions ( Toth et al. , 2001 , p. 670 ) . The 37 Kyoto Protocol Parties , listed in Annex B of the treaty , have agreed to legally binding emission reduction commitments . Under the UNFCCC accounting of emissions , their emission reduction commitments do not include emissions attributable to their imports . In a briefing note , Wang and Watson ( 2007 ) asked the question , `` who owns China 's carbon emissions ? '' In their study , they suggested that nearly a quarter of China 's CO2 emissions might be a result of its production of goods for export , primarily to the USA but also to Europe . Based on this , they suggested that international negotiations based on within country emissions ( i.e. , emissions measured by production ) may be '' -LSB- missing -RSB- the point . '' Recent research confirms that , in 2004 , 23 % of global emissions were embedded in goods traded internationally , mostly flowing from China and other developing countries to the U.S. , Europe and Japan . Research by the Carbon Trust in 2011 revealed that approximately 25 % of all emissions from human activities ` flow ' ( i.e. are imported or exported ) from one country to another . The flow of carbon was found to be roughly 50 % emissions associated with trade in commodities such as steel , cement , and chemicals , and 50 % in semi-finished/finished products such as motor vehicles , clothing or industrial machinery and equipment .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Embedded_emissions", "rank": 34, "score": 78034 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport", "rank": 35, "score": 77993 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_price", "rank": 36, "score": 77412 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_monitoring", "rank": 37, "score": 77332 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita", "rank": 38, "score": 77236 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 39, "score": 77068 }, { "content": "Title: UK Emissions Trading Scheme Content: The UK Emissions Trading Scheme was a voluntary emissions trading system created as a pilot prior to the mandatory European Union Emissions Trading Scheme which it now runs in parallel with . It ran from 2002 and it closed to new entrants in 2009 . Management of the scheme transferred to the Department of Energy and Climate Change in 2008 . At the time , the scheme was a novel economic approach , being the first multi-industry carbon trading system in the world . ( Denmark ran a pilot greenhouse gas trading scheme between 2001 and 2003 but this only involved eight electricity companies ) . It took note of the emerging international consensus on the benefits of carbon trading that were being proposed in the mandatory Kyoto Protocol , which had not been ratified at that time , and allowed government and corporate early movers and to gain experience in the auction process and the trading system that the later schemes have entailed . It ran in parallel to a tax on energy use , the Climate Change Levy , introduced in April 2001 , but companies could get a discount on the tax if they elected to make reductions through participation in the trading scheme . The voluntary trading scheme recruited 34 participants from UK industries and organisations who promised to make reductions in their carbon emissions , this has since expanded to 54 sectors of the UK economy . In return they received a share of a # 215 million `` incentive fund '' from the Department for Environment , Food and Rural Affairs ( DEFRA ) . Each agreed to hold sufficient allowances to cover its actual emissions for that year , and participate in a cap and trade system , with an annually reducing cap . Each participant could then decide to take action to manage its emissions to exactly meet its target , or reduce its actual emissions below its target ( thereby releasing allowances that it could sell on , or save for use in future years ) , or buy allowances from other participants to cover any excess . From March 2002 , DEFRA ran an auction of emission allowances to perform allocations to participants , after the start of the mandatory EU scheme .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "UK_Emissions_Trading_Scheme", "rank": 40, "score": 76874 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions in Kentucky Content: The report `` Kentucky Greenhouse Gas Inventory '' provides a detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions and sinks for Kentucky in 1990 . Emissions were estimated using methods from EPA 's 1995 guidance document State Workbook : Methodologies for Estimating Greenhouse Gas Emissions . In 1990 , Kentucky emitted 35.4 million metric tons of carbon equivalent ( MMTCE ) . In addition , Kentucky estimated emissions of 0.4 MMTCE from biofuels . Emissions from biofuels are not included . The principal greenhouse gases were carbon dioxide , comprising 87.9 million metric tons ( 24.0 MMTCE ) , and methane , with 1.1 million metric tons ( 6.4 MMTCE ) . Other emissions included 0.0016 million metric tons of perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) ( 4.8 MMTCE ) , and 0.003 million metric tons of nitrous oxide ( 0.2 MMTCE ) The major source of carbon dioxide emissions was fossil fuel combustion ( 96 % ) , the majority of which is utility coal . Minor emissions came from cement and lime production and forest/grassland conversion . Carbon dioxide sinks ( i.e. , an increase in forest carbon storage ) offset about 26 % of the total carbon dioxide emissions . Sources of methane emissions were coal mining ( 73 % ) , domesticated animals ( 12 % ) , landfills ( 10 % ) , manure management ( 3 % ) , and natural gas/oil extraction ( 2 % ) . Nitrous oxide emissions were from fertilizer use . Sources of perfluorocarbons were HCFC-22 production ( 91 % ) and aluminum production ( 9 % ) . Kentucky 's emissions in 1990 were 9.6 MTCE per capita , compared to 1990 U.S. emissions of 6.4 MTCE per capita . Kentucky 's per capita emissions are high due to the large volume of coal-related activities in the state .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_in_Kentucky", "rank": 41, "score": 76829 }, { "content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia", "rank": 42, "score": 76738 }, { "content": "Title: ETSWAP Content: ETSWAP ( Emissions Trading Scheme Workflow Automation Project ) is the web-based system operated by the UK Environment Agency for emitters to manage , verify and report their emissions of Carbon Dioxide ( and in the future , other Greenhouse Gases ) , as required by the EU ETS ( European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ) . The structure and process of the ETSWAP system was outlined in a Mutual Understanding Document produced by the governments of the UK , Germany , Ireland and The Netherlands , which also dubbed the system `` Workflow Automation Project '' ( WAP ) . The application is designed to meet the new requirements of the EU ETS resulting from the 2008/101/CE Directive . The system is designed to facilitate completion and submission of verified emissions and benchmarking reports , viewing of approved emissions/benchmarking plans for existing operators and submission of emissions plans for new operators . As at July 2011 , ETSWAP is configured for reporting of carbon emissions by the aviation sector and has been used by 600 aviation operators in the UK and 200 in the Republic of Ireland . The system is being expanded to cover emissions by fixed installations by 2012 .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "ETSWAP", "rank": 43, "score": 76703 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_footprint", "rank": 44, "score": 76598 }, { "content": "Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "California_Senate_Bill_32", "rank": 45, "score": 76459 }, { "content": "Title: Mary Walton Content: Mary Elizabeth Walton was a nineteenth-century American inventor who was awarded two patents for pollution-reducing devices . In 1879 , Walton created a method for reducing the environmental hazards of the smoke emitted from locomotive , industrial and residential chimneys . Her system deflected the emissions being produced by factory smokestacks into water tanks , where the pollutants were retained and later flushed `` into the sewer , or into other suitable channels for conducting them to a distant or any desired locality '' . Mary Walton also invented a system for reducing the noise produced by the elevated railway systems that were rapidly expanding in New York City , where she lived near the Sixth Avenue Line . Her system deadened the noise caused by trains running over the tracks by cradling the tracks in a wooden box lined with cotton and filled with sand . The rights to her invention , patented in 1881 , were sold to the Metropolitan Railroad for $ 10,000 and the system was soon adopted by other elevated railway companies .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Mary_Walton", "rank": 46, "score": 76177 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance Content: The Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance ( CNCA or `` Alliance '' ) is a collaboration of leading global cities working to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 80 % or more by 2050 or sooner ( `` 80x50 '' ) -- the most aggressive greenhouse gas reduction targets undertaken by any cities across the globe . The Alliance aims to address what it will take for leading international cities to achieve these deep emissions reductions and how they can work together to meet their respective goals more efficiently and effectively .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_Neutral_Cities_Alliance", "rank": 47, "score": 76113 }, { "content": "Title: Maximilian Auffhammer Content: Maximilian Auffhammer ( born 1973 ) is a UC-Berkeley based environmental economist who has produced some important forecasts of Chinese carbon dioxide releases . Auffhammer is an Associate Professor with a joint appointment in International Area Studies and Agricultural and Resource Economics . He received his Ph.D. in Economics from the University of California at San Diego . His research agenda focuses on forecasting Greenhouse Gas Emissions as well as studying the impacts of air pollution on agriculture . Geographically he is mainly interested in China and India as well as his chosen home -- California . Said Auffhammer regarding China 's carbon pollution output , `` The only solution is for a massive transfer of technology and wealth from the West . ''", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Maximilian_Auffhammer", "rank": 48, "score": 75337 }, { "content": "Title: London Green500 Content: The London Green500 is London mayor Boris Johnson 's pioneering carbon mentoring programme . With the aim to lead London 's top organisations to reduce carbon emissions in the capital by 60 % by 2025 . The London Green500 is led by a consortium on behalf of the London Development Agency . AEA Technology is the lead contractor , with Mouchel , National Energy Foundation , Futerra and Future Considerations .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "London_Green500", "rank": 49, "score": 75117 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of shipping Content: The environmental impact of shipping includes greenhouse gas emissions , acoustic , and oil pollution . The International Maritime Organization ( IMO ) estimates that Carbon dioxide emissions from shipping were equal to 2.2 % of the global human-made emissions in 2012 and expects them to rise by as much as 2 to 3 times by 2050 if no action is taken . The First Intersessional Meeting of the IMO Working Group on Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships took place in Oslo , Norway on 23 -- 27 June 2008 . It was tasked with developing the technical basis for the reduction mechanisms that may form part of a future IMO regime to control greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping , and a draft of the actual reduction mechanisms themselves , for further consideration by IMO 's Marine Environment Protection Committee ( MEPC ) .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_shipping", "rank": 50, "score": 74856 }, { "content": "Title: Motor vehicle emissions and pregnancy Content: In the United States about 10 % of the population , 35 million people , live within 100 meters of a high traffic road High-traffic roads are commonly identified as being host to more than 50,000 vehicles per day , which is a source of toxic vehicle pollutants . Previous studies have found correlations between exposure to vehicle pollutants and certain diseases such as asthma , lung and heart disease , and cancer among others . Car pollutants include carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , particulate matter ( fine dusts and soot ) , and toxic air pollutants While these pollutants affect the general health of populations , they are known to also have specific adverse effects on expectant mothers and their fetuses . The purpose of this article is to outline how vehicular pollutants affect the health of expectant mothers and the adverse health effects these exposure have on the unborn babies .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Motor_vehicle_emissions_and_pregnancy", "rank": 51, "score": 74834 }, { "content": "Title: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Content: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and the role of conservation , sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries ( REDD + ) was first negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) since 2005 , with the objective of mitigating climate change through reducing net emissions of greenhouse gases through enhanced forest management in developing countries . Most of the key REDD + decisions were completed by 2013 , with the final pieces of the rulebook finished in 2015 . In the last two decades , various studies estimate that land use change , including deforestation and forest degradation , accounts for 12-29 % of global greenhouse gas emissions . For this reason the inclusion of reducing emissions from land use change is considered essential to achieve the objectives of the UNFCCC . During the negotiations for the Kyoto Protocol , and then in particular its Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , the inclusion of tropical forest management was debated but eventually dropped due to anticipated methodological difficulties in establishing -- in particular -- additionality and leakage ( detrimental effects outside of the project area attributable to project activities ) . What remained on forestry was `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' , sectoral scope 14 of the CDM . Under this sectoral scope areas of land that had no forest cover since 1990 could be replanted with commercial or indigenous tree species . In its first eight years of operation 52 projects had been registered under the `` Afforestation and Reforestation '' scope of the CDM . The cumbersome administrative procedures and corresponding high transaction costs are often blamed for this slow uptake . Beyond the CDM , all developed countries that were parties to the Kyoto Protocol also committed to measuring and reporting on efforts to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions from forests . The United States also measures and reports on the net greenhouse gas sequestration in its forests . In response to what many perceived to be a failure to address a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions , the Coalition for Rainforest Nations ( CfRN ) was established and in 2005 they proposed to the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC policy approaches and positive incentives for the reduction of emissions of greenhouse gases stemming from tropical deforestation and forest degradation as a climate change mitigation measure .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation", "rank": 52, "score": 74821 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon offset Content: A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_offset", "rank": 53, "score": 74597 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 54, "score": 74586 }, { "content": "Title: The long tailpipe Content: The long tailpipe is a reference to greenhouse gases that are emitted in the production of electricity used to charge electric vehicles . Plug-in electric vehicles operating in all-electric mode have no emissions ( greenhouse gases or otherwise ) from the onboard source of power . The long tailpipe claims these emissions are shifted from the vehicle tailpipe to the location of the electrical generation plants . From the point of view of a well-to-wheel assessment , the extent of the actual carbon footprint depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "The_long_tailpipe", "rank": 55, "score": 74506 }, { "content": "Title: The Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership Content: The Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership ( LowCVP ) was announced by the UK Government in 2002 as an element of its Powering Future Vehicles Strategy . The purpose of the LowCVP is support reduction of carbon emissions from road transport in the UK with a clear focus on accelerating the adoption of low carbon vehicles and fuels ; other strategies for reducing transport carbon emissions , for example modal shift towards cycling and walking or reducing traffic congestion through intelligent transport systems are out of scope and are the preserve of other bodies who are more expert in those fields . The UK government has set a target for reducing overall greenhouse gas emissions and recognises that achieving its target will require emissions from road transport , which are significant , to be cut .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "The_Low_Carbon_Vehicle_Partnership", "rank": 56, "score": 74421 }, { "content": "Title: Coal pollution mitigation Content: Coal pollution mitigation , often referred to by the public relations term clean coal , is a series of systems and technologies that seek to mitigate the pollution and other environmental effects normally associated with the burning ( though not the mining or processing ) of coal , which is widely regarded as the dirtiest of the common fuels for industrial processes and power generation . The preferred industry term `` clean coal '' has been described as `` Orwellian '' , an oxymoron , and a myth . Approaches attempt to mitigate emissions of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and other greenhouse gases , and radioactive materials , that arise from the use of coal , mainly for electrical power generation , using various technologies . Historical efforts to reduce coal pollution focused on flue-gas desulfurization starting in the 1850s and clean burn technologies . More recent developments include carbon capture and storage , which pumps and stores CO2 emissions underground , and integrated gasification combined cycle ( IGCC ) involve coal gasification , which provides a basis for increased efficiency and lower cost in capturing CO2 emissions . There are seven technologies deployed or proposed for deployment in the United States : carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) , flue-gas desulfurization , fluidized-bed combustion , integrated gasification combined cycle ( IGCC ) , low nitrogen oxide burners , selective catalytic reduction ( SCR ) , and electrostatic precipitators . Of the 22 demonstration projects funded by the U.S. Department of Energy since 2003 , none are in operation as of February 2017 , having been abandoned or delayed due to capital budget overruns or discontinued because of excessive operating expenses .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Coal_pollution_mitigation", "rank": 57, "score": 74396 }, { "content": "Title: Energy efficiency in British housing Content: Domestic housing in the United Kingdom presents a possible opportunity for achieving the 20 % overall cut in UK carbon dioxide emissions targeted by the Government for 2010 . However , the process of achieving that drop is proving problematic given the very wide range of age and condition of the UK housing stock .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Energy_efficiency_in_British_housing", "rank": 58, "score": 74294 }, { "content": "Title: Where Chimneys Are Seen Content: is a 1953 Japanese drama film directed by Heinosuke Gosho . It was entered into the 3rd Berlin International Film Festival .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Where_Chimneys_Are_Seen", "rank": 59, "score": 74123 }, { "content": "Title: Center for Negative Carbon Emissions Content: The Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) is led by Director Klaus S. Lackner , and was founded in the School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment ( SSEBE ) at Arizona State University in 2014 . CNCE is advancing carbon management technologies that can capture carbon dioxide directly from ambient air in an outdoor operating environment . CNCE aims to demonstrate systems that over time increase in scope , reliability and efficiency while lowering the cost of carbon dioxide capture from air .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Center_for_Negative_Carbon_Emissions", "rank": 60, "score": 74066 }, { "content": "Title: Campus carbon neutrality Content: All across the world , colleges and universities are looking to a sustainable future by working to become carbon neutral . Universities are taking responsibility for their environmental impact and are working to neutralize those effects . To become carbon neutral , universities are working to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases , cut their use of energy , use more renewable energy , and emphasize the importance of sustainable energy sources . Universities that have committed to becoming carbon neutral have recognized the threat of global warming and are therefore committing to reverse the trend .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Campus_carbon_neutrality", "rank": 61, "score": 73952 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon emission trading Content: Carbon emissions trading is a form of emissions trading that specifically targets carbon dioxide ( calculated in tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent or tCO2e ) and it currently constitutes the bulk of emissions trading . This form of permit trading is a common method countries utilize in order to meet their obligations specified by the Kyoto Protocol ; namely the reduction of carbon emissions in an attempt to reduce ( mitigate ) future climate change . Under Carbon trading , a country having more emissions of carbon is able to purchase the right to emit more and the country having less emission trades the right to emit carbon to other countries . More carbon emitting countries , by this way try to keep the limit of carbon emission specified to them .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_emission_trading", "rank": 62, "score": 73851 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon-neutral_fuel", "rank": 63, "score": 73728 }, { "content": "Title: Emission Reduction Unit Content: The emission reduction unit ( ERU ) is an emissions unit issued under a Joint Implementation project in terms of the Kyoto Protocol . An ERU represents a reduction of greenhouse gases under the Joint Implementation mechanism , where it represents one tonne of equivalent reduced . To allow comparison between the different effects of gases on the environment , scientists have defined multipliers for gases that compare their greenhouse potency ( global warming potential ) relative to that of carbon dioxide . One example of a Joint Implementation project resulting in an emission reduction unit , is the production of biogases by landfill sites . These gases consist of mainly methane which escapes to the atmosphere if it is not collected . The main reason for dealing with methane is that it has a 100-year global warming potential multiplier of 25 compared to carbon dioxide ( i.e. has 25 times the greenhouse potency ) . Collection of methane is usually accompanied by its combustion . Burning one tonne of methane produces nearly 3 tonnes of , thus reducing its greenhouse effect by ( 25-3 = 22 ) ERU . In December 2012 , ERU prices crashed to a low of 15 euro cents before recovering to 23c after news that EU 's Climate Change Committee was to vote on a ban of ERUs from countries that have not signed up to a second commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol . In January 2013 , Bloomberg reported that emission reduction unit prices declined 89 percent in 2012", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Emission_Reduction_Unit", "rank": 64, "score": 73559 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon diet Content: A low-carbon diet refers to making lifestyle choices to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGe ) resulting from consumption decisions . It is estimated that the U.S. food system is responsible for at least 20 percent of U.S. greenhouse gases . This estimate may be low , as it counts only direct sources of GHGe . Indirect sources , such as demand for products from other countries , are often not counted . A low-carbon diet minimizes the emissions released from the production , packaging , processing , transport , preparation and waste of food . Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating less industrial meat and dairy , eating less industrially produced food in general , eating food grown locally and seasonally , eating less processed and packaged foods and reducing waste from food by proper portion size , recycling or composting .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Low-carbon_diet", "rank": 65, "score": 73475 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon profiling Content: Carbon profiling is a mathematical process that calculates how much carbon dioxide is put into the atmosphere per m2 of space in a building over one year . The analysis is in two parts which are then added together to produce an overall figure which is termed the ` Carbon Profile ' : operational carbon emissions embodied carbon emissions . Embodied carbon emissions relate to the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from creating and maintaining the materials that form the building e.g. the carbon dioxide released from the baking of bricks or smelting or iron . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured as Embodied Carbon Efficiency ( ECE ) , measured as kg of CO2/m2/year . Occupational Carbon Emissions relate to the amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere from the direct use of energy to run the building e.g. the heating or electricity used by the building over the year . In the Carbon Profiling Model these emissions are measured in BER 's ( Building Emission Rate ) in kg of / m2/year . The BER is a United Kingdom government accepted unit of measurement that comes from an approved calculation process called sBEM ( Simplified Building Emission Model ) The purpose of Carbon Profiling is to provide a method of analyzing and comparing both operational and embodied carbon emissions at the same time . With this information it is then possible to allocate a projects resources in such a way to minimize the total amount of Carbon Dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through the use of a given piece of space . A secondary benefit is that having quantified the Carbon Profiling of different buildings it is then possible to make comparisons and rank buildings in term of their performance . This allows investors and occupiers to identify which building are good and bad carbon investments . Simon Sturgis and Gareth Roberts of Sturgis Associates in the United Kingdom originally developed ` Carbon Profiling ' in December 2007 .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_profiling", "rank": 66, "score": 73280 }, { "content": "Title: Continuous emissions monitoring system Content: Continuous emission monitoring systems ( CEMS ) were historically used as a tool to monitor flue gas for oxygen , carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide to provide information for combustion control in industrial settings . They are currently used as a means to comply with air emission standards such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency 's Acid Rain Program , other federal emission programs , or state permitted emission standards . Facilities employ the use of CEMS to continuously collect , record and report the required emissions data . The standard CEM system consists of a sample probe , filter , sample line ( umbilical ) , gas conditioning system , calibration gas system , and a series of gas analyzers which reflect the parameters being monitored . Typical monitored emissions include : sulfur dioxide , nitrogen oxides , carbon monoxide , carbon dioxide , hydrogen chloride , airborne particulate matter , mercury , volatile organic compounds , and oxygen . CEM systems can also measure air flow , flue gas opacity and moisture . In the U.S. , the EPA requires a data acquisition and handling system to collect and report the data . emissions must be measured in pounds per hour using both an pollutant concentration monitor and a volumetric flow monitor . For NOx , both a NOx pollutant concentration monitor and a diluent gas monitor are required to determine the emissions rate ( lbs/mmBtu ) . Opacity must also be monitored . NOx measuring is not a current requirement , however if monitored , a or oxygen monitor plus a flow monitor should be used . In monitoring these emissions , the system must be in continuous operation and must be able to sample , analyze , and record data at least every 15 minutes and then averaged hourly .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Continuous_emissions_monitoring_system", "rank": 67, "score": 73093 }, { "content": "Title: New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme Content: The New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme ( also known as GGAS ) was a mandatory greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme that aimed to lower greenhouse gas emissions in New South Wales , Australia , to 7.27 tonnes of carbon dioxide per capita by the year 2007 , which commenced on 1 January 2003 . The Scheme imposed obligations on NSW electricity retailers and certain other parties , including large electricity users who elected to manage their own benchmark to abate a portion of the greenhouse gas emissions attributable to their sales/consumption of electricity in NSW . They did this by purchasing and acquitting NSW Greenhouse Abatement Certificates ( also known as NGACs ) created by accredited `` Abatement Certificate Providers '' ( ACPs ) . The NSW Minister for Energy , Chris Hartcher , announced closure of the scheme in April 2012 , effective from 30 June 2012 . The Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme ( GGAS ) closed on 30 June 2012 . The NSW Government closed GGAS to avoid duplication with the Commonwealth 's carbon price which commenced on 1 July 2012 .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "New_South_Wales_Greenhouse_Gas_Abatement_Scheme", "rank": 68, "score": 73050 }, { "content": "Title: CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme Content: The CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme ( the CRC , formerly the Carbon Reduction Commitment ) is a mandatory carbon emissions reduction scheme in the United Kingdom that applies to large non-energy-intensive organisations in the public and private sectors . It has been estimated that the scheme will reduce carbon emissions by 1.2 million tonnes of carbon per year by 2020 . In an effort to avoid dangerous climate change , the British Government first committed to cutting UK carbon emissions by 60 % by 2050 ( compared to 1990 levels ) , and in October 2008 increased this commitment to 80 % . The scheme has also been credited with driving up demand for energy-efficient goods and services . The CRC was announced in the 2007 Energy White Paper , published on 23 May 2007 . A consultation in 2006 showed strong support for it to be mandatory , rather than voluntary . The Commitment was introduced under enabling powers in Part 3 of the Climate Change Act 2008 . A consultation into the scheme 's implementation was launched in June 2007 . The Scheme is being introduced under the CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme Order 2010 .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "CRC_Energy_Efficiency_Scheme", "rank": 69, "score": 72990 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon pricing in Australia Content: A carbon pricing scheme in Australia , commonly dubbed by its critics as a `` carbon tax '' , was introduced by the Gillard Labor Government in 2011 as the Clean Energy Act 2011 which came into effect on 1 July 2012 . It was in operation until it was repealed on 17 July 2014 , and backdated to 1 July 2014 . In its place the Abbott Government set up the Emission Reduction Fund in December 2014 . As a result of being in place for such a short time , regulated organisations responded in a rather tepid and informal manner , with very few investments in emissions reductions being made . The 2011 scheme required entities which emit over 25,000 tonnes per year of carbon dioxide equivalent greenhouse gases and which were not in the transport or agriculture sectors to obtain emissions permits , called carbon units . Carbon units were either purchased from the government or issued free as part of industry assistance measures . The Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency stated that in June 2013 only 260 entities were subject to the scheme , of which approximately 185 were liable to pay for carbon units under the carbon price scheme . The carbon price was part of a broad energy reform package called the Clean Energy Futures Plan , which aimed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in Australia by 5 % below 2000 levels by 2020 and 80 % below 2000 levels by 2050 . The plan set out to achieve these targets by encouraging Australia 's largest emitters to increase energy efficiency and invest in sustainable energy . The scheme was administered by the Clean Energy Regulator . Compensation to industry and households was funded by the revenue derived from the charge . As part of the scheme , personal income tax was reduced for those earning less than $ 80,000 per year and the tax-free threshold was increased from $ 6,000 to $ 18,200 . Initially the price of a permit for one tonne of carbon was fixed at $ 23 for the 2012 -- 13 financial year , with unlimited permits being available from the government . The fixed price rose to $ 24.15 for 2013 -- 14 . The government had announced that the scheme was part of a transition to an emissions trading scheme in 2014 -- 15 , where the available permits will be limited in line with a pollution cap . The scheme primarily applied to electricity generators and industrial sectors . It did not apply to road transport and agriculture . Domestic aviation did not face the carbon price scheme per se , but was subject to an additional fuel excise levy of approximately 6 cents per litre . In February 2012 , the Sydney Morning Herald reported that Clean Energy Future carbon price scheme had not deterred new investment in the coal industry , as spending on exploration had increased by 62 % in 2010-2011 , more than any other mineral commodity . The government agency Geoscience Australia reported that investment in coal prospecting reached $ 520 million in 2010-2011 . Falls in carbon emissions were observed following implementation of this policy . It was noted that emissions from sectors subject to the pricing mechanism were 1.0 % lower and nine months after the introduction of the pricing scheme , Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions from electricity generation had fallen to a 10-year low , with coal generation down 11 % from 2008 to 2009 . However , attribution of these trends to carbon pricing have been disputed , with Frontier Economics claiming trends are largely explained by factors unrelated to the carbon tax . Electricity demand had been falling and in 2012 was at the lowest level seen since 2006 in the National Electricity Market .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_pricing_in_Australia", "rank": 70, "score": 72989 }, { "content": "Title: Prime Ministerial Task Group on Emissions Trading Content: Prime Ministerial Task Group on Emissions Trading was a Task Group set up on 10 December 2006 by Australian Prime Minister John Howard to develop an Australian Carbon Trading Scheme . The terms of reference of the task group was : Australia enjoys major competitive advantages through the possession of large reserves of fossil fuels and uranium . In assessing Australia 's further contribution to reducing greenhouse gas emissions , these advantages must be preserved . Against this background the Task Group will be asked to advise on the nature and design of a workable global emissions trading system in which Australia would be able to participate . The Task Group will advise and report on additional steps that might be taken , in Australia , consistent with the goal of establishing such a system . The Prime Ministerial Task Group submitted its final report on 31 May 2007 . The scheme proposed by the Task Group had some similarities to the `` hybrid scheme '' developed by Warwick McKibbin . Prime Minister John Howard announced on 4 June 2007 the government 's plan for a carbon trading scheme to be launched in 2012 . Howard took the draft carbon trading scheme to the 2007 federal election .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Prime_Ministerial_Task_Group_on_Emissions_Trading", "rank": 71, "score": 72909 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 72, "score": 72706 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )", "qid": "3110", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita", "rank": 73, "score": 72662 }, { "content": "Title: CarboNZero programme Content: The carboNZero programme and CEMARS programme are the world 's first internationally accredited greenhouse gas ( GHG ) certification schemes under ISO 14065 . They provide tools for organisations , products , services and events to measure and reduce their greenhouse gas emissions ( otherwise known as carbon footprint ) , and optionally offset it . The programmes are owned and operated by Enviro-Mark Solutions Limited , a wholly owned subsidiary of Landcare Research ( 100 % NZ government-owned ) .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "CarboNZero_programme", "rank": 74, "score": 72652 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia", "rank": 75, "score": 72622 }, { "content": "Title: Acid Rain Program Content: The Acid Rain Program is a market-based initiative taken by the United States Environmental Protection Agency in an effort to reduce overall atmospheric levels of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides , which cause acid rain . The program is an implementation of emissions trading that primarily targets coal-burning power plants , allowing them to buy and sell emission permits ( called `` allowances '' ) according to individual needs and costs . In 2011 , the trading program that existed since 1995 was supplemented by four separate trading programs under the Cross-State Air Pollution Rule ( CSAPR ) . On August 21 , 2012 , the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia issued its Opinion and Order in the appeal of the Cross State Air Pollution Rule ( CSAPR ) for two independent legal reasons . The stay on CSAPR was lifted in October 2014 , allowing implementation of the law and its trading programs to begin .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Acid_Rain_Program", "rank": 76, "score": 72507 }, { "content": "Title: Emissions Trading Scheme in South Korea Content: South Korea 's Emissions Trading Scheme ( KETS ) is the second largest in scale after the European Union Emission Trading Scheme and was launched on January 1 , 2015 . South Korea is the second country in Asia to initiate a nation-wide carbon market after Kazakhstan . Complying to the country 's pledge made at the Copenhagen Accord of 2009 , the South Korean government aims to reduce its greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions by 30 % below its business as usual scenario by 2020 . They have officially employed the cap-and-trade system and the operation applies to over 525 companies which are accountable for approximately 68 % of the nation 's GHG output . The operation is divided up into three periods . The first and second phases consist of 3 years each , 2015 to 2017 and 2018 to 2020 . The final phase will spread out over the next 5 years from 2021 to 2025 . The cap-and-trade system is a tool of carbon pricing that has been adapted by several countries to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions through a market mechanism . It entails a market open to the transaction of trade permits , which allow participating businesses or countries to emit a given amount of greenhouse gases . A cap is set by the government which defines the maximum level of total emissions permitted during a certain time period . The South Korean government had set the emissions cap for the first year of implementation ( 2015 ) as 573 MtCO2e . The major objectives of the KETS is to place South Korea at the forefront of the global effort in reducing GHG emissions and to develop its market competitiveness in the clean energy sector . As one of the top 10 largest contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions and a nation with the highest growth rate in GHG emissions , South Korea 's awareness of its carbon footprint has increased over the years . The country grows more vulnerable to climate change as the average temperature has risen by 1.5 degrees Celsius causing frequent natural disasters . Furthermore , the South Korean government aims to cut back its reliance on imported fossil fuel energy which accounts for roughly 97 % of its primary energy consumption . Lastly , by implementing the emissions trading scheme , the government has prospects of developing its green industries and increase its global share of the clean energy market .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Emissions_Trading_Scheme_in_South_Korea", "rank": 77, "score": 72461 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by ratio of GDP to carbon dioxide emissions Content: On 6 October 2010 , the International Energy Agency released for free download the 2008 numbers for over 140 countries/regions/economies . The list of countries below is arranged by their ratio of gross domestic product , nominal and by purchasing power parity , to carbon dioxide emissions . GDP data is for the year 2006 produced by the International Monetary Fund . Carbon dioxide emissions data is for 2006 , provided by the CDIAC for United Nations ( see List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions ) . The countries at the top of the list are the most efficient . They produce the most economic output with the least emissions . Countries at the bottom of the list produce the most emissions per unit of economic output . Including French Guiana , French Polynesia , Guadeloupe , Martinique , New Caledonia , Saint Pierre and Miquelon and Réunion Including Greenland and Faroe Islands Including Netherlands Antilles Including Taiwan and Macau , excluding Hong Kong", "qid": "3110", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_ratio_of_GDP_to_carbon_dioxide_emissions", "rank": 78, "score": 72457 }, { "content": "Title: National Emissions Standards Act Content: The Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act is a 1965 amendment to the U.S. Clean Air Act of 1963 . The amendment set the first federal vehicle emissions standards , beginning with the 1968 models . These standards were reductions from the 1963 emissions : 72 % reduction for hydrocarbons , 56 % reduction for carbon monoxide , and 100 % reduction for crankcase hydrocarbons . The impact the regulatory standards will have on air quality in the future , as well as the potential characteristics of the vehicle fleet can be analyzed with the use of roadway air dispersion models . The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) is a department specific to the Clean Air Act . Its purpose is to make sure the amount of air pollution emitted stays inside the standards set by the U.S. Each state is required to have a state implementation plan ( SIPs ) that clearly indicates how it will enforce the regulations of the Clean Air Act . The states have to create regulations of their own that also adhere to the guidelines of the U.S. regulations ; in order to do so , they must hold hearings so the public can contribute ideas and provide feedback .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "National_Emissions_Standards_Act", "rank": 79, "score": 72328 }, { "content": "Title: Klaus Lackner Content: Klaus S. Lackner is the director of the Center for Negative Carbon Emissions ( CNCE ) and a professor in School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment at Arizona State University . He is a pioneer in carbon management and is the first to suggest capturing carbon dioxide from air in the context of addressing climate change . His current work includes the demonstrating and improving passive methods to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , integrating air capture technology with applications for using carbon dioxide , exploring safe and permanent disposal options for carbon dioxide , and identifying opportunities for automation and scaling . His publications have been cited 5842 times as of November 12 , 2015 . His h-index is 31 . Previously , he was the director of the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute and Faculty in the Earth and Environmental Engineering department at Columbia University from 2001 - 2014 . He , along with CNCE executive director , Allen Wright , co - founded of the first privately held air capture company Global Research Technologies ( GRT ) in Tucson , AZ where they demonstrated the moisture swing . Prior to his academic work he held appointments at the theoretical division of Los Alamos National Laboratory for nearly 17 years . His idea of the self - replicating machines along with his colleague , Christopher Wendt , was featured by Discover Magazine in 1995 as `` One of the 7 Ideas that can Change the World . ''", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Klaus_Lackner", "rank": 80, "score": 72272 }, { "content": "Title: International Carbon Action Partnership Content: The International Carbon Action Partnership ( ICAP ) was founded in 2007 by more than 15 government representatives as an international cooperative forum , bringing together states and sub-national jurisdictions that have implemented or are planning to implement emissions trading systems ( ETS ) . Then governor of California , Arnold Schwarzenegger , stated at ICAP 's founding ceremony : `` This first of its kind partnership will provide more incentives for clean-tech investment and economic growth while not letting polluters off the hook . And it will help renew the health of our planet . '' José Sócrates , the Portuguese prime minister further added that ICAP was launched in order to join carbon markets all over the world and by that be more successful in combating climate change . ICAP includes members from the European Union Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) , Western Climate Initiative ( WCI ) , Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) , Australia , New Zealand , Norway , and the Tokyo Metropolitan Government . Japan and Ukraine are observers.Member jurisdictions share best practices and discuss ETS design elements with a view to creating a well-functioning global carbon market . The rationale behind ICAP 's work is that linking carbon cap and trade systems would lead to economic , social and environmental benefits .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "International_Carbon_Action_Partnership", "rank": 81, "score": 72055 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal", "rank": 82, "score": 71802 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 83, "score": 71754 }, { "content": "Title: Chimney Safety Institute of America Content: The Chimney Safety Institute of America ( CSIA ) is a United States non-profit educational institute that educates American homeowners , home inspectors , chimney sweeps , firefighters and related professionals about the prevention of chimney fires and carbon monoxide intrusion . The organization builds awareness of the need for annual chimney inspections and service by a qualified chimney professional . CSIA was created in 1983 as the educational arm of the National Chimney Sweep Guild . Every chimney sweep in the U.S. and Canada is eligible to participate . The president of the 2017-18 board of directors at CSIA is Chuck Hall , who is a certified chimney sweep through CSIA . As a measurement of technical expertise , the CSIA certifies chimney and venting professionals . Additional certifications offered by the CSIA include CSIA Certified Dryer Exhaust Technician and the CSIA Master Chimney Sweep designation . The national board of director officers of CSIA are Hall , Vice President Chuck Roydhouse , Treasurer Darin Bibeau , and Secretary Hope Stevenson . They were elected Mar. 21 , 2017 .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Chimney_Safety_Institute_of_America", "rank": 84, "score": 71740 }, { "content": "Title: Chimney (locomotive) Content: The chimney ( smokestack or stack in American and Canadian English ) is the part of a steam locomotive through which smoke leaves the boiler . Steam locomotive exhaust systems typically vent cylinder exhaust through the chimney to enhance draught through the boiler . Chimneys are designed to carry exhaust steam and smoke clear of the driver 's line of sight while remaining short enough to clear overhead structures . Some chimneys included features to avoid dispersing sparks .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Chimney_(locomotive)", "rank": 85, "score": 71572 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas accounting Content: Greenhouse gas accounting describes the way to inventory and audit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . A corporate or organisational greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions assessment quantifies the total greenhouse gases produced directly and indirectly from a business or organisation 's activities . Also known as a carbon footprint , it is a business tool that provides information with a basis for understanding and managing climate change impacts . The drivers for corporate GHG accounting include mandatory GHG reporting in directors ' reports , investment due diligence , shareholder and stakeholder communication , staff engagement , green messaging , and tender requirements for business and government contracts . Accounting for greenhouse gas emissions is increasingly seen as a standard requirement for business . For example , in June 2012 , the UK coalition government announced the introduction of mandatory carbon reporting , requiring around 1,100 of the UK 's largest listed companies to report their greenhouse gas emissions every year . Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg confirmed that emission reporting rules would come into effect from April 2013 in his piece for The Guardian . Guidance for accounting for GHG emissions from organizations and emission reduction projects is provided by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) GHG Protocol . For national GHG inventories , guidance is provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) methodology reports . The International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) also provides some general standards for greenhouse gas emissions at organisation level ( ISO 14064 - 1 ) and greenhouse gas emissions at project level ( ISO 14064 - 2 ) . Specifications to validate and verify relevant accountings are documented in ( ISO 14064 - 3 ) .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_accounting", "rank": 86, "score": 71565 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia", "rank": 87, "score": 71547 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center", "rank": 88, "score": 71132 }, { "content": "Title: Airport Carbon Accreditation Content: Airport Carbon Accreditation is a global carbon management programme for airports that independently assesses and recognises airports ' efforts to manage and reduce their CO2 emissions . There are 4 different levels of accreditation : Mapping , Reduction , Optimisation and Neutrality . The programme was launched by European airports ' trade body ACI EUROPE at their Annual Congress in June 2009 . It is independently administered by WSP , an international consultancy firm . The programme provides airports with a common framework for active carbon management with measurable goal-posts . Individual airport carbon footprints are independently verified in accordance with ISO 14064 ( Greenhouse Gas Accounting ) on the basis of supporting evidence . Claims regarding airports ' carbon management processes are also independently verified by a group of 117 independent verifiers , based in 36 countries .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Airport_Carbon_Accreditation", "rank": 89, "score": 71072 }, { "content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources", "rank": 90, "score": 70918 }, { "content": "Title: Berners Street hoax Content: The Berners Street hoax was perpetrated by Theodore Hook in Westminster , England , in 1810 . Hook had made a bet with his friend , Samuel Beazley , that he could transform any house in London into the most talked-about address in a week , which he achieved by sending out thousands of letters in the name of Mrs Tottenham , who lived at 54 Berners Street , requesting deliveries , visitors , and assistance . On 27 November , at five o'clock in the morning , a sweep arrived to sweep the chimneys of Mrs Tottenham 's house . The maid who answered the door informed him that no sweep had been requested , and that his services were not required . A few moments later another sweep presented himself , then another , and another ; twelve in all . After the last of the sweeps had been sent away , a fleet of carts carrying large deliveries of coal began to arrive , followed by a series of cakemakers delivering large wedding cakes , then doctors , lawyers , vicars and priests summoned to minister to someone in the house they had been told was dying . Fishmongers , shoemakers , and over a dozen pianos were among the next to appear , along with `` six stout men bearing an organ '' . Dignitaries , including the Governor of the Bank of England , the Duke of York , the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Lord Mayor of London also arrived . The narrow streets soon became severely congested with tradesmen and onlookers . Deliveries and visits continued until the early evening , bringing a large part of London to a standstill . Hook stationed himself in the house directly opposite 54 Berners Street , from where he and his friend spent the day watching the chaos unfold . Despite a `` fervent hue and cry '' to find the perpetrator , Hook managed to evade detection , although many of those who knew him suspected him of being responsible . It was reported that he felt it prudent to be `` laid up for a week or two '' before embarking on a tour of the country , supposedly to convalesce . The site at 54 Berners Street is now occupied by the Sanderson Hotel .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Berners_Street_hoax", "rank": 91, "score": 70906 }, { "content": "Title: Verified Carbon Standard Content: The Verified Carbon Standard ( VCS ) is a voluntary greenhouse gas program . The organization was founded by a collection of business and environmental leaders . In 2005 , The Climate Group , International Emissions Trading Association ( IETA ) and The World Economic Forum - convened a team of global carbon market experts to draft the first VCS requirements . The World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) joined the effort soon after . These experts soon formed the VCS Steering Committee , which worked to draft the first and subsequent versions of the VCS Standard . Many of the members of the original steering committee went on to be on the original Board of Directors , which now has evolved into a body of 12 members that offers input and guidance to the organization . By 2008 , with the VCS Standard becoming more widely adopted , the Board of Directors named David Antonioli the organization 's first Chief Executive Officer . Soon after in 2009 , VCS incorporated in Washington D.C as a non-profit NGO .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Verified_Carbon_Standard", "rank": 92, "score": 70679 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions Content: This is a list of countries by total greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2010 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon , and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute . The emissions data shown below do not include land-use change and forestry .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions", "rank": 93, "score": 70442 }, { "content": "Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage", "rank": 94, "score": 70284 }, { "content": "Title: Personal carbon trading Content: Personal carbon trading is the generic term for a number of proposed emissions trading schemes under which emissions credits would be allocated to adult individuals on a ( broadly ) equal per capita basis , within national carbon budgets . Individuals then surrender these credits when buying fuel or electricity . Individuals wanting or needing to emit at a level above that permitted by their initial allocation would be able to purchase additional credits from those using less , creating a profit for those individuals who emit at a level below that permitted by their initial allocation .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Personal_carbon_trading", "rank": 95, "score": 70269 }, { "content": "Title: Music by Ry Cooder Content: Music by Ry Cooder is a compilation album of Ry Cooder 's soundtracks from movies released between 1980 and 1993 . The movies and tracks on this album are : The Long Riders ( 1980 ) -- The Long Riders , Archie 's Funeral , Jesse James Southern Comfort ( 1981 ) -- Theme from Southern Comfort , Swamp Walk , Canoes Upstream The Border ( 1982 ) -- Across the Borderline , Highway 23 , No Quiero , Maria Streets of Fire ( 1984 ) -- Bomber Bash Paris , Texas ( 1984 ) -- Paris , Texas ; Cancion Mixteca ; Houston in Two Seconds Alamo Bay ( 1985 ) -- Theme from Alamo Bay , Klan Meeting Blue City ( 1986 ) -- Greenhouse , Nice Bike Crossroads ( 1986 ) -- See You in Hell , Blind Boy ; Feelin ' Bad Blues ; Viola Lee Blues Johnny Handsome ( 1989 ) -- I Like Your Eyes , Main Theme , Angola , Sunny 's Tune , Cruising With Rafe , I Ca n't Walk This Time/The Prestige Trespass ( 1992 ) -- King of the Street , East St. Louis , Goose and Lucky Geronimo : An American Legend ( 1993 ) -- Goyakla Is Coming , Bound for Canaan ( Sieber & Davis ) , Bound for Canaan ( The 6th Cavalry ) , Train to Florida", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Music_by_Ry_Cooder", "rank": 96, "score": 70267 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon project Content: A carbon project refers to a business initiative that receives funding because of the cut the emission of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) that will result . To prove that the project will result in real , permanent , verifiable reductions in Greenhouse Gases , proof must be provided in the form of a project design document and activity reports validated by an approved third party in the case of Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) or Joint Implementation ( JI ) projects .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Carbon_project", "rank": 97, "score": 70259 }, { "content": "Title: EU Allowances Content: EU Allowances are Climate credits ( or Carbon credits ) used in the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) . EU Allowances are issued by the EU Member States into Member State Registry accounts . By April 30 of each year , operators of installations covered by the EU ETS must surrender an EU Allowance for each ton of CO2 emitted in the previous year . Category : Carbon emissions in the European Union", "qid": "3110", "docid": "EU_Allowances", "rank": 98, "score": 70130 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming", "rank": 99, "score": 70006 }, { "content": "Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .", "qid": "3110", "docid": "European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme", "rank": 100, "score": 69940 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: North Report Content: The North Report was a 2006 report evaluating reconstructions of the temperature record of the past two millennia , providing an overview of the state of the science and the implications for understanding of global warming . It was produced by a National Research Council committee , chaired by Gerald North , at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert as chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . These reconstructions had been dubbed `` hockey stick graphs '' after the 1999 reconstruction by Mann , Bradley and Hughes ( MBH99 ) , which used the methodology of their 1998 reconstruction covering 600 years ( MBH98 ) . A graph based on MBH99 was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , and became a focus of the global warming controversy over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . It was disputed by various contrarians , and in the politicisation of this hockey stick controversy the New York Times of 14 February 2005 hailed a paper by businessman Stephen McIntyre and economist Ross McKitrick ( MM05 ) as undermining the scientific consensus behind the Kyoto agreement . On 23 June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton , chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce , with Ed Whitfield , Chairman of the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations , wrote joint letters referring to issues raised by the Wall Street Journal article , and demanding that Mann , Bradley and Hughes provide full records on their data and methods , finances and careers , information about grants provided to the institutions they had worked for , and the exact computer codes used to generate their results . Boehlert said this was a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into something that should properly be under the jurisdiction of the Science Committee , and in November 2005 after Barton dismissed the offer of an independent investigation organised by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences , Boehlert requested the review , which became the North Report . The North Report went through a rigorous review process , and was published on 22 June 2006 . It concluded `` with a high level of confidence that global mean surface temperature was higher during the last few decades of the 20th century than during any comparable period during the preceding four centuries '' , justified by consistent evidence from a wide variety of geographically diverse proxies , but `` Less confidence can be placed in large-scale surface temperature reconstructions for the period from 900 to 1600 '' . It broadly agreed with the basic findings of the original MBH studies , which subsequently been supported by other reconstructions and proxy records , while emphasising uncertainties over earlier periods . The principal component analysis methodology that McIntyre and McKitrick had contested had a small tendency to bias results so was not recommended -- but it had little influence on the final reconstructions , and other methods produced similar results .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "North_Report", "rank": 1, "score": 133796 }, { "content": "Title: Lars Ljungqvist Content: Lars Ljungqvist ( born May 12 , 1959 ) is a Swedish economist probably best known as the author of Recursive Macroeconomic Theory , a standard graduate level textbook of modern macroeconomics , with Thomas J. Sargent . Ljungqvist is a macro economist with seminal papers on labour : European unemployment , wage structures , information asymmetries and international trade . He held teaching positions at SUNY and was senior economist at Fed Reserve Bank of Chicago . He is seasonal visiting professor at New York University where he lectures the macro PhD and MBA courses at Stern , and permanent Professor at Stockholm School of Economics .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Lars_Ljungqvist", "rank": 2, "score": 128833 }, { "content": "Title: Alexander Ljungqvist Content: Alexander Ljungqvist is a Swedish economist , educator , researcher , writer , and speaker . He is a professor of finance at New York University Stern School of Business where he holds the Ira Rennert chair of finance and entrepreneurship . His areas of expertise include corporate finance , investment banking , initial public offerings , entrepreneurial finance , private equity , venture capital , corporate governance , and asset pricing . Professor Ljungqvist teaches MBA and executive courses in private equity and venture capital and a PhD course in corporate finance .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Alexander_Ljungqvist", "rank": 3, "score": 122217 }, { "content": "Title: Arne Ljungqvist Content: Arne Ljungqvist ( born 23 April 1931 ) is a Swedish medical researcher , sports personality and retired high jumper . Ljungqvist is an honorary member of the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) , chairman of IOC 's Medical Commission , and vice chairman of the World Anti-Doping Agency ( WADA ) .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Arne_Ljungqvist", "rank": 4, "score": 122187 }, { "content": "Title: Sture Ljungqvist Content: Sture Ljungqvist ( 1921 -- 2004 ) was a Swedish architect . Ljungqvist was co-founder of the bureau Höjer-Ljungqvist in 1952 . His architecture is characterised by complete complexes or whole city blocks with associated equipment such as malls , schools and libraries according to the socialist spirit of the time . Category :1921 births Category :2004 deaths Category : Swedish architects", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Sture_Ljungqvist", "rank": 5, "score": 121627 }, { "content": "Title: Albin Ljungqvist Content: Albin Håkan Fredy Ljungqvist , born 22 April 1981 in Falköping , Sweden , is a Swedish singer , recording artist , songwriter and show producer . In 2013 he competed in Dansk Melodi Grand Prix 2013 , the Danish pre-selection for Eurovision Song Contest where he sang the song Beautiful To Me , written by Bryan Rice and Mads Haugaard . In 2014 Albin featured on Torben Enevoldsens Fate solo project Acacia Avenue '' Cold '' , providing vocals for the song It 's Over ( Enevoldsen/Ljungqvist ) .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Albin_Ljungqvist", "rank": 6, "score": 115287 }, { "content": "Title: Ida Ljungqvist Content: Ida Ljungqvist ( born September 27 , 1981 ) is a Tanzanian-Swedish model and is the first African-born person to be selected as a Playboy Playmate of the Month and the 50th Playmate of the Year .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Ida_Ljungqvist", "rank": 7, "score": 114662 }, { "content": "Title: Tore Ljungqvist Content: Tore Ljungqvist ( April 21 , 1905 -- January 27 , 1980 ) was a Swedish water polo player who competed in the 1936 Summer Olympics . In 1936 he was part of the Swedish team which finished seventh in the water polo tournament . He played six matches . Category :1905 births Category :1980 deaths Category : Swedish male water polo players Category : Olympic water polo players of Sweden Category : Water polo players at the 1936 Summer Olympics", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Tore_Ljungqvist", "rank": 8, "score": 112230 }, { "content": "Title: Marcus Ljungqvist Content: Marcus Ljungqvist ( born October 26 , 1974 in Falun ) is a Swedish former professional road bicycle racer . He turned professional in 1998 , and retired from racing after the 2009 season . He is now working for Team Sky as a sporting director and will be bringing some of his experience to the racers from inside the team car . At the 2005 UCI world championship road race he finished at 4th which is the best placement ever for a Swedish rider .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Marcus_Ljungqvist", "rank": 9, "score": 110481 }, { "content": "Title: Anders Ljungqvist Content: Anders Ljungqvist ( May 10 , 1815 -- December 24 , 1896 ) , also known as `` Gås-Anders '' ( Anders of the geese ) , was a Swedish fiddler from Björklinge in Uppland . Gås-Anders got his derogatory nickname as a child when he worked as a goose herder at a mansion house in Gamla Uppsala . As he grew up he never used the name Gås-Anders , and it was not until the 1920s that folk musicians started referring to him by that name , which was by now used as a positive epithet rather than a slur . Although Gås-Anders made his living by working as a day labourer at the farms around Björklige , he was known as a poor worker who usually brought his fiddle with him and played rather than worked . As a spelman he was very popular and extremely skilled , and it was said that nobody could sit still when he played dancing music -- not even he himself . As he played he would jump around , dancing on chairs and tables . Rumour had it that Näcken had taught him to play , signing a contract in blood on human bones from the churchyard . According to the stories , Gås-Anders played the polska he had learnt from Näcken on his death bed , after which all four strings on his fiddle broke and he was able to die in peace . Another story had it that Gås-Anders 's wife once put a Bible on top of his fiddle , and after that it would never stay tuned . Gås-Anders left a legacy of folk music , upwards of 150 different melodies ; both tunes he himself had written and those he had learnt from other fiddlers . Most of the tunes are eighth-note polskas . Since fiddlers at the time played by ear , not from written music ( something which is true for traditional folk musicians today as well ) , much of Gås-Anders 's music was never saved for posterity . Towards the end of his life he got rather deaf and had to bring a helper to tune his fiddle , but he kept playing at weddings and dances up until the final years of his life . He was a poor man when he died , and was buried in the communal part of the churchyard in Björklinge . The exact location of his grave in the churchyard is unknown . In 1944 , a statue of Gås-Anders , created by the sculptor Bror Hjorth , was erected next to Björklinge church .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Anders_Ljungqvist", "rank": 10, "score": 106511 }, { "content": "Title: Reconstruction (band) Content: Reconstruction was a band formed in 1978 by John Kahn initially to occupy him while Jerry Garcia , his long-time musical collaborator , was busy with the Grateful Dead . The band 's original guitar player was Jerry Miller , best known for performing with Moby Grape . In March 1979 , Garcia took over guitar duties officially . The band performed while the Grateful Dead was on a brief hiatus , switching keyboard players from Keith Godchaux to Brent Mydland , and continued well into 1979 . The band varied its styles from previous Garcia/Kahn/Saunders collaborations to more of a disco and jazz sound .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Reconstruction_(band)", "rank": 11, "score": 105617 }, { "content": "Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years", "rank": 12, "score": 104495 }, { "content": "Title: Alexander Mellqvist Content: Alexander Mellqvist ( born 28 January 1986 ) is a Swedish footballer who plays for Ljungskile SK as a midfielder .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Alexander_Mellqvist", "rank": 13, "score": 102785 }, { "content": "Title: Carina Moberg Content: Carina Elisabeth Moberg ( 17 April 1966 -- 15 August 2012 ) was a Swedish social democratic politician who was leader of her party 's group in the Riksdag from 2011 to 2012 , when she was replaced by Mikael Damberg . She had been an MP representing Stockholms län since 1994 . Before entering Parliament she was a physiotherapist . In the Riksdag , she was Group Leader of the Social Democratic Party and Deputy Chair of the Nominations Committee . She also sat on the Advisory Council on Foreign Affairs and the Riksdag Board . She was an official guest at the 2010 wedding of Crown Princess Victoria , accompanied by Johnny Ahlqvist . Her political priorities included gender equality in marriage and employment .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Carina_Moberg", "rank": 14, "score": 101609 }, { "content": "Title: Mobilize.org Content: Mobilize.org is an all-partisan American non-profit organization that works with and for members of the Millennial Generation . The mission of Mobilize.org is to empower and invest in Millennials to create and implement solutions to social problems .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Mobilize.org", "rank": 15, "score": 100105 }, { "content": "Title: Wegman Report Content: The Wegman Report ( officially called the Ad Hoc Committee Report on the ` Hockey Stick ' Global Climate Reconstruction ) was prepared in 2006 by three statisticians led by Edward Wegman at the request of Rep. Joe Barton of the United States House Committee on Energy and Commerce to validate criticisms made by Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick of reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years , in particular the reconstructions by Mann , Bradley and Hughes which had become the focus of the hockey stick controversy .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Wegman_Report", "rank": 16, "score": 97278 }, { "content": "Title: Twice a Man Content: Twice a Man are an electronic music group based in Gothenburg , Sweden , comprising members Dan Söderqvist ( born 9 March 1953 ) and Karl Gasleben ( born Ingemar Ljungström ; 30 January 1953 ) . Dan and Karl met in Gothenburg during the early 1970s when they played in groups Älgarnas Trädgård and Anna Själv Tredje . The duo was formed in 1978 as Cosmic Overdose . After changing their name to their current title in 1981 , Twice a Man released their first album , Music for Girls , in 1982 . The group have consistently used synthesizers and electronic effects to create their theatrical and atmospheric soundscapes , and from 1984 they began to work with samplers . The group has featured a variety of musicians in their line up , including long-time collaborator Jocke Söderqvist , who rejoined the group in 2013 for club and festival concerts based around some of their earlier works . They have also written music for theatre ( including several works for the Royal Dramatic Theatre in Stockholm ) , television , film and radio . The group also composed the soundtrack to the PlayStation video game , Kula World . In the early 1990s , Twice a Man created a side-project entitled The Butterfly Effect , an experimental electronic project which installed writer Zac O ' Yeah as lead vocalist , releasing the album Trip in 1991 . They later continued as Twice a Man , but during the decade they decreased their production of studio albums and tours to concentrate on project-based work , often in collaboration with theatre , visual artists or companies . Recent works by Twice a Man include the album , Icicles , released in April 2010 , as well as a 50 minute ambient CD , Costume Area , which was released to coincide with the opening of a Charles Koroly exhibition at the Dansmuseet museum in Stockholm , for which they provided music and sound design . Their most recent album , Presence , was released in November 2015 in both CD and vinyl editions .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Twice_a_Man", "rank": 17, "score": 96981 }, { "content": "Title: Lennart Ljung (engineer) Content: Lennart Ljung is a Swedish Professor in the Chair of Control Theory at Linköping University since 1976 . He is known for his pioneering research in system identification , and is regarded as a leading researcher in control theory .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Lennart_Ljung_(engineer)", "rank": 18, "score": 94748 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick controversy Content: In the hockey stick controversy , the data and methods used in reconstructions of the temperature record of the past 1000 years have been disputed . Reconstructions have consistently shown that the rise in the instrumental temperature record of the past 150 years is not matched in earlier centuries , and the name `` hockey stick graph '' was coined for figures showing a long-term decline followed by an abrupt rise in temperatures . These graphs were publicised to explain the scientific findings of climatology , and in addition to scientific debate over the reconstructions , they have been the topic of political dispute . The issue is part of the global warming controversy and has been one focus of political responses to reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . The use of proxy indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed from the 1990s onwards , and found indications that recent warming was exceptional . The reconstruction introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large-scale reconstructions , and its findings were disputed by Patrick Michaels at the United States House Committee on Science . In 1998 , Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 . In ( MBH99 ) the methodology was extended back to 1000 . The term hockey stick was coined by the climatologist Jerry D. Mahlman , to describe the pattern this showed , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' , followed by a sharp increase corresponding to the `` blade '' . A version of this graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , along with four other reconstructions supporting the same conclusion . The graph was publicised , and became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th-century warmth was exceptional . Those disputing the graph included Pat Michaels , the George C. Marshall Institute and Fred Singer . A paper by Willie Soon and Sallie Baliunas claiming greater medieval warmth was used by the Bush administration chief of staff Philip Cooney to justify altering the first Environmental Protection Agency Report on the Environment . The paper was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy , but on July 28 , Republican Jim Inhofe spoke in the Senate citing it to claim `` that man-made global warming is the greatest hoax ever perpetrated on the American people '' . Later in 2003 , a paper by Steve McIntyre and Ross McKitrick disputing the data used in MBH98 paper was publicised by the George C. Marshall Institute and the Competitive Enterprise Institute . In 2004 , Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 , McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal component analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . The analysis therein was subsequently disputed by published papers , including and , which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . In June 2005 , Rep. Joe Barton launched what Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the House Science Committee , called a `` misguided and illegitimate investigation '' into the data , methods and personal information of Mann , Bradley and Hughes . At Boehlert 's request , a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council was set up , which reported in 2006 , supporting Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . Barton and U.S. Rep. Ed Whitfield requested Edward Wegman to set up a team of statisticians to investigate , and they supported McIntyre and McKitrick 's view that there were statistical failings , although they did not quantify whether there was any significant effect . They also produced an extensive network analysis which has been discredited by expert opinion and found to have issues of plagiarism . Arguments against the MBH studies were reintroduced as part of the Climatic Research Unit email controversy , but dismissed by eight independent investigations . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , have supported the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Over a dozen subsequent reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Hockey_stick_controversy", "rank": 19, "score": 94246 }, { "content": "Title: Millennial Harbinger Content: The Millennial Harbinger was a religious magazine established by the early Restoration Movement leader Alexander Campbell in 1830 . Campbell viewed the magazine as an important vehicle for promoting the religious reforms that he believed would help usher in the millennium .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Millennial_Harbinger", "rank": 20, "score": 92405 }, { "content": "Title: Yrjö Reenpää Content: Yrjö Reenpää ( Renqvist until 1935 ; 18 . July 1894 -- 18 . December 1976 , Helsinki , Finland ) was a Finnish physiologist and philosopher and professor of physiology in University of Helsinki . He developed general sensory physiology on the bases of Kantian epistemology , psycho-physics and phenomenology .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Yrjö_Reenpää", "rank": 21, "score": 92372 }, { "content": "Title: New Rural Reconstruction Movement Content: New Rural Reconstruction ( NRR , ) is an intellectual current and social movement initiated by Wen Tiejun and other activists to address the crisis they saw in the Chinese countryside at the start of the 21st century . As of 2009 , at its core there are several NGOs and academic institutions , dozens of rural cooperatives and associations , and hundreds of self-conscious participants ( including academics , social workers , student volunteers , and grassroots activists ) . More broadly , the ideas and spirit of NRR have influenced a growing movement of rural experimentation , including many activists who do not use the term `` NRR . ''", "qid": "3111", "docid": "New_Rural_Reconstruction_Movement", "rank": 22, "score": 92121 }, { "content": "Title: Michael Ljunggren Content: Per Michael `` Joe '' Ljunggren ( March 22 , 1962 -- July 17 , 1995 ) was a Swedish mobster and President of the Bandidos Motorcycle Club 's Swedish chapters . Ljunggren co-founded White Trash MC , Sweden 's first `` outlaw '' motorcycle club , with Jan `` Face '' Krogh Jensen in the mid-1980s . He then became a member of the Helsingborg-based club Morbids MC , which was eventually patched-over by the Bandidos , making him a founding member of the Bandidos first Swedish chapter , where he went on to become National President . On July 17 , 1995 , he was returning from a visit to Finnish club Undertakers MC in Helsinki with Jan Jensen , a former Hells Angels member who crossed over to the Bandidos . The pair boarded a ferry to Stockholm then rode their Harley-Davidson motorcycles in the direction of Helsingborg . Jensen 's motorcycle broke down in Ljungby , however , and Ljunggren continued the journey alone . He was shot by a sniper while riding his motorcycle on the E4 motorway , south of Markaryd , Småland . He then fell from his bike and was run over by a car . An ambulance took him to a nearby hospital , with doctors initially thinking a simple road accident had occurred . Only at the hospital did it become clear that he had been shot several times by a rifle . He was wearing a flak vest , but one of the shots penetrated the armour , striking him in the back and killing him . Although no-one was ever charged with his murder , it is widely believed that he was killed by a Hells Angels member in relation to the Great Nordic Biker War .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Michael_Ljunggren", "rank": 23, "score": 91785 }, { "content": "Title: Fredrik Ljungström Content: Fredrik Ljungström ( 16 June 1875 in Stockholm -- 18 February 1964 in Stockholm ) was a Swedish engineer , technical designer , and industrialist . Considered one of the foremost inventors of Sweden , he accounted for hundreds of innovative technical patents alone , and in collaboration with his brother Birger Ljungström ( 1872 -- 1948 ) : from early bicycling free wheeling hubs techniques and mechanical automatic transmissions for vehicles , to historical steam turbines , innovative air preheaters , and circular arc hulls for sailing boats . He co-founded companies such as Ljungström Steam Turbine Co. and Swedish Turbine Manufacturing Co. , apart from associations with other industrialists including Gustaf de Laval , Alfred Nobel , and John D. Rockefeller . As innovative as his ideas were in function , they also often turned out in terms of unconventional external design , such as his Ljungström steam turbine locomotives and Ljungström sailboats . During the resource scarcity of World War II , Fredrik Ljungström 's innovative technology for oil shale underground gasification by electrical energy provided a significant strategical impact for the Royal Swedish Navy and Air Force . In addition , Ljungström contributed to the first Swedish jet engine . With Fredrik Ljungström 's technology of the air preheater implemented in a vast amount of modern power stations around the world until this day with total attributed worldwide fuel savings estimated to 4,960,000,000 tons of oil , `` few inventions have been as successful in saving fuel as the Ljungström Air Preheater '' . In 1995 , the Ljungström Air Preheater was distinguished as the 44th International Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers . His works are represented in the Swedish National Museum of Science and Technology , the Nordic Museum , and the Swedish Railway Museum , among others .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Fredrik_Ljungström", "rank": 24, "score": 91153 }, { "content": "Title: Ett liv med dej Content: Ett liv med dej is a power ballad written by Ingela ` Pling ' Forsman , Bobby Ljunggren and Håkan Almqvist , and performed by Towe Jaarnek at Melodifestivalen 1991 , where it ended up second . The single peaked at 36th position at the Swedish singles chart . The song also stayed at Svensktoppen for 10 weeks between 21 April-25 August 1991 , peaking at third position .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Ett_liv_med_dej", "rank": 25, "score": 90625 }, { "content": "Title: Pseudoproxy Content: A pseudoproxy is a synthetic dataset used in paleoclimatology to test methods of reconstruction of global or hemispherical climate change from temperature records , developed for reconstructing the temperature record of the past 1000 years using proxies for periods before the instrumental temperature record . In May 2002 Michael E. Mann and Scott Rutherford published a paper introducing this method of adding artificial noise to actual temperature records or to climate model simulations to produce what they called `` pseudoproxies '' . When the reconstruction algorithms were used with these pseudoproxies , the result was then compared with the original record or simulation to see how closely it had been reconstructed . They discussed the issue that regression methods of reconstruction tended to underestimate the amplitude of variation .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Pseudoproxy", "rank": 26, "score": 89545 }, { "content": "Title: Leo Törnqvist Content: Leo Waldemar Törnqvist ( 1911 -- 1983 ) was one of the first professors of statistics in Finland . He taught at the University of Helsinki from 1950 to 1974 , and developed techniques that are used in official price and productivity statistics . Tornqvist developed an approach to creating weighted price indexes across discrete time periods using weighted averages of growth rates in prices where the weights were quantity averages across the two periods . These Törnqvist indexes are used in official price and productivity statistics in many countries . Törnqvist bought a Commodore VIC-20 about 1981 and asked his daughter Anna 's son , Linus Torvalds , to help him program it . Törnqvist wrote out BASIC language programs , and grandson Linus , aged about eleven , typed them in . `` He wanted me to share in the experience -LSB- and -RSB- get me interested in math , '' wrote Torvalds later . These were Linus 's first programming experiences . Ten years later , Torvalds began to write the Linux kernel . The Finnish Statistical Society gives a Leo Törnqvist Award for an outstanding master 's degree thesis in statistics completed in the last two years .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Leo_Törnqvist", "rank": 27, "score": 89217 }, { "content": "Title: Olle Eriksson (footballer, born 1918) Content: Olle Eriksson ( 18 December 1918 -- 4 January 2006 ) was a Swedish footballer and foremost known as manager . Ericsson discovered Nils Liedholm as well as trained Björn Nordqvist and Fredrik Ljungberg .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Olle_Eriksson_(footballer,_born_1918)", "rank": 28, "score": 88640 }, { "content": "Title: 2007 Tour of Ireland Content: The 2007 Tour of Ireland took place between 22 August to 26 August . It was the first Tour of Ireland race to take place in fifteen years , since 1992 . The overall classification was won by Belgian Stijn Vandenbergh who finished 20 seconds ahead of Swedish Marcus Ljungqvist . The weather for the 2007 Tour Of Ireland was warm and sunny .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "2007_Tour_of_Ireland", "rank": 29, "score": 88464 }, { "content": "Title: Osvald Almqvist Content: Osvald Almqvist ( 1884 -- 1950 ) was a Swedish architect , who was one of the pioneers of functionalism in Swedish architecture . His designs include those for hydro-electric power stations at Forshuvudfors ( 1917 -- 21 ) , Hammarfors ( 1925-28 ) and Krångfors ( 1925 -- 28 ) . Between 1939 and 1938 , Almqvist was in charge of the Stockholm Parks Department .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Osvald_Almqvist", "rank": 30, "score": 88308 }, { "content": "Title: Erland Almqvist Content: Erland H. L. Almqvist ( 2 September 1912 -- 20 September 1999 ) was a Swedish sailor who competed in the 1952 Summer Olympics . He was born in Stockholm . In 1952 he won the silver medal as crew member of the Swedish boat Tornado in the Dragon class . He died in Lidingö in 1999 .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Erland_Almqvist", "rank": 31, "score": 88163 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Hockey_stick_graph", "rank": 32, "score": 88013 }, { "content": "Title: Ludvig Almqvist Content: Ludvig Teodor Almqvist ( 4 January 1818 in Gränna , Sweden -- August 26 , 1884 on the island of Selaön ) , a Swedish politician , was the son of Sven Johan Almqvist , vicar and priest . He served as the Minister of Public Administration in Louis De Geer 's first cabinet ( 1856 -- 1860 ) . In 1867 , he was elected to be first deputy speaker of the Upper House of the Swedish Parliament . On November 2 , 1860 , he took his place as member of the Supreme Court of Sweden . In 1867 , he became Chief Justice of the Svea Court of Appeal ; in 1870 , he became a member of the Supreme Court of Sweden again . Almqvist served as Minister for Justice in Louis De Geer 's second cabinet ( 1879 -- 1880 ) . He was made Knight of the Order of the Seraphim in 1882 . On August 26 , 1884 he died at the Algö Estate on Selaön . Ludvig married Sophie Antoinette Eugenie Björkman in 1851 . Their daughter , Carolina `` Lina '' Almqvist , married Erik Gustaf Boström , who went on to become Prime Minister of Sweden . Ludvig 's brother , Johan Magnus Almqvist , was a theologian and politician , who served as a member of Parliament for the clergy , etc. . Category :1818 births Category :1884 deaths Category : Members of the Riksdag Category : Swedish Ministers for Justice Category : Justices of the Supreme Court of Sweden", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Ludvig_Almqvist", "rank": 33, "score": 87623 }, { "content": "Title: Charles Haldat Content: Charles Nicolas Alexandre Haldat du Lys ( 24 December 1770 -- 26 November 1852 ) was a French physicist who performed experimental work in hydrostatics . He was a critic of the reliability of Benjamin Thompson 's researches on the generation of heat , An Experimental Enquiry Concerning the Source of the Heat which is Excited by Friction .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Charles_Haldat", "rank": 34, "score": 87407 }, { "content": "Title: Axel Ljung Content: Harald Axel Fredrik Ljung ( 31 March 1884 -- 5 February 1938 ) was a Swedish gymnast and track and field athlete who won an all-around gold medal with the Swedish gymnastics team at the 1908 Summer Olympics . He also participated in the 100 m sprint , 100 m hurdles and standing long jump events at the 1906 Intercalated Games and finished fifth in the long jump .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Axel_Ljung", "rank": 35, "score": 87208 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years", "rank": 36, "score": 86590 }, { "content": "Title: L. A. Ramdas Content: L. A. Ramdas ( 1900 -- 1979 ) was an Indian physicist and meteorologist , known for discovering the atmospheric phenomenon of the Ramdas layer or Lifted Temperature Minimum where the lowest temperature in the atmosphere is not on the ground but a few tens of centimeters above the ground .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "L._A._Ramdas", "rank": 37, "score": 86511 }, { "content": "Title: Ride Tonight! Content: Ride Tonight ! ( Swedish : Rid i natt ) is a 1942 Swedish historical drama film directed by Gustaf Molander and starring Oscar Ljung , Gerd Hagman and Eva Dahlbeck . It is an adaptation of the 1941 novel Ride This Night by Vilhelm Moberg . The film , like the original novel , alluded directly to events in occupied Europe during the Second World War and helped to bolster anti-Nazi sentiment in neutral Sweden .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Ride_Tonight!", "rank": 38, "score": 86466 }, { "content": "Title: Birger Ljungström Content: Birger Ljungström ( 4 June 1872 -- 17 November 1948 ) was a Swedish engineer , technical designer , industrialist , and inventor . Together with his brother Fredrik Ljungström , he accounted for hundreds of patents .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Birger_Ljungström", "rank": 39, "score": 86231 }, { "content": "Title: Nu ska vi sjunga Content: Nu ska vi sjunga was published in 1943 by the Almqvist & Wiksell publishing company , and is a songbook for Swedish primary schools . Songs marked with * are meant to be sung in the third grade . The book was published on the iniatiative of Alice Tegnér .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Nu_ska_vi_sjunga", "rank": 40, "score": 86090 }, { "content": "Title: Kurt Almqvist Content: Kurt Almqvist ( 1912 -- 2001 ) was a Swedish poet , intellectual and spiritual figure , representative of the Traditionalist School and the Perennial philosophy . Almqvist was a lifelong disciple of the Swiss metaphysician and spiritual guide Frithjof Schuon . He came into close contact with the spiritual representatives of the Shadhiliyya order in the beginning of the 1940s . He introduced Schuon 's teachings on spirituality and transcendent unity of religions in a number of publications . He also introduced the works of René Guénon in his writings . He was a frequent contributor to the quarterly journal , Studies in Comparative Religion , which dealt with religious symbolism and the Traditionalist perspective . Almqvist received his doctorate in 1951 from Uppsala university on a dissertation concerning Guilhem Ademar , Poésies du troubadour Guilhem Adémar . He is the author of several essays and books in Swedish on religion and metaphysics , including four collections of poetry .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Kurt_Almqvist", "rank": 41, "score": 85548 }, { "content": "Title: Vaadjuv Nyqvist Content: Vaadjuv Dag Nyqvist ( October 5 , 1902 -- 9 May 1961 ) was a Norwegian sailor who competed in the 1936 Summer Olympics . In 1936 he won the silver medal as crew member of the Norwegian boat Lully II in the 6 metre class event .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Vaadjuv_Nyqvist", "rank": 42, "score": 85429 }, { "content": "Title: Ljungström Content: Ljungström is a Swedish family originating from Jönköping County , Småland , through the bailiff Johan Liungström ( died circa 1730 ) .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Ljungström", "rank": 43, "score": 84999 }, { "content": "Title: Millennial whoop Content: The Millennial Whoop is a term coined by musician Patrick Metzger to define a musical sequence repeating the fifth and third notes in a major scale , which according to Metzger has been extensively used in 2010s pop music to create instant and easy recognition . Metzger described the term first in a blog entry on ThePatterning.com in August 2016 , since then it has found widespread resonance in social and conventional media .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Millennial_whoop", "rank": 44, "score": 84700 }, { "content": "Title: Sven Ljungberg Content: Sven Ljungberg ( December 15 , 1913 -- July 28 , 2010 ) was a Swedish visual artist whose work was created predominantly in the genres of printmaking and painting , though his entire body of his work includes murals and mosaics . He was born in Ljungby , Sweden . Small town life in Sweden , specifically in Småland , located in the central southern part of Sweden , serves as the major theme in his work . His hometown of Ljungby , located in Småland , is specifically referenced throughout his work . His work is included in both the Moderna museet and Nationalmuseum in Stockholm , as well as museums in Växjö , Kalmar , and Jönköping . The village of Ljungby has also erected a museum , Ljungbergmuseet , to house his works . In addition to his larger work , Ljungberg has also created illustrations for several books , including many books by Ivar Lo-Johansson . Ljungberg served as Director of Konsthögskolan ( Royal University College of Fine Arts ) in Stockholm between 1972 and 1978 and subsequently as the school 's Rector from 1978 to 1981 . It was within this timeframe , 1977 -- 1981 , that Ljungberg held the distinguished honor of creating the certificates for the winners of the Nobel Prize in Physics , Chemistry , and Economics . He was married to artist Ann Margret Dahlquist-Ljungberg , with whom he had a son , Pontus Ljungberg , also an artist . Ljungberg died on July 28 , 2010 .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Sven_Ljungberg", "rank": 45, "score": 84304 }, { "content": "Title: Albrekt Almqvist Content: Albrekt Persson Almqvist ( November 14 , 1880 - April 10 , 1961 ) was a Swedish tug of war competitor who competed in the 1908 Summer Olympics . In 1908 he finished fourth with the Swedish team in the Olympic tug of war contest .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Albrekt_Almqvist", "rank": 46, "score": 84206 }, { "content": "Title: Michael E. Mann Content: Michael E. Mann ( born 1965 ) is an American climatologist and geophysicist , currently director of the Earth System Science Center at Pennsylvania State University , who has contributed to the scientific understanding of historic climate change based on the temperature record of the past thousand years . He has pioneered techniques to find patterns in past climate change , and to isolate climate signals from noisy data . As lead author of a paper produced in 1998 with co-authors Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes , Mann used advanced statistical techniques to find regional variations in a hemispherical climate reconstruction covering the past 600 years . In 1999 the same team used these techniques to produce a reconstruction over the past 1,000 years ( MBH99 ) which was dubbed the `` hockey stick graph '' because of its shape . He was one of eight lead authors of the `` Observed Climate Variability and Change '' chapter of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Third Scientific Assessment Report published in 2001 . A graph based on the MBH99 paper was highlighted in several parts of the report , and was given wide publicity . The IPCC acknowledged that his work , along with that of the many other lead authors and review editors , contributed to the award of the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , which was won jointly by the IPCC and Al Gore . Mann was organizing committee chair for the National Academy of Sciences Frontiers of Science in 2003 and has received a number of honors and awards including selection by Scientific American as one of the fifty leading visionaries in science and technology in 2002 . In 2012 he was inducted as a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union and was awarded the Hans Oeschger Medal of the European Geosciences Union . In 2013 he was elected a Fellow of the American Meteorological Society , and awarded the status of distinguished professor in Penn State 's College of Earth and Mineral Sciences . Mann is author of more than 200 peer-reviewed and edited publications . He has also published three books : Dire Predictions : Understanding Global Warming ( 2008 ) , The Hockey Stick and the Climate Wars : Dispatches from the Front Lines ( 2012 ) , and , together with co-author Tom Toles , The Madhouse Effect : How Climate Change Denial Is Threatening Our Planet , Destroying Our Politics , and Driving Us Crazy ( 2016 ) . In 2012 , the European Geosciences Union described his publication record as `` outstanding for a scientist of his relatively young age '' . Mann is also a co-founder and contributor to the climatology blog RealClimate .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Michael_E._Mann", "rank": 47, "score": 84109 }, { "content": "Title: Gordon Manley Content: Gordon Valentine Manley , FRGS ( 3 January 1902 -- 29 January 1980 ) was an English climatologist who has been described as `` probably the best known , most prolific and most expert on the climate of Britain of his generation '' . He assembled the Central England temperature ( CET ) series of monthly mean temperatures stretching back to 1659 , which is the longest standardised instrumental record available for anywhere in the world . It provides a benchmark for proxy records of climatic change for the period covered , and is a notable example of scientific scholarship and perseverance ( it took over thirty years to complete ) . His two papers describing the work are available online .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Gordon_Manley", "rank": 48, "score": 83816 }, { "content": "Title: Gunnar Ljungström Content: Gunnar Ljungström ( 1905-1999 ) was a Swedish engineer and technical designer . Gunnar Ljungström was the born in 1905 as son of the industrialist Fredrik Ljungström . His uncle was Birger Ljungström . After engagement in family-related businesses , Gunnar Ljungström became the head of Saab Automobile 's development team of the company 's firsts automobiles from the 1940s on , known for their aerodynamic technology and design .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Gunnar_Ljungström", "rank": 49, "score": 83803 }, { "content": "Title: Hanna Ljungberg Content: Hanna Carolina Ljungberg ( born January 8 , 1979 in Umeå , Västerbotten ) is a Swedish former football player , who played the position of forward . She played for the club side Umeå IK and for the Swedish national football team . She debuted for Sweden , at age 17 , on February 6 , 1996 where Sweden won 8-0 against Spain . She is not related to Swedish male football star Fredrik Ljungberg . Ljungberg is a fairly common Swedish surname formed by the words ljung ( English : calluna ) and berg ( English : mountain ) . Ljungberg can be seen in the Sveriges Television documentary television series The Other Sport from 2013 .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Hanna_Ljungberg", "rank": 50, "score": 83629 }, { "content": "Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Iris_hypothesis", "rank": 51, "score": 83419 }, { "content": "Title: Walter Lynwood Fleming Content: Walter Lynwood Fleming ( 1874 -- 1932 ) was an American historian of the South and Reconstruction . He was a leader of the Dunning School of scholars in the early 20th century , who addressed Reconstruction history using modern historiographical technique . He was a professor at Vanderbilt University from 1917 through his career , also serving as Dean of the School of Arts and Sciences , and Director of the Graduate School . A prolific writer , he published ten books and 166 articles and reviews .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Walter_Lynwood_Fleming", "rank": 52, "score": 82913 }, { "content": "Title: Rune Elmqvist Content: Rune Elmqvist ( 1906 -- 1996 ) developed the first implantable pacemaker in 1958 , working under the direction of Åke Senning , senior physician and cardiac surgeon at the Karolinska University Hospital in Solna , Sweden . Elmqvist initially worked as a medical doctor ( having trained in Lund ) , but later worked as an engineer and inventor . In 1948 , he developed the first inkjet ECG printer which he called the mingograph while working at Elema-Schönander , a company which later became Siemens-Elema . In 1957 , he received an honorary doctorate . In 1960 , he became Head of Development at Elema-Schönander . Siemens-Elema 's pacemaker operations were sold to the American company Pacesetter Systems in 1994 , which was subsequently sold to St Jude Medical .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Rune_Elmqvist", "rank": 53, "score": 82845 }, { "content": "Title: Reconstructed clothing Content: Reconstructed clothing is used or vintage clothing that has been redesigned and resewn into a new garment . Reconstructed clothing was trendy in the mid-2000s . The book Generation T ( 2006 ) , which gave instructions for `` 108 Ways to Transform a T-Shirt '' , was one example of this trend . The book included instructions for how to make halter tops , A-line skirts , and string bikinis out of T-shirts . In 2008 , Nicolay released another book entitled : Generation T-Beyond Fashion 120 More Ways to Transform Your T 's . This book had a bigger variety of projects including ones for children , men , and even pets . In March 2006 , the DIY group Compai released their first DIY clothing reconstruction book , 99 Ways to Cut , Sew , Trim , and Tie Your T-shirt Into Something Fabulous ! After this book 's release , Compai went on to release three more books about reconstructing jeans , sweaters and scarves . Reconstructed clothing is appealing because it allows the designer to `` stamp -LSB- their ideas -RSB- into an existing piece ... and come up with a totally different piece '' and because it makes the wearer 's clothing unique .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Reconstructed_clothing", "rank": 54, "score": 82492 }, { "content": "Title: 1972 Individual Speedway World Championship Content: The 1972 Individual Speedway World Championship . Attendance was estimated to be around 75,000 . In Heat 5 , former four-time champion Barry Briggs was involved in an accident which all but ended his speedway career . Going into the first turn his front wheel was hit by Bernt Persson 's bike which caused him to fall . He was then hit by the following Russian riders Grigory Khlinovsky and Valery Gordeev . Briggs suffered a severe hand injury and lost the index finger on his right hand which caused him to temporarily retire from racing . Briggs had been considered one of the pre-meeting favourites and his favouritism had been firmed when he had beaten fellow New Zealander Ivan Mauger in Heat 2 . To the boos of the 75,000 strong Wembley crowd , FIM referee Georg Traunspurger did not exclude Persson , a lucky break for the Swede as he would later go on to finish in second place after losing a runoff with Ivan Mauger who took out his fourth World Championship . Although the rider of the meeting was undoubtedly defending champion Ole Olsen . In his first ride ( Heat 4 ) while challenging Swede Christer Löfqvist for the lead after coming through from the back following a near crash in the first turn , he dramatically fell and would score no points . From there he was untroubled to win his next four rides to finish in a clear third place .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "1972_Individual_Speedway_World_Championship", "rank": 55, "score": 82466 }, { "content": "Title: Erik Sjöqvist Content: Erik Sjöqvist ( 15 July 1903 -- 16 July 1975 ) was the director of Swedish Cyprus Expedition and director of Swedish Institute at Rome , Italy and professor of classical archaeology at Princeton University . Sjöqvist joined the Princeton faculty in 1951 . His arrival at Princeton was heralded by the Princeton administration as a ripe opportunity for a revival of interest in Classical studies . Prior to coming to Princeton , Sjöqvist had conducted archaeological fieldwork in Cyprus . Sjöqvist was responsible for the inception of the Princeton excavations at Morgantina , Sicily , in 1955 together with Richard Stillwell . He was married to Gurli Sjöqvist . Sjöqvist also served as adviser to the Swedish Crown Prince , and later King , Gustaf VI Adolf .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Erik_Sjöqvist", "rank": 56, "score": 82156 }, { "content": "Title: Fredrik Hasselqvist Content: Fredrik Hasselquist ( 3 January 1722 -- 9 February 1752 ) was a Swedish traveller and naturalist . Hasselquist was born at Törnevalla , which is two kilometers east of Linghem , Östergötland . On account of the frequently expressed regrets of Carl Linnaeus , under whom he studied at Uppsala University ( and being of his apostles ) , at the lack of information regarding the natural history of Palestine , Hasselquist resolved to undertake a journey to that country . With a sufficient subscription having been obtained to defray expenses , he reached Smyrna towards the end of 1749 . He visited parts of Asia Minor , Egypt , Cyprus and Palestine , making large natural history collections , but his constitution , naturally weak , gave way under the fatigues of travel , and he died near Smyrna on his way home . His collections reached home in safety , and five years after his death his notes were published by Linnaeus under the title Iter Palæstinum , Eller Resa til Heliga Landet , Förrättad Ifrån år 1749 til 1752 , which was translated into French and German in 1762 and into English in 1766 ( as Voyages and Travels in the Levant , in the Years 1749 , 50 , 51 , 52 ) . He was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1750 .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Fredrik_Hasselqvist", "rank": 57, "score": 82156 }, { "content": "Title: Karlqvist gap Content: The Karlqvist gap or Karlqvist Field is an electromagnetic phenomenon discovered in 1953 by the Swedish engineer Olle Karlqvist ( 1922-1976 ) which is important in magnetic storage for computers . Karlqvist discovered the phenomenon while designing a ferromagnetic surface layer to the magnetic drum memory for the BESK computer . When designing a magnetic memory store , the ferromagnetic layer must be studied to determine the variation of the magnetic field with permeability , air gap , layer thickness and other influencing factors . The problem is non-linear and extremely difficult to solve . Karlqvist 's gap discovery shows that the non-linear problem could be approximated by a linear boundary value for the two-dimensional static field and the one-dimensional transient field . This linear calculation gives a first approximation . Karlqvist published his discovery in the 1954 paper `` Calculation of the magnetic field in ferromagnetic layer of a magnetic drum '' at Royal Institute of Technology ( KTH ) .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Karlqvist_gap", "rank": 58, "score": 82153 }, { "content": "Title: Ivan Rosenqvist Content: Ivan Rosenqvist ( 17 May 1916 -- 8 October 1994 ) was an Austrian-born Norwegian geologist . He was born in Vienna . His research focus centered on marine sediments . He was appointed professor of mineralogy and geology at the University of Oslo from 1965 to 1984 . During the German occupation of Norway , Rosenquist had a central position in the clandestine intelligence organization XU .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Ivan_Rosenqvist", "rank": 59, "score": 81653 }, { "content": "Title: Per Carlqvist Content: Per Carlqvist ( b. July 25 , 1938 in Stockholm , Sweden ) is a Swedish plasma physicist with an interest in astrophysical applications . In 1963 , he received the degree of civilingenjör from the Royal Institute of Technology , Stockholm , in 1970 the Tekn . lic. , and in 1980 the Tekn . D. He is currently affiliated with the Royal Institute of Technology , Stockholm , at the School of Electrical Engineering in the department of Space & Plasma Physics . He is the author of several papers on astrophysical plasmas , from the formation of stars , double layers , the Bennett Pinch , to interstellar helical filaments .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Per_Carlqvist", "rank": 60, "score": 81653 }, { "content": "Title: Kari Enqvist Content: Kari-Pekka Enqvist ( born February 16 , 1954 in Lahti , Finland ) is a professor of cosmology in the Department of Physical Sciences at the University of Helsinki . Enqvist was awarded his PhD in theoretical physics in 1983 . Enqvist is the chairman of the scientific advisory board of Skepsis ry ( a Finnish sceptics ' society ) and has written many books that popularize physics . In 1997 Enqvist was granted the Magnus Ehrnrooth Foundation Physics Award for his efforts in particle physics and cosmology . In 1999 , he was awarded the Tieto-Finlandia award , Finland 's most significant award for non-fiction , for his book Olemisen porteilla .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Kari_Enqvist", "rank": 61, "score": 81624 }, { "content": "Title: Paleoenzymology Content: Paleoenzymology ( British : palaeoenzymology ) is the study of prehistoric life through the properties of enzymes present in those organisms . Reconstruction of ancient enzymes is possible through Maximum Likelihood prediction of ancestral genes . In a recent study conducted by the Fernandez Lab at Columbia University , in collaboration with researchers at Georgia Institute of Technology and Universidad de Granada , these techniques were used to reconstruct thioredoxin enzymes from up to 4 billion year old organisms . Whereas the chemical activity of these reconstructed enzymes were remarkably similar to modern enzymes , their physical properties showed significantly elevated thermal and acidic stability . These results suggest that ancient life evolved in oceans that were much hotter and more acidic than today . This new research line is currently developed by Dr Raul Perez-Jimenez at CIC nanoGUNE ( Spain )", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Paleoenzymology", "rank": 62, "score": 81387 }, { "content": "Title: Dag Nätterqvist Content: Dag Nätterqvist ( 20 June 1922 -- 20 November 2009 ) was a Swedish horse rider . He competed in jumping at the 1960 Summer Olympics , but failed to finish . His son Ted and Ted 's wife Pia Levin Nätterqvist were also competitive equestrian jumpers , and his grandson Joakim is an actor .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Dag_Nätterqvist", "rank": 63, "score": 81342 }, { "content": "Title: Aarno Almqvist Content: Arno Axel Almqvist ( 23 September 1881 -- 5 March 1940 ) was a Finnish colonel and modern pentathlete .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Aarno_Almqvist", "rank": 64, "score": 81123 }, { "content": "Title: Hilma Granqvist Content: Hilma Natalia Granqvist ( 17 July 1890 Sipoo -- 25 February 1972 Helsinki ) was a Swedish-speaking Finnish anthropologist who conducted long field studies of Palestinians . She was a student of Edvard Westermarck .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Hilma_Granqvist", "rank": 65, "score": 81111 }, { "content": "Title: Ernfrid Appelqvist Content: Ernst Oscar Ernfrid Appelqvist ( June 15 , 1888 -- January 1966 ) was a Swedish diver who competed in the 1912 Summer Olympics . He finished fifth in his first round heat of the 3 metre springboard event and did not advance to the final . Category :1888 births Category :1966 deaths Category : Swedish male divers Category : Olympic divers of Sweden Category : Divers at the 1912 Summer Olympics Category : Date of death missing Category : Place of death missing Category : Place of birth missing", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Ernfrid_Appelqvist", "rank": 66, "score": 81097 }, { "content": "Title: Harry Nyquist Content: Harry Nyquist ( né Harry Theodor Nyqvist -LSB- ˈnaɪkwɪst -RSB- , -LSB- nyːkvɪst -RSB- ; February 7 , 1889 -- April 4 , 1976 ) was a Swedish born American electronic engineer who made important contributions to communication theory .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Harry_Nyquist", "rank": 67, "score": 81093 }, { "content": "Title: Yamaha YZM500 Content: The Yamaha YZM500 was the best known aluminium-framed race bike . It also had the distinction of being the only water-cooled , open class , two-stroke bike . The YZM500 only raced for two years ( 1987-1988 ) by riders Leif Persson , Kurt Ljungqvist and Jacky Vimond . There were also a coupled used for beach races . Only eight complete YZM500s were ever made , six in 1987 and two more for the 1988 season .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Yamaha_YZM500", "rank": 68, "score": 81085 }, { "content": "Title: League for Socialist Reconstruction Content: League for Socialist Reconstruction ( LSR ) was a DeLeonist political organization with sections in New York City and Michigan . Joseph Brandon , Louis Lazarowitz , Sam Brandon and other LSR members had been active in the Industrial Union Party after mass expulsion of the Socialist Labor Party 's Section Bronx during the 1920s . The LSR organ , The Socialist Republic , was published until 1980 . At a Unity Conference in Ypsilanti , Michigan from 22 August through 24 August 1980 , LSR fused with the New Unionist group of Minneapolis to create the New Union Party .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "League_for_Socialist_Reconstruction", "rank": 69, "score": 80709 }, { "content": "Title: Millennial Anniversary of Hanoi Content: The Millennial Anniversary of Hanoi ( Đại lễ 1000 năm Thăng Long -- Hà Nội ) was celebrated from 1 to 10 October 2010 , the 1,000 th anniversary of the foundation of the capital Thăng Long by the emperor Lý Thái Tổ . There were many events that were held in 2009 and 2010 to commemorate the Millennial Anniversary including cultural and traditional festivals , inaugurations of major projects of Hanoi among others .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Millennial_Anniversary_of_Hanoi", "rank": 70, "score": 80649 }, { "content": "Title: Millennial (podcast) Content: Millennial is an independently produced podcast created by Megan Tan that focuses on the transition between university and work , `` how to maneuver your twenties '' . It explores the subject of finding meaningful and fulfilling work with the pressures of money , status and self worth . The podcast is autobiographical and includes interviews with people in Tan 's life including family members , coworkers and friends . The series began in 2015 as Tan has left college and was unemployed living in her childhood home . In 2016 Millennial joined Radiotopia becoming the 14th show in the network .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Millennial_(podcast)", "rank": 71, "score": 80390 }, { "content": "Title: August Ferdinand Möbius Content: August Ferdinand Möbius ( -LSB- ˈmɜːbiəs -RSB- or -LSB- ˈmoʊbiəs -RSB- -LSB- ˈmøːbi̯ʊs -RSB- ; 17 November 1790 -- 26 September 1868 ) was a German mathematician and theoretical astronomer .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "August_Ferdinand_Möbius", "rank": 72, "score": 80231 }, { "content": "Title: Ester Ellqvist Content: Ester Ellqvist ( sometimes spelled Esther Ellqvist ) ( 4 August 1880 -- 20 November 1918 ) was a Swedish artist , model and wife of John Bauer , who was a painter and illustrator . She studied at the Royal Swedish Academy of Arts and spent one year studying art in southern Germany and Italy with her husband . She died in 1918 with her husband and three-year-old son when the boat that they sailed on sunk , killing all 24 people on board .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Ester_Ellqvist", "rank": 73, "score": 80195 }, { "content": "Title: Gyrd Løfqvist Content: Gyrd Løfqvist ( 2 June 1921 -- 1 May 2012 ) was a Danish film actor . He appeared in more than sixty films from 1945 to 2006 .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Gyrd_Løfqvist", "rank": 74, "score": 80110 }, { "content": "Title: Bo Almqvist Content: Bo Gunnar Almqvist ( 5 May 1931 - 9 November 2013 ) was a Swedish academic and folklorist .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Bo_Almqvist", "rank": 75, "score": 80069 }, { "content": "Title: Center for Millennial Studies Content: The Center for Millennial Studies is a scholarly institute at Boston University devoted to studying millennial , millenarian , and apocalyptic movements , groups , and individuals throughout history and on the contemporary scene . Boston University professor Richard Landes currently serves as director of the center .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Center_for_Millennial_Studies", "rank": 76, "score": 79970 }, { "content": "Title: Generationism Content: Generationism is the belief that a specific generation has inherent traits which may be labeled inferior or superior to the traits of another generation . The term is usually applied to claims of superiority in the expressed values , valuations , lifestyles and general beliefs of one generation compared to those of another , where objectively verifiable criteria substantiating the claim of superiority in themselves are lacking . Generationism is most commonly used as an accusation against the belief that the contemporary generation in itself is inherently superior to previous generations , for example through the common practice of pejoratively referring to ancient cultures as `` primitive '' -- not to be confused with the positive label of primitivism -- although an older generation 's opposition to the values and lifestyles of a younger generation may also popularly be referred to as generationist . Generationism as a recurring sociological phenomenon has been studied in detail by the Swedish philosophers Alexander Bard and Jan Söderqvist in their work `` The Global Empire '' ( published in Swedish in 2003 ) . Bard and Söderqvist regard generationism as a close but far less frequently analyzed relative of racism which they propose should be studied in more detail to strengthen the general argumentation for relativism and pragmatism in contemporary philosophy .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Generationism", "rank": 77, "score": 79879 }, { "content": "Title: Sommaren i city Content: Sommaren i city ( 1990 ) is a song written by Bobby Ljunggren , Håkan Almqvist and Eva Lindblad , and recorded by Angel , scoring a 1991 hit releasing it as a single as well as the 1992 album Äventyr i natten . The song also became a Svensktoppen success , where it stayed for 12 weeks between 1 September-17 November 1991 , peaking at third position . The song was also recorded by Lollipops on the 2001 album Vårat sommarlov. , and with Markus Landgren , Hannah Westin and Ida Hellberg from Fame Factory in 2003 . The song has also been recorded with sitar and bhangra drums ( 2004 ) .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Sommaren_i_city", "rank": 78, "score": 79833 }, { "content": "Title: Theodore Brameld Content: Theodore Brameld ( 20 January 1904 -- 1987 ) was a leading philosopher and educator who supported the educational philosophy of social reconstructionism . His philosophy originated in 1928 when he enrolled as a doctoral student at the University of Chicago in the field of philosophy where he trained under the progressive philosopher and politician , T.V. Smith . After becoming intrigued by John Dewey 's philosophy of education , Brameld developed his own theory of schools being the ultimate source to bring about political and social change .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Theodore_Brameld", "rank": 79, "score": 79801 }, { "content": "Title: Freddie Ljungberg Content: Karl Fredrik `` Freddie '' Ljungberg ( -LSB- ˈfreːdrɪk ˈjɵŋ.ˈbærj -RSB- ) ( born 16 April 1977 in Vittsjö , Sweden ) is a Swedish former footballer who played as a winger . He currently works as the assistant manager of VfL Wolfsburg . He began his career at Halmstads BK and went on to spend most of his career at Arsenal , where he won honours including two Premier League titles and three FA Cups , scoring in two finals including the victory in 2002 . After leaving Arsenal in 2007 , he had short spells at a number of clubs in England , Scotland , the United States , Japan and India . An international for a full decade , Ljungberg earned 75 caps and was captain of the Swedish national team until he announced his international retirement after UEFA Euro 2008 . Ljungberg was a model for Calvin Klein underwear until 2007 . He previously represented brands such as Nike , Procter & Gamble , L'Oreal , Puma , Beats , ESPN and Pepsi .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Freddie_Ljungberg", "rank": 80, "score": 79758 }, { "content": "Title: Ljungström rig Content: Ljungström rig is the name for the sailing rig designed by Swedish engineer Fredrik Ljungström with double main sails and rotating mast , but without boom , foresail , forestay and shroud . The early models of the Ljungström sailboat had a stern stay but this was omitted around 1945 , before the model 12 ( Vingen 12 ) . The Ljungström rig is competitive towards the competing rigs from that time when close hauled and full run but is lacking at beam reach and broad reach . Its main purpose and advantage is , however , safety and ease of handling .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Ljungström_rig", "rank": 81, "score": 79732 }, { "content": "Title: Casten Almqvist Content: Casten Åke Loritz Almqvist , ( born 17 March 1962 in Stockholm ) , is a Swedish CEO for the TV4-group consisting of the channels owned by TV4 . He has that position since 2011 . He graduated from Journalisthögskolan in Stockholm in 1986 . He started working for Bonnier in 2008 , he then became CEO of Bonnier Business Press and later Dagens Industri . He is a member of the board for C More , Nyhetsbolaget and the Finnish media group MTV3 and MTV Media . He has also been the CEO for McCann-Erickson and MTG which has the channels TV3 , TV6 ad ZTV . Carsten Almqvist has also worked as a journalist and television producer for Strix Television and SVT . He has as well tried on being a television presenter by presenting one episode of the TV4 Morning show Nyhetsmorgon in 2016 .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Casten_Almqvist", "rank": 82, "score": 79647 }, { "content": "Title: Anders Almqvist Content: Anders Conrad Wilhelm Almqvist ( 2 July 1885 -- 30 November 1915 ) was a Swedish rower who competed in the 1912 Summer Olympics . He was a member of the Swedish boat Göteborgs that was eliminated in the first round of the eights tournament .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Anders_Almqvist", "rank": 83, "score": 79527 }, { "content": "Title: Carl Jonas Love Almqvist Content: thumb | right | Painted by Almqvist , 1823 Carl Jonas Love Ludvig Almqvist ( 28 November 1793 in Stockholm , Sweden -- 26 September 1866 in Bremen , Germany ) , was a romantic poet , early feminist , realist , composer , social critic , and traveller .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Carl_Jonas_Love_Almqvist", "rank": 84, "score": 79517 }, { "content": "Title: William Richard Peltier Content: William Richard Peltier , Ph.D. , D.Sc . ( hc ) ( born 1943 ) , is a university professor of physics at the University of Toronto . He is director of the Centre for Global Change Science , principal investigator of the Polar Climate Stability Network , and the Scientific Director of Canada 's largest supercomputer centre , SciNet . He is a fellow of the Royal Society of Canada and of the American Geophysical Union . His research interests include : atmospheric and oceanic waves and turbulence , geophysical fluid dynamics , physics of the planetary interior , and planetary climate . He is notable for his involvement in global glacial reconstructions from the last glacial maximum to present . He has been a major ( or the primary ) contributor to the global reconstructions ICE-3G , ICE-4G , ICE-5G ( VM2 ) , and the upcoming ICE-6G ( VM5 ) ( in press ) . These models are important for the quantification of post-glacial rebound and late Pleistocene to Holocene variations in sea level .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "William_Richard_Peltier", "rank": 85, "score": 79427 }, { "content": "Title: Lennart Ljung (general) Content: Karl Hilmer Lennart Ljung ( 13March 1921 -- 19November 1990 ) was a Swedish Army general and Supreme Commander of the Swedish Armed Forces from 1978 to 1986 . During Ljung 's eight years as Supreme Commander many events of importance for Swedish security and defense policy occurred . Sweden had five different governments under four prime ministers from different political sides . Olof Palme was murdered , the submarine incidents culminated with the Soviet submarine U 137 running aground in Karlskrona and the decision of developing a new fighter aircraft came through .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Lennart_Ljung_(general)", "rank": 86, "score": 79418 }, { "content": "Title: Johan Magnus Almqvist Content: Johan Magnus Almqvist ( September 6 , 1799 -- October 9 , 1873 ) was a Swedish theologian . He was born in Stockholm , Sweden . Category : Swedish theologians Category :1799 births Category :1873 deaths Category :19 th-century Protestant theologians", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Johan_Magnus_Almqvist", "rank": 87, "score": 79189 }, { "content": "Title: Karl Ljungberg Content: Karl Johan Ljungberg ( November 22 , 1868 , Stockholm -- July 11 , 1943 Stockholm ) was a sailor from Sweden , who represented his native country at the 1908 Summer Olympics in Ryde , Isle of Wight , Great Britain in the 8 Metre .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Karl_Ljungberg", "rank": 88, "score": 79134 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric Circulation Reconstructions over the Earth Content: The Atmospheric Circulation Reconstructions over the Earth , ACRE , is an international science project , began in 2008 , that recovers historical weather observations to reconstruct past global and local weather patterns and so support meteorological reanalysis . The project aims to collect weather data from the past 250 years by linking international meteorological organisations to support data recovery projects and the imaging and digitisation of historical meteorological observations made at , for example , inland stations , lighthouses , or by ships at sea or in ports . The project aims to create historical datasets that are spatially and temporally complete , so as to be of value at a local , or regional level , as well as on a global scale . ACRE aims to recover millions of historic weather observations . This data will be deposited into two databases , ISPD - the International Surface Pressure Databank , ICOADS - the International Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set . This data will also be used to build a global dataset of historical weather reconstructions based on a grid of two degrees of latitude by two of longitude at six hourly intervals , entitled the 20th Century Reanalysis , or 20CR . Version one of 20CR , covering 1891 to 2008 , was released in Autumn 2009 . Version two , covering 1871 to 2010 , appeared in December 2011 . Plans for a third version , covering 1850 to 2011 , have been put ` on hold ' following a cut in the budget of NOAA . It is intended that all the data recovered and the 20CR will be made freely available .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Atmospheric_Circulation_Reconstructions_over_the_Earth", "rank": 89, "score": 78999 }, { "content": "Title: Martin Ljung Content: Martin Vilhelm Ljung ( 15 August 1917 , in Notviken , Luleå -- 30 September 2010 , in Stockholm ) was a Swedish comedian , actor and singer . An apprentice blacksmith turned entertainer , his movie debut was in the 1947 movie Tappa inte sugen starring Nils Poppe . Ljung worked together with Povel Ramel for many years , and acted and sang in several of Ramel 's revues , where he also performed comic monologues , including Ester and Fingal Olsson , which have become Swedish comedy classics . He also worked with Hasse Alfredson and Tage Danielsson , both in revues such as Spader , Madame ! and Glaset i Örat ( The Glass in the Ear ) and movies such as The Apple War .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Martin_Ljung", "rank": 90, "score": 78994 }, { "content": "Title: Al Duncan Content: Al Duncan is a youth advocate , educator and publisher . Recognized as an authority on the millennial generation , Duncan has spoken to more than one million youth around the world . Duncan has received the President 's Volunteer Service Award , and the National PTA Lifetime Achievement Award for his outstanding service in the fields of youth development and youth empowerment .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Al_Duncan", "rank": 91, "score": 78979 }, { "content": "Title: Gerald North Content: Gerald R. North ( June 26 , 1938 -- ) is Distinguished Professor and Holder of the Harold J. Haynes Endowed Chair in Geosciences at Texas A&M University , and previous Head of the Department of Atmospheric Sciences . His interests include climate change using simplified climate models . North was born in Sweetwater , Tennessee to Sanford and Marjorie Hill North . He grew up in nearby Knoxville and received his Bachelor 's Degree in physics from the University of Tennessee . In 1966 , he earned a Ph.D. in Physics from the University of Wisconsin -- Madison . After a two year post-doc at the University of Pennsylvania , he obtained a tenure track position at the University of Missouri-St . Louis leading to full professor . He spent 1974 -- 75 as a Senior Visiting Scientist at the National Center for Atmospheric Research . He moved to NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in 1978 where he was the initial proposer and first Study Scientist for the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission . He joined Texas A&M University in 1986 . In 2005 to 2006 he chaired a United States National Research Council committee investigating surface temperature reconstructions for the last 2,000 years , set up at the request of Representative Sherwood Boehlert , chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Science . Their report , published in July 2006 , is known as the North Report . He is the 2008 recipient of the Jule Charney Award of the American Meteorological Society . His sons , Joel North and Paul North , play in the Denton , Texas based indie band Sleep Whale on Western Vinyl records . He currently lives in Bryan , Texas with his wife Laura .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Gerald_North", "rank": 92, "score": 78959 }, { "content": "Title: Bengt-Olov Palmqvist Content: Bengt-Olov Palmqvist -LSB- bɛŋkt - olov palmqvist -RSB- is a Swedish-Australian musicologist and music theorist , with particular expertise on the subject of rhythm , within music theory . He has published a series of work-books titled `` Refinement of Rhythm '' , that are used widely as resources for rhythmic dictation , grounding and research . He is also noted among musicians in Australia for his choral conducting , composing and jazz arranging skills .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Bengt-Olov_Palmqvist", "rank": 93, "score": 78953 }, { "content": "Title: Ingrid Almqvist Content: Ingrid Margareta Almqvist ( born 10 October 1927 ) is a retired Swedish javelin thrower . She competed at the 1948 , 1956 and 1960 Summer Olympics and finished in 10th , 5th and 14th place , respectively . She placed 8th -- 10th at the European championships of 1950 -- 1958 . Almqvist won 15 Swedish javelin titles in 1947 , 1949 -- 52 and 1954 -- 64 . Besides athletics , she played 11 international handball matches for Sweden and competed nationally in fencing .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Ingrid_Almqvist", "rank": 94, "score": 78897 }, { "content": "Title: Ett litet rött paket Content: Ett litet rött paket is a Christmas song with lyrics and music by Owe Thörnqvist . Owe Thörnqvist recorded the song in 1957 , and became a 1963 hit when Sven-Ingvars recorded it . The song lyrics describe Owe Thörnqvist 's hometown Uppsala , mentioning the Konditorei of Ofvandahls . Owe Thörnqvist and Sven-Ingvars sang different lyrics . Owe Thörnqvist sang När ljusen tändas i december månad ( `` When the candles are lit in the month of December '' ) while Sven-Ingvars originally sang När ljusen tändas i februari månad . ( `` When the candles are lit in the month of February '' ) In 2008 Lasse Stefanz recorded the song on the album Svängjul .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Ett_litet_rött_paket", "rank": 95, "score": 78844 }, { "content": "Title: Bertil Almqvist Content: Allan Bertil Almqvist ( 29 August 1902 -- 16 May 1972 ) , nicknamed Bertila and Trallgöken , was a Swedish author and illustrator .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Bertil_Almqvist", "rank": 96, "score": 78825 }, { "content": "Title: Carl Gustaf Hellqvist Content: Carl Gustaf Hellqvist ( 15 December 1851 -- 19 November 1890 ) was one of Sweden 's most popular historical painters in the 19th century . He was born in 1851 in Kungsör , between Arboga and Eskilstuna at Lake Mälaren , Sweden , where he grew up and went to school . In 1864 Hellqvist started to study art at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Stockholm , and in 1875 he was awarded the Royal Academy 's highest prize for his painting `` Gustaf I anklagar Peder Sunnanväder och Mäster Knut inför domkapitlet i Västerås '' . Two years later in 1877 Hellqvist was awarded a travelling scholarship from the Academy , and he travelled around the European continent . He moved together with his fiancée , Julie , to Munich in 1879 . In 1882 he and Julie got married , and they left for Paris , where Hellqvist earlier had been present at the Paris Salon with his oil painting `` The Death of Sten Sture the Younger on the Ice of Lake Mälaren , 1520 '' ( Swedish , `` Sten Sture d y : s död på Mälarens is 1520 '' ) . In August 1882 he was awarded the gold medal for his magnificent historical painting `` Valdemar Atterdag Holding Visby to Ransom , 1361 '' ( Swedish , `` Valdemar Atterdag brandskattar Visby 1361 '' ) in Vienna , Austria . Hellqvist suffered from painful head aches which forced him to take a leave from his teaching at Königliche akademische Hochschule für die bildende Künste in 1886 . He ended his period of historical painting at the same time . In 1889 Hellqvist 's disease was treated with electroconvulsive treatment , and he was ordered on a diet . In 1890 it was announced that Hellqvist 's studio-objects were to be sold . Probably the most famous photograph of his studio was taken at the same time , which shows how a historical painter 's studio looked like during the late 19th century . From March 1889 he stayed in a mental hospital in Munich , and he died there on 19 November 1890 at the age of 38 . He was buried in Munich .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Carl_Gustaf_Hellqvist", "rank": 97, "score": 78782 }, { "content": "Title: Kärleken är Content: `` Kärleken är '' ( literally , The love is , English title : `` Eternal Love '' ) is a ballad in Swedish about love . It was written by Ingela Forsman , Bobby Ljunggren and Håkan Almqvist . The song was sung by Swedish pop and country singer Jill Johnson in the Swedish Melodifestivalen 1998 , where it won and competed for Sweden in the Eurovision Song Contest 1998 . It finished 10th with 53 points . It was the last Swedish entry in the Eurovision Song Contest sung in Swedish . Although lyricist Ingela `` Pling '' Forsman did not comment on the background of the song when it won Melodifestivalen and competed at Eurovision , she has since confirmed that the lyrics indeed were inspired by the aftermath of the death of Diana , Princess of Wales in a car accident in France in 1997 . The chorus in Swedish translates as ; `` An angel flew by on her way to heaven , so free , but she left her smile here on earth - like a warming sun , like heavenly starlight , so that we can contemplate life and its events with a faith ; love is ... ''", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Kärleken_är", "rank": 98, "score": 78756 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature's Rising (song) Content: `` Temperature 's Rising '' is the third single from Mobb Deep 's 2nd album , The Infamous . The song is in the form of a letter to an associate that is hiding from the police , who went by the name Killa Black , he was also the older brother of Havoc . Killa Black , according to Prodigy in his 2011 autobiography `` My Infamous Life : The Autobiography of Mobb Deep 's Prodigy '' , murdered a man over Walkman speakers , & Havoc hid Killa Black 's gun in his basket of clothes . In the song , the narrator reveals that he is covering up evidence of his imprisoned friends ' criminal actions , and speaks of his paranoia , fearing that the police are closing in on him . It contains a sample of `` Where There Is Love '' by Patrice Rushen . A few years after the song was released , Killa Black committed suicide , in his mother 's bathroom , from a self-inflicted gunshot wound to the head after coming home for the murder that is mentioned in the song . After being released , Killa Black became a Muslim . The B-side is `` Give Up the Goods ( Just Step ) '' . There is a remix to the single , also produced by Q-Tip , that utilizes the same Patrice Rushen sample that is used on the album version . The original version of the song was produced by Mobb Deep .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Temperature's_Rising_(song)", "rank": 99, "score": 78740 }, { "content": "Title: Frans Wilhelm Lindqvist Content: Frans Wilhelm Lindqvist ( 1862 -- 1931 ) was a Swedish inventor . He designed the first sootless kerosene stove , operated by compressed air . He started a company , Primus , to manufacture and sell the Primus stove . Lindqvist was born in Västergötland , and lived in Gothenburg for a few years before moving to Stockholm , where he started to work in the AB Separator factory . Inspired by a workmate , he and his brother were able to design a new kind of burner for kerosene stoves . By vaporising the kerosene before it reached the burner , their construction had a sootless , smokeless , hot flame . Lindqvist started selling his stove on a small-scale basis , but the business soon grew . The product and the company were dubbed Primus . Together with a companion , Johan Victor Svensson , Lindqvist started industrial production in 1892 . With the help of marketing firm B.A. Hjorth & Co sales grew , and soon the Primus stove was exported abroad . In the 1910s , more than half a million stoves were made annually . In 1930 , more than 500 people worked at the Primus factory , on the Stockholm island Lilla Essingen . Among them were Per Albin Hansson , future Prime Minister of Sweden . In 1984 , the Primus stove was depicted on a Swedish stamp , commemorating the one hundredth anniversary of the Swedish patent system .", "qid": "3111", "docid": "Frans_Wilhelm_Lindqvist", "rank": 100, "score": 78728 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Medieval Warm Period Content: The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Medieval_Warm_Period", "rank": 1, "score": 280060 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years", "rank": 2, "score": 205087 }, { "content": "Title: Description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports Content: The description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in IPCC reports has changed since the first report in 1990 as scientific understanding of the temperature record of the past 1000 years has improved . The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) and Little Ice Age ( LIA ) are the best-known temperature fluctuations in the last millennium . Critics of the `` hockey stick graph '' of all subsequent reports have claimed that the record of the MWP and LIA were suppressed in the IPCC Third Assessment Report , although every report has discussed the phenomena .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Description_of_the_Medieval_Warm_Period_and_Little_Ice_Age_in_IPCC_reports", "rank": 3, "score": 189613 }, { "content": "Title: MWP Content: MWp or MWP may refer to : Mega Watt peak , a solar power measure in photo-voltaic ( PV ) industry to describe a unit 's nominal power Medieval Warm Period , a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region Metta World Peace , a professional basketball player formerly known as Ron Artest", "qid": "3112", "docid": "MWP", "rank": 4, "score": 169268 }, { "content": "Title: Polar High Content: The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex . Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' . Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Polar_High", "rank": 5, "score": 149052 }, { "content": "Title: Western Hemisphere Warm Pool Content: The Western Hemisphere Warm Pool ( WHWP ) is a region of sea surface temperatures ( SST ) warmer than 28.5 ° C that develops west of Central America in the spring , then expands to the tropical waters to the east . The WHWP includes the tropical Atlantic Ocean ( TNA ) east of the Lesser Antilles , Caribbean Sea , Gulf of Mexico , and eastern north Pacific Ocean ( ENP ) . A WHWP heating cycle begins with warmth in the eastern North Pacific in the spring . A dipole pattern off Central America appears due to surges of cooler , drier air through the gap at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec . During spring , the warm pools grow and merge . Their warmth and moisture feed the Mexican monsoon . By summer , the warmth spreads across the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean areas .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Western_Hemisphere_Warm_Pool", "rank": 6, "score": 142275 }, { "content": "Title: Younger Dryas Content: The Younger Dryas is a geological period from c. 12,900 to c. 11,700 calendar years ago ( BP ) . It is named after an indicator genus , the alpine-tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala . Leaves of Dryas octopetala are occasionally abundant in the Late Glacial , often minerogenic-rich , like the lake sediments of Scandinavian lakes . The Younger Dryas saw a sharp decline in temperature over most of the northern hemisphere , at the end of the Pleistocene epoch , immediately before the current warmer Holocene . It was the most recent and longest of several interruptions to the gradual warming of the Earth 's climate since the severe Last Glacial Maximum , c. 27,000 to 24,000 calendar years BP . The change was relatively sudden , taking place in decades , and resulted in a decline of 2 to 6 degrees Celsius , advances of glaciers and drier conditions , over much of the temperate northern hemisphere . It is thought to have been caused by a decline in the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation , which transports warm water from the equator towards the North Pole , and which in turn is thought to have been caused by an influx of fresh cold water from North America into the Atlantic . The Younger Dryas was a period of climatic change , but the effects were complex and variable . In the southern hemisphere , and some areas of the north such as southeastern North America , there was a slight warming . The presence of a distinct cold period at the end of the Late Glacial interval has been known for a long time . Paleobotanical and lithostratigraphic studies of Swedish and Danish bog and lake sites , e.g. the Allerød clay pit in Denmark , first recognized and described the Younger Dryas . The Younger Dryas is the youngest and longest of three stadials that resulted from typically abrupt climatic changes that took place over the last 16,000 calendar years . Within the Blytt-Sernander classification of north European climatic phases , the prefix ` Younger ' refers to the recognition that this original ` Dryas ' period was preceded by a warmer stage , the Allerød oscillation , which in turn was preceded by the Older Dryas around 14,000 calendar years BP . This is not securely dated , and estimates vary by 400 years , but it is generally accepted that it lasted around 200 years . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and more extensive than during the Younger Dryas . The Older Dryas , in turn , is preceded by another warmer stage , the Bølling oscillation that separates it from a third and even older stadial . This stadial is often , but not always , known as the Oldest Dryas . The Oldest Dryas occurred approximately 1,770 calendar years before the Younger Dryas and lasted about 400 calendar years . According to the GISP2 ice core from Greenland , the Oldest Dryas occurred between about 15,070 and 14,670 calendar years BP . In Ireland , the Younger Dryas has also been known as the Nahanagan Stadial , while in Great Britain it has been called the Loch Lomond Stadial . In the Greenland Summit ice core chronology , the Younger Dryas corresponds to Greenland Stadial 1 ( GS-1 ) . The preceding Allerød warm period ( interstadial ) is subdivided into three events : Greenland Interstadial-1c to 1a ( GI-1c to GI-1a ) .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Younger_Dryas", "rank": 7, "score": 139945 }, { "content": "Title: Northern Hemisphere Content: The Northern Hemisphere is the half of Earth that is north of the equator . For other planets in the Solar System , north is defined as being in the same celestial hemisphere relative to the invariable plane of the solar system as Earth 's North pole . Due to the Earth 's axial tilt , winter in the Northern Hemisphere lasts from the December solstice ( typically December 21 UTC ) to the March Equinox ( typically March 20 UTC ) , while summer lasts from the June solstice ( typically June 21 UTC ) through to the September equinox ( typically September 23 UTC ) . The dates vary each year due to the difference between the calendar year and the astronomical year . Its surface is 60.7 % water , compared with 80.9 % water in the case of the Southern Hemisphere , and it contains 67.3 % of Earth 's land .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Northern_Hemisphere", "rank": 8, "score": 134320 }, { "content": "Title: Late Glacial Content: The Late Glacial ( c. 13,000 -- 10,000 years ago ) , or Tardiglacial ( `` Late Glacial '' ) , is defined primarily by the beginning of the modern warm period , in which climates in the Northern Hemisphere warmed substantially , causing a process of accelerated deglaciation following the Last Glacial Maximum ( c. 25,000 -- 13,000 years ago ) . At this time , human populations , previously forced into refuge areas as a result of Last Glacial Maximum climatic conditions , gradually begin to repopulate the Northern Hemisphere 's Eurasian landmass and eventually populate North America via Beringia for the first time . Evidence for its occurrence stems from two main types of analysis . The first is the use of oxygen isotope stages ( OIS ) gathered from stratified deep-sea sediment cores . Samples are gathered and measured for change in isotope levels to determine temperature fluctuation for given periods of time . The second is a proxy measurement , the observation of certain reappearing fauna and flora fossils that can survive only in temperate climates , thus indicating warming trends for a given geographic area . Archaeological evidence of settlement and resettlement in certain areas by humans also serve as proxy measurements . Towards the end of OIS 2 in which the Late Glacial Maximum occurs , the deep-sea sediment cores indicate a gradually warming climate , and the reappearance of certain warm-weather flora and fauna remains throughout the Northern Hemisphere correlate with that trend . A period of relatively brief cold oscillation , referred to as the Younger Dryas , is detected during OIS 2 , as can be inferred from an increase in isotope weight .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Late_Glacial", "rank": 9, "score": 134258 }, { "content": "Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Little_Ice_Age", "rank": 10, "score": 134080 }, { "content": "Title: 2013 extreme weather events Content: The 2013 extreme weather events included several all-time temperature records in Northern and Southern Hemisphere . The February extent of snow cover in Eurasia and North America was above average , while the extent of Arctic ice in the same month was 4,5 % below the 1981 -- 2010 average . The Northern Hemisphere weather extremes have been linked to the melting of Arctic sea ice , which alters atmospheric circulation in a way that leads to more snow and ice . By January 11 , 233 weather-related deaths were reported in India . Elsewhere , particularly in Russia , the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom , low temperatures affected wildlife , delaying bird breeding and disrupting the bird migration . On January 10 Bangladesh faced the lowest temperature since country 's independence , at 3.0 ° C in Saidpur . While Finland and most of Northern European countries got the record high , and even the highest temperatures at Europe during May and June , Western - and Middle Europe faced much cooler weather and even their wettest May and June ever . During summer prolonged heat waves in the Northern Hemisphere set new record high temperatures . On March 24 , 2014 , the secretary-general of the World Meteorological Organization Michel Jarraud announced that `` many of the extreme events of 2013 were consistent with what we would expect as a result of human-induced climate change '' .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "2013_extreme_weather_events", "rank": 11, "score": 132081 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 12, "score": 130714 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic oscillation Content: The Arctic oscillation ( AO ) or Northern Annular Mode/Northern Hemisphere Annular Mode ( NAM ) is an index ( which varies over time with no particular periodicity ) of the dominant pattern of non-seasonal sea-level pressure variations north of 20N latitude , and it is characterized by pressure anomalies of one sign in the Arctic with the opposite anomalies centered about 37 -- 45N . The AO is believed by climatologists to be causally related to , and thus partially predictive of , weather patterns in locations many thousands of miles away , including many of the major population centers of Europe and North America . NASA climatologist Dr. James E. Hansen explained the mechanism by which the AO affects weather at points so distant from the Arctic , as follows : `` The degree to which Arctic air penetrates into middle latitudes is related to the AO index , which is defined by surface atmospheric pressure patterns . When the AO index is positive , surface pressure is low in the polar region . This helps the middle latitude jet stream to blow strongly and consistently from west to east , thus keeping cold Arctic air locked in the polar region . When the AO index is negative , there tends to be high pressure in the polar region , weaker zonal winds , and greater movement of frigid polar air into middle latitudes . '' This zonally symmetric seesaw between sea level pressures in polar and temperate latitudes was first identified by Edward Lorenz and named in 1998 by David W.J. Thompson and John Michael Wallace . The North Atlantic oscillation ( NAO ) is a close relative of the AO and there exist arguments about whether one or the other is more fundamentally representative of the atmosphere 's dynamics ; Ambaum et al. argue that the NAO can be identified in a more physically meaningful way . Over most of the past century , the Arctic Oscillation alternated between its positive and negative phases . Starting in the 1970s the oscillation has trended to more of a positive phase when averaged using a 60-day running mean , though it has trended to a more neutral state in the last decade . The oscillation still fluctuates stochastically between negative and positive values on daily , monthly , seasonal and annual time scales , although , despite its stochastic nature , meteorologists have attained high levels of predictive accuracy in recent times , at least for the shorter term forecasts . ( The correlation between actual observations and the 7-day mean GFS ensemble AO forecasts is approximately 0.9 , a figure at the high end for that statistic . ) The National Snow and Ice Data Center describes the effects of the AO in some detail : `` In the positive phase , higher pressure at midlatitudes drives ocean storms farther north , and changes in the circulation pattern bring wetter weather to Alaska , Scotland and Scandinavia , as well as drier conditions to the western United States and the Mediterranean . In the positive phase , frigid winter air does not extend as far into the middle of North America as it would during the negative phase of the oscillation . This keeps much of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains warmer than normal , but leaves Greenland and Newfoundland colder than usual . Weather patterns in the negative phase are in general `` opposite '' to those of the positive phase . '' Climatologists are now routinely invoking the Arctic Oscillation in their official public explanations for extremes of weather . The following statement from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's National Climatic Data Center : State of the Climate December 2010 which uses the phrase `` negative Arctic Oscillation '' four times , is very representative of this increasing tendency : `` Cold arctic air gripped western Europe in the first three weeks of December . Two major snowstorms , icy conditions , and frigid temperatures wreaked havoc across much of the region ... The harsh winter weather was attributed to a negative Arctic Oscillation , which is a climate pattern that influences weather in the Northern Hemisphere . A very persistent , strong ridge of high pressure , or ` blocking system ' , near Greenland allowed cold Arctic air to slide south into Europe . Europe was not the only region in the Northern Hemisphere affected by the Arctic Oscillation . A large snow storm and frigid temperatures affected much of the Midwest United States on December 10 -- 13 ... '' A further , quite graphic illustration of the effects of the negative phase of the oscillation occurred in February 2010 . In that month , the Arctic Oscillation reached its most negative monthly mean value , − 4.266 , in the entire post-1950 era ( the period of accurate record-keeping ) . That month was characterized by three separate historic snowstorms that occurred in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States . The first storm dumped 25 in on Baltimore , Maryland , on February 5 -- 6 , and then a second storm dumped 19.5 in on February 9 -- 10 . In New York City , a separate storm deposited 20.9 in on February 25 -- 26 . This kind of snowstorm activity is as anomalous and extreme as the negative AO value itself . Similarly , the greatest negative value for the AO since 1950 in January was − 3.767 in 1977 , which coincided with the coldest mean January temperature in New York City , Washington , D.C. , Baltimore , and many other mid-Atlantic locations in that span of time . And though the January AO has been negative only 60.6 % of the time between 1950 and 2010 , 9 of the 10 coldest Januarys in New York City since 1950 have coincided with negative AOs . However , the correlation between sharply negative Arctic Oscillations and excessive winter cold and snow in regions vulnerable in that way to these negative AOs should not be overstated . It is by no means a simple , one-to-one equivalence . An extreme Arctic Oscillation does not necessarily mean extreme weather will occur . For example , since 1950 , eight out of the 10 coldest Januarys in New York did not coincide with the 10 lowest January AO values . And the fourth warmest January there since 1950 coincided with one of those 10 most negative AOs . So , although many climatologists believe that the Arctic Oscillation affects the probability of certain weather events occurring in certain places , the heightened chance of a phenomenon by no means assures it , nor does the lessened likelihood exclude it . Further , the precise value of the AO index only imperfectly reflects the severity of the weather associated with it .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Arctic_oscillation", "rank": 13, "score": 130554 }, { "content": "Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Pliocene_climate", "rank": 14, "score": 129282 }, { "content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm", "rank": 15, "score": 129135 }, { "content": "Title: Horse latitudes Content: Horse latitudes or subtropical highs are subtropical latitudes between 30 and 38 degrees both north and south where Earth 's atmosphere is dominated by the subtropical high , an area of high pressure , which suppresses precipitation and cloud formation , and has variable winds mixed with calm winds . The horse latitudes are associated with the subtropical anticyclone and the large-scale descent of air from high-altitude currents moving toward the poles . After reaching the earth 's surface , this air spreads toward the equator as part of the prevailing trade winds or toward the poles as part of the westerlies . The belt in the Northern Hemisphere is sometimes called the `` calms of Cancer '' and that in the Southern Hemisphere the `` calms of Capricorn '' . The consistently warm , dry , and sunny conditions of the horse latitudes are the main cause for the existence of the world 's major non-polar deserts , such as the Sahara Desert in Africa , the Arabian and Syrian deserts in the Middle East , the Mojave and Sonoran deserts in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico , all in the Northern Hemisphere ; and the Atacama Desert , the Kalahari Desert , and the Australian Desert in the Southern Hemisphere .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Horse_latitudes", "rank": 16, "score": 128064 }, { "content": "Title: Siberian High Content: The Siberian High ( also Siberian Anticyclone ) is a massive collection of cold dry air that accumulates in the northeastern part of Eurasia from September until April . It is usually centered on Lake Baikal . It reaches its greatest size and strength in the winter when the air temperature near the center of the high-pressure cell is often lower than -40 ° C . The atmospheric pressure is often above 1040 mbar . The Siberian High is the strongest semi-permanent high in the northern hemisphere and is responsible for both the lowest temperature in the Northern Hemisphere , of -67.8 ° C on 15 January 1885 at Verkhoyansk , and the highest pressure , 1083.8 mbar ( 108.38 kPa , 32.01 inHg ) at Agata , Krasnoyarsk Krai on 31 December 1968 , ever recorded . The Siberian High is responsible both for severe winter cold and attendant dry conditions with little snow and few or no glaciers across Siberia , Mongolia , and China . During the summer , the Siberian High is largely replaced by the Asiatic low .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Siberian_High", "rank": 17, "score": 127608 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.", "qid": "3112", "docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves", "rank": 18, "score": 126360 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves", "rank": 19, "score": 124948 }, { "content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming", "rank": 20, "score": 121712 }, { "content": "Title: Polar see-saw Content: The polar see-saw ( also : Bipolar seesaw ) is the phenomenon that temperature changes in the northern and southern hemispheres may be out of phase . The theory ( or hypothesis ) states that large changes , f.e. when the glaciers are intensely growing or depleting , in the formation of ocean bottom water in both poles take a long time to exert their effect in the other hemisphere . Estimates of the period of delay vary , one typical estimate is 1500 years . This is usually studied in the context of ice-cores taken from Antarctica and Greenland .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Polar_see-saw", "rank": 21, "score": 121005 }, { "content": "Title: Pole of Cold Content: The Poles of Cold are the places in the southern and northern hemispheres where the lowest air temperatures have been recorded .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Pole_of_Cold", "rank": 22, "score": 120902 }, { "content": "Title: Late Ordovician glaciation Content: The Late Ordovician Glaciation is a period at the end of the Ordovician that started at the border between the Katian and Hirnantian about 440-460 Ma ( million years ago ) . The major glaciation during this period is widely considered to be the leading cause of the Ordovician-Silurian extinction event . Evidence of this glaciation can be seen in places such as Morocco , Libya , and Wyoming . More evidence derived from isotopic data is that during the Late Ordovician , Tropical ocean temperatures were about 5 ° C cooler than present day , this would have been a major factor that aided in the glaciation process . The Late Ordovician is the only glacial episode that appears to have coincided with a major mass extinction of nearly 61 % of marine life . Estimates of peak ice sheet volume range from 50 to 250 million cubic kilometers , and its duration from 35 million to less than 1 million years . There were also two peaks of glaciation . Also , glaciation of the Northern Hemisphere was minimal because a large amount of the land was in the southern hemisphere .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Late_Ordovician_glaciation", "rank": 23, "score": 120825 }, { "content": "Title: Anticyclone Content: An anticyclone ( that is , opposite to a cyclone ) is a weather phenomenon defined by the United States National Weather Service 's glossary as `` a large-scale circulation of winds around a central region of high atmospheric pressure , clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere , counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere '' . Effects of surface-based anticyclones include clearing skies as well as cooler , drier air . Fog can also form overnight within a region of higher pressure . Mid-tropospheric systems , such as the subtropical ridge , deflect tropical cyclones around their periphery and cause a temperature inversion inhibiting free convection near their center , building up surface-based haze under their base . Anticyclones aloft can form within warm core lows such as tropical cyclones , due to descending cool air from the backside of upper troughs such as polar highs , or from large scale sinking such as the subtropical ridge .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Anticyclone", "rank": 24, "score": 118922 }, { "content": "Title: Roman Warm Period Content: The Roman Warm Period or the Roman climatic optimum has been proposed as a period of unusually warm weather in Europe and the North Atlantic that ran from approximately 250 BC to AD 400 .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Roman_Warm_Period", "rank": 25, "score": 118083 }, { "content": "Title: Ab-polar current Content: Ab-polar current , an obsolete term sometimes found in 19th century meteorological literature , refers to any air current moving away from either the North Pole or the South Pole . In the Northern Hemisphere , this term indicates a northerly wind . The Latin prefix ab - means `` from '' or `` away from '' . Category : Atmospheric dynamics", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Ab-polar_current", "rank": 26, "score": 117925 }, { "content": "Title: Late Antique Little Ice Age Content: The Late Antique Little Ice Age was a long-lasting Northern Hemisphere cooling period in the 6th and 7th century AD , proposed as theory in 2015 , and subsequently confirmed as the interval from 536 to about 660 AD . This period followed three immense volcanic eruptions in 536 , 540 and 547 . One of the suspected volcanic sites for those events is the Rabaul caldera , in the western Pacific , which erupted around 540 . The extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 were the early phenomena of the century-long global temperature decline . The evidence comes from a temperature reconstruction from the Euro-Med2k working group of the international PAGES ( Past Global Changes ) project , using new tree-ring measurements from the Altai Mountains , which closely matches the temperatures in the Alps in the last two centuries .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Late_Antique_Little_Ice_Age", "rank": 27, "score": 117245 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Asia Content: The Climate of Asia is wet across southeast sections , and dry across much of the interior . Some of the largest daily temperature ranges on Earth occur in western sections of Asia . The monsoon circulation dominates across southern and eastern sections , due to the presence of the Himalayas forcing the formation of a thermal low which draws in moisture during the summer . Southwestern sections of the continent experience low relief as a result of the subtropical high pressure belt ; they are hot in the summer , warm to cool in winter , and may snow at higher altitudes . Siberia is one of the coldest places in the Northern Hemisphere , and can act as a source of arctic air masses for North America . The most active place on Earth for tropical cyclone activity lies northeast of the Philippines and south of Japan , and the phase of the El Niño-Southern Oscillation modulates where in Asia landfall is more likely to occur ,", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Climate_of_Asia", "rank": 28, "score": 117104 }, { "content": "Title: Ice age Content: An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earth 's surface and atmosphere , resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers . Within a long-term ice age , individual pulses of cold climate are termed `` glacial periods '' ( or alternatively `` glacials '' or `` glaciations '' or colloquially as `` ice age '' ) , and intermittent warm periods are called `` interglacials '' . In the terminology of glaciology , ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres . By this definition , we are in an interglacial period -- the Holocene -- of the ice age . The ice age began 2.6 million years ago at the start of the Pleistocene epoch , because the Greenland , Arctic , and Antarctic ice sheets still exist .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Ice_age", "rank": 29, "score": 115863 }, { "content": "Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years", "rank": 30, "score": 115692 }, { "content": "Title: Middle latitudes Content: The middle latitudes ( mid-latitudes , sometimes midlatitudes ) are between 23 ° 26 ' 22 '' North and 66 ° 33 ' 39 '' North , and between 23 ° 26 ' 22 '' South and 66 ° 33 ' 39 '' South latitude , or , the Earth 's temperate zones between the tropics and the Arctic and Antarctic polar regions . Weather fronts and extratropical cyclones are usually found in this area , as well as occasional tropical cyclones which have traveled from their areas of formation closer to the equator . The prevailing winds in the middle latitudes are often very strong . These parts of the world also see a wide variety of fast-changing weather as cold air masses from the poles and warm air masses from the tropics push up and down over them , sometimes alternating within hours of each other , especially in the roaring forties ( between 40 and 50 degrees latitude in both hemispheres ) . There are four types of epic mid-latitude climates : mediterranean , humid subtropical , marine west coast , and humid continental .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Middle_latitudes", "rank": 31, "score": 115485 }, { "content": "Title: Polar front Content: In meteorology , the polar front is the boundary between the polar cell and the Ferrel cell in each hemisphere . At this boundary a sharp gradient in temperature occurs between these two air masses , each at very different temperatures . The polar front arises as a result of cold polar air meeting warm tropical air . It is a stationary front as the air masses are not moving against each other . Off the coast of eastern North America , especially in winter , there is a sharp temperature gradient between the snow-covered land and the warm offshore currents . The polar front theory says that mid-latitude cyclones form on boundaries between warm and cold air . In winter , the polar front shifts towards the Equator , whereas high pressure systems dominate more in the summer .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Polar_front", "rank": 32, "score": 115271 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 33, "score": 114989 }, { "content": "Title: 2014–15 North American winter Content: The 2014 -- 15 North American winter refers to winter as it occurred across the continent from late 2014 through early 2015 . While there is no well-agreed-upon date used to indicate the start of winter in the Northern Hemisphere , there are two definitions of winter which may be used . Based on the astronomical definition , winter begins at the winter solstice , which in 2014 occurred on December 21 , and ends at the March equinox , which in 2015 occurred on March 20 . Based on the meteorological definition , the first day of winter is December 1 and the last day February 28 . Both definitions involve a period of approximately three months , with some variability . While both the meteorological and astronomical definitions of winter involve the onset of winter occurring in December , many places in North America experienced their first wintry weather during mid November . A period of below-average temperatures affected much of the contiguous United States , and several records were broken . An early trace of snowfall was recorded in Arkansas . There were greater accumulations of snow across parts of Oklahoma as well . A quasi-permanent phenomenon referred to as the polar vortex may have been partly responsible for the cold weather . Temperatures in much of the United States dropped 15 to below average by November 19 following a southward `` dip '' of the polar vortex into the eastern two-thirds of the country . The effects of this dip were widespread , bringing about temperatures as low as 28 F in Pensacola , Florida . Following a significant snowstorm there , Buffalo , New York received several feet of snow from November 17 -- 21 . During the 2014 -- 15 winter season , Boston broke its all-time official seasonal 107.6 in snowfall record from the winter of 1995 -- 96 , with a total snowfall record of 108.6 in as of March 15 , 2015 . Many records for snowfall and temperature were broken , many for the month of February , with every state east of the Mississippi River being colder than average , some for the entire winter . However , this meteorological winter was the 19th-warmest of the past 120 winters over the lower 48 states , largely due to persistent warm weather in the West .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "2014–15_North_American_winter", "rank": 34, "score": 112553 }, { "content": "Title: North Pacific High Content: The North Pacific High is a semi-permanent , subtropical anticyclone located in the northeastern portion of the Pacific Ocean , located northeast of Hawaii and west of California . It is strongest during the northern hemisphere summer and shifts towards the equator during the winter , when the Aleutian Low becomes more active . It is responsible for California 's typically dry summer and fall and typically wet winter and spring , as well as Hawaii 's year-round trade winds .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "North_Pacific_High", "rank": 35, "score": 112470 }, { "content": "Title: Extreme weather events of 535–536 Content: The extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 were the most severe and protracted short-term episodes of cooling in the Northern Hemisphere in the last 2000 years . The event is thought to have been caused by an extensive atmospheric dust veil , possibly resulting from a large volcanic eruption in the tropics , or debris from space impacting the Earth . Its effects were widespread , causing unseasonal weather , crop failures and famines worldwide .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Extreme_weather_events_of_535–536", "rank": 36, "score": 112037 }, { "content": "Title: Subtropical ridge Content: The subtropical ridge , also known as the subtropical high or horse latitudes , is a significant belt of atmospheric high pressure situated around the latitudes of 30 ° N in the Northern Hemisphere and 30 ° S in the Southern Hemisphere . It is the product of the global air circulation cell known as the Hadley Cell . The subtropical ridge is characterized by mostly calm winds , which act to reduce air quality under its axis by causing fog overnight , and haze during daylight hours as a result of the stable atmosphere found near its location . The air descending from the upper troposphere flows out from its center at surface level toward the upper and lower latitudes of each hemisphere , creating both the trade winds and the westerlies . The subtropical ridge moves poleward during the summer , reaching its most northern latitude in early fall , before moving equatorward during the cold season . The El Niño southern climate oscillation ( ENSO ) can displace the northern hemisphere subtropical ridge , with La Niñas allowing for a more northerly axis for the ridge , while El Niños show flatter , more southerly ridges . The change of the ridge position during ENSO cycles changes the tracks of tropical cyclones that form around their equatorward and western peripheries . As the subtropical ridge varies in position and strength , it can enhance or depress monsoon regimes around their low-latitude periphery . The term `` horse latitudes '' refers to and is synonymous with the subtropical ridge or subtropical high .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Subtropical_ridge", "rank": 37, "score": 111397 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of the Arctic Content: The climate of the Arctic is characterized by long , cold winters and short , cool summers . There is a large amount of variability in climate across the Arctic , but all regions experience extremes of solar radiation in both summer and winter . Some parts of the Arctic are covered by ice ( sea ice , glacial ice , or snow ) year-round , and nearly all parts of the Arctic experience long periods with some form of ice on the surface . Average January temperatures range from about − 34 ° C to 0 ° C ( − 40 to +32 ° F ) , and winter temperatures can drop below − 50 ° C ( − 58 ° F ) over large parts of the Arctic . Average July temperatures range from about − 10 to +10 ° C ( 14 to 50 ° F ) , with some land areas occasionally exceeding 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) in summer . The Arctic consists of ocean that is largely surrounded by land . As such , the climate of much of the Arctic is moderated by the ocean water , which can never have a temperature below − 2 ° C ( 28 ° F ) . In winter , this relatively warm water , even though covered by the polar ice pack , keeps the North Pole from being the coldest place in the Northern Hemisphere , and it is also part of the reason that Antarctica is so much colder than the Arctic . In summer , the presence of the nearby water keeps coastal areas from warming as much as they might otherwise .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Climate_of_the_Arctic", "rank": 38, "score": 111303 }, { "content": "Title: Season Content: A season is a division of the year marked by changes in weather , ecology and hours of daylight . Seasons result from the yearly orbit of the Earth around the Sun and the tilt of the Earth 's rotational axis relative to the plane of the orbit . In temperate and polar regions , the seasons are marked by changes in the intensity of sunlight that reaches the Earth 's surface , variations of which may cause animals to go into hibernation or to migrate , and plants to be dormant . During May , June , and July , the northern hemisphere is exposed to more direct sunlight because the hemisphere faces the sun . The same is true of the southern hemisphere in November , December , and January . It is the tilt of the Earth that causes the Sun to be higher in the sky during the summer months which increases the solar flux . However , due to seasonal lag , June , July , and August are the hottest months in the northern hemisphere and December , January , and February are the hottest months in the southern hemisphere . In temperate and subpolar regions , four calendar-based seasons are generally recognized : spring , autumn or fall , and winter . Ecologists often use a six-season model for temperate climate regions : prevernal , vernal , estival , serotinal , autumnal , and hibernal . Many tropical regions have two seasons : the rainy , wet , or monsoon season and the dry season . Some have a third cool , mild , or harmattan season . Seasons often held special significance for agrarian societies , whose lives revolved around planting and harvest times , and the change of seasons was often attended by ritual . In some parts of the world , some other `` seasons '' capture the timing of important ecological events such as hurricane season , tornado season , and wildfire season . The most historically important of these are the three seasons -- flood , growth , and low water -- which were previously defined by the former annual flooding of the Nile in Egypt .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Season", "rank": 39, "score": 111130 }, { "content": "Title: Last Glacial Maximum Content: The Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) was the last period in the Earth 's climate history during the last glacial period when ice sheets were at their greatest extension . Growth of the ice sheets reached their maximum positions in about 24,500 BCE . Deglaciation commenced in the Northern Hemisphere between approximately 18,000 to 17,000 BCE and in Antarctica approximately 12,500 BCE , which is consistent with evidence that it was the primary source for an abrupt rise in the sea level in about 12,500 BCE . Vast ice sheets covered much of North America , northern Europe , and Asia . The ice sheets profoundly affected Earth 's climate by causing drought , desertification , and a dramatic drop in sea levels . It was followed by the Late Glacial .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Last_Glacial_Maximum", "rank": 40, "score": 110952 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Global_warming_hiatus", "rank": 41, "score": 110717 }, { "content": "Title: Indian summer Content: Indian summer is a period of unseasonably warm , dry weather that sometimes occurs in autumn in the Northern Hemisphere . The US National Weather Service defines this as weather conditions that are sunny and clear with above normal temperatures , occurring late-September to mid-November . It is usually described as occurring after a killing frost .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Indian_summer", "rank": 42, "score": 110646 }, { "content": "Title: Iron Age Cold Epoch Content: The Iron Age Cold Epoch ( also referred to as Iron Age climate pessimum or Iron Age neoglaciation ) was a period of unusually cold climate in the North Atlantic region , lasting from about 900 BC to about 300 BC , with an especially cold wave in 450 BC during the expansion of ancient Greece . It was followed by the Roman Warm Period ( 250 BC -- 400 AD ) .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Iron_Age_Cold_Epoch", "rank": 43, "score": 110549 }, { "content": "Title: 1816 Content: This year was known as the ` Year Without a Summer ' because of low temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere , the result of the Mount Tambora volcanic eruption in Indonesia in 1815 . The sulfur from this eruption reflected the sun 's rays and caused severe global cooling , catastrophic in some locations .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "1816", "rank": 44, "score": 110439 }, { "content": "Title: Allerød oscillation Content: The Allerød oscillation ( Allerødtiden ) was a warm and moist global interstadial that occurred at the end of the last glacial period . It raised temperatures in the northern Atlantic region to almost present-day levels , before they declined again in the succeeding Younger Dryas period , which was followed by the present interglacial period . In some regions , especially in northern Eurasia , there is evidence for a cold period known as the Older Dryas interrupting the interstadial . In such regions the shorter oscillation ending with the Older Dryas is known as the Bølling oscillation , and the Allerød period is the interstadial following the Older Dryas . The Allerød period was named after a type site in Furesø municipality in Sjælland , Denmark ( near Copenhagen ) , where deposits created during the period were first identified in work published in 1901 by Hartz and Milthers . This Blytt-Sernander period corresponds to Pollen zone II .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Allerød_oscillation", "rank": 45, "score": 110063 }, { "content": "Title: Atlantic (period) Content: The Atlantic in palaeoclimatology was the warmest and moistest Blytt-Sernander period , pollen zone and chronozone of Holocene northern Europe . The climate was generally warmer than today . It was preceded by the Boreal , with a climate similar to today 's , and was followed by the Subboreal , a transition to the modern . Because it was the warmest period of the Holocene , the Atlantic is often referenced more directly as the Holocene climatic optimum , or just climatic optimum .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Atlantic_(period)", "rank": 46, "score": 109884 }, { "content": "Title: Southern Hemisphere Content: The Southern Hemisphere is the half sphere of Earth which is south of the equator . It contains all or parts of five continents ( Antarctica , Australia , about 90 % of South America , the southern third of Africa , and several southern islands off the continental mainland of Asia ) , four oceans ( Indian , South Atlantic , Southern , and South Pacific ) and most of the Pacific Islands in Oceania . Its surface is 80.9 % water , compared with 60.7 % water in the case of the Northern Hemisphere , and it contains 32.7 % of Earth 's land . Due to the tilt of Earth 's rotation relative to the Sun and the ecliptic plane , summer is from December to March and winter is from June to September . September 22 or 23 is the vernal equinox and March 20 or 21 is the autumnal equinox . The South Pole is in the middle of the southern hemispherical region .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Southern_Hemisphere", "rank": 47, "score": 109259 }, { "content": "Title: Upper tropospheric cyclonic vortex Content: An upper tropospheric cyclonic vortex is a vortex , or a circulation with a definable center , that usually moves slowly from east-northeast to west-southwest and is prevalent across Northern Hemisphere 's warm season . Its circulations generally do not extend below 6080 m in altitude , as it is an example of a cold-core low . A weak inverted wave in the easterlies is generally found beneath it , and it may also be associated with broad areas of high-level clouds . Downward development results in an increase of cumulus clouds and the appearance of circulation at ground level . In rare cases , a warm-core cyclone can develop in its associated convective activity , resulting in a tropical cyclone and a weakening and southwest movement of the nearby upper tropospheric cyclonic vortex . Symbiotic relationships can exist between tropical cyclones and the upper level lows in their wake , with the two systems occasionally leading to their mutual strengthening . When they move over land during the warm season , an increase in monsoon rains occurs .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Upper_tropospheric_cyclonic_vortex", "rank": 48, "score": 108563 }, { "content": "Title: Humid continental climate Content: A humid continental climate ( Köppen prefix D ) is a climatic region defined by Russian-German climatologist Wladimir Köppen in 1900 , which is typified by large seasonal temperature differences , with warm to hot ( and often humid ) summers and cold ( sometimes severely cold ) winters . Precipitation is usually well distributed through the year . The definition of this climate regarding temperature is as follows : the mean temperature of the coldest month must be below − 3 ° C and there must be at least four months whose mean temperatures are at or above 10 ° C . Some climatologists prefer to use the 0 ° C isotherm as it is more commonly used . In addition , the location in question must not be semi-arid or arid . Humid continental climates tend to be found between latitudes 40 ° N and 60 ° N , within the central and northeastern portions of North America , Europe , and Asia . They are much less commonly found in the Southern Hemisphere due to the larger ocean area at that latitude and the consequent greater maritime moderation . In the Northern Hemisphere some of the humid continental climates , typically in Scandinavia , Nova Scotia , and Newfoundland are heavily maritime-influenced , with relatively cool summers and winters being just below the freezing mark . More extreme humid continental climates found in southern Siberia and the American Midwest combine hotter summer maxima and colder winters than the marine-based variety . In some areas there are both strong subtropical and subarctic air mass influences depending on season , like the humid and hot summers and the frigid winters of Milwaukee , Wisconsin in the Upper Midwest of the United States .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Humid_continental_climate", "rank": 49, "score": 108552 }, { "content": "Title: LOWERN Content: LOWERN is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate . Latitude . Depending on how close or how far it is to the equator . Ocean currents . Certain ocean currents have different temperatures . Warm ocean currents warm the air above it , which warms the coast . Cold ocean currents cool the air above it , which cools the coast . This helps keep the coast a consistent temperature . Wind and Air masses . Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure . As it rises it cools and descends to the ground resulting in high air pressure . This cycle repeats which creates wind . These air masses absorb the climate of the air below it . Elevation . The higher up you are , the colder and drier it will be . When air rises it expands due to low air pressure which causes it to cool . Relief . The differences in the elevation in land . As air is forced to rise over a piece of land ( e.g. a mountain ) the temperature decreases and condensation increases . As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall . Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensations decreases , resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows . Nearness to Water . Water heats up and cools down slower than land does , having a moderating effect . On colder days , the water heats up the land , whereas on hotter days , the land is cooled down by the water . These areas also experience more precipitation . Category : Climatology", "qid": "3112", "docid": "LOWERN", "rank": 50, "score": 108451 }, { "content": "Title: Continental climate Content: Continental climates are defined in the Köppen climate classification as having a coldest month mean temperature below -3 C ( 26.6 F ) or 0 ° C depending on which isotherm used for the coldest month and four months above 10 ° C . In the Köppen climate system , Continental climates are bordered to the south by Temperate climates or C climates ( coldest month above 0 C , but below 18 C ) and to the north by Boreal climate or E climates ( only 1 to 3 months with a mean temperature of 50 F ) . Köppen also defined continental climates as having more than 30 days with continuous snowcover on the ground . Continental climates often have a significant annual variation in temperature ( hot summers and cold winters ) . They tend to occur in the middle latitudes ( 40 to 55 north ) , where prevailing winds come from over land , and temperatures are not moderated by bodies of water such as oceans or seas . Continental climates occur mostly in the Northern Hemisphere which has the large landmasses required for this type of climate to develop . Most of northern and northeastern China , eastern and southeastern Europe , and the central and upper eastern United States have this type of climate . In Continental climates , Precipitation tends to be moderate in amount , concentrated mostly in the warmer months . Only a few areas , in the mountains of the Pacific Northwest of North America and in Iran , northern Iraq , adjacent Turkey , Afghanistan , Pakistan , and Central Asia show a winter maximum in precipitation . A portion of the annual precipitation falls as snowfall , and snow often remains on the ground for more than a month . Summers in continental climates can feature thunderstorms and frequent cool temperatures , however summer weather is more stable than winter weather .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Continental_climate", "rank": 51, "score": 107955 }, { "content": "Title: Sea surface temperature Content: Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans . Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Sea_surface_temperature", "rank": 52, "score": 107624 }, { "content": "Title: Tropical rain belt Content: Rainfall and the tropical climate dominate the tropical rain belt , which oscillates from the northern to the southern tropics over the course of the year , roughly following the solar equator . The tropical rain belt is an area of active rain that is positioned mostly around the tropics . According to the website Journey North , the reason the rain belt is situated near the tropics can be attributed to the fact that most of the sun 's radiation is directed toward the equator , which is located in the middle of the tropics . This solar radiation generates large amounts of heat near the equator providing tropical regions with higher temperatures than most other regions on Earth . With all this solar radiation , the air around the tropics begins to warm up . Because hot air is less dense than cold air , the hot air rises into the upper levels of the atmosphere and as a result , cold air filters down into the lower levels of the atmosphere . The dynamics that provide the tropics with the rain belt are founded on the principal that warmer air is able to retain more moisture than colder air . When the colder air replaces the warmer air in the lower atmosphere , the abundant moisture from the tropics loses the ability to be stored in the atmosphere . As a result , the excess moisture that can not be held by the colder air is then turned into thunderstorms and rain showers . These thunderstorms and rain showers are usually located along the equator , but they will extend out to the Tropic of Cancer , which is the 23.5 north latitude , as well as the Tropic of Capricorn , which is the 23.5 south latitude . It is largely a manifestation of the ITCH ( incorrect citation ) . The tropical rain belt lies in the southern hemisphere of the Indian ocean and western Pacific ocean roughly from October to March , and during this time the northern tropics experience a dry season in which precipitation is very rare , and days are typically hot and sunny throughout . From April to September , the rain belt lies in the northern hemisphere , and a wet season occurs there , while the southern tropics experience their dry season . The rain belt reaches roughly as far north as the Tropic of Cancer and as far south as the Tropic of Capricorn in the western Pacific ocean . Its variation in the Western Hemisphere is minimal , roughly between the equator and the 15th parallel north latitude . Near these latitudes , there is one wet season and one dry season annually . On the equator , there are two wet and two dry seasons as the rain belt passes over twice a year , one moving north and one moving south . Between the tropics and the equator , locations may experience both a short wet and a long wet season . Local geography may substantially modify these climate patterns .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Tropical_rain_belt", "rank": 53, "score": 107597 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal", "rank": 54, "score": 107421 }, { "content": "Title: Cyclone Content: In meteorology , a cyclone is a large scale air mass that rotates around a strong center of low atmospheric pressure . Cyclones are characterized by inward spiraling winds that rotate about a zone of low pressure . The largest low-pressure systems are polar vortices and extratropical cyclones of the largest scale ( the synoptic scale ) . Warm-core cyclones such as tropical cyclones and subtropical cyclones also lie within the synoptic scale . Mesocyclones , tornadoes and dust devils lie within the smaller mesoscale . Upper level cyclones can exist without the presence of a surface low , and can pinch off from the base of the Tropical Upper Tropospheric Trough during the summer months in the Northern Hemisphere . Cyclones have also been seen on extraterrestrial planets , such as Mars and Neptune . Cyclogenesis describes the process of cyclone formation and intensification . Extratropical cyclones begin as waves in large regions of enhanced mid-latitude temperature contrasts called baroclinic zones . These zones contract and form weather fronts as the cyclonic circulation closes and intensifies . Later in their life cycle , extratropical cyclones occlude as cold air masses undercut the warmer air and become cold core systems . A cyclone 's track is guided over the course of its 2 to 6 day life cycle by the steering flow of the subtropical jet stream . Weather fronts mark the boundary between two masses of air of different temperature , humidity , and densities , and are associated with the most prominent meteorological phenomena . Strong cold fronts typically feature narrow bands of thunderstorms and severe weather , and may on occasion be preceded by squall lines or dry lines . Such fronts form west of the circulation center and generally move from west to east ; warm fronts form east of the cyclone center and are usually preceded by stratiform precipitation and fog . Warm fronts move poleward ahead of the cyclone path . Occluded fronts form late in the cyclone life cycle near the center of the cyclone and often wrap around the storm center . Tropical cyclogenesis describes the process of development of tropical cyclones . Tropical cyclones form due to latent heat driven by significant thunderstorm activity , and are warm core . Cyclones can transition between extratropical , subtropical , and tropical phases . Mesocyclones form as warm core cyclones over land , and can lead to tornado formation . Waterspouts can also form from mesocyclones , but more often develop from environments of high instability and low vertical wind shear . In the Atlantic and the northeastern Pacific oceans , a tropical cyclone is generally referred to as a hurricane ( from the name of the ancient Central American deity of wind , Huracan ) , in the Indian and south Pacific oceans it is called a cyclone , and in the northwestern Pacific it is called a typhoon .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Cyclone", "rank": 55, "score": 107386 }, { "content": "Title: March 2012 North American heat wave Content: In March 2012 , one of the greatest heat waves was observed in many regions of North America . Very warm air pushed northward west of the Great Lakes region , and subsequently spread eastward . The intense poleward air mass movement was propelled by an unusually intense low level southerly jet that stretched from Louisiana to western Wisconsin . Once this warm surge inundated the area , a remarkably prolonged period of record setting temperatures ensued . NOAA 's National Climate Data Center reported that over 7,000 daily record high temperatures were tied or broken from 1 March through 27 March . In some places the temperature exceeded 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) . For instance , in Grand Rapids , Michigan , the highest temperature recorded was 87 ° F on March 21 ; in Chicago a high of 87 ° F was also recorded on that same day . Records were broken in unusual ways . Chicago , for example , saw temperatures above 80 ° F every day between March 14 -- 18 , breaking records on all five days . Chicago would go on to record eight days at or above 80 ° F during the month , with many suburban areas recording an additional day in the 80s on March 19 ( that day , the city only tied its record high of 78 ° F ) . In context , the National Weather Service 's Chicago branch noted that Chicago typically averages only one day in the 80 's in April . And only once in 140 years of weather observations has April produced as many 80 ° F days as this March . In Traverse City , Michigan one day began with a low temperature ( 67 ° F ) higher than the previous record high for the day . Temperature records across much of southern Canada also were shattered . Some of the most impressive readings came from Nova Scotia on March 22 , when the mercury climbed to 30.0 C at a climate station in Lake Major , making it the highest March temperature recorded in Nova Scotia , and the third highest March temperature recorded in Canada . That same day , the temperature hit 29.2 C at Western Head , Nova Scotia . The heat reached as far east as Cape Breton Island , with the temperature climbing to 24.0 C at Sydney , Nova Scotia on March 22 , a place historically surrounded by ice-jammed waters , frigid winds , and snow in March . The week of March 18 also set record temperatures in Manitoba and much of Ontario as well as into the Maritime Provinces . Non-severe thunderstorms were reported on the evening hours of March 21 , through to the early morning hours March 22 into northern Ontario . In addition , NCEP/NCAR Reanalysis data show that the atmospheric pattern was so persistent that much of the Midwest and Northeast , and up into Ontario , had temperature departures over periods of several days to a week or more of magnitudes which would be unusual even for a single day . Averaged over the seven-day period from March 16 to March 22 inclusive , nearly the entire area of the Midwest and Northeast U.S. and most of Ontario and Quebec had temperatures 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) or more above the 1981-2010 average . Even more dramatically , most of Iowa and Minnesota , all of Wisconsin and Michigan , and most of southeastern Ontario had seven-day mean temperatures more than 15 ° C ( 27 ° F ) above the climatological average for the same period . An 84 ° F high at Madison , WI in early March was 43 ° F above average and followed an overnight low of 60 ° F , 35 degrees above normal the daily high being more than seven standard deviations above the mean . The absolute temperature and departure statistically would be equivalent to a mid-July high at that station in excess of 125 ° F or more ; the highest temperature recorded there was 107 ° at least once during the heat waves of the middle 1930s . This mild warm spell brought out spring peepers in northern Ontario on 23 March , which are usually not heard until mid-to-late April , or sometimes early May . The warm weather was also responsible for several early-season tornado touchdowns , such as the EF3 that struck Dexter , Michigan , near Ann Arbor .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "March_2012_North_American_heat_wave", "rank": 56, "score": 107348 }, { "content": "Title: Winter Content: Winter is the coldest season of the year in polar and temperate climates , between autumn and spring . Winter is caused by the axis of the Earth in that hemisphere being oriented away from the Sun . Different cultures define different dates as the start of winter , and some use a definition based on weather . When it is winter in the Northern Hemisphere , it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere , and vice versa . In many regions , winter is associated with snow and freezing temperatures . The moment of winter solstice is when the sun 's elevation with respect to the North or South Pole is at its most negative value ( that is , the sun is at its farthest below the horizon as measured from the pole ) , meaning this day will have the shortest day and the longest night . The earliest sunset and latest sunrise dates outside the polar regions differ from the date of the winter solstice , however , and these depend on latitude , due to the variation in the solar day throughout the year caused by the Earth 's elliptical orbit ( see earliest and latest sunrise and sunset ) .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Winter", "rank": 57, "score": 107197 }, { "content": "Title: Huelmo–Mascardi Cold Reversal Content: The Huelmo -- Mascardi Cold Reversal ( HMCR ) is a cooling event in South America between 11,400 and 10,200 14C years BP . This cooling began about 550 years before the Younger Dryas cooling in the Northern Hemisphere , and both periods ended at about the same time . The event was given its name from the Huelmo , Chile , and Mascardi Lake , Argentina ( Nahuel Huapi National Park ) sites where it was detected and dated . The HMCR cooling event began with the accentuation of a cooling period which began 12,400 14C yr BP . The 11,400 14C yr BP ( 13,400 calendar years BP ) event onset took place 400 -- 700 years before the onset of the Younger Dryas event . The 10,200 14C yr BP ( circa 11,500 cal yr BP ) end date is difficult to calibrate to a calendar year because it took place during a radiocarbon age plateau . The end of the HMCR also marked the end of the cooling period .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Huelmo–Mascardi_Cold_Reversal", "rank": 58, "score": 107169 }, { "content": "Title: Global storm activity of 2007 Content: Global storm activity of 2007 profiles the major worldwide storms , including blizzards , ice storms , and other winter events , from January 1 , 2007 to December 31 , 2007 . Winter storms are events in which the dominant varieties of precipitation are forms that only occur at cold temperatures , such as snow or sleet , or a rainstorm where ground temperatures are cold enough to allow ice to form ( i.e. freezing rain ) . It may be marked by strong wind , thunder and lightning ( a thunderstorm ) , heavy precipitation , such as ice ( ice storm ) , or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere ( as in a dust storm , snowstorm , hailstorm , etc. ) . Other major non winter events such as large dust storms , Hurricanes , cyclones , tornados , gales , flooding and rainstorms are also caused by such phenomena to a lesser or greater existent . Very rarely , they may form in summer , though it would have to be an abnormally cold summer , such as the summer of 1816 in the Northeast United States of America . In many locations in the Northern Hemisphere , the most powerful winter storms usually occur in March and , in regions where temperatures are cold enough , April .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Global_storm_activity_of_2007", "rank": 59, "score": 106968 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal equator Content: The thermal equator ( also known as `` the heat equator '' ) is a belt encircling the Earth , defined by the set of locations having the highest mean annual temperature at each longitude around the globe . Because local temperatures are sensitive to the geography of a region , mountain ranges and ocean currents ensure that smooth temperature gradients ( such as might be found if the Earth were uniform in composition and devoid of surface irregularities ) are impossible , the location of the thermal equator is not identical to that of the geographic Equator . The term is less frequently used to describe the belt of maximum temperatures surrounding the globe which migrates roughly between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn . This region is known as the Intertropical Convergence Zone where the Earth orbits the Sun . This zone is the result of trade winds from the northern and southern part of the hemisphere eventually joining together . Still another definition states that the thermal equator is the latitude at which insolation is identical throughout the year . This is not the same as the astronomical equator because the Earth reaches perihelion ( the minimum distance from the Sun in its orbit ) in early January and is at aphelion ( maximum distance ) in early July . Therefore , insolation is somewhat higher at 0 ° latitude in January than in July even though the height of the Sun ( at noon ) and the length of day ( from sunrise to sunset ) is essentially the same . At a few degrees north of the equator the perihelion/aphelion factor is balanced by the fact that the angle of the Sun is slightly more direct , and the days are slightly longer , at the time of the summer solstice for the Northern Hemisphere ( most commonly on June 21 ) , making the level of insolation virtually the same in both `` summer '' and `` winter . ''", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Thermal_equator", "rank": 60, "score": 106602 }, { "content": "Title: African humid period Content: The African humid period (AHP) is a climate period in Africa during the late Pleistocene and Holocene geologic epochs, when northern Africa was wetter than today. The covering of much of the Sahara desert by grasses, trees and lakes was caused by changes in Earth's orbit around the Sun; changes in vegetation and dust in the Sahara which strengthened the African monsoon; and increased greenhouse gases, which may imply that anthropogenic global warming could result in a shrinkage of the Sahara desert. During the preceding last glacial maximum, the Sahara contained extensive dune fields and was mostly uninhabited. It was much larger than today, but its lakes and rivers such as Lake Victoria and the White Nile were either dry or at low levels. The humid period began about 14,600–14,500 years ago at the end of Heinrich event 1, simultaneously to the Bølling-Allerød warming. Rivers and lakes such as Lake Chad formed or expanded, glaciers grew on Mount Kilimanjaro and the Sahara retreated. Two major dry fluctuations occurred; during the Younger Dryas and the short 8.2 kiloyear event. The African humid period ended 6,000–5,000 years ago during the Piora Oscillation cold period. While some evidence points to an end 5,500 years ago, in the Sahel, Arabia and East Africa the period appears to have taken place in several steps such as the 4.2 kiloyear event. The AHP led to a widespread settlement of the Sahara and the Arabian Deserts, and had a profound effect on African cultures, such as the birth of the Pharaonic civilization. They lived as hunter-gatherers until the agricultural revolution and domesticated cattle, goats and sheep. They left archeological sites and artifacts such as one of the oldest ships in the world, and rock paintings such as those in the Cave of Swimmers and in the Acacus Mountains. Earlier humid periods in Africa were postulated after the discovery of these rock paintings in now-inhospitable parts of the Sahara. When the period ended, humans gradually abandoned the desert in favour of regions with more secure water supplies, such as the Nile Valley and Mesopotamia, where they gave rise to early complex societies.", "qid": "3112", "docid": "African_humid_period", "rank": 61, "score": 106536 }, { "content": "Title: Latitude of the Gulf Stream and the Gulf Stream north wall index Content: The Gulf Stream separates from the US coast near Cape Hatteras ( 35 ° N , 75 ° W ) and then travels eastwards across the North Atlantic , becoming the North Atlantic current at about 55 ° W . In the region between 75 ° W and 55 ° W it is subject to meanders and is frequently accompanied by eddies . The northern edge of the current is marked by a sharp fall in temperature . This is also the case at much greater depths , so that the warm current is pressed up against a wall of cold water , called the ` north wall ' . Monthly charts of the path of the north wall of the Gulf Stream have been available from surface , aircraft and satellite observations since 1966 and these have been used in several studies of the path 's variability .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Latitude_of_the_Gulf_Stream_and_the_Gulf_Stream_north_wall_index", "rank": 62, "score": 106447 }, { "content": "Title: Westerlies Content: The westerlies , anti-trades , or prevailing westerlies , are prevailing winds from the west toward the east in the middle latitudes between 30 and 60 degrees latitude . They originate from the high-pressure areas in the horse latitudes and tend towards the poles and steer extratropical cyclones in this general manner . Tropical cyclones which cross the subtropical ridge axis into the westerlies recurve due to the increased westerly flow . The winds are predominantly from the southwest in the Northern Hemisphere and from the northwest in the Southern Hemisphere . The westerlies are strongest in the winter hemisphere and times when the pressure is lower over the poles , while they are weakest in the summer hemisphere and when pressures are higher over the poles . The westerlies are particularly strong , especially in the Southern Hemisphere , in areas where land is absent , because land amplifies the flow pattern , making the current more north-south oriented , slowing the westerlies . The strongest westerly winds in the middle latitudes can come in the roaring forties , between 40 and 50 degrees latitude . The westerlies play an important role in carrying the warm , equatorial waters and winds to the western coasts of continents , especially in the southern hemisphere because of its vast oceanic expanse .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Westerlies", "rank": 63, "score": 106337 }, { "content": "Title: Thaw (weather) Content: January thaw is a term applied to a thaw or rise in temperature in mid-winter found in mid-latitude North America . Sinusoidal estimates of expected temperatures , for northern locales , usually place the lowest temperatures around January 23 and the highest around July 24 , and provide fairly accurate estimates of temperature expectations . Actual average temperatures in North America usually significantly differ twice over the course of the year : Mid-autumn temperatures tend to be warmer than predicted by the sinusoidal model , creating the impression of extended summer warmth known as Indian summer . For five days around January 25 , temperatures are usually significantly warmer than predicted by the sinusoidal estimate , and also warmer than neighboring temperatures on both sides . During this `` thaw '' period , usually lasting for about a week , temperatures are generally about 6 ° C ( 10 ° F ) above normal . This varies from year to year , and temperatures fluctuate enough that such a rise in late-January temperature would be unremarkable ; what is remarkable ( and unexplained ) is the tendency for such rises to occur more commonly in late January than in mid-January or early February , which sinusoidal estimates have to be slightly warmer . In some regions ( such as northern Canada ) this phenomenon will not be manifest as a `` thaw '' in the technical sense , since temperatures will remain below freezing . The January thaw is believed to be a weather singularity . A possible physical mechanism for such phenomena was offered in the 1950s by E.G. Bowen : he suggested that some `` calendaricities '' ( as he called them ) might be explicable in terms of meteoric particles from cometary orbits acting as ice nuclei in terrestrial clouds ; his theory then received some support from several sources . However , Bowen 's ideas later fell out of favour with the development of atmospheric dynamic modelling techniques , although one of his rainfall peaks does seem to correspond with the date of the January thaw . Data analysis has not found statistically significant support for the supposed January thaw . The authors of this study state that `` the effects of sampling in finite climate records are wholly adequate to account for the existence of January thaw ` features ' in northeastern U.S. temperature data . ''", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Thaw_(weather)", "rank": 64, "score": 106129 }, { "content": "Title: Microthermal Content: In climatology , the term microthermal is used to denote the continental climates of Eurasia and North America . The word microthermal is derived from two Greek words meaning `` small '' and `` heat '' . This is misleading , however , since the term is intended to describe only the temperature conditions that prevail during the winter months , rather than those of the entire year . The characteristic feature of the microthermal climate is cold winters -- specifically , winters that are cold enough to ensure that snow will remain on the ground continuously for a fixed period of time every year . Conceptually , an average temperature of 0 ° C or colder is assumed to be necessary to bring this about ; thus the climate of a location where at least one full month is this cold is classified as microthermal ( however , at least one month in the summer must average 10 ° C or higher ; otherwise the climate would be reckoned as polar ) . This definition places all of the world 's microthermal climates in the Northern Hemisphere , as the absence of broad land masses at upper-middle latitudes in the Southern Hemisphere precludes the existence of such temperature conditions there . Microthermal climates are typically subdivided into three categories based on the temperature characteristics of the summer season . The southernmost of the three is frequently referred to as the temperate continental climate , and has hot summers -- that is to say , at least one month has an average temperature of 22 ° C ( 71.6 ° F ) or above . The middle zone is often labelled hemiboreal , and no summer month there has an average temperature as warm as 22 ° C , but at least four months will average 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) or higher . The northernmost of the three microthermal zones is the subarctic , or boreal zone ; there only one to three months will have average temperatures of at least 10 ° C. In North America , microthermal climates commence north of Boston along the Atlantic seaboard , this line drifting gradually southward further inland , reaching approximately 38 ° at the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains , then curving dramatically northward near the Pacific coast , reaching the Pacific Ocean just south of Juneau , Alaska . In Asia , the latitude at which these climates begin is several degrees lower due to the pervasive influence of the vast Siberian anticyclone , or high-pressure system , and in continental Europe the line actually runs longitudinally rather than latitudinally , cutting through central Poland after beginning north of the Arctic Circle along the Norwegian coast , thereafter moving diagonally across Scandinavia . The boundary between the microthermal and polar climate zones is farthest north in western Europe ( actually within the Arctic Circle there ) , and farthest south along the east coast of North America ( at about 56 ° North latitude on the central coast of Labrador ) ; it then trends northward across Canada before dropping south again as it courses through Alaska . Throughout most of Siberia , the boundary tends to follow the Arctic Circle fairly closely . In addition to having various summer temperature regimes , microthermal climates also differ from one another in how much precipitation they receive -- such climates may be humid , semiarid or arid . Most of the Turkestan-Gobi desert system has an arid microthermal climate , while the best-known example of the semiarid microthermal climate can be found in the `` steppes of Central Asia '' immortalized by Russian classical music composer Alexander Borodin .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Microthermal", "rank": 65, "score": 106111 }, { "content": "Title: CMB cold spot Content: The CMB Cold Spot or WMAP Cold Spot is a region of the sky seen in microwaves that has been found to be unusually large and cold relative to the expected properties of the cosmic microwave background radiation ( CMB ) . The `` cold spot '' is approximately 70 µK colder than the average CMB temperature ( approximately 2.7 K ) , whereas the root mean square of typical temperature variations is only 18 µK.After the dipole anisotropy , which is due to the Doppler shift of the microwave background radiation due to our peculiar velocity relative to the comoving cosmic rest frame , has been subtracted out . This feature is consistent with the Earth moving at some 627 km/s towards the constellation Virgo . At some points , the `` cold spot '' deviates 140 µK colder than the average CMB temperature . The radius of the `` cold spot '' subtends about 5 ° ; it is centered at the galactic coordinate lII = 207.8 ° , bII = − 56.3 ° ( equatorial : α = , δ = ) . It is , therefore , in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere , in the direction of the constellation Eridanus . Typically , the largest fluctuations of the primordial CMB temperature occur on angular scales of about 1 ° . Thus a cold region as large as the `` cold spot '' appears very unlikely , given generally accepted theoretical models . Various alternative explanations exist , including a so-called Eridanus Supervoid or Great Void . This would be an extremely large region of the universe , roughly 150 to 300 Mpc or 500 million to one billion light-years across and 6 to 10 billion light years away from us , at redshift , containing a density of matter much smaller than the average density at that redshift . Such a void would affect the observed CMB via the integrated Sachs -- Wolfe effect . If a comparable supervoid did exist , it would be one of the largest structures in the observable universe . A study published in 2015 shows the most likely explanation for the CMB cold spot is the supervoid one ( see below ) .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "CMB_cold_spot", "rank": 66, "score": 106076 }, { "content": "Title: South Pacific tropical cyclone Content: A South Pacific tropical cyclone ( Commonly referred to as hurricanes ) is a non frontal , low pressure system that has developed , within an environment of warm sea surface temperatures and little vertical wind shear aloft in the South Pacific Ocean . Within the Southern Hemisphere there are officially three areas where tropical cyclones develop on a regular basis , these areas are the South-West Indian Ocean between Africa and 90 ° E , the Australian region between 90 ° E and 160 ° E and the South Pacific basin between 160 ° E and 120 ° W . The South Pacific basin between 160 ° E and 120 ° W is officially monitored by the Fiji Meteorological Service and New Zealand 's MetService , while others like the Australian Bureau of Meteorology and the United States National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration also monitor the basin . Each tropical cyclone year within this basin starts on July 1 and runs throughout the year , encompassing the tropical cyclone season which runs from November 1 and lasts until April 30 each season . Within the basin , most tropical cyclones have their origins within the South Pacific Convergence Zone or within the Northern Australian monsoon trough , both of which form an extensive area of cloudiness and are dominant features of the season . Within this region a tropical disturbance is classified as a tropical cyclone , when it has 10-minute sustained wind speeds of more than 65 km/h ( 35 mph ) , that wrap halfway around the low level circulation centre , while a severe tropical cyclone is classified when the maximum 10-minute sustained wind speeds are greater than 120 km/h ( 75 mph ) .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "South_Pacific_tropical_cyclone", "rank": 67, "score": 105986 }, { "content": "Title: Great Blue Norther of November 11, 1911 Content: The Great Blue Norther of November 11 , 1911 was a cold snap that affected the central United States on Saturday , November 11 , 1911 . Many cities broke record highs , going into the 70s and 80s early that afternoon . By nightfall , cities were dealing with temperatures in the teens and single-digits on the Fahrenheit scale . This is the only day in many midwest cities ' weather bureau jurisdictions where the record highs and lows were broken for the same day . Some cities experienced tornadoes on Saturday and a blizzard on Sunday . A blizzard even occurred within one hour after an F4 tornado hit Rock County , Wisconsin . The main cause of such a dramatic cold snap was an extremely strong storm system separating warm , humid air from frigid , arctic air . Dramatic cold snaps tend to occur mostly in the month of November , though they can also come in February or March . These arrivals of Continental Polar or Arctic air masses are generally called northers , and the one in question was marked by a mass of steel blue clouds in the vicinity of the surface front , hence the name . Although temperature drops of this extent have happened on other occasions , as recently as February 2009 , the fact that the 1911 cold front passage was during the autumn and came after such warm weather contributed to the properties mentioned in this article .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Great_Blue_Norther_of_November_11,_1911", "rank": 68, "score": 105680 }, { "content": "Title: North wind Content: A north wind is a wind that originates in the north and blows south . The north wind has had historical and literal significance , since it often signals cold weather and seasonal change in the Northern hemisphere . In the Southern Hemisphere , especially in southern Australia , the north wind is a hot wind , often leading to bushfires .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "North_wind", "rank": 69, "score": 105578 }, { "content": "Title: North light (architecture) Content: North light is natural light coming from the north ( in the Northern Hemisphere ) . It consists of light which comes from the blue sky rather than directly from the sun . It is preferred and considered ideal by architects . It is also preferred natural light by artists as well . North light has luminous efficacy / lm/W 48 , Colour correlated temperature/K 6500 and colour rendering index/R is equal to 94 . northern", "qid": "3112", "docid": "North_light_(architecture)", "rank": 70, "score": 105116 }, { "content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer", "rank": 71, "score": 104751 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Peter_Thejll", "rank": 72, "score": 104201 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal low Content: Thermal lows , or heat lows , are non-frontal low-pressure areas that occur over the continents in the subtropics during the warm season , as the result of intense heating when compared to their surrounding environments . Thermal lows occur near the Sonoran Desert , on the Mexican plateau , in California 's Great Central Valley , the Sahara , over north-west Argentina in South America , over the Kimberley region of north-west Australia , the Iberian peninsula , and the Tibetan plateau . Over land , intense , rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum . The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air . This , combined with the rising of the hot air , results in the formation of a low pressure area . Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude . Over the water , instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body . Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations , and can extend to 3100 m in height . Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America , northern Africa , and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer monsoon conditions . Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of sea breezes . Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Thermal_low", "rank": 73, "score": 104165 }, { "content": "Title: Pacific decadal oscillation Content: The Pacific Decadal Oscillation ( PDO ) is a robust , recurring pattern of ocean-atmosphere climate variability centered over the mid-latitude Pacific basin . The PDO is detected as warm or cool surface waters in the Pacific Ocean , north of 20 ° N. Over the past century , the amplitude of this climate pattern has varied irregularly at interannual-to-interdecadal time scales ( meaning time periods of a few years to as much as time periods of multiple decades ) . There is evidence of reversals in the prevailing polarity ( meaning changes in cool surface waters versus warm surface waters within the region ) of the oscillation occurring around 1925 , 1947 , and 1977 ; the last two reversals corresponded with dramatic shifts in salmon production regimes in the North Pacific Ocean . This climate pattern also affects coastal sea and continental surface air temperatures from Alaska to California . During a `` warm '' , or `` positive '' , phase , the west Pacific becomes cooler and part of the eastern ocean warms ; during a `` cool '' or `` negative '' phase , the opposite pattern occurs . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation was named by Steven R. Hare , who noticed it while studying salmon production pattern results in 1997 . The Pacific Decadal Oscillation index is the leading empirical orthogonal function ( EOF ) of monthly sea surface temperature anomalies ( SST-A ) over the North Pacific ( poleward of 20 ° N ) after the global average sea surface temperature has been removed . This PDO index is the standardized principal component time series . A PDO ` signal ' has been reconstructed to 1661 through tree-ring chronologies in the Baja California area .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Pacific_decadal_oscillation", "rank": 74, "score": 104129 }, { "content": "Title: Neoglaciation Content: The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Neoglaciation", "rank": 75, "score": 103975 }, { "content": "Title: Buys Ballot's law Content: In meteorology , Buys Ballot 's law ( -LSB- ˌbœy̯s bɑˈlɔt -RSB- ) may be expressed as follows : In the Northern Hemisphere , if a person stands with his back to the wind , the atmospheric pressure is low to the left , high to the right . This is because wind travels counterclockwise around low pressure zones in the Northern Hemisphere . It is approximately true in the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere , and is reversed in the Southern Hemisphere , but the angle between the pressure gradient force and wind is not a right angle in low latitudes .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Buys_Ballot's_law", "rank": 76, "score": 103970 }, { "content": "Title: Roaring Forties Content: The Roaring Forties are strong westerly winds found in the Southern Hemisphere , generally between the latitudes of 40 and 50 degrees . The strong west-to-east air currents are caused by the combination of air being displaced from the Equator towards the South Pole and the Earth 's rotation , and there are few landmasses to serve as windbreaks . The Roaring Forties were a major aid to ships sailing the Brouwer Route from Europe to the East Indies or Australasia during the Age of Sail , and in modern usage are favoured by yachtsmen on round-the-world voyages and competitions . The boundaries of the Roaring Forties are not consistent , and shift north or south depending on the season . Similar but stronger conditions occur in more southerly latitudes and are referred to as the Furious Fifties and Shrieking or Screaming Sixties .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Roaring_Forties", "rank": 77, "score": 103373 }, { "content": "Title: Polar low Content: A polar low is a small-scale , short-lived atmospheric low pressure system ( depression ) that is found over the ocean areas poleward of the main polar front in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres . The systems usually have a horizontal length scale of less than 1000 km and exist for no more than a couple of days . They are part of the larger class of mesoscale weather systems . Polar lows can be difficult to detect using conventional weather reports and are a hazard to high-latitude operations , such as shipping and gas and oil platforms . Such winter storms can cause bitter cold and crop freezes . Polar lows have been referred to by many other terms , such as polar mesoscale vortex , Arctic hurricane , Arctic low , and cold air depression . Today the term is usually reserved for the more vigorous systems that have near-surface winds of at least 17 m/s ( 38 mph ) .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Polar_low", "rank": 78, "score": 102975 }, { "content": "Title: Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation Content: The interdecadal Pacific oscillation ( IPO ) is an oceanographic/meteorological phenomenon similar to the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) but for a wider area of the Pacific . Significantly it covers the Southern hemisphere as well as the Northern hemisphere ( 50 ° S to 50 ° N ) . The IPO had positive phases ( southeastern tropical Pacific warm ) from 1922 to 1946 and 1978 to 1998 , and a negative phase between 1947 and 1976 .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Interdecadal_Pacific_Oscillation", "rank": 79, "score": 102565 }, { "content": "Title: 2017 North Indian Ocean cyclone season Content: The 2017 North Indian Ocean cyclone season is a current event in the annual cycle of tropical cyclone formation . The North Indian Ocean cyclone season has no official bounds , but cyclones tend to form between April and December , with the two peaks in May and November . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northern Indian Ocean . The scope of this article is limited to the Indian Ocean in the Northern Hemisphere , east of the Horn of Africa and west of the Malay Peninsula . There are two main seas in the North Indian Ocean -- the Arabian Sea to the west of the Indian subcontinent , abbreviated ARB by the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) ; and the Bay of Bengal to the east , abbreviated BOB by the IMD . The official Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre in this basin is the IMD , while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) releases unofficial advisories . On average , three to four cyclonic storms form in this basin every season . __ TOC __", "qid": "3112", "docid": "2017_North_Indian_Ocean_cyclone_season", "rank": 80, "score": 102140 }, { "content": "Title: Northern Celestial Hemisphere Content: The Northern Celestial Hemisphere or the Northern Sky is part of a rotating astronomical region in the sky . It is the northern hemisphere of the celestial sphere . The northern sky ( northern star ( s ) sky , northern star ( s ) sky ) is that half of the starry sky , which is north of the sky equator . It can be overlooked from the North Pole . The farther south , the less is visible to the observer . In good visibility conditions , the observer encompasses around 2000 freely visible fixed stars , with the use of a field glass about 20,000 to 40,000 stars .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Northern_Celestial_Hemisphere", "rank": 81, "score": 102061 }, { "content": "Title: Alaska Current Content: The Alaska Current is a southwestern warm-water current along the coast of British Columbia and the Alaska Panhandle . The current results from the northward diversion of a portion of the North Pacific Current when that current meets the west coast of the North American continent . It forms a part of the counterclockwise gyre in the Gulf of Alaska . In contrast to typical sub-Arctic Pacific water , Alaska Current water is characterized by temperatures above 39 ° F ( 4 ° C ) and surface salinities below 32.6 parts per thousand . In the northern Gulf of Alaska , the Alaska Current continues into the Alaskan Stream , which begins near Kodiak Island and flows southwestward along the Alaska Peninsula . The Alaska Current produces large clockwise eddies at two sites : west of the Queen Charlotte Islands ( `` Queen Charlotte Eddy '' or `` Haida Eddies '' ) and west of Sitka ( `` Sitka Eddy '' ) .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Alaska_Current", "rank": 82, "score": 101902 }, { "content": "Title: 2015–16 North American winter Content: The 2015 -- 16 North American winter refers to winter as it occurred across the continent from late 2015 through early 2016 . While there is no well-agreed-upon date used to indicate the start of winter in the Northern Hemisphere , there are two definitions of winter which may be used . Based on the astronomical definition , winter begins at the winter solstice , which in 2015 occurred late on December 21 , and ends at the March equinox , which in 2016 occurred on March 20 . Based on the meteorological definition , the first day of winter is December 1 and the last day February 29 . Both definitions involve a period of approximately three months , with some variability . Contrary to the past two winters , the United States ( including the Northeast ) experienced warmer conditions , mainly due to a strong El Niño . However , despite the warmth , significant weather systems still occurred . The main event of the winter was when a crippling and historic blizzard struck the Northeast in late January , dumping up to 3 ft of snow in and around the metropolitan areas .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "2015–16_North_American_winter", "rank": 83, "score": 101811 }, { "content": "Title: Winter solstice Content: The winter solstice ( or hibernal solstice ) , also known as midwinter , is an astronomical phenomenon marking the day with the shortest period of daylight and the longest night of the year . In the Northern Hemisphere this is the December solstice and in the Southern Hemisphere this is the June solstice . The axial tilt of Earth and gyroscopic effects of its daily rotation mean that the two opposite points in the sky to which the Earth 's axis of rotation points ( axial precession ) change very slowly ( making a complete circle approximately every 26,000 years ) . As the Earth follows its orbit around the Sun , the polar hemisphere that faced away from the Sun , experiencing winter , will , in half a year , face towards the Sun and experience summer . This is because the two hemispheres face opposite directions along Earth 's axis , and so as one polar hemisphere experiences winter , the other experiences summer . More evident from high latitudes , a hemisphere 's winter solstice occurs on the day with the shortest period of daylight and longest night of the year , when the sun 's daily maximum elevation in the sky is at its lowest . Although the winter solstice itself lasts only a moment in time , the term sometimes refers to the day on which it occurs . Other names are `` midwinter '' , the `` extreme of winter '' ( Dongzhi ) , or the `` shortest day '' . In some cultures it is seen as the middle of winter , while in others it is seen as the beginning of winter . In meteorology , winter in the Northern Hemisphere spans the entire period of December through February . The seasonal significance of the winter solstice is in the reversal of the gradual lengthening of nights and shortening hours of daylight during the day . The earliest sunset and latest sunrise dates differ from winter solstice , however , and these depend on latitude , due to the variation in the solar day throughout the year caused by the Earth 's elliptical orbit ( see earliest and latest sunrise and sunset ) . Worldwide , interpretation of the event has varied across cultures , but many have held a recognition of rebirth , involving holidays , festivals , gatherings , rituals or other celebrations around that time .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Winter_solstice", "rank": 84, "score": 101776 }, { "content": "Title: 2018 British Isles heat wave Content: The 2018 Britain and Ireland heat wave was a period of unusually hot weather that took place in June, July and August. It caused widespread drought, hosepipe bans, crop failures, and a number of wildfires. These wildfires worst affected northern moorland areas around the Greater Manchester region, the largest was at Saddleworth Moor and another was at Winter Hill, together these burned over 14 square miles (36 km2) of land over a period of nearly a month.A heat wave was officially declared on 22 June, with Scotland and Northern Ireland recording temperatures above 30 °C (86 °F) for the first time since the July 2013 heat wave. The British Isles were in the middle of a strong warm anticyclone inside a strong northward meander of the jet stream, this was part of the wider 2018 European heat wave. The Met Office declared summer 2018 the joint hottest on record together with 1976, 2003 and 2006.", "qid": "3112", "docid": "2018_British_Isles_heat_wave", "rank": 85, "score": 101750 }, { "content": "Title: Tropic of Cancer Content: The Tropic of Cancer , also referred to as the Northern Tropic , is currently north of the Equator . It is the most northerly circle of latitude on the Earth at which the Sun can be directly overhead . This occurs on the June solstice , when the Northern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun to its maximum extent . Its Southern Hemisphere counterpart , marking the most southerly position at which the Sun can be directly overhead , is the Tropic of Capricorn . These tropics are two of the five major circles of latitude that mark maps of the Earth , besides the Arctic and Antarctic Circles and the Equator . The positions of these two circles of latitude ( relative to the Equator ) are dictated by the tilt of the Earth 's axis of rotation relative to the plane of its orbit .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Tropic_of_Cancer", "rank": 86, "score": 101686 }, { "content": "Title: Warm front Content: A warm front is a density discontinuity located at the leading edge of a homogeneous warm air mass , and is typically located on the equator-facing edge of an isotherm gradient . Warm fronts lie within broader troughs of low pressure than cold fronts , and move more slowly than the cold fronts which usually follow because cold air is denser and less easy to remove from the Earth 's surface . This also forces temperature differences across warm fronts to be broader in scale . Clouds ahead of the warm front are mostly stratiform , and rainfall gradually increases as the front approaches . Fog can also occur preceding a warm frontal passage . Clearing and warming is usually rapid after frontal passage . If the warm air mass is unstable , thunderstorms may be embedded among the stratiform clouds ahead of the front , and after frontal passage thundershowers may continue . On weather maps , the surface location of a warm front is marked with a red line of semicircles pointing in the direction of travel .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Warm_front", "rank": 87, "score": 100874 }, { "content": "Title: Middle Bronze Age Cold Epoch Content: The Middle Bronze Age Cold Epoch was a period of unusually cold climate in the North Atlantic region , lasting from about 1800 BC to about 1500 BC . It was followed by the Bronze Age Optimum ( 1500 -- 900 year BC ) . During that epoch , a series of severe volcanic eruptions occurred , including Mount Vesuvius ( Avellino eruption , ≈ 1660 BC ) , Mount Aniakchak ( ≈ 1645 BC ) , and Thera ( Minoan eruption , ≈ 1620 BC ) .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Middle_Bronze_Age_Cold_Epoch", "rank": 88, "score": 100542 }, { "content": "Title: Icelandic Low Content: The Icelandic Low is a semi-permanent centre of low atmospheric pressure found between Iceland and southern Greenland and extending in the Northern Hemisphere winter into the Barents Sea . In summer it weakens and splits into two centres , one near Davis Strait and the other west of Iceland . It is a principal centre of action in the atmosphere circulation of the Northern Hemisphere , associated with frequent cyclone activity . It forms one pole of the North Atlantic oscillation , the other being the Azores High .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Icelandic_Low", "rank": 89, "score": 100478 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Africa Content: Due to Africa 's position across equatorial and subtropical latitudes in both the northern and southern hemisphere , several different climate types can be found on the continent of Africa . Africa mainly lies within the intertropical zone between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn . Only the northernmost and the southernmost fringes of the continent have a Mediterranean climate . Because of this geographical situation , Africa is a hot continent as the solar radiation intensity is always high . Thus , warm and hot climates prevails all over Africa but the northern part is the most marked part by aridity and high temperatures . The climate of Africa is a range of climates such as the equatorial climate , the tropical wet and dry climate , the tropical monsoon climate , the semi-desert climate ( semi-arid ) , the desert climate ( hyper-arid and arid ) , the subtropical highland climate etc. . Temperate climates remain rare through the continent except at very high elevations and along the fringes . In fact , the climate of Africa is more dependent to rainfall amount than to temperatures as they are consistently high . African deserts are the sunniest and the driest parts of the continent due to the prevailing presence of the subtropical ridge with subsiding , hot , dry air masses . Africa holds many heat-related records : the continent has the hottest extended region year-round , the areas with the hottest summer climate , the highest sunshine duration etc. .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Climate_of_Africa", "rank": 90, "score": 100434 }, { "content": "Title: Global storm activity of 2006 Content: Global storm activity of 2006 profiles the major worldwide storms , including blizzards , ice storms , and other winter events , from January 1 , 2006 to December 31 , 2006 . Winter storms are events in which the dominant varieties of precipitation are forms that only occur at cold temperatures , such as snow or sleet , or a rainstorm where ground temperatures are cold enough to allow ice to form ( i.e. freezing rain ) . It may be marked by strong wind , thunder and lightning ( a thunderstorm ) , heavy precipitation , such as ice ( ice storm ) , or wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere ( as in a dust storm , snowstorm , hailstorm , etc. ) . Other major non winter events such as large dust storms , Hurricanes , cyclones , tornados , gales , flooding and rainstorms are also caused by such phenomena to a lesser or greater existent . Very rarely , well-defined winter storms may form during the summer , though it would usually have to be an abnormally cold summer , such as the Summer of 1816 in the Northeastern United States . In many locations in the Northern Hemisphere , the most powerful winter storms usually occur in March and , in regions where temperatures are cold enough , April .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Global_storm_activity_of_2006", "rank": 91, "score": 100095 }, { "content": "Title: Gulf Stream Content: The Gulf Stream , together with its northern extension the North Atlantic Drift , is a warm and swift Atlantic ocean current that originates in the Gulf of Mexico and stretches to the tip of Florida , and follows the eastern coastlines of the United States and Newfoundland before crossing the Atlantic Ocean . The process of western intensification causes the Gulf Stream to be a northward accelerating current off the east coast of North America . At about , it splits in two , with the northern stream , the North Atlantic Drift , crossing to Northern Europe and the southern stream , the Canary Current , recirculating off West Africa . The Gulf Stream influences the climate of the east coast of North America from Florida to Newfoundland , and the west coast of Europe . Although there has been recent debate , there is consensus that the climate of Western Europe and Northern Europe is warmer than it would otherwise be due to the North Atlantic drift which is the northeastern section of the Gulf Stream . It is part of the North Atlantic Gyre . Its presence has led to the development of strong cyclones of all types , both within the atmosphere and within the ocean . The Gulf Stream is also a significant potential source of renewable power generation . The Gulf Stream may be slowing down as a result of climate change . The Gulf Stream is typically 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) wide and 800 metres ( 2,600 ft ) to 1,200 metres ( 3,900 ft ) deep . The current velocity is fastest near the surface , with the maximum speed typically about 2.5 metres per second ( 5.6 mph ) .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Gulf_Stream", "rank": 92, "score": 100039 }, { "content": "Title: Excessive heat watch Content: An Excessive Heat Watch is issued by the National Weather Service of the United States when the heat index is expected to be greater than 105 ° F ( 41 ° C ) across the northern states or 110 ° F ( 43 ° C ) across the southern states during the day , and/or nighttime low temperature will be at least 75 ° F ( 24 ° C ) or higher for two consecutive days . Note that even with the usual northern/southern criteria , local offices , particularly those with deserts or mountainous terrain , often have their own criteria . High values of the heat index are caused by temperatures being significantly above normal and high humidities , and such high levels can pose a threat to human life through conditions such as heat stroke .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Excessive_heat_watch", "rank": 93, "score": 99989 }, { "content": "Title: 50th parallel north Content: The 50th parallel north is a circle of latitude that is 50 degrees north of the Earth 's equatorial plane . It crosses Europe , Asia , the Pacific Ocean , North America , and the Atlantic Ocean . At this latitude the sun is visible for 16 hours , 22 minutes during the summer solstice and 8 hours , 4 minutes during the winter solstice . The maximum altitude of the sun on the summer solstice is 63.5 degrees and on the winter solstice it is 16.5 degrees . At this latitude , the average sea surface temperature between 1982 and 2011 was about 8.5 ° C ( 47.3 ° F ) .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "50th_parallel_north", "rank": 94, "score": 99908 }, { "content": "Title: Sudden stratospheric warming Content: A sudden stratospheric warming ( SSW ) is an event where the polar vortex of westerly winds in the winter hemisphere slows down or even reverses direction over the course of a few days . The change is accompanied by a rise of stratospheric temperature by several tens of kelvins .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Sudden_stratospheric_warming", "rank": 95, "score": 99908 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 96, "score": 99864 }, { "content": "Title: West Greenland Current Content: The West Greenland Current is a weak cold water current that flows to the north along the west coast of Greenland . The current results from the movement of water flowing around the southernmost point of Greenland caused by the East Greenland Current . According to Lloyd et al. , 2007 , the WGC is a WARM current connected to a broader scale North Atlantic climate via the combined influences of Atlantic water from the Irminger Current ( IC ) and polar water from the East Greenland Current . Paleoclimatology records derived from foraminifera abundance show that periodic influxes of warm subsurface temperatures and near-bottom temperatures occurred throughout the Late Holocene epoch , particularly during the Holocene climatic optimum . The increased flow from the nearby East Greenland Current was associated with increased glacial iceberg calving from the large Jakobshavn Isbrae glacial outlet within the western Greenland Ice Sheet , causing rapid melting and destabilization events . Following the Neoglaciation , the Jakobshavn outlet formed a floating ice tongue around 2000 years before present .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "West_Greenland_Current", "rank": 97, "score": 99860 }, { "content": "Title: Examples of refugia Content: The northern and southern hemispheres of the earth have a dynamic history of advancing and retreating ice sheets . The glacial and interglacial periods are linked to regular eccentricities in the Earth 's orbit and correspond to approximately 100 kyr cycles . The advancing , or glacial periods can cause a massive displacement of flora and fauna as it drives them away from the poles , with the most recent glacial maximum having occurred about 20,000 years ago. ,", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Examples_of_refugia", "rank": 98, "score": 99658 }, { "content": "Title: Polar easterlies Content: The polar easterlies ( also Polar Hadley cells ) are the dry , cold prevailing winds that blow from the high-pressure areas of the polar highs at the North and South Poles towards low-pressure areas within the Westerlies at high latitudes . Cold air subsides at the poles creating the high pressure , forcing an equatorward outflow of air ; that outflow is then deflected westward by the Coriolis effect . Unlike the westerlies in the middle latitudes , the polar easterlies are often weak and irregular . These prevailing winds blow from the polar easterlies are one of the five primary wind zones , known as wind belts , that make up our atmosphere 's circulatory system . This particular belt of wind begins at approximately 60 degrees north and south latitude and reaches to the poles . When air moves near the poles , cold temperatures shrink the air . This promotes air from warmer latitudes to flow into the area , causing a polar high-pressure zone . Air from this high-pressure zone then rushes toward the low-pressure zone surrounding the sub-polar region . This flow of air is altered by the Earth 's rotation and deflected west , hence the name between high - and low-pressure zones , its path is deflected -- as we saw with the polar easterlies -- thanks to the rotation of the Earth . All of this unequal heat , rushing air and spinning Earth combine to form global currents such as the polar easterlies . Another example of the phenomenon would be the trade winds , which reach from where the doldrums ( the area that gets the biggest blast of heat from the sun ) leave off at about 5 degrees north and south latitude to as far as 30 degrees north and south . They are caused by air moving into the area from the subtropics to fill the void left by the doldrums ' rising air . The trade winds blow steadily westward out of the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and out of the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere . Sailors in earlier times , traveling by wind current and sail only , counted upon the reliability of the trade winds to help them along on their voyages . Similarly , they sought to avoid the doldrums , where the wind was so scant they risked coming to a complete stop .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Polar_easterlies", "rank": 99, "score": 99387 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Kosovo Content: Kosovo is a relatively small territory . Because of the climatic position and complicated structure of the relief , the country has a variety of climate systems . Kosovo lies in the south part of the middle geographical latitude of the northern hemisphere and it is affected by the Mediterranean Mild Climate and European Continental Climate . Important factors that affect Kosovo 's climate are : its position towards Eurasia and Africa , hydrographic masses ( Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean sea ) , atmospheric masses ( tropic , arctic and continental ) and others . Minor factors are : relief , hydrography , plain and vegetation .", "qid": "3112", "docid": "Climate_of_Kosovo", "rank": 100, "score": 99001 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: West Side Highway Content: The West Side Highway ( officially the Joe DiMaggio Highway ) is a mostly surface section of New York State Route 9A ( NY 9A ) that runs from West 72nd Street along the Hudson River to the southern tip of Manhattan in New York City . It replaced the West Side Elevated Highway , built between 1929 and 1951 , which was shut down in 1973 due to neglect and lack of maintenance , and was dismantled by 1989 . The term `` West Side Highway '' is often mistakenly used , particularly by the news media traffic reporters , to include the roadway north of 72nd Street which is properly known as the Henry Hudson Parkway . The current highway was complete by 2001 , but required some reconstruction due to damage sustained in the 9/11 attacks . It uses the surface streets that existed before the elevated highway was built : West Street , Eleventh Avenue and Twelfth Avenue . A short section of 12th Avenue still runs between 125th and 138th Streets , under the Riverside Drive Viaduct . Eleventh Avenue is a separate street north of 22nd Street . The portion between West 42nd Street and Canal Street is part of the Lincoln Highway .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "West_Side_Highway", "rank": 1, "score": 190975 }, { "content": "Title: West Side Elevated Highway Content: The West Side Elevated Highway ( West Side Highway or Miller Highway , named for Julius Miller , Manhattan Borough President , 1922 -- 30 ) was an elevated section of Route NY-9A running along the Hudson River in the New York City borough of Manhattan to the tip of the island . It was an elevated highway , one of the first urban freeways in the world , and served as a prototype for urban freeways elsewhere , including Boston 's Central Artery . Built between 1929 and 1951 , the highway 's narrow confines -- which could not accommodate trucks -- and sharp S exit ramps made the highway obsolete almost immediately . Maintenance was minimal , and the use of corrosive salts to de-ice the highway in winter accelerated its decay . When chunks of the highway 's facade began to fall off due to lack of maintenance , and a truck and car fell through it at 14th Street in 1973 , the highway was shut down , and a debate began whether to renovate it or dismantle it . Attitudes about urban planning had changed in the intervening decades , and the decision was made not to repair the decaying structure . The need to replace the deteriorating highway was recognized in the 1950s . Plans were drafted , but not executed . By 1971 , a plan evolved for the elevated highway to be replaced by an underground interstate-quality highway , which came to be called Westway . It received approval from many levels of government , from the City to the Federal , but was scuttled in 1985 due to environmental issues . In the interim between the closure of the elevated highway and the completion of its dismantling , while debate about Westway was proceeding , remaining sections of the old highway structure began to be unofficially utilized as an elevated urban park , for jogging and bicycling . By 1989 the old elevated highway structure was totally dismantled , except for a small portion from 59th Street to 72nd Street , which , in effect , became the southern extension of the Henry Hudson Parkway . Eventually , a grade-level six-to-eight lane `` urban boulevard '' was built , which is generally referred to as the West Side Highway , although the elements of it use the names of the surface streets which existed before the elevated highway was built : West Street , 11th Avenue and 12th Avenue . It connects to the remaining elevated structure via a ramp at 57th Street .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "West_Side_Elevated_Highway", "rank": 2, "score": 185117 }, { "content": "Title: Interstate 487 Content: Interstate 487 ( I-487 ) was a proposed intrastate Interstate Highway in the Hudson Valley region of New York in the United States . At its greatest extent , the highway , known as the Hudson River Expressway ( HRE ) , was to run for 47 mi on the east side of the Hudson River from I-87 in the Bronx to I-84 east of Beacon . It was met with opposition from its introduction in 1965 , leading the project to be gradually scaled back before it was cancelled completely in 1971 . Ultimately , only one section was built , an 8 mi stretch between Ossining and Peekskill . This road became known as the Croton Expressway and was designated as part of U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Interstate_487", "rank": 3, "score": 174468 }, { "content": "Title: Henry Hudson Parkway Content: The Henry Hudson Parkway is an 11.05 mi parkway in New York City . The southern terminus is at West 72nd Street in Manhattan , where the parkway continues south as the West Side Highway . It is often erroneously referred to as the West Side Highway throughout its entire course in Manhattan . The northern terminus is at the Bronx -- Westchester county boundary , where it continues north as the Saw Mill River Parkway . All but the northernmost mile of the road is co-signed as New York State Route 9A ( NY 9A ) . In addition , the entirety of the parkway is designated New York State Route 907V ( NY 907V ) , an unsigned reference route . The owners of the parkway are the New York State Department of Transportation , New York City Department of Transportation , New York City Department of Parks and Recreation , Metropolitan Transportation Authority , Amtrak , and Port Authority of New York and New Jersey . The Henry Hudson Parkway was created by the Henry Hudson Parkway Authority , which was run by `` master builder '' Robert Moses . The highway itself was constructed from 1934 -- 1937 .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Henry_Hudson_Parkway", "rank": 4, "score": 162333 }, { "content": "Title: West Side (Manhattan) Content: The West Side of Manhattan refers to the side of Manhattan Island which abuts the Hudson River and faces New Jersey . Fifth Avenue , Central Park , and lower Broadway separate it from the East Side . The major neighborhoods on the West Side are ( from north to south ) West Harlem , Morningside Heights , Manhattan Valley , Upper West Side , Hell 's Kitchen , Chelsea , West Village , SoHo , and Tribeca . The 8th Avenue and West Side subway lines connect all parts of the West Side . The main north-south roads servicing the West Side are the Henry Hudson Parkway in the north , and the West Side Highway in the south . The Hudson River Greenway separates them from the west shore of the island .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "West_Side_(Manhattan)", "rank": 5, "score": 160799 }, { "content": "Title: Holland Tunnel Content: The Holland Tunnel is a highway tunnel under the Hudson River between Manhattan in New York City and Jersey City , New Jersey . Its two tubes carry eastbound and westbound Interstate 78 . In New Jersey , it is also designated NJ 139 . An integral conduit within the New York Metropolitan Area , it opened in 1927 as the first of two vehicular tunnels under the river , the other being the Lincoln Tunnel . Both are operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey . The tunnel was originally known as the Hudson River Vehicular Tunnel or the Canal Street Tunnel . It was renamed the Holland Tunnel in memory of Clifford Milburn Holland , the chief engineer , after his untimely death in October 27 1924 , before the tunnel was opened . The innovative ventilation system was designed by Ole Singstad , who oversaw completion of tunnel 's construction .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Holland_Tunnel", "rank": 6, "score": 152130 }, { "content": "Title: Trans-Manhattan Expressway Content: The Trans-Manhattan Expressway is an east -- west limited-access highway in New York City , in the United States . It traverses the northern end of the borough of Manhattan at one of its narrowest points , running for 0.8 mi in a cut through Washington Heights . The highway connects the George Washington Bridge over the Hudson River to the Alexander Hamilton Bridge over the Harlem River . Designated Interstate 95 ( I-95 ) and U.S. Route 1 , approximately 280,000 vehicles traverse the highway on a daily average basis . Completed in the early 1960s , the George Washington Bridge Bus Station and the high-rise Bridge Apartments built over the expressway create Intermittent tunnels . It is operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey . All route numbers on the highway are north-south , though the route is east-west . The route numbers are aligned so that northbound of each route number is headed east , while southbound goes compass west .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Trans-Manhattan_Expressway", "rank": 7, "score": 151988 }, { "content": "Title: West Midtown Ferry Terminal Content: The West Midtown Ferry Terminal is a passenger bus and ferry terminal serving ferries along the Hudson River in New York City and northeastern New Jersey . It is located at Piers 78 and 79 in Hudson River Park adjacent to the West Side Highway at West 39th Street in Midtown Manhattan . The municipally-owned facility opened in 2005 as multi-user terminal to accommodate an increasing demand for ferry service in the Port of New York and New Jersey and to provide ferry slips for short haul crossings , water taxis , and high-speed long distance service . Built largely with public funds the West Midtown became upon its opening one of the principal terminals used by the private NY Waterway-operated routes to Jersey City , Hoboken , Weehawken , and Edgewater . The terminal is located on a narrow strip of land west of West Side Highway , a major arterial road , and Hudson River Park . Its construction required the incorporation of the ventilation towers of the Lincoln Tunnel built in the 1930s . Clad in glass , it contains six ferry slips as well as a passenger ticketing area and waiting room .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "West_Midtown_Ferry_Terminal", "rank": 8, "score": 150882 }, { "content": "Title: U.S. Route 202 in New York Content: U.S. Route 202 ( US 202 ) is a part of the U.S. Highway System that runs from New Castle , Delaware , to Bangor , Maine . In the U.S. state of New York , US 202 extends 55.57 mi from the New Jersey state line near Suffern to the Connecticut state line east of Brewster . While most of US 202 is signed north -- south , the portion within New York is signed east -- west . It drifts north slowly as it crosses southern New York . US 202 is the only road to cross New York between New Jersey and Connecticut and not pass through New York City on the way . As it does in other states , Route 202 serves mainly as a local road in suburban and exurban communities along the outskirts of the metropolitan area , mostly two lanes with the exception of some four-lane sections and a brief concurrency onto an expressway in Peekskill . Its course along the Hudson River takes it first north up the west side , over the historic Bear Mountain Bridge , then south along the east side . It takes in many scenic areas , such as the Ramapo Mountains and Hudson Highlands , and two New York City reservoirs . Its circuitous path across the state puts it on many concurrencies -- only 14.5 miles ( 23.3 km ) , or 26 % , of Route 202 's mileage in New York is signed as US 202 alone . Among the roads it joins are three U.S. highways and two state routes . It forms four three-route conurrencies , including the only such grouping of three U.S. routes in the state , again in Peekskill .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "U.S._Route_202_in_New_York", "rank": 9, "score": 146184 }, { "content": "Title: Hudson River Park Content: Hudson River Park is a waterside park on the North River ( Hudson River ) , and is the part of the Manhattan Waterfront Greenway that extends from 59th Street south to Battery Park in the New York City borough of Manhattan . It is a joint state and city collaboration . It is a 550 acre park stretching 4.5 mi , making it the second-biggest park in Manhattan after Central Park . The park arose as part of the West Side Highway replacement project in the wake of the abandoned Westway plan . Bicycle and pedestrian paths , spanning the park north to south , open up the waterfront for recreational use . The park includes tennis and soccer fields , batting cages , children 's playground , dog run , and many other features . The parkland also incorporates several rebuilt North River piers along its length , formerly used for shipping . Hudson River Park connects many other recreational sites and landmarks . It runs through the Manhattan neighborhoods of Lower Manhattan ( including Battery Park City , World Trade Center , and Tribeca ) , Greenwich Village ( including the West Village and Meatpacking District ) , Chelsea , and Midtown West ( which includes Hudson Yards and Hell 's Kitchen/Clinton ) .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Hudson_River_Park", "rank": 10, "score": 145249 }, { "content": "Title: New Jersey Route 14 Content: Route 14 was a proposed state highway through Morris , Passaic and Bergen Counties in the late 1960s and early 1970s . The plans called for a freeway extending from Route 23 in Butler , across the state to Bergen County , where it would cross over a new Hudson River crossing near Alpine . From there , the highway continue as an extension of the Cross County Parkway in Yonkers , New York . The proposal was submitted to the Federal Highway Administration for possible interstate status in 1970 , but opposition from Bergen and Westchester County residents along with the engineering difficulties involved with building the proposed Hudson River near the New Jersey Palisades crossing prevented the freeway from being built .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_Jersey_Route_14", "rank": 11, "score": 144831 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 52 Content: New York State Route 52 ( NY 52 ) is a 108.72 mi state highway in the southeastern part of the state . It generally runs from west to east , beginning at the Pennsylvania state line in the Delaware River near Narrowsburg , crossing the Hudson River on the Newburgh -- Beacon Bridge , and ending in Carmel . NY 52 and NY 55 , both major east -- west routes of the Mid-Hudson Region , run parallel to each other , intersecting in downtown Liberty . With the exception of the section overlapping Interstate 84 ( I-84 ) , most of Route 52 is a two-lane road through lightly developed rural areas . The road west of the Hudson River serves a number of small communities in the southern Catskills , while it closely parallels I-84 east of the Hudson .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_52", "rank": 12, "score": 143294 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 5S Content: New York State Route 5S ( NY 5S ) is an east -- west state highway located in the Mohawk Valley of New York in the United States . It extends for 72.92 mi from an interchange with NY 5 , NY 5A , NY 8 , and NY 12 in Utica to a smaller interchange with NY 890 in Rotterdam . The route runs along the south side of the Mohawk River for its entire length and parallels NY 5 , which runs along the north side of the Mohawk River ( hence the `` S '' in the route number of NY 5S ) . In some locations , NY 5S has been upgraded into a super two or an expressway , mostly in Utica and western Herkimer County . The route is part of New York State Bicycle Route 5 west of its junction with NY 103 in Schenectady County . When NY 5S was assigned in 1930 , the route stretched from Oneida in the west to Schenectady in the east . It was later truncated on both ends to eliminate overlaps with other state routes and to accommodate the construction of other roadways , most notably Interstate 890 ( I-890 ) in western Schenectady .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_5S", "rank": 13, "score": 143102 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 9G Content: New York State Route 9G ( NY 9G ) is a state highway in the Hudson Valley of New York in the United States . It runs north from U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) at Poughkeepsie , starting out as Violet Avenue , then follows the Hudson River mostly along the eastern side of the US 9 to Rhinebeck , where the two routes cross just north of the village . From this point onward , NY 9G runs on the western side of US 9 , closer to the Hudson River , to Hudson . It ends at another junction with US 9 in the city . NY 9G initially extended from Rhinebeck to Hudson when it was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . It was extended to its current length in the late 1930s , supplanting New York State Route 9F , an alternate route of US 9 between Poughkeepsie and Rhinebeck .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_9G", "rank": 14, "score": 140069 }, { "content": "Title: Waterline Square Content: Waterline Square is a 5 acre , $ 2.3 billion luxury condominium and rental development located near the Hudson River on the Upper West Side of New York City . The complex will include three residential towers and 3 acre of park , along with 100000 sqft of amenity space . The residences range in size from one to five bedrooms . The project , which features designs by Rafael Viñoly , Kohn Pedersen Fox , and Richard Meier , is scheduled to be completed in 2019 .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Waterline_Square", "rank": 15, "score": 139361 }, { "content": "Title: U.S. Route 9W Content: U.S. Route 9W ( US 9W ) is a north -- south U.S. Highway in the states of New Jersey and New York . It begins in Fort Lee , New Jersey , as Fletcher Avenue crosses the US 1 -- 9 , US 46 , and the Interstate 95 ( I-95 ) approaches to the George Washington Bridge , and heads north up the west side of the Hudson River to US 9 in Albany , New York . As its `` W '' suffix indicates , US 9W is a westerly alternate route of US 9 between the two locations . US 9W directly serves three cities -- Newburgh , Kingston , and Albany -- and enters the vicinity of several others . As the route heads north , it connects to several highways of regional importance , including I-84 , US 209 , New York State Route 23 ( NY 23 ) , and US 20 . Much of US 9W parallels the New York State Thruway and NY 32 ; additionally , the latter overlaps with US 9W in four different locations .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "U.S._Route_9W", "rank": 16, "score": 139161 }, { "content": "Title: New Jersey Route 139 Content: Route 139 is a state highway in Jersey City , New Jersey in the United States that heads east from the Pulaski Skyway over Tonnele Circle to the state line with New Jersey and New York in the Holland Tunnel , which is under the Hudson River , to New York City . The western portion of the route is a two level highway that is charted by the New Jersey Department of Transportation as two separate roadways : The 1.45 mi lower roadway ( Route 139 ) between U.S. Route 1/9 over Tonnele Circle and Interstate 78 at Jersey Avenue , and the 0.83 mi upper roadway ( Route 139U or Hoboken Avenue ) running from County Route 501 ( John F. Kennedy Boulevard ) and ending where it joins the lower highway as part of the 12th Street Viaduct , which ends at Jersey Avenue . The lower roadway is listed on the federal and NJ state registers of historic places since 2005 . The eastern 1.32 mi of the route includes the Holland Tunnel approach that runs concurrent with Interstate 78 on the one-way pair of 12th Street eastbound and 14th Street westbound . Including the concurrency , the total length of Route 139 is 2.77 mi . What is now Route 139 was originally the northernmost part of the Route 1 Extension . Route 25 replaced Route 1 in the 1927 renumbering . In 1953 renumbering , Route 25 was changed back to U.S. Route 1 , which had been previously rerouted to cross the Hudson River when the George Washington Bridge opened in 1931 . Route 25 from the Pulaski Skyway over Tonnele Circle to the Holland Tunnel became U.S. Route 1/9 Business . By the 1990s , U.S. Route 1/9 Business was replaced by Route 139 . The New Jersey Department of Transportation ( NJDOT ) began a rehabilitation program for the lower and upper levels of the highway in 2005 . The renovation work for the 12th Street and 14th Street viaducts was completed in 2010 . Renovation of the upper roadway , including the Hoboken Avenue Viaduct , and Conrail Viaduct on the lower roadway is expected to be completed by 2016 .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_Jersey_Route_139", "rank": 17, "score": 138571 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 55 Content: New York State Route 55 ( NY 55 ) is a state highway in southern New York , running from the Pennsylvania state line at the Delaware River in Barryville to the Connecticut state line at Wingdale . It is the only other state highway beside NY 7 to completely cross the state , from border to border , in an east -- west direction , although NY 17 does so and is partially east -- west . It also forms a concurrency when it joins US 44 for 33 miles ( 53 km ) . Together with NY 52 , which it closely parallels and briefly joins in downtown Liberty , it forms the latitudinal backbone of the Hudson Valley region for non-interstate traffic . It offers the traveler a wide variety of landscapes , from farmlands , mountains and forests to the urban center of Poughkeepsie . Sights along the way include two of New York City 's major reservoirs in the Catskills , a dramatic crossing of the Shawangunk Ridge , and the Mid-Hudson Bridge .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_55", "rank": 18, "score": 137141 }, { "content": "Title: Interstate 84 in New York Content: Interstate 84 ( I-84 ) is a part of the Interstate Highway System that runs from Dunmore , Pennsylvania , to Sturbridge , Massachusetts , in the Eastern United States . In New York , I-84 extends 71.46 mi from the Pennsylvania state line at Port Jervis to the Connecticut state line east of Brewster . As it heads east -- west across the mid Hudson Valley , it goes over two mountain ranges and crosses the Hudson River at the Newburgh -- Beacon Bridge . It is the only limited-access road to cross New York from west to east between New York City and the Capital District . As such it is the main vehicular route between Southern New England and Pennsylvania and points west . It is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) , which recently resumed full control after two decades in which routine maintenance was performed by the New York State Thruway Authority under yearly contract from DOT . The New York State Bridge Authority charges eastbound traffic a $ 1.50 toll for cars to maintain the Newburgh -- Beacon Bridge . Construction of the highway began later than other interstates in New York as legal hurdles to the construction of the bridge had to be removed , and federal funding was more limited when it finally began in 1960 . It was completed 12 years later , becoming a major commercial artery and mainstay of the Hudson Valley economy and offering travelers a view of some of the state 's scenic areas in the Shawangunks and Hudson Highlands .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Interstate_84_in_New_York", "rank": 19, "score": 137049 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 301 Content: New York State Route 301 ( NY 301 ) , also known as the Hudson River Turnpike , is an intra-county state highway stretching across three-quarters of Putnam County , New York , in the United States . The western terminus of NY 301 is at an intersection with NY 9D in Cold Spring . Its eastern terminus is at a junction with NY 52 in Carmel . Along the way , NY 301 meets U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) and the Taconic State Parkway and passes through Clarence Fahnestock State Park . The section of the route between NY 9D and US 9 is ceremoniously designated as the Sergeant Albert Ireland Memorial Highway . NY 301 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , but only to the portion of its modern alignment west of US 9 . At the same time , the section of what is now NY 301 between Kent Cliffs and Carmel became part of New York State Route 130 , an east -- west route that continued southwest from Kent Cliffs to Peekskill . NY 301 was extended east to Kent Cliffs by 1932 via the Philipstown Turnpike and to Carmel by way of NY 130 .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_301", "rank": 20, "score": 135268 }, { "content": "Title: Hudson River Waterfront Walkway Content: The Hudson River Waterfront Walkway , also known as the Hudson River Walkway , is an ongoing and incomplete project located on Kill van Kull and the western shore of Upper New York Bay and the Hudson River , implemented as part of a New Jersey state-mandated master plan to connect the municipalities from the Bayonne Bridge to the George Washington Bridge with an urban linear park and provide contiguous unhindered access to the water 's edge . There is no projected date for its completion , though large segments have been built or incorporated into it since its inception . The southern end in Bayonne may eventually connect to the Hackensack RiverWalk , another proposed walkway along Newark Bay and Hackensack River on the west side of the Hudson County peninsula , and form part of a proposed Harbor Ring around the harbor . Its northern end is in Palisades Interstate Park , allowing users to continue along the river bank and alpine paths to the New Jersey/New York state line and beyond . ( A connection to the Long Path , a 330 mi hiking trail with terminus near Albany , is feasible . ) As of 2007 , eleven miles ( 18 km ) of walkway have been completed , with an additional five miles ( 8 km ) designated HRWW along Broadway in Bayonne . A part of the East Coast Greenway , or ECG , a project to create a nearly 3000-mile ( 4828 km ) urban path linking the major cities along the Atlantic coast runs concurrent with the HRWW . The walkway is showing signs of ageing with some pilings on which it is built succumbing to marine worms and damage done by Hurricane Sandy which undermined bedding .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Hudson_River_Waterfront_Walkway", "rank": 21, "score": 134136 }, { "content": "Title: 95th Street (Manhattan) Content: 95th Street runs from Riverside Drive , overlooking the Hudson River , to the East River , through the New York City borough of Manhattan . It traverses the neighborhoods of Upper West Side , Upper East Side , Carnegie Hill , and Yorkville ; the street is interrupted by Central Park . As an odd-numbered street , most of 95th Street handles westbound automotive traffic . However , it has eastbound traffic between Amsterdam Avenue and its western terminus , facilitating traffic exiting the Henry Hudson Parkway ( NY 9A ) at exit 14 .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "95th_Street_(Manhattan)", "rank": 22, "score": 133742 }, { "content": "Title: Interstate 78 in New York Content: Interstate 78 ( I-78 ) is a part of the Interstate Highway System that runs from Union Township , Lebanon County , Pennsylvania , to New York City . The portion of I-78 within the U.S. state of New York is just 0.90 mi long as it crosses the Hudson River from New Jersey via the Holland Tunnel and ends at the exit rotary in Lower Manhattan . Therefore , the entire route is maintained by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey . However , a much longer route was once planned , heading east via the Williamsburg Bridge to the John F. Kennedy International Airport and then north over the Throgs Neck Bridge to I-95 in the Bronx . The parts of this that were built are now New York State Route 878 ( NY 878 ) and I-295 .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Interstate_78_in_New_York", "rank": 23, "score": 133688 }, { "content": "Title: U.S. Route 12 in Wisconsin Content: U.S. Highway 12 ( US 12 or Highway 12 ) in the U.S. state of Wisconsin runs east -- west across the western to southeast portions of the state . It enters from Minnesota running concurrently with Interstate 94 ( I-94 ) at Hudson , parallels the Interstate to Wisconsin Dells , and provides local access to cities such as Menomonie , Eau Claire , Black River Falls , Tomah and Mauston . It then provides an alternative route for traffic between northwestern Wisconsin and Madison and is the anchor route for the West Beltline Highway around Madison . Finally , it serves southeastern Wisconsin , connecting Madison with Whitewater , Elkhorn and Lake Geneva . The West Beltline Highway and the segment between Elkhorn and Lake Geneva are freeways , and the segment between Sauk City and Middleton is an expressway . The remainder of the road is a two-lane surface road or an urban multi-lane arterial . Between Hudson and west of Warrens , the road closely parallels the former main line of the Omaha Road , now operated by Union Pacific Railroad .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "U.S._Route_12_in_Wisconsin", "rank": 24, "score": 133481 }, { "content": "Title: Washington State Route 409 Content: State Route 409 ( SR 409 ) is a short Washington state highway in Wahkiakum County . The highway runs north from the Wahkiakum County Ferry on Puget Island to SR 4 in the county seat of Cathlamet over a distance of 3.84 mi . The route connects Westport , Oregon , which is served by the county ferry , and Cathlamet . The highway was referred to as Secondary State Highway 12F ( SSH 12F ) from 1943 until 1964 . SR 409 crosses the Cathlamet Channel on the Julia Butler Hansen Bridge , completed in August 1939 . The bridge is named after former U.S. representative Julia Butler Hansen , who served from 1960 until 1974 representing the third congressional district including Wahkiakum County .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Washington_State_Route_409", "rank": 25, "score": 133170 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 212 Content: New York State Route 212 ( NY 212 ) is an east -- west state highway located entirely within Ulster County , New York , in the United States . It runs for 21.92 mi from an intersection with NY 28 in the interior of the Catskill Park to a junction with U.S. Route 9W ( US 9W ) and NY 32 on the west bank of the Hudson River , providing a key interchange with the New York State Thruway ( Interstate 87 or I-87 ) along the way . The mostly rural two-lane route serves the communities of Woodstock and Saugerties while passing Cooper Lake , Kingston 's reservoir . NY 212 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_212", "rank": 26, "score": 132535 }, { "content": "Title: Interstate 287 Content: Interstate 287 ( I-287 ) is an auxiliary Interstate Highway in the US states of New Jersey and New York . It is a partial beltway around New York City , serving the northern half of New Jersey and the counties of Rockland and Westchester in New York . I-287 , which is signed north -- south in New Jersey and east -- west in New York , follows a roughly horseshoe-shaped route from the New Jersey Turnpike ( I-95 ) in Edison Township , New Jersey , clockwise to the New England Thruway ( I-95 ) in Rye , New York , for 98.72 mi . Through New Jersey , I-287 runs west from its southern terminus in Edison through suburban areas . In Bridgewater Township , the freeway takes a more northeasterly course , paralleled by U.S. Route 202 ( US 202 ) . The northernmost part of I-287 in New Jersey passes through mountainous surroundings . After crossing into New York at Suffern , I-287 turns east on the New York State Thruway ( I-87 ) and runs though Rockland County . After crossing the Hudson River on the Tappan Zee Bridge , I-287 splits from I-87 near Tarrytown and continues east through Westchester County on the Cross-Westchester Expressway until it reaches the New England Thruway . A bypass around New York City had been planned since the 1950s and would become a part of the Interstate Highway System and receive the I-287 designation . The Cross-Westchester Expressway , which was originally designated as Interstate 187 , opened in 1960 as Interstate 487 before later becoming part of I-287 . The New York State Thruway portion of I-287 , which included a crossing of the Hudson River , opened in 1955 . In New Jersey , the proposed I-287 had originally been designated as FAI Corridor 104 and incorporated what was planned as the Middlesex Freeway . The New Jersey section of I-287 between the New Jersey Turnpike in Edison and US 202 in Montville opened in stages between the 1960s and 1973 ; the remainder opened in 1994 . The aging Tappan Zee Bridge is due to be replaced with a new span -- construction started in 2013 , with opening scheduled for 2017 . In addition , a proposed tunnel across the Long Island Sound between Rye and Oyster Bay on Long Island would link the eastern terminus of I-287 to New York State Route 25 ( NY 25 ) and NY 135 in Syosset .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Interstate_287", "rank": 27, "score": 132462 }, { "content": "Title: Interstate 78 in New Jersey Content: Interstate 78 ( I-78 ) is an east -- west route stretching from Union Township , Lebanon County , Pennsylvania to New York City . In New Jersey , I-78 is called the Phillipsburg -- Newark Expressway and the Newark Bay Extension of the New Jersey Turnpike . The highway runs for 67.83 mi in the northern part of the state of New Jersey from the Interstate 78 Toll Bridge over the Delaware River at the Pennsylvania state line in Phillipsburg , Warren County east to the Holland Tunnel under the Hudson River at the New York state line in Jersey City , Hudson County . The Phillipsburg-Newark Expressway portion of I-78 , formally called the Lightning Division Memorial Highway , runs from the Phillipsburg area east across rural areas of western New Jersey before entering suburban areas in Somerset County . The road crosses the Watchung Mountains , widening into a local-express lane configuration at Route 24 as it continues through urban areas to Newark . Here , I-78 intersects the mainline of the New Jersey Turnpike ( I-95 ) and becomes the Newark Bay Extension , crossing the Newark Bay Bridge and continuing to Jersey City . The route , along with Route 139 , follows a one-way pair of surface streets to the Holland Tunnel . In 1927 , Route 11 was legislated as a high-speed bypass of U.S. Route 22 ( US 22 ) between Whitehouse and Warrenville ; but was never built . The earliest parts of I-78 to be built were the Holland Tunnel in 1927 and the Newark Bay Extension . With the creation of the Interstate Highway System in the 1950s , a highway was planned along US 22 through northern New Jersey , becoming I-78 in 1958 . The highway between Phillipsburg and Newark was built in various stages from the 1960s to 1989 , with the final segment opening at the Interstate 78 Toll Bridge . The section of highway through the Watchung Mountains and across Newark garnered opposition from environmentalists and residents who were worried about the effects of the highway . In addition , there was opposition to building I-78 through Phillipsburg , which resulted in the alignment to the south of the Lehigh Valley . In the 2000s , I-78 was completely rebuilt between Route 24 and the Garden State Parkway . In addition , missing movements between the Garden State Parkway and I-78 were completed in 2010 .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Interstate_78_in_New_Jersey", "rank": 28, "score": 132426 }, { "content": "Title: U.S. Route 46 Content: U.S. Route 46 ( US 46 ) is an east -- west U.S. Highway completely within the state of New Jersey , running for 75.34 mi , making it the shortest signed , non-spur U.S. Highway . The west end is at an interchange with Interstate 80 ( I-80 ) and Route 94 in Columbia , Warren County on the Delaware River . The east end is in the middle of the George Washington Bridge over the Hudson River in Fort Lee , Bergen County while the route is concurrent with I-95 and US 1-9 . Throughout much of its length , US 46 is closely paralleled by I-80 . US 46 is a major local and suburban route , with some sections built to or near freeway standards and many other sections arterials with jughandles . The route runs through several communities in the northern part of New Jersey , including Hackettstown , Netcong , Dover , Parsippany-Troy Hills , Wayne , Clifton , Ridgefield Park , Palisades Park , and Fort Lee . The road has been ceremonially named the United Spanish -- American War Veterans Memorial Highway . What is now US 46 was originally designated as three separate routes . Pre-1927 Route 5 was created in 1916 to follow the road from Delaware to Denville , pre-1927 Route 12 in 1917 to follow the route between Hackettstown and Paterson , and pre-1927 Route 10 in 1917 to run between Paterson and Edgewater . In 1927 , Route 6 was legislated to run from Delaware east to the George Washington Bridge , replacing portions of Routes 5 and 12 and paralleling the former Route 10 , which itself became Route 5 and Route 10N , the latter being shortly removed from the state highway system . In 1936 , US 46 was designated to run from US 611 in Portland , Pennsylvania east to the George Washington Bridge . The route replaced Pennsylvania Route 987 to the Delaware Bridge over the Delaware , and from there followed Route 6 across New Jersey . In 1953 , the Route 6 designation was removed from US 46 in New Jersey , and later that year , the route was realigned to end at US 611 in Columbia , New Jersey , replacing a part of Route 94 . US 611 had been brought into New Jersey by two new bridges over the Delaware River , following a freeway between them that became a part of I-80 . In 1972 , US 611 was aligned back into its original Pennsylvania route ( which from 1953 until US 611 decommission was US 611 Alternate ) , and US 46 's western terminus remained as an interchange ramp with I-80 and Route 94 .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "U.S._Route_46", "rank": 29, "score": 131974 }, { "content": "Title: West Side Highway (disambiguation) Content: The West Side Highway is a major road in New York City West Side Highway may also refer to : West Side Elevated Highway , a former elevated highway in New York city West Side Highway , Washington , an unincorporated place in Cowlitz County , Washington , US West Side Highway ( Oregon ) or Oregon Route 99W The segment of California State Route 33 in the San Joaquin Valley West Side Highway ( EP ) , the second eponymously titled extended play by the American punk rock band Pinhead Gunpowder", "qid": "3114", "docid": "West_Side_Highway_(disambiguation)", "rank": 30, "score": 130577 }, { "content": "Title: Boulevard East Content: Boulevard East ( officially John F. Kennedy Boulevard East , and sometimes referred to as JFK Boulevard East ) is a two-way , mostly two lane , scenic thoroughfare in the North Hudson , New Jersey municipalities of Weehawken , West New York , Guttenberg and North Bergen . Apart from small sections at either end , the road runs along the crest of the Hudson Palisades , affording it views of the Hudson River and the New York City skyline . Developed at the turn of the 20th century , the residential road is characterized by an eclectic mix of 20th-century architecture , including private homes as well as mid and high-rise apartment buildings , mostly on its western side , with a promenade and parks along its eastern side . It is also the setting for Edward Hopper 's 1934 painting East Wind Over Weehawken , which is considered one of his best works .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Boulevard_East", "rank": 31, "score": 130335 }, { "content": "Title: Franklin D. Roosevelt East River Drive Content: The FDR Drive ( officially referred to as the Franklin D. Roosevelt East River Drive , and sometimes known as the FDR ) is a 9.44 mi freeway-standard parkway on the east side of the New York City borough of Manhattan . It starts just north of the Battery Park Underpass at South and Broad Streets and runs along the entire length of the East River , from the Battery Park Underpass under Battery Park -- north of which it is the South Street Viaduct -- north to 125th Street / Robert F. Kennedy Bridge / Willis Avenue Bridge interchange , where it becomes the Harlem River Drive . All of the FDR Drive is designated New York State Route 907L ( NY 907L ) , an unsigned reference route . The highway is mostly three lanes in each direction , with the exception of a small section underneath the Brooklyn Bridge where it is one lane in each direction and a section near the Queensboro Bridge interchange ( exit 12 ) where there are only two lanes going northbound . By law , the current weight limits on the FDR Drive from 23rd Street to the Harlem River Drive in both directions is posted 8000 lb . Buses are not allowed to use the roadway north of 23rd Street , because of clearance and weight issues . All commercial vehicles ( including trucks ) are banned from all sections of the FDR Drive , except for a short section just north of the Battery Park Underpass where the northbound lanes temporarily merge with South Street . The FDR Drive features a mix of below-grade , at-grade , and elevated sections , as well as three partially covered tunnels .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Franklin_D._Roosevelt_East_River_Drive", "rank": 32, "score": 130207 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 32B Content: New York State Route 32B ( NY 32B ) was a state highway in the Capital District region of New York , in the United States . The western terminus of the route was at an intersection with NY 32 in Queensbury . Its eastern terminus was at a junction with U.S. Route 4 ( US 4 ) in Hudson Falls . NY 32B , named Warren Street in Queensbury and River Street in Hudson Falls , ran along the banks of the Hudson River as it went from Glens Falls to Hudson Falls . It crossed over the Glens Falls Feeder Canal near its junction with NY 32 in Queensbury . When NY 32B was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , it began at an intersection with US 4 and NY 32 in Northumberland and ended at US 9 in Glens Falls . The portion of the route between Northumberland and Hudson Falls was concurrent with US 4 upon assignment while the segment west of Boulevard in Queensbury became concurrent with NY 32 in 1949 . NY 32B was truncated north to Hudson Falls in the early 1940s and east to Boulevard . The route was partially replaced with NY 254 .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_32B", "rank": 33, "score": 129177 }, { "content": "Title: Lincoln Highway Hackensack River Bridge Content: The Lincoln Highway Hackensack River Bridge is a vehicular vertical lift bridge crossing the Hackensack River at a point 1.8 mi from the river mouth at Newark Bay in Hudson County , New Jersey , United States . The bridge , along the route of the Lincoln Highway , carries U.S. Route 1/9 Truck ( at milepoint 1.72 ) and the East Coast Greenway between the West Side of Jersey City and Kearny Point in Kearny . The most recent of many crossings at the location , the current bridge was completed in 1954 . It is owned by and operated by the New Jersey Department of Transportation ( NJDOT ) , and is required by the Title 33 of the Code of Federal Regulations to open on signal for maritime traffic . In 2007 it was designated the Shawn Carson and Robert Nguyen Memorial Bridge .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Lincoln_Highway_Hackensack_River_Bridge", "rank": 34, "score": 128913 }, { "content": "Title: West Branch Reservoir Content: The West Branch Reservoir , formed by impounding about one quarter of the West Branch of the Croton River , is located in Putnam County , New York , United States , in the towns of Kent , New York , and Carmel , New York , and is only about 45 mi north of New York City 's Central Park Reservoir . The West Branch is the second northernmost reservoir in the Croton Watershed , and is one of 12 reservoirs in the watershed . Its drainage basin is about 20 square miles ( 32 km ² ) , and it can hold up to 8 e9USgal of water at full capacity . The West Branch consists of two basins , separated by State Route 301 . It was put into service in 1895 as part of New York City 's Croton Water Supply System . The West Branch now functions primarily as part of the Delaware Water Supply System , serving as a supplementary settling basin for the water which arrives from the Rondout Reservoir , west of the Hudson River , via the Delaware Aqueduct . The West Branch Reservoir also receives water from its own small watershed and the Boyds Corner Reservoir . In addition , the West Branch is connected to adjacent Lake Gleneida , one of the three controlled lakes that are part of the City 's water supply . Another function of the West Branch Reservoir is to receive water pumped in from the Hudson River during drought periods . This water enters the West Branch from the City 's Chelsea Pumping Station in Dutchess County , 65 mi up the Hudson from New York City . The West Branch was used very briefly for this purpose during May 1989 and during the 1965 -- 66 and 1985 droughts . Water withdrawn from the West Branch ordinarily flows via the Delaware Aqueduct , through the Croton Falls Reservoir and the Muscoot Reservoir , before stopping at the Kensico Reservoir in Westchester County for further settling . There it mixes with Catskill system water before entering aqueducts that carry it to the Hillview Reservoir in Yonkers , at the City 's northern boundary , where it enters the water supply distribution system . It would continue through the rest of the city , flowing through the boroughs of The Bronx , Queens , and Brooklyn . The water finally stops at Staten Island . Though the West Branch Reservoir is located within the Croton watershed , it is classified as part of the Catskill / Delaware System -- and not the Croton System -- by the New York City Department of Environmental Protection , which controls and manages all of New York City 's reservoirs .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "West_Branch_Reservoir", "rank": 35, "score": 128848 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 23B Content: New York State Route 23B ( NY 23B ) is an east -- west state highway located in western Columbia County , New York , in the United States . The route is a former section of NY 23 that runs for 6.71 mi from NY 9G southwest of Hudson to NY 9H in Claverack . It provides direct access to the city of Hudson from the Rip Van Winkle Bridge whereas NY 23 bypasses it to the south . NY 23B was assigned in the late 1950s after NY 23 was moved onto its current alignment south of Hudson .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_23B", "rank": 36, "score": 128826 }, { "content": "Title: Interstate 280 (New Jersey) Content: Interstate 280 ( abbreviated I-280 ) is a 17.85 mi Interstate Highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey . It provides a spur from I-80 in Parsippany-Troy Hills , Morris County to Newark , and I-95 ( the New Jersey Turnpike ) in Kearny , Hudson County . In Kearny , access is provided toward the Holland Tunnel and Lincoln Tunnel to New York City . The western part of the route runs through suburban areas of Morris and Essex counties , crossing the Watchung Mountains . Upon reaching The Oranges , the setting becomes more urbanized and I-280 runs along a depressed alignment before ascending again in Newark . I-280 includes a lift bridge , the William A. Stickel Memorial Bridge over the Passaic River between Newark and Harrison . The highway is sometimes called the Essex Freeway . I-280 interchanges with several roads , including the Garden State Parkway in East Orange and Route 21 in Newark . A part of present-day I-280 in Newark west of the Stickel Bridge was legislated as Route 25A in 1939 , a spur of Route 25 ( U.S. Route 1/9 ) that was to run from Jersey City west to Newark . This portion of road would become Route 58 in 1953 ( the Route 58 designation was removed in the 1990s ) . When the Interstate Highway System was being planned , the Route 3 freeway was planned to become an Interstate . The New Jersey State Highway Department favored the Essex Freeway instead between I-80 in Parsippany-Troy Hills to I-95 in Kearny . The latter would become the Interstate and be designated I-280 . This road was built in the 1960s and completed west from Newark in 1973 . The portion east of Newark to the New Jersey Turnpike opened in 1980 . I-280 was once planned to continue east to I-78 near the Holland Tunnel but never was extended east of the New Jersey Turnpike . In the 2000s , the Stickel Bridge was reconstructed after the original structure was determined to be structurally deficient . Interstate 280 is one of two 3 digit interstate designations to appear on opposite coasts . Interstate 110 in California and Florida is the other one .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Interstate_280_(New_Jersey)", "rank": 37, "score": 128779 }, { "content": "Title: 79th Street Rotunda Content: The 79th Street Rotunda is a circular park that overlooks the Hudson River in the Upper West Side of Manhattan , New York City . The 79th Street Boat Basin is adjacent . Construction of the Rotunda was begun in 1934 and completed in 1937 . It was planned by New York City Parks Commissioner Robert Moses , as part of a larger project called the West Side Improvement Project . The project constructed the West Side Highway system , while beautifying Riverside Park , which many at the time viewed as dirty and inaccessible . The building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "79th_Street_Rotunda", "rank": 38, "score": 128087 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 2 Content: New York State Route 2 ( NY 2 ) is a state highway in the Capital District of New York in the United States . It extends for 30.89 mi from an interchange with Interstate 87 ( I-87 ) and NY 7 in the town of Colonie to the Massachusetts state line in Petersburgh , where it continues to Boston as Massachusetts Route 2 . The route passes through the cities of Watervliet and Troy , where it connects to NY 32 and U.S. Route 4 , respectively . In Grafton , located midway between Troy and Massachusetts , NY 2 serves Grafton Lakes State Park . Most of the route was originally designated as part of an unsigned legislative route in the 1910s . In 1924 , the portion of modern NY 2 between the hamlet of Latham and downtown Troy became part of NY 9 . The rest of the highway was designated as NY 96 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . NY 96 was renumbered to NY 2 in the early 1940s . From the 1940s to 1970 , NY 2 continued south along the Hudson River from Troy to Albany . It was extended to Latham in 1985 , replacing a section of NY 7 that had been realigned onto a new parallel freeway to the north .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_2", "rank": 39, "score": 127867 }, { "content": "Title: U.S. Route 1 in New Jersey Content: U.S. Route 1 ( US 1 ) is a United States highway which parallels the East Coast of the United States , running from Key West , Florida in the south to Fort Kent , Maine at the Canadian border in the north . Of the entire length of the route , 66.06 mi of it runs through New Jersey . It enters the state from Pennsylvania on the Trenton -- Morrisville Toll Bridge over the Delaware River in the state capital of Trenton , running through the city on the Trenton Freeway . From here , US 1 continues northeast as a surface divided highway through suburban areas continuing into Middlesex County and passing through New Brunswick and Edison . US 1 merges with US 9 in Woodbridge , and the two routes continue through northern New Jersey as US 1/9 to the George Washington Bridge over the Hudson River in Fort Lee . At this point , the road continues into New York City along with I-95 . The current alignment of US 1 between Trenton and New Brunswick was chartered as the Trenton and New Brunswick Turnpike in 1803 and struggled throughout its 100-year existence . In 1913 , the Lincoln Highway across the United States was created and connected Trenton to Newark within New Jersey . The Lincoln Highway was legislated as Route 13 between Trenton and New Brunswick in 1917 and as part of Route 1 between New Brunswick and Elizabeth , later extended to Jersey City . With the creation of the U.S. Highway System in 1926 , US 1 was designated to follow the Lincoln Highway between Trenton and Newark and the current alignment of US 1/9 Truck to Jersey City , where it continued to the Holland Tunnel . In 1927 , the Lincoln Highway portion of US 1 became Route 27 . The current alignment of US 1 between Trenton and Newark was legislated as Route 26 , Route S26 and Route 25 , while the current route north from Jersey City to the George Washington Bridge became Route 1 and Route 6 . In subsequent years , US 1 was moved onto its current routing between Trenton and the George Washington Bridge . The state highways running concurrent with US 1 were removed in 1953 , around the same time the route was moved to the Trenton Freeway within Trenton and the old alignment became US 1 Alternate , part of which is now US 1 Business . By 1969 , the Trenton Freeway was extended north to Whitehead Road in Lawrence Township , and that segment became Route 174 . When the Trenton Freeway was completed north to US 1 , the US 1 designation was shifted to the freeway , replacing Route 174 .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "U.S._Route_1_in_New_Jersey", "rank": 40, "score": 127604 }, { "content": "Title: Dunn Memorial Bridge Content: The Dunn Memorial Bridge , officially known as the Private Parker F. Dunn Memorial Bridge , carries US 9 and US 20 across the Hudson River between Albany , New York and Rensselaer , New York . Completed in 1969 to replace an earlier span bearing the same name , the highway bridge has a steel girder design . It is the southernmost toll-free road crossing of the Hudson . It is named for Parker F. Dunn , an Albany native who was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his service in World War I. While traveling eastbound on the Dunn Memorial Bridge towards the City of Rensselaer , there is a noticeable stub where the road ends and traffic is `` forced off '' the bridge onto offramps for US Routes 9 and 20 . The road was originally supposed to continue on as part of the canceled South Mall Expressway to Interstate 90 at present day Exit 8 . Rensselaer 's Riverfront Park is located under the eastern end of the bridge . Peregrine falcons have been observed nesting under the roadway since 1998 , and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation set up a webcam to monitor them . On July 27 , 2005 , the bridge was temporarily closed when a ramp leading to the Empire State Plaza split vertically , causing the roadbed to drop more than a foot . A section of the ramp , which at 89 ft tall is the uppermost one connecting to the bridge , had slipped and come to rest on a concrete supporting pier . The Department of Transportation was alerted to the situation by a call from a commuter who had driven over the gap . Two steel towers were installed to support the ramp and it was later repaired . On March 25 , 2014 , a man jumped off the bridge following a police chase in connection with a shooting the previous night . The man survived and was evacuated via ambulance .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Dunn_Memorial_Bridge", "rank": 41, "score": 127157 }, { "content": "Title: Hackensack RiverWalk Content: Hackensack RiverWalk a is partially constructed greenway along the Newark Bay and Hackensack River on the west side of the Bergen Neck peninsula in Hudson County , New Jersey . The eight mile walkway , following ( where possible ) the contour of the water 's edge , will run between the southern tip at Bergen Point , where it may connect to the Hudson River Waterfront Walkway , and Eastern Brackish Marsh in the north . Existing parks and promenades have been incorporated and some new sections have been built , but there remain large gaps . There is a RiverWalk in the city of Hackensack , sometimes called the Hackensack RiverWalk , but they are not part of the same project nor are they connected . A parallel walkway on the west banks of the river is known as the Meadow Path .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Hackensack_RiverWalk", "rank": 42, "score": 127133 }, { "content": "Title: Uptown Hudson Tubes Content: The Uptown Hudson Tubes are a pair of tunnels that carry PATH trains under the Hudson River between Greenwich Village in New York City , New York and Jersey City , New Jersey . The tubes do not actually enter Uptown Manhattan . On the Manhattan side , the tunnels follow Morton Street and Christopher Street , and the first PATH stop in New York is Christopher Street . The service in New York continues uptown to the 33rd Street terminal . On the Jersey City side , the tunnels leave the riverbank approximately parallel to 15th Street and enter a flying junction where trains can proceed to either Hoboken or Newport .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Uptown_Hudson_Tubes", "rank": 43, "score": 126932 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 9W Content: New York State Route 9W may refer to : New York State Route 9W ( 1927 -- 1930 ) in Essex and Clinton counties U.S. Route 9W , The route that parallels the western side of the Hudson River", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_9W", "rank": 44, "score": 126815 }, { "content": "Title: Lincoln Tunnel Content: The Lincoln Tunnel is an approximately 1.5 mi set of three tunnels under the Hudson River , connecting Weehawken , New Jersey and Midtown Manhattan in New York City . An integral conduit within the New York Metropolitan Area , it was designed by Norwegian-born civil engineer Ole Singstad and named after U.S. President Abraham Lincoln . It is one of two automobile tunnels built under the river , the other being the Holland Tunnel . The Lincoln Tunnel carries a daily average of approximately 120,000 motor vehicles . The 8,216 ft center tube opened in 1937 , followed by the 7,482 ft north tube in 1945 . The 8,006 ft south tube was the last to open , in 1957 . The tunnel is part of NJ 495 on the western half of the river , and the unsigned NY 495 on the eastern half of the river .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Lincoln_Tunnel", "rank": 45, "score": 126312 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 9J Content: New York State Route 9J ( NY 9J ) is a north -- south state highway in the Hudson Valley region of New York in the United States . It begins at an intersection with US 9 in the Columbia County town of Stockport and extends for 22.35 mi to an interchange with US 9 and US 20 in the Rensselaer County city of Rensselaer . The route parallels the Hudson River for its entire length , and several parts of the highway run directly alongside the river . NY 9J was assigned to its current alignment as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_9J", "rank": 46, "score": 126306 }, { "content": "Title: Julia Butler Hansen Bridge Content: The Julia Butler Hansen Bridge in Wahkiakum County , in the U.S. state of Washington , connects Cathlamet to Puget Island . It spans the Cathlamet Channel of the Columbia River . The Wahkiakum County Ferry connects Puget Island to Westport , Oregon . The bridge was named after former United States Congresswoman Julia Butler Hansen , who represented Washington from 1960 to 1974 .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Julia_Butler_Hansen_Bridge", "rank": 47, "score": 126193 }, { "content": "Title: Interstate 80 in New Jersey Content: Interstate 80 ( I-80 ) is a major Interstate Highway in the United States , running from the New York City Metropolitan Area westward to San Francisco , California . The New Jersey Department of Transportation also identifies I-80 as the Christopher Columbus Highway . I-80 in New Jersey runs 68.54 mi from the Delaware Water Gap Toll Bridge over the Delaware River at the Delaware Water Gap to its eastern terminus at I-95 in Teaneck , Bergen County . I-95 continues from the end of I-80 to the George Washington Bridge for access to New York City ; access is also provided via the I-280 spur towards the Holland Tunnel and US 46 to Route 3 , or I-95 , towards the Lincoln Tunnel . Throughout New Jersey , I-80 runs parallel to US 46 . The highway heads through rural areas of Warren and Sussex counties before heading into more suburban surroundings in Morris County . As the road continues into Passaic and Bergen counties , it heads into more urban areas . A freeway along the I-80 corridor had been planned in 1936 and again in 1955 to provide relief along US 46 between the George Washington Bridge and the Delaware Water Gap . With the establishment of the Interstate Highway System , this planned freeway , which had been identified in some planning documents as the Bergen-Passaic Expressway , would be incorporated into I-80 . The freeway was built across New Jersey in various stages from the 1960s to 1973 . The westernmost four miles in New Jersey was originally a rerouting of US 611 when built ; that route was later realigned back into Pennsylvania . In the 1990s , high-occupancy vehicle lanes had existed on a part of I-80 in Morris County but were opened to regular traffic due to underuse . The Delaware Water Gap Toll Bridge and its approach is planned to be widened from four to six lanes , with construction beginning in 2015 .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Interstate_80_in_New_Jersey", "rank": 48, "score": 125848 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 787 Content: New York State Route 787 ( NY 787 ) is a state highway in Albany County , New York , in the United States . It is a superhighway extension of Interstate 787 ( I-787 ) , continuing northward from the underpass at exit 9 for NY 7 near Green Island to downtown Cohoes at NY 32 . It is a four-lane divided highway , having only at-grade intersections ; thus , it may loosely be considered an expressway . For its entire length , NY 787 runs parallel to , and between , NY 32 and the Hudson River .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_787", "rank": 49, "score": 125251 }, { "content": "Title: Hansen Bridge Content: The Hansen Bridge is a 350 ft high concrete deck girder bridge that carries Idaho State Highway 50 over the Snake River Canyon near Twin Falls , Idaho . The bridge spans the border of Jerome and Twin Falls Counties . The original bridge constructed at this location was a steel suspension bridge 325 ft high , with a wooden deck just 14 ft wide . It was constructed by Midland Bridge Co. of Kansas City and the chief engineer was R.M. Murray . Completed in 1919 at a cost of $ 100,000 , it was the first bridge to span the Snake River Canyon in southern Idaho , and provided a needed connection between the two halves of the Magic Valley region once split by the canyon . Because the 1919 Hansen bridge was capable only of supporting light wagon traffic , the Perrine Bridge was opened in 1927 at a location several miles further west . The Hansen Bridge is located just north of , and is named after , the town of Hansen in Twin Falls County . The current bridge was constructed in 1966 to replace the aging original structure , which was subsequently demolished . The new bridge is also known as the Veterans Memorial Bridge .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Hansen_Bridge", "rank": 50, "score": 125036 }, { "content": "Title: West Run Expressway Content: The West Run Expressway is a proposed four-lane expressway that would bypass Morgantown , West Virginia to the northeast , connecting Interstate 68 east of the city at milepost 7 to Interstate 79 north of the city . The western terminus would be somewhere between Exit 155 and the West Virginia Welcome Center at milepost 160 along Interstate 79 . It would relieve congestion along U.S. Highway 119 and WV 705 , the latter of which might be relieved with the 705 Connector . The West Run Expressway was referred to as Interstate 268 according to a Dominion Post article in December 2002 , however , the accuracy of that may be in doubt . The bypass is being designed not as a controlled-access freeway , but as a limited-access expressway , therefore not up to Interstate Highway standards . According to the unfunded project index from the West Virginia Department of Transportation , the West Run Expressway was to have preliminary engineering completed in 2007 , with right-of-way purchased in 2008 . As of 2012 , this project is in limbo as the preferred corridor is now mostly developed with student housing complexes built outside of Morgantown city limits . The WV 705 Connector project is seemingly replacing it for the time being as the Mileground will be reconfigured and widened to a four-lane highway that will alleviate traffic flow . However , the possibility remains that a beltway may be constructed , following Point Marion Road/US 119 to Baker 's Ridge and eventually connecting back into the original preferred route near Star City .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "West_Run_Expressway", "rank": 51, "score": 124705 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 9D Content: New York State Route 9D ( NY 9D ) is a north -- south state highway in the Hudson Valley region of New York in the United States . It starts at the eastern end of the Bear Mountain Bridge at an intersection with U.S. Route 6 ( US 6 ) and US 202 in Westchester County , and follows the eastern shore of the Hudson River for 25.21 mi to a junction with US 9 north of the village of Wappingers Falls in Dutchess County . While US 9 follows a more inland routing between the bridge and Wappingers Falls , the riverside course of NY 9D takes the route through the village of Cold Spring and the city of Beacon . The route was acquired by the state of New York in pieces over the course of the early 20th century . The part north of Beacon was entirely state-maintained by the end of the 1910s , while delays in rebuilding the remainder of the highway to state highway standards kept New York from fully acquiring the road until the early 1930s . NY 9D was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , extending only from Beacon to Wappingers Falls . It was extended south to the Bear Mountain Bridge by the following year .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_9D", "rank": 52, "score": 124192 }, { "content": "Title: 2009 Hudson River mid-air collision Content: The 2009 Hudson River mid-air collision was a flight accident that occurred on August 8 , 2009 , at 11:53 a.m. ( 15:53 UTC ) . Nine people died when a tour helicopter and a small private airplane collided over the Hudson River near Frank Sinatra Park in Hoboken , New Jersey . The aircraft were in an area known as the `` Hudson River VFR Corridor '' , which extends from the surface of the river to altitudes of 800 to at various locations along the Hudson River in the immediate area of New York City . Within this corridor , aircraft operate under visual flight rules , under which the responsibility to see and avoid other air traffic rests with the individual pilots rather than with the air traffic controller . Because of the heavy commercial air traffic into Newark , LaGuardia , and Kennedy airports , an air traffic control clearance is required to operate in much of the airspace around the city . Since ATC is often unwilling to grant this discretionary VFR clearance because of traffic volume , many airplanes that need to transit the New York metro area use the VFR corridor as an alternative to going east of the city ( over water ) or west ( toward Pennsylvania ) . The corridor is also heavily used by helicopter tour companies , which take passengers on sight-seeing tours of the New York skyline .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "2009_Hudson_River_mid-air_collision", "rank": 53, "score": 124090 }, { "content": "Title: U.S. Route 44 Content: U.S. Route 44 is an east -- west United States highway that runs for 237 mi through four states in the Northeastern region of the United States . The western terminus is at U.S. Route 209 and New York State Route 55 in Kerhonkson , a hamlet in the Hudson Valley region of New York . The eastern terminus is at Massachusetts Route 3A in Plymouth , Massachusetts .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "U.S._Route_44", "rank": 54, "score": 124059 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 254 Content: New York State Route 254 ( NY 254 ) is a state highway that extends for 6.01 mi through Warren and Washington counties in the Capital District of New York in the United States . The route runs from exit 19 along the Adirondack Northway ( Interstate 87 or I-87 ) in Queensbury and follows Aviation Road , Quaker Road , and Lower Warren Street through Queensbury to Hudson Falls , where it terminates at an intersection with U.S. Route 4 ( US 4 ) in the center of the village . The portion of NY 254 along Lower Warren Street and River Street has had several designations over the years . From 1924 to 1930 , it was part of the original NY 30 . In 1927 , it also became part of US 4 , which initially overlapped NY 30 from Glens Falls to Whitehall . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 30 was reassigned elsewhere while US 4 was rerouted to bypass Glens Falls to the east . As a result , Lower Warren Street and River Street became part of NY 32B . The NY 32B designation remained in place until the mid-1960s when the Quaker Road arterial was built . NY 32B was partially replaced by NY 254 , the designation assigned to the new highway around Glens Falls . The portion of NY 254 between US 9 and Lower Warren Street is maintained by Warren County and co-designated as County Route 47 ( CR 47 ) and CR 70 .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_254", "rank": 55, "score": 124022 }, { "content": "Title: Interstate 95 in New York Content: Interstate 95 ( I-95 ) is a part of the Interstate Highway System that runs from Miami , Florida , to the Canada -- United States border near Houlton , Maine . In the U.S. state of New York , I-95 extends 23.50 mi from the George Washington Bridge in New York City to the Connecticut state line at Port Chester . From the George Washington Bridge , which carries I-95 across the Hudson River from New Jersey into New York City , it runs across upper Manhattan on the Trans-Manhattan Expressway and continues east across the Harlem River on the Alexander Hamilton Bridge and onto the Cross Bronx Expressway . In the Bronx , I-95 leaves the Cross Bronx at the Bruckner Interchange , joining the Bruckner Expressway to its end . It then continues northeast on the New England Thruway out of New York City into Westchester County and to the Connecticut state line , where I-95 continues on the Connecticut Turnpike .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Interstate_95_in_New_York", "rank": 56, "score": 123913 }, { "content": "Title: Storm King Highway Content: The Storm King Highway is a three-mile ( 4.8 km ) segment of New York State Route 218 ( NY 218 ) between Lee Road in the Town of Highlands at the south end and the Cornwall-on-Hudson village line in Orange County , New York , in the United States . It was built in 1916 and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1982 in recognition of its accomplishment in civil engineering . It is so named because it winds around the steep slopes of Storm King Mountain near its north end of the Hudson Highlands on the west bank of the Hudson River . Here it reaches heights of up to 420 ft above the water , with panoramic views of the river and surrounding mountains such as Breakneck Ridge and Bull Hill . Several small pullouts allow drivers to stop and enjoy the view . When originally built it took 22 miles ( 34 km ) off the trip between Cornwall and Newburgh to its north with Highland Falls and West Point to its south . It remains used by commuters today .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Storm_King_Highway", "rank": 57, "score": 123843 }, { "content": "Title: Hudson River bomb plot Content: On July 7 , 2006 , the FBI announced that they had foiled a plot that was in its `` talking phase '' by foreign militants to detonate explosives in tunnels connecting New Jersey with Manhattan and drown the New York Financial District with a torrent of water . This was unfeasible because the tunnel is embedded in bedrock , and the target is above sea level . Some U.S. counterterrorism officials cast doubt on the significance of the alleged plot and some authorities questioned first reports that appeared in the New York Daily News , that terrorists sought to flood Lower Manhattan and the Financial District by bombing tunnels . They said there was no evidence that the plotters had taken any actions , such as buying explosives or sending money . Two U.S. counterterrorism officials , speaking to the Washington Post , discounted the ability of the conspirators to carry out an attack . The report , however , made international news . The government initially protested about how the story was leaked to the New York Daily News .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Hudson_River_bomb_plot", "rank": 58, "score": 122823 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 3 Content: New York State Route 3 ( NY 3 ) is a major east -- west state highway in New York , in the United States , that connects central New York to the North Country region near the Canada -- US border via Adirondack Park . The route extends for 245.88 mi between its western terminus at an intersection with NY 104A in the Cayuga County town of Sterling and its eastern terminus at a junction with U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) in the Clinton County city of Plattsburgh . NY 3 traverses eight counties and is a lakeside roadway from Mexico to Sackets Harbor , a mountainous route in Adirondack Park , and an urban arterial in Fulton , Watertown , and Plattsburgh . In 1924 , the segment of the Theodore Roosevelt International Highway within New York was designated NY 3 . At that time , it spanned the full east -- west length of the state , extending from the eastern bank of the Niagara River in North Tonawanda to the western edge of Lake Champlain in Plattsburgh ; however , the routing through the North Country was significantly different at that time from its modern alignment . The route was moved onto its modern routing east of Watertown as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York ; it was truncated to Sterling on its western end and rerouted to follow its current alignment from Sterling to Watertown roughly five years later . Since 1924 , there have been 14 suffixed routes of NY 3 , all designated between NY 3A and NY 3G . Of these , all but one only existed during the 1930s . The only active designation is NY 3A , which was assigned in the 1950s to an alternate route of NY 3 in Jefferson County .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_3", "rank": 59, "score": 122711 }, { "content": "Title: Hudson River Way Content: The Hudson River Way is a pedestrian bridge that links Broadway in downtown Albany , New York with the Corning Preserve on the bank of the Hudson River . The bridge crosses Interstate 787 .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Hudson_River_Way", "rank": 60, "score": 122627 }, { "content": "Title: Eleventh Avenue (Manhattan) Content: Eleventh Avenue is a north-south thoroughfare on the far West Side of the borough of Manhattan in New York City , located near the Hudson River . Eleventh Avenue originates in the Meatpacking District in the Greenwich Village/West Village neighborhoods at Gansevoort Street , where Eleventh Avenue , Tenth Avenue , and West Street intersect . It is considered part of the West Side Highway between 22nd and Gansevoort Streets . Between 59th and 107th Streets , the avenue is known as West End Avenue . Both West End Avenue and Eleventh Avenue are considered to be part of the same road .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Eleventh_Avenue_(Manhattan)", "rank": 61, "score": 122389 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 417 Content: New York State Route 417 ( NY 417 ) is an east -- west state highway located in the Southern Tier of New York in the United States . It begins at exit 20 of the Southern Tier Expressway ( Interstate 86 or I-86 and NY 17 ) in the city of Salamanca and ends at a junction with NY 415 in Painted Post , west of the city of Corning . At 105.25 mi in length , NY 417 is the longest of the state highways that were formerly part of NY 17 before the construction of the Southern Tier Expressway . It also diverges the most from the current NY 17 , coming within 100 ft of the Pennsylvania state line at one intersection . In 1908 , the New York State Legislature created Route 4 , an unsigned legislative route extending across the Southern Tier from Lake Erie to the Hudson River . The route followed most of what is now NY 417 ; however , from Olean to Wellsville and from Andover to Jasper , it followed a more northerly alignment instead . Most of Route 4 became NY 17 in 1924 , and NY 17 was realigned in 1930 to follow all of modern NY 417 between Salamanca and Corning . The highway remained part of NY 17 until the 1960s and 1970s , when NY 17 was moved onto the Southern Tier Expressway as sections of the new freeway opened to traffic . On January 1 , 1970 , NY 417 was assigned to NY 17 's former routing between Steamburg and Salamanca . This section was closed to traffic soon afterward , but NY 417 was subsequently reassigned to NY 17 's old alignment between Allegany and Corning . The remainder of the expressway between Salamanca and Allegany was completed by the early 1990s , and NY 417 was extended west to cover the highway vacated by NY 17 . On its east end , NY 417 originally overlapped with US 15 to meet NY 17 in Painted Post . It was altered in 1997 to directly serve Gang Mills via Hamilton Street and extended into Painted Post in 2008 .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_417", "rank": 62, "score": 122154 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 470 Content: New York State Route 470 ( NY 470 ) is an east -- west state highway in the Capital District of New York in the United States . It extends for 2.91 mi from an intersection with NY 9R in the town of Colonie to a junction with U.S. Route 4 ( US 4 ) in the city of Troy . Along the way , NY 470 intersects NY 787 in Cohoes and traverses the Hudson River via the 112th Street Bridge . NY 470 was assigned in February -- March 1973 and is maintained by the cities of Cohoes and Troy .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_470", "rank": 63, "score": 121925 }, { "content": "Title: Downtown Hudson Tubes Content: The Downtown Hudson Tubes are a pair of tunnels that carry PATH trains under the Hudson River between New York City and Jersey City in the United States . In lower Manhattan the trains travel to and from the World Trade Center station . In Jersey City the trains stop at the Exchange Place station . The tunnels were the second non-waterborne connection between Manhattan and New Jersey and were completed shortly after the uptown Hudson tubes . The original tubes were built intermittently between 1874 and 1906 . An engineer who worked on the project was Ernest William Moir , who was originally resident engineer , but became contractor 's agent ( for S. Pearson & Son ) in January 1890 , working there until British engineering efforts were suspended in 1891 . Regular passenger service began on February 26 , 1908 . Construction of the downtown tubes began in 1906 and was completed in 1909 . They began service at the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad 's Hudson Terminal in lower Manhattan starting on July 19 , 1909 . When the original World Trade Center was constructed in the 1960s , the Hudson Tubes remained in service as elevated tunnels until 1970 , when a new PATH station was built . The downtown and uptown tubes were declared National Historic Civil Engineering Landmarks in 1978 by the American Society of Civil Engineers . Some remnants of the tunnels under the original World Trade Center were removed during 2007 and 2008 .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Downtown_Hudson_Tubes", "rank": 64, "score": 121839 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 129 Content: New York State Route 129 ( NY 129 ) is a 7.75 mi long state highway in the western part of Westchester County , New York . The route begins at New York State Route 9A ( South Riverside Avenue ) in the village of Croton on Hudson at the Hudson River . NY 129 then travels through the towns of Cortlandt and Yorktown , running along the northern edge of the New Croton Reservoir . It passes under ( southbound ) and over ( northbound ) the Taconic State Parkway in Yorktown with no direct interchange . NY 129 ends in Yorktown at an intersection with NY 118 . NY 129 was designated in 1908 as a section of Route 2 , a legislative route designated by the New York State Legislature . However , in 1921 , the route was realigned off the route that would become NY 129 in favor of NY 9A . Nine years later , the state designated the route as NY 129 during the state highway renumbering . The route originally followed a route used by NY 131 once the routes were swapped in the 1940s , with NY 131 being decommissioned soon after . NY 129 was extended to end at a traffic circle with NY 100 in the hamlet of Pines Bridge . This lasted up to at least 1969 , when the designation was truncated back to NY 118 , which was extended to the traffic circle instead . The traffic circle in Pines Bridge was removed by 1991 . Originally , NY 129 had an interchange with the Taconic , but the ramps were removed in 1969 and a new interchange was built on nearby Underhill Road .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_129", "rank": 65, "score": 121671 }, { "content": "Title: Hansenbreen Content: Hansenbreen is a glacier 15 nmi long , flowing north along the west side of Mount Nils Larsen in the Sør Rondane Mountains of Antarctica . It was roughly mapped by Norwegian cartographers from air photos taken by the Lars Christensen Expedition , 1936 -- 37 , and remapped by them in greater detail in 1957 from air photos taken by U.S. Navy Operation Highjump , 1946 -- 47 . It was named for Hans Edvard Hansen , a Norwegian cartographer who compiled these and other maps for Norwegian Antarctic expeditions .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Hansenbreen", "rank": 66, "score": 121615 }, { "content": "Title: M-121 (Michigan highway) Content: M-121 is a state trunkline highway in West Michigan . The highway follows Chicago Drive , a local roadway , from Zeeland to Grandville . Chicago Drive itself runs past the M-121 segment on either side from Holland to Wyoming . The roadway passes through rural farmland on a route that runs parallel to Interstate 196 ( I-196 ) . M-121 forms the main street through the center of Hudsonville as it runs southwest -- northeast . It forms a major street through the unincorporated community of Jenison before M-121 terminates at I-196 in Grandville . The M-121 designation has been used twice before in the state . The first was for a former routing of US Highway 2 ( US 2 ) , and the second was for a connection between I-69 , I-75 / US 23 and the airport in the Flint area . Since 2007 , M-121 has been used for a portion of the former M-21 in Ottawa County , which was formerly designated as state-maintained `` Old M-21 '' . Future plans will reconfigure a section of the current highway from four lanes divided to four lanes undivided .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "M-121_(Michigan_highway)", "rank": 67, "score": 121265 }, { "content": "Title: Assem Hammoud Content: Assem Hammoud , aka Amir Andalousi , a Beirut native , is an alleged Al Qaeda operative living in Lebanon who was charged with plotting a mission to blow up the PATH train tunnels beneath the Hudson River between New Jersey and lower Manhattan , New York City , United States with a team of suicide bombers with backpack explosives . Some U.S. counterterrorism officials cast doubt on the significance of the alleged plot and some authorities questioned first reports that appeared in the New York Daily News , that terrorists sought to flood Lower Manhattan and the Financial District by bombing tunnels . They said there was no evidence that the plotters had taken any actions , such as buying explosives or sending money . Two U.S. counterterrorism officials , speaking to The Washington Post , discounted the ability of the conspirators to carry out an attack . He was arrested by the Lebanese Armed Forces , a division of the Internal Security Forces ( ISF ) , in the Mouseitbeh area of west Beirut on April 27 , 2006 . The announcement of his capture was made July 7 , 2006 by FBI Assistant Director Mark J. Mershon . Press reports on Tuesday , March 17 , 2009 , advised that he had been released on bail back in June , 2008 .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Assem_Hammoud", "rank": 68, "score": 121155 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 32 Content: New York State Route 32 ( NY 32 ) is a north -- south state highway that extends for 176.73 mi through the Hudson Valley and Capital District regions of the U.S. state of New York . It is a two-lane surface road for nearly its entire length , with few divided and no limited-access sections . From Harriman to Albany , it is closely parallel to Interstate 87 ( I-87 ) and U.S. Route 9W ( US 9W ) , overlapping with the latter in several places . NY 32 begins at NY 17 on the outskirts of the New York metropolitan area in Woodbury just outside Harriman , and ends at NY 196 east of Hudson Falls just south of the Adirondacks . In between , the road passes through the cities of Newburgh , Kingston , Albany , Cohoes , and Glens Falls . Outside of the cities , it offers views of the Hudson Highlands , Shawangunk Ridge , Catskill Mountains , and , during an overlap with US 4 north of Albany , the Hudson River . The roads now making up the highway were originally part of several privately maintained turnpikes , which fostered settlements along the corridor . Once part of the former NY 58 , it has been NY 32 since 1930 . Only one of three letter-suffixed spur routes remains .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_32", "rank": 69, "score": 120848 }, { "content": "Title: List of Hudson River islands Content: The Hudson River in New York and New Jersey is full of islands , though some have been filled in to connect to the shore . Some of the islands have the Hudson on one side and have another river or creek on the other side . Many of the defunct islands are still labeled on NYSDOT and USGS quadrangle maps . This list is of past and present islands in the Hudson River and their locations ; Green Island , once had a branch of the Mohawk River 's delta on west side , filled in and replaced with Interstate 787 Center Island , formerly called Magills Island and Starbucks Island , it is within the village and town of Green Island , the Hudson River is on both sides , the Green Island Bridge connects it to Troy , New York Adams Island , within the city of Troy , New York , Hudson River on both sides , it is east of Center Island , the Collar City Bridge carries NY Route 7 over the island 's southern tip Iona Island , located in Stony Point , New York , is a designated National Natural Landmark as a National Estuarine Research Reserve and a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat Area . Additionally , is serves as a bird sanctuary for Bald Eagles . Stony Island , within the village and town of Green Island , Hudson River on both sides , north of Center Island Van Schaick Island , within the city of Cohoes , New York , Hudson River on east side and a branch of the Mohawk River on the west , 112th Street Bridge connects it to Troy , New York Breaker Island , formerly two islands called Culyer and Hillhouse , it is a former island within the town of Colonie , New York and the village of Menands , New York , filled in by the construction of exit 7 of Interstate 787 with NY Route 378 , Hudson River remains on east bank and various creeks , ponds , small lakes , and marshes on the west side Lower Patroon Island , formerly an island in the city of Albany , New York , was filled in by the construction of interchange of Interstate 90 ( exit not numbered ) and Interstate 787 ( exit 5 ) , Hudson River remains on east bank , is a part of the Corning Preserve , lends its name to the Patroon Island Bridge , which connects it to the city of Rensselaer , New York Westerlo Island Papscanee Island , now a peninsula , Hudson River on west bank , Papscanee Creek on east bank , in Schodack , New York and East Greenbush Van Rensselaer Island , a former island in Rensselaer , New York Schodack Island , in Schodack , New York Bear Island , a former island in Bethlehem , New York Schermerhorn Island , a former island in Bethlehem , New York Shad Island , a former island in Coeymans , New York Campbell Island Esopus Island Beeren Island , southern border of the Rensselaerswyck patroonship Pollepel Island , known for Bannerman 's Castle serving as a tourist attraction within the Hudson Valley . Islands , Hudson Islands , Hudson", "qid": "3114", "docid": "List_of_Hudson_River_islands", "rank": 70, "score": 120757 }, { "content": "Title: Water Avenue Bridge Content: The Water Avenue Bridge is a highway bridge that carries the Trans Canada Highway across the Fraser river . It was built around 1916 to carry the Kettle Valley Railroad out of The town of Hope to the CPR mainline on the north side of the river . It is a two level bridge with the highway bridge on top . The railway , which was long ago removed , ran on the lower level . If you pull off the highway on the north side , eastbound on the highway , and explore under the bridge , this can be clearly seen . The rail bed can be followed a short way west until you come to private property . Little if anything remains to show that trains ran south and east of the bridge into town .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Water_Avenue_Bridge", "rank": 71, "score": 120657 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 12F Content: New York State Route 12F ( NY 12F ) is an east -- west state highway in Jefferson County , New York , in the United States . It extends for 6.89 mi from an intersection with NY 180 in the town of Hounsfield to a junction with U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) and NY 12 in the city of Watertown . The route follows a parallel routing to that of NY 12E between the vicinity of the village of Dexter and the city of Watertown . While NY 12E runs along the north side of the Black River through this area , NY 12F follows the southern bank . Just east of NY 180 , NY 12F serves Watertown International Airport . Modern NY 12F was added to the state highway system in 1916 and designated as part of NY 3 in 1924 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 3 was moved onto a new alignment to the east and its former alignment between Watertown and Clayton became NY 12E . Also assigned at this time was NY 12F , which initially used what is now NY 12E from Dexter to Watertown . The alignments of NY 12E and NY 12F east of Dexter were swapped .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_12F", "rank": 72, "score": 120535 }, { "content": "Title: West Side Avenue (HBLR station) Content: West Side Avenue is a terminal station on the Hudson -- Bergen Light Rail ( HBLR ) located near Claremont Avenue on West Side of Jersey City , New Jersey . The station opened on April 22 , 2000 . The station is on an embankment above the east side of street , and consists of an island platform and two tracks . Bumper blocks are at the west end of the station while the platform continues with a pedestrian bridge and elevator connecting it a large park and ride lot and bus station . It is built along the former Central Railroad of New Jersey 's Newark and New York Railroad right of way that continued west across Newark Bay . After two years of studies , in May 2011 , NJT announced its plan for 0.7 mile extension of the line . The new track would be laid along an elevated viaduct from the West Side Avenue station , across Route 440 to the northern end of the proposed Bayfront redevelopment area , where a new station would be constructed . The trip between the two stations would take 1 minute and 50 seconds . The project , eligible for federal funding , is estimated to cost at $ 171.6 million .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "West_Side_Avenue_(HBLR_station)", "rank": 73, "score": 120397 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 199 Content: New York State Route 199 ( NY 199 ) is a state highway located in the Hudson Valley of New York in the United States . It extends for 30.91 mi from an interchange with U.S. Route 9W ( US 9W ) and US 209 north of Kingston to an intersection with US 44 and NY 22 southwest of Millerton . In between , NY 199 crosses over the Hudson River by way of the Kingston -- Rhinecliff Bridge and passes through the communities of Red Hook and Pine Plains . NY 199 meets US 9 in Red Hook and the Taconic State Parkway midway between Red Hook and Pine Plains . The portion of NY 199 east of its junction with the Taconic State Parkway was originally part of the Ulster and Delaware Turnpike , a toll road linking Bainbridge to Salisbury , Connecticut . This segment of the turnpike was incorporated into New York State Route 41 , a new route connecting Barrytown to Millerton , in the mid-1920s . NY 41 was renumbered to NY 199 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . When the Kingston -- Rhinecliff Bridge opened in 1957 , NY 199 was realigned to continue across the bridge to the town of Ulster . The former routing of NY 199 between Barrytown and NY 9G along Barrytown Road remained state maintained until 1980 , when ownership and maintenance of the highway was transferred to Dutchess County . It is now designated as County Route 82 ( CR 82 ) .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_199", "rank": 74, "score": 120188 }, { "content": "Title: West Hudson, New Jersey Content: West Hudson is the collective name of the municipalities of Kearny , Harrison and East Newark located west of the Hackensack River and east of the Passaic River in Hudson County in northeastern New Jersey . The Passaic River separates it from Newark and Belleville , and the Hackensack River separates it from Jersey City , the county seat . Residential districts are concentrated along the banks of the Passaic , while along the Hackensack there is more industry , brownfields , or protected areas of the New Jersey Meadowlands known as the Kearny Meadows or the Kearny Marsh The area was known as Meghgectecock ( spellings include masgichteu-cunk ) by the Lenape people who lived there at the time of European coloniazation , meaning where May-apples grow , from a moist-woodland perennial that bears edible yellow berries and used to describe the lobe of land between and the confluence of the Hackensack and Passaic Rivers at Newark Bay . ( Contemporary : masgichteu meaning may apple ) It was part of the area called Achter Col by New Netherlanders in the province of New Netherland during the 17th century . It was later given the name New Barbadoes Neck by British colonialists , and was originally part of Essex County . In 1710 it was made part of New Barbadoes Township , and part of Bergen County . It became part of Hudson County formed in 1840 . Portion of the Morris Canal ran through Kearny Point , unused portions which remain today . West Hudson is criscrossed with rail passenger and freight rail lines , including those of Amtrak , New Jersey Transit , and PATH , the last of which maintains a station at Harrison , at the site of the former Manhattan Transfer . The Kearny Connection is a major rail junction . The proposed high-speed rail line known as the Gateway Project will traverse the area and includes the replacement of the Portal Bridge . The West Hudson towns and Newark , particularly the Ironbound across the Passaic have had a long tradition of soccer . Kearny 's nickname , `` Soccer Town , UUSA '' comes from tradition that originated in the mid-1870s , when thousands of Scottish and Irish immigrants settled there after two Scottish companies , Clark Thread Company and Nairn Linoleum , opened . . The Newark Portuguese were one of the many teams . The Red Bulls Stadium is in Harrison .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "West_Hudson,_New_Jersey", "rank": 75, "score": 120103 }, { "content": "Title: Stillwater Bridge (Hudson River, New York) Content: Stillwater Bridge is a truss bridge in the Capital District of New York in the United States . It carries Stillwater Bridge Road ( New York State Route 915C or NY 915C , an unsigned reference route ) across the Hudson River from the village of Stillwater in Saratoga County to the town of Schaghticoke in Rensselaer County . The bridge is two lanes wide and has a sidewalk only along the south side of the road . Stillwater Bridge begins at an intersection with U.S. Route 4 and NY 32 in Stillwater . From here , it heads southeast across the Hudson River to Stillwater Island , an island in Schaghticoke bounded by the river to the west and the Champlain Canal to the east . On Stillwater Island , Stillwater Bridge Road serves Lock 4 State Canal Park at the mouth of the Hoosic River and changes designations from NY 915C to County Route 125 . A smaller truss bridge brings Stillwater Bridge Road across the Champlain Canal and onto the mainland of the town of Schaghticoke . The bridge carried NY 67 across the Hudson River until 1980 , when NY 67 was realigned to cross the river at Mechanicville 3 mi to the south .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Stillwater_Bridge_(Hudson_River,_New_York)", "rank": 76, "score": 120102 }, { "content": "Title: Maryland Route 343 Content: Maryland Route 343 ( MD 343 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . Known for most of its length as Hudson Road , the state highway runs 11.29 mi from Hudson in northwestern Dorchester County east to U.S. Route 50 ( US 50 ) in Cambridge . MD 343 was paved in the late 1920s and early 1930s . The state highway originally passed through downtown Cambridge , ending just west of its present terminus . After the original Choptank River Bridge was completed in the mid-1930s , MD 343 was truncated to Sunburst Highway . In the mid-1950s , the state highway was rerouted along Washington Street to Race Street , where it ended at MD 16 . Finally , MD 343 was extended to its present terminus when MD 16 bypassed Cambridge in the late 1960s .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Maryland_Route_343", "rank": 77, "score": 119881 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 890 Content: New York State Route 890 ( NY 890 ) is a 1.00 mi long state highway located northwest of downtown Schenectady in the Capital District of New York in the United States . Although the route runs north -- south , it is signed as east -- west to match the posted direction of Interstate 890 ( I-890 ) , of which NY 890 is an extension . The western terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 5 in the town of Glenville , and its eastern terminus is at an interchange with I-890 in the town of Rotterdam , where NY 890 becomes I-890 and continues east into Downtown Schenectady . The idea of a Rotterdam -- Glenville connector across the Mohawk River was proposed as early as the 1960s . Parts of the right-of-way of NY 890 , including the bridges carrying what is now NY 890 over the ramp leading from NY 890 west to NY 5S , were built as part of I-890 's construction in 1973 . Construction of the remainder of the route was delayed for decades due to a lack of funds . Work on the highway finally resumed in 1996 , and the length of NY 890 was opened to traffic in October 1998 .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_890", "rank": 78, "score": 119753 }, { "content": "Title: Burbank Western Channel Content: Burbank Western Channel ( also known as Burbank Western Wash ) is a 6.3 mi tributary of the Los Angeles River in the eastern San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles County , California . The stream begins at the confluence of Hansen Heights Channel and La Tuna Canyon Lateral in Sun Valley . It runs adjacent to Interstate 5 for most of its length and is entirely encased in a concrete flood control channel . The stream travels southeast through downtown Burbank , the Riverside Rancho area of Glendale , ultimately joining the Los Angeles River by the edge of the Los Angeles Equestrian Center . In 1991 , the city of Burbank was sued by the EPA for allowing companies to exceed discharge limits into the channel . Leading pollutants in the stream include algae , ammonia , cadmium , odors , unnatural scum/foam , and trash . Under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has planned to allocate $ 700,000 to repair the channel wall which is `` currently in danger of failing . '' In October 2009 , Burbank reached an agreement with the state on the 12 mile San Fernando Bikeway , a new bicycle path along San Fernando Boulevard from Sylmar to Burbank . This would include a portion next to the channel that connects to the Downtown Burbank Metrolink Station .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Burbank_Western_Channel", "rank": 79, "score": 119566 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 218 Content: New York State Route 218 ( NY 218 ) is a state highway located within Orange County , New York , in the United States . It loops off U.S. Route 9W to run closer to the Hudson River between Highland Falls and Cornwall-on-Hudson . North of Highland Falls , it is briefly concurrent with US 9W . NY 218 sees much traffic despite its short length . Not only does it bring most of the United States Military Academy 's traffic to Thayer Gate , its main entrance , it attracts many who drive it just for the sake of its most renowned portion : the cliffside drive alongside Storm King Mountain . In good weather during the summer months many cars can be seen taking in the views of the river and the Hudson Highlands here ( however , this section can be gated off and closed in times of high rockslide danger ) .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_218", "rank": 80, "score": 119453 }, { "content": "Title: Upper West Side Content: The Upper West Side , sometimes abbreviated UWS , is a neighborhood in the borough of Manhattan , New York City , that lies between Central Park and the Hudson River and between West 59th Street and West 110th Street . The Upper West Side is sometimes also considered by the real estate industry to include the neighborhood of Morningside Heights . Like the Upper East Side , the Upper West Side is an affluent , primarily residential area with many of its residents working in commercial areas of Midtown and Lower Manhattan . It has the reputation of being New York City 's cultural and intellectual hub , with Columbia University located at the north end of the neighborhood , and artistic workers , with Lincoln Center located at the south end . Conversely , the Upper East Side is traditionally perceived to be home to commercial and business types . The Upper West Side , along with the Upper East Side , is considered to be among New York City 's wealthiest neighborhoods .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Upper_West_Side", "rank": 81, "score": 119413 }, { "content": "Title: U.S. Route 4 in New York Content: U.S. Route 4 ( US 4 ) is a part of the U.S. Highway System that runs from East Greenbush , New York , to Portsmouth , New Hampshire . In the U.S. state of New York , US 4 extends 79.67 mi from an intersection with US 9 and US 20 in East Greenbush to the Vermont state line northeast of Whitehall . While the remainder of US 4 east of New York is an east -- west route , US 4 in New York is signed north -- south due to the alignment the route takes through the state . The portion of the route between Waterford and Whitehall is part of the Lakes to Locks Passage , an All-American Road . The route runs along the Hudson River from Troy to Hudson Falls and the Champlain Canal from Fort Ann to Whitehall . It passes through several riverside and canalside communities , including two cities ( Troy and Mechanicville ) and seven villages . US 4 crosses several major east -- west highways as it proceeds north , such as Interstate 90 ( I-90 ) in East Greenbush , New York State Route 7 ( NY 7 ) in Troy , NY 29 in Schuylerville , and NY 149 in Fort Ann . It also overlaps with the north -- south NY 22 for 6 mi from Comstock to Whitehall and with NY 32 for a total of 16 mi between Waterford and Bemis Heights and from Schuylerville to Northumberland . US 4 was assigned in 1926 and initially extended from Glens Falls to the Vermont border near Whitehall by way of Hudson Falls . The route utilized part of NY 6 and NY 30 , two highways assigned in 1924 . US 4 was extended southward to its present terminus in East Greenbush as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . Much of US 4 south of Hudson Falls initially overlapped with other routes ; most of the overlaps were gradually eliminated during the 1940s and 1950s as the concurrent routes were eliminated or truncated . At one time , US 4 overlapped with NY 32 from Waterford to Northumberland with no interruption in between . The concurrency was split into two shorter overlaps when US 4 was realigned in the 1950s to follow its current alignment between Bemis Heights and Schuylerville .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "U.S._Route_4_in_New_York", "rank": 82, "score": 119380 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 196 Content: New York State Route 196 ( NY 196 ) is an east -- west state highway located within Washington County , New York , in the United States . It extends for 10.27 mi from an intersection with U.S. Route 4 ( US 4 ) in the village of Hudson Falls to a junction with NY 40 in the Hartford hamlet of South Hartford . Just east of Hudson Falls , NY 196 intersects the northern terminus of NY 32 ( Burgoyne Avenue ) , which actually intersects NY 196 on its north side . The alignment of NY 196 dates back to the mid-19th century , as a new road was built in 1850 to connect between Hudson Falls ( then known as Sandy Hill ) and the hamlet of Adamsville . The Sandy Hill and Adamsville Plank Road was 6 mi long and replaced a direct road that connected Sandy Hill to South Hartford . The state rebuilt the alignment in 1908 and NY 196 was assigned to its current alignment as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_196", "rank": 83, "score": 119311 }, { "content": "Title: New River Parkway Content: The New River Parkway , planned to be West Virginia Route 125 , is a proposed road that will run alongside the New River in Summers and Raleigh Counties in southern West Virginia . The parkway 's planned route will run 10 mi from West Virginia Route 20 near Hinton to Interstate 64 at Sandstone ; an extension from Hinton to Princeton has also been proposed . As of 2014 , construction has only been completed on a segment of the route north of Hinton . The West Virginia Legislature approved the parkway in 1985 , and plans for its route were proposed in 1991 . The route between Hinton and Sandstone was finalized in 1998 , but a controversy of the buying of land for the highway stalled its construction . In 2011 , construction began on the first piece of the route , a 1.3 mi segment north of Hinton ; another segment to the north of the first is currently being designed .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_River_Parkway", "rank": 84, "score": 119240 }, { "content": "Title: Saw Mill River Parkway Content: The Saw Mill River Parkway ( also known as the Saw Mill Parkway or the Saw Mill ) is a north -- south parkway that extends for 28.93 mi through Westchester County , New York , in the United States . It begins at the border between Westchester County and the Bronx , as the continuation of the Henry Hudson Parkway leaving New York City , and heads generally northeastward to an interchange with Interstate 684 ( I-684 ) and New York State Route 35 ( NY 35 ) . At its north end , the parkway serves as a collector/distributor road for both highways as it passes east of the hamlet of Katonah . The parkway is named for the Saw Mill River , which the highway parallels for most of its length . The Saw Mill serves as an important connection from the Taconic State and Sprain Brook parkways to the Tappan Zee Bridge and New York State Thruway . It is not a limited-access highway as several of its exits are signalized at-grade intersections . However , most of the road has a high speed limit in spite of this fact . The Saw Mill River Parkway is inventoried by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) as New York State Route 987D ( NY 987D ) , an unsigned reference route designation .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Saw_Mill_River_Parkway", "rank": 85, "score": 119175 }, { "content": "Title: 93rd Street (Manhattan) Content: 93rd Street runs from Riverside Drive , overlooking the Hudson River , to the East River , through the New York City borough of Manhattan . It traverses the neighborhoods of the Upper West Side , Upper East Side , Carnegie Hill , and Yorkville ; the street is interrupted by Central Park . A notable monument to Joan of Arc by Anna Hyatt Huntington stands at the street 's western terminus at Riverside Park .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "93rd_Street_(Manhattan)", "rank": 86, "score": 119125 }, { "content": "Title: Palisades Interstate Parkway Content: The Palisades Interstate Parkway ( PIP ) is a 38.25 mi limited-access highway in the U.S. states of New Jersey and New York . The parkway is a major commuter route into New York City from Rockland and Orange counties in New York and Bergen County in New Jersey . The southern terminus of the route is at the George Washington Bridge in Fort Lee , New Jersey , where it connects to Interstate 95 ( I-95 ) , U.S. Route 1 -- 9 ( US 1 -- 9 ) , US 46 and Route 4 . Its northern terminus is at a traffic circle in Fort Montgomery , New York , where the PIP meets US 9W and US 202 at the Bear Mountain Bridge . At exit 18 , the PIP forms a concurrency with US 6 for the remaining duration of its run . The route is named for the New Jersey Palisades , a line of cliffs rising along the western side of the Hudson River . The PIP is designated , but not signed as Route 445 in New Jersey and New York State Route 987C ( NY 987C ) , an unsigned reference route , in New York . As with most parkways in the New York metropolitan area , commercial traffic is prohibited from using the PIP . The Palisades Interstate Parkway was built from 1947 -- 1958 , and fully opened to traffic on August 28 , 1958 .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Palisades_Interstate_Parkway", "rank": 87, "score": 118981 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 378 Content: New York State Route 378 ( NY 378 ) is a state highway in the Capital District of New York in the United States . It runs from Loudonville to Troy and traverses the Hudson River via the Menands Bridge . NY 378 once connected to Menands Road in the village of Menands ; however , Menands Road has since been split in two by a now-closed exit ramp . NY 378 connects the western part of Menands Road with Troy . It also connects with NY 377 at Van Rensselaer Boulevard . NY 378 continues west of U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) as Osborne Road ( County Route 154 ) . At its eastern terminus , NY 378 continues north as US 4 . US 4 southbound is accessed by an eastward turn at the terminus .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_378", "rank": 88, "score": 118973 }, { "content": "Title: Newburgh–Beacon Bridge Content: The Hamilton Fish Newburgh -- Beacon Bridge is a cantilever toll bridge that spans the Hudson River in New York State . The bridge carries Interstate 84 ( I-84 ) and New York State Route 52 ( NY 52 ) between Newburgh and Beacon . Consisting of two separate spans , the original northern span which carries westbound traffic , was opened on November 2 , 1963 , as a two-lane ( one in each direction ) bridge . A second span completed in 1980 , now carries all eastbound traffic . Still often referred to by its original name , the Newburgh -- Beacon Bridge , in 1997 the bridge was rededicated in honor of Hamilton Fish who was a NY Governor , Lt. Governor , U.S. Senator from NY , U.S Secretary of State , and a congressman .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Newburgh–Beacon_Bridge", "rank": 89, "score": 118872 }, { "content": "Title: Stillwater Bridge (St. Croix River) Content: The Stillwater Bridge ( alternatively known as the Stillwater Lift Bridge , St. Croix River Bridge at Stillwater , Mn/DOT Bridge # 4654 , and Wis/DOT Bridge #M -61 ) is a vertical-lift bridge crossing the St. Croix River between Stillwater , Minnesota , and Houlton , Wisconsin . It connects Minnesota State Highway 36 and Wisconsin Highway 64 . Around 18,000 vehicles cross the bridge daily . Construction of a new bridge crossing the St. Croix river valley is underway to the south of Stillwater , connecting the towns of Oak Park Heights , Minnesota and St. Joseph , Wisconsin . The bridge is scheduled to open to highway traffic in Fall 2017 , at which point the Stillwater Lift Bridge will be converted to bicycle/pedestrian use . The bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1989 for having state-level significance in the theme of engineering . It was nominated for being a rare surviving example of a vertical-lift highway bridge based on the designs pioneered by Waddell & Harrington . The Stillwater Lift Bridge is one of two bridges on the St. Croix River between the Interstate 94 bridge in Hudson , Wisconsin , and the U.S. Highway 8 bridge in Taylors Falls , Minnesota , providing a popular and useful alternative to those crossings . ( The other bridge is the Minnesota State Highway 243 bridge at Osceola , Wisconsin . ) The bridge consists of seven fixed steel truss spans 1050 ft long in total , including a vertically lifting span 140 ft long . It is 23 ft wide , allowing one lane of traffic in each direction . The lifting span is a Waddell & Harrington type , one of six built in Minnesota and Wisconsin and one of three still remaining today . Built in 1931 to replace a swing bridge from 1910 , it was the last bridge of this design to be built in the area . Minnesota and Wisconsin evenly split the $ 460,174 cost of the bridge .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Stillwater_Bridge_(St._Croix_River)", "rank": 90, "score": 118871 }, { "content": "Title: Schuylerville Bridge Content: Schuyler Bridge , is a bridge that carries New York State Route 29 across the Hudson River east of U.S. Route 4 and NY 32 from Schuylerville in Saratoga County into Easton in Washington County . It was named for Philip Schuyler , a general in the American Revolution . Besides the bridge , NY 29 is also named the General Philip Schuyler Memorial Highway , west of Schuylerville .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Schuylerville_Bridge", "rank": 91, "score": 118661 }, { "content": "Title: North River Tunnels Content: The North River Tunnels are a pair of tunnels that carry Amtrak and New Jersey Transit rail lines under the Hudson River between Weehawken , New Jersey and Pennsylvania Station in Manhattan , New York City . Built between 1904 and 1908 by the Pennsylvania Railroad ( PRR ) to allow its trains to reach Manhattan , they opened for passenger service in late 1910 . __ TOC __", "qid": "3114", "docid": "North_River_Tunnels", "rank": 92, "score": 118636 }, { "content": "Title: New York State Route 23 Content: New York State Route 23 ( NY 23 ) is an east -- west state highway in the eastern portion of New York in the United States . It extends for 156.15 mi from an intersection with NY 26 in the Central New York town of Cincinnatus to the Massachusetts state line in the Berkshire Mountains , where it continues east as that state 's Route 23 . Along the way , it passes through many communities , including the cities of Norwich and Oneonta . Outside of the communities , the route serves largely rural areas of the state and traverses the Catskill Mountains in the state 's Central New York Region . NY 23 crosses the Hudson River at Catskill via the Rip Van Winkle Bridge . Sections of what is now NY 23 were part of unsigned legislative routes as early as 1908 ; however , NY 23 itself was not assigned until 1924 . At the time , the route extended from Oneonta to Massachusetts and followed a slightly different alignment from Cairo to Claverack via Hudson that took the route along modern County Route 23B ( CR 23B ) in eastern Greene County . NY 23 was extended west to Norwich in the mid-1920s and to NY 26 in northwestern Chenango County in 1930 . The route was gradually moved onto its current alignment between Cairo and Claverack in the 1950s and 1960s , and realigned on its western end in 1984 to serve Cortland County .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_York_State_Route_23", "rank": 93, "score": 118541 }, { "content": "Title: Hudson Hill, Bronx Content: Hudson Hill , also known as Riverdale Estates , is a neighborhood of Riverdale in the New York City borough of The Bronx , bordered by the Henry Hudson Parkway on the east , the Hudson River on the west , West 246th Street on the south and West 254th Street on the north .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Hudson_Hill,_Bronx", "rank": 94, "score": 118458 }, { "content": "Title: New Jersey Route 85 Content: Route 85 , also known as the Hoboken Freeway , was a proposed 7.60 mi limited-access highway in Hudson County and Bergen County , New Jersey . The freeway was planned to begin at an interchange with Interstate 78 near the Holland Tunnel approach in Jersey City , northward through North Bergen on its way to Fort Lee , where the highway would interchange with Interstate 80 near the George Washington Bridge . The original plans for the Hoboken Freeway date to September 1956 , when the New Jersey State Highway Department , the New Jersey Turnpike Authority and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey came to an agreement of a 2.20 mi freeway from Interstate 78 to the Lincoln Tunnel approach . The route 's northern terminus would be near the Port Authority 's piers in North Bergen . The proposal was given an attempt for interstate highway designation in 1957 , which was denied by the Federal Highway Administration . The $ 9 million freeway proposal was advocated for several years by several agencies , and in 1966 , two of these , the Regional Plan Association and the Tri-State Transportation Commission put forward an extension northward to the George Washington Bridge approach in Fort Lee .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "New_Jersey_Route_85", "rank": 95, "score": 118361 }, { "content": "Title: 57th Street (Manhattan) Content: 57th Street is one of New York City 's major thoroughfares , which runs as a two-way street east-west in the Midtown section of the borough of Manhattan , from the New York City Department of Sanitation 's dock on the Hudson River at the West Side Highway to a small park overlooking the East River built on a platform suspended above the FDR Drive . Between Fifth and Eighth Avenue , it is two blocks south of Central Park . 57th Street is notable for prestigious art galleries , restaurants and up-market shops .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "57th_Street_(Manhattan)", "rank": 96, "score": 118303 }, { "content": "Title: Waterview Connection Content: The Waterview Connection is a motorway section under construction through west/central Auckland , New Zealand . It will connect State Highway 20 in the south at Mt Roskill to State Highway 16 in the west at Point Chevalier , and is a part of the Western Ring Route . The Waterview Connection will be 4.5 km long , of which 2.5 km will be in twin tunnels . Upon opening , Waterview Tunnel will supersede the Lyttelton Road Tunnel as New Zealand 's longest road tunnels . By 2026 , the link is expected to carry 83,000 vehicles a day . There will be three lanes of traffic in each tunnel . The New Zealand Transport Agency intends to complete the project and open the tunnels and interchange in 2017 . It will complete the Western Ring Route and will be the last section of SH20 , completing an alternative north-south highway link that bypasses the inner city .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Waterview_Connection", "rank": 97, "score": 118287 }, { "content": "Title: Congress Street Bridge Content: The Congress Street Bridge carries NY 2 across the Hudson River connecting Watervliet , New York with Troy , New York .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Congress_Street_Bridge", "rank": 98, "score": 118163 }, { "content": "Title: Rip Van Winkle Bridge Content: The Rip Van Winkle Bridge is a cantilever bridge spanning the Hudson River between Hudson , New York and Catskill , New York . The structure carries NY 23 across the river , connecting on the west side , US 9W and NY 385 with NY 9G on the east side . The bridge was built by the newly created New York State Bridge Authority , opening on July 2 , 1935 , at a cost of $ 2.4 million ( $ with inflation ) . Upon its opening , the toll was $ 0.80 ( $ with inflation ) per passenger car and $ 0.10 ( $ with inflation ) per passenger up to $ 1 ( $ with inflation ) . The current toll for autos is $ 1.50 for eastbound traffic only . The bridge extends 5,040 feet ( 1536 m ) across the river , with a ship clearance of 145 feet ( 44 m ) . The bridge is named after the 1819 short story of the same name by Washington Irving , which mentions the cities of Hudson and Catskill . A multi-year repainting project was completed in 2009 which removed all lead-based paint . The bridge includes a pedestrian walkway on the south side of the bridge which is open from dawn to dusk . Cyclists may use the roadway or may walk their cycles across the pedestrian walkway .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Rip_Van_Winkle_Bridge", "rank": 99, "score": 117874 }, { "content": "Title: Hudson River Content: The Hudson River is a 315 mi river that flows from north to south primarily through eastern New York in the United States . The river originates in the Adirondack Mountains of Upstate New York , flows through the Hudson Valley , and eventually drains into the Atlantic Ocean , between New York City and Jersey City . The river serves as a political boundary between the states of New Jersey and New York , and further north between New York counties . The lower half of the river is a tidal estuary occupying the Hudson Fjord , which formed during the most recent period of North American glaciation , estimated at 26,000 to 13,300 years ago . Tidal waters influence the Hudson 's flow from as far north as Troy . The river is named after Henry Hudson , an Englishman sailing for the Dutch East India Company , who explored it in 1609 , and after whom Canada 's Hudson Bay is also named . It had previously been observed by Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano sailing for King Francis I of France in 1524 , as he became the first European known to have entered the Upper New York Bay , but he considered the river to be an estuary . The Dutch called the river the North River -- with the Delaware River called the South River -- and it formed the spine of the Dutch colony of New Netherland . Settlements of the colony clustered around the Hudson , and its strategic importance as the gateway to the American interior led to years of competition between the English and the Dutch over control of the river and colony . During the eighteenth century , the river valley and its inhabitants were the subject and inspiration of Washington Irving , the first internationally acclaimed American author . In the nineteenth century , the area inspired the Hudson River School of landscape painting , an American pastoral style , as well as the concepts of environmentalism and wilderness . The Hudson was also the eastern outlet for the Erie Canal , which , when completed in 1825 , became an important transportation artery for the early-19th-century United States .", "qid": "3114", "docid": "Hudson_River", "rank": 100, "score": 117721 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 1, "score": 213367 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon emission Content: The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and water vapor ( H2O ) . Carbon dioxide is the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas ( GHG ) and the most significant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the U.S. ( with 82-84 % of all U.S. emissions ) . Increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land-use change . The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel or to the vehicle : The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reflected it in the Greenhouse Gas Score . There are information , but no mandatory , standards for CO2 limits in vehicle ( engine ) emissions , excepting some state regulations ( i.e. California ) . See hybrid vehicles . CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km ( g/mi * 0.621371192 = g/km ) .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Low-carbon_emission", "rank": 2, "score": 198317 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 3, "score": 181727 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle", "rank": 4, "score": 181607 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 5, "score": 167940 }, { "content": "Title: Landfill gas Content: Landfill gas is a complex mix of different gases created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill . Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane , with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide . Trace amounts of other volatile organic compounds comprise the remainder ( < 1 % ) . These trace gases include a large array of species , mainly simple hydrocarbons . Landfill gases have an influence on climate change . The major components are CO2 and methane , both of which are greenhouse gas . In terms of global warming potential , methane is over 25 times more detrimental to the atmosphere than carbon dioxide . Landfills are the third largest source of methane in the US .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Landfill_gas", "rank": 6, "score": 163658 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 7, "score": 155005 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon_tax", "rank": 8, "score": 153527 }, { "content": "Title: Sustainable automotive air conditioning Content: Sustainable automotive air conditioning is the subject of a debate -- nicknamed the Cool War -- about the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning . The Alliance for CO2 Solutions supports the uptake of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) as a refrigerant in passenger cars , and the chemical industry is developing new chemical blends . The Alliance and its supporters -- scientists , NGOs and business leaders -- urge the car industry to replace high global warming chemical substances with the natural refrigerant carbon dioxide ( CO2 , R744 / R-744 ) in car cooling and heating . This , they argue , would lead to 10 % less car emissions , and knock out 1 % of total greenhouse gas emissions worldwide . If CO2 Technology is applied in other sectors , such as commercial and industrial refrigeration , heat pumps for water heating etc. , it may even save up to 3 % of the world 's greenhouse gases . Opponents of the Alliance claim that CO2 Technology is not cost-efficient and safe , hence seeking to postpone the global industry decision to be taken to develop new chemical blends instead .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Sustainable_automotive_air_conditioning", "rank": 9, "score": 153087 }, { "content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia", "rank": 10, "score": 151912 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 11, "score": 151725 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide reforming Content: Carbon dioxide reformation ( also known as dry reformation ) is a method of producing synthesis gas ( mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide ) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane . Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction . In recent years , increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide . The dry reforming reaction may be represented by : CO2 + CH4 → 2 H2 + 2 CO Thus , two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks , hydrogen and carbon monoxide , are produced . A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with the carbon dioxide . For example , the following reaction typically proceeds with a lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself : CO2 + H2 → H2O + CO Typical catalysts are noble metals , Ni or Ni alloys . In addition , a group of researchers in China investigated the use of activated carbon as an alternative catalyst .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_reforming", "rank": 12, "score": 151619 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in China Content: The position of the Chinese government on climate change is contentious . China has ratified the Kyoto Protocol , but as a non-Annex I country which is not required to limit greenhouse gas emissions under terms of the agreement . In particular since 2007 the Chinese government has n't changed its attitude towards climate change policy and has become one of the major drivers of low-carbon technology developments . In 2002 , on the basis of an analysis of fossil fuel consumption ( including especially the coal power plants ) and cement production data , that China surpassed the United States as the world 's largest emitter of carbon dioxide , putting out 7,000 million tonnes , in comparison with America 's 5,800 million . According to data from the US Energy Information Administration China was the top emitter by fossil fuels CO2 in 2009 China : 7,710 million tonnes ( mt ) ( 25.4 % ) ahead of US : 5,420 mt ( 17.8 % ) , India : 5.3 % , Russia : 5.2 % and Japan : 3.6 % . China was also the top emitter of all greenhouse gas emissions including building and deforestation in 2005 : China : 7,220 mt ( 16.4 % ) , US : 6,930 mt ( 15.7 % ) , 3 . Brazil 6.5 % , 4 . Indonesia : 4.6 % , 5 . Russia 4.6 % , 6 . India 4.2 % , 7 . Japan 3.1 % , 8 . Germany 2.3 % , 9 . Canada 1.8 % , and 10 . Mexico 1.6 % . In the cumulative emissions between 1850 and 2007 the top emitters were : 1 . US 28.8 % 2 . China : 9.0 % , 3 . Russia 8.0 % , 4 . Germany 6.9 % , 5 . UK 5.8 % , 6 . Japan 3.9 % , 7 . France 2.8 % , 8 . India 2.4 % , 9 . Canada 2.2 % and 10 . Ukraine 2.2 % . According to BBC News , in September 2014 , China surpassed the European Union 's per capita carbon emissions for the first time in history . China 's per capita carbon emissions now stand at 7.2 t/capita . China 's carbon emissions have increased rapidly since its economic boom in the early 2000s . Since then , their per capita carbon emissions have increased by more than 2.5 times .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Climate_change_in_China", "rank": 13, "score": 151257 }, { "content": "Title: German response to Kyoto Protocol Content: Germany is Europe 's largest and the world 's 6th greatest single emitter of CO2 . In July 2007 , Germany had the largest European population , with 82.4 million people . Germany imports most of its materials and energy sources , and in 2004 imported 2.135 million barrels of oil and 85.02 billion m ³ ( 2003 ) of natural gas a day . In 2004 , Germany emitted 886 million metric tonnes of CO2 . In 2004 , there were approximately 45 million registered cars in Germany . Between March 1998 and March 1999 , 84 countries including Germany signed the Kyoto Protocol . In March 2002 , the Bundestag unanimously ratified Kyoto . In May 2002 , the European Union submitted the articles of ratification for all 15 of its then member states . As an Annex II nation , Germany 's commitment to the UNFCCC with respect to Kyoto was to reduce emissions as well as to provide an economic crutch to developing nations via Clean Development Mechanisms . In November 2006 , Germany 's planned annual quota was 482 million metric tonnes of CO2 . German Greenhouse Gas Emissions reduced by 17.2 % from 1990 to 2004 , according to UNFCCC . Germany actively promotes government carbon funds and supports multilateral carbon funds that are intent on purchasing Carbon Credits from non-Annex I parties . Government organizations work closely with major utility , energy , oil and gas , and chemicals conglomerates to try to acquire as many Greenhouse Gas Certificates as cheaply as possible . Since signing and ratifying the protocol , Germany has committed to reducing its emissions to 21 % below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012 . In November 2008 , a study found that Germany had already reduced its greenhouse gas emissions by 22.4 % , which means it already reached its Kyoto Emissions Commitments .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "German_response_to_Kyoto_Protocol", "rank": 14, "score": 150183 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 15, "score": 149030 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States", "rank": 16, "score": 148544 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 17, "score": 148400 }, { "content": "Title: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion Content: Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion refers to the combustion-product gas resulting from the burning of fossil fuels . Most fossil fuels are combusted with ambient air ( as differentiated from combustion with pure oxygen ) . Since ambient air contains about 79 volume percent gaseous nitrogen ( N2 ) , which is essentially non-combustible , the largest part of the flue gas from most fossil-fuel combustion is uncombusted nitrogen . Carbon dioxide , the next largest part of flue gas , can be as much as 10 − 25 volume percent or more of the flue gas . This is closely followed in volume by water vapor ( H2O ) created by the combustion of the hydrogen in the fuel with atmospheric oxygen . Much of the ` smoke ' seen pouring from flue gas stacks is this water vapor forming a cloud as it contacts cool air . A typical flue gas from the combustion of fossil fuels contains very small amounts of nitrogen oxides ( NOx ) , sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) and particulate matter . The nitrogen oxides are derived from the nitrogen in the ambient air as well as from any nitrogen-containing compounds in the fossil fuel . The sulfur dioxide is derived from any sulfur-containing compounds in the fuels . The particulate matter is composed of very small particles of solid materials and very small liquid droplets which give flue gases their smoky appearance . The steam generators in large power plants and the process furnaces in large refineries , petrochemical and chemical plants , and incinerators burn considerable amounts of fossil fuels and therefore emit large amounts of flue gas to the ambient atmosphere . The table below presents the total amounts of flue gas typically generated by the burning of fossil fuels such as natural gas , fuel oil and coal . The data were obtained by stoichiometric calculations . It is of interest to note that the total amount of flue gas generated by coal combustion is only 10 percent higher than the flue gas generated by natural-gas combustion . Note : m ³ are standard cubic meters at 0 ° C and 101.325 kPa , and scf is standard cubic feet at 60 ° F and 14.696 psia .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Flue-gas_emissions_from_fossil-fuel_combustion", "rank": 18, "score": 147430 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 19, "score": 147235 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon diet Content: A low-carbon diet refers to making lifestyle choices to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGe ) resulting from consumption decisions . It is estimated that the U.S. food system is responsible for at least 20 percent of U.S. greenhouse gases . This estimate may be low , as it counts only direct sources of GHGe . Indirect sources , such as demand for products from other countries , are often not counted . A low-carbon diet minimizes the emissions released from the production , packaging , processing , transport , preparation and waste of food . Major tenets of a low-carbon diet include eating less industrial meat and dairy , eating less industrially produced food in general , eating food grown locally and seasonally , eating less processed and packaged foods and reducing waste from food by proper portion size , recycling or composting .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Low-carbon_diet", "rank": 20, "score": 146632 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon footprint Content: A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual , event , organisation , or product , expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent . In most cases , the total carbon footprint can not be exactly calculated because of inadequate knowledge of and data about the complex interactions between contributing processes , especially which including the influence on natural processes storing or releasing carbon dioxide . For this reason , Wright , Kemp , and Williams , have suggested to define the carbon footprint as : A measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and methane ( CH4 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) . Greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) can be emitted through land clearance and the production and consumption of food , fuels , manufactured goods , materials , wood , roads , buildings , transportation and other services . For simplicity of reporting , it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide , or its equivalent of other GHGs , emitted . Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U.S. household come from `` indirect '' sources , i.e. fuel burned to produce goods far away from the final consumer . These are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in one 's car or stove , commonly referred to as `` direct '' sources of the consumer 's carbon footprint . The concept name of the carbon footprint originates from ecological footprint , discussion , which was developed by Rees and Wackernagel in the 1990s which estimates the number of `` earths '' that would theoretically be required if everyone on the planet consumed resources at the same level as the person calculating their ecological footprint . However , given that ecological footprints are a measure of failure , Anindita Mitra ( CREA , Seattle ) chose the more easily calculated `` carbon footprint '' to easily measure use of carbon , as an indicator of unsustainable energy use . In 2007 , carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the energy plan for City of Lynnwood , Washington . Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere . Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators , which also includes water footprint and land footprint .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon_footprint", "rank": 21, "score": 145816 }, { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 22, "score": 145731 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 23, "score": 145250 }, { "content": "Title: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction Content: Photochemical carbon dioxide reduction harnesses solar energy to convert into higher-energy products . The chemical conversion of CO2 already occurs on an industrial scale in the manufacture of solvents such as formic acid , but photochemical reduction differs in that it relies on a renewable energy source , the sun . Because CO2 is a greenhouse gas , there is environmental interest in producing artificial systems that are efficient photocatalysts , but the low turn-over rates of current methods have prohibited wide-scale industrial application .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Photochemical_carbon_dioxide_reduction", "rank": 24, "score": 144956 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon offset Content: A carbon offset is a reduction in emissions of carbon dioxide or greenhouse gases made in order to compensate for or to offset an emission made elsewhere . Carbon offsets are measured in metric tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent ( CO2e ) and may represent six primary categories of greenhouse gases : carbon dioxide , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , and sulfur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . One carbon offset represents the reduction of one metric ton of carbon dioxide or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases . There are two markets for carbon offsets . In the larger , compliance market , companies , governments , or other entities buy carbon offsets in order to comply with caps on the total amount of carbon dioxide they are allowed to emit . This market exists in order to achieve compliance with obligations of Annex 1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol , and of liable entities under the EU Emission Trading Scheme . In 2006 , about $ 5.5 billion of carbon offsets were purchased in the compliance market , representing about 1.6 billion metric tons of CO2e reductions . In the much smaller , voluntary market , individuals , companies , or governments purchase carbon offsets to mitigate their own greenhouse gas emissions from transportation , electricity use , and other sources . For example , an individual might purchase carbon offsets to compensate for the greenhouse gas emissions caused by personal air travel . Many companies ( see list ) offer carbon offsets as an up-sell during the sales process so that customers can mitigate the emissions related with their product or service purchase ( such as offsetting emissions related to a vacation flight , car rental , hotel stay , consumer good , etc. ) . In 2008 , about $ 705 million of carbon offsets were purchased in the voluntary market , representing about 123.4 million metric tons of CO2e reductions . Some fuel suppliers in the UK offer fuel which has been carbon offset such as Fuel dyes . Offsets are typically achieved through financial support of projects that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in the short - or long-term . The most common project type is renewable energy , such as wind farms , biomass energy , or hydroelectric dams . Others include energy efficiency projects , the destruction of industrial pollutants or agricultural byproducts , destruction of landfill methane , and forestry projects . Some of the most popular carbon offset projects from a corporate perspective are energy efficiency and wind turbine projects . Carbon offsetting has gained some appeal and momentum mainly among consumers in western countries who have become aware and concerned about the potentially negative environmental effects of energy-intensive lifestyles and economies . The Kyoto Protocol has sanctioned offsets as a way for governments and private companies to earn carbon credits that can be traded on a marketplace . The protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , which validates and measures projects to ensure they produce authentic benefits and are genuinely `` additional '' activities that would not otherwise have been undertaken . Organizations that are unable to meet their emissions quota can offset their emissions by buying CDM-approved Certified Emissions Reductions . Emissions from burning fuel , such as red diesel , has pushed one UK fuel supplier to create a carbon offset fuel named Carbon Offset Red Diesel . Offsets may be cheaper or more convenient alternatives to reducing one 's own fossil-fuel consumption . However , some critics object to carbon offsets , and question the benefits of certain types of offsets . Due diligence is recommended to help businesses in the assessment and identification of `` good quality '' offsets to ensure offsetting provides the desired additional environmental benefits , and to avoid reputational risk associated with poor quality offsets . Offsets are viewed as an important policy tool to maintain stable economies and to improve sustainability . One of the hidden dangers of climate change policy is unequal prices of carbon in the economy , which can cause economic collateral damage if production flows to regions or industries that have a lower price of carbon -- unless carbon can be purchased from that area , which offsets effectively permit , equalizing the price .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon_offset", "rank": 25, "score": 144696 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Content: Aviation affects the environment due to aircraft engines emitting noise , particulates , and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient ( and therefore less polluting ) turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . In the EU , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . At present aviation accounts for 2.5 % of global CO2 emissions . Due to projected growth in air travel , in the most technologically radical scenarios for having a better than 50 % chance of keeping global warming below 2 degrees Celsius , in 2050 aviation will make up 15 % of global CO2 emissions . In more conventional scenarios its emissions will exceed the entire global carbon budget before then . This presents governments and the operators of aircraft with a responsibility to reduce the aviation industry 's emissions .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Mitigation_of_aviation's_environmental_impact", "rank": 26, "score": 144279 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon neutrality Content: Carbon neutrality , or having a net zero carbon footprint , refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset , or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference . It is used in the context of carbon dioxide releasing processes associated with transportation , energy production , and industrial processes such as production of carbon neutral fuel . The carbon neutrality concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases ( GHG ) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence ( e ) -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 . The term `` climate neutral '' reflects the broader inclusiveness of other greenhouse gases in climate change , even if CO2 is the most abundant , encompassing other greenhouse gases regulated by the Kyoto Protocol , namely : methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFC ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFC ) , and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) . Both terms are used interchangeably throughout this article . The best practice for organizations and individuals seeking carbon neutral status entails reducing and/or avoiding carbon emissions first so that only unavoidable emissions are offset . Carbon neutral status is commonly achieved in two ways : Balancing carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels , with renewable energy that creates a similar amount of useful energy , so that the carbon emissions are compensated , or alternatively using only renewable energies that do n't produce any carbon dioxide ( also called a post-carbon economy ) . Carbon offsetting by paying others to remove or sequester 100 % of the carbon dioxide emitted from the atmosphere -- for example by planting trees -- or by funding ` carbon projects ' that should lead to the prevention of future greenhouse gas emissions , or by buying carbon credits to remove ( or ` retire ' ) them through carbon trading . While carbon offsetting is often used alongside energy conservation measures to minimize energy use , the practice is criticized by some . The concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence . The phrase was the New Oxford American Dictionary 's Word Of The Year for 2006 .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon_neutrality", "rank": 27, "score": 143594 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom Content: According to official statistics , there has been a reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions in the United Kingdom . These emissions are caused primarily by primary energy consumption . If indirect emissions are accounted for , however , research suggests that UK emissions may have increased since 1990 , due largely to manufacture of short-term consumer items overseas . Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases continue to drive global warming and ocean acidification . Under the Kyoto protocol the UK Government committed to reducing the levels of and five other greenhouse gases by 12.5 % below 1990 levels by 2008 to 2012 . These commitments have been surpassed and new targets set .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 28, "score": 142631 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon-neutral fuel Content: Carbon-neutral fuels can refer to a variety of energy fuels or energy systems which have no net greenhouse gas emissions or carbon footprint . One class is synthetic fuel ( including methane , gasoline , diesel fuel , jet fuel or ammonia ) produced from sustainable or nuclear energy used to hydrogenate waste carbon dioxide recycled from power plant flue exhaust gas or derived from carbonic acid in seawater . Other types can be produced from renewable energy sources such as wind turbines , solar panels , and hydroelectric power stations . Such fuels are potentially carbon-neutral because they do not result in a net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases . Until captured carbon is used for plastics feedstock , carbon neutral fuel synthesis is the primary means of carbon capture and utilization or recycling . To the extent that carbon-neutral fuels displace fossil fuels , or if they are produced from waste carbon or seawater carbonic acid , and their combustion is subject to carbon capture at the flue or exhaust pipe , they result in negative carbon dioxide emission and net carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere , and thus constitute a form of greenhouse gas remediation . Such power to gas carbon-neutral and carbon-negative fuels can be produced by the electrolysis of water to make hydrogen used in the Sabatier reaction to produce methane which may then be stored to be burned later in power plants as synthetic natural gas , transported by pipeline , truck , or tanker ship , or be used in gas to liquids processes such as the Fischer -- Tropsch process to make traditional fuels for transportation or heating . Carbon-neutral fuels are used in Germany and Iceland for distributed storage of renewable energy , minimizing problems of wind and solar intermittency , and enabling transmission of wind , water , and solar power through existing natural gas pipelines . Such renewable fuels could alleviate the costs and dependency issues of imported fossil fuels without requiring either electrification of the vehicle fleet or conversion to hydrogen or other fuels , enabling continued compatible and affordable vehicles . A 250 kilowatt synthetic methane plant has been built in Germany and it is being scaled up to 10 megawatts .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon-neutral_fuel", "rank": 29, "score": 141325 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 30, "score": 141162 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation", "rank": 31, "score": 140591 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon price Content: Carbon pricing -- the method favored by many economists for reducing global-warming emissions -- charges those who emit carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) for their emissions . That charge , called a carbon price , is the amount that must be paid for the right to emit one tonne of CO2 into the atmosphere . Carbon pricing usually takes the form either of a carbon tax or a requirement to purchase permits to emit , generally known as cap-and-trade , but also called `` allowances '' . Carbon pricing solves the economic problem that , a known greenhouse gas , is what economics calls a negative externality -- a detrimental product that is not priced ( charged for ) by any market . As a consequence of not being priced , there is no market mechanism responsive to the costs of CO2 emitted . The standard economic solution to problems of this type , first proposed by Arthur Pigou in 1920 , is for the product - in this case , CO2 emissions - to be charged at a price equal to the monetary value of the damage caused by the emissions . This should result in the economically optimal ( efficient ) amount of CO2 emissions . Many practical concerns mar the theoretical simplicity of this picture : for example , the exact monetary damage caused by a tonne of CO2 is uncertain . The economics of carbon pricing is much the same for taxes and cap-and-trade . Both prices are efficient ; they have the same social cost and the same effect on profits if permits are auctioned . However , some economists argue that caps prevent non-price policies , such as renewable energy subsidies , from reducing carbon emissions , while carbon taxes do not . Others argue that an enforced cap is the only way to guarantee that carbon emissions will actually be reduced ; a carbon tax will not prevent those who can afford to do so from continuing to generate emissions . The choice of pricing approach , a tax or cap-and-trade , has been controversial . A carbon tax is generally favored on economic grounds for its simplicity and stability , while cap-and-trade is often favored on political grounds . Recently ( 2013 − 14 ) economic opinion has been shifting more heavily toward taxes as national policy measures , and toward a neutral carbon-price-commitment position for the purpose of international climate negotiations .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon_price", "rank": 32, "score": 139904 }, { "content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Global_Carbon_Project", "rank": 33, "score": 139523 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_generator", "rank": 34, "score": 138917 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Content: -RSB- This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity , based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency released in 2015 . The following table lists the 2015 annual emissions estimates ( in thousands of tonnes ) along with a list of emissions per capita ( in tonnes of per year ) from same source . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use , land-use change and forestry . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The top 10 largest emitter countries account for 67.6 % of the world total . Other powerful , more potent greenhouse gases , including methane , are not included in this data .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions", "rank": 35, "score": 138480 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 is Green Content: CO2 is Green is a non-profit organization supporting public policy on environmental issues . A main focus of the organization are federal proposals that may `` interfere with natures dependence on carbon dioxide . '' CO2 is Green does not view carbon dioxide as a pollutant and advocates for federal law and regulations to support this thinking .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "CO2_is_Green", "rank": 36, "score": 137274 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )", "qid": "3119", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita", "rank": 37, "score": 136975 }, { "content": "Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Kaya_identity", "rank": 38, "score": 136305 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 39, "score": 136232 }, { "content": "Title: ECOCITIES (software) Content: All member states of the European Union are bound to decrease their greenhouse gas emissions . For example , the EU climate and energy package requires member states to improve their energy efficiency by 20 % , increase - renewable energy production by 20 % and reduce their emissions by 20 % . With about 40 % of CO2 emissions heating , cooling and hot water production in buildings is one of the largest greenhouse gas producers . At the same time the building sector has the largest potential for energy savings . In their effort to lead a change towards greater energy efficiency and a reduction of greenhouse gas , many companies , cities and municipalities are in the process of developing low carbon action plans . However , the costs for developing optimal action plans and their continuous monitoring and optimization are very high , thus , often hindered by the tense financial situation , especially of cities and municipalities . With significant economic and environmental downsides ; the consequences are additional costs due to the non-compliance to the national and EU emission goals and untapped energy saving potential . ECOCITIES is an energy optimization system for building portfolios combining and extending the benefits of Energy Management Software ( EMS ) , Computer-aided Facility Management ( CAFM ) software and building portfolio management software . It integrates building administration and monitoring , energy accounting and building portfolio optimization . Thereby , it supports the definition of low carbon action plans in terms of environmental impact ( e.g. , carbon footprint , energy efficiency ) and financial impact ( e.g. , investment costs , running , costs ) . The system considers the following options for each building and the resulting ( inter - ) dependencies : energy-efficient building configurations ( e.g. , the compatibility of building components and its contribution to the energy efficiency level ) , energy used at the production and distribution of building components ( i.e. , gray energy ) , environmental impact ( e.g. , CO2 emissions ) , financial constraints , such as ( governmental ) funding and limited long term loans , legal constraints , e.g. , building codes , national and international standards , energy consumption for the operation of buildings , i.e. , heating , ventilation , and air conditioning ( HVAC ) as well as the electricity demand , energy production , storage and load shifting between buildings in combination with renewable energy production ( solar PV and thermal , Micro combined heat and power ) and conversion . energy flows between a building 's on-site networks ( Heating/Cooling and low voltage networks ) , the micro networks on neighborhood level and the city-wide energy networks ( district heating and district cooling networks , mid-voltage distribution networks ) , local typology ( position of buildings , energy networks ) . ECOCITIES calculates all energy - and cost-efficient development scenarios , visualizes them on the screen and allows decision makers to interactively explore the consequences of their actions ( e.g. , what are the citywide costs and the corresponding CO2 reductions of introducing a neighborhood-scale combined heat and power plant ) . ECOCITIES is an enabler for the realization of energy goals and provides synergies with existing endeavors of achieving national and European energy goals . On an operational level , ECOCITIES supports the following processes : Administration and integrated optimization of the entire building portfolio . Energy accounting and monitoring for all buildings . Identification , evaluation and definition of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Continuous monitoring , review and optimization of energy efficiency strategies ( low carbon action plans ) . Ensure the alignment of individual initiatives with the overall energy strategy of the company/city , e.g. , planning the cost - and energy efficient integration of new or refurbished single buildings , groups of buildings or entire neighborhoods into a new or existing energy efficiency strategy . Continuous monitoring of the performance related to the contribution to national and European energy goals .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "ECOCITIES_(software)", "rank": 40, "score": 135842 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth", "rank": 41, "score": 134271 }, { "content": "Title: Fuel factor Content: The fuel factor , fo , is the ratio of created CO2 to depleted oxygen in a combustion reaction , used to check the accuracy of an emission measurement system . It can be calculated using the equation fo = ( 20.9 - % O2 ) / % CO2 , Where % O2 is the percent O2 by volume , dry basis , % CO2 is the percent CO2 by volume , dry basis , and 20.9 is the percent O2 by volume in ambient air . The Fuel factor can be corrected for the amount of CO , by adding the percent CO on a dry basis to the CO2 , and subtracting half of the percent CO from the O2 .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Fuel_factor", "rank": 42, "score": 133915 }, { "content": "Title: Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative Content: ` The Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI , pronounced `` Reggie '' ) is the first mandatory market based program in the United States to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . RGGI is a cooperative effort among the states of Connecticut , Delaware , Maine , Maryland , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , New York , Rhode Island , and Vermont to cap and reduce CO2 emissions from the power sector . RGGI compliance obligations apply to fossil-fueled power plants 25MW and larger within the nine-state region . RGGI establishes a regional cap on the amount of CO2 pollution that power plants can emit by issuing a limited number of tradable CO2 allowances . Each allowance represents an authorization for a regulated power plant to emit one short ton of CO2 . Individual CO2 budget trading programs in each RGGI state together create a regional market for CO2 allowances . The RGGI states distribute over 90 percent of allowances through quarterly auctions . These allowance auctions generate proceeds , which participating states are able to invest in strategic energy and consumer benefit programs . Programs funded through RGGI have included energy efficiency , clean and renewable energy , greenhouse gas abatement , and direct bill assistance . An initial milestone program 's development occurred in 2005 , when seven states signed a Memorandum of Understanding ( MOU ) announcing an agreement to implement RGGI . The RGGI states then established individual CO2 budget trading programs , based on the RGGI Model Rule . The first pre-compliance RGGI auction took place in September 2008 , and the program became effective on January 1 , 2009 . The RGGI program is currently in its third three-year compliance period , which began January 1 , 2015 .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Regional_Greenhouse_Gas_Initiative", "rank": 43, "score": 132722 }, { "content": "Title: Chicago Climate Exchange Content: The Chicago Climate Exchange ( CCX ) was North America 's only voluntary , legally binding greenhouse gas ( GHG ) reduction and trading system for emission sources and offset projects in North America and Brazil . CCX employed independent verification , included six greenhouse gases , and traded greenhouse gas emission allowances from 2003 to 2010 . The companies joining the exchange committed to reducing their aggregate emissions by 6 % by 2010 . CCX had an aggregate baseline of 680 million metric tons of CO2 equivalent . CCX ceased trading carbon credits at the end of 2010 due to inactivity in the U.S. carbon markets , although carbon exchanges were intended to still be facilitated .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Chicago_Climate_Exchange", "rank": 44, "score": 132612 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions in Kentucky Content: The report `` Kentucky Greenhouse Gas Inventory '' provides a detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions and sinks for Kentucky in 1990 . Emissions were estimated using methods from EPA 's 1995 guidance document State Workbook : Methodologies for Estimating Greenhouse Gas Emissions . In 1990 , Kentucky emitted 35.4 million metric tons of carbon equivalent ( MMTCE ) . In addition , Kentucky estimated emissions of 0.4 MMTCE from biofuels . Emissions from biofuels are not included . The principal greenhouse gases were carbon dioxide , comprising 87.9 million metric tons ( 24.0 MMTCE ) , and methane , with 1.1 million metric tons ( 6.4 MMTCE ) . Other emissions included 0.0016 million metric tons of perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) ( 4.8 MMTCE ) , and 0.003 million metric tons of nitrous oxide ( 0.2 MMTCE ) The major source of carbon dioxide emissions was fossil fuel combustion ( 96 % ) , the majority of which is utility coal . Minor emissions came from cement and lime production and forest/grassland conversion . Carbon dioxide sinks ( i.e. , an increase in forest carbon storage ) offset about 26 % of the total carbon dioxide emissions . Sources of methane emissions were coal mining ( 73 % ) , domesticated animals ( 12 % ) , landfills ( 10 % ) , manure management ( 3 % ) , and natural gas/oil extraction ( 2 % ) . Nitrous oxide emissions were from fertilizer use . Sources of perfluorocarbons were HCFC-22 production ( 91 % ) and aluminum production ( 9 % ) . Kentucky 's emissions in 1990 were 9.6 MTCE per capita , compared to 1990 U.S. emissions of 6.4 MTCE per capita . Kentucky 's per capita emissions are high due to the large volume of coal-related activities in the state .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_in_Kentucky", "rank": 45, "score": 132030 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 46, "score": 131730 }, { "content": "Title: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Content: Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage ( BECCS ) is a future greenhouse gas mitigation technology which produces negative carbon dioxide emissions by combining bioenergy ( energy from biomass ) use with geologic carbon capture and storage . The concept of BECCS is drawn from the integration of trees and crops , which extract carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) from the atmosphere as they grow , the use of this biomass in processing industries or power plants , and the application of carbon capture and storage via CO2 injection into geological formations . There are other non-BECCS forms of carbon dioxide removal and storage that include technologies such as biochar , carbon dioxide air capture and biomass burial . According to a recent Biorecro report , there is 550 000 tonnes CO2/year in total BECCS capacity currently operating , divided between three different facilities ( as of January 2012 ) . In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , BECCS was indicated as a key technology for reaching low carbon dioxide atmospheric concentration targets . The negative emissions that can be produced by BECCS has been estimated by the Royal Society to be equivalent to a 50 to 150 ppm decrease in global atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and according to the International Energy Agency , the BLUE map climate change mitigation scenario calls for more than 2 gigatonnes of negative CO2 emissions per year with BECCS in 2050 . According to Stanford University , 10 gigatonnes is achievable by this date . The Imperial College London , the UK Met Office Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research , the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research , the Walker Institute for Climate System Research , and the Grantham Institute for Climate Change issued a joint report on carbon dioxide removal technologies as part of the AVOID : Avoiding dangerous climate change research program , stating that `` Overall , of the technologies studied in this report , BECCS has the greatest maturity and there are no major practical barriers to its introduction into today 's energy system . The presence of a primary product will support early deployment . '' According to the OECD , `` Achieving lower concentration targets ( 450 ppm ) depends significantly on the use of BECCS '' .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Bio-energy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage", "rank": 47, "score": 131387 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center", "rank": 48, "score": 131152 }, { "content": "Title: Kyoto Protocol Content: The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) that commits State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , based on the fact that ( a ) global warming exists and ( b ) human-made CO2 emissions have caused it . The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto , Japan , on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005 . There are currently 192 parties ( Canada withdrew effective December 2012 ) to the Protocol . The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to `` a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' ( Art. 2 ) . The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities : it puts the obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . The Protocol 's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012 . A second commitment period was agreed on in 2012 , known as the Doha Amendment to the protocol , in which 37 countries have binding targets : Australia , the European Union ( and its 28 member states ) , Belarus , Iceland , Kazakhstan , Liechtenstein , Norway , Switzerland , and Ukraine . Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets . Japan , New Zealand and Russia have participated in Kyoto 's first-round but have not taken on new targets in the second commitment period . Other developed countries without second-round targets are Canada ( which withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol in 2012 ) and the United States ( which has not ratified the Protocol ) . As of July 2016 , 66 states have accepted the Doha Amendment , while entry into force requires the acceptances of 144 states . Of the 37 countries with binding commitments , 7 have ratified . Negotiations were held in the framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken after the second commitment period ends in 2020 . This resulted in the 2015 adoption of the Paris Agreement , which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an amendment of the Kyoto protocol .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Kyoto_Protocol", "rank": 49, "score": 131068 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide", "rank": 50, "score": 130901 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite Content: The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite ( GOSat ) , also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world 's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring . It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth 's atmosphere . The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and launched on 23 January 2009 , from the Tanegashima Space Center . Japan 's Ministry of the Environment , and the National Institute for Environmental Studies ( NIES ) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect , and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Greenhouse_Gases_Observing_Satellite", "rank": 51, "score": 130081 }, { "content": "Title: Climate footprint Content: The term climate footprint has emerged from the field of carbon footprinting , and refers to a measure of the full set of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) controlled under the Kyoto Protocol . A climate footprint is a more comprehensive measure of anthropogenic impact upon the climate than a carbon footprint , but is also more costly and labour-intensive to calculate . A climate footprint is a measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , nitrous oxide ( N2O ) , hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , perfluorocarbons ( PFCs ) and sulphur hexafluoride ( SF6 ) emissions of a defined population , system or activity , considering all relevant sources , sinks and storage within the spatial and temporal boundary of the population , system or activity of interest . Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent ( CO2e ) using the relevant 100-year global warming potential ( GWP100 ) .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Climate_footprint", "rank": 52, "score": 129692 }, { "content": "Title: HCNG Content: HCNG ( or H2CNG ) is a mixture of compressed natural gas and 4 -- 9 percent hydrogen by energy . It may be used as a fuel gas for internal combustion engines and home appliances . ( regarding the acronyms in the above emissions chart : AVL = Average Levels ? CNG = Compressed Natural Gas HCNG = Hydrogen and CNG blend NOX = Nitrogen Oxides NMHC = Non-Methane Hydrocarbons ? CH4 = Methane THC = Total Hydrocarbons ? CO = Carbon Monoxide ) HCNG dispensers can be found at Hynor ( Norway ) Thousand palms and Barstow , California , Fort Collins , Colorado ( all US ) , Chongqing and Shanxi ( China ) , Pico Truncado ( Argentina ) , Islamabad ( Pakistan ) , Dunkerque ( France ) , Gothenburg Sweden , Rio de Janeiro ( Brazil ) , Emilia-Romagna , Lombardia ( Italy ) , Dwarka and Faridabad ( Delhi ) , India and the BC hydrogen highway in Canada . HCNG for mobile use is premixed at the hydrogen station .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "HCNG", "rank": 53, "score": 129328 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance Content: The Carbon Neutral Cities Alliance ( CNCA or `` Alliance '' ) is a collaboration of leading global cities working to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 80 % or more by 2050 or sooner ( `` 80x50 '' ) -- the most aggressive greenhouse gas reduction targets undertaken by any cities across the globe . The Alliance aims to address what it will take for leading international cities to achieve these deep emissions reductions and how they can work together to meet their respective goals more efficiently and effectively .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon_Neutral_Cities_Alliance", "rank": 54, "score": 128942 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse debt Content: Greenhouse debt or carbon debt is the measure to which an individual person , incorporated association , business enterprise , government instrumentality or geographic community exceeds its permitted greenhouse footprint and contributes greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change . The concept makes no sense without a clear numerical value for the permitted greenhouse footprint . It is not clear what this value is . Friends of the Earth and similar organisations put forward the concept to define specifically the environmental harm caused by developed countries ' past and present policies . Some governments , at least the Australian Labor leadership , have a tendency to accept such a line of reasoning . The greenhouse debt assessment thus forms an ecological footprint analysis but can be used separately . Taken conjointly with a ` water debt ' analysis and an ecological impact assessment , greenhouse debt analysis is basic to giving individuals , organisations , governments and communities an understanding of the effects they are having on Gaia , life , and global warming . Ensuring that the greenhouse debt is zero is essential towards achieving ecologically sustainable development or a sustainable retreat . Any greenhouse debt incurred will contribute to making life harder for future generations of humans and non-human lifeforms . There are three possible consequences that occur as a result of a greenhouse debt . Mitigation : finding compensatory ways of reducing the greenhouse debt so its effects are neutralised Adaptation : finding ways of adjusting to the resulting global warming or climate change Suffering : having one 's quality of life reduced as a result of the consequences", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Greenhouse_debt", "rank": 55, "score": 128889 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon credit Content: A carbon credit is a generic term for any tradable certificate or permit representing the right to emit one tonne of carbon dioxide or the mass of another greenhouse gas with a carbon dioxide equivalent ( tCO2e ) equivalent to one tonne of carbon dioxide . Carbon credits and carbon markets are a component of national and international attempts to mitigate the growth in concentrations of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) . One carbon credit is equal to one tonne of carbon dioxide , or in some markets , carbon dioxide equivalent gases . Carbon trading is an application of an emissions trading approach . Greenhouse gas emissions are capped and then markets are used to allocate the emissions among the group of regulated sources . The goal is to allow market mechanisms to drive industrial and commercial processes in the direction of low emissions or less carbon intensive approaches than those used when there is no cost to emitting carbon dioxide and other GHGs into the atmosphere . Since GHG mitigation projects generate credits , this approach can be used to finance carbon reduction schemes between trading partners and around the world . There are also many companies that sell carbon credits to commercial and individual customers who are interested in lowering their carbon footprint on a voluntary basis . These carbon offsetters purchase the credits from an investment fund or a carbon development company that has aggregated the credits from individual projects . Buyers and sellers can also use an exchange platform to trade , which is like a stock exchange for carbon credits . The quality of the credits is based in part on the validation process and sophistication of the fund or development company that acted as the sponsor to the carbon project . This is reflected in their price ; voluntary units typically have less value than the units sold through the rigorously validated Clean Development Mechanism .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon_credit", "rank": 56, "score": 128711 }, { "content": "Title: Hydrofluorocarbon Content: Hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) , organic compounds that contain fluorine and hydrogen atoms , are the most common type of organofluorine compounds . They are commonly used in air conditioning and as refrigerants in place of the older chlorofluorocarbons such as R-12 and hydrochlorofluorocarbons such as R-21 . They do not harm the ozone layer as much as the compounds they replace ; however , they do contribute to global warming . Their atmospheric concentrations and contribution to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions are rapidly increasing , causing international concern about their radiative forcing . Fluorocarbons with few C -- F bonds behave similarly to the parent hydrocarbons , but their reactivity can be altered significantly . For example , both uracil and 5-fluorouracil are colourless , high-melting crystalline solids , but the latter is a potent anti-cancer drug . The use of the C-F bond in pharmaceuticals is predicated on this altered reactivity . Several drugs and agrochemicals contain only one fluorine center or one trifluoromethyl group . Unlike other greenhouse gases in the Paris Agreement , hydrofluorocarbons have other international negotiations . In September 2016 , the so-called New York Declaration urged a global reduction in the use of HFCs . On 15 October 2016 , due to these chemicals ' contribution to climate change , negotiators from 197 nations meeting at the summit of the United Nations Environment Programme in Kigali , Rwanda reached a legally-binding accord to phase out hydrofluorocarbons ( HFCs ) in an amendment to the Montreal Protocol .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Hydrofluorocarbon", "rank": 57, "score": 128598 }, { "content": "Title: European Union Emission Trading Scheme Content: The European Union Emissions Trading System ( EU ETS ) , also known as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme , was the first large greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world , and remains the biggest . It was launched in 2005 to fight Global warming and is a major pillar of EU climate policy . As of 2013 , the EU ETS covers more than 11,000 factories , power stations , and other installations with a net heat excess of 20 MW in 31 countries -- all 28 EU member states plus Iceland , Norway , and Liechtenstein . In 2008 , the installations regulated by the EU ETS were collectively responsible for close to half of the EU 's anthropogenic emissions of CO2 and 40 % of its total greenhouse gas emissions . Under the ` cap and trade ' principle , a maximum ( cap ) is set on the total amount of greenhouse gases that can be emitted by all participating installations . ` Allowances ' for emissions are then auctioned off or allocated for free , and can subsequently be traded . Installations must monitor and report their CO2 emissions , ensuring they hand in enough allowances to the authorities to cover their emissions . If emission exceeds what is permitted by its allowances , an installation must purchase allowances from others . Conversely , if an installation has performed well at reducing its emissions , it can sell its leftover credits . This allows the system to find the most cost-effective ways of reducing emissions without significant government intervention . The scheme has been divided into a number of `` trading periods '' . The first ETS trading period lasted three years , from January 2005 to December 2007 . The second trading period ran from January 2008 until December 2012 , coinciding with the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol . The third trading period began in January 2013 and will span until December 2020 . Compared to 2005 , when the EU ETS was first implemented , the proposed caps for 2020 represents a 21 % reduction of greenhouse gases . This target has been reached 6 years early as emissions in the ETS fell to 1812 mln tonnes in 2014 . The EU ETS has seen a number of significant changes , with the first trading period described as a ` learning by doing ' phase . Phase III sees a turn to auctioning a majority of permits rather than allocating freely ; harmonisation of rules for the remaining allocations ; and the inclusion of other greenhouse gases , such as nitrous oxide and perfluorocarbons . In 2012 , the EU ETS was also extended to the airline industry , though this has been paused for one year given the possibility of a global system for these emissions . The price of EU ETS carbon credits has been lower than intended , with a large surplus of allowances , in part because of the impact of the recent economic crisis on demand . In 2012 , the Commission said it would delay the auctioning of some allowances . Currently legislation is under way which would introduce a Market Stability Reserve to the EU ETS that adjusts the annual supply of CO2 permits based on the CO2 permits in circulation . Overall , since its conception , the EU ETS has been characterized by relatively high levels of policy uncertainty . This uncertainty has been both technical , in terms of its detailed rules and procedures , and political , in terms of its public , industry , and governmental support . As a result , the scheme has resulted in a rather informal and tepid response by regulated organizations .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme", "rank": 58, "score": 128595 }, { "content": "Title: Fugitive emissions Content: Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended or irregular releases of gases , mostly from industrial activities . As well as the economic cost of lost commodities , fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate change . A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17 million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide , or 12 per cent of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector . Venting of natural gas , flaring , accidental releases and storage losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent . Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards . Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from oil refineries and chemical plants pose a long term health risk to workers and local communities . In situations where large amounts of flammable liquids and gases are contained under pressure , leaks also increase the risk of fire and explosion . Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves , pipe connections , mechanical seals , or related equipment . Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and storage tanks . Because of the huge number of potential leak sources at large industrial facilities and the difficulties in detecting and repairing some leaks , fugitive emissions can be a significant proportion of total emissions . Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small , gases that have serious health or environmental impacts can cause a significant problem . To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities . Routine inspections of process equipment with gas detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action . Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces the likelihood of leaks . Because of the technical difficulties and costs of detecting and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility , and the variability and intermittent nature of emission flow rates , bottom-up estimates based on standard emission factors are generally used for annual reporting purposes . New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions . One technology , known as differential absorption lidar ( DIAL ) , can be used to remotely measure concentration profiles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to several hundred meters from a facility . DIAL has been used for refinery surveys in Europe for over 15 years . A pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a refinery were fifteen times higher than those previously reported using the emission factor approach . The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17 % of the refinery throughput . Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair , leading to reduced fugitive emissions . The cameras use infrared imaging technology to produce video images in which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be clearly identified .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Fugitive_emissions", "rank": 59, "score": 128499 }, { "content": "Title: California Senate Bill 32 Content: The California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 : emissions limit , or SB-32 , is a California Senate bill expanding upon AB-32 to reduce greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The lead author is Senator Fran Pavley and the principal co-author is Assemblymember Eduardo Garcia . SB-32 was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 , by Governor Edmund Gerald `` Jerry '' Brown Jr. . SB-32 sets into law the mandated reduction target in GHG emissions as written into Executive Order B-30-15 . The Senate bill requires that there be a reduction in GHG emissions to 40 % below the 1990 levels by 2030 . Greenhouse gas emissions include carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , sulfur hexafluoride , hydrofluorocarbons , and perfluorocarbons . The California Air Resources Board ( CARB ) is responsible for ensuring that California meets this goal . The provisions of SB-32 were added to Section 38566 of the Health and Safety Code subsequent to the bill 's approval . The bill goes into effect January 1 , 2017 . SB-32 builds onto Assembly Bill ( AB ) 32 written by Senator Fran Pavley and Assembly Speaker Fabian Nunez passed into law on September 27 , 2006 . AB-32 required California to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2020 and SB-32 continues that timeline to reach the targets set in Executive Order B-30-15 . SB-32 provides another intermediate target between the 2020 and 2050 targets set in Executive Order S-3-05 . SB-32 was contingent on the passing of AB-197 , which increases legislative oversight of CARB and is intended to ensure CARB must report to the Legislature . AB-197 also passed and was signed into law on September 8 , 2016 .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "California_Senate_Bill_32", "rank": 60, "score": 127289 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide equivalent Content: Carbon dioxide equivalent ( CDE ) and equivalent carbon dioxide ( e and eq ) are two related but distinct measures for describing how much global warming a given type and amount of greenhouse gas may cause , using the functionally equivalent amount or concentration of carbon dioxide as the reference .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_equivalent", "rank": 61, "score": 126702 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas accounting Content: Greenhouse gas accounting describes the way to inventory and audit greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . A corporate or organisational greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions assessment quantifies the total greenhouse gases produced directly and indirectly from a business or organisation 's activities . Also known as a carbon footprint , it is a business tool that provides information with a basis for understanding and managing climate change impacts . The drivers for corporate GHG accounting include mandatory GHG reporting in directors ' reports , investment due diligence , shareholder and stakeholder communication , staff engagement , green messaging , and tender requirements for business and government contracts . Accounting for greenhouse gas emissions is increasingly seen as a standard requirement for business . For example , in June 2012 , the UK coalition government announced the introduction of mandatory carbon reporting , requiring around 1,100 of the UK 's largest listed companies to report their greenhouse gas emissions every year . Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg confirmed that emission reporting rules would come into effect from April 2013 in his piece for The Guardian . Guidance for accounting for GHG emissions from organizations and emission reduction projects is provided by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) GHG Protocol . For national GHG inventories , guidance is provided by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) methodology reports . The International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) also provides some general standards for greenhouse gas emissions at organisation level ( ISO 14064 - 1 ) and greenhouse gas emissions at project level ( ISO 14064 - 2 ) . Specifications to validate and verify relevant accountings are documented in ( ISO 14064 - 3 ) .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_accounting", "rank": 62, "score": 126238 }, { "content": "Title: Mitigation of global warming in Australia Content: Mitigation of global warming involves taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to enhance sinks aimed at reducing the extent of global warming . This is in distinction to adaptation to global warming , which involves taking action to minimise the effects of global warming . Scientific consensus on global warming , together with the precautionary principle and the fear of non-linear climate transitions , is leading to increased effort to develop new technologies and sciences and carefully manage others in an attempt to mitigate global warming . Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) for coal-fired power stations has been put forward as a solution to rising greenhouse gas emissions . However , CCS can not deliver in time to avoid dangerous increases in temperatures , as widespread commercial use of CCS is not expected before 2030 . Following the introduction of government mandatory renewable energy targets , more opportunities have opened up for renewable energy technologies such as wind power , photovoltaics , and solar thermal technologies . The deployment of these technologies provides opportunities for mitigating greenhouse gases . A carbon price was introduced on 1 July 2012 by the government of Julia Gillard with the purpose of reducing Australia 's carbon emissions . It requires large businesses ( defined as those with annual carbon dioxide equivalent emissions over 25,000 tonnes annually ) to pay a price for emissions permits . The tax was scrapped by the Abbott government in July 2014 in what was a widely criticised and highly publicised move .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Mitigation_of_global_warming_in_Australia", "rank": 63, "score": 125703 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon governance in England Content: The reduction of carbon emissions , along with other greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , has become a vitally important task of international , national and local actors . If we understand governance as the creation of `` conditions for ordered rule and collective action '' then , given the fact that the reduction of carbon emissions will require concerted collective action , it follows that the governance of carbon will be of paramount concern . We have seen numerous international conferences over the past 20 years tasked with finding a way of facilitating this , and while international agreements have been infamously difficult to reach , action at the national level has been much more effective . In the UK , the Climate Change Act 2008 committed the government to meeting significant carbon reduction targets . In England , these carbon emissions are governed using numerous different instruments , which involve a variety of actors . While it has been argued by authors like Rhodes that there has been a `` hollowing out '' of the nation state , and that governments have lost their capabilities to govern to a variety of non-state actors and the European Union , the case of carbon governance in England actually runs counter to this . The government body responsible for the task , the Department of Energy and Climate Change ( DECC ) , is the `` main external dynamic '' behind governing actions in this area , and `` rather than hollowing out ( there has actually been a strengthening of ) central co-ordination '' . The department may rely on other bodies to deliver its desired outcomes , but it is still ultimately responsible for the imposition of the rules and regulations that `` steer ( carbon ) governmental action at the national level '' . It is therefore evident that carbon governance in England is hierarchical in nature , in that `` legislative decisions and executive decisions '' are the main dynamic behind carbon governance action . This does not deny the existence of a network of bodies around DECC who are part of the process , but they are supplementary actors who are steered by central decisions . This article focuses on carbon governance in England as the other countries of the UK ( Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland ) all have devolved assemblies who are responsible for the governance of carbon emissions in their respective countries .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon_governance_in_England", "rank": 64, "score": 125125 }, { "content": "Title: Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 Content: The Global Warming Pollution Reduction Act of 2007 - a bill to amend the Clean Air Act to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide , and for other purposes . It was proposed in the 110th United States Congress by Senators Bernie Sanders ( I-VT ) and Barbara Boxer ( D-CA ) on January 15 , 2007 . It was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works . The measure was intended to increase performance standards for electricity generation and motor vehicles with the option of an emissions `` cap and trade '' system . The emissions cap would begin in 2010 with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 15 percent by 2020 and 83 percent by 2050 . The legislation would also provide funding for R&D on geologic sequestration of carbon dioxide , among other projects ; set emissions standards for new vehicles and a renewable fuels requirement for gasoline beginning in 2016 ; establish energy efficiency and renewable portfolio standards beginning in 2008 and low-carbon electric generation standards beginning in 2016 for electric utilities ; and require periodic evaluations by the National Academy of Sciences to determine whether emissions targets are adequate .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Global_Warming_Pollution_Reduction_Act_of_2007", "rank": 65, "score": 125029 }, { "content": "Title: Methane emissions Content: Global methane emissions are major part of the global greenhouse gas emissions . Methane in the atmosphere has a 100-year global warming potential of 34 .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Methane_emissions", "rank": 66, "score": 124923 }, { "content": "Title: Contraction and Convergence Content: Contraction and Convergence ( C&C ) is a proposed global framework for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change . Conceived by the Global Commons Institute -LSB- GCI -RSB- in the early 1990s , the Contraction and Convergence strategy consists of reducing overall emissions of greenhouse gases to a safe level ( contraction ) , resulting from every country bringing its emissions per capita to a level which is equal for all countries ( convergence ) . It is intended to form the basis of an international agreement which will reduce carbon dioxide emissions to avoid dangerous climate change , carbon dioxide being the gas that is primarily responsible for changes in the greenhouse effect on Earth . It is expressed as a simple mathematical formula . This formula can be used as a way for the world to stabilize carbon levels at any level . Advocates of Contraction and Convergence stress that negotiations at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change -LSB- UNFCCC -RSB- are governed sequentially by the ` objective ' of the UNFCCC -LSB- safe and stable GHG concentration in the global atmosphere -RSB- followed by its organising principles -LSB- ` precaution ' and ` equity ' -RSB- . C&C is widely cited and supported .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Contraction_and_Convergence", "rank": 67, "score": 124764 }, { "content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources", "rank": 68, "score": 124469 }, { "content": "Title: Timothy Ball Content: Timothy Francis `` Tim '' Ball ( born November 5 , 1938 ) is a Canadian geographer . A retired professor , he taught in the department of geography at the University of Winnipeg from 1971 until 1996 . Ball rejects the scientific opinion on climate change , stating that `` CO2 is not a greenhouse gas . '' He has worked with the Friends of Science and the Natural Resources Stewardship Project , and is a research fellow at the Frontier Centre for Public Policy .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Timothy_Ball", "rank": 69, "score": 124247 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon_sequestration", "rank": 70, "score": 124208 }, { "content": "Title: New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme Content: The New South Wales Greenhouse Gas Abatement Scheme ( also known as GGAS ) was a mandatory greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme that aimed to lower greenhouse gas emissions in New South Wales , Australia , to 7.27 tonnes of carbon dioxide per capita by the year 2007 , which commenced on 1 January 2003 . The Scheme imposed obligations on NSW electricity retailers and certain other parties , including large electricity users who elected to manage their own benchmark to abate a portion of the greenhouse gas emissions attributable to their sales/consumption of electricity in NSW . They did this by purchasing and acquitting NSW Greenhouse Abatement Certificates ( also known as NGACs ) created by accredited `` Abatement Certificate Providers '' ( ACPs ) . The NSW Minister for Energy , Chris Hartcher , announced closure of the scheme in April 2012 , effective from 30 June 2012 . The Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme ( GGAS ) closed on 30 June 2012 . The NSW Government closed GGAS to avoid duplication with the Commonwealth 's carbon price which commenced on 1 July 2012 .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "New_South_Wales_Greenhouse_Gas_Abatement_Scheme", "rank": 71, "score": 123664 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Massachusetts Content: Formet Massachusetts Governor Deval Patrick has signed into law three global warming and energy-related bills that will promote advanced biofuels , support the growth of the clean energy technology industry , and cut the emissions of greenhouse gases within the state . The Clean Energy Biofuels Act , signed in late July , exempts cellulosic ethanol from the state 's gasoline tax , but only if the ethanol achieves a 60 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions relative to gasoline . The act also requires all diesel motor fuels and all No. 2 fuel oil sold for heating to include at least 2 % `` substitute fuel '' by July 2010 , where substitute fuel is defined as a fuel derived from renewable non-food biomass that achieves at least a 50 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions . The requirement for both motor diesel fuel and heating oil increases by a percentage point per year until 2013 , after which it holds steady 5 % . The act also allows the state to expand the requirement to other forms of fuel oil , and it requires the state to work to establish a low-carbon fuel standard under the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative . In early August of 2008 , Governor Patrick signed two additional bills : the Green Jobs Act and the Global Warming Solutions Act . The Green Jobs Act will support the growth of a clean energy technology industry within the state , backed by $ 68 million in funding over 5 years . The Global Warming Solutions Act requires a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the state to 10 % -25 % below 1990 levels by 2020 and to 80 % below 1990 levels by 2050 . Under the act , the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection will carry the burdens of determining the baseline level of emissions in 1990 and creating a plan to meet the future emissions limits , including the establishment of interim limits for 2030 and 2040", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Massachusetts", "rank": 72, "score": 123563 }, { "content": "Title: Verified Carbon Standard Content: The Verified Carbon Standard ( VCS ) is a voluntary greenhouse gas program . The organization was founded by a collection of business and environmental leaders . In 2005 , The Climate Group , International Emissions Trading Association ( IETA ) and The World Economic Forum - convened a team of global carbon market experts to draft the first VCS requirements . The World Business Council for Sustainable Development ( WBCSD ) joined the effort soon after . These experts soon formed the VCS Steering Committee , which worked to draft the first and subsequent versions of the VCS Standard . Many of the members of the original steering committee went on to be on the original Board of Directors , which now has evolved into a body of 12 members that offers input and guidance to the organization . By 2008 , with the VCS Standard becoming more widely adopted , the Board of Directors named David Antonioli the organization 's first Chief Executive Officer . Soon after in 2009 , VCS incorporated in Washington D.C as a non-profit NGO .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Verified_Carbon_Standard", "rank": 73, "score": 123406 }, { "content": "Title: The Climate Registry Content: The Climate Registry ( TCR ) is a non-profit organization governed by U.S. states and Canadian provinces and territories . TCR designs and operates voluntary and compliance greenhouse gas ( GHG ) reporting programs globally , and assists organizations in measuring , reporting and verifying the carbon in their operations in order to manage and reduce it . TCR also consults with governments nationally and internationally on all aspects of GHG measurement , reporting , and verification .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "The_Climate_Registry", "rank": 74, "score": 123010 }, { "content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Charles_David_Keeling", "rank": 75, "score": 122732 }, { "content": "Title: Assigned amount units Content: An Assigned Amount Unit ( AAU ) is a tradable ` Kyoto unit ' or ` carbon credit ' representing an allowance to emit greenhouse gases comprising one metric tonne of carbon dioxide equivalents calculated using their Global Warming Potential . Assigned Amount Units are issued up to the level of initial `` assigned amount '' of an Annex 1 Party to the Kyoto Protocol . The `` assigned amounts '' are the Kyoto Protocol Annex B emission targets ( or `` quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives '' ) expressed as levels of allowed emissions over the 2008-2012 commitment period .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Assigned_amount_units", "rank": 76, "score": 122715 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide laser Content: The carbon dioxide laser ( CO2 laser ) was one of the earliest gas lasers to be developed . It was invented by Kumar Patel of Bell Labs in 1964 , and is still one of the most useful . Carbon dioxide lasers are the highest-power continuous wave lasers that are currently available . They are also quite efficient : the ratio of output power to pump power can be as large as 20 % . The CO2 laser produces a beam of infrared light with the principal wavelength bands centering on 9.4 and 10.6 micrometers ( μm ) .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_laser", "rank": 77, "score": 122674 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon monitoring Content: Carbon monitoring refers to tracking how much carbon dioxide or methane is produced by particular activity at a particular point in time . For example , it may refer to tracking methane emissions from agriculture , or carbon dioxide emissions from land use changes , such as deforestation , or from burning fossil fuels , whether in a power plant , automobile , or other device . Because carbon dioxide is the greenhouse gas emitted in the largest quantities , and methane is an even more potent greenhouse gas , monitoring carbon emissions is widely seen as crucial to any effort to reduce emissions and thereby slow climate change . Monitoring carbon emissions is key to the cap-and-trade program currently being used in Europe , as well as the one in California , and will be necessary for any such program in the future , like the Paris Agreement . The lack of reliable sources of consistent data on carbon emissions is a significant barrier to efforts to reduce emissions .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon_monitoring", "rank": 78, "score": 122480 }, { "content": "Title: Airport Carbon Accreditation Content: Airport Carbon Accreditation is a global carbon management programme for airports that independently assesses and recognises airports ' efforts to manage and reduce their CO2 emissions . There are 4 different levels of accreditation : Mapping , Reduction , Optimisation and Neutrality . The programme was launched by European airports ' trade body ACI EUROPE at their Annual Congress in June 2009 . It is independently administered by WSP , an international consultancy firm . The programme provides airports with a common framework for active carbon management with measurable goal-posts . Individual airport carbon footprints are independently verified in accordance with ISO 14064 ( Greenhouse Gas Accounting ) on the basis of supporting evidence . Claims regarding airports ' carbon management processes are also independently verified by a group of 117 independent verifiers , based in 36 countries .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Airport_Carbon_Accreditation", "rank": 79, "score": 122478 }, { "content": "Title: Shale gas Content: Shale gas is natural gas that is found trapped within shale formations . Shale gas has become an increasingly important source of natural gas in the United States since the start of this century , and interest has spread to potential gas shales in the rest of the world . In 2000 shale gas provided only 1 % of U.S. natural gas production ; by 2010 it was over 20 % and the U.S. government 's Energy Information Administration predicts that by 2035 , 46 % of the United States ' natural gas supply will come from shale gas . Some analysts expect that shale gas will greatly expand worldwide energy supply . China is estimated to have the world 's largest shale gas reserves . The Obama administration believed that increased shale gas development would help reduce greenhouse gas emissions . In 2012 , US carbon dioxide emissions dropped to a 20-year low . A 2013 review by the United Kingdom Department of Energy and Climate Change noted that most studies of the subject have estimated that life-cycle greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions from shale gas are similar to those of conventional natural gas , and are much less than those from coal , usually about half the greenhouse gas emissions of coal ; the noted exception was a 2011 study by Howarth and others of Cornell University , which concluded that shale GHG emissions were as high as those of coal . More recent studies have also concluded that life-cycle shale gas GHG emissions are much less than those of coal , among them , studies by Natural Resources Canada ( 2012 ) , and a consortium formed by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory with a number of universities ( 2012 ) . Some 2011 studies pointed to high rates of decline of some shale gas wells as an indication that shale gas production may ultimately be much lower than is currently projected . But shale-gas discoveries are also opening up substantial new resources of tight oil / `` shale oil '' .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Shale_gas", "rank": 80, "score": 122010 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of transport Content: The environmental impact of transport is significant because it is a major user of energy , and burns most of the world 's petroleum . This creates air pollution , including nitrous oxides and particulates , and is a significant contributor to global warming through emission of carbon dioxide , for sector . By subsector , road transport is the largest contributor to global warming . Environmental regulations in developed countries have reduced the individual vehicle 's emission ; however , this has been offset by an increase in the number of vehicles , and more use of each vehicle . Some pathways to reduce the carbon emissions of road vehicles considerably have been studied . Energy use and emissions vary largely between modes , causing environmentalists to call for a transition from air and road to rail and human-powered transport , and increase transport electrification and energy efficiency . The transportation sector is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions ( GHGs ) in the United States . An estimated 30 percent of national GHGs are directly attributable to transportation -- and in some regions , the proportion is even higher . Transportation methods are the greatest contributing source of GHGs in the U.S. , accounting for 47 percent of the net increase in total U.S. emissions since 1990 . Other environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and automobile-oriented urban sprawl , which can consume natural habitat and agricultural lands . By reducing transportation emissions globally , it is predicted that there will be significant positive effects on Earth 's air quality , acid rain , smog and climate change . The health impact of transport emissions is also of concern . A recent survey of the studies on the effect of traffic emissions on pregnancy outcomes has linked exposure to emissions to adverse effects on gestational duration and possibly also intrauterine growth . As listed above direct impacts such as noise and carbon monoxide emissions create direct and harmful effects on the environment , along with indirect impacts . The indirect impacts are often of higher consequence which leads to the misconception that it 's the opposite since it is frequently understood that initial effects cause the most damage . For example , particulates which are the outcome of incomplete combustion done by an internal combustion engine , are not linked with respiratory and cardiovascular problems since they contribute to other factors not only to that specific condition . Even though the environmental impacts are usually listed individually there are also cumulative impacts . The synergetic consequences of transport activities . They take into account of the varied effects of direct and indirect impacts on an ecosystem . Climate change is the sum total impact of several natural and human-made factors . 15 % of global CO2 emissions are attributed to the transport sector .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_transport", "rank": 81, "score": 121774 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions Content: This is a list of countries by total greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2010 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon , and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute . The emissions data shown below do not include land-use change and forestry .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions", "rank": 82, "score": 121520 }, { "content": "Title: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide Content: Space-based measurements of carbon dioxide are used to help answer questions about Earth 's carbon cycle . There are a variety of active and planned instruments for measuring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere from space . The first satellite mission designed to measure was the Interferometric Monitor for Greenhouse Gases ( IMG ) on board the ADEOS I satellite in 1996 . This mission lasted less than a year . Since then , additional space-based measurements have begun , including those from two high-precision ( better than 0.3 % or 1 ppm ) satellites ( GOSAT and OCO-2 ) . Different instrument designs may reflect different primary missions .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Space-based_measurements_of_carbon_dioxide", "rank": 83, "score": 121460 }, { "content": "Title: Asphyxiant gas Content: An asphyxiant gas is a nontoxic or minimally toxic gas which reduces or displaces the normal oxygen concentration in breathing air . Breathing of oxygen-depleted air can lead to death by asphyxiation ( suffocation ) . Because asphyxiant gases are relatively inert and odorless , their presence in high concentration may not be noticed , except in the case of carbon dioxide ( hypercapnia ) . Toxic gases , by contrast , cause death by other mechanisms , such as competing with oxygen on the cellular level ( e.g. carbon monoxide ) or directly damaging the respiratory system ( e.g. phosgene ) . Far smaller quantities of these are deadly . Notable examples of asphyxiant gases are nitrogen , argon , helium , butane and propane . Along with trace gases such as carbon dioxide and ozone , these compose 79 % of Earth 's atmosphere . The atmosphere is mostly harmless because the remaining 21 % is O2 .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Asphyxiant_gas", "rank": 84, "score": 121404 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_flooding", "rank": 85, "score": 121301 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon capture and storage in Australia Content: Carbon capture and storage ( CCS ) is an approach to mitigate global warming by capturing carbon dioxide from large point sources such as fossil fuel power plants and storing it instead of releasing it into the atmosphere . Carbon capture and storage is also used for Enhanced Oil Recovery to increase yield from declining oil fields , and for storage of from natural gas fields . No coal-fired power station in Australia has CCS of . CCS is proven technology but is not yet commercially viable for reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from coal-fired power stations . Without an economic driver such as a high carbon price or revenue from Enhanced Oil Recovery CCS is not expected to be commercially viable until at least 2020 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) estimates that the economic potential of CCS could be between 10 % and 55 % of the total carbon mitigation effort until 2100 . In the 2015 budget , the Abbott Government cut $ 460m from CCS research projects leaving $ 191.7 m to continue existing projects for the next seven years . The program had already been cut by the previous Labor government and much of the funding remained unallocated .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon_capture_and_storage_in_Australia", "rank": 86, "score": 121236 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita from 1990 through 2011 . All data was calculated by the US Department of Energy 's Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) , mostly based on data collected from country agencies by the United Nations Statistics Division . Countries are ranked by their metric tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions per capita in 2009 . The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture , but not emissions from land use such as deforestation . Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures , which can make a huge difference for small countries with important ports . The carbon dioxide emissions of a country are only an indicator of one greenhouse gas . For a more complete idea of how a country influences climate change , gases such as methane and nitrous oxide should be taken into account . This is particularly so in agricultural economies . Carbon dioxide emissions are also known for earlier periods . A study of a global sample of twelve countries provide estimates for emissions since 1800 and explores the long-run drivers of carbon dioxide emissions by decomposing changes in carbon emissions into population , income , technological and energy mix changes .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita", "rank": 87, "score": 121161 }, { "content": "Title: Total Carbon Column Observing Network Content: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network", "rank": 88, "score": 121056 }, { "content": "Title: Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases Content: The Advisory Group on Greenhouse Gases , created in 1985 , was an advisory body for the review of studies into the greenhouse effect . The group was created by the International Council of Scientific Unions , the United Nations Environment Programme , and the World Meteorological Organization to follow up on the recommendations of the International conference of the Assessment of the role of carbon dioxide and of other greenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts , held at Villach , Austria , in October 1985 . The seven-member panel included Swedish meteorologist Bert Bolin and Canadian climatologist Kenneth Hare . The group held its last meeting in 1990 . It was gradually replaced by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Advisory_Group_on_Greenhouse_Gases", "rank": 89, "score": 120668 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon_rift", "rank": 90, "score": 120511 }, { "content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "350.org", "rank": 91, "score": 120472 }, { "content": "Title: ACEA agreement Content: The ACEA agreement refers to a voluntary agreement between the European Automobile Manufacturers Association ( ACEA ) and the European Commission to limit the amount of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) emitted by passenger cars sold in Europe . With 18 million cars sold each year , Europe is the last major car market in the world . Signed in 1998 , the agreement sought to achieve an average of 140 g/km of CO2 by 2008 for new passenger vehicles sold by the association 's cars in Europe . This target represents a 25 % reduction from the 1995 level of 186 g/km and is equivalent to a fuel economy of 5.8 L/100 km or 5.25 L/100 km for petrol and diesel engines respectively . However , the average for the whole car market for 2008 was 153.7 g/km , so the target has not been achieved . Besides the agreement with ACEA , the European Commission also closed agreements with the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association ( JAMA ) and Korea Automobile Manufacturers Association ( KAMA ) . However , for the latter two the target date is 2009 instead of 2008 and as ACEA accounts for 86.4 % of car sales in Europe , the impact of the latter two is much smaller . The ultimate EU target to which these agreements are to contribute , is to reach an average CO2 emission ( as measured according to Commission Directive 93/116/EC ) of 130 g/km for all new passenger cars by 2015 . The European Commission announced in late 2006 that it is working on a proposal for legally binding measures and limits . In February 2007 , the Commission acknowledged the failure of the voluntary agreement . Following this , a proposal of regulation was introduced by the Commission on 19 December 2007 .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "ACEA_agreement", "rank": 92, "score": 120438 }, { "content": "Title: CarboNZero programme Content: The carboNZero programme and CEMARS programme are the world 's first internationally accredited greenhouse gas ( GHG ) certification schemes under ISO 14065 . They provide tools for organisations , products , services and events to measure and reduce their greenhouse gas emissions ( otherwise known as carbon footprint ) , and optionally offset it . The programmes are owned and operated by Enviro-Mark Solutions Limited , a wholly owned subsidiary of Landcare Research ( 100 % NZ government-owned ) .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "CarboNZero_programme", "rank": 93, "score": 120411 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide sensor Content: A carbon dioxide sensor or CO2 sensor is an instrument for the measurement of carbon dioxide gas . The most common principles for CO2 sensors are infrared gas sensors ( NDIR ) and chemical gas sensors . Measuring carbon dioxide is important in monitoring indoor air quality , the function of the lungs in the form of a capnograph device , and many industrial processes .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_sensor", "rank": 94, "score": 120225 }, { "content": "Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Climate_sensitivity", "rank": 95, "score": 120125 }, { "content": "Title: Recycled fuel Content: Fuel made of residues as CO2 produced by using a primary fuel . For example , CO2 pollution in the atmosphere , produced by petrol burning or other sources , can be extracted to produce fuel through an artificial photosynthesis based in nanotechnology , which helps to mitigate pollution , climate change and energy issues .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Recycled_fuel", "rank": 96, "score": 119953 }, { "content": "Title: Biosequestration Content: Biosequestration is the capture and storage of the atmospheric greenhouse gas carbon dioxide by biological processes . This may be by increased photosynthesis ( through practices such as reforestation / preventing deforestation and genetic engineering ) ; by enhanced soil carbon trapping in agriculture ; or by the use of algal bio sequestration ( see algae bioreactor ) to absorb the carbon dioxide emissions from coal , petroleum ( oil ) or natural gas-fired electricity generation . Biosequestration as a natural process has occurred in the past , and was responsible for the formation of the extensive coal and oil deposits which are now being burned . It is a key policy concept in the climate change mitigation debate . It does not generally refer to the sequestering of carbon dioxide in oceans ( see carbon sequestration and ocean acidification ) or rock formations , depleted oil or gas reservoirs ( see oil depletion and peak oil ) , deep saline aquifers , or deep coal seams ( see coal mining ) ( for all see geosequestration ) or through the use of industrial chemical carbon dioxide scrubbing .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Biosequestration", "rank": 97, "score": 119899 }, { "content": "Title: GHG footprint Content: The GHG footprint , or greenhouse gas footprint , refers to the amount of GHG that are emitted during the creation of products or services . It is more comprehensive than the commonly used carbon footprint , which measures only carbon dioxide , one of many greenhouse gases . The GHG footprint differs from the ecological footprint in that the former is expressed in units of GHG warming potential ( GGWP ) and is generated by products or services , whereas the latter is expressed in units of land area and is generated by whole societies .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "GHG_footprint", "rank": 98, "score": 119721 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas removal Content: Greenhouse gas removal projects are a type of climate engineering that seek to remove greenhouse gases from the atmosphere , and thus they tackle the root cause of global warming . These techniques either directly remove greenhouse gases , or alternatively seek to influence natural processes to remove greenhouse gases indirectly . The discipline overlaps with carbon capture and storage and carbon sequestration , and some projects listed may not be considered to be geoengineering by all commentators , instead being described as mitigation .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_removal", "rank": 99, "score": 119432 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon monoxide Content: Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless , and tasteless gas that is slightly less dense than air . It is toxic to hemoglobic animals ( both invertebrate and vertebrate , including humans ) when encountered in concentrations above about 35 ppm , although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities , and is thought to have some normal biological functions . In the atmosphere , it is spatially variable and short lived , having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone . Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom , connected by a triple bond that consists of two covalent bonds as well as one dative covalent bond . It is the simplest oxocarbon and is isoelectronic with the cyanide anion , the nitrosonium cation and molecular nitrogen . In coordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl .", "qid": "3119", "docid": "Carbon_monoxide", "rank": 100, "score": 119216 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Cloud cover Content: Cloud cover ( also known as cloudiness , cloudage or cloud amount ) refers to the fraction of the sky obscured by clouds when observed from a particular location . Okta is the usual unit of measurement of the cloud cover . The cloud cover is correlated to the sunshine duration as the least cloudy locales are the sunniest ones while the cloudiest areas are the least sunny places . The global cloud cover averages around 0.68 when analysing clouds with optical depth larger than 0.1 . This value is lower when considering clouds with an optical depth larger than 2 ( 0.56 ) and higher when counting subvisible cirrus clouds .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloud_cover", "rank": 1, "score": 102718 }, { "content": "Title: Seattle Cloud Cover Content: Seattle Cloud Cover is an outdoor glass bridge and sculpture by American artist Teresita Fernández , installed in Olympic Sculpture Park in Seattle , Washington , in the United States . The bridge , which displays images of the `` changing sky discovered in nature and art '' , was approved in 2004 and completed in 2006 . The project marks Fernandez 's first permanent publicly sited work . Seattle Cloud Cover is made of laminated glass with a `` photographic design interlayer '' . It measures approximately 9 ft , 6 in x 200 ft x 6 ft , 3 in . The work was financed by the Olympic Sculpture Park Art Acquisition Fund in honor of the Seattle Art Museum 's 75th anniversary .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Seattle_Cloud_Cover", "rank": 2, "score": 90556 }, { "content": "Title: Deductive-nomological model Content: The deductive-nomological model ( DN model ) , also known as Hempel 's model , the Hempel -- Oppenheim model , the Popper -- Hempel model , or the Covering Law Model , is a formal view of scientifically answering questions asking , `` Why ... ? '' . The DN model poses scientific explanation as a deductive structure -- that is , one where truth of its premises entails truth of its conclusion -- hinged on accurate prediction or postdiction of the phenomenon to be explained . Because of problems concerning humans ' ability to define , discover , and know causality , it was omitted in initial formulations of the DN model . Causality was thought to be incidentally approximated by realistic selection of premises that derive the phenomenon of interest from observed starting conditions plus general laws . Still , DN model formally permitted causally irrelevant factors . Also , derivability from observations and laws sometimes yielded absurd answers . Upon the fall of logical empiricism 's in the 1960s , the DN model was widely seen as a flawed or greatly incomplete model of scientific explanation . Nonetheless , it remained an idealized version of scientific explanation , and one that was rather accurate when applied to modern physics . In the early 1980s , revision to DN model emphasized maximal specificity for relevance of the conditions and axioms stated . Together with Hempel 's inductive-statistical model , the DN model forms scientific explanation 's covering law model , which is also termed , from critical angle , subsumption theory .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Deductive-nomological_model", "rank": 3, "score": 89093 }, { "content": "Title: The Cloud Mystery Content: The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish . This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "The_Cloud_Mystery", "rank": 4, "score": 88694 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloud_feedback", "rank": 5, "score": 88050 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud fraction Content: Cloud fraction is the percentage of each pixel in satellite imagery or each gridbox in a weather or climate model that is covered with clouds . A cloud fraction of one means the pixel is completely covered with clouds , while a cloud fraction of zero represents a totally cloud free pixel . Cloud fraction is important for the modeling of downward radiation .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloud_fraction", "rank": 6, "score": 85922 }, { "content": "Title: Accuracy paradox Content: The accuracy paradox for predictive analytics states that predictive models with a given level of accuracy may have greater predictive power than models with higher accuracy . It may be better to avoid the accuracy metric in favor of other metrics such as precision and recall . Accuracy is often the starting point for analyzing the quality of a predictive model , as well as an obvious criterion for prediction . Accuracy measures the ratio of correct predictions to the total number of cases evaluated . It may seem obvious that the ratio of correct predictions to cases should be a key metric . A predictive model may have high accuracy , but be useless . In an example predictive model for an insurance fraud application , all cases that are predicted as high-risk by the model will be investigated . To evaluate the performance of the model , the insurance company has created a sample data set of 10,000 claims . All 10,000 cases in the validation sample have been carefully checked and it is known which cases are fraudulent . To analyze the quality of the model , the insurance uses the table of confusion . The definition of accuracy , the table of confusion for model M1Fraud , and the calculation of accuracy for model M1Fraud is shown below . where TN is the number of true negative cases FP is the number of false positive cases FN is the number of false negative cases TP is the number of true positive cases Formula 1 : Definition of Accuracy Table 1 : Table of Confusion for Fraud Model M1Fraud . Formula 2 : Accuracy for model M1Fraud With an accuracy of 98.0 % model M1Fraud appears to perform fairly well . The paradox lies in the fact that accuracy can be easily improved to 98.5 % by always predicting `` no fraud '' . The table of confusion and the accuracy for this trivial `` always predict negative '' model M2Fraud and the accuracy of this model are shown below . Table 2 : Table of Confusion for Fraud Model M2Fraud . Formula 3 : Accuracy for model M2Fraud Model M2Fraudreduces the rate of inaccurate predictions from 2 % to 1.5 % . This is an apparent improvement of 25 % . The new model M2Fraud shows fewer incorrect predictions and markedly improved accuracy , as compared to the original model M1Fraud , but is obviously useless . The alternative model M2Fraud does not offer any value to the company for preventing fraud . The less accurate model is more useful than the more accurate model . Model improvements should not be measured in terms of accuracy gains . It may be going too far to say that accuracy is irrelevant , but caution is advised when using accuracy in the evaluation of predictive models .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Accuracy_paradox", "rank": 7, "score": 82399 }, { "content": "Title: Quasispecies model Content: The quasispecies model is a description of the process of the Darwinian evolution of certain self-replicating entities within the framework of physical chemistry . Put simply , a quasispecies is a large group or cloud of related genotypes that exist in an environment of high mutation rate , where a large fraction of offspring are expected to contain one or more mutations relative to the parent . This is in contrast to a species , which from an evolutionary perspective is a more-or-less stable single genotype , most of the offspring of which will be genetically accurate copies . It is useful mainly in providing a qualitative understanding of the evolutionary processes of self-replicating macromolecules such as RNA or DNA or simple asexual organisms such as bacteria or viruses ( see also viral quasispecies ) , and is helpful in explaining something of the early stages of the origin of life . Quantitative predictions based on this model are difficult because the parameters that serve as its input are impossible to obtain from actual biological systems . The quasispecies model was put forward by Manfred Eigen and Peter Schuster based on initial work done by Eigen .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Quasispecies_model", "rank": 8, "score": 79942 }, { "content": "Title: CloudSim Content: CloudSim is a framework for modeling and simulation of cloud computing infrastructures and services . Originally built primarily at the Cloud Computing and Distributed Systems ( CLOUDS ) Laboratory , The University of Melbourne , Australia , CloudSim has become one of the most popular open source cloud simulators in the research and academia . CloudSim is completely written in Java .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "CloudSim", "rank": 9, "score": 78926 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric model Content: An atmospheric model is a mathematical model constructed around the full set of primitive dynamical equations which govern atmospheric motions . It can supplement these equations with parameterizations for turbulent diffusion , radiation , moist processes ( clouds and precipitation ) , heat exchange , soil , vegetation , surface water , the kinematic effects of terrain , and convection . Most atmospheric models are numerical , i.e. they discretize equations of motion . They can predict microscale phenomena such as tornadoes and boundary layer eddies , sub-microscale turbulent flow over buildings , as well as synoptic and global flows . The horizontal domain of a model is either global , covering the entire Earth , or regional ( limited-area ) , covering only part of the Earth . The different types of models run are thermotropic , barotropic , hydrostatic , and nonhydrostatic . Some of the model types make assumptions about the atmosphere which lengthens the time steps used and increases computational speed . Forecasts are computed using mathematical equations for the physics and dynamics of the atmosphere . These equations are nonlinear and are impossible to solve exactly . Therefore , numerical methods obtain approximate solutions . Different models use different solution methods . Global models often use spectral methods for the horizontal dimensions and finite-difference methods for the vertical dimension , while regional models usually use finite-difference methods in all three dimensions . For specific locations , model output statistics use climate information , output from numerical weather prediction , and current surface weather observations to develop statistical relationships which account for model bias and resolution issues .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Atmospheric_model", "rank": 10, "score": 78669 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud forest Content: A cloud forest , also called a fog forest , is a generally tropical or subtropical , evergreen , montane , moist forest characterized by a persistent , frequent or seasonal low-level cloud cover , usually at the canopy level , formally described in the International Cloud Atlas ( 2017 ) as silvagenitus . Cloud forests often exhibit an abundance of mosses covering the ground and vegetation , in which case they are also referred to as mossy forests . Mossy forests usually develop on the saddles of mountains , where moisture introduced by settling clouds is more effectively retained .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloud_forest", "rank": 11, "score": 78648 }, { "content": "Title: Earthquake cloud Content: Earthquake clouds are clouds claimed to be signs of imminent earthquakes . They have been described in antiquity : In chapter 32 of his work Brihat Samhita , Indian scholar Varahamihira ( 505 -- 587 ) discussed a number of signs warning of earthquakes , including extraordinary clouds occurring a week before the earthquake . In modern times , a few scientists claim to have observed clouds associated with a seismic event , sometimes more than 50 days in advance of the earthquake . Some have even claimed to accurately predict earthquake occurrences by observing clouds . However , these claims have very little support in the scientific community .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Earthquake_cloud", "rank": 12, "score": 78396 }, { "content": "Title: Cover model Content: A cover model is a male or female whose photograph appears on the front cover of a magazine . The cover model is generally a fashion model , celebrity , or contest winner . Generally , cover models are depicted solitarily ; however , on occasion magazines will present a front cover with multiple cover models . Female cover models are often referred to as cover girls . Cover models generally take part in a fashion or portrait photography photo shoot for the magazine . When a magazine depicts a candid or stock image for the main cover image , the talent is referred to as the magazine `` cover '' rather than `` cover model '' or `` cover girl '' .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cover_model", "rank": 13, "score": 76943 }, { "content": "Title: Clouds (Joni Mitchell album) Content: Clouds is the second studio album by Canadian singer-songwriter Joni Mitchell , released on May 1 , 1969 , by Reprise Records . After releasing her debut album to considerable exposure , Mitchell recorded the album at A&M Studios in Hollywood . She produced most of the album and painted a self-portrait for its cover artwork . Clouds has subtle , unconventional harmonies and songs about lovers , among other themes . Clouds charted at number 22 in Canada and number 31 in the United States . It has been certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America , for shipments of 500,000 copies in the US . Clouds was generally well received by music critics .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Clouds_(Joni_Mitchell_album)", "rank": 14, "score": 76808 }, { "content": "Title: Romonet Content: Romonet is a UK-based , privately held company , headquartered in Croydon , UK that provides cloud-based solutions and services to data centers and associated technology . Romonet solves energy , water , capacity and financial challenges in data centers . It claims it makes the first software that accurately predicts total cost of ownership ( TCO ) and properly model energy flow . They began by creating a term called ` data center predictive modeling ' ( DCPM ) that `` Rather than collecting real-time data , they predict data center configuration and architecture . '' Romonet Inc was launched in 2011 to bring the product to the US market .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Romonet", "rank": 15, "score": 76507 }, { "content": "Title: Tropical cyclone forecast model Content: A tropical cyclone forecast model is a computer program that uses meteorological data to forecast aspects of the future state of tropical cyclones . There are three types of models : statistical , dynamical , or combined statistical-dynamic . Dynamical models utilize powerful supercomputers with sophisticated mathematical modeling software and meteorological data to calculate future weather conditions . Statistical models forecast the evolution of a tropical cyclone in a simpler manner , by extrapolating from historical datasets , and thus can be run quickly on platforms such as personal computers . Statistical-dynamical models use aspects of both types of forecasting . Four primary types of forecasts exist for tropical cyclones : track , intensity , storm surge , and rainfall . Dynamical models were not developed until the 1970s and the 1980s , with earlier efforts focused on the storm surge problem . Track models did not show forecast skill when compared to statistical models until the 1980s . Statistical-dynamical models were used from the 1970s into the 1990s . Early models use data from previous model runs while late models produce output after the official hurricane forecast has been sent . The use of consensus , ensemble , and superensemble forecasts lowers errors more than any individual forecast model . Both consensus and superensemble forecasts can use the guidance of global and regional models runs to improve the performance more than any of their respective components . Techniques used at the Joint Typhoon Warning Center indicate that superensemble forecasts are a very powerful tool for track forecasting .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Tropical_cyclone_forecast_model", "rank": 16, "score": 75565 }, { "content": "Title: Clouds House Content: Clouds House , also known simply as Clouds , is a Grade II * listed building at East Knoyle in Wiltshire , England . Designed by Arts and Crafts architect Philip Webb for Percy Wyndham and his wife Madeline , it was first completed in 1886 , but an 1889 fire necessitated its rebuilding , finished in 1891 . Clouds was Webb 's grandest design . It became a centre of social activity for the intellectual group known as The Souls , and was frequented by artists such as Edward Burne-Jones and politicians like Arthur Balfour . Since 1983 the house has been a treatment centre for drug dependence and alcohol dependence , under the name Clouds House . In 2007 the Clouds House treatment centre merged with two other organisations to form the charity Action on Addiction , which is headquartered at East Knoyle .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Clouds_House", "rank": 17, "score": 73829 }, { "content": "Title: Point cloud Content: A point cloud is a set of data points in some coordinate system . In a three-dimensional coordinate system , these points are usually defined by X , Y , and Z coordinates , and often are intended to represent the external surface of an object . Point clouds may be created by 3D scanners . These devices measure a large number of points on an object 's surface , and often output a point cloud as a data file . The point cloud represents the set of points that the device has measured . As the output of 3D scanning processes , point clouds are used for many purposes , including to create 3D CAD models for manufactured parts , metrology/quality inspection , and a multitude of visualization , animation , rendering and mass customization applications . While point clouds can be directly rendered and inspected , usually point clouds themselves are generally not directly usable in most 3D applications , and therefore are usually converted to polygon mesh or triangle mesh models , NURBS surface models , or CAD models through a process commonly referred to as surface reconstruction . There are many techniques for converting a point cloud to a 3D surface . Some approaches , like Delaunay triangulation , alpha shapes , and ball pivoting , build a network of triangles over the existing vertices of the point cloud , while other approaches convert the point cloud into a volumetric distance field and reconstruct the implicit surface so defined through a marching cubes algorithm . One application in which point clouds are directly usable is industrial metrology or inspection using industrial computed tomography . The point cloud of a manufactured part can be aligned to a CAD model ( or even another point cloud ) , and compared to check for differences . These differences can be displayed as color maps that give a visual indicator of the deviation between the manufactured part and the CAD model . Geometric dimensions and tolerances can also be extracted directly from the point cloud . Point clouds can also be used to represent volumetric data used for example in medical imaging . Using point clouds multi-sampling and data compression are achieved . In geographic information systems , point clouds are one of the sources used to make digital elevation model of the terrain . They are also used to generate 3D models of urban environments .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Point_cloud", "rank": 18, "score": 73311 }, { "content": "Title: Weather forecasting Content: Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a given location . Human beings have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia , and formally since the nineteenth century . Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about the current state of the atmosphere at a given place and using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to project how the atmosphere will change . Once an all-human endeavor based mainly upon changes in barometric pressure , current weather conditions , and sky condition , weather forecasting now relies on computer-based models that take many atmospheric factors into account . Human input is still required to pick the best possible forecast model to base the forecast upon , which involves pattern recognition skills , teleconnections , knowledge of model performance , and knowledge of model biases . The inaccuracy of forecasting is due to the chaotic nature of the atmosphere , the massive computational power required to solve the equations that describe the atmosphere , the error involved in measuring the initial conditions , and an incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes . Hence , forecasts become less accurate as the difference between current time and the time for which the forecast is being made ( the range of the forecast ) increases . The use of ensembles and model consensus help narrow the error and pick the most likely outcome . There are a variety of end uses to weather forecasts . Weather warnings are important forecasts because they are used to protect life and property . Forecasts based on temperature and precipitation are important to agriculture , and therefore to traders within commodity markets . Temperature forecasts are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming days . On an everyday basis , people use weather forecasts to determine what to wear on a given day . Since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by heavy rain , snow and wind chill , forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events , and to plan ahead and survive them . In 2014 , the US spent $ 5.1 billion on weather forecasting .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Weather_forecasting", "rank": 19, "score": 73100 }, { "content": "Title: Stearman Cloudboy Content: __ NOTOC __ The Stearman Model 6 Cloudboy was a 1930s American training biplane designed and built by the Stearman Aircraft Company of Wichita , Kansas .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Stearman_Cloudboy", "rank": 20, "score": 72678 }, { "content": "Title: Model School Content: Model School can refer to : Schools Govt . Model Higher Secondary School , a school in Thiruvananthapuram , India Model Higher Secondary School , TT Nagar , Bhopal Model School , a historic place in St. Cloud , Minnesota Model High School ( disambiguation ) Staatsmodelschool , Pretoria , 1893 One of the names of the `` Escuela Moderna '' movement ( Modern School in the United States ) National Association of University-Model Schools American Indian Model Schools TV series Mallikoulu , a Finnish 2005 television series ( Model School in English )", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Model_School", "rank": 21, "score": 72674 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud on title Content: In United States property law , cloud on title or title defect refers to any irregularity in the chain of title of property ( usually real property ) that would give a reasonable person pause before accepting a conveyance of title . According to Investopedia , a cloud can be defined as : `` Any document , claim , unreleased lien or encumbrance that might invalidate or impair the title to real property or make the title doubtful . Clouds on title are usually discovered during a title search . '' Clouded title can thus be contrasted with a clear title , which indicates that a property is unencumbered . A cloud on title may reduces the value and marketability of property because any prospective buyer aware of the cloud will know that they are buying the risk the grantor may not be able to convey good title . Often , the discovery of a cloud on title will provide the grantee a reason to back out of a contract for the sale of real property . Some documents that affect title may be considered clouds , but nonetheless are unlikely to affect marketability or resale , such as with covenants , conditions and restrictions in a homeowner 's association or subdivision . Examples of clouds on title include a property 's address being misspelled in a deed conveying title , a mortgage lien whose repayment has n't been officially recorded , a deed which has been signed but has n't been properly recorded , an easement that has not been properly recorded , unpaid property taxes , a failure to transfer property rights ( such as mineral rights ) to a former owner of the property , and a pending lawsuit before a court of law over ownership to the property . The usual remedy for a cloud on title is to file a civil action to quiet title which resolves the outstanding or unresolved cloud .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloud_on_title", "rank": 22, "score": 72467 }, { "content": "Title: Crypto cloud computing Content: Crypto cloud computing is a new secure cloud computing architecture . Cloud computing is a large-scale distributed computing model that is driven by economies of scale . It integrates a set of abstracted , virtualized , dynamically-scalable , and managed resources , such as computing power , storage , platforms , and services . External users can access to resources over the Internet using terminals , especially mobile terminals . Cloud architectures are developed in on-demand fashion . That is , the resources are dynamically assigned to a user according to his request , and relinquished after the job is done . Cloud computing is a pool of services including the hardware and operating system infrastructure , the formation of systems management software , system and platform , and virtualization components . According to the level of its resources , cloud computing services can be divided into three categories , Infrastructure as a service ( IaaS ) , Platform as a service ( PaaS ) , and Software as a service ( SaaS ) .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Crypto_cloud_computing", "rank": 23, "score": 72042 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud (music) Content: In music a cloud is a sound mass consisting of statistical clouds of microsounds and characterized first by the set of elements used in the texture , secondly density , including rhythmic and pitch density . Clouds may include ambiguity of rhythmic foreground and background or rhythmic hierarchy . Examples include : Iannis Xenakis 's Concret PH ( 1958 ) , Bohor I ( 1962 ) , Persepolis ( 1971 ) , and many of his pieces for traditional instruments György Ligeti 's Clocks and Clouds ( 1972 -- 3 ) La Monte Young 's The Well Tuned Piano Bernard Parmegiani 's De natura sonorum ( 1975 ) Clouds are created and used often in granular synthesis . Musical clouds exist on the `` meso '' or formal time scale . Clouds allow for the interpentration of sound masses first described by Edgard Varèse including smooth mutation ( through crossfade ) , disintegration , and coalescence . Curtis Roads suggests a taxonomy of cloud morphology based on atmospheric clouds : cumulus , stratocumulus , stratus , nimbostratus , and cirrus ; as well as nebulae : dark or glowing , amorphus or ring-shaped , and constantly evolving .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloud_(music)", "rank": 24, "score": 71970 }, { "content": "Title: Okta Content: In meteorology , an okta is a unit of measurement used to describe the amount of cloud cover at any given location such as a weather station . Sky conditions are estimated in terms of how many eighths of the sky are covered in cloud , ranging from 0 oktas ( completely clear sky ) through to 8 oktas ( completely overcast ) . In addition , in the SYNOP code there is an extra cloud cover indicator ' 9 ' indicating that the sky is totally obscured ( i.e. hidden from view ) , usually due to dense fog or heavy snow . When used in weather charts , okta measurements are shown by means of graphic symbols ( rather than numerals ) contained within weather circles , to which are attached further symbols indicating other measured data such as wind speed and wind direction . Although relatively straightforward to measure ( visually , for instance , by using a mirror ) , oktas only estimate cloud cover in terms of the area of the sky covered by clouds . They do not account for cloud type or thickness , and this limits their use for estimating cloud albedo or surface solar radiation receipt . Cloud oktas can also be measured using satellite imagery from geostationary satellites equipped with high-resolution image sensors such as Himawari-8 . Similar to traditional approaches , satellite images do not account for cloud composition . Oktas are often referenced in aviation weather forecasts and low level forecasts : SKC = sky clear ; FEW = 1 to 2 oktas ; SCT ( Scattered ) = 3 to 4 oktas ; BKN ( Broken ) = 5 to 7 oktas ; OVC ( Overcast ) = 8 oktas ; NSC = nil significant cloud ; CAVOK = ceiling and visibility okay .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Okta", "rank": 25, "score": 71488 }, { "content": "Title: Cloudbleed Content: Cloudbleed is a security bug discovered on February 17 , 2017 affecting Cloudflare 's reverse proxies , which caused their edge servers to run past the end of a buffer and return memory that contained private information such as HTTP cookies , authentication tokens , HTTP POST bodies , and other sensitive data . As a result , data from Cloudflare customers was leaked out and went to any other Cloudflare customers that happened to be in the server 's memory on that particular moment . Some of this data was cached by search engines .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloudbleed", "rank": 26, "score": 71464 }, { "content": "Title: Unified Model Content: The Unified Model is a Numerical Weather Prediction and climate modeling software suite originally developed by the United Kingdom Met Office , and now both used and further developed by many weather-forecasting agencies around the world . The Unified Model gets its name because a single model is used across a range of both timescales ( nowcasting to centennial ) and spatial scales ( convective scale to climate system earth modelling ) . The models are grid-point based , rather than wave based , and are run on a variety of supercomputers around the world . The Unified Model atmosphere can be coupled to a number of ocean models . At the Met Office it is used for the main suite of Global Model , North Atlantic and Europe model ( NAE ) and a high-resolution UK model ( UKV ) , in addition to a variety of Crisis Area Models and other models that can be run on demand . Similar Unified Model suites with global and regional domains are used by many other national or military weather agencies around the world for operational forecasting . Data for numerical weather prediction is provided by observations from satellites , from the ground ( both human and from automatic weather stations ) , from buoys at sea , radar , radiosonde weather balloons , wind profilers , commercial aircraft and a background field from previous model runs . The computer model is only adjusted towards the observations using assimilation , rather than forcing the model to accept an observed value that might make the system unstable ( and could be an inaccurate observation ) . The Unified Model software suite is written in Fortran ( originally 77 but now predominantly 90 ) and uses height as the vertical variable . Because most developments of interest are at near to the ground the vertical layers are closer together near the surface .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Unified_Model", "rank": 27, "score": 71415 }, { "content": "Title: Forecast by analogy Content: Forecast by analogy is a forecasting method that assumes that two different kinds of phenomena share the same model of behaviour . For example , one way to predict the sales of a new product is to choose an existing product which `` looks like '' the new product in terms of the expected demand pattern for sales of the product . `` Used with care , an analogy is a form of scientific model that can be used to analyze and explain the behavior of other phenomena . '' According some experts , research has shown that the careful application of analogies improves the accuracy of the forecast .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Forecast_by_analogy", "rank": 28, "score": 71393 }, { "content": "Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics", "rank": 29, "score": 71203 }, { "content": "Title: Anthropogenic cloud Content: An anthropogenic or artificial cloud , is a cloud induced by human activity . Although generally clouds covering the sky have only a natural origin , from the beginning of the Industrial Revolution , the use of fossil fuels and water vapor and other gases emitted by nuclear , thermal and geothermal power plants yield significant alterations of the local weather conditions . These new atmospheric conditions can thus enhance cloud formation . Homogenitus is the term used to designate the origin of clouds produced by human activities . Various methods have been proposed for creating and utilizing this weather phenomenon . Experiments have also been carried out for various studies . For example , Russian scientists have been studying artificial clouds for more than 50 years . But by far the greatest number of anthropogenic clouds are airplane contrails ( condensation trails ) and rocket trails .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Anthropogenic_cloud", "rank": 30, "score": 71167 }, { "content": "Title: Numerical weather prediction Content: Numerical weather prediction ( NWP ) uses mathematical models of the atmosphere and oceans to predict the weather based on current weather conditions . Though first attempted in the 1920s , it was not until the advent of computer simulation in the 1950s that numerical weather predictions produced realistic results . A number of global and regional forecast models are run in different countries worldwide , using current weather observations relayed from radiosondes , weather satellites and other observing systems as inputs . Mathematical models based on the same physical principles can be used to generate either short-term weather forecasts or longer-term climate predictions ; the latter are widely applied for understanding and projecting climate change . The improvements made to regional models have allowed for significant improvements in tropical cyclone track and air quality forecasts ; however , atmospheric models perform poorly at handling processes that occur in a relatively constricted area , such as wildfires . Manipulating the vast datasets and performing the complex calculations necessary to modern numerical weather prediction requires some of the most powerful supercomputers in the world . Even with the increasing power of supercomputers , the forecast skill of numerical weather models extends to only about six days . Factors affecting the accuracy of numerical predictions include the density and quality of observations used as input to the forecasts , along with deficiencies in the numerical models themselves . Post-processing techniques such as model output statistics ( MOS ) have been developed to improve the handling of errors in numerical predictions . A more fundamental problem lies in the chaotic nature of the partial differential equations that govern the atmosphere . It is impossible to solve these equations exactly , and small errors grow with time ( doubling about every five days ) . Present understanding is that this chaotic behavior limits accurate forecasts to about 14 days even with perfectly accurate input data and a flawless model . In addition , the partial differential equations used in the model need to be supplemented with parameterizations for solar radiation , moist processes ( clouds and precipitation ) , heat exchange , soil , vegetation , surface water , and the effects of terrain . In an effort to quantify the large amount of inherent uncertainty remaining in numerical predictions , ensemble forecasts have been used since the 1990s to help gauge the confidence in the forecast , and to obtain useful results farther into the future than otherwise possible . This approach analyzes multiple forecasts created with an individual forecast model or multiple models .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Numerical_weather_prediction", "rank": 31, "score": 71087 }, { "content": "Title: IDEAL model Content: IDEAL ( Integrated Design , Evaluation , and Assessment of Loadings ) is a post-construction water quality model for designing stormwater best management practices ( BMP ) ( see Best management practice for water pollution ) and calculating their effectiveness in removing common stormwater pollutants ( sediments , bacteria , nitrogen and phosphorus ) . The model 's runoff treatment algorithms are process-based by predicting runoff rates and pollutant loads and routing these loadings through BMPs using technologies which have been experimentally validated . Using isothermic relationships along with accepted decay , settling , and infiltration methods , pollutant trapping in BMPs is computed . The developers of the IDEAL model are Bill Barfield ( Regents Professor at Oklahoma State University , Woolpert Inc. ) and John Hayes of Clemson University . Currently , six BMPs can be modeled with IDEAL : sand filters , wet and dry detention basin , bioswales , bioretention cells , and vegetated filter strips . The ability to model engineered devices has recently been developed , but requires trapping efficiency information to be input . Rainwater tanks or cisterns can also be modeled . Currently , hydraulic modeling of closed systems and open channels is simplistic . A recent ( 2003 ) article on the model was presented in Stormwater magazine . This article explains the development of the model and its use in Greenville County as an effort to address NPDES stormwater permit conditions . Another similar article was presented at the 2003 EWRI annual conference . The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) funded a Best Management Prcetice design manual developed in part by Barfield .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "IDEAL_model", "rank": 32, "score": 71027 }, { "content": "Title: Asian brown cloud Content: The Indian Ocean brown cloud or Asian brown cloud is a layer of air pollution that recurrently covers parts of South Asia , namely the northern Indian Ocean , India , and Pakistan . Viewed from satellite photos , the cloud appears as a giant brown stain hanging in the air over much of South Asia and the Indian Ocean every year between January and March , possibly also during earlier and later months . The term was coined in reports from the UNEP Indian Ocean Experiment ( INDOEX ) . The term atmospheric brown cloud is used for a more generic context not specific to the Asian region .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Asian_brown_cloud", "rank": 33, "score": 70875 }, { "content": "Title: Predictive modelling Content: Predictive modeling uses statistics to predict outcomes . Most often the event one wants to predict is in the future , but predictive modelling can be applied to any type of unknown event , regardless of when it occurred . For example , predictive models are often used to detect crimes and identify suspects , after the crime has taken place . In many cases the model is chosen on the basis of detection theory to try to guess the probability of an outcome given a set amount of input data , for example given an email determining how likely that it is spam . Models can use one or more classifiers in trying to determine the probability of a set of data belonging to another set , say spam or ` ham ' . Depending on definitional boundaries , predictive modelling is synonymous with , or largely overlapping with , the field of machine learning , as it is more commonly referred to in academic or research and development contexts . When deployed commercially , predictive modelling is often referred to as predictive analytics .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Predictive_modelling", "rank": 34, "score": 70864 }, { "content": "Title: Fault model Content: A fault model is an engineering model of something that could go wrong in the construction or operation of a piece of equipment . From the model , the designer or user can then predict the consequences of this particular fault . Fault models can be used in almost all branches of engineering .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Fault_model", "rank": 35, "score": 70849 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud atlas Content: A cloud atlas is a pictorial key ( or an atlas ) to the nomenclature of clouds . Early cloud atlases were an important element in the training of meteorologists and in weather forecasting , and the author of a 1923 atlas stated that `` increasing use of the air as a means of transportation will require and lead to a detailed knowledge of all the secrets of cloud building . ''", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloud_atlas", "rank": 36, "score": 70655 }, { "content": "Title: Model risk Content: In finance , model risk is the risk of loss resulting from using insufficiently accurate models to make decisions , originally and frequently in the context of valuing financial securities . However , model risk is more and more prevalent in activities other than financial securities valuation , such as assigning consumer credit scores , real-time probability prediction of fraudulent credit card transactions , and computing the probability of air flight passenger being a terrorist . Rebonato in 2002 considers alternative definitions including : After observing a set of prices for the underlying and hedging instruments , different but identically calibrated models might produce different prices for the same exotic product . Losses will be incurred because of an ` incorrect ' hedging strategy suggested by a model . Rebonato defines model risk as `` the risk of occurrence of a significant difference between the mark-to-model value of a complex and/or illiquid instrument , and the price at which the same instrument is revealed to have traded in the market . ''", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Model_risk", "rank": 37, "score": 70628 }, { "content": "Title: Forecast error Content: In statistics , a forecast error is the difference between the actual or real and the predicted or forecast value of a time series or any other phenomenon of interest . Since the forecast error is derived from the same scale of data , comparisons between the forecast errors of different series can only be made when the series are on the same scale . In simple cases , a forecast is compared with an outcome at a single time-point and a summary of forecast errors is constructed over a collection of such time-points . Here the forecast may be assessed using the difference or using a proportional error . By convention , the error is defined using the value of the outcome minus the value of the forecast . In other cases , a forecast may consist of predicted values over a number of lead-times ; in this case an assessment of forecast error may need to consider more general ways of assessing the match between the time-profiles of the forecast and the outcome . If a main application of the forecast is to predict when certain thresholds will be crossed , one possible way of assessing the forecast is to use the timing-error -- the difference in time between when the outcome crosses the threshold and when the forecast does so . When there is interest in the maximum value being reached , assessment of forecasts can be done using any of : the difference of times of the peaks ; the difference in the peak values in the forecast and outcome ; the difference between the peak value of the outcome and the value forecast for that time point . Forecast error can be a calendar forecast error or a cross-sectional forecast error , when we want to summarize the forecast error over a group of units . If we observe the average forecast error for a time-series of forecasts for the same product or phenomenon , then we call this a calendar forecast error or time-series forecast error . If we observe this for multiple products for the same period , then this is a cross-sectional performance error . Reference class forecasting has been developed to reduce forecast error . Combining forecasts has also been shown to reduce forecast error .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Forecast_error", "rank": 38, "score": 70534 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental niche modelling Content: Environmental niche modelling , alternatively known as species distribution modelling , ( ecological ) niche modelling , predictive habitat distribution modelling , and climate envelope modelling refers to the process of using computer algorithms to predict the distribution of species in geographic space on the basis of a mathematical representation of their known distribution in environmental space ( = realized ecological niche ) . The environment is in most cases represented by climate data ( such as temperature , and precipitation ) , but other variables such as soil type , water depth , and land cover can also be used . These models allow for interpolating between a limited number of species occurrence and they are used in several research areas in conservation biology , ecology and evolution . The extent to which such modelled data reflect real-world species distributions will depend on a number of factors , including the nature , complexity , and accuracy of the models used and the quality of the available environmental data layers ; the availability of sufficient and reliable species distribution data as model input ; and the influence of various factors such as barriers to dispersal , geologic history , or biotic interactions , that increase the difference between the realized niche and the fundamental niche . Environmental niche modelling may be considered a part of the discipline of biodiversity informatics .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Environmental_niche_modelling", "rank": 39, "score": 70372 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud computing Content: Cloud computing is a type of Internet-based computing that provides shared computer processing resources and data to computers and other devices on demand . It is a model for enabling ubiquitous , on-demand access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources ( e.g. , computer networks , servers , storage , applications and services ) , which can be rapidly provisioned and released with minimal management effort . Cloud computing and storage solutions provide users and enterprises with various capabilities to store and process their data in either privately owned , or third-party data centers that may be located far from the user -- ranging in distance from across a city to across the world . Cloud computing relies on sharing of resources to achieve coherence and economy of scale , similar to a utility ( like the electricity grid ) over an electricity network . Advocates claim that cloud computing allows companies to avoid up-front infrastructure costs ( e.g. , purchasing servers ) . As well , it enables organizations to focus on their core businesses instead of spending time and money on computer infrastructure . Proponents also claim that cloud computing allows enterprises to get their applications up and running faster , with improved manageability and less maintenance , and enables information technology ( IT ) teams to more rapidly adjust resources to meet fluctuating and unpredictable business demand . Cloud providers typically use a `` pay as you go '' model . This will lead to unexpectedly high charges if administrators do not adapt to the cloud pricing model . In 2009 , the availability of high-capacity networks , low-cost computers and storage devices as well as the widespread adoption of hardware virtualization , service-oriented architecture , and autonomic and utility computing led to a growth in cloud computing . Companies can scale up as computing needs increase and then scale down again as demands decrease . In 2013 , it was reported that cloud computing had become a highly demanded service or utility due to the advantages of high computing power , cheap cost of services , high performance , scalability , accessibility as well as availability . Some cloud vendors are experiencing growth rates of 50 % per year , but being still in a stage of infancy , it has pitfalls that need to be addressed to make cloud computing services more reliable and user friendly .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloud_computing", "rank": 40, "score": 70330 }, { "content": "Title: Visual Cloud Content: Visual Cloud is the implementation of visual computing applications that rely on cloud computing architectures , cloud-based graphics processing , and ubiquitous broadband connectivity between connected devices , network edge devices and cloud data centers . It is a model for providing visual computing services to consumers and business users , while allowing service providers to realize the general benefits of cloud computing , such as low cost , elastic scalability , and high availability while providing optimized infrastructure for visual computing application requirements .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Visual_Cloud", "rank": 41, "score": 70294 }, { "content": "Title: Station model Content: In meteorology , station models are symbolic illustrations showing the weather occurring at a given reporting station . Meteorologists created the station model to fit a number of weather elements into a small space on weather maps . This allows map users to analyze patterns in atmospheric pressure , temperature , wind speed & direction , cloud cover , precipitation , and other parameters . The most common station plots depict surface weather observations although upper air plots at various mandatory levels are also frequently depicted . Station model plots use an internationally accepted coding convention that has changed little since August 1 , 1941 . Elements in the plot show the key weather elements , including temperature , dew point , wind , cloud cover , air pressure , pressure tendency , and precipitation .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Station_model", "rank": 42, "score": 70109 }, { "content": "Title: Nuage articulé Content: Nuage articulé ( Articulated cloud ) is a surrealist object in the form of an assemblage by Wolfgang Paalen produced in 1937 . The object consists of an umbrella covered with natural sponges and was one of the most significant objects at the Exposition Internationale du Surréalisme , which was held in Paris at the Wildenstein Gallery in 1938 . It was also exhibited in numerous later exhibitions , such as Amsterdam ( 1938 ) , Cambridge ( 1938 ) and Mexico City ( 1940 ) . Many photographers have captured the item in its context , Man Ray , Kurt Husnik , Josef Breitenbach and Denise Bellon .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Nuage_articulé", "rank": 43, "score": 70105 }, { "content": "Title: Data center predictive modeling Content: Data center predictive modeling ( DCPM ) is the ability to forecast the performance of a data center into the future , be it its energy use , energy efficiency , performance of the myriad pieces of equipment , even cost . An important part of forecasting data center performance is the use of computational fluid dynamics ( CFD ) to quantify the airflow and temperatures that would occur if physical changes were made to the data center space . The use of CFD moves DCPM from a probabilistic type of forecasting to a physics-based one . The term DCPM has been in use since June 2011 and was adopted by Romonet to differentiate DCPM from data center infrastructure management ( DCIM ) which only tracks the present performance of the elements of a data center . Another example of the same technology was presented in Russia by Institute of Applied Mathematical Research , Karelian Research Centre , Russian Academy of Sciences . The technology is developed since 2011 under support of FASIE and RFBR .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Data_center_predictive_modeling", "rank": 44, "score": 70030 }, { "content": "Title: Tropical cyclone track forecasting Content: Tropical cyclone track forecasting involves predicting where a tropical cyclone is going to track over the next five days , every 6 to 12 hours . The history of tropical cyclone track forecasting has evolved from a single-station approach to a comprehensive approach which uses a variety of meteorological tools and methods to make predictions . The weather of a particular location can show signs of the approaching tropical cyclone , such as increasing swell , increasing cloudiness , falling barometric pressure , increasing tides , squalls , and heavy rainfall . The forces that affect tropical cyclone steering are the higher-latitude westerlies , the subtropical ridge , and the beta effect caused by changes of the coriolis force within fluids such as the atmosphere . Accurate track predictions depend on determining the position and strength of high - and low-pressure areas , and predicting how those areas will migrate during the life of a tropical system . Computer forecast models are used to help determine this motion as far out as five to seven days in the future .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Tropical_cyclone_track_forecasting", "rank": 45, "score": 70029 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud-based design and manufacturing Content: Cloud-based design and manufacturing ( CBDM ) refers to a service-oriented networked product development model in which service consumers are able to configure products or services and reconfigure manufacturing systems through Infrastructure-as-a-Service ( IaaS ) , Platform-as-a-Service ( PaaS ) , Hardware-as-a-Service ( HaaS ) , and Software-as-a-Service ( SaaS ) . Adapted from the original cloud computing paradigm and introduced into the realm of computer-aided product development , Cloud-Based Design and Manufacturing is gaining significant momentum and attention from both academia and industry . Cloud-based design and manufacturing includes two aspects : cloud-based design and cloud-based manufacturing . Another related concept is cloud manufacturing that is more general and popular . Cloud-Based Design ( CBD ) refers to a networked design model that leverages cloud computing , service-oriented architecture ( SOA ) , Web 2.0 ( e.g. , social network sites ) , and semantic web technologies to support cloud-based engineering design services in distributed and collaborative environments . Cloud-Based Manufacturing ( CBM ) refers to a networked manufacturing model that exploits on-demand access to a shared collection of diversified and distributed manufacturing resources to form temporary , reconfigurable production lines which enhance efficiency , reduce product lifecycle costs , and allow for optimal resource allocation in response to variable-demand customer generated tasking . The enabling technologies for Cloud-Based Design and Manufacturing include cloud computing , Web 2.0 , Internet of Things ( IoT ) , and service-oriented architecture ( SOA ) .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloud-based_design_and_manufacturing", "rank": 46, "score": 70007 }, { "content": "Title: High-velocity cloud Content: High-velocity clouds ( HVCs ) are large collections of gas found throughout the galactic halo of the Milky Way . Their bulk motions in the local standard of rest have velocities which are measured in excess of 70 -- 90 km s − 1 . These clouds of gas can be massive in size , some on the order of millions of times the mass of the Sun , and cover large portions of the sky . They have been observed in the Milky Way 's halo and within other nearby galaxies . HVCs are important to the understanding of galactic evolution because they account for a large amount of baryonic matter in the galactic halo . In addition , as these clouds fall into the disk of the galaxy , they add material that can form stars in addition to the dilute star forming material already present in the disk . This new material aids in maintaining the star formation rate ( SFR ) of the galaxy . The origins of the HVCs are still in question . No one theory explains all of the HVCs in the galaxy . However , it is known that some HVCs are probably spawned by interactions between the Milky Way and satellite galaxies , such as the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds ( LMC and SMC , respectively ) which produce a well-known HVC called the Magellanic Stream . Because of the various possible mechanisms that could potentially produce an HVC , there are still many questions surrounding HVCs for researchers to study .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "High-velocity_cloud", "rank": 47, "score": 69956 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud storage Content: Cloud storage is a model of data storage in which the digital data is stored in logical pools , the physical storage spans multiple servers ( and often locations ) , and the physical environment is typically owned and managed by a hosting company . These cloud storage providers are responsible for keeping the data available and accessible , and the physical environment protected and running . People and organizations buy or lease storage capacity from the providers to store user , organization , or application data . Cloud storage services may be accessed through a co-located cloud computer service , a web service application programming interface ( API ) or by applications that utilize the API , such as cloud desktop storage , a cloud storage gateway or Web-based content management systems .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloud_storage", "rank": 48, "score": 69785 }, { "content": "Title: Rolls-Royce Silver Cloud Content: The Rolls-Royce Silver Cloud is an automobile produced by Rolls-Royce Limited from April 1955 to March 1966 . It was the core model of the Rolls-Royce range during that period . The Silver Cloud replaced the Silver Dawn and was , in turn , replaced by the Silver Shadow . The J. P. Blatchley design was a major change from the pre-war models and the highly derivative Silver Dawn . As part of a range rationalisation the Bentley S1 is very similar , apart from its radiator grille .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Rolls-Royce_Silver_Cloud", "rank": 49, "score": 69622 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud (disambiguation) Content: A cloud is a visible mass of condensed droplets or frozen crystals suspended in the atmosphere . Cloud ( s ) may also refer to :", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloud_(disambiguation)", "rank": 50, "score": 69595 }, { "content": "Title: Roman Catholic Diocese of Saint Cloud Content: The Roman Catholic Diocese of Saint Cloud ( Dioecesis Sancti Clodoaldi ) is a Roman Catholic diocese in Minnesota , United States . This diocese covers Benton , Douglas , Grant , Isanti , Kanabec , Mille Lacs , Morrison , Otter Tail , Pope , Sherburne , Stearns , Stevens , Todd , Traverse , Wadena , and Wilkin Counties . It is a suffragan see of the Archdiocese of Saint Paul and Minneapolis . The See city for the diocese is Saint Cloud . The cathedral parish is the Cathedral of St. Mary . On September 20 , 2013 , Pope Francis named Donald Joseph Kettler bishop .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Saint_Cloud", "rank": 51, "score": 69562 }, { "content": "Title: International Cloud Atlas Content: International Cloud Atlas ( also Cloud Atlas ) is a cloud atlas that was first published in 1896 and has remained in print since then . Its initial purposes included aiding the training of meteorologists and promoting more consistent use of vocabulary describing clouds , which were both important for early weather forecasting . The first edition featured color plates of color photographs , then still a very new technology , but noted for being inexpensive . Numerous later editions have been published .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "International_Cloud_Atlas", "rank": 52, "score": 69498 }, { "content": "Title: Global Forecast System Content: The Global Forecast System ( GFS ) is a global numerical weather prediction system containing a global computer model and variational analysis run by the United States ' National Weather Service ( NWS ) . The mathematical model is run four times a day , and produces forecasts for up to 16 days in advance , but with decreased spatial resolution after 10 days . The forecast skill generally decreases with time ( as with any numerical weather prediction model ) and for longer term forecasts , only the larger scales retain significant accuracy . It is one of the predominant synoptic scale medium-range models in general use . The GFS model is a spectral model with an approximate horizontal resolution of 13 km for the first 10 days and 27 km from 240 to 384 hours ( 16 days ) . In the vertical , the model is divided into 64 layers and temporally , it produces forecast output every hour for the first 120 hours , three hourly through day 10 and 12 hourly through day 16 . The output from the GFS is also used to produce model output statistics . In addition to the main model , the GFS is also the basis of a lower resolution 20-member ( 22 , counting the control and operational members ) ensemble that runs concurrently with the operational GFS and is available on the same time scales . This ensemble is referred to as the `` Global Ensemble Forecast System '' ( GEFS ) . Ensemble model output statistics are available out to 8 days . The GFS ensemble is combined with Canada 's Global Environmental Multiscale Model ensemble to form the North American Ensemble Forecast System ( NAEFS ) . As with most works of the U.S. government , GFS data is not copyrighted and is available for free in the public domain under provisions of U.S. law . Because of this , the model serves as the basis for the forecasts of numerous private , commercial and foreign weather companies . By 2015 the GFS model had fallen behind the accuracy of other global weather models . This was most notable in the GFS model incorrectly predicting Hurricane Sandy turning out to sea until 4 days before landfall ; while the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ' model predicted landfall correctly at 7 days . Much of this was suggested to be due to limits in computational resources within the National Weather Service . In response , the NWS purchased new supercomputers , increasing processing power from 776 teraflops to 5.78 petaflops . The agency has also been testing a potential replacement model with different mechanics , the flow-following , finite-volume Icosahedral Model ( FIM ) , since the early 2010s .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Global_Forecast_System", "rank": 53, "score": 69172 }, { "content": "Title: Loop modeling Content: Loop modeling is a problem in protein structure prediction requiring the prediction of the conformations of loop regions in proteins with or without the use of a structural template . Computer programs that solve these problems have been used to research a broad range of scientific topics from ADP to breast cancer . Because protein function is determined by its shape and the physiochemical properties of its exposed surface , it is important to create an accurate model for protein/ligand interaction studies . The problem arises often in homology modeling , where the tertiary structure of an amino acid sequence is predicted based on a sequence alignment to a template , or a second sequence whose structure is known . Because loops have highly variable sequences even within a given structural motif or protein fold , they often correspond to unaligned regions in sequence alignments ; they also tend to be located at the solvent-exposed surface of globular proteins and thus are more conformationally flexible . Consequently , they often can not be modeled using standard homology modeling techniques . More constrained versions of loop modeling are also used in the data fitting stages of solving a protein structure by X-ray crystallography , because loops can correspond to regions of low electron density and are therefore difficult to resolve . Regions of a structural model that are predicted by non-template-based loop modeling tend to be much less accurate than regions that are predicted using template-based techniques . The extent of the inaccuracy increases with the number of amino acids in the loop . The loop amino acids ' side chains dihedral angles are often approximated from a rotamer library , but can worsen the inaccuracy of side chain packing in the overall model . Andrej Sali 's homology modeling suite MODELLER includes a facility explicitly designed for loop modeling by a satisfaction of spatial restraints method . All methods require an upload of the PDB file and some require the specification of the loop location .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Loop_modeling", "rank": 54, "score": 69022 }, { "content": "Title: Idealization Content: Idealization is the process by which scientific models assume facts about the phenomenon being modeled that are strictly false but make models easier to understand or solve . That is , it is determined whether the phenomenon approximates an `` ideal case , '' then the model is applied to make a prediction based on that ideal case . If an approximation is accurate , the model will have high predictive accuracy ; for example , it is not usually necessary to account for air resistance when determining the acceleration of a falling bowling ball , and doing so would be more complicated . In this case , air resistance is idealized to be zero . Although this is not strictly true , it is a good approximation because its effect is negligible compared to that of gravity . Idealizations may allow predictions to be made when none otherwise could be . For example , the approximation of air resistance as zero was the only option before the formulation of Stokes ' law allowed the calculation of drag forces . Many debates surrounding the usefulness of a particular model are about the appropriateness of different idealizations .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Idealization", "rank": 55, "score": 69012 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud Content: In meteorology , a cloud is an aerosol comprising a visible mass of minute liquid droplets , frozen crystals , or particles suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of a planetary body . The droplets and crystals may be made of water or various chemicals . On Earth , clouds are formed as a result of saturation of the air when it is cooled to its dew point , or when it gains sufficient moisture ( usually in the form of water vapor ) from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the ambient temperature . They are seen in the Earth 's homosphere ( which includes the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere ) . Nephology is the science of clouds which is undertaken in the cloud physics branch of meteorology . There are two systems of naming clouds in their respective layers of the atmosphere ; Latin in the troposphere and mostly alpha-numeric above the troposphere . Cloud types in the troposphere , the atmospheric layer closest to Earth 's surface , have Latin names due to the universal adaptation of Luke Howard 's nomenclature . Formally proposed in 1802 , it became the basis of a modern international system that classifies clouds into five physical forms and three altitude levels ( formerly known as étages ) . These physical types , in approximate ascending order of convective activity , include stratiform sheets , cirriform wisps and patches , stratocumuliform layers ( mainly structured as rolls , ripples , and patches ) , cumuliform heaps , and very large cumulonimbiform heaps that often show complex structure . The physical forms are cross-classified by the altitude levels to produce ten basic genus-types , most of which can be divided into species , and subdivided into varieties . Two cirriform clouds that form higher up in the stratosphere and mesosphere have common names for their main types , but are sub-classified alpha-numerically . They are relatively uncommon and are mostly seen in the polar regions of Earth . Clouds have been observed in the atmospheres of other planets and moons in the Solar System and beyond . However , due to their different temperature characteristics , they are often composed of other substances such as methane , ammonia , and sulfuric acid as well as water . Homospheric types determined by cross-classification of forms and levels . '' Homospheric types include the ten tropospheric genera and two additional major types above the troposphere . The cumulus genus includes three variants as defined by vertical size .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloud", "rank": 56, "score": 68933 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud swing Content: The cloud swing ( not to be confused with the Mexican cloud swing ) is an aerial act that usually combines static and swinging trapeze skills , drops , holds and rebound lifts . The apparatus itself is a soft rope about 25-30mm thick . It can be made from a single rope , or from a cotton-filled sheath . On its simplest level the cloud swing resembles a Spanish web in length and width , with each end braided and spliced-lashed with a thimble , forming a loop . Two high-caliber swivels are required to support the weight ; the swivels are anchored to a crane bar or a stationary rig , with the swing itself hanging in a `` V '' shape . Generally , the motion provided to swing the performer is supplied by an assistant pulling on a tether at the bottom of the `` V '' . `` Cloud swing '' is often performed at lower altitudes relative to `` Mexican cloud swing '' . This is what distinguished `` cloud swing '' from `` Mexican cloud swing '' . The cloud swing is a relatively new apparatus , and many of the figures performed on it are borrowed or adapted from static and swinging trapeze .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloud_swing", "rank": 57, "score": 68360 }, { "content": "Title: Parametrization (atmospheric modeling) Content: Parameterization in a weather or climate model within numerical weather prediction is a method of replacing processes that are too small-scale or complex to be physically represented in the model by a simplified process . This can be contrasted with other processes -- e.g. , large-scale flow of the atmosphere -- that are explicitly resolved within the models . Associated with these parameterizations are various parameters used in the simplified processes . Examples include the descent rate of raindrops , convective clouds , simplifications of the atmospheric radiative transfer on the basis of atmospheric radiative transfer codes , and cloud microphysics . Radiative parameterizations are important to both atmospheric and oceanic modeling alike . Atmospheric emissions from different sources within individual grid boxes also need to be parameterized to determine their impact on air quality .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Parametrization_(atmospheric_modeling)", "rank": 58, "score": 68301 }, { "content": "Title: Rearwin Cloudster Content: The Rearwin Cloudster was a civil utility aircraft produced in the United States in 1939 . It was a strut-braced , high-wing monoplane of conventional design with an enclosed cabin and fixed , tailskid undercarriage . It was a larger and more powerful derivative of the Rearwin Sportster with the 8090 and 8125 models having side-by-side seating instead of the Sportster 's tandem seating . The 8135 Cloudster had three seats . Twenty examples were produced with tandem seating for Pan Am to use as trainers , and another 25 Cloudsters were exported as trainers to Iran .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Rearwin_Cloudster", "rank": 59, "score": 68119 }, { "content": "Title: Bio-index model Content: The Bio-index model is a forecasting model for predicting the outcome of U.S. Presidential Elections based on biographical information about candidates . The model , developed by J. Scott Armstrong and Andreas Graefe and first published in the Journal of Business Research , uses 59 biographical cues that are expected to affect the chances of a candidate on being elected .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Bio-index_model", "rank": 60, "score": 67978 }, { "content": "Title: Chrysler Cirrus Content: The Chrysler Cirrus and its middle-priced variant Dodge Stratus are mid-sized 4-door notchback sedans introduced for the 1995 model year . A third and lowest-priced variant , the Plymouth Breeze , arrived the following year . Production continued through the 2000 model year . Employing the Chrysler JA platform , the 4-door notchback sedans were known collectively as the `` Cloud Cars '' because their names referenced meteorological terms ( cirrus , breeze , stratus ) .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Chrysler_Cirrus", "rank": 61, "score": 67919 }, { "content": "Title: Porter's four corners model Content: Porter 's four corners model is a predictive tool designed by Michael Porter that helps in determining a competitor 's course of action . Unlike other predictive models which predominantly rely on a firm 's current strategy and capabilities to determine future strategy , Porter 's model additionally calls for an understanding of what motivates the competitor . This added dimension of understanding a competitor 's internal culture , value system , mindset , and assumptions helps in determining a much more accurate and realistic reading of a competitor 's possible reactions in a given situation .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Porter's_four_corners_model", "rank": 62, "score": 67810 }, { "content": "Title: Land change modeling Content: Land change models ( LCMs ) describe , project , and explain changes in and the dynamics of land use and land-cover . LCMs are a means of understanding ways that humans are changing the Earth 's surface in the past , present , in forecasting land change into the future . Land change models are valuable in development policy , helping guide more appropriate decisions for resource management and the natural environment at a variety of scales ranging from a small piece of land to the entire spatial extent . Moreover , developments within land-cover , environmental and socio-economic data ( as well as within technological infrastructures ) have increased opportunities for land change modeling to help support and influence decisions that affect human-environment systems , as national and international attention increasingly focuses on issues of global climate change and sustainability .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Land_change_modeling", "rank": 63, "score": 67714 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud 9 The EP Content: Cloud 9 The EP is the first extended plays ( EP ) by recording artist Tinchy Stryder , and his fourth solo release to date . It was released on 31 March 2008 by Takeover Entertainment exclusively to iTunes UK store and U.S. store on 29 May 2011 . Its cover art is a dark painting taken during the Star in the Hood promo shoot . The track , `` Sorry , You Are ? '' , featuring Chipmunk , from Stryder 's 2007 debut studio album Star in the Hood , was included on the EP as track # 2 .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloud_9_The_EP", "rank": 64, "score": 67537 }, { "content": "Title: Storm Water Management Model Content: The United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) Storm Water Management Model ( SWMM ) is a dynamic rainfall -- runoff -- subsurface runoff simulation model used for single-event to long-term ( continuous ) simulation of the surface/subsurface hydrology quantity and quality from primarily urban/suburban areas . The hydrology component of SWMM operates on a collection of subcatchment areas divided into impervious and pervious areas with and without depression storage to predict runoff and pollutant loads from precipitation , evaporation and infiltration losses from each of the subcatchment . Besides , low impact development ( LID ) and best management practice areas on the subcatchment can be modeled to reduce the impervious and pervious runoff . The routing or hydraulics section of SWMM transports this water and possible associated water quality constituents through a system of closed pipes , open channels , storage/treatment devices , ponds , storages , pumps , orifices , weirs , outlets , outfalls and other regulators . SWMM tracks the quantity and quality of the flow generated within each subcatchment , and the flow rate , flow depth , and quality of water in each pipe and channel during a simulation period composed of multiple fixed or variable time steps . The water quality constituents such as water quality constituents can be simulated from buildup on the subcatchments through washoff to a hydraulic network with optional first order decay and linked pollutant removal , best management practice and low-impact development ( LID ) removal and treatment can be simulated at selected storage nodes . SWMM is one of the hydrology transport models which the EPA and other agencies have applied widely throughout North America and through consultants and universities throughout the world . The latest update notes and new features can be found on the EPA website in the download section . Recently added in November 2015 was the EPA SWMM 5.1 Hydrology Manual", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Storm_Water_Management_Model", "rank": 65, "score": 67374 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud computing issues Content: Cloud computing has become a social phenomenon used by most people every day . As with every important social phenomenon there are issues that limit its widespread adoption . Most issues start from the fact that the user loses control of his or her data , because it is stored on a computer belonging to someone else ( the cloud provider ) . This happens when the owner of the remote servers is a person or organization other than the user ; as their interests may point in different directions ( for example , the user may wish that his or her information is kept private , but the owner of the remote servers may want to take advantage of it for their own business ) . Many issues relate to cloud computing , some of which are discussed here :", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloud_computing_issues", "rank": 66, "score": 67326 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud (surname) Content: Cloud or Cloude is a surname found in early England and in some Native American families .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloud_(surname)", "rank": 67, "score": 67168 }, { "content": "Title: Clouding agent Content: Clouding agents or Cloudy Agent/Cloudifier are a type of food additive used to make beverages such as fruit juices to look more cloudy , and thus more natural-looking and visually appealing , typically by creating an emulsion of oil droplets . Common clouding agents include palm oil and extracts of citrus fruits . The illegal use of the plasticizer DEHP in clouding agents has been reported in Taiwan .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Clouding_agent", "rank": 68, "score": 67133 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud, California Content: Cloud is a former settlement in Kings County , California . It was located 35 mi southwest of Lemoore . A post office operated at Cloud from 1913 to 1921 .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloud,_California", "rank": 69, "score": 66614 }, { "content": "Title: Cover Girl Models Content: Cover Girl Models is a 1975 exploitation film from New World Pictures about three models who become involved in international espionage .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cover_Girl_Models", "rank": 70, "score": 66613 }, { "content": "Title: Mean squared prediction error Content: In statistics the mean squared prediction error of a smoothing or curve fitting procedure is the expected value of the squared difference between the fitted values implied by the predictive function and the values of the ( unobservable ) function g . It is an inverse measure of the explanatory power of and can be used in the process of cross-validation of an estimated model . If the smoothing or fitting procedure has operator matrix ( i.e. , hat matrix ) L , which maps the observed values vector to predicted values vector via then The MSPE can be decomposed into two terms ( just like mean squared error is decomposed into bias and variance ) ; however for MSPE one term is the sum of squared biases of the fitted values and another the sum of variances of the fitted values : Note that knowledge of g is required in order to calculate MSPE exactly .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Mean_squared_prediction_error", "rank": 71, "score": 66603 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud physics Content: Cloud physics is the study of the physical processes that lead to the formation , growth and precipitation of atmospheric clouds . These aerosols are found in the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere , which collectively make up the greatest part of the homosphere . Clouds consist of microscopic droplets of liquid water ( warm clouds ) , tiny crystals of ice ( cold clouds ) , or both ( mixed phase clouds ) . Cloud droplets initially form by the condensation of water vapor onto condensation nuclei when the supersaturation of air exceeds a critical value according to Köhler theory . Cloud condensation nuclei are necessary for cloud droplets formation because of the Kelvin effect , which describes the change in saturation vapor pressure due to a curved surface . At small radii , the amount of supersaturation needed for condensation to occur is so large , that it does not happen naturally . Raoult 's Law describes how the vapor pressure is dependent on the amount of solute in a solution . At high concentrations , when the cloud droplets are small , the supersaturation required is smaller than without the presence of a nucleus . In warm clouds , larger cloud droplets fall at a higher terminal velocity ; because at a given velocity , the drag force per unit of droplet weight on smaller droplets is larger than on large droplets . The large droplets can then collide with small droplets and combine to form even larger drops . When the drops become large enough that their downward velocity ( relative to the surrounding air ) is greater than the upward velocity ( relative to the earth ) of the surrounding air , the drops can fall to the earth as precipitation . The collision and coalescence is not as important in mixed phase clouds where the Bergeron process dominates . Other important processes that form precipitation are riming , when a supercooled liquid drop collides with a solid snowflake , and aggregation , when two solid snowflakes collide and combine . The precise mechanics of how a cloud forms and grows is not completely understood , but scientists have developed theories explaining the structure of clouds by studying the microphysics of individual droplets . Advances in weather radar and satellite technology have also allowed the precise study of clouds on a large scale .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloud_physics", "rank": 72, "score": 66477 }, { "content": "Title: Cloudbuster Content: A cloudbuster ( or cloud buster ) is a pseudoscientific device designed by Austrian psychoanalyst Wilhelm Reich ( 1897 -- 1957 ) , which Reich said could produce rain by manipulating what he called `` orgone energy '' present in the atmosphere . The cloudbuster was intended to be used in a way similar to a lightning rod : focusing it on a location in the sky and grounding it in some material that was presumed to absorb orgone -- such as a body of water -- would draw the orgone energy out of the atmosphere , causing the formation of clouds and rain . Reich conducted dozens of experiments with the cloudbuster , calling the research `` Cosmic orgone engineering '' .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloudbuster", "rank": 73, "score": 66457 }, { "content": "Title: Kaggle Content: In 2010 , Kaggle was founded as a platform for predictive modelling and analytics competitions on which companies and researchers post their data and statisticians and data miners from all over the world compete to produce the best models . This crowdsourcing approach relies on the fact that there are countless strategies that can be applied to any predictive modelling task and it is impossible to know at the outset which technique or analyst will be most effective . Kaggle also hosts recruiting competitions in which data scientists compete for a chance to interview at leading data science companies like Facebook , Winton Capital , and Walmart . In April 2015 , Kaggle released the first version of their Scripts product onto their platform . Scripts allows users to write , run , and publicly share their code on Kaggle . In January 2016 , Kaggle released their Datasets product , which includes Scripts , a selection of public datasets , as well as a dedicated forum for conversation and collaboration between data scientists working on a given dataset . On 8 July 2016 , Kaggle renamed its Scripts product to Kernels . On 8 March 2017 , Google announced that they were acquiring Kaggle . They will join the Google Cloud team and continue to be a distinct brand .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Kaggle", "rank": 74, "score": 66378 }, { "content": "Title: Sea ice emissivity modelling Content: With increased interest in sea ice and its effects on the global climate , efficient methods are required to monitor both its extent and exchange processes . Satellite-mounted , microwave radiometers , such SSMI , AMSR and AMSU , are an ideal tool for the task because they can see through cloud cover , and they have frequent , global coverage . A passive microwave instrument detects objects through emitted radiation since different substance have different emission spectra . To help us detect sea ice more efficiently , we need to model these emission processes . The interaction of sea ice with electromagnetic radiation in the microwave range is still not well understood . In general is collected information limited because of the large-scale variability due to the emissivity of sea ice .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Sea_ice_emissivity_modelling", "rank": 75, "score": 66365 }, { "content": "Title: Uplift modelling Content: Uplift modelling , also known as incremental modelling , true lift modelling , or net modelling is a predictive modelling technique that directly models the incremental impact of a treatment ( such as a direct marketing action ) on an individual 's behaviour . Uplift modelling has applications in customer relationship management for up-sell , cross-sell and retention modelling . It has also been applied to political election and personalised medicine . Unlike the related Differential Prediction concept in psychology , Uplift Modelling assumes an active agent .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Uplift_modelling", "rank": 76, "score": 66354 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud computing security Content: Cloud computing security or , more simply , cloud security refers to a broad set of policies , technologies , and controls deployed to protect data , applications , and the associated infrastructure of cloud computing . It is a sub-domain of computer security , network security , and , more broadly , information security .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloud_computing_security", "rank": 77, "score": 66342 }, { "content": "Title: PUFF-PLUME Content: PUFF-PLUME is a model used to help predict how air pollution disperses in the atmosphere . It is a Gaussian atmospheric transport chemical/radionuclide dispersion model that includes wet and dry deposition , real-time input of meteorological observations and forecasts , dose estimates from inhalation and gamma shine ( i.e. , radiation ) , and puff or continuous plume dispersion modes . It was first developed by the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory ( PNNL ) in the 1970s . It is the primary model for emergency response use for atmospheric releases at the Savannah River Site of the United States Department of Energy . It is one of a suite of codes for atmospheric releases and is used primarily for first-cut results in emergency situations . ( Other codes containing more detailed mathematical and physical models are available for use when a short response time is not the over-riding consideration . )", "qid": "3121", "docid": "PUFF-PLUME", "rank": 78, "score": 66325 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud (video game) Content: Cloud is a 2005 indie puzzle video game developed by a team of students in the University of Southern California 's ( USC ) Interactive Media Program . The team began development of Cloud in January 2005 with a US$ 20,000 grant from USC ; the game was released as a free download that October . By July 2006 , the hosting website had received 6 million visits , and the game had been downloaded 600,000 times . The game centers on a boy who dreams of flying while asleep in a hospital bed . The concept was partially based on lead designer Jenova Chen 's childhood ; he was often hospitalized for asthma and would daydream while alone in his room . Assuming the role of the boy , the player flies through a dream world and manipulates clouds to solve puzzles . The game was intended to spark emotions in the player that the video game industry usually ignored . Cloud won the Best Student Philosophy award at the 2006 Slamdance Guerilla Games Competition , and a Student Showcase award at the 2006 Independent Games Festival . The game was well received by critics , who cited its visuals , music , and relaxing atmosphere as high points . Chen and producer Kellee Santiago went on to co-found the studio Thatgamecompany , which has considered remaking Cloud as a commercial video game .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloud_(video_game)", "rank": 79, "score": 66205 }, { "content": "Title: Multicollinearity Content: In statistics , multicollinearity ( also collinearity ) is a phenomenon in which two or more predictor variables in a multiple regression model are highly correlated , meaning that one can be linearly predicted from the others with a substantial degree of accuracy . In this situation the coefficient estimates of the multiple regression may change erratically in response to small changes in the model or the data . Multicollinearity does not reduce the predictive power or reliability of the model as a whole , at least within the sample data set ; it only affects calculations regarding individual predictors . That is , a multiple regression model with correlated predictors can indicate how well the entire bundle of predictors predicts the outcome variable , but it may not give valid results about any individual predictor , or about which predictors are redundant with respect to others . In case of perfect multicollinearity the design matrix has less than full rank , and therefore the moment matrix can not be inverted . Under these circumstances , for a general linear model , the ordinary least-squares estimator does not exist . Note that in statements of the assumptions underlying regression analyses such as ordinary least squares , the phrase `` no multicollinearity '' is sometimes used to mean the absence of perfect multicollinearity , which is an exact ( non-stochastic ) linear relation among the regressors .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Multicollinearity", "rank": 80, "score": 66144 }, { "content": "Title: The Clouds Content: The Clouds ( Νεφέλαι Nephelai ) is a Greek comedy play written by the celebrated playwright Aristophanes . A lampooning of intellectual fashions in classical Athens , it was originally produced at the City Dionysia in 423BC and was not as well received as the author had hoped , coming last of the three plays competing at the festival that year . It was revised between 420 and 417BC and was thereafter circulated in manuscript form . No copy of the original production survives , and scholarly analysis indicates that the revised version is an incomplete form of Old Comedy . This incompleteness , however , is not obvious in translations and modern performances . Retrospectively , The Clouds can be considered the world 's first extant `` comedy of ideas '' and is considered by literary critics to be among the finest examples of the genre . The play also , however , remains notorious for its caricature of Socrates and is mentioned in Plato 's Apology as a contributor to the philosopher 's trial and execution .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "The_Clouds", "rank": 81, "score": 66026 }, { "content": "Title: The Cloud (Peak District) Content: The Cloud or Bosley Cloud is a prominent hill on the border between Cheshire and Staffordshire a couple of miles west of the Peak District National Park boundary . At 343 m in height , it is one of the highest hills in the area . Its heather-covered summit plateau is crowned by a trig point from which extensive views over Congleton , Biddulph , Macclesfield , Holmes Chapel , and the Greater Manchester area can be enjoyed . The Cloud sits at the northern apex of a triangle formed by the broken ridge which runs along the border between Cheshire and Staffordshire and the hills stretching south through Biddulph Moor into Staffordshire . To its north , the River Dane wraps around its lower slopes whilst the A523 road runs to its east through the village of Bosley in Southeast Cheshire .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "The_Cloud_(Peak_District)", "rank": 82, "score": 65904 }, { "content": "Title: The Clouds (Australian band) Content: The Clouds ( also called just Clouds ) are an indie rock band from Sydney , Australia formed in December 1989 . The core of the group consisted of frontwomen Jodi Phillis ( guitar and vocals ) and Patricia `` Trish '' Young ( bass and vocals ) . The line-up of The Clouds has changed several times with different drummers and lead guitarists . The Clouds ' music is distinguished by rapid and unusual chord changes , creative bass guitar , and Phillis and Young 's vocal harmonies . They released 4 albums and numerous EP 's and singles before breaking up in 1997 . They reformed in 2011 .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "The_Clouds_(Australian_band)", "rank": 83, "score": 65902 }, { "content": "Title: Lille Model Content: The Lille Model is a medical tool for predicting mortality in patients with alcoholic hepatitis who are not responding to steroid therapy . The model risk stratifies patients who have been receiving steroid treatment for seven days to predict who will improve and who should be considered for alternative treatment options including early referral for transplant . The model is based on : Age Albumin Bilirubin ( initial ) Bilirubin ( day 7 ) Creatinine PT Initial model was based on a study of 238 patients and published in the Journal of Hepatology in 2003 . Recent cohort studies demonstrate that those with a Lille score above 0.45 are likely non-responders to steroid therapy .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Lille_Model", "rank": 84, "score": 65882 }, { "content": "Title: Clear Sky Chart Content: Clear Sky Charts ( called clocks until 2008-02-29 ) are web graphics which deliver weather forecasts designed specifically for astronomers . They forecast the cloud cover , transparency and astronomical seeing , parameters which are not forecast by civil or aviation forecasts . They forecast hourly data , but are limited to forecasting at most 48 hours into the future . Each individual chart provides data for only a 9 mile radius , and so are essentially point forecasts . There are clear sky chart forecasts for over 5300 locations , though the coverage area is limited to Canada , the USA and parts of Mexico and the Caribbean . Locations are typically cities , professional and public observatories , colleges and science centers . However there are also clear sky charts for star parties and backyard observatories .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Clear_Sky_Chart", "rank": 85, "score": 65718 }, { "content": "Title: Geospatial predictive modeling Content: Geospatial predictive modeling is conceptually rooted in the principle that the occurrences of events being modeled are limited in distribution . Occurrences of events are neither uniform nor random in distribution -- there are spatial environment factors ( infrastructure , sociocultural , topographic , etc. ) that constrain and influence where the locations of events occur . Geospatial predictive modeling attempts to describe those constraints and influences by spatially correlating occurrences of historical geospatial locations with environmental factors that represent those constraints and influences . Geospatial predictive modeling is a process for analyzing events through a geographic filter in order to make statements of likelihood for event occurrence or emergence .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Geospatial_predictive_modeling", "rank": 86, "score": 65691 }, { "content": "Title: Clodoald Content: Saint Clodoald ( Clodoaldus , Cloudus ; 522 -- 560 AD ) , better known as Cloud , was the son of King Chlodomer of Orléans and his wife Guntheuc .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Clodoald", "rank": 87, "score": 65655 }, { "content": "Title: FORECAST (model) Content: FORECAST is a management-oriented , stand-level , forest-growth and ecosystem-dynamics model . The model was designed to accommodate a wide variety of silvicultural and harvesting systems and natural disturbance events ( e.g. , fire , wind , insect epidemics ) in order to compare and contrast their effect on forest productivity , stand dynamics , and a series of biophysical indicators of non-timber values .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "FORECAST_(model)", "rank": 88, "score": 65631 }, { "content": "Title: Quantum Cloud Content: The Quantum Cloud is a contemporary sculpture , designed by Antony Gormley , located next to the Millennium Dome in London . The sculpture was commissioned for the site and was completed in 1999 . At 30 metres high , it is Gormley 's tallest sculpture to date ( taller than the Angel of the North ) . It is constructed from a collection of tetrahedral units made from 1.5 m long sections of steel . The steel sections were arranged using a computer model with a random walk algorithm starting from points on the surface of an enlarged figure based on Gormley 's body that forms a residual outline at the centre of the sculpture . In designing Quantum Cloud , Antony Gormley was influenced by Basil Hiley , quantum physicist ( and long-time colleague of David Bohm ) . The idea for Quantum Cloud came from Hiley 's thoughts on pre-space as a mathematical structure underlying space-time and matter , and his comment that `` algebra is the relationship of relationships . '' The comment was made during a conversation between Gormley , Hiley and writer David Peat at a 1999 London gathering of artists and scientists , organized by Peat .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Quantum_Cloud", "rank": 89, "score": 65505 }, { "content": "Title: Cloudburst Content: A cloudburst is an extreme amount of precipitation in a short period of time , sometimes accompanied by hail and thunder , that is capable of creating flood conditions . A cloudburst can suddenly dump large amounts of water e.g. 25 mm of precipitation corresponds to 25000 metric tons/km2 ( 1 inch corresponds to 72,300 short tons over one square mile ) . However , cloudbursts are infrequent as they occur only via orographic lift or occasionally when a warm air parcel mixes with cooler air , resulting in sudden condensation . At times , a large amount of runoff from higher elevations is mistakenly conflated with a cloudburst . The term `` cloudburst '' arose from the notion that clouds were akin to water balloons and could burst , resulting in rapid precipitation . Though this idea has since been disproven , the term remains in use .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloudburst", "rank": 90, "score": 65291 }, { "content": "Title: Ensemble forecasting Content: Ensemble forecasting is a method used in numerical weather prediction . Instead of making a single forecast of the most likely weather , a set ( or ensemble ) of forecasts are produced . This set of forecasts aims to give an indication of the range of possible future states of the atmosphere . Ensemble forecasting is a form of Monte Carlo analysis . The multiple simulations are conducted to account for the two usual sources of uncertainty in forecast models : ( 1 ) the errors introduced by the use of imperfect initial conditions , amplified by the chaotic nature of the evolution equations of the atmosphere , this is often referred to as sensitive dependence on the initial conditions ; and ( 2 ) errors introduced because of imperfections in the model formulation , such as the approximate mathematical methods to solve the equations . Ideally , the verified future atmospheric state should fall within the predicted ensemble spread , and the amount of spread should be related to the uncertainty ( error ) of the forecast . In general , this approach can be used to make probabilistic forecasts of any dynamical system , and not just for weather prediction . Today ensemble predictions are commonly made at most of the major operational weather prediction facilities worldwide , including : National Centers for Environmental Prediction ( NCEP of the US ) European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts ( ECMWF ) United Kingdom Met Office Météo-France Environment Canada Japan Meteorological Agency Bureau of Meteorology ( Australia ) China Meteorological Administration ( CMA ) Korea Meteorological Administration CPTEC ( Brazil ) Experimental ensemble forecasts are made at a number of universities , such as the University of Washington , and ensemble forecasts in the US are also generated by the US Navy and Air Force . There are various ways of viewing the data such as spaghetti plots , ensemble means or Postage Stamps where a number of different results from the models run can be compared .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Ensemble_forecasting", "rank": 91, "score": 65243 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud manufacturing Content: Cloud manufacturing ( CMfg ) is a new manufacturing paradigm developed from existing advanced manufacturing models ( e.g. , ASP , AM , NM , MGrid ) and enterprise information technologies under the support of cloud computing , Internet of Things ( IoT ) , virtualization and service-oriented technologies , and advanced computing technologies . It transforms manufacturing resources and manufacturing capabilities into manufacturing services , which can be managed and operated in an intelligent and unified way to enable the full sharing and circulating of manufacturing resources and manufacturing capabilities . CMfg can provide safe and reliable , high quality , cheap and on-demand manufacturing services for the whole lifecycle of manufacturing . The concept of manufacturing here refers to big manufacturing that includes the whole lifecycle of a product ( e.g. design , simulation , production , test , maintenance ) . The concept of Cloud manufacturing was initially proposed by the research group led by Prof. Bo Hu Li and Prof. Lin Zhang in China in 2009 . Related discussions and research were conducted hereafter . And some similar definitions ( e.g. Cloud-Based Design and Manufacturing ( CBDM ) . ) to cloud manufacturing were introduced . Cloud manufacturing is a type of parallel , networked , and distributed system consisting of an integrated and inter-connected virtualized service pool ( manufacturing cloud ) of manufacturing resources and capabilities as well as capabilities of intelligent management and on-demand use of services to provide solutions for all kinds of users involved in the whole lifecycle of manufacturing .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloud_manufacturing", "rank": 92, "score": 65229 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud, Iowa Content: Cloud is an unincorporated community in Marion County , Iowa , United States .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloud,_Iowa", "rank": 93, "score": 65060 }, { "content": "Title: Overcast Content: Overcast or overcast weather , as defined by the World Meteorological Organization , is the meteorological condition of clouds obscuring all of the sky by at least 95 percent . However , the total sky cover must not be entirely due to surface-based obscuring phenomena such as fog . Overcast , written as `` OVC '' in the METAR observation , is reported when the cloud cover is observed to equal eight oktas ( eighths ) . An overcast sky may be explicitly identified as thin ( predominantly transparent ) but otherwise is considered opaque which always constitutes a ceiling in aviation meteorology . Sometimes clouds can be different colors such as black or white , but overcast usually refers to darker skies . In some cases , it can be impossible to see distinct borders of clouds or the sky may be covered by a single type of cloud , such as stratus and the whole sky will be a dull white . Periods of overcast weather can range from a few hours to several days . Overcast weather can also affect people suffering from seasonal affective disorder . The same weather , when observed from above , might be referred to as ( an ) undercast .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Overcast", "rank": 94, "score": 64730 }, { "content": "Title: Cloudster Content: The term Cloudster can refer to a number of different aircraft types : Douglas Cloudster Douglas Cloudster II Pop 's Props Cloudster Rearwin Cloudster Ryson ST-100 Cloudster Simplex Aeroplanes Cloudster", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloudster", "rank": 95, "score": 64620 }, { "content": "Title: Satellite Cloud Image Content: A Satellite Cloud Image is an image based on data from meteorological satellite instruments . It captures the distribution of clouds in the atmosphere , to find the weather system and verify the correctness of surface weather maps that have been drawn . It can also be used with observations of sea ice distribution to determine the sea surface temperature and the medium-and long-term weather forecast oceanographic data . This technology can be a single image to show a variety of scales of weather phenomena to provide a very useful remote sensing data , weather analysis and forecasting . In general , the satellite cloud can be divided into the Infra-red satellite , visible satellite cloud images and color enhancement of satellite cloud . Category : Weather prediction", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Satellite_Cloud_Image", "rank": 96, "score": 64591 }, { "content": "Title: Strategy and uncertainty Content: Strategic planning and uncertainty intertwine in a realistic framework where companies and organizations are bounded to develop and compete in a world dominated by complexity , ambiguity , and uncertainty in which unpredictable , unstoppable and , sometimes , meaningless circumstances may have a direct impact on the expected outcomes . In this scenario , formal planning systems are criticized by a number of academics , who argue that conventional methods , based on classic analytical tools ( market research , value chain analysis , assessment of rivals ) , fail to shape a strategy that can adjust to the changing market and enhance the competitiveness of each business unit , which is the basic principle of a competitive business strategy . Strategy planning systems are supposed to produce the best approaches to concretize long term objectives . However , since strategy deals with the upcoming future , the strategic context of an organization will always be uncertain , therefore the first choice an organisation has to make is when to act ; acting now or when the uncertainty has been resolved . The recognition of uncertainty supposes a dilemma for strategists : in predicting the future they are likely to be wrong and may fall into overconfidence , in the other hand they risk clouding rational foundations for decision making . Therefore , when building a strategy , it is vital to use analytic tools based on the level of uncertainty the organization is facing ( decision analysis , scenario planning , alternative futures ) , this will enable the organization to identify the origin and the nature of the uncertainty and act upon it .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Strategy_and_uncertainty", "rank": 97, "score": 64530 }, { "content": "Title: Cover-up Content: A cover-up is an attempt , whether successful or not , to conceal evidence of wrongdoing , error , incompetence or other embarrassing information . In a passive cover-up , information is simply not provided ; in an active cover-up , deception is used . The expression is usually applied to people in positions of authority who abuse power to avoid or silence criticism or to deflect guilt of wrongdoing . Perpetrators of a cover-up ( initiators or their allies ) may be responsible for a misdeed , a breach of trust or duty , or a crime . While the terms are often used interchangeably , cover-up involves withholding incriminatory evidence , while whitewash involves releasing misleading evidence . See also misprision .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cover-up", "rank": 98, "score": 64279 }, { "content": "Title: Clouds, Tennessee Content: Clouds is an unincorporated community in Claiborne County , Tennessee .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Clouds,_Tennessee", "rank": 99, "score": 64239 }, { "content": "Title: Cloudbase Content: Cloudbase is the fictional skyborne headquarters of the international security organisation Spectrum , from Gerry Anderson 's science-fiction television series Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons ( 1967 -- 68 ) . In the 2005 computer-animated remake , Cloudbase is re-imagined as Skybase . In both series , the base 's design is that of an airborne aircraft carrier , stationed in either Earth 's high troposphere ( 1960s series ) or low stratosphere ( 2005 series ) .", "qid": "3121", "docid": "Cloudbase", "rank": 100, "score": 64212 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Sunlight Content: Sunlight is a portion of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun , in particular infrared , visible , and ultraviolet light . On Earth , sunlight is filtered through Earth 's atmosphere , and is obvious as daylight when the Sun is above the horizon . When the direct solar radiation is not blocked by clouds , it is experienced as sunshine , a combination of bright light and radiant heat . When it is blocked by clouds or reflects off other objects , it is experienced as diffused light . The World Meteorological Organization uses the term `` sunshine duration '' to mean the cumulative time during which an area receives direct irradiance from the Sun of at least 120 watts per square meter . Other sources indicate an `` Average over the entire earth '' of `` 164 Watts per square meter over a 24 hour day '' . The ultraviolet radiation in sunlight has both positive and negative health effects , as it is both a principal source of vitamin D3 and a mutagen . Sunlight takes about 8.3 minutes to reach Earth from the surface of the Sun . A photon starting at the center of the Sun and changing direction every time it encounters a charged particle would take between 10,000 and 170,000 years to get to the surface . Sunlight is a key factor in photosynthesis , the process used by plants and other autotrophic organisms to convert light energy , normally from the Sun , into chemical energy that can be used to fuel the organisms ' activities .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Sunlight", "rank": 1, "score": 151334 }, { "content": "Title: Solar thermal collector Content: A solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight . A collector is a device for capturing solar radiation . Solar radiation is energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation from the infrared ( long ) to the ultraviolet ( short ) wavelengths . The quantity of solar energy striking the Earth 's surface ( solar constant ) averages about 1,000 watts per square meter under clear skies , depending upon weather conditions , location and orientation . The term `` solar collector '' commonly refers to solar hot water panels , but may refer to installations such as solar parabolic troughs and solar towers ; or basic installations such as solar air heaters . Concentrated solar power plants usually use the more complex collectors to generate electricity by heating a fluid to drive a turbine connected to an electrical generator . Simple collectors are typically used in residential and commercial buildings for space heating . The first solar thermal collector designed for building roofs was patented by William H. Goettl and called the `` Solar heat collector and radiator for building roof '' .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Solar_thermal_collector", "rank": 2, "score": 124719 }, { "content": "Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics", "rank": 3, "score": 115932 }, { "content": "Title: Cirrus cloud thinning Content: Cirrus cloud thinning is a proposed form of climate engineering . Cirrus clouds are high cold ice that , like other clouds , both reflect sunlight and absorb warming infrared radiation . However , they differ from other types of clouds in that , on average , infrared absorption outweighs sunlight reflection , resulting in a net warming effect on the climate . Therefore , thinning or removing these clouds would reduce their heat trapping capacity , resulting in a cooling effect on Earth 's climate . This could be a potential tool to reduce anthropogenic global warming . Cirrus cloud thinning is an alternative category of climate engineering , in addition to solar radiation management and greenhouse gas removal .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Cirrus_cloud_thinning", "rank": 4, "score": 112332 }, { "content": "Title: Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System Content: Clouds and the Earth 's Radiant Energy System ( CERES ) is NASA climatological experiment from Earth orbit . The CERES are scientific satellite instruments , part of the NASA 's Earth Observing System ( EOS ) , designed to measure both solar-reflected and Earth-emitted radiation from the top of the atmosphere ( TOA ) to the Earth 's surface . Cloud properties are determined using simultaneous measurements by other EOS instruments such as the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) . Results from the CERES and other NASA missions , such as the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment ( ERBE ) , could lead to a better understanding of the role of clouds and the energy cycle in global climate change .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Clouds_and_the_Earth's_Radiant_Energy_System", "rank": 5, "score": 109835 }, { "content": "Title: Twomey effect Content: The Twomey effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase the amount of solar radiation reflected by clouds . This is an indirect effect . Aerosol particles can act as CCN 's creating more droplets which have a smaller size distribution . The reduction in size distribution increases the Optical depth of the cloud . This increases the cloud albedo as clouds appear whiter and larger , leading to a cooling of between -0.3 and -1.8 Wm − 2 . For example , on satellite imagery we observe trails of white clouds from ships crossing the oceans due to this effect .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Twomey_effect", "rank": 6, "score": 109506 }, { "content": "Title: Ceiling projector Content: The ceiling projector or cloud searchlight is used to measure the height of the base of clouds ( called the ceiling ) above the ground . It is used in conjunction with an alidade , usually positioned 1000 ft ( 304.8 m ) away and wherever possible set at the same level . The projector is normally set at 90 ° , although 71 ° 31 ' may be used , in relation to the terrain . The projector consists of a 430 W incandescent bulb set in a weatherproof housing . Inside the housing are two mirrors ; the first , above the bulb , reflects the light downwards to the second mirror , that then reflects the light upwards to the cloud . Both mirrors are focused to produce a high intensity beam of light that renders a visible spot on the base of the cloud . The alidade is mounted on a post at a height of 5 ft ( 1.524 m ) from the ground . It consists of an arm with a pointer and open sight at one end and a rubber eyepiece at the other . The arm is mounted onto a curved scale that is marked both in meters and the coded cloud height ( feet ) . The observer looks through the eyepiece and sets the sight onto the spot projected on the cloud and reads the height from the attached scale . When the cloud is thin the beam of light may penetrate into the cloud . The observer should read the scale where the light first enters the cloud and not at the top . However , a remark may be made as to how far into the cloud the light was able to penetrate as this may be useful . In the case of fog or blizzard conditions the observer should read the scale where the beam disappears .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Ceiling_projector", "rank": 7, "score": 108944 }, { "content": "Title: Radiant flux Content: In radiometry , radiant flux or radiant power is the radiant energy emitted , reflected , transmitted or received , per unit time , and spectral flux or spectral power is the radiant flux per unit frequency or wavelength , depending on whether the spectrum is taken as a function of frequency or of wavelength . The SI unit of radiant flux is the watt ( W ) , that is the joule per second in SI base units , while that of spectral flux in frequency is the watt per hertz and that of spectral flux in wavelength is the watt per metre -- commonly the watt per nanometre .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Radiant_flux", "rank": 8, "score": 108283 }, { "content": "Title: Radiative forcing Content: Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation ( sunlight ) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space . Typically , radiative forcing is quantified at the tropopause in units of watts per square meter of the Earth 's surface . Positive forcing ( incoming energy exceeding outgoing energy ) warms the system , while negative forcing ( outgoing energy exceeding incoming energy ) cools it . Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the concentrations of radiatively active gases , commonly known as greenhouse gases and aerosols .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Radiative_forcing", "rank": 9, "score": 107566 }, { "content": "Title: Albrecht effect Content: The Albrecht effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei ( CCN ) , possibly from anthropogenic pollution , may increase cloud lifetime and hence increase the amount of solar radiation reflected from clouds . Because it does not directly interact with incoming or outgoing radiation , it has an indirect effect on climate . Aerosol particles act as CCNs creating more droplets of a smaller size . These take more time to coalesce to raindrop size ( > 100μm ) , reducing precipitation efficiency and hence increasing the lifetime of the cloud . The increased scattering of incoming radiation leads to a cooling of -0.3 to -1.4 Wm − 2 . This effect is not as well understood as the Twomey effect . There are many other effects , indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects resulting in a large uncertainty in the radiative forcing due to aerosols .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Albrecht_effect", "rank": 10, "score": 107142 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Cloud_feedback", "rank": 11, "score": 107081 }, { "content": "Title: Stefan–Boltzmann law Content: The Stefan -- Boltzmann law describes the power radiated from a black body in terms of its temperature . Specifically , the Stefan -- Boltzmann law states that the total energy radiated per unit surface area of a black body across all wavelengths per unit time ( also known as the black-body radiant emittance or radiant exitance ) , , is directly proportional to the fourth power of the black body 's thermodynamic temperature T : The constant of proportionality σ , called the Stefan -- Boltzmann constant derives from other known constants of nature . The value of the constant is where k is the Boltzmann constant , h is Planck 's constant , and c is the speed of light in a vacuum . Thus at 100 K the energy flux is 5.67 W/m2 , at 1000 K 56,700 W/m2 , etc. . The radiance ( watts per square metre per steradian ) is given by A body that does not absorb all incident radiation ( sometimes known as a grey body ) emits less total energy than a black body and is characterized by an emissivity , : The irradiance has dimensions of energy flux ( energy per time per area ) , and the SI units of measure are joules per second per square metre , or equivalently , watts per square metre . The SI unit for absolute temperature T is the kelvin . is the emissivity of the grey body ; if it is a perfect blackbody , . In the still more general ( and realistic ) case , the emissivity depends on the wavelength , . To find the total power radiated from an object , multiply by its surface area , : Wavelength - and subwavelength-scale particles , metamaterials , and other nanostructures are not subject to ray-optical limits and may be designed to exceed the Stefan -- Boltzmann law .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Stefan–Boltzmann_law", "rank": 12, "score": 106603 }, { "content": "Title: Irradiance Content: In radiometry , irradiance is the radiant flux ( power ) received by a surface per unit area . The SI unit of irradiance is the watt per square metre . The CGS unit erg per square centimetre per second is often used in astronomy . Irradiance is often called `` intensity '' in branches of physics other than radiometry , but in radiometry this usage leads to confusion with radiant intensity . Spectral irradiance is the irradiance of a surface per unit frequency or wavelength , depending on whether the spectrum is taken as a function of frequency or of wavelength . The two forms have different dimensions : spectral irradiance of a frequency spectrum is measured in watts per square metre per hertz ( W · m − 2 · Hz − 1 ) , while spectral irradiance of a wavelength spectrum is measured in watts per square metre per metre ( W · m − 3 ) , or more commonly watts per square metre per nanometre .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Irradiance", "rank": 13, "score": 105518 }, { "content": "Title: List of monitored photovoltaic power stations Content: Photovoltaic power stations can range in size from a single 200 Watt panel ( 0.2 kW ) to over 500 MW ( 500,000 kW ) . A 200 Watt panel measures about 1 m by 1.5 m depending on the efficiency of the panel - an 8 % efficient solar panel has twice the area of a 16 % efficient panel , to be able to put out the same nominal power at Standard Test Conditions of 1 kW/m ² illumination . A 2 kW system will fit on the roof of a small house , while a 2 MW system ( 2000 kW ) is football field sized . Utility scale solar farms are much larger - a 500 MW solar farm covers an area roughly one to two kilometers on each side . Photovoltaics is a variable renewable energy ( VRE ) , unlike hydroelectricity or geothermal , and much of the output must be buffered or stored for when it can be used . During an overcast day , the peak output never reaches a level close to what is reached on a clear day . On a partly cloudy day , output varies dramatically as clouds cover the array , and each time the sun shines through the output jumps up to what it would have been on a clear day . Latitude dramatically affects the annual output , with output dropping to zero in winter north and south of the arctic circles . At other latitudes lower sun angles reduce output in winter . Another factor is cleaning the panels . Google 's output doubled when its flat mounted panels were cleaned after 15 months of operation . Rain was sufficient to keep the tilted panels clean . This article serves as a virtual map of photovoltaic power station performance in all regions of the planet . It is a representative , not an inclusive list , as there are tens of thousands of systems that could be used . The goal is to have at least one system for every region , and preferably three systems from each region , to allow comparison .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "List_of_monitored_photovoltaic_power_stations", "rank": 14, "score": 104854 }, { "content": "Title: Radiosity (radiometry) Content: In radiometry , radiosity is the radiant flux leaving ( emitted , reflected and transmitted by ) a surface per unit area , and spectral radiosity is the radiosity of a surface per unit frequency or wavelength , depending on whether the spectrum is taken as a function of frequency or of wavelength . The SI unit of radiosity is the watt per square metre , while that of spectral radiosity in frequency is the watt per square metre per hertz ( W · m − 2 · Hz − 1 ) and that of spectral radiosity in wavelength is the watt per square metre per metre ( W · m − 3 ) -- commonly the watt per square metre per nanometre . The CGS unit erg per square centimeter per second is often used in astronomy . Radiosity is often called `` intensity '' in branches of physics other than radiometry , but in radiometry this usage leads to confusion with radiant intensity .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Radiosity_(radiometry)", "rank": 15, "score": 103992 }, { "content": "Title: Radiance Content: In radiometry , radiance is the radiant flux emitted , reflected , transmitted or received by a given surface , per unit solid angle per unit projected area . Spectral radiance is the radiance of a surface per unit frequency or wavelength , depending on whether the spectrum is taken as a function of frequency or of wavelength . These are directional quantities . The SI unit of radiance is the watt per steradian per square metre , while that of spectral radiance in frequency is the watt per steradian per square metre per hertz and that of spectral radiance in wavelength is the watt per steradian per square metre , per metre -- commonly the watt per steradian per square metre per nanometre . The microflick is also used to measure spectral radiance in some fields . Radiance is used to characterize diffuse emission and reflection of electromagnetic radiation , or to quantify emission of neutrinos and other particles . Historically , radiance is called `` intensity '' and spectral radiance is called `` specific intensity '' . Many fields still use this nomenclature . It is especially dominant in heat transfer , astrophysics and astronomy . `` Intensity '' has many other meanings in physics , with the most common being power per unit area .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Radiance", "rank": 16, "score": 103897 }, { "content": "Title: Cumulus cloud Content: Cumulo - means `` heap '' or `` pile '' in Latin . Cumulus clouds are often described as `` puffy '' , `` cotton-like '' or `` fluffy '' in appearance , and have flat bases . Cumulus clouds , being low-level clouds , are generally less than 2,000 m ( 6,600 ft ) in altitude unless they are the more vertical cumulus congestus form . Cumulus clouds may appear by themselves , in lines , or in clusters . Cumulus clouds are often precursors of other types of cloud , such as cumulonimbus , when influenced by weather factors such as instability , moisture , and temperature gradient . Normally , cumulus clouds produce little or no precipitation , but they can grow into the precipitation-bearing congestus or cumulonimbus clouds . Cumulus clouds can be formed from water vapor , supercooled water droplets , or ice crystals , depending upon the ambient temperature . They come in many distinct subforms , and generally cool the earth by reflecting the incoming solar radiation . Cumulus clouds are part of the larger category of free-convective cumuliform clouds , which include cumulonimbus clouds . The latter genus-type is sometimes categorized separately as cumulonimbiform due to its more complex structure that often includes a cirriform or anvil top . There are also cumuliform clouds of limited convection that comprise stratocumulus ( low-étage ) , altocumulus ( middle-étage ) and cirrocumulus . ( high-étage ) . These last three genus-types are sometimes classified separately as stratocumuliform .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Cumulus_cloud", "rank": 17, "score": 103665 }, { "content": "Title: Poynting vector Content: In physics , the Poynting vector represents the directional energy flux density ( the rate of energy transfer per unit area ) of an electromagnetic field . The SI unit of the Poynting vector is the watt per square metre ( W/m2 ) . It is named after its discoverer John Henry Poynting who first derived it in 1884 . Oliver Heaviside and Nikolay Umov also independently discovered the Poynting vector .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Poynting_vector", "rank": 18, "score": 102828 }, { "content": "Title: Cloudburst Content: A cloudburst is an extreme amount of precipitation in a short period of time , sometimes accompanied by hail and thunder , that is capable of creating flood conditions . A cloudburst can suddenly dump large amounts of water e.g. 25 mm of precipitation corresponds to 25000 metric tons/km2 ( 1 inch corresponds to 72,300 short tons over one square mile ) . However , cloudbursts are infrequent as they occur only via orographic lift or occasionally when a warm air parcel mixes with cooler air , resulting in sudden condensation . At times , a large amount of runoff from higher elevations is mistakenly conflated with a cloudburst . The term `` cloudburst '' arose from the notion that clouds were akin to water balloons and could burst , resulting in rapid precipitation . Though this idea has since been disproven , the term remains in use .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Cloudburst", "rank": 19, "score": 102657 }, { "content": "Title: Flick (physics) Content: In optical engineering and telecommunications engineering , the flick is a unit of spectral radiance . One flick corresponds to a spectral radiance of 1 watt per steradian per square centimeter of surface per micrometer of span in wavelength ( W · sr − 1 · cm − 2 · μm − 1 ) . This is equivalent to 1010 watts per steradian per cubic meter ( W · sr − 1 · m − 3 ) . In practice , spectral radiance is typically measured in microflicks ( 10 − 6 flicks ) . One microflick is equivalent to 10 kilowatts per steradian per cubic meter ( kW · sr − 1 · m − 3 ) .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Flick_(physics)", "rank": 20, "score": 101205 }, { "content": "Title: Cloudbuster Content: A cloudbuster ( or cloud buster ) is a pseudoscientific device designed by Austrian psychoanalyst Wilhelm Reich ( 1897 -- 1957 ) , which Reich said could produce rain by manipulating what he called `` orgone energy '' present in the atmosphere . The cloudbuster was intended to be used in a way similar to a lightning rod : focusing it on a location in the sky and grounding it in some material that was presumed to absorb orgone -- such as a body of water -- would draw the orgone energy out of the atmosphere , causing the formation of clouds and rain . Reich conducted dozens of experiments with the cloudbuster , calling the research `` Cosmic orgone engineering '' .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Cloudbuster", "rank": 21, "score": 100057 }, { "content": "Title: Panel generation factor Content: Panel generation factor ( PGF ) is used while calculating the size of solar photovoltaic cells . It is a varying factor depending upon the climate of the site location ( depending upon global geographic location ) . For example : in Thailand it is 3.43 , in EU countries it is 2.93 , etc. . This factor is used in calculation of `` Total Watt-Peak Rating '' while designing the size of solar photovoltaic cells . Therefore , `` Total Watt-Peak Rating '' = `` Total Watt-hours per day needed/generated from the PV modules '' divided by `` PGF '' . `` Total Watt-Hours per Day '' = `` Total Watt-hours per day needed by appliances '' Multiplied by `` 1.3 times '' ( the energy lost in the system ) . Now , to calculate `` size of PV cells '' OR `` number of PV cells '' just divide the above obtained `` Total Watt-Peak Rating '' by `` Watt-Peak of each cell OR Watt-Peak of each square meter size '' , whichever is convenient . Category : Photovoltaics", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Panel_generation_factor", "rank": 22, "score": 99839 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud Strife Content: is a fictional character and the main protagonist of Square 's ( now Square Enix 's ) role-playing video game Final Fantasy VII and several of its sequels and spin-offs . He was designed by Tetsuya Nomura , a character artist for the Final Fantasy series , whose role expanded during the title 's development to include supervision over Cloud 's personality . Yoshinori Kitase , director of VII , and Kazushige Nojima , one of the game 's event planners , developed the story and wanted to create a mysterious character who acted atypically for a hero . After VII , Nomura assumed greater responsibility over Cloud 's development , and his design was revised to better conform with the series ' shift to a more realistic style . Cloud 's appearance is marked by spiky blond hair , striking blue eyes , dark clothing and his ; the sword previously belonged to his friend , Zack Fair . He stands 173 cm ( 5 ft 8 in ) tall . In Final Fantasy VII , Cloud is a mercenary claiming to be formerly of SOLDIER , a group of elite supersoldiers employed by the Shinra Electric Power Company , a megacorporation responsible for draining the life from the planet . Fighting against Shinra in the resistance group AVALANCHE , and driven by a feud with the primary antagonist , Sephiroth , Cloud learns to accept his troubled past and adapts to his role as a leader . Cloud reappears as the protagonist in the computer-animated film , Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children , which serves as a sequel to the original game . He acts in a supporting role in other Compilation of Final Fantasy VII titles , and is featured in several other games outside the Final Fantasy VII continuity , such as Ehrgeiz , Final Fantasy Tactics , Itadaki Street Special , Dissidia Final Fantasy , Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U , and the Kingdom Hearts series . Cloud has garnered a primarily positive reception from critics . Described as `` iconic '' , Cloud has been cited favorably as an example of complex character writing in video games and as one of its first unreliable narrators . He has ranked highly in various character lists compiled by video game publications , and remains popular among fans , continuing to place highly in popularity polls conducted by Famitsu , Guinness , and other organizations . He has also become the basis for a variety of merchandise , such as action figures and jewelry .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Cloud_Strife", "rank": 23, "score": 96888 }, { "content": "Title: Radiant intensity Content: In radiometry , radiant intensity is the radiant flux emitted , reflected , transmitted or received , per unit solid angle , and spectral intensity is the radiant intensity per unit frequency or wavelength , depending on whether the spectrum is taken as a function of frequency or of wavelength . These are directional quantities . The SI unit of radiant intensity is the watt per steradian , while that of spectral intensity in frequency is the watt per steradian per hertz and that of spectral intensity in wavelength is the watt per steradian per metre -- commonly the watt per steradian per nanometre . Radiant intensity is distinct from irradiance and radiant exitance , which are often called intensity in branches of physics other than radiometry . In radio-frequency engineering , radiant intensity is sometimes called radiation intensity .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Radiant_intensity", "rank": 24, "score": 96717 }, { "content": "Title: Pyrheliometer Content: A pyrheliometer is an instrument for measurement of direct beam solar irradiance . Sunlight enters the instrument through a window and is directed onto a thermopile which converts heat to an electrical signal that can be recorded . The signal voltage is converted via a formula to measure watts per square metre . It is used with a solar tracking system to keep the instrument aimed at the sun . A pyrheliometer is often used in the same setup with a pyranometer .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Pyrheliometer", "rank": 25, "score": 96712 }, { "content": "Title: Reflection nebula Content: In astronomy , reflection nebulae are clouds of interstellar dust which might reflect the light of a nearby star or stars . The energy from the nearby stars is insufficient to ionize the gas of the nebula to create an emission nebula , but is enough to give sufficient scattering to make the dust visible . Thus , the frequency spectrum shown by reflection nebulae is similar to that of the illuminating stars . Among the microscopic particles responsible for the scattering are carbon compounds ( e. g. diamond dust ) and compounds of other elements such as iron and nickel . The latter two are often aligned with the galactic magnetic field and cause the scattered light to be slightly polarized .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Reflection_nebula", "rank": 26, "score": 96481 }, { "content": "Title: After the Deluge (painting) Content: After the Deluge , also known as The Forty-First Day , is a Symbolist oil painting by English artist George Frederic Watts , first exhibited as The Sun in an incomplete form in 1886 and completed in 1891 . It shows a scene from the story of Noah 's Flood , in which after 40 days of rain Noah opens the window of his Ark to see that the rain has stopped . Watts felt that modern society was in decline owing to a lack of moral values , and he often painted works on the topic of the Flood and its cleansing of the unworthy from the world . The painting takes the form of a stylised seascape , dominated by a bright sunburst breaking through clouds . Although this was a theme Watts had depicted previously in The Genius of Greek Poetry in 1878 , After the Deluge took a radically different approach . With this painting he intended to evoke a monotheistic God in the act of creation , but avoid depicting the Creator directly . The unfinished painting was exhibited in Whitechapel in 1886 , under the intentionally simplified title of The Sun . Watts worked on the painting for a further five years , and the completed version was exhibited for the first time at the New Gallery in 1891 . Between 1902 and 1906 the painting was exhibited around the United Kingdom , and it is now in the collection of the Watts Gallery in Compton , Surrey . As Watts did not include After the Deluge in his gift to the nation of what he considered his most significant works , it is not among his better-known paintings . However , it was greatly admired by many of Watts 's fellow artists , and has been cited as an influence on numerous other painters who worked in the two decades following its initial exhibition .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "After_the_Deluge_(painting)", "rank": 27, "score": 96358 }, { "content": "Title: Wattmeter Content: The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power ( or the supply rate of electrical energy ) in watts of any given circuit . Electromagnetic wattmeters are used for measurement of utility frequency and audio frequency power ; other types are required for radio frequency measurements .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Wattmeter", "rank": 28, "score": 95618 }, { "content": "Title: Marine cloud brightening Content: Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Marine_cloud_brightening", "rank": 29, "score": 95291 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Turbine Plants Content: A solar turbine power plant uses the energy in solar radiation captured by so-called solar collectors . Solar power is a renewable source of energy . The solar radiant energy reaching the earth 's surface is around 1.783 * 1014 KJ or 1.353 kJ/s per square meter . Solar power plants , such as the Blythe Solar Power Project , operate mainly on closed power cycles : Rankine cycles ( for low temperature ranges ) and Brayton cycles ( for high temperature ranges ) . Solar plants provide energy ranging from a few kilowatts to a few megawatts . The constraints associated with solar plants are size , space , high capital cost , and the inevitable fluctuations in the daily supply of solar radiant energy .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Solar_Turbine_Plants", "rank": 30, "score": 94353 }, { "content": "Title: Focal cloud Content: A focal cloud is the collection of focal points of an imperfect lens or parabolic reflector whether optical , electrostatic or electromagnetic . This includes parabolic antennas and lens-type reflective antennas of all kinds . The effect is analogous to the circle of confusion in photography . In a perfect lens or parabolic reflector , rays parallel to the device 's axis striking the lens or reflector all pass through a single point , the focal point . In an imperfectly constructed lens or reflector , rays passing through different parts of the element do not converge to a single point but have different focal points . The set of these focal points forms a region called the focal cloud . The diameter of the focal cloud determines the maximum resolution of the optical system . Lens-reflector artifacts , geometry and other imperfections determine the actual diameter of the focal cloud .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Focal_cloud", "rank": 31, "score": 94103 }, { "content": "Title: KKCL (AM) Content: KKCL is a commercial radio station licensed to Golden , Colorado , and serving the Denver/Boulder media market . The station airs a modern AC/adult album alternative format branded as The Cloud . The station had previously spent time as a sports radio station and a cannabis culture-themed classic rock station known as Smokin ' 94.1 . On April 30 , 2015 KKCL was granted a Federal Communications Commission construction permit to increase day power to 5,000 watts . Because 1550 kHz is a clear channel frequency reserved for Canada and Mexico , KKCL 's night power is limited . To improve its coverage , programming also airs on an FM translator , K245AD at 96.9 MHz .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "KKCL_(AM)", "rank": 32, "score": 93671 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal transmittance Content: Thermal transmittance , also known as U-value , is the rate of transfer of heat ( in watts ) through one square metre of a structure , divided by the difference in temperature across the structure . It is expressed in watts per square metre kelvin , or W/m ² K. Well-insulated parts of a building have a low thermal transmittance whereas poorly insulated parts of a building have a high thermal transmittance . Losses due to thermal radiation , thermal convection and thermal conduction are taken into account in the U-value . Although it has the same units as heat transfer coefficient , thermal transmittance is different in that the heat transfer coefficient is used to solely describe heat transfer in fluids while thermal transmittance is used to simplify an equation that has several different forms of thermal resistances . It is described by the equation : Φ = A × U × ( T1 - T2 ) where Φ is the heat transfer in watts , U is the thermal transmittance , T1 is the temperature on one side of the structure , T2 is the temperature on the other side of the structure and A is the area in square metres . Thermal transmittances of most walls and roofs can be calculated using ISO 6946 , unless there is metal bridging the insulation in which case it can be calculated using ISO 10211 . For most ground floors it can be calculated using ISO 13370 . For most windows the thermal transmittance can be calculated using ISO 10077 or ISO 15099 . ISO 9869 describes how to measure the thermal transmittance of a structure experimentally . triple glazed windows , with advanced coatings and frames : 0.8 W/m ² · K ; well-insulated roofs : 0.15 W/m ² · K ; poorly insulated roofs : 1.0 W/m ² · K ; well-insulated walls : 0.25 W/m ² · K ; poorly insulated walls : 1.5 W/m ² · K ; well-insulated floors : 0.2 W/m ² · K ; poorly insulated floors : 1.0 W/m ² · K ; In practice the thermal transmittance is strongly affected by the quality of workmanship and if insulation is fitted poorly , the thermal transmittance can be considerably higher than if insulation is fitted well", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Thermal_transmittance", "rank": 33, "score": 93589 }, { "content": "Title: Kombayashi–Ingersoll limit Content: In planetary science , the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit represents the maximum solar flux a planet can handle without a runaway greenhouse effect setting in . For planets with temperature-dependent sources of greenhouse gases such as liquid water and optically thin atmospheres the outgoing longwave radiation curve ( which indicates how fast energy can be radiated away by the planet ) flattens at high temperatures , reaching a horizontal asymptote -- the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit itself . Since the equilibrium temperature is the intersection of this curve and a horizontal line representing solar flux , for fluxes above this point the planet heats up indefinitely . Kasting estimated the limit for Earth to be 320 watts per square meter . The limit is relevant for estimating the inner edge of the circumstellar habitable zone . However , the limit also depends on the surface gravity of the planet , making heavy worlds somewhat more resistant to the runaway effect .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Kombayashi–Ingersoll_limit", "rank": 34, "score": 93503 }, { "content": "Title: Lux Content: The lux ( symbol : lx ) is the SI unit of illuminance and luminous emittance , measuring luminous flux per unit area . It is equal to one lumen per square metre . In photometry , this is used as a measure of the intensity , as perceived by the human eye , of light that hits or passes through a surface . It is analogous to the radiometric unit watt per square metre , but with the power at each wavelength weighted according to the luminosity function , a standardized model of human visual brightness perception . In English , `` lux '' is used as both the singular and plural form .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Lux", "rank": 35, "score": 93194 }, { "content": "Title: Watt Content: The watt ( symbol : W ) is a derived unit of power in the International System of Units ( SI ) defined as 1 joule per second and can be used to quantify the rate of energy transfer . Power has dimensions of .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Watt", "rank": 36, "score": 92759 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud iridescence Content: Cloud iridescence is the occurrence of colors in a cloud similar to those seen in oil films on puddles , located in the general vicinity of the sun or moon . It is a fairly common phenomenon , most often observed in altocumulus , cirrocumulus , lenticular clouds and cirrus clouds . The colors are usually pastel , but can be very vivid . When occurring near the sun , the effect can be difficult to spot as it is drowned in the sun 's glare . This may be overcome by blocking the sun with one 's hand or hiding it behind a tree or building . Other aids are dark glasses , or observing the sky reflected in a convex mirror or in a pool of water . The effect is similar to irisation . Iridescent clouds are a diffraction phenomenon caused by small water droplets or small ice crystals individually scattering light . Larger ice crystals do not produce iridescence , but can cause halos , a different phenomenon . If parts of clouds contain small water droplets or ice crystals of similar size , their cumulative effect is seen as colors . The cloud must be optically thin , so that most rays encounter only a single droplet . Iridescence is therefore mostly seen at cloud edges or in semi-transparent clouds , while newly forming clouds produce the brightest and most colorful iridescence . When the particles in a thin cloud are very similar in size over a large extent , the iridescence takes on the structured form of a corona , a circular bright disk around the sun or moon , surrounded by one or more colored rings .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Cloud_iridescence", "rank": 37, "score": 92496 }, { "content": "Title: Anthropogenic cloud Content: An anthropogenic or artificial cloud , is a cloud induced by human activity . Although generally clouds covering the sky have only a natural origin , from the beginning of the Industrial Revolution , the use of fossil fuels and water vapor and other gases emitted by nuclear , thermal and geothermal power plants yield significant alterations of the local weather conditions . These new atmospheric conditions can thus enhance cloud formation . Homogenitus is the term used to designate the origin of clouds produced by human activities . Various methods have been proposed for creating and utilizing this weather phenomenon . Experiments have also been carried out for various studies . For example , Russian scientists have been studying artificial clouds for more than 50 years . But by far the greatest number of anthropogenic clouds are airplane contrails ( condensation trails ) and rocket trails .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Anthropogenic_cloud", "rank": 38, "score": 92444 }, { "content": "Title: Radiant exitance Content: In radiometry , radiant exitance or radiant emittance is the radiant flux emitted by a surface per unit area , whereas spectral exitance or spectral emittance is the radiant exitance of a surface per unit frequency or wavelength , depending on whether the spectrum is taken as a function of frequency or of wavelength . This is the emitted component of radiosity . The SI unit of radiant exitance is the watt per square metre , while that of spectral exitance in frequency is the watt per square metre per hertz ( W · m − 2 · Hz − 1 ) and that of spectral exitance in wavelength is the watt per square metre per metre ( W · m − 3 ) -- commonly the watt per square metre per nanometre . The CGS unit erg per square centimeter per second is often used in astronomy . Radiant exitance is often called `` intensity '' in branches of physics other than radiometry , but in radiometry this usage leads to confusion with radiant intensity .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Radiant_exitance", "rank": 39, "score": 91581 }, { "content": "Title: Sound intensity Content: Sound intensity also known as acoustic intensity is defined as the power carried by sound waves per unit area . The SI unit of intensity , which includes sound intensity , is the watt per square meter ( W/m2 ) . One application is the noise measurement of sound intensity in the air at a listener 's location as a sound energy quantity . Sound intensity is not the same physical quantity as sound pressure . Hearing is directly sensitive to sound pressure which is related to sound intensity . In consumer audio electronics , the level differences are called `` intensity '' differences , but sound intensity is a specifically defined quantity and can not be sensed by a simple microphone . The rate at which sound energy passes through a unit area held perpendicular to the direction of propagation of sound waves is called intensity of sound .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Sound_intensity", "rank": 40, "score": 91173 }, { "content": "Title: Millimeter cloud radar Content: Millimeter-wave cloud radars , also denominated cloud radars , are radar systems designed to monitor clouds with operating frequencies between 24 and 110 GHz ( Table 1 ) . Accordingly , their wavelengths range from 1 mm to 1.11 cm , about ten times shorter than those used in conventional S band radars such as NEXRAD .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Millimeter_cloud_radar", "rank": 41, "score": 90793 }, { "content": "Title: Electromagnetic environment Content: In telecommunication , the term electromagnetic environment ( EME ) has the following meanings : For a telecommunications system , the spatial distribution of electromagnetic fields surrounding a given site . The electromagnetic environment may be expressed in terms of the spatial and temporal distribution of electric field strength ( volts per metre ) , irradiance ( watts per square metre ) , or energy density ( joules per cubic metre ) . The resulting product of the power and time distribution , in various frequency ranges , of the radiated or conducted electromagnetic emission levels that may be encountered by a military force , system , or platform when performing its assigned mission in its intended operational environment . It is the sum of electromagnetic interference ; electromagnetic pulse ; hazards of electromagnetic radiation to personnel , ordnance , and volatile materials ; and natural phenomena effects of lightning and p-static .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Electromagnetic_environment", "rank": 42, "score": 90743 }, { "content": "Title: 2000-watt society Content: The 2000-watt society is an environmental vision , first introduced in 1998 by the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich ( ETH Zurich ) , which pictures the average First World citizen reducing their overall average primary energy usage to no more than 2,000 watts ( 48 kilowatt-hours per day ) by the year 2050 -- and without lowering their standard of living . The concept addresses not only personal or household energy use , but the total for the whole society , including embodied energy , divided by the population . Two thousand watts is approximately the current world average rate of total primary energy use . This compares to averages of around 6,000 watts in western Europe , 12,000 watts in the United States , 1,500 watts in China , 1,000 watts in India , 500 watts in South Africa and only 300 watts in Bangladesh . Switzerland itself , currently using an average of around 5,000 watts , was last a 2000-watt society in the 1960s . It is further envisaged that the use of carbon based fuels would be ultimately cut to no more than 500 watts per person within 50 to 100 years . The vision was developed in response to concerns about climate change , energy security , and the future availability of energy supplies . It is supported by the Swiss Federal Office of Energy , the Association of Swiss Architects and Engineers , and other bodies .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "2000-watt_society", "rank": 43, "score": 90676 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud Content: In meteorology , a cloud is an aerosol comprising a visible mass of minute liquid droplets , frozen crystals , or particles suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of a planetary body . The droplets and crystals may be made of water or various chemicals . On Earth , clouds are formed as a result of saturation of the air when it is cooled to its dew point , or when it gains sufficient moisture ( usually in the form of water vapor ) from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the ambient temperature . They are seen in the Earth 's homosphere ( which includes the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere ) . Nephology is the science of clouds which is undertaken in the cloud physics branch of meteorology . There are two systems of naming clouds in their respective layers of the atmosphere ; Latin in the troposphere and mostly alpha-numeric above the troposphere . Cloud types in the troposphere , the atmospheric layer closest to Earth 's surface , have Latin names due to the universal adaptation of Luke Howard 's nomenclature . Formally proposed in 1802 , it became the basis of a modern international system that classifies clouds into five physical forms and three altitude levels ( formerly known as étages ) . These physical types , in approximate ascending order of convective activity , include stratiform sheets , cirriform wisps and patches , stratocumuliform layers ( mainly structured as rolls , ripples , and patches ) , cumuliform heaps , and very large cumulonimbiform heaps that often show complex structure . The physical forms are cross-classified by the altitude levels to produce ten basic genus-types , most of which can be divided into species , and subdivided into varieties . Two cirriform clouds that form higher up in the stratosphere and mesosphere have common names for their main types , but are sub-classified alpha-numerically . They are relatively uncommon and are mostly seen in the polar regions of Earth . Clouds have been observed in the atmospheres of other planets and moons in the Solar System and beyond . However , due to their different temperature characteristics , they are often composed of other substances such as methane , ammonia , and sulfuric acid as well as water . Homospheric types determined by cross-classification of forms and levels . '' Homospheric types include the ten tropospheric genera and two additional major types above the troposphere . The cumulus genus includes three variants as defined by vertical size .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Cloud", "rank": 44, "score": 90389 }, { "content": "Title: Jansky Content: The jansky ( symbol Jy ) is a non-SI unit of spectral flux density , or spectral irradiance , used especially in radio astronomy . It is equivalent to 10 − 26 watts per square metre per hertz . The flux density or monochromatic flux , , of a source is the integral of the spectral radiance , , over the source solid angle : The unit is named after pioneering US radio astronomer Karl Guthe Jansky and is defined as ( SI ) ( cgs ) . Since the jansky is obtained by integrating over the whole source solid angle , it is most simply used to describe point sources ; for example , the Third Cambridge Catalogue of Radio Sources ( 3C ) reports results in Jy . For extended sources , the surface brightness is often described with units of Jy per solid angle ; for example , far-infrared ( FIR ) maps from the IRAS satellite are in MJy/sr . Although extended sources at all wavelengths can be reported with these units , for radio-frequency maps , extended sources have traditionally been described in terms of a brightness temperature ; for example the Haslam et al. 408 MHz all-sky continuum survey is reported in terms of a brightness temperature in K.", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Jansky", "rank": 45, "score": 90197 }, { "content": "Title: Intensity (physics) Content: In physics , intensity is the power transferred per unit area , where the area is measured on the plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the energy . In the SI system , it has units watts per square metre ( W/m2 ) . It is used most frequently with waves ( e.g. sound or light ) , in which case the average power transfer over one period of the wave is used . Intensity can be applied to other circumstances where energy is transferred . For example , one could calculate the intensity of the kinetic energy carried by drops of water from a garden sprinkler . The word `` intensity '' as used here is not synonymous with `` strength '' , `` amplitude '' , `` magnitude '' , or `` level '' , as it sometimes is in colloquial speech . Intensity can be found by taking the energy density ( energy per unit volume ) at a point in space and multiplying it by the velocity at which the energy is moving . The resulting vector has the units of power divided by area ( i.e. , surface power density ) .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Intensity_(physics)", "rank": 46, "score": 90131 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud Peak Energy Content: Cloud Peak Energy Inc. . is a firm headquartered in Gillette , Wyoming which mines coal in the Powder River Basin . The company was formed as a corporate spin-off from Rio Tinto Energy America in 2009 . In its 2009 Annual Report Rio Tinto stated that it held a 48.3 % stake in Cloud Peak Energy and its directly owned mines . Cloud Peak Energy also has a 50 % stake in the Decker Coal Company , which operates the Decker Mine in Montana .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Cloud_Peak_Energy", "rank": 47, "score": 90023 }, { "content": "Title: George Aubourne Clarke Content: George Aubourne Clarke was a Scottish meteorologist , best known for his photographs of cloud types . From 1903 to 1943 he was the metereological observer at the Cromwell Tower Observatory at the University of Aberdeen . While there he made photographs of clouds , which were published in a book that became the standard reference for metereologists and the military . He was awarded the first Hood medal from the Royal Photographic Society in 1933 for his work as a photographer .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "George_Aubourne_Clarke", "rank": 48, "score": 90006 }, { "content": "Title: Etage Content: A cloud étage is a meterological term used to delimit any one of three main altitude levels in the troposphere where certain cloud types usually form . The term is derived from the French word which means floor or storey , as in the floor of a multi-storey building . With the exception of the low étage , the altitude range of each level varies according to latitude from Earth 's equator to the arctic and antarctic regions at the poles .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Etage", "rank": 49, "score": 89947 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud cover Content: Cloud cover ( also known as cloudiness , cloudage or cloud amount ) refers to the fraction of the sky obscured by clouds when observed from a particular location . Okta is the usual unit of measurement of the cloud cover . The cloud cover is correlated to the sunshine duration as the least cloudy locales are the sunniest ones while the cloudiest areas are the least sunny places . The global cloud cover averages around 0.68 when analysing clouds with optical depth larger than 0.1 . This value is lower when considering clouds with an optical depth larger than 2 ( 0.56 ) and higher when counting subvisible cirrus clouds .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Cloud_cover", "rank": 50, "score": 89790 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud harp Content: The cloud harp , also known as the Keplerian harp , is an open form sound installation which converts the forms of clouds into audio and musical sequences in real time . It was created by Nicholas Reeves and the NXI GESTATIO laboratory at UQAM in 1997 . The cloud harp works in a way very similar to how a CD player reads the information on a CD disc ; it contains an infrared laser , which is aimed at the sky , and a telescope which senses the reflected light . A computer program then chooses synthesized tones sampled from a variety of instruments , depending on the altitude and density of the clouds above the installation . Its creator describes it as a `` meteo-electronic instrument . '' A version of the cloud harp was exhibited at the Lyon Cité Sonore event in 2000 .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Cloud_harp", "rank": 51, "score": 89764 }, { "content": "Title: NGC 1990 Content: NGC 1990 is a reflection nebula which is a molecular cloud of Epsilon Orionis . The stellar winds from Epsilon Orionis , or Alnilam , distribute the nebula approximately up to 2,000 km/s , more than 20 million times that of the stellar winds of the Sun .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "NGC_1990", "rank": 52, "score": 89612 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud physics Content: Cloud physics is the study of the physical processes that lead to the formation , growth and precipitation of atmospheric clouds . These aerosols are found in the troposphere , stratosphere , and mesosphere , which collectively make up the greatest part of the homosphere . Clouds consist of microscopic droplets of liquid water ( warm clouds ) , tiny crystals of ice ( cold clouds ) , or both ( mixed phase clouds ) . Cloud droplets initially form by the condensation of water vapor onto condensation nuclei when the supersaturation of air exceeds a critical value according to Köhler theory . Cloud condensation nuclei are necessary for cloud droplets formation because of the Kelvin effect , which describes the change in saturation vapor pressure due to a curved surface . At small radii , the amount of supersaturation needed for condensation to occur is so large , that it does not happen naturally . Raoult 's Law describes how the vapor pressure is dependent on the amount of solute in a solution . At high concentrations , when the cloud droplets are small , the supersaturation required is smaller than without the presence of a nucleus . In warm clouds , larger cloud droplets fall at a higher terminal velocity ; because at a given velocity , the drag force per unit of droplet weight on smaller droplets is larger than on large droplets . The large droplets can then collide with small droplets and combine to form even larger drops . When the drops become large enough that their downward velocity ( relative to the surrounding air ) is greater than the upward velocity ( relative to the earth ) of the surrounding air , the drops can fall to the earth as precipitation . The collision and coalescence is not as important in mixed phase clouds where the Bergeron process dominates . Other important processes that form precipitation are riming , when a supercooled liquid drop collides with a solid snowflake , and aggregation , when two solid snowflakes collide and combine . The precise mechanics of how a cloud forms and grows is not completely understood , but scientists have developed theories explaining the structure of clouds by studying the microphysics of individual droplets . Advances in weather radar and satellite technology have also allowed the precise study of clouds on a large scale .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Cloud_physics", "rank": 53, "score": 89391 }, { "content": "Title: Watt-hour per kilogram Content: The watt-hour per kilogram ( SI abbreviation : W ⋅ h/kg ) is a unit of specific energy commonly used to measure the density of energy in batteries and capacitors . One watt-hour per kilogram is equal to 3600 joules per kilogram . Category : Units of energy Category : Mass", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Watt-hour_per_kilogram", "rank": 54, "score": 89287 }, { "content": "Title: Stratocumulus cloud Content: A stratocumulus cloud belongs to a genus-type of clouds characterized by large dark , rounded masses , usually in groups , lines , or waves , the individual elements being larger than those in altocumulus , and the whole being at a lower altitude , usually below 2,400 meters ( 8,000 ft ) . Weak convective currents create shallow cloud layers because of drier , stable air above preventing continued vertical development .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Stratocumulus_cloud", "rank": 55, "score": 88501 }, { "content": "Title: Solar constant Content: The solar constant , a measure of flux density , is the mean solar electromagnetic radiation ( the solar irradiance ) per unit area that would be incident on a plane perpendicular to the rays , at a distance of one astronomical unit ( AU ) from the Sun ( roughly the mean distance from the Sun to the Earth ) . The solar constant includes all types of solar radiation , not just the visible light . It is measured by satellite as being 1.361 kilowatts per square meter ( kW/m ² ) at solar minimum and approximately 0.1 % greater ( roughly 1.362 kW/m ² ) at solar maximum . The solar `` constant '' is not a physical constant in the modern CODATA scientific sense ; that is , it is not like the Planck constant or the speed of light , which are absolutely constant in physics . The solar constant is merely an average of the actually varying value . It has been shown to vary in the past 400 years over a range of less than 0.2 percent .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Solar_constant", "rank": 56, "score": 87680 }, { "content": "Title: Power meter Content: Power meter may refer to : Electricity meter measures electrical energy ( electrical power supplied to a residence , business or machine over time ) Wattmeter measures the electrical power circulating in any electric circuit Microwave power meter measures power in a microwave signal Optical power meter measures power in an optical signal Google PowerMeter is a tool to track a household 's energy usage A cycling power meter measures the power output of a bicycle rider", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Power_meter", "rank": 57, "score": 87615 }, { "content": "Title: Cumulus humilis cloud Content: Cumulus humilis is a cumuliform cloud with little vertical extent that is commonly referred to as `` fair weather cumulus '' and common in the summer . Though if they develop into cumulus mediocris cloud or the cumulus congestus cloud , thunderstorms could develop later in the day . It is generally classified as a low cloud but in hot countries and over mountainous terrains , these clouds occur at up to 6000 m altitude . Elsewhere they are typically found lower levels ( 500 -- 3000 m ( 1,500 -- 10,000 ft ) ) . They have a limited depth ( technically known as showing no significant vertical development ) . This indicates that the temperature in the atmosphere above them either drops off very slowly or not at all with altitude , depending on its lapse rate . Cumulus humilis may be accompanied by other cloud types , and they are commonly seen beneath cirrostratus clouds , created as the heat from the sun needed for convection begins to cool , causing cumuliform clouds to flatten and become cumulus humilis . In this case , a warm front could be approaching and this signals rain is imminent in the next 12 to 24 hours . When they appear in a clear sky ( see picture ) , they are an indicator of pleasant weather for the next several hours . Air below the cloud base can be quite turbulent , giving occupants of light aircraft an uncomfortable ride . To avoid turbulence where such clouds are present , pilots may climb above the cloud tops . However , glider pilots actively seek out the rising air to gain altitude . These clouds may later metamorphose into cumulus clouds under the right conditions , though the presence of these types of clouds usually indicate fair weather .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Cumulus_humilis_cloud", "rank": 58, "score": 87526 }, { "content": "Title: Light intensity Content: Several measures of light are commonly known as intensity : Radiant intensity , a radiometric quantity measured in watts per steradian ( W/sr ) Luminous intensity , a photometric quantity measured in lumens per steradian ( lm/sr ) , or candela ( cd ) Irradiance , a radiometric quantity , measured in watts per meter squared ( W/m2 ) Intensity ( physics ) , the name for irradiance used in other branches of physics ( W/m2 ) Radiance , commonly called `` intensity '' in astronomy and astrophysics ( W · sr − 1 · m − 2 )", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Light_intensity", "rank": 59, "score": 87477 }, { "content": "Title: Sound power Content: Sound power or acoustic power is the rate at which sound energy is emitted , reflected , transmitted or received , per unit time . The SI unit of sound power is the watt ( W ) . It is the power of the sound force on a surface of the medium of propagation of the sound wave . For a sound source , unlike sound pressure , sound power is neither room-dependent nor distance-dependent . Sound pressure is a measurement at a point in space near the source , while the sound power of a source is the total power emitted by that source in all directions . Sound power passing through an area is sometimes called sound flux or acoustic flux through that area .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Sound_power", "rank": 60, "score": 87102 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud top Content: The cloud top ( or the top of the cloud ) is the highest altitude of the visible portion of the cloud . It is traditionally expressed either in metres above the Earth ( or planetary ) surface , or as the corresponding pressure level in hectopascal ( hPa , equivalent to the traditional but now obsolete millibar ) .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Cloud_top", "rank": 61, "score": 86403 }, { "content": "Title: Brenkert Brenograph Jr. Content: The Brenkert Brenograph Jr. was a projector used in atmospheric theatres to project moving clouds over ceilings painted blue . The effect created the illusion that theatre patrons were outdoors . The device was used primarily in theatre designs of John Eberson . The machine was manufactured by the Brenkert Light Projection Company of Detroit . The company sold the projector for $ 225 in the 1920s . The projector operated automatically with a universal electrical motor , capable of varying speeds . It used a powerful 1500 watt light bulb to display nimbus and cumulus clouds . The clouds were images on a strip of negatives that moved continuously in front of the light . The negatives were affixed to a circular disc that rotated once every 105 minutes -- about the length of a typical performance . The projector was small enough to be hidden in the theatre architectural design so that the illusion of floating clouds would be maintained .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Brenkert_Brenograph_Jr.", "rank": 62, "score": 86251 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud (music) Content: In music a cloud is a sound mass consisting of statistical clouds of microsounds and characterized first by the set of elements used in the texture , secondly density , including rhythmic and pitch density . Clouds may include ambiguity of rhythmic foreground and background or rhythmic hierarchy . Examples include : Iannis Xenakis 's Concret PH ( 1958 ) , Bohor I ( 1962 ) , Persepolis ( 1971 ) , and many of his pieces for traditional instruments György Ligeti 's Clocks and Clouds ( 1972 -- 3 ) La Monte Young 's The Well Tuned Piano Bernard Parmegiani 's De natura sonorum ( 1975 ) Clouds are created and used often in granular synthesis . Musical clouds exist on the `` meso '' or formal time scale . Clouds allow for the interpentration of sound masses first described by Edgard Varèse including smooth mutation ( through crossfade ) , disintegration , and coalescence . Curtis Roads suggests a taxonomy of cloud morphology based on atmospheric clouds : cumulus , stratocumulus , stratus , nimbostratus , and cirrus ; as well as nebulae : dark or glowing , amorphus or ring-shaped , and constantly evolving .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Cloud_(music)", "rank": 63, "score": 86243 }, { "content": "Title: Water sky Content: Water sky is a phenomenon that is closely related to ice blink . It forms in regions with large areas of ice and low-lying clouds and so is limited mostly to the extreme northern and southern sections of earth , in Antarctica and in the Arctic . When light hits the blue oceans or seas , some of it bounces back and enables the observer to physically see the water . However , some of the light also is reflected back up on to the bottoms of low-lying clouds and causes a dark spot to appear underneath some clouds . These clouds may be visible when the seas are not and can show alert and knowledgeable travelers the general direction of water . The dark clouds over open water have long been used by polar explorers and scientists to navigate in sea ice . For example , Arctic explorer Fridtjof Nansen and his assistant Hjalmar Johansen used the phenomenon to find lanes of water in their failed expedition to the North Pole as did Bernacchi and Sir Douglas Mawson in the Antarctica .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Water_sky", "rank": 64, "score": 86149 }, { "content": "Title: Afterglow Content: An afterglow is a broad high arch of whitish or rosy light appearing in the sky due to very fine particles of dust suspended in the high regions of the atmosphere . An afterglow may appear above the highest clouds in the hour of deepening twilight , or reflected from the high snowfields in mountain regions long after sunset . The particles produce a scattering effect upon the component parts of white light . The true alpenglow , which occurs long after sunset or long before sunrise , is caused by the backscattering of red sunlight by aerosols and fine dust particles low in the atmosphere . It is an afterglow caused by direct illumination of atmospheric particles by sunlight as it refracts and gets scattered through the Earth 's atmosphere . The high-energy and high-frequency light is scattered out the most and the remaining low-energy , low-frequency reaches the observer in the horizon at twilight . The backscattering of this light further turns it pinkish-red . This period of time is referred to as the blue hour and is widely treasured by photographers and painters as it offers breathtaking imagery . The afterglow persists till the Earth 's shadow ( terminator line ) takes over the sky of the observer as nightfall and the stars appear , with planet Venus being the brightest object ( after the moon ) visible in the night sky just opposite to the Belt of Venus at the anti-solar point . After the eruption of the volcano Krakatoa in 1883 , a remarkable series of red sunsets appeared worldwide . These were due to an enormous amount of exceedingly fine dust blown to a great height by the volcano 's explosion , and then globally diffused by the high atmospheric currents . Edvard Munch 's painting The Scream possibly depicts an afterglow during this period .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Afterglow", "rank": 65, "score": 85938 }, { "content": "Title: Cloudworks Energy Content: Cloudworks Energy Inc. was a private , Vancouver-based run-of-river hydro developer formed in 1999 . The firm 's principals developed the 33MW Miller Creek run-of-river project ( subsequently sold to Capital Power Corporation ) and the 49.9 MW Rutherford Creek project ( subsequently sold to Innergex Renewable Energy ) . In 2011 Innergex Renewable Energy acquired Cloudworks Energy Inc. .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Cloudworks_Energy", "rank": 66, "score": 85575 }, { "content": "Title: Clouds (EP) Content: Clouds is a compilation of outtakes of music that was not included on the album lightdark , the latest album of the Italian progressive rock band Nosound .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Clouds_(EP)", "rank": 67, "score": 85129 }, { "content": "Title: Altocumulus castellanus cloud Content: Altocumulus Castellanus ( ACCAS ) is named for its tower-like projections that billow upwards from the base of the cloud . The base of the cloud can form as low as 2,000 metres ( 6,500 feet ) , or as high as 6,000 metres ( 20,000 feet ) , or 3296 Nm . They are very similar to cumulus congestus clouds , but at a higher level . Castellanus clouds are evidence of mid-atmospheric instability and a high mid-altitude lapse rate . They may be a harbinger of heavy showers and thunderstorms and , if surface-based convection can connect to the mid-tropospheric unstable layer , continued development of Castellanus clouds can produce cumulonimbus clouds . Altocumulus Castellanus clouds are typically accompanied by moderate turbulence as well as potential icing conditions . For these reasons , flight through Altocumulus Castellanus clouds is often best avoided by aircraft . The appearance of Altocumulus Castellanus early in a sunny day may indicate a high probability the formation of thunderstorms in the afternoon , as they may develop into cumulonimbus storm clouds .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Altocumulus_castellanus_cloud", "rank": 68, "score": 85097 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud height Content: The cloud height , more commonly known as cloud thickness or depth , is the distance between the cloud base and the cloud top . It is traditionally expressed either in metres or as a pressure difference in hectopascal ( hPa , equivalent to millibar ) . Sometimes , the expression cloud height is used instead of cloud base , in which case the context has to clarify whether the intent is to designate the height of the base of the cloud or the size of it .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Cloud_height", "rank": 69, "score": 84664 }, { "content": "Title: Altocumulus undulatus cloud Content: The altocumulus undulatus is a mid-level cloud ( about 8000 - 20,000 ft or 2400 - 6100 m ) , usually white or grey with layers or patches containing undulations that resemble `` waves '' or `` ripples '' in water . Elements within the cloud ( such as the edges of the undulations ) are generally darker than those in cirrocumulus and smaller than those in stratocumulus . These clouds may appear both as patches or as covering the sky . The width of these clouds is generally less than 300 feet ( 91.44 meters ) thick . The presence of altocumulus undulatus may indicate precipitation within the next 20 hours or simply an overcast day . As with other altocumulus , the undulatus variety can form in all seasons , announcing an approaching system within the general area ( about 100 - 200 mi or 160 - 322 km ) . They result from wind shear ( an abrupt speed or directional shifting in the wind , acutely changing with height ) . Lines one might see indicate the direction of the shear . In the southern United States , these formations may be the result of tropical or subtropical system outflow in a northern direction . They may also come from a southwestern monsoon making its way across the Western United States and Great Plains .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Altocumulus_undulatus_cloud", "rank": 70, "score": 84577 }, { "content": "Title: On the Manner of Addressing Clouds Content: `` On the Manner of Addressing Clouds '' is a poem from Wallace Stevens 's first book of poetry , Harmonium ( 1923 ) . It was first published in 1921 according to Librivox and is therefore in the public domain . One reading is that the poem expresses Stevens 's distrust of the reason of doleful philosophers and `` gloomy grammarians '' , which creates a layer of obfuscation or `` clouds '' that occludes the illumination of imagination , `` the sun and moon '' . The clouds may be those of Aristophanes ' play , The Clouds , which ridiculed Socrates and the intellectual fashions of the time . The speech of clouds would contrast with `` the simplest of speech '' that would be enough for those who know `` the ultimate plato '' , as Stevens writes in Homunculus et la Belle Étoile . The poem is consistent with what Stevens called his `` pagan '' skepticism about religion in Sunday Morning ( poem ) , and his distrust of rationalist philosophy ( `` rationalists , wearing square hats '' ) .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "On_the_Manner_of_Addressing_Clouds", "rank": 71, "score": 84548 }, { "content": "Title: ANSI C12.10 Content: ANSI C12 .10 is the ANSI American National Standard for Physical Aspects of Watt-hour Meters . This standard covers the physical aspects of both detachable and bottom-connected watt-hour meters and associated registers . These include ratings , internal wiring arrangements , pertinent dimensions , markings and other general specifications . This standard includes references to latest version of ANSI C12 .1 and ANSI C12 .20 for performance requirements . Dimensions and other relevant specifications have been coordinated with ANSIC12.7-2005 American National Standard Requirements for Watthour Meters Sockets .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "ANSI_C12.10", "rank": 72, "score": 84498 }, { "content": "Title: Noctilucent cloud Content: Night clouds or noctilucent clouds are tenuous cloud-like phenomena in the upper atmosphere . They are visible in a deep twilight . They are made of ice crystals . Noctilucent roughly means night shining in Latin . They are most commonly observed in the summer months at latitudes between 50 ° and 70 ° north and south of the equator . These clouds can be observed only during local summer months and when the Sun is below the horizon for the observer , but while the clouds are still in sunlight . They are the highest clouds in Earth 's atmosphere , located in the mesosphere at altitudes of around 76 to . They are too faint to be seen during daylight , and are visible only when illuminated by sunlight from below the horizon while the lower layers of the atmosphere are in the Earth 's shadow . Noctilucent clouds are not fully understood and are a recently discovered meteorological phenomenon ; there is no confirmed record of their observation before 1885 , although they may have been observed a few decades earlier by Thomas Romney Robinson in Armagh . Doubts now surround Robinson 's out-of-season records , following observations , from several points around high northern latitudes , of NLC-like phenomena following the Chelyabinsk bolide entry in February 2013 ( outside the NLC season ) that were in fact stratospheric dust reflections visible after sunset . Noctilucent clouds can form only under very restricted conditions during local summer ; their occurrence can be used as a sensitive guide to changes in the upper atmosphere . They are a relatively recent classification . The occurrence of noctilucent clouds appears to be increasing in frequency , brightness and extent .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Noctilucent_cloud", "rank": 73, "score": 84464 }, { "content": "Title: 120° parhelion Content: A 120 ° parhelion ( plural : 120 ° parhelia ) is a relatively rare halo , an optical phenomenon occasionally appearing along with very bright sun dogs ( also called parhelia ) when ice crystal-saturated cirrus clouds fill the atmosphere . The 120 ° parhelia are named for appearing in pair on the parhelic circle ± 120 ° from the sun . When visible , 120 ° parhelia appear as white-bluish bright spots on the white parhelic circle and are the product of at least two interior reflections in the hexagonal ice crystals . Their colour together with them being rather obscure can make observing them difficult as they tend to fuse with the clouds in the sky .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "120°_parhelion", "rank": 74, "score": 84411 }, { "content": "Title: Interplanetary dust cloud Content: The interplanetary dust cloud is cosmic dust ( small particles floating in outer space ) which pervades the space between planets in the Solar System and in other planetary systems . It has been studied for many years in order to understand its nature , origin , and relationship to larger bodies . In the Solar System , the interplanetary dust particles not only scatter solar light ( called the `` zodiacal light '' , which is confined to the ecliptic plane ) , but also produce thermal emission , which is the most prominent feature of the night-sky light in the 5 -- 50 micrometer wavelength domain ( Levasseur-Regourd , A.C. 1996 ) . The grains characterizing the infrared emission near the Earth 's orbit have typical sizes of 10 -- 100 micrometers ( Backman , D. , 1997 ) . The total mass of the interplanetary dust cloud is about the mass of an asteroid of radius 15 km ( with density of about 2.5 g/cm3 ) .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Interplanetary_dust_cloud", "rank": 75, "score": 84280 }, { "content": "Title: Diffuse sky radiation Content: Diffuse sky radiation is solar radiation reaching the Earth 's surface after having been scattered from the direct solar beam by molecules or suspensoids in the atmosphere . It is also called skylight , diffuse skylight , or sky radiation and is the reason for changes in the color of the sky . Of the total light removed from the direct solar beam by scattering in the atmosphere ( approximately 25 % of the incident radiation when the sun is high in the sky , depending on the amount of dust and haze in the atmosphere ) , about two-thirds ultimately reaches the earth as diffuse sky radiation . When the sun is at the zenith in a cloudless sky , with 1361 W/m2 above the atmosphere , direct sunlight is about 1050 W/m2 , and total insolation about 1120 W/m2 . This implies that under these conditions the diffuse radiation is only about 70 W/m2 out of the original 1361 W/m2 . The dominant radiative scattering processes in the atmosphere ( Rayleigh scattering and Mie scattering ) are elastic in nature , by which light can be deviated from its path without being absorbed and with no change in wavelength .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Diffuse_sky_radiation", "rank": 76, "score": 84279 }, { "content": "Title: Vertically integrated liquid Content: Vertically integrated liquid ( VIL ) is an estimate of the total mass of precipitation in the clouds . The measurement is obtained by observing the reflectivity of the air which is obtained with weather radar .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Vertically_integrated_liquid", "rank": 77, "score": 84136 }, { "content": "Title: One Watt Initiative Content: The One Watt Initiative ( or the proper One-Watt Initiative ) is an energy-saving initiative by the International Energy Agency ( IEA ) to reduce standby power-use by any appliance to not more than one watt in 2010 , and 0.5 watts in 2013 , which has given rise to regulations in many countries and regions .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "One_Watt_Initiative", "rank": 78, "score": 84062 }, { "content": "Title: Altostratus cloud Content: Altostratus is a middle altitude cloud genus belonging to the stratiform physical category characterized by a generally uniform gray to bluish-green and sheet or layer . It is lighter in color than nimbostratus and darker than high cirrostratus . The sun can be seen through thin altostratus , but thicker layers can be quite opaque . Altostratus is formed by the lifting of a large mostly stable air mass that causes invisible water vapor to condense into cloud . It can produce light precipitation , often in the form of virga . If the precipitation increases in persistence and intensity , the altostratus cloud may thicken into nimbostratus . Altostratus most often takes the form of a featureless sheet of cloud but can be wavy ( undulatus ) as a result of wind shear through the cloud . It can also be fragmented ( fibratus ) with clear sky visible , which often signals the approach of a weakened or upper level warm front .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Altostratus_cloud", "rank": 79, "score": 84042 }, { "content": "Title: Aconic reflector Content: An aconic reflector refers to a light energy reflector that is not defined by a mathematical equation . Most light energy reflectors are based on conic sections such as parabolas , ellipses and circles . Aconic reflector is a generic term used to explain a reflective curve outside these groups . It literally means not conic . They are usually created with the intention of generating a specific result not achievable using conic curves . At times they are created using combinations of definable curves but not always . Modern light tracing software can generate curves using impact angles to generate a point cloud to define a required shape . Aconic reflectors are used in ultra violet light UV curing devices to smooth light density for a more uniform curing pattern . They can be used to mask hot spots generated by the lamp envelope and cold areas created by shadows . They can be used to illuminate a specific shape at a given distance . Examples include a search light reflector that is intentionally designed to generate a divergent beam , or a reflective curve with the intention of generating an aesthetic light effect . If the reflective surface of a component is defined by a point cloud instead of being defined by a mathematical equation , it is likely an aconic reflector .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Aconic_reflector", "rank": 80, "score": 83894 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud base Content: This article refers to meteorology . For the airborne base of the TV series Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons , see Cloudbase . The cloud base ( or the base of the cloud ) is the lowest altitude of the visible portion of the cloud . It is traditionally expressed either in m or feet above mean sea level ( or planetary surface ) , or as the corresponding pressure level in hectopascal ( hPa , equivalent to millibar ) .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Cloud_base", "rank": 81, "score": 83831 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud (disambiguation) Content: A cloud is a visible mass of condensed droplets or frozen crystals suspended in the atmosphere . Cloud ( s ) may also refer to :", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Cloud_(disambiguation)", "rank": 82, "score": 83758 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud condensation nuclei Content: Cloud condensation nuclei or CCNs ( also known as cloud seeds ) are small particles typically 0.2 µm , or 1/100th the size of a cloud droplet on which water vapor condenses . Water requires a non-gaseous surface to make the transition from a vapour to a liquid ; this process is called condensation . In the atmosphere , this surface presents itself as tiny solid or liquid particles called CCNs . When no CCNs are present , water vapour can be supercooled at about -13 ° C ( 8 ° F ) for 5-6 hours before droplets spontaneously form ( this is the basis of the cloud chamber for detecting subatomic particles ) . In above freezing temperatures the air would have to be supersaturated to around 400 % before the droplets could form . The concept of cloud condensation nuclei is used in cloud seeding , that tries to encourage rainfall by seeding the air with condensation nuclei . It has further been suggested that creating such nuclei could be used for marine cloud brightening , a climate engineering technique .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Cloud_condensation_nuclei", "rank": 83, "score": 83615 }, { "content": "Title: Cirrus uncinus cloud Content: Cirrus uncinus is a type of cirrus cloud . The name cirrus uncinus is derived from Latin , meaning `` curly hooks '' . Also known as mares ' tails , these clouds are generally sparse in the sky and very thin . The clouds occur at very high altitudes , at a temperature of about -50 to . They are generally seen when a warm or occluded front is approaching . They are very high in the troposphere and generally mean that precipitation , usually rain , is approaching .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Cirrus_uncinus_cloud", "rank": 84, "score": 83465 }, { "content": "Title: NGC 1333 Content: NGC 1333 is a reflection nebula located in the constellation Perseus . It belongs to the Perseus molecular cloud . In 2011 researchers reported finding 30 to 40 brown dwarf objects in the cloud and in the Rho Ophiuchi cloud complex .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "NGC_1333", "rank": 85, "score": 83087 }, { "content": "Title: Cirrus cloud Content: Cirrus ( cloud classification symbol : Ci ) is a genus of atmospheric cloud generally characterized by thin , wispy strands , giving the type its name from the Latin word cirrus , meaning a ringlet or curling lock of hair . This cloud can form at any altitude between 16,500 ft and 45,000 ft above sea level . The strands of cloud sometimes appear in tufts of a distinctive form referred to by the common name of `` mares ' tails '' . On planet Earth , cirrus generally appears white or light gray in color . It forms when water vapor undergoes deposition at altitudes above 18,000 ft in temperate regions and above 21,000 ft in tropical regions . It also forms from the outflow of tropical cyclones or the anvils of cumulonimbus cloud . Since cirrus clouds arrive in advance of the frontal system or tropical cyclone , it indicates that weather conditions may soon deteriorate . While it indicates the arrival of precipitation ( rain ) , cirrus clouds only produce fall streaks ( falling ice crystals that evaporate before landing on the ground ) . Jet stream-powered cirrus can grow long enough to stretch across continents while remaining only a few kilometers deep . When visible light interacts with the ice crystals in cirrus cloud , it produces optical phenomena such as sun dogs and halos . Cirrus is known to raise the temperature of the air beneath the main cloud layer by an average of 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) . When the individual filaments become so extensive that they are virtually indistinguishable from one another , they form a sheet of high cloud called cirrostratus . Convection at high altitudes can produce another high-based genus called cirrocumulus , a pattern of small cloud tufts that contain droplets of supercooled water . Cirrus clouds form on other planets , including Mars , Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus , and possibly Neptune . They have even been seen on Titan , one of Saturn 's moons . Some of these extraterrestrial cirrus clouds are composed of ammonia or methane ice rather than water ice . The term cirrus is also used for certain interstellar clouds composed of sub-micrometer-sized dust grains .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Cirrus_cloud", "rank": 86, "score": 83085 }, { "content": "Title: 1798 Watts Content: 1798 Watts , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt , approximately 7 kilometers in diameter . It was discovered on 4 April 1949 , by IU 's Indiana Asteroid Program at Goethe Link Observatory near Brooklyn , Indiana , United States . The asteroid is a member of the Flora family , a large group of stony S-type asteroids in the inner main-belt . It orbits the Sun at a distance of 1.9 -- 2.5 AU once every 3 years and 3 months ( 1,191 days ) . Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.12 and an inclination of 6 ° with respect to the ecliptic . Watts was first observed and identified as at Yerkes Observatory in 1934 , extending the body 's observation arc by 15 years prior to its official discovery observation . According to the survey carried out by NASA 's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission , Watts measures 6.63 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.276 and 0.294 . The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 -- derived from 8 Flora , the largest member and namesake of this asteroid family -- and calculates a diameter of 7.14 kilometers , based on an absolute magnitude of 12.9 . As of 2017 , Wattss rotation period and shape remain unknown . The minor planet was named in honour of American astronomer Chester Burleigh Watts ( 1889 -- 1971 ) , a graduate of Indiana University . He worked at the United States Naval Observatory for 44 years , making distinguished contributions in the field of positional astronomy and pioneered in the field of automation of transit circle observations , which led to results of the highest systematic accuracy . From the late 1940 until 1963 he meticulously mapped every feature on the marginal zone of the Moon . Naming citation was published before November 1977 .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "1798_Watts", "rank": 87, "score": 82869 }, { "content": "Title: Fractional horsepower motor Content: A fractional horsepower motor ( FHP ) is an electric motor with a rated output power of 746 Watts or less . There is no defined minimum output , however , it is generally accepted that a motor with a frame size of less than 35mm square can be referred to as a ` micro-motor ' . The term ` fractional ' indicates that the motor often has a power rating smaller than one horsepower . Fractional horsepower electric motors are exempt from the US Energy Policy Act of 2005 and the new EN 60034-30 :2009 ruling of European directive 2005/32/EC concerning the efficiency classes of low-voltage three-phase asynchronous motors .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Fractional_horsepower_motor", "rank": 88, "score": 82783 }, { "content": "Title: Direct insolation Content: Direct insolation is the solar insolation measured at a given location on Earth with a surface element perpendicular to the Sun 's rays , excluding diffuse insolation ( the solar radiation that is scattered or reflected by atmospheric components in the sky ) . Direct insolation is equal to the solar irradiance above the atmosphere minus the atmospheric losses due to absorption and scattering . While the solar irradiance above the atmosphere varies with the Earth-Sun distance and solar cycles , the losses depend on the time of day ( length of light 's path through the atmosphere depending on the Solar elevation angle ) , cloud cover , moisture content , and other impurities .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Direct_insolation", "rank": 89, "score": 82741 }, { "content": "Title: Perseus molecular cloud Content: The Perseus molecular cloud ( Per MCld ) is a nearby ( 600 ly ) giant molecular cloud in the constellation of Perseus and contains over 10,000 solar masses of gas and dust covering an area of 6 by 2 degrees . Unlike the Orion molecular cloud it is almost invisible apart from two clusters , IC 348 and NGC 1333 , where low-mass stars are formed . It is very bright at mid and far-infrared wavelengths and in the submillimeter originating in dust heated by the newly formed low-mass stars . It shows a curious ring structure in maps made by the IRAS and MSX satellites and the Spitzer Space Telescope and has recently detected by the COSMOSOMAS at microwave frequencies as a source of anomalous `` spinning dust '' emission .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Perseus_molecular_cloud", "rank": 90, "score": 82735 }, { "content": "Title: Storm Clouds Cantata Content: The Storm Clouds Cantata ( or Storm Cloud Cantata ) is a chorale by the Australian composer Arthur Benjamin . This chorale was written for the assassination scene in the Alfred Hitchcock 1934 film , The Man Who Knew Too Much , in the Royal Albert Hall . In the film version of 1934 , the London Symphony Orchestra was directed by H. Wynn Reeves . In the 1956 version , however , the London Symphony Orchestra was conducted by the composer of new music for the remake of the film , Bernard Herrmann , and the chorus is the Covent Garden Opera Chorus with soloist Barbara Howitt . The Cantata can be from eight to nine minutes long . It starts with a Lento in three-quarter time in C major . The first half of the chorale is Lento , at 108 beats per minute . Then begins the Allegro agitato , characterized by rhythmic strokes of the timpani . The conclusion is very fast both in the chorus and in the orchestra .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Storm_Clouds_Cantata", "rank": 91, "score": 82694 }, { "content": "Title: Auroral kilometric radiation Content: Auroral kilometric radiation ( AKR ) is the intense radio radiation emitted in the acceleration zone ( at a height of three times the radius of the Earth ) of the polar lights . The radiation mainly comes from cyclotron radiation from electrons orbiting around the magnetic field lines of the Earth . The radiation has a frequency of between 50 and 500 kHz and a total power of between about 1 million and 10 million watts . The radiation is absorbed by the ionosphere and therefore can only be measured by satellites positioned at vast heights , such as the Fast Auroral Snapshot Explorer ( FAST ) . According to the data of the Cluster mission , it is beamed out in the cosmos in a narrow plane tangent to the magnetic field at the source . The sound produced by playing AKR over an audio device has been described as `` whistles '' , `` chirps '' , and even `` screams '' . As some other planets emit cyclotron radiation too , AKR could be used to learn more about Jupiter , Saturn , Uranus and Neptune , and to detect extrasolar planets .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Auroral_kilometric_radiation", "rank": 92, "score": 82624 }, { "content": "Title: The Clouds (Australian band) Content: The Clouds ( also called just Clouds ) are an indie rock band from Sydney , Australia formed in December 1989 . The core of the group consisted of frontwomen Jodi Phillis ( guitar and vocals ) and Patricia `` Trish '' Young ( bass and vocals ) . The line-up of The Clouds has changed several times with different drummers and lead guitarists . The Clouds ' music is distinguished by rapid and unusual chord changes , creative bass guitar , and Phillis and Young 's vocal harmonies . They released 4 albums and numerous EP 's and singles before breaking up in 1997 . They reformed in 2011 .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "The_Clouds_(Australian_band)", "rank": 93, "score": 82593 }, { "content": "Title: Clouds, Tennessee Content: Clouds is an unincorporated community in Claiborne County , Tennessee .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Clouds,_Tennessee", "rank": 94, "score": 82576 }, { "content": "Title: Lighting power density Content: Lighting Power Density ( LPD ) is a lighting power requirement defined in North America by the American National Standards Institute ( ANSI ) , American Society of Heating , Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers ( ASHRAE ) , and the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America ( IESNA ) Lighting subcommittee . Lighting Power Density technically represents the load of any lighting equipment in any defined area , or the watts per square foot of the lighting equipment . However , in the lighting industry it is often associated with the lighting power allowance ( LPA ) permitted by the building energy code in question . The Oregon Department of Energy defines lighting power density as `` The maximum allowable lighting density permitted by the code . It is expressed in watts per square foot for a given occupancy/space type . ''", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Lighting_power_density", "rank": 95, "score": 82319 }, { "content": "Title: Emissivity Content: The emissivity of the surface of a material is its effectiveness in emitting energy as thermal radiation . Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation and it may include both visible radiation ( light ) and infrared radiation , which is not visible to human eyes . The thermal radiation from very hot objects ( see photograph ) is easily visible to the eye . Quantitatively , emissivity is the ratio of the thermal radiation from a surface to the radiation from an ideal black surface at the same temperature as given by the Stefan -- Boltzmann law . The ratio varies from 0 to 1 . The surface of a black object emits thermal radiation at the rate of approximately 448 watts per square meter at room temperature ( 25 ° C , 298.15 K ) ; real objects with emissivities less than 1.0 emit radiation at correspondingly lower rates . Emissivities are important in several contexts : insulated windows . -- Warm surfaces are usually cooled directly by air , but they also cool themselves by emitting thermal radiation . This second cooling mechanism is important for simple glass windows , which have emissivities close to the maximum possible value of 1.0 . `` Low-E windows '' with transparent low emissivity coatings emit less thermal radiation than ordinary windows . In winter , these coatings can halve the rate at which a window loses heat compared to an uncoated glass window . solar heat collectors . -- Similarly , solar heat collectors lose heat by emitting thermal radiation . Advanced solar collectors incorporate selective surfaces that have very low emissivities . These collectors waste very little of the solar energy through emission of thermal radiation . planetary temperatures . -- The planets are solar thermal collectors on a large scale . The temperature of a planet 's surface is determined by the balance between the heat absorbed by the planet from sunlight , heat emitted from its core , and thermal radiation emitted back into space . Emissivity of a planet is determined by the nature of its surface and atmosphere . temperature measurements . -- Pyrometers and infrared cameras are instruments used to measure the temperature of an object by using its thermal radiation ; no actual contact with the object is needed . The calibration of these instruments involves the emissivity of the surface that 's being measured .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Emissivity", "rank": 96, "score": 82297 }, { "content": "Title: Luminance Content: Luminance is a photometric measure of the luminous intensity per unit area of light travelling in a given direction . It describes the amount of light that passes through , is emitted or reflected from a particular area , and falls within a given solid angle . The SI unit for luminance is candela per square metre ( cd/m2 ) . A non-SI term for the same unit is the `` nit '' . The CGS unit of luminance is the stilb , which is equal to one candela per square centimetre or 10 kcd/m2 .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Luminance", "rank": 97, "score": 82091 }, { "content": "Title: Solar power in Maryland Content: Solar power in Maryland is supported by the state 's legislation regarding the Renewable Portfolio Standard and Solar Renewable Energy Credit ( SREC ) program . The target for renewable energy as of 2017 is 20 % by 2020 , including 2 % from solar power . According to the Maryland Energy Administration , Maryland is exposed to approximately 5.3 kWh per square meter of solar energy on a daily basis , and as of 2016 , the state had 508 MW installed which ranks Maryland 11th in the nation for installed solar capacity .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Solar_power_in_Maryland", "rank": 98, "score": 82002 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud forcing Content: Cloud forcing ( sometimes described as cloud radiative forcing or cloud radiative effect ) is , in meteorology , the difference between the radiation budget components for average cloud conditions and cloud-free conditions . Much of the interest in cloud forcing relates to its role as a feedback process in the present period of global warming .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Cloud_forcing", "rank": 99, "score": 81745 }, { "content": "Title: Kill A Watt Content: The Kill A Watt ( a pun on kilowatt ) is an electricity usage monitor manufactured by P3 International . It measures the energy used by devices plugged directly into the meter , as opposed to in-home energy use displays , which display the energy used by an entire household . The LCD shows voltage ; current ; true , reactive , and apparent power ; power factor ( for sinusoidal waveform ) ; energy consumed in kWh ; and hours connected . Some models display estimated cost . Having a NEMA 5-15 plug and receptacle , and rated for 115 VAC ( maximum 125Vac ) , the Kill A Watt is sold for the North American market . The factory is the Taiwanese company Prodigit , which also makes 230 Vac models of similar appearance and functionality for European Schuko , U.K. BS 1363 and Australian AS 3112 receptacles , and a model compatible with 100 VAC for the Japanese market ( 2022-04 , marketed there as the Watt Checker -LSB- ワットチェッカー -RSB- Plus by other companies ) . The basic models support current up to 15 amperes , power up to 1,875 VA ( the 230Vac equivalents also allow up to 15A , corresponding to 3,750 VA ) . The device can give an indication of the standby power used by appliances .", "qid": "3122", "docid": "Kill_A_Watt", "rank": 100, "score": 81642 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Kombayashi–Ingersoll limit Content: In planetary science , the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit represents the maximum solar flux a planet can handle without a runaway greenhouse effect setting in . For planets with temperature-dependent sources of greenhouse gases such as liquid water and optically thin atmospheres the outgoing longwave radiation curve ( which indicates how fast energy can be radiated away by the planet ) flattens at high temperatures , reaching a horizontal asymptote -- the Kombayashi -- Ingersoll limit itself . Since the equilibrium temperature is the intersection of this curve and a horizontal line representing solar flux , for fluxes above this point the planet heats up indefinitely . Kasting estimated the limit for Earth to be 320 watts per square meter . The limit is relevant for estimating the inner edge of the circumstellar habitable zone . However , the limit also depends on the surface gravity of the planet , making heavy worlds somewhat more resistant to the runaway effect .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Kombayashi–Ingersoll_limit", "rank": 1, "score": 143294 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Cloud_feedback", "rank": 2, "score": 142940 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere Content: Carbon dioxide is an important trace gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Currently it constitutes about 0.041 % ( equal to 410 parts per million ; ppm ) by volume of the atmosphere . Despite its relatively small concentration is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth 's surface temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse effect . Reconstructions show that concentrations of in the atmosphere have varied , ranging from as high as 7,000 ppm during the Cambrian period about 500 million years ago to as low as 180 ppm during the Quaternary glaciation of the last two million years . Carbon dioxide is an integral part of the carbon cycle , a biogeochemical cycle in which carbon is exchanged between the Earth 's oceans , soil , rocks and the biosphere . Plants and other photoautotrophs use solar energy to produce carbohydrate from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by photosynthesis . Almost all other organisms depend on carbohydrate derived from photosynthesis as their primary source of energy and carbon compounds . The current episode of global warming is attributed to increasing emissions of and other greenhouse gases into Earth 's atmosphere . The global annual mean concentration of in the atmosphere has increased by more than 40 % since the start of the Industrial Revolution , from 280 ppm , the level it had for the last 10,000 years leading up to the mid-18th century , to 399 ppm as of 2015 . The present concentration is the highest in at least the past 800,000 years and likely the highest in the past 20 million years . The increase has been caused by anthropogenic sources , particularly the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation . The daily average concentration of atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory first exceeded 400 ppm on 10 May 2013 . It is currently rising at a rate of approximately 2 ppm/year and accelerating . An estimated 30 -- 40 % of the released by humans into the atmosphere dissolves into oceans , rivers and lakes , which contributes to ocean acidification .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere", "rank": 3, "score": 135736 }, { "content": "Title: Heat flux Content: Heat flux or thermal flux is the rate of heat energy transfer through a given surface per unit time . The SI derived unit of heat rate is joule per second , or watt . Heat flux density is the heat rate per unit area . In SI units , heat flux density is measured in -LSB- W/m2 -RSB- . The dimensional unit is . Heat rate is a scalar quantity , while heat flux is a vectorial quantity . To define the heat flux at a certain point in space , one takes the limiting case where the size of the surface becomes infinitesimally small . Heat flux is often denoted , the subscript q specifying heat rate , as opposed to mass or momentum rate . Fourier 's law is an important application of these concepts .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Heat_flux", "rank": 4, "score": 130477 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 5, "score": 127283 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon diet Content: A carbon diet refers to reducing the impact on climate change by reducing greenhouse gas production specifically , CO2 production . In today 's society , we produce CO2 in every day activities such as driving , heating , deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels such as coal , oil and gas . It has been found that carbon dioxide from the burning of coal , natural gas , and oil for electricity and heat is the largest single source of global greenhouse gas emissions . For years , governments and corporations have been attempting to balance out their emissions by participating in carbon-offsetting -- the practice in which they invest in renewable energy to compensate for the global-warming pollution that they produce . Despite these efforts the results are still far off and we continue to see growth in CO2 concentration . Now , a growing number of individuals are trying to make a reduction in the amount of CO2 that is being produced by participating in low carbon dieting . This small adjustment in household CO2 production has the potential to reduce emissions much more quickly than other kinds of changes and it deserves explicit consideration as part of climate policy . It can potentially help avoid `` overshoot '' of greenhouse gas concentration targets ; provide a demonstration effect ; reduce emissions at low cost ; and buy time to develop new technologies , policies , and institutions to reach long-term greenhouse gas emission targets and to develop adaptation strategies .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Carbon_diet", "rank": 6, "score": 124749 }, { "content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model", "rank": 7, "score": 123269 }, { "content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Earth's_energy_budget", "rank": 8, "score": 122745 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 9, "score": 121543 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric carbon cycle Content: The atmosphere is one of the Earth 's major carbon reservoirs and an important component of the global carbon cycle , holding approximately 720 gigatons of carbon . Atmospheric carbon plays an important role in the greenhouse effect . The most important carbon compound in this respect is the gas carbon dioxide . Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere ( approximately 0.04 % on a molar basis ) , it plays a vital role in retaining heat in the atmosphere and thus in the greenhouse effect . Other gases with effects on the climate containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons ( the latter is entirely anthropogenic ) . Emissions by humans in the past 200 years have almost doubled the amount carbon dioxide in the atmosphere .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Atmospheric_carbon_cycle", "rank": 10, "score": 121422 }, { "content": "Title: Stefan–Boltzmann law Content: The Stefan -- Boltzmann law describes the power radiated from a black body in terms of its temperature . Specifically , the Stefan -- Boltzmann law states that the total energy radiated per unit surface area of a black body across all wavelengths per unit time ( also known as the black-body radiant emittance or radiant exitance ) , , is directly proportional to the fourth power of the black body 's thermodynamic temperature T : The constant of proportionality σ , called the Stefan -- Boltzmann constant derives from other known constants of nature . The value of the constant is where k is the Boltzmann constant , h is Planck 's constant , and c is the speed of light in a vacuum . Thus at 100 K the energy flux is 5.67 W/m2 , at 1000 K 56,700 W/m2 , etc. . The radiance ( watts per square metre per steradian ) is given by A body that does not absorb all incident radiation ( sometimes known as a grey body ) emits less total energy than a black body and is characterized by an emissivity , : The irradiance has dimensions of energy flux ( energy per time per area ) , and the SI units of measure are joules per second per square metre , or equivalently , watts per square metre . The SI unit for absolute temperature T is the kelvin . is the emissivity of the grey body ; if it is a perfect blackbody , . In the still more general ( and realistic ) case , the emissivity depends on the wavelength , . To find the total power radiated from an object , multiply by its surface area , : Wavelength - and subwavelength-scale particles , metamaterials , and other nanostructures are not subject to ray-optical limits and may be designed to exceed the Stefan -- Boltzmann law .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Stefan–Boltzmann_law", "rank": 11, "score": 121371 }, { "content": "Title: Heat flux sensor Content: A heat flux sensor is a transducer that generates an electrical signal proportional to the total heat rate applied to the surface of the sensor . The measured heat rate is divided by the surface area of the sensor to determine the heat flux . The heat flux can have different origins ; in principle convective , radiative as well as conductive heat can be measured . Heat flux sensors are known under different names , such as heat flux transducers , heat flux gauges , heat flux plates . Some instruments that actually are single-purpose heat flux sensors like pyranometers for solar radiation measurement . Other heat flux sensors include Gardon gauges ( also known as a circular-foil gauge ) , thin-film thermopiles , and Schmidt-Boelter gauges . In SI units , the heat rate is measured in Watts , and the heat flux is computed in Watts per meter squared .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Heat_flux_sensor", "rank": 12, "score": 121202 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 13, "score": 120306 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 14, "score": 119652 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 15, "score": 119407 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 16, "score": 119371 }, { "content": "Title: Cap carbonate Content: Cap carbonates are layers of distinctively textured carbonate rocks which typically form the uppermost layer of sedimentary sequences reflecting major glaciations in the geological record . The rising temperatures , and increased oceanic surface area - due to reduced ice cover and rising sea levels - at the end of a glaciation increase the rate of precipitation . High concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) must build up in the atmosphere to overcome the effect of the high reflectivity ( albedo ) of ice and allow temperatures to rise sufficiently to begin melting . Increased precipitation dissolves carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , falling as a weak carbonic acid - acid rain . This would weather exposed silicate and carbonate rock , including readily-attacked glacial debris , which would release large amounts of calcium . When washed into the ocean , these precipitate to form distinctively textured layers of carbonate sedimentary rock . A heavily debated cap carbonate appears at the top of the Gaskiers glaciation , believed by many to be global in extent .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Cap_carbonate", "rank": 17, "score": 118254 }, { "content": "Title: CO2 fertilization effect Content: The fertilization effect or carbon fertilization effect suggests that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases the rate of photosynthesis in plants . The effect varies by species and availability of water . From a quarter to half of Earth 's vegetated lands has shown significant greening over the last 35 years largely due to rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide . One related trend may be what has been termed `` Arctic greening . '' Scientists have been finding , of late , that as northern portions of the planet warm up even as total atmospheric carbon dioxide increases , there 's been an increase in plant growth in these regions . Studies led by Trevor Keenan from the Department of Energy 's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( Berkeley Lab ) show that , from 2002 to 2014 , plants appear to have gone into overdrive , starting to pull more carbon dioxide out of the air than they have done before . The result was that the rate at which carbon dioxide accumulates in the atmosphere did not increase during this time period , although previously , it had grown considerably in concert with growing greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "CO2_fertilization_effect", "rank": 18, "score": 116567 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 19, "score": 116544 }, { "content": "Title: The Cloud Mystery Content: The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish . This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "The_Cloud_Mystery", "rank": 20, "score": 115918 }, { "content": "Title: Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change Content: The Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non-profit organization based in Tempe , Arizona . The Center produces a weekly online science newsletter called CO2Science . The Center was founded and is run by Craig D. Idso , along with Sherwood B. Idso , his father , and Keith E. Idso , his brother . They came from backgrounds in agriculture and climate . According to the Idsos , they became involved in the global warming controversy through their study of earth 's temperature sensitivity to radiative perturbations and plant responses to elevated CO2 levels and carbon sequestration . The Center sharply disputes the consensus scientific opinion on climate change shown in IPCC assessment reports , and believes that global warming will be beneficial to mankind .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Center_for_the_Study_of_Carbon_Dioxide_and_Global_Change", "rank": 21, "score": 115603 }, { "content": "Title: Anti-greenhouse effect Content: The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar to the greenhouse effect , but with the opposite consequence of cooling the surface temperature of a planet . If gases in the atmosphere of a planet have a lesser transmittance for inbound radiation ( for instance , solar rays in the Solar System ) than for outbound radiation ( typically thermal radiation of the planet 's surface in the infrared domain ) , the surface temperature at which inbound and outbound heat fluxes are at equilibrium is lower .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Anti-greenhouse_effect", "rank": 22, "score": 115564 }, { "content": "Title: Heat meter Content: thumb | right | A heat meter attached to a heat exchanger in a District heating substation in a residential neighborhood . Right in white-blue : the calculator ; in the center in bronze : the ultrasonic flow meter A heat meter or flux calorimeter is a device which measures thermal energy provided by a source or delivered to a sink , by measuring the flow rate of the heat transfer fluid and the change in its temperature ( ΔT ) between the outflow and return legs of the system . It is typically used in industrial plants for measuring boiler output and heat taken by process , and for district heating systems to measure the heat delivered to consumers . It can be used to measure the heat output of say a heating boiler , or the cooling output from a chiller unit .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Heat_meter", "rank": 23, "score": 115322 }, { "content": "Title: Critical heat flux Content: Critical heat flux ( CHF ) describes the thermal limit of a phenomenon where a phase change occurs during heating ( such as bubbles forming on a metal surface used to heat water ) , which suddenly decreases the efficiency of heat transfer , thus causing localised overheating of the heating surface . The critical heat flux for ignition is the lowest thermal load per unit area capable of initiating a combustion reaction on a given material ( either flame or smoulder ignition ) .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Critical_heat_flux", "rank": 24, "score": 115004 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon tax Content: A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon content of fuels . It is a form of carbon pricing . Carbon is present in every hydrocarbon fuel ( coal , petroleum , and natural gas ) and converted to carbon dioxide and other products when combusted . In contrast , non-combustion energy sources -- wind , sunlight , geothermal , hydropower , and nuclear -- do not convert hydrocarbons to . is a heat-trapping `` greenhouse '' gas which represents a negative externality on the climate system ( see scientific opinion on global warming ) . Since GHG emissions caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are closely related to the carbon content of the respective fuels , a tax on these emissions can be levied by taxing the carbon content of fossil fuels at any point in the product cycle of the fuel . Carbon tax offers social and economic benefits . It is a tax that increases revenue without significantly altering the economy while simultaneously promoting objectives of climate change policy . The objective of a carbon tax is to reduce the harmful and unfavorable levels of carbon dioxide emissions , thereby decelerating climate change and its negative effects on the environment and human health . Carbon taxes offer a potentially cost-effective means of reducing greenhouse gas emissions . From an economic perspective , carbon taxes are a type of Pigovian tax . They help to address the problem of emitters of greenhouse gases not facing the full social cost of their actions . Carbon taxes can be a regressive tax , in that they may directly or indirectly affect low-income groups disproportionately . The regressive impact of carbon taxes could be addressed by using tax revenues to favour low-income groups . A number of countries have implemented carbon taxes or energy taxes that are related to carbon content . Most environmentally related taxes with implications for greenhouse gas emissions in OECD countries are levied on energy products and motor vehicles , rather than on emissions directly . Opposition to increased environmental regulation such as carbon taxes often centers on concerns that firms might relocate and/or people might lose their jobs . It has been argued , however , that carbon taxes are more efficient than direct regulation and may even lead to higher employment ( see footnotes ) . Many large users of carbon resources in electricity generation , such as the United States , Russia , and China , are resisting carbon taxation .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Carbon_tax", "rank": 25, "score": 114158 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Greenhouse_effect", "rank": 26, "score": 114134 }, { "content": "Title: Central chemoreceptors Content: Central chemoreceptors of the central nervous system , located on the ventrolateral medullary surface in the vicinity of the exit of the 9th and 10th cranial nerves , are sensitive to the pH of their environment . These act to detect the changes in pH of nearby cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) that are indicative of altered oxygen or carbon dioxide concentrations available to brain tissues . An increase in carbon dioxide causes tension of the arteries , often resulting from decreased CO2 output ( hypercapnia ) , indirectly causes the blood to become more acidic ; the cerebrospinal fluid pH is closely comparable to plasma , as carbon dioxide easily diffuses across the blood -- brain barrier . However , a change in plasma pH alone will not stimulate central chemoreceptors as H + are not able to diffuse across the blood -- brain barrier into the CSF . Only CO2 levels affect this as it can diffuse across , reacting with H2O to form carbonic acid and thus decrease pH. Central chemoreception remains , in this way , distinct from peripheral chemoreceptors . The central chemoreception system has also been shown experimentally to respond to hypercapnic hypoxia ( elevated CO2 , decreased O2 ) and aqueous sodium cyanide injection into the whole animal and in vitro slice preparation . These methods can be used to mimic some forms of hypoxic hypoxia and they are currently being studied including the detection of variation in arterial CO2 tension acting as a quick-response-system for short term ( or emergency ) regulation . This system utilizes a negative feedback system , therefore if the pH of the cerebral spinal fluid does not compare to an ideal `` set '' level , then the receptor will send an error signal to the effectors and appropriate action may be executed . Peripheral chemoreceptors ( carotid and aortic bodies ) and central chemoreceptors ( medullary neurons ) primarily function to regulate respiratory activity . This is an important mechanism for maintaining arterial blood pO2 , pCO2 , and pH within appropriate physiological ranges . For example , a fall in arterial pO2 ( hypoxemia ) or an increase in arterial pCO2 ( hypercapnia ) leads to an increase in the rate and depth of respiration through activation of the chemoreceptor reflex . Chemoreceptor activity , however , also affects cardiovascular function either directly ( by interacting with medullary vasomotor centers ) or indirectly ( via altered pulmonary stretch receptor activity ) . Respiratory arrest and circulatory shock ( these conditions decrease arterial pO2 and pH , and increase arterial pCO2 ) dramatically increase chemoreceptor activity leading to enhanced sympathetic outflow to the heart and vasculature via activation of the vasomotor center in the medulla .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Central_chemoreceptors", "rank": 27, "score": 113479 }, { "content": "Title: Oceanic carbon cycle Content: The oceans contain around 36,000 gigatons of carbon , mostly in the form of bicarbonate ion ( over 90 % , with most of the remainder being carbonate ) . At the surface of the oceans towards the poles , seawater becomes cooler and more carbonic acid is formed as CO2 becomes more soluble . This is coupled to the ocean 's thermohaline circulation which transports dense surface water into the ocean 's interior ( see the entry on the solubility pump ) . Although the deep ocean contains much more dissolved inorganic carbon than the surface ocean , the concentration is only 15 % higher in the deep ocean as compared to the surface ocean due to the higher volume of the deep ocean . In upper ocean areas of high biological productivity , organisms convert reduced carbon to tissues , or carbonates to hard body parts such as shells and tests . These are , respectively , oxidized ( soft-tissue pump ) and redissolved ( carbonate pump ) at lower average levels of the ocean than those at which they formed , resulting in a downward flow of carbon ( see entry on the biological pump ) . The flux or absorption of carbon dioxide into the world 's oceans is influenced by the presence of widespread viruses within ocean water , that infect many species of bacteria . The resulting bacterial deaths spawn a sequence of events that lead to greatly enlarged respiration of carbon dioxide , enhancing the role of the oceans as a carbon sink . The balance of dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) : dissolved organic carbon ( DOC ) : particle organic carbon is about 2000:38:1 . The CaCO3 counter pump increases the partial pressure of CO2 in the ocean , thus leading to higher outgasing of carbon dioxide . Higher ocean temperatures lead to stronger layering , thus less mixing and less capacity for thermohaline circulation to bring carbon into lower ocean layers . The weathering of silicate rock ( see carbonate-silicate cycle ) . Carbonic acid reacts with weathered rock to produce bicarbonate ions . The bicarbonate ions produced are carried to the ocean , where they are used to make marine carbonates . Unlike dissolved CO2 in equilibrium or tissues , which decay , weathering does not move the carbon into a reservoir from which it can readily return to the atmosphere . Much remains to be learned about the cycling of carbon in the deep ocean . For example , a recent discovery is that larvacean mucus houses ( commonly known as `` sinkers '' ) are created in such large numbers that they can deliver as much carbon to the deep ocean as has been previously detected by sediment traps . Because of their size and composition , these houses are rarely collected in such traps , so most biogeochemical analyses have erroneously ignored them . The amount of dissolved inorganic carbon in the ocean is significantly higher in the deep layer ( below 300 m depth ) . This is caused by the solubility pump and the biological pump .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Oceanic_carbon_cycle", "rank": 28, "score": 113428 }, { "content": "Title: Radiative forcing Content: Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation ( sunlight ) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space . Typically , radiative forcing is quantified at the tropopause in units of watts per square meter of the Earth 's surface . Positive forcing ( incoming energy exceeding outgoing energy ) warms the system , while negative forcing ( outgoing energy exceeding incoming energy ) cools it . Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the concentrations of radiatively active gases , commonly known as greenhouse gases and aerosols .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Radiative_forcing", "rank": 29, "score": 113275 }, { "content": "Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Climate_sensitivity", "rank": 30, "score": 112950 }, { "content": "Title: Gardon gauge Content: A Gardon gauge or Circular-foil gauge is a heat flux sensor primarily intended for the measurement of high intensity radiation . It is a sensor that is designed to measure the radiation flux density ( in watts per metre squared ) from a field of view of 180 degrees . The most common application of Gardon gauges is in exposure testing of sample materials for their resistance to fire and flames .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Gardon_gauge", "rank": 31, "score": 112923 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 32, "score": 112849 }, { "content": "Title: Heat transfer coefficient Content: The heat transfer coefficient or film coefficient , or film effectiveness , in thermodynamics and in mechanics is the proportionality constant between the heat flux and the thermodynamic driving force for the flow of heat ( i.e. , the temperature difference , ΔT ) : where : q : amount of heat transferred ( heat flux ) , W/m2 i.e. , thermal power per unit area , q = d/dA h : heat transfer coefficient , W / ( m2 • K ) ΔT : difference in temperature between the solid surface and surrounding fluid area , K. It is used in calculating the heat transfer , typically by convection or phase transition between a fluid and a solid . The heat transfer coefficient has SI units in watts per squared meter kelvin : W / ( m2K ) . The heat transfer coefficient is the reciprocal of thermal insulance . This is used for building materials ( R-value ) and for clothing insulation . There are numerous methods for calculating the heat transfer coefficient in different heat transfer modes , different fluids , flow regimes , and under different thermohydraulic conditions . Often it can be estimated by dividing the thermal conductivity of the convection fluid by a length scale . The heat transfer coefficient is often calculated from the Nusselt number ( a dimensionless number ) . There are also online calculators available specifically for heat transfer fluid applications . Experimental assessment of the heat transfer coefficient poses some challenges especially when small fluxes are to be measured ( e.g. ) .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Heat_transfer_coefficient", "rank": 33, "score": 112234 }, { "content": "Title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita Content: This is a list of countries ranked by greenhouse-gas emissions per capita in 2000 . It is based on data for carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , perfluorocarbon , hydrofluorocarbon and sulfur hexafluoride emissions compiled by the World Resources Institute ( WRI ) from a variety of sources , including CDIAC and the US Environmental Protection Agency . Bunker-fuel emissions are not included . Two sets of per capita emissions are given , one with an estimate of the effects of land-use change ( for example , cutting down forests ) and one without . The former is based on regional estimates in Houghton ( 2003 ) . Difficulties with determining rates of deforestation and the magnitude of carbon stocks held by the remaining forests and with distributing regional carbon fluxes among individual countries mean that the land-use change components have a large margin of error , perhaps as large as + / -150 % in some cases . They are included here because , although difficult to quantify accurately at a country level , land-use change is a significant contributor to global warming . The WRI estimates that it accounted for almost a fifth of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2000 . For 2005 the data for a large number of countries only includes emissions ( see note 12 . )", "qid": "3123", "docid": "List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita", "rank": 34, "score": 112186 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States Content: According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , the United States produced 6,587 million metric tonnes of carbon-dioxide equivalent greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in 2015 . Compared to 2014 levels , U.S. greenhouse gas emissions decreased in 2015 . Compared to levels in 1990 , emissions have increased by about 4 percent . From year to year , emissions can rise and fall due to changes in the economy , the price of fuel , and other factors . The EPA has attributed recent decreases to a reduction in emissions from fossil fuel combustion , which was a result of multiple factors including substitution from coal to natural gas consumption in the electric power sector ; warmer winter conditions that reduced demand for heating fuel in the residential and commercial sectors ; and a slight decrease in electricity demand . While the Bush administration opted against Kyoto-type policies to reduce emissions , the Obama administration and various state , local , and regional governments have attempted to adopt some Kyoto Protocol goals on a local basis . For example , the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative ( RGGI ) founded in January 2007 is a state-level emissions capping and trading program by nine northeastern U.S. states . In December 2009 President Obama set a target for reducing U.S. greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 . The U.S. State Department offered a nation-level perspective in the Fourth US Climate Action Report ( USCAR ) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , including measures to address climate change . The report showed that the country was on track to achieve President Bush 's goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions per unit of gross domestic product ) by 18 percent from 2002 to 2012 . Over that same period , actual GHG emissions were projected to increase by 11 percent . The report estimated that in 2006 , U.S. GHG emissions decreased 1.5 percent from 2005 to 7,075.6 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent . This was an increase of 15.1 percent from the 1990 levels of 6,146.7 million tonnes ( or 0.9 percent annual increase ) , and an increase of 1.4 percent from the 2000 levels of 6,978.4 million tonnes . By 2012 GHG emissions were projected to increase to more than 7,709 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent , which would be 26 percent above 1990 levels .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States", "rank": 35, "score": 111266 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Wyoming Content: On a per-person basis , Wyoming emits more carbon dioxide than any other state or any other country : 276000 lb of it per capita a year , because of burning coal , which provides nearly all of the state 's electrical power . Over the last century , the average temperature in Laramie , Wyoming , has increased 1.5 ° F ( 0.8 ° C ) , and precipitation has decreased by up to 20 % in many parts of the state . Over the next century , climate in Wyoming may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Wyoming could increase by 4 ° F ( 2 ° C ) in spring and fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) , 5 ° F ( 2.5 ° C ) in summer ( with a range of 2-8 ° F ) , and 6 ° F ( 3 ° C ) in winter ( with a range of 3-11 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease slightly in summer ( with a range of 0-10 % ) , increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and increase by 30 % in winter ( with a range of 10-50 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Wyoming", "rank": 36, "score": 111245 }, { "content": "Title: Heat of combustion Content: The calorific value is the total energy released as heat when a substance undergoes complete combustion with oxygen under standard conditions . The chemical reaction is typically a hydrocarbon or other organic molecule reacting with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water and release heat . It may be expressed with the quantities : energy/mole of fuel ( kJ/mol ) energy/mass of fuel energy/volume of the fuel The calorific value is conventionally measured with a bomb calorimeter . It may also be calculated as the difference between the heat of formation ΔH of the products and reactants ( though this approach is purely empirical since most heats of formation are calculated from measured heats of combustion ) . For a fuel of composition CcHhOoNn , the magnitude of the heat of combustion is to a good approximation ( ± 3 % ) . The calorific value of all organic compounds has the sign corresponding to an exothermic reaction ( negative in the standard chemical convention ) because the double bond in molecular oxygen is much weaker than other double bonds or pairs of single bonds , particularly those in the combustion products carbon dioxide and water ; conversion of the weak bonds in O2 to the stronger bonds in CO2 and H2O releases energy as heat . The heating value ( or energy value or calorific value ) of a substance , usually a fuel or food ( see food energy ) , is the amount of heat released during the combustion of a specified amount of it . The energy value is a characteristic for each substance . It is measured in units of energy per unit of the substance , usually mass , such as : kJ/kg , kJ/mol , kcal/kg , Btu/lb . Heating value is commonly determined by use of a bomb calorimeter . Heating value unit conversions : MJ/kg = kcal/kg × 238.846 Btu/lb = kJ/kg × 2.326 Btu/lb = kcals/kg x0 .5556 The heat of combustion for fuels is expressed as the HHV , LHV , or GHV .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Heat_of_combustion", "rank": 37, "score": 111014 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal transmittance Content: Thermal transmittance , also known as U-value , is the rate of transfer of heat ( in watts ) through one square metre of a structure , divided by the difference in temperature across the structure . It is expressed in watts per square metre kelvin , or W/m ² K. Well-insulated parts of a building have a low thermal transmittance whereas poorly insulated parts of a building have a high thermal transmittance . Losses due to thermal radiation , thermal convection and thermal conduction are taken into account in the U-value . Although it has the same units as heat transfer coefficient , thermal transmittance is different in that the heat transfer coefficient is used to solely describe heat transfer in fluids while thermal transmittance is used to simplify an equation that has several different forms of thermal resistances . It is described by the equation : Φ = A × U × ( T1 - T2 ) where Φ is the heat transfer in watts , U is the thermal transmittance , T1 is the temperature on one side of the structure , T2 is the temperature on the other side of the structure and A is the area in square metres . Thermal transmittances of most walls and roofs can be calculated using ISO 6946 , unless there is metal bridging the insulation in which case it can be calculated using ISO 10211 . For most ground floors it can be calculated using ISO 13370 . For most windows the thermal transmittance can be calculated using ISO 10077 or ISO 15099 . ISO 9869 describes how to measure the thermal transmittance of a structure experimentally . triple glazed windows , with advanced coatings and frames : 0.8 W/m ² · K ; well-insulated roofs : 0.15 W/m ² · K ; poorly insulated roofs : 1.0 W/m ² · K ; well-insulated walls : 0.25 W/m ² · K ; poorly insulated walls : 1.5 W/m ² · K ; well-insulated floors : 0.2 W/m ² · K ; poorly insulated floors : 1.0 W/m ² · K ; In practice the thermal transmittance is strongly affected by the quality of workmanship and if insulation is fitted poorly , the thermal transmittance can be considerably higher than if insulation is fitted well", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Thermal_transmittance", "rank": 38, "score": 110523 }, { "content": "Title: Solar thermal collector Content: A solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight . A collector is a device for capturing solar radiation . Solar radiation is energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation from the infrared ( long ) to the ultraviolet ( short ) wavelengths . The quantity of solar energy striking the Earth 's surface ( solar constant ) averages about 1,000 watts per square meter under clear skies , depending upon weather conditions , location and orientation . The term `` solar collector '' commonly refers to solar hot water panels , but may refer to installations such as solar parabolic troughs and solar towers ; or basic installations such as solar air heaters . Concentrated solar power plants usually use the more complex collectors to generate electricity by heating a fluid to drive a turbine connected to an electrical generator . Simple collectors are typically used in residential and commercial buildings for space heating . The first solar thermal collector designed for building roofs was patented by William H. Goettl and called the `` Solar heat collector and radiator for building roof '' .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Solar_thermal_collector", "rank": 39, "score": 110401 }, { "content": "Title: Poynting vector Content: In physics , the Poynting vector represents the directional energy flux density ( the rate of energy transfer per unit area ) of an electromagnetic field . The SI unit of the Poynting vector is the watt per square metre ( W/m2 ) . It is named after its discoverer John Henry Poynting who first derived it in 1884 . Oliver Heaviside and Nikolay Umov also independently discovered the Poynting vector .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Poynting_vector", "rank": 40, "score": 109408 }, { "content": "Title: Sunlight Content: Sunlight is a portion of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun , in particular infrared , visible , and ultraviolet light . On Earth , sunlight is filtered through Earth 's atmosphere , and is obvious as daylight when the Sun is above the horizon . When the direct solar radiation is not blocked by clouds , it is experienced as sunshine , a combination of bright light and radiant heat . When it is blocked by clouds or reflects off other objects , it is experienced as diffused light . The World Meteorological Organization uses the term `` sunshine duration '' to mean the cumulative time during which an area receives direct irradiance from the Sun of at least 120 watts per square meter . Other sources indicate an `` Average over the entire earth '' of `` 164 Watts per square meter over a 24 hour day '' . The ultraviolet radiation in sunlight has both positive and negative health effects , as it is both a principal source of vitamin D3 and a mutagen . Sunlight takes about 8.3 minutes to reach Earth from the surface of the Sun . A photon starting at the center of the Sun and changing direction every time it encounters a charged particle would take between 10,000 and 170,000 years to get to the surface . Sunlight is a key factor in photosynthesis , the process used by plants and other autotrophic organisms to convert light energy , normally from the Sun , into chemical energy that can be used to fuel the organisms ' activities .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Sunlight", "rank": 41, "score": 108892 }, { "content": "Title: North American Carbon Program Content: The North American Carbon Program ( NACP ) is one of the major elements of the Strategic Plan for the U.S. Climate Change Science Program . The central objective of NACP is to measure and understand carbon stocks and sources and sinks of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , methane ( CH4 ) , and carbon monoxide ( CO ) in North America and adjacent ocean regions . The specific program goals are as followed : Develop quantitative scientific knowledge , robust observations , and models to determine the emissions and uptake of CO2 , CH4 , and CO , changes in carbon stocks , and the factors regulating these processes for North America and adjacent ocean basins . Develop the scientific basis to implement full carbon accounting on regional and continental scales . This is the knowledge base needed to design monitoring programs for natural and managed CO2 sinks and emissions of CH4 . Support long-term quantitative measurements of fluxes , sources , and sinks of atmospheric CO2 and CH4 , and develop forecasts for future trends . The North American Carbon Program was designed to help with the process of providing data needed to model the synthesis activities .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "North_American_Carbon_Program", "rank": 42, "score": 108697 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Climate_change_and_potatoes", "rank": 43, "score": 108119 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide flooding Content: Carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) flooding is a process whereby carbon dioxide is injected into an oil reservoir in order to increase output when extracting oil . When a reservoir 's pressure is depleted through primary and secondary production , carbon dioxide flooding can be an ideal tertiary recovery method . It is particularly effective in reservoirs deeper than 2,500 ft. , where will be in a supercritical state , with API oil gravity greater than 22 -- 25 ° and remaining oil saturation greater than 20 % . It should also be noted that carbon dioxide flooding is not affected by the lithology of the reservoir area , but simply by the reservoir porosity and permeability , so that it is viable in both sandstone and carbonate reservoirs . By injecting CO2 into the reservoir , the viscosity of any hydrocarbon will be reduced and hence will be easier to sweep to the production well . As an oil field matures and production rates decline , there is growing incentive to intervene and attempt to increase oil output utilizing tertiary recovery techniques ( also termed improved or enhanced oil recovery ) . Petroleum engineers assess available options for increasing well productivity , options that include chemical injection , thermal/steam injection , and CO2 injection . Based on data-gathering and computer simulations , the most optimal enhanced oil-recovery technique to maximize well-productivity is determined . To increase the rate of oil production , the pressure within the reservoir must be increased . In CO2 flooding , the first step is injection of water into the reservoir , which will cause the reservoir pressure to increase . Once the reservoir has sufficient pressure , the next step is to pump the CO2 down through the same injection wells . The CO2 gas is forced into the reservoir to come into contact with the oil . This creates a miscible zone that can be moved more easily to the production well . Normally the CO2 injection is alternated with water injection and the water acts to sweep the oil towards the production zone . CO2 flooding is the second most common tertiary recovery technique and is used in facilities around the world . In connection with greenhouse gas emissions and global warming , CO2 flooding sequesters underground and therefore offsets CO2 emissions elsewhere .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_flooding", "rank": 44, "score": 108087 }, { "content": "Title: Jansky Content: The jansky ( symbol Jy ) is a non-SI unit of spectral flux density , or spectral irradiance , used especially in radio astronomy . It is equivalent to 10 − 26 watts per square metre per hertz . The flux density or monochromatic flux , , of a source is the integral of the spectral radiance , , over the source solid angle : The unit is named after pioneering US radio astronomer Karl Guthe Jansky and is defined as ( SI ) ( cgs ) . Since the jansky is obtained by integrating over the whole source solid angle , it is most simply used to describe point sources ; for example , the Third Cambridge Catalogue of Radio Sources ( 3C ) reports results in Jy . For extended sources , the surface brightness is often described with units of Jy per solid angle ; for example , far-infrared ( FIR ) maps from the IRAS satellite are in MJy/sr . Although extended sources at all wavelengths can be reported with these units , for radio-frequency maps , extended sources have traditionally been described in terms of a brightness temperature ; for example the Haslam et al. 408 MHz all-sky continuum survey is reported in terms of a brightness temperature in K.", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Jansky", "rank": 45, "score": 107799 }, { "content": "Title: Irradiance Content: In radiometry , irradiance is the radiant flux ( power ) received by a surface per unit area . The SI unit of irradiance is the watt per square metre . The CGS unit erg per square centimetre per second is often used in astronomy . Irradiance is often called `` intensity '' in branches of physics other than radiometry , but in radiometry this usage leads to confusion with radiant intensity . Spectral irradiance is the irradiance of a surface per unit frequency or wavelength , depending on whether the spectrum is taken as a function of frequency or of wavelength . The two forms have different dimensions : spectral irradiance of a frequency spectrum is measured in watts per square metre per hertz ( W · m − 2 · Hz − 1 ) , while spectral irradiance of a wavelength spectrum is measured in watts per square metre per metre ( W · m − 3 ) , or more commonly watts per square metre per nanometre .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Irradiance", "rank": 46, "score": 107741 }, { "content": "Title: Wind-induced surface heat exchange Content: The wind-induced surface heat exchange ( WISHE ) is a positive feedback mechanism between the ocean and atmosphere in which a stronger ocean-to-atmosphere heat flux results in a stronger atmospheric circulation , which results in a strong heat flux . It has been hypothesized that this is the mechanism by which low pressure areas in the tropics develop into tropical cyclones .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Wind-induced_surface_heat_exchange", "rank": 47, "score": 107268 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 48, "score": 106544 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals", "rank": 49, "score": 105942 }, { "content": "Title: Total Carbon Column Observing Network Content: The Total Carbon Column Observing Network ( TCCON ) is a global network of instruments that measure the amount of carbon dioxide , methane , carbon monoxide , nitrous oxide and other trace gases in the Earth 's atmosphere . The TCCON ( -LSB- ˈtiːkɒn -RSB- ) began in 2004 with the installation of the first instrument in Park Falls , Wisconsin , USA , and has since grown to 23 operational instruments worldwide , with 7 former sites . The TCCON is designed to investigate several things , including the flow ( or flux ) of carbon between the atmosphere , land , and ocean ( the so-called carbon budget or carbon cycle ) . This is achieved by measuring the atmospheric mass of carbon ( the airborne fraction ) . The TCCON measurements have improved the scientific community 's understanding of the carbon cycle , and urban greenhouse gas emissions . The TCCON supports several satellite instruments by providing an independent measurement to compare ( or validate ) the satellite measurements of the atmosphere over the TCCON site locations . The TCCON provides the primary measurement validation dataset for the Orbiting Carbon Observatory ( OCO-2 ) mission , and has been used to validate other space-based measurements of carbon dioxide .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Total_Carbon_Column_Observing_Network", "rank": 50, "score": 105536 }, { "content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Polar_amplification", "rank": 51, "score": 105250 }, { "content": "Title: RTTOV (radiative transfer code) Content: RTTOV - the fast radiative transfer model for calculations of radiances for satellite infrared or microwave nadir scanning radiometers ( see push broom scanner ) . Given an atmospheric profile of temperature , variable gas concentrations , cloud and surface properties RTTOV calculates radiances and brightness temperatures . The only mandatory input is water vapour . Optionally ozone , carbon dioxide , nitrous oxide , methane and carbon monoxide can be variable with all other constituents assumed to be constant . The range of temperatures and water vapour concentrations over which the optical depth computations are valid depends on the training datasets which were used . The spectral range of the RTTOV9 .1 model is 3-20 micrometres ( 500 -- 3000 cm-1 ) in the infrared . RTTOV contains forward , tangent linear , adjoint and K ( full Jacobian matrices ) versions of the model ; the latter three modules for variational assimilation or retrieval applications . One of several applications of RTTOV are retrievals of brightness temperature and sea surface temperature from Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer sensor .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "RTTOV_(radiative_transfer_code)", "rank": 52, "score": 105149 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 53, "score": 105144 }, { "content": "Title: Guy Stewart Callendar Content: Guy Stewart Callendar ( February 1897 - October 1964 ) was an English steam engineer and inventor . His main contribution to knowledge was developing the theory that linked rising carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere to global temperature . This theory , earlier proposed by Svante Arrhenius , has been called the Callendar effect . Callendar thought this warming would be beneficial , delaying a `` return of the deadly glaciers . ''", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Guy_Stewart_Callendar", "rank": 54, "score": 105092 }, { "content": "Title: Therm Content: The therm ( symbol thm ) is a non-SI unit of heat energy equal to 100,000 British thermal units ( BTU ) . It is approximately the energy equivalent of burning 100 cuft -- often referred to as 1 CCF -- of natural gas . Since natural gas meters measure volume and not energy content , a therm factor is used by ( Natural ) gas companies to convert the volume of gas used to its heat equivalent , and thus calculate the actual energy use . The therm factor is usually expressed in units of therms per CCF . It will vary with the mix of hydrocarbons in the natural gas . Natural gas with a higher than average concentration of ethane , propane or butane will have a higher therm factor . Impurities , such as carbon dioxide or nitrogen , lower the therm factor . The volume of the gas is calculated as if measured at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) . The heat content of natural gas is solely dependent on the composition of the gas , and is independent of temperature and pressure . One therm is equal to about 105.5 megajoules , 25,200 kilocalories or 29.3 kilowatt-hours . One therm can also be provided by about 96.7 cuft of natural gas . The therm sometimes has been confused with the thermie ( see below ) . The names of both units come from the Greek word for heat . A thermie ( th ) is a metric unit of heat energy , part of the meter-tonne-second system sometimes used by European engineers . The thermie is equal to the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 tonne of water by 1 ° C . The thermie is equivalent to 1,000 kilocalories , 4.1868 megajoules or 3968.3 BTU .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Therm", "rank": 55, "score": 105057 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center Content: The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center ( CDIAC ) is an organization within the United States Department of Energy that has the primary responsibility for providing the US government and research community with global warming data and analysis as it pertains to energy issues . The CDIAC , and its subsidiary the World Data Center for Atmospheric Trace Gases , focus on obtaining , evaluating and distributing data related to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions . CDIAC was founded in 1982 . Its present offices are located within the Environmental Sciences Division of Oak Ridge National Laboratory . The current director is Thomas A. Boden .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Carbon_Dioxide_Information_Analysis_Center", "rank": 56, "score": 104791 }, { "content": "Title: Iris hypothesis Content: The iris hypothesis is a hypothesis proposed by Richard Lindzen et al. in 2001 that suggested increased sea surface temperature in the tropics would result in reduced cirrus clouds and thus more infrared radiation leakage from Earth 's atmosphere . His study of observed changes in cloud coverage and modeled effects on infrared radiation released to space as a result supported the hypothesis . This suggested infrared radiation leakage was hypothesized to be a negative feedback in which an initial warming would result in an overall cooling of the surface . The consensus view is that increased sea surface temperature would result in increased cirrus clouds and reduced infrared radiation leakage and therefore a positive feedback . Other scientists subsequently tested the hypothesis . Some concluded that there was no evidence supporting the hypothesis . Others found evidence suggesting that increased sea surface temperature in the tropics did indeed reduce cirrus clouds but found that the effect was nonetheless a positive feedback rather than the negative feedback that Lindzen had hypothesized . A later 2007 study conducted by Roy Spencer et al. using updated satellite data potentially supported the iris hypothesis . In 2011 , Lindzen published a rebuttal to the main criticisms . In 2015 a paper was published which again suggested the possibility of an `` Iris Effect '' . It also proposed what it called a `` plausible physical mechanism for an iris effect . ''", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Iris_hypothesis", "rank": 57, "score": 104757 }, { "content": "Title: Marine cloud brightening Content: Marine cloud brightening is a proposed solar radiation management climate engineering technique that would make clouds brighter , reflecting a small fraction of incoming sunlight back into space in order to offset anthropogenic global warming . Along with stratospheric aerosol injection , it is one of the two solar radiation management methods that may most feasibly have a substantial climate impact . The intention is that increasing the Earth 's albedo , in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction , carbon dioxide removal , and adaptation , would reduce climate change and its risks to people and the environment . If implemented , the cooling effect is expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales . However , technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening . There are also risks with such modification of complex climate systems .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Marine_cloud_brightening", "rank": 58, "score": 104627 }, { "content": "Title: Radiant flux Content: In radiometry , radiant flux or radiant power is the radiant energy emitted , reflected , transmitted or received , per unit time , and spectral flux or spectral power is the radiant flux per unit frequency or wavelength , depending on whether the spectrum is taken as a function of frequency or of wavelength . The SI unit of radiant flux is the watt ( W ) , that is the joule per second in SI base units , while that of spectral flux in frequency is the watt per hertz and that of spectral flux in wavelength is the watt per metre -- commonly the watt per nanometre .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Radiant_flux", "rank": 59, "score": 104584 }, { "content": "Title: Individual action on climate change Content: Making various personal choices has been advocated as a means of fighting climate change . A carbon diet is an effective way to understand the amount of impact on the environment and how to make meaningful changes . A low carbon diet is a way of reducing impact by choosing food that causes much less pollution . Trees : Protecting forests and planting new trees contributes to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air . There are many opportunities to plant trees in the yard , along roads , in parks , and in public gardens . In addition , some charities plant fast-growing trees -- for as little as $ US0 .10 per tree -- to help people in tropical developing countries restore the productivity of their lands . Conversely , clearing old-growth forests adds to the carbon in the atmosphere , so buying non-old-growth paper is good for the climate as well as the forest . Labels : The Energy Star label can be seen on many household appliances , home electronics , office equipment , heating and cooling equipment , windows , residential light fixtures , and other products . Energy Star products use less energy . Travel : In the United States , perception towards climate change influenced people to change their travel lifestyle . More than a third of Americans have changed their travel habits in 2008 , versus only 14 % in 2007 . Cars : Purchasing a vehicle which gets high gas mileage helps to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide . Flying : Avoiding air travel and particularly frequent flyer programs has a high benefit because the convenience makes frequent , long distance travel easy , and high-altitude emissions are more potent for the climate than the same emissions made at ground level . Walking and running are among the least environmentally harmful modes of transportation , followed by the bicycle . Many energy suppliers in various countries worldwide have options to purchase part or pure `` green energy . '' The wind energy produced in Denmark , for example , provides about 20 percent of the country 's total electricity needs . These methods of energy production emit no greenhouse gases once they are up and running . Carbon offsets : The principle of carbon offset is thus : one decides that they do n't want to be responsible for accelerating climate change , and they 've already made efforts to reduce their carbon dioxide emissions , so they decide to pay someone else to further reduce their net emissions by planting trees or by taking up low-carbon technologies . Every unit of carbon that is absorbed by trees -- or not emitted due to your funding of renewable energy deployment -- offsets the emissions from their fossil fuel use . In many cases , funding of renewable energy , energy efficiency , or tree planting -- particularly in developing nations -- can be a relatively cheap way of making an individual `` carbon neutral '' . Carbon offset providers -- some as inexpensive as US$ 0.11 per metric ton ( USD 0.10 per US ton ) of carbon dioxide -- are referenced below under Lifestyle Action .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Individual_action_on_climate_change", "rank": 60, "score": 104443 }, { "content": "Title: Rate of heat flow Content: The rate of flow of heat between two systems is measured in watts ( joules per second ) . The formula for rate of heat flow is ∆ Q / ∆ t = - K × A × ∆ T/x , where ∆ Q / ∆ t is the rate of heat flow ; - K is the thermal conductivity factor ; A is the surface area ; ∆ T is the change in temperature and x is the thickness of the material ( ∆ T/x is called the temperature gradient and is always negative because of the heat of flow always goes from more thermal energy to less ) .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Rate_of_heat_flow", "rank": 61, "score": 104138 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide Content: Carbon dioxide ( chemical formula ) is a colorless gas with a density about 60 % higher than that of air ( 1.225 g/L ) that is odorless at normally encountered concentrations . Carbon dioxide consists of a carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms . It occurs naturally in Earth 's atmosphere as a trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent ( 400 ppm ) by volume . Natural sources include volcanoes , hot springs and geysers , and it is freed from carbonate rocks by dissolution in water and acids . Because carbon dioxide is soluble in water , it occurs naturally in groundwater , rivers and lakes , ice caps , glaciers and seawater . It is present in deposits of petroleum and natural gas . As the source of available carbon in the carbon cycle , atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary carbon source for life on Earth and its concentration in Earth 's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian has been regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geological phenomena . Plants , algae and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water , with oxygen produced as a waste product . Carbon dioxide is produced by all aerobic organisms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to produce energy by respiration . It is returned to water via the gills of fish and to the air via the lungs of air-breathing land animals , including humans . Carbon dioxide is produced during the processes of decay of organic materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread , beer and winemaking . It is produced by combustion of wood and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal , peat , petroleum and natural gas . It is a versatile industrial material , used , for example , as an inert gas in welding and fire extinguishers , as a pressurizing gas in air guns and oil recovery , as a chemical feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaffeination of coffee and supercritical drying . It is added to drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer and sparkling wine to add effervescence . The frozen solid form of , known as `` dry ice '' is used as a refrigerant and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting . Carbon dioxide is the most significant long-lived greenhouse gas in Earth 's atmosphere . Since the Industrial Revolution anthropogenic emissions - primarily from use of fossil fuels and deforestation - have rapidly increased its concentration in the atmosphere , leading to global warming . Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acidification because it dissolves in water to form carbonic acid .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide", "rank": 62, "score": 103744 }, { "content": "Title: Low-carbon economy Content: A low-carbon economy ( LCE ) , low-fossil-fuel economy ( LFFE ) , or decarbonised economy is an economy based on low carbon power sources that therefore has a minimal output of greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions into the biosphere , but specifically refers to the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide . GHG emissions due to anthropogenic ( human ) activity are the dominant cause of observed global warming ( climate change ) since the mid-20th century . Continued emission of greenhouse gases will cause further warming and long-lasting changes around the world , increasing the likelihood of severe , pervasive and irreversible impacts for people and ecosystems . Many countries around the world are designing and implementing low emission development strategies ( LEDS ) . These strategies seek to achieve social , economic and environmental development goals while reducing long-term greenhouse gas emissions and increasing resilience to climate change impacts . Globally implemented low-carbon economies are therefore proposed by those having drawn this conclusion , as a means to avoid catastrophic climate change , and as a precursor to the more advanced , zero-carbon economy .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Low-carbon_economy", "rank": 63, "score": 103728 }, { "content": "Title: Tropical peat Content: Areas of tropical peat are found mostly in South East Asia ( about 70 % by area ) although are also found in Africa , Central and South America and elsewhere around the Pacific Ocean . Tropical peatlands are significant carbon sinks and store large amounts of carbon and their destruction can significantly impact on the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Tropical peatlands are vulnerable to destabilisation through human and climate induced changes . Estimates of the area ( and hence volume ) of tropical peatland vary but a reasonable estimate is in the region of 380,000 square kilometres . Although tropical peatlands only cover about 0.25 % of the Earth 's land surface they contain 50,000-70 ,000 million tonnes of carbon ( about 3 % global soil carbon ) . In addition , tropical peatlands support diverse ecosystems and are home to a number of endangered species including the orang utan . The native peat swamp forests contain a number of valuable timber-producing trees plus a range of other products of value to local communities , such as bark , resins and latex . Land-use changes and fire , mainly associated with plantation development and logging ( deforestation and drainage ) , are reducing this carbon store and contributing to greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions . The problems that result from development of tropical peatland stem mainly from a lack of understanding of the complexities of this ecosystem and the fragility of the relationship between peat and forest . Once the forest is removed and the peat is drained , the surface peat oxidises and loses stored carbon rapidly to the atmosphere ( as carbon dioxide ) . This results in progressive loss of the peat surface , leading to local flooding and , due to the large areas involved , global climate change . Failure to account for such emissions results in underestimates of the rate of increase in atmospheric GHGs and the extent of human induced climate change .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Tropical_peat", "rank": 64, "score": 103496 }, { "content": "Title: Micro combined heat and power Content: Micro combined heat and power or micro-CHP is an extension of the idea of cogeneration to the single/multi family home or small office building in the range of up to 50 kW . Local generation has a higher efficiency as it lacks the 8-10 % energy losses when transporting electricity over long distances and the 10 -- 15 % energy losses on heat transfer in district heating networks due to the difference between the thermal energy carrier ( hot water ) and the colder external environment . The most common systems use natural gas as their primary energy source and emit carbon dioxide .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Micro_combined_heat_and_power", "rank": 65, "score": 103129 }, { "content": "Title: Revelle factor Content: The Revelle factor ( buffer factor ) is the ratio of instantaneous change in carbon dioxide to the change in total dissolved inorganic carbon ( DIC ) , and is a measure of the resistance to atmospheric CO2 being absorbed by the ocean surface layer . The buffer factor is used to examine the distribution of CO2 between the atmosphere and the ocean , and measures the amount of CO2 that can be dissolved in the mixed surface layer . It is named after the oceanographer Roger Revelle , who was one of the first scientists to study global warming . Revelle factor = / ( Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- ) where DIC is dissolved inorganic carbon . Δ -LSB- -RSB- / -LSB- -RSB- is the instantaneous change in p and Δ -LSB- DIC -RSB- / -LSB- DIC -RSB- is the instantaneous change in DIC .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Revelle_factor", "rank": 66, "score": 103053 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon sequestration Content: Carbon sequestration is the process involved in carbon capture and the long-term storage of atmospheric carbon dioxide . Carbon sequestration involves long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon to mitigate or defer global warming . It has been proposed as a way to slow the atmospheric and marine accumulation of greenhouse gases , which are released by burning fossil fuels . Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological , chemical , and physical processes . Artificial processes have been devised to produce similar effects , including large-scale , artificial capture and sequestration of industrially produced using subsurface saline aquifers , reservoirs , ocean water , aging oil fields , or other carbon sinks .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Carbon_sequestration", "rank": 67, "score": 102862 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 68, "score": 102709 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental impact of aviation Content: The environmental impact of aviation occurs because aircraft engines emit heat , noise , particulates and gases which contribute to climate change and global dimming . Among others airplanes emit particles and gases such as carbon dioxide , water vapor , hydrocarbons , carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , lead and black carbon which interact among themselves and with the atmosphere . Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more fuel-efficient and less polluting turbofan and turboprop engines , the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation . From 1992 to 2005 , passenger kilometers increased 5.2 % per year . And in the European Union , greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87 % between 1990 and 2006 . Comprehensive research shows that despite anticipated efficiency innovations to airframes , engines , aerodynamics and flight operations , there is no end in sight -- even many decades out -- to rapid growth in CO2 emissions from air travel and air freight , due to projected continual growth in air travel . This is because international aviation emissions have escaped international regulation up to the ICAO triennial conference in October 2016 agreed on the CORSIA offset scheme , and because of the lack of taxes on aviation fuel worldwide , lower fares become more frequent than otherwise which gives a competitive advantage over other transportation modes . Unless market constraints are put in place this growth in aviation 's emissions will result in the sector 's emissions amounting to all or nearly all of the annual global emissions budget by mid-century , if climate change is to be held to a temperature increase of 2 ° C or less . There is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme , with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Environmental_impact_of_aviation", "rank": 69, "score": 102239 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon shifting Content: Carbon shifting is the tendency for an individual to increase carbon dioxide emissions in one area of their lifestyle as a result of reducing emissions elsewhere . ` Carbon shifting ' might more accurately be termed ` domestic carbon shifting ' to distinguish it from carbon leakage which has occasionally also been called carbon shifting . Many attempts to encourage people to change aspects of their lifestyle and so reduce their carbon dioxide emissions make a virtue of the financial savings . In the United Kingdom the Energy Saving Trust lists various ways of saving energy , e.g. `` Energy saving light bulbs last up to 12 times longer than ordinary lightbulbs and can save you # 9 per year in electricity ( and 38 kilograms of ) or # 100 over the bulbs lifetime . '' However , whether or not carbon dioxide emissions are ultimately reduced will depend on how that saved money is spent . If the amount of money saved through walking to work is eventually spent on an extra city break involving air travel the net emissions may well increase . The problem of carbon shifting may undermine many voluntary piecemeal attempts at reducing carbon dioxide emissions . However , carbon shifting is not inherently negative . If a person can be persuaded to avoid activities that produce a high level of emissions for a given financial outlay then they may shift to activities that produce lower emissions for that same amount of money . Positive carbon shifting might be encouraged through the use of a carbon tax or the implementation of a Personal carbon trading scheme . The phenomenon of carbon shifting also suggests that for some comparative purposes the most appropriate measure of emissions would be emissions per unit of currency rather than total emissions . An activity that produces slightly lower emissions at a significantly lower cost may not necessarily be the best activity to promote as it leaves the individual with more money to spend on other emitting activities . Similarly , if two passengers are traveling on the same aircraft they might be deemed to be emitting the same total amount of carbon dioxide . However , if one of them paid a lower fare then , by this measure , they would be deemed to be damaging the environment more .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Carbon_shifting", "rank": 70, "score": 102179 }, { "content": "Title: International Tundra Experiment Content: The International Tundra Experiment ( ITEX ) is a long-term international collaboration of researchers examining the responses of arctic and alpine plants and ecosystems to climate change . The ITEX network consists of more than 20 sites in polar and alpine locations around the world . Researchers measure plant responses to standardized , small-scale passive warming , snow manipulations , and nutrient additions . Researchers use small open-top chambers to passively increase mean air temperature by 1-2oC . The ITEX approach has been validated by tundra responses at the plot level . The network has published meta-analyses on plant phenology , growth , and reproduction , composition and abundance , and carbon flux .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "International_Tundra_Experiment", "rank": 71, "score": 102046 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 72, "score": 102039 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth", "rank": 73, "score": 101833 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture", "rank": 74, "score": 101355 }, { "content": "Title: Contribution to global warming by Australia Content: Australia has one of the highest per capita emissions of carbon dioxide in the world , with 0.3 % of the world 's population it produces 1.8 % of the world 's greenhouse gasses . It was 18.3 tonnes per year per person and the 11th highest in the world per capita in 2009 . Australia uses principally coal power ( 70 % ) for electricity , with the remainder mainly gas , with no nuclear , low levels of hydro power , and low , but increasing , levels of solar , wind and wave power .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Contribution_to_global_warming_by_Australia", "rank": 75, "score": 100978 }, { "content": "Title: Supercritical carbon dioxide Content: Supercritical carbon dioxide ( s ) is a fluid state of carbon dioxide where it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure . Carbon dioxide usually behaves as a gas in air at standard temperature and pressure ( STP ) , or as a solid called dry ice when frozen . If the temperature and pressure are both increased from STP to be at or above the critical point for carbon dioxide , it can adopt properties midway between a gas and a liquid . More specifically , it behaves as a supercritical fluid above its critical temperature ( 304.25 K ) and critical pressure ( 72.9 atm ) , expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid . Supercritical is becoming an important commercial and industrial solvent due to its role in chemical extraction in addition to its low toxicity and environmental impact . The relatively low temperature of the process and the stability of also allows most compounds to be extracted with little damage or denaturing . In addition , the solubility of many extracted compounds in varies with pressure , permitting selective extractions .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Supercritical_carbon_dioxide", "rank": 76, "score": 100853 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide removal Content: Carbon dioxide removal ( CDR ) methods refers to a number of technologies which reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Among such technologies are bio-energy with carbon capture and storage , biochar , direct air capture , ocean fertilization and enhanced weathering . CDR is a different approach than removing CO2 from the stack emissions of large fossil fuel point sources , such as power stations . The latter reduces emission to the atmosphere but can not reduce the amount of carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere . As CDR removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , it creates negative emissions , offsetting emissions from small and dispersed point sources such as domestic heating systems , airplanes and vehicle exhausts . It is regarded by some as a form of climate engineering , while other commentators describe it as a form of carbon capture and storage or extreme mitigation . Whether CDR would satisfy common definitions of `` climate engineering '' or `` geoengineering '' usually depends upon the scale on which it would be undertaken . The likely need for CDR has been publicly expressed by a range of individuals and organizations involved with climate change issues , including IPCC chief Rajendra Pachauri , the UNFCCC executive secretary Christiana Figueres , and the World Watch Institute . Institutions with major programs focusing on CDR include the Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy at the Earth Institute , Columbia University , and the Climate Decision Making Center , an international collaboration operated out of Carnegie-Mellon University 's Department of Engineering and Public Policy . The mitigation effectiveness of air capture is limited by societal investment , land use , availability of geologic reservoirs , and leakage . The reservoirs are estimated to be sufficient to for storing at least 545 GtC . Storing 771 GtC would cause an 186 ppm atmospheric reduction . In order to return the atmospheric CO2 content to 350 ppm we need atmospheric reduction of 50 ppm plus an additional 2 ppm per year of current emissions .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_removal", "rank": 77, "score": 100827 }, { "content": "Title: FluxNet Content: FluxNet is a global network of micrometeorological tower sites that use eddy covariance methods to measure the exchanges of carbon dioxide , water vapor , and energy between the biosphere and atmosphere . Fluxnet is a global ` network of regional networks ' that serves to provide an infrastructure to compile , archive and distribute data for the scientific community . It works to ensure that different flux networks are calibrated to facilitate comparison between sites , and it provides a forum for the distribution of knowledge and data between scientists . As of April 2014 , there are over 683 tower sites in continuous long-term operation . Researchers also collect data on site vegetation , soil , trace gas fluxes , hydrology , and meteorological characteristics at the tower sites .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "FluxNet", "rank": 78, "score": 100544 }, { "content": "Title: Land use, land-use change and forestry Content: Land use , land-use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) is defined by the United Nations Climate Change Secretariat as a `` greenhouse gas inventory sector that covers emissions and removals of greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-induced land use , land-use change and forestry activities . '' LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon cycle and as such , these activities can add or remove carbon dioxide ( or , more generally , carbon ) from the atmosphere , influencing climate . LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . Additionally , land use is of critical importance for biodiversity .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Land_use,_land-use_change_and_forestry", "rank": 79, "score": 100117 }, { "content": "Title: Geoffrey Hendricks Content: Geoffrey Hendricks ( born in 1931 in Littleton , New Hampshire ) is an American artist associated with Fluxus since the mid 1960s , and has styled himself as `` cloudsmith '' for his extensive work with sky imagery in paintings , on objects , in installations and performances . He is professor emeritus of art at Rutgers University , where he taught from 1956 to 2003 , and where he was associated with Allan Kaprow , Roy Lichtenstein , and Lucas Samaras during their time there in the 1960s . In 2002 , he edited Critical Mass : Happenings , Fluxus , Performance , Intermedia and Rutgers University , 1958-1972 , a book that documents the seminal creative activity and experimental work developed by university faculty members of the 1960s such as Bob Watts , Allan Kaprow , George Brecht , Hendricks , and others . He has participated in Fluxus festivals worldwide and continues exhibiting internationally . He is renowned for students he has mentored over his 48 years of teaching , and his skill in preparing delicious macrobiotic meals . He maintains studios and residences in New York City and at his farm in Colindale , Cape Breton Island , Nova Scotia , along with his partner and sometimes collaborator , Sur Rodney ( Sur ) . In 2006 , he had solo exhibitions at the Art Gallery of Windsor , Ontario ; UC , Santa Cruz ; Galerie Esplanade , Bad Ischl , Austria ; the Egon Schiele Art Centrum , Český Krumlov , Czech Republic ( through December 2006 ) ; and taught `` the Artist as Nomad '' at the International Summer Academy , Salzburg . He recently performed `` Headstands for Peace '' , in Washington Square Park , an event organized by Julie Evanoff . Hendricks was married from 1961 to 1971 to fellow artist Bici Forbes ( now Nye Ffarrabas ) ; he is currently partnered with artist Sur Rodney ( Sur ) .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Geoffrey_Hendricks", "rank": 80, "score": 99974 }, { "content": "Title: Flux (biology) Content: In general , flux in biology relates to movement of a substance between compartments . There are several cases where the concept of flux is important . The movement of molecules across a membrane : in this case , flux is defined by the rate of diffusion or transport of a substance across a permeable membrane . Except in the case of active transport , net flux is directly proportional to the concentration difference across the membrane , the surface area of the membrane , and the membrane permeability constant . In ecology , flux is often considered at the ecosystem level - for instance , accurate determination of carbon fluxes using techniques like eddy covariance ( at a regional and global level ) is essential for modeling the causes and consequences of global warming . Metabolic flux refers to the rate of flow of metabolites through a biochemical network , along a linear metabolic pathway , or through a single enzyme . A calculation may also be made of carbon flux or flux of other elemental components of biomolecules ( e.g. nitrogen ) . The general unit of flux is chemical mass / time ( e.g. , micromole/minute ; mg/kg/minute ) . Flux rates are dependent on a number of factors , including : enzyme concentration ; the concentration of precursor , product , and intermediate metabolites ; post-translational modification of enzymes ; and the presence of metabolic activators or repressors . Metabolic flux in biologic systems can refer to biosynthesis rates of polymers or other macromolecules , such as proteins , lipids , polynucleotides , or complex carbohydrates , as well as the flow of intermediary metabolites through pathways Metabolic control analysis and flux balance analysis provide frameworks for understanding metabolic fluxes and their constraints . Category : Biology terminology", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Flux_(biology)", "rank": 81, "score": 99850 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon rift Content: Carbon rift is a theory attributing the input and output of carbon into the environment to human capitalistic systems . This is a derivative of Karl Marx 's concept of metabolic rift . In practical terms , increased commodity production demands that greater levels of carbon dioxide ( or CO2 ) be emitted into the biosphere via fossil fuel consumption . Carbon rift theory states that this ultimately disrupts the natural carbon cycle and that this `` rift '' has adverse effects on nearly every aspect of life . Many of the specifics regarding how this metabolic carbon rift interacts with capitalism are proposed by Brett Clark and Richard York in a 2005 article titled `` Carbon Metabolism : Global capitalism , climate change , and the biospheric rift '' in the journal Theory and Society . Researchers such as Jean P. Sapinski of the University of Oregon claim that , despite increased interest in closing the carbon rift , it is projected that as long as capitalism continues , there is little hope of reducing the rift . Both deforestation and the emission of greenhouse gases have been linked to increased atmospheric CO2 levels . Carbon rift theory states that these are the result of human production through capitalistic systems . There are proposed solutions to climate change such as geoengineering proposed in the December 2015 Paris Agreement . However , some argue that the capitalist mode of production is at fault for the emission of greenhouse gas and that solutions must be found to this issue before climate change itself can be addressed . Carbon rift theory , while rarely criticized directly , often indirectly receives criticism regarding the underlying causes of climate change and attributing the stated effects to alternative explanations for climate change , instead of as a result of human activity . Such explanations include the Chaotic Solar System Theory and that increased water vapor is responsible for climate change .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Carbon_rift", "rank": 82, "score": 99841 }, { "content": "Title: 2000-watt society Content: The 2000-watt society is an environmental vision , first introduced in 1998 by the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich ( ETH Zurich ) , which pictures the average First World citizen reducing their overall average primary energy usage to no more than 2,000 watts ( 48 kilowatt-hours per day ) by the year 2050 -- and without lowering their standard of living . The concept addresses not only personal or household energy use , but the total for the whole society , including embodied energy , divided by the population . Two thousand watts is approximately the current world average rate of total primary energy use . This compares to averages of around 6,000 watts in western Europe , 12,000 watts in the United States , 1,500 watts in China , 1,000 watts in India , 500 watts in South Africa and only 300 watts in Bangladesh . Switzerland itself , currently using an average of around 5,000 watts , was last a 2000-watt society in the 1960s . It is further envisaged that the use of carbon based fuels would be ultimately cut to no more than 500 watts per person within 50 to 100 years . The vision was developed in response to concerns about climate change , energy security , and the future availability of energy supplies . It is supported by the Swiss Federal Office of Energy , the Association of Swiss Architects and Engineers , and other bodies .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "2000-watt_society", "rank": 83, "score": 99684 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 84, "score": 99369 }, { "content": "Title: Radiance Content: In radiometry , radiance is the radiant flux emitted , reflected , transmitted or received by a given surface , per unit solid angle per unit projected area . Spectral radiance is the radiance of a surface per unit frequency or wavelength , depending on whether the spectrum is taken as a function of frequency or of wavelength . These are directional quantities . The SI unit of radiance is the watt per steradian per square metre , while that of spectral radiance in frequency is the watt per steradian per square metre per hertz and that of spectral radiance in wavelength is the watt per steradian per square metre , per metre -- commonly the watt per steradian per square metre per nanometre . The microflick is also used to measure spectral radiance in some fields . Radiance is used to characterize diffuse emission and reflection of electromagnetic radiation , or to quantify emission of neutrinos and other particles . Historically , radiance is called `` intensity '' and spectral radiance is called `` specific intensity '' . Many fields still use this nomenclature . It is especially dominant in heat transfer , astrophysics and astronomy . `` Intensity '' has many other meanings in physics , with the most common being power per unit area .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Radiance", "rank": 85, "score": 99328 }, { "content": "Title: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources Content: Measurement of life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions involves calculating the global-warming potential of electrical energy sources through life-cycle assessment of each energy source . The findings are presented in units of global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated by that source . The scale uses the global warming potential unit , the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) , and the unit of electrical energy , the kilowatt hour ( kWh ) . The goal of such assessments is to cover the full life of the source , from material and fuel mining through construction to operation and waste management . In 2014 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change harmonized the carbon dioxide equivalent ( e ) findings of the major electricity generating sources in use worldwide . This was done by analyzing the findings of hundreds of individual scientific papers assessing each energy source . For all technologies , advances in efficiency , and therefore reductions in e since the time of publication , have not been included . For example , the total life cycle emissions from wind power may have lessened since publication . Similarly , due to the time frame over which the studies were conducted , nuclear Generation II reactor 's e results are presented and not the global warming potential of Generation III reactors , presently under construction in the United States and China . Other limitations of the data include : a ) missing life cycle phases , and , b ) uncertainty as to where to define the cut-off point in the global warming potential of an energy source . The latter is important in assessing a combined electrical grid in the real world , rather than the established practice of simply assessing the energy source in isolation .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources", "rank": 86, "score": 99275 }, { "content": "Title: Emissivity Content: The emissivity of the surface of a material is its effectiveness in emitting energy as thermal radiation . Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation and it may include both visible radiation ( light ) and infrared radiation , which is not visible to human eyes . The thermal radiation from very hot objects ( see photograph ) is easily visible to the eye . Quantitatively , emissivity is the ratio of the thermal radiation from a surface to the radiation from an ideal black surface at the same temperature as given by the Stefan -- Boltzmann law . The ratio varies from 0 to 1 . The surface of a black object emits thermal radiation at the rate of approximately 448 watts per square meter at room temperature ( 25 ° C , 298.15 K ) ; real objects with emissivities less than 1.0 emit radiation at correspondingly lower rates . Emissivities are important in several contexts : insulated windows . -- Warm surfaces are usually cooled directly by air , but they also cool themselves by emitting thermal radiation . This second cooling mechanism is important for simple glass windows , which have emissivities close to the maximum possible value of 1.0 . `` Low-E windows '' with transparent low emissivity coatings emit less thermal radiation than ordinary windows . In winter , these coatings can halve the rate at which a window loses heat compared to an uncoated glass window . solar heat collectors . -- Similarly , solar heat collectors lose heat by emitting thermal radiation . Advanced solar collectors incorporate selective surfaces that have very low emissivities . These collectors waste very little of the solar energy through emission of thermal radiation . planetary temperatures . -- The planets are solar thermal collectors on a large scale . The temperature of a planet 's surface is determined by the balance between the heat absorbed by the planet from sunlight , heat emitted from its core , and thermal radiation emitted back into space . Emissivity of a planet is determined by the nature of its surface and atmosphere . temperature measurements . -- Pyrometers and infrared cameras are instruments used to measure the temperature of an object by using its thermal radiation ; no actual contact with the object is needed . The calibration of these instruments involves the emissivity of the surface that 's being measured .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Emissivity", "rank": 87, "score": 99122 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon suboxide Content: Carbon suboxide , or tricarbon dioxide , is an oxide of carbon with chemical formula C3O2 or O = C = C = C =O . Its four cumulative double bonds make it a cumulene . It is one of the stable members of the series of linear oxocarbons O = Cn =O , which also includes carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) and pentacarbon dioxide ( C5O2 ) . Although if carefully purified it can exist at room temperature in the dark without decomposing , it will polymerize under certain conditions . The substance was discovered in 1873 by Benjamin Brodie by subjecting carbon monoxide to an electric current . He claimed that the product was part of a series of `` oxycarbons '' with formulas Cx +1 Ox , namely C , C2O , C3O2 , C4O3 , C5O4 , ... , and to have identified the last two ; however only C3O2 is known . In 1891 Marcellin Berthelot observed that heating pure carbon monoxide at about 550 ° C created small amounts of carbon dioxide but no trace of carbon , and assumed that a carbon-rich oxide was created instead , which he named `` sub-oxide '' . He assumed it was the same product obtained by electric discharge and proposed the formula C2O . Otto Diels later stated that the more organic names dicarbonylmethane and dioxallene were also correct . It is commonly described as an oily liquid or gas at room temperature with an extremely noxious odor .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Carbon_suboxide", "rank": 88, "score": 99058 }, { "content": "Title: TanSat Content: TanSat , also known as CarbonSat , is a Chinese Earth observation satellite dedicated to monitoring carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . It is generally classified as a minisatellite , and is the first dedicated carbon mission of the Chinese space program . The mission was formally proposed in 2010 , and work began in January 2011 . It is funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology ( MOST ) and was built by the Shanghai Institute of Microsystem And Information Technology ( SIMIT ) . TanSat carries two instruments : the Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer and the Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager . The Carbon Dioxide Spectrometer ( CDS ) , also called CarbonSpec , is a high-resolution grating spectrometer which measures absorption at 1.61 µm and 2.06 µm , and absorption in reflected sunlight at 0.76 µm . The Cloud and Aerosol Polarimetry Imager ( CAPI ) is a wide-field , moderate-resolution , imaging spectrometer which works in concert with CDS by compensating for measurement errors caused by clouds and aerosols . It makes observations in ultraviolet ( 0.38 µm ) , visible ( 0.67 µm ) , and near infrared ( 0.87 µm , 1.375 µm , and 1.64 µm ) .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "TanSat", "rank": 89, "score": 98532 }, { "content": "Title: Eddy covariance Content: The eddy covariance ( also known as eddy correlation and eddy flux ) technique is a key atmospheric measurement technique to measure and calculate vertical turbulent fluxes within atmospheric boundary layers . The method analyzes high-frequency wind and scalar atmospheric data series , and yields values of fluxes of these properties . It is a statistical method used in meteorology and other applications ( micrometeorology , oceanography , hydrology , agricultural sciences , industrial and regulatory applications , etc. ) to determine exchange rates of trace gases over natural ecosystems and agricultural fields , and to quantify gas emissions rates from other land and water areas . It is frequently used to estimate momentum , heat , water vapour , carbon dioxide and methane fluxes The technique is also used extensively for verification and tuning of global climate models , mesoscale and weather models , complex biogeochemical and ecological models , and remote sensing estimates from satellites and aircraft . The technique is mathematically complex , and requires significant care in setting up and processing data . To date , there is no uniform terminology or a single methodology for the Eddy Covariance technique , but much effort is being made by flux measurement networks ( e.g. , FluxNet , Ameriflux , ICOS , CarboEurope , Fluxnet Canada , OzFlux , NEON , and iLEAPS ) to unify the various approaches . The technique has additionally proven applicable under water to the benthic zone for measuring oxygen fluxes between seafloor and overlying water . In these environments , the technique is generally known as the eddy correlation technique , or just eddy correlation . Oxygen fluxes are extracted from raw measurements largely following the same principles as used in the atmosphere , and they are typically used as a proxy for carbon exchange , which is important for local and global carbon budgets . For most benthic ecosystems , eddy correlation is the most accurate technique for measuring in-situ fluxes . The technique 's development and its applications under water remains a fruitful area of research .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Eddy_covariance", "rank": 90, "score": 97848 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon dioxide generator Content: A Carbon dioxide generator or CO2 generator is a machine used to enhance carbon dioxide levels in order to promote plant growth in greenhouses or other enclosed areas . Carbon dioxide generators have been used to help grow marijuana . They can be fueled with propane or natural gas . CO2 generators were used mostly by commercial growers until smaller and less expansive systems made the technology more widely available to hobbyists . The generators also give off heat . Using compressed CO2 is an alternative to generators .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Carbon_dioxide_generator", "rank": 91, "score": 97823 }, { "content": "Title: Radiant exitance Content: In radiometry , radiant exitance or radiant emittance is the radiant flux emitted by a surface per unit area , whereas spectral exitance or spectral emittance is the radiant exitance of a surface per unit frequency or wavelength , depending on whether the spectrum is taken as a function of frequency or of wavelength . This is the emitted component of radiosity . The SI unit of radiant exitance is the watt per square metre , while that of spectral exitance in frequency is the watt per square metre per hertz ( W · m − 2 · Hz − 1 ) and that of spectral exitance in wavelength is the watt per square metre per metre ( W · m − 3 ) -- commonly the watt per square metre per nanometre . The CGS unit erg per square centimeter per second is often used in astronomy . Radiant exitance is often called `` intensity '' in branches of physics other than radiometry , but in radiometry this usage leads to confusion with radiant intensity .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Radiant_exitance", "rank": 92, "score": 97682 }, { "content": "Title: Black carbon Content: Chemically , black carbon ( BC ) is a component of fine particulate matter ( PM ≤ 2.5 µm in aerodynamic diameter ) . Black carbon consists of pure carbon in several linked forms . It is formed through the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels , biofuel , and biomass , and is emitted in both anthropogenic and naturally occurring soot . Black carbon causes human morbidity and premature mortality . In climatology , black carbon is a climate forcing agent . Black carbon warms the Earth by absorbing sunlight and heating the atmosphere and by reducing albedo when deposited on snow and ice ( direct effects ) and indirectly by interaction with clouds , with the total forcing of 1.1 W/m2 . Black carbon stays in the atmosphere for only several days to weeks , whereas carbon dioxide has an atmospheric lifetime of more than 100 years . The term black carbon is also used in soil sciences and geology , referring either to deposited atmospheric black carbon or to directly incorporated black carbon from vegetation fires . Especially in the tropics , black carbon in soils significantly contributes to fertility as it is able to absorb important plant nutrients .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Black_carbon", "rank": 93, "score": 97550 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 94, "score": 97424 }, { "content": "Title: Charles David Keeling Content: Charles David Keeling ( April 20 , 1928 -- June 20 , 2005 ) was an American scientist whose recording of carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory first alerted the world to the possibility of anthropogenic contribution to the `` greenhouse effect '' and global warming . The Keeling Curve measures the progressive buildup of carbon dioxide , a greenhouse gas , in the atmosphere .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Charles_David_Keeling", "rank": 95, "score": 97257 }, { "content": "Title: Carbon leakage Content: Carbon leakage occurs when there is an increase in carbon dioxide emissions in one country as a result of an emissions reduction by a second country with a strict climate policy . Carbon leakage may occur for a number of reasons : if the emissions policy of a country raises local costs , then another country with a more relaxed policy may have a trading advantage . If demand for these goods remains the same , production may move offshore to the cheaper country with lower standards , and global emissions will not be reduced . if environmental policies in one country add a premium to certain fuels or commodities , then the demand may decline and their price may fall . Countries that do not place a premium on those items may then take up the demand and use the same supply , negating any benefit . There is no consensus over the magnitude of long-term leakage effects . This is important for the problem of climate change . Carbon leakage is one type of spill-over effect . Spill-over effects can be positive or negative ; for example , emission reductions policy might lead to technological developments that aid reductions outside of the policy area . `` Carbon leakage is defined as the increase in emissions outside the countries taking domestic mitigation action divided by the reduction in the emissions of these countries . '' It is expressed as a percentage , and can be greater or less than 100 % . Carbon leakage may occur through changes in trading patterns , and that is sometimes measured as the balance of emissions embodied in trade ( BEET ) .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Carbon_leakage", "rank": 96, "score": 97166 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan", "rank": 97, "score": 96920 }, { "content": "Title: 350.org Content: 350 . org is an international environmental organization encouraging citizens to action with the belief that publicizing the increasing levels of carbon dioxide will pressure world leaders to address climate change and to reduce levels from 400 parts per million to 350 parts per million . It was founded by author Bill McKibben with the goal of building a global grassroots movement to raise awareness about human-driven climate change , to confront climate change denial , and to cut emissions of carbon dioxide in order to slow the rate of global warming . 350 . org takes its name from the research of Goddard Institute for Space Studies scientist James E. Hansen , who posited in a 2007 paper that 350 parts-per-million ( ppm ) of CO2 in the atmosphere is a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "350.org", "rank": 98, "score": 96900 }, { "content": "Title: Kaya identity Content: The Kaya identity is an identity stating that the total emission level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide can be expressed as the product of four factors : human population , GDP per capita , energy intensity ( per unit of GDP ) , and carbon intensity ( emissions per unit of energy consumed ) . It is a concrete form of the more general I = PAT equation relating factors that determine the level of human impact on climate . The Kaya identity is both simple and tricky , as it can be reduced to only two terms , but it is developed so that the carbon emission calculation becomes easy , as per the available data , or generally in which format the data is available .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Kaya_identity", "rank": 99, "score": 96898 }, { "content": "Title: Suess effect Content: The Suess effect is a change in the ratio of the atmospheric concentrations of heavy isotopes of carbon ( 13C and 14C ) by the admixture of large amounts of fossil-fuel derived CO2 , which is depleted in 13CO2 and contains no 14CO2 . It is named for the Austrian chemist Hans Suess , who noted the influence of this effect on the accuracy of radiocarbon dating . More recently , the Suess effect has been used in studies of climate change . The term originally referred only to dilution of atmospheric 14CO2 . The concept was later extended to dilution of 13CO2 and to other reservoirs of carbon such as the oceans and soils .", "qid": "3123", "docid": "Suess_effect", "rank": 100, "score": 96743 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Great Barrier Reef Content: The Great Barrier Reef is the world 's largest coral reef system composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over 2300 km over an area of approximately 344400 km2 . The reef is located in the Coral Sea , off the coast of Queensland , Australia . The Great Barrier Reef can be seen from outer space and is the world 's biggest single structure made by living organisms . This reef structure is composed of and built by billions of tiny organisms , known as coral polyps . It supports a wide diversity of life and was selected as a World Heritage Site in 1981 . CNN labelled it one of the seven natural wonders of the world . The Queensland National Trust named it a state icon of Queensland . A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park , which helps to limit the impact of human use , such as fishing and tourism . Other environmental pressures on the reef and its ecosystem include runoff , climate change accompanied by mass coral bleaching , and cyclic population outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish . According to a study published in October 2012 by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , the reef has lost more than half its coral cover since 1985 . The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and used by the Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander peoples , and is an important part of local groups ' cultures and spirituality . The reef is a very popular destination for tourists , especially in the Whitsunday Islands and Cairns regions . Tourism is an important economic activity for the region , generating over AUD$ 3 billion per year . In November 2014 , Google launched Google Underwater Street View in 3D of the Great Barrier Reef . A March 2016 report stated that coral bleaching was more widespread than previously thought , seriously affecting the northern parts of the reef as a result of warming ocean temperatures . In October 2016 , Outside published an obituary for the reef ; the article was criticized for being premature and hindering efforts to bolster the resilience of the reef . In March 2017 , the journal Nature published a paper showing that huge sections of a 800-kilometre ( 500 mi ) stretch in the northern part of the reef had died in the course of 2016 due to high water temperatures , an event that the authors put down to the effects of global climate change .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Great_Barrier_Reef", "rank": 1, "score": 132854 }, { "content": "Title: Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Content: The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park protects a large part of Australia 's Great Barrier Reef from damaging activities . It is a vast multiple-use Marine Park which supports a wide range of uses , including commercial marine tourism , fishing , ports and shipping , recreation , scientific research and Indigenous traditional use . Fishing and the removal of artefacts or wildlife ( fish , coral , seashells , etc. ) is strictly regulated , and commercial shipping traffic must stick to certain specific defined shipping routes that avoid the most sensitive areas of the park . The Great Barrier Reef is the largest and best known coral reef ecosystem in the world . Its reefs , almost 3000 in total , represent about 10 per cent of all the coral reef areas in the world . It supports an amazing variety of biodiversity , providing a home to thousands of coral and other invertebrate species , bony fish , sharks , rays , marine mammals , marine turtles , sea snakes , as well as algae and other marine plants . The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority ( GBRMPA ) is responsible for the care and protection of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park . It uses a range of tools to manage the marine park including Acts and Regulations , zoning plan , plans of management , Traditional Owner agreements , partnerships , stewardship and best practice , education , research and monitoring and reporting . It issues permits for various forms of use of the marine park , and monitors usage in the park to ensure compliance with rules and regulations associated with the park . GBRMPA is funded by Commonwealth Government appropriations and an environmental management charge levied on the permit-holders ' passengers . Currently this is A$ 6.00 per day per passenger ( to a maximum of $ 16.50 per trip ) .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Great_Barrier_Reef_Marine_Park", "rank": 2, "score": 123691 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental threats to the Great Barrier Reef Content: The Great Barrier Reef , the world 's largest reef system , stretching along the East coast of Australia from the northern tip down to the town of Bundaberg , is composed of roughly 2,900 individual reefs and 940 islands and cays that stretch for 2,300 kilometres ( 1,616 mi ) and cover an area of approximately 344,400 km2 . The reef is located in the Coral Sea , off the coast of Queensland in northeast Australia . A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park . According to the 2014 report of the Australian Government 's Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority ( GBRMPA ) , says that climate change is the most significant environmental threat to the Great Barrier Reef , while the other major environmental pressures are listed as decreased water quality from land-based runoff , impacts from coastal development and some persistent impacts from fishing activities . The reef is also threatened by storms , coral bleaching and ocean acidification . The 2014 report also shows that , while numerous marine life species have recovered after previous declines , the strength of the dugong population is continuing to decline . Terry Hughes , Federation Fellow , ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies at James Cook University , wrote in a 14 August 2014 Conversation piece that harmful government policies and ongoing conflicts of interest over mining royalties are risks of an equivalent magnitude . The GBRMPA consider climate change , poor water quality , coastal development , and some impacts from fishing to be the area 's major threats , but reef scientists Jon Day , Bob Pressey , Jon Brodie and Hughes stated that the `` cumulative effects of many combined impacts '' is the real issue . In a Conversation Article , Mathieu Mongin , a biogeochemical modeller at CSIRO and colleagues mapped parts of the Great Barrier Reef that are most exposed to ocean acidification . This map of pH on the Great Barrier Reef presents the exposure to ocean acidification on each of the 3,581 reefs , providing managers with the information they need to tailor management to individual reefs . The Great Barrier Reef is not a singular reef nor a physical barrier that prevents exchange between reefs ; it is a mixture of thousands of productive reefs and shallow areas lying on a continental shelf with complex oceanic circulation .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Environmental_threats_to_the_Great_Barrier_Reef", "rank": 3, "score": 121172 }, { "content": "Title: Great Barrier Reef (TV series) Content: Not to be confused with the 2015 series Great Barrier Reef ( 2015 TV series ) Great Barrier Reef is a nature documentary series exploring the wildlife of the eponymous coral reef off Australia 's coast . It was presented by Monty Halls and co-produced by the BBC Natural History Unit and Animal Planet . The series was broadcast in three parts in the United Kingdom , where it premiered in January 2012 on BBC Two and the BBC HD channel . In the US it aired as a two-hour special on Animal Planet on 9 September 2012 . Great Barrier Reef documents the ecosystem and marine life of the coral reef itself , along with the plants and animals on islands and the Australian mainland which owe their existence to the presence of the reef .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Great_Barrier_Reef_(TV_series)", "rank": 4, "score": 120960 }, { "content": "Title: Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System Content: The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System ( MBRS ) , also popularly known as the Great Mayan Reef or Great Maya Reef , is a marine region that stretches over 1000 km from Isla Contoy at the tip of the Yucatán Peninsula down to Belize , Guatemala and the Bay Islands of Honduras . The reef system includes various protected areas and parks including the Belize Barrier Reef , Arrecifes de Cozumel National Park , Hol Chan Marine Reserve ( Belize ) , Sian Ka'an biosphere reserve , and the Cayos Cochinos Marine Park . Belize 's coastline , comprising the Belize Barrier Reef , is home to approximately 80 % of MBRS . The Belize Barrier Reef is the largest barrier reef in the northern hemisphere and the second largest barrier reef in the world . The Belize Barrier Reef and Belize 's three offshore atolls , several hundred sand cays , mangrove forests , coastal lagoons and estuaries -- collectively termed , the Belize Barrier Reef Reserve System -- has been designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO ( 1996 ) .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Mesoamerican_Barrier_Reef_System", "rank": 5, "score": 119623 }, { "content": "Title: The Great Barrier Reef: Biology, Environment and Management Content: The Great Barrier Reef : Biology , Environment and Management is a 2007 book by Pat Hutchings , Mike Kingsford and Ove Hoegh-Guldberg . It describes the organisms and ecosystems of Australia 's Great Barrier Reef , and the biological , chemical and physical processes that influence them . Issues discussed include climate change , coral bleaching , coral disease and coral reef fishing . The book includes a field guide to help people identify the common animals and plants on the reef . The book has illustrations and contributions from 33 international experts . Pat Hutchings is a Senior Principal Research Scientist at the Australian Museum . Michael Kingsford is the Head of School of Marine Biology and Aquaculture at James Cook University . Ove Hoegh-Guldberg is the Director of the Centre for Marine Studies at the University of Queensland .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "The_Great_Barrier_Reef:_Biology,_Environment_and_Management", "rank": 6, "score": 119279 }, { "content": "Title: Cape York to Cape Grenville Islands Important Bird Area Content: The Cape York to Cape Grenville Islands comprise ten small islands or island groups , with a total land area of just 210 ha , scattered along the Great Barrier Reef on the eastern side of the northern end of the Cape York Peninsula between Capes York and Grenville , in Queensland , Australia . They are classified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area because they support over 1 % of the breeding populations of the pied imperial-pigeon ( with up to about 25,000 pairs ) , bridled tern ( 6000 nests ) , roseate tern ( 6000 nests ) and lesser crested tern ( 1000 nests ) . Up to 1150 individuals of the migratory wader the grey-tailed tattler have also been recorded .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Cape_York_to_Cape_Grenville_Islands_Important_Bird_Area", "rank": 7, "score": 118702 }, { "content": "Title: Cakaulevu Reef Content: Cakaulevu Reef ( also called the Great Sea Reef ) is a coral reef located off the Fijian island of Vanua Levu 's northern shore . It is the third longest continuous barrier reef in the world , behind the Great Barrier Reef in Australia and the Mesoamerica Reef off Central America . When combined with the nearby Pascoe Reef , Cakaulevu Reef is about 200 kilometres long . On its own , the Cakaulevu Reef covers 202,700 square kilometres . The marine ecosystem of the reef contributes to its national significance as outlined in Fiji 's Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Cakaulevu_Reef", "rank": 8, "score": 118276 }, { "content": "Title: Great Barrier Reef (2015 TV series) Content: For a 2012 series of the same name see Great Barrier Reef ( TV series ) Great Barrier Reef is a three-part documentary series . Narrated by David Attenborough its first episode aired over December 2015 and January 2016 . The series was released on DVD and Blu-ray in January 2016 . The MV Alucia was used as a base for the series .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Great_Barrier_Reef_(2015_TV_series)", "rank": 9, "score": 116122 }, { "content": "Title: Ecsenius stictus Content: Ecsenius stictus , known commonly as the Great Barrier Reef blenny , is a species of combtooth blenny in the genus Ecsenius . It is found in the Great Barrier Reef , and around the Chesterfield Islands . It can reach a maximum length of 5.8 centimetres . Blennies in this species feed primarily off of plants , including benthic algae and weeds .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Ecsenius_stictus", "rank": 10, "score": 115894 }, { "content": "Title: Wilson Reef Content: Wilson Reef is a small ( 4.5 ha ) coral reef within the Great Barrier Reef complex of Queensland , Australia . It lies about 30 km north of Cape Melville on the Cape York Peninsula in the habitat protection zone of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park . It has some unnamed sand cays which are used by seabirds but no significant islands . It is named after Peter Wilson , a New Zealander whose ship crashed on the reef in 1927 .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Wilson_Reef", "rank": 11, "score": 114442 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 Great Barrier Reef oil spill Content: The 2010 Great Barrier Reef oil spill occurred on 3 April 2010 , when the Chinese bulk coal carrier , ran aground east of Rockhampton in Central Queensland , Australia . The vessel is owned by Shenzhen Energy Transport Co. Ltd. . The ship was more than 10 km outside the shipping lane . It struck the reef late in the afternoon of 3 April , scraping along the reef for a considerable distance and creating the longest known grounding scar on the Great Barrier Reef . Tugs were sent to remove the ship which was feared would break apart in rough seas . Eventually the vessel was refloated and taken to Hervey Bay . After unloading about a third of its cargo Shen Neng 1 was towed to Singapore . The ship 's captain and officer-on-watch were both charged . The maximum fine for shipping companies that cause damage to the reef was increased after the incident .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "2010_Great_Barrier_Reef_oil_spill", "rank": 12, "score": 114011 }, { "content": "Title: Florida Reef Content: The Florida Reef ( also known as the Great Florida Reef , Florida reefs , Florida Reef Tract and Florida Keys Reef Tract ) is the only living coral barrier reef in the continental United States . It is the third largest coral barrier reef system in the world ( after the Great Barrier Reef and Belize Barrier Reef ) . It lies a few miles seaward of the Florida Keys , is about 4 miles ( 6 to 7 km ) wide and extends ( along the 20 meter depth contour ) 270 km from Fowey Rocks just east of Soldier Key to just south of the Marquesas Keys . The barrier reef tract forms a great arc , concentric with the Florida Keys , with the northern end , in Biscayne National Park , oriented north-south and the western end , south of the Marquesas Keys , oriented east-west . The rest of the reef outside Biscayne National Park lies within John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park and the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary . Isolated coral patch reefs occur northward from Biscayne National Park as far as Stuart , in Martin County . Coral reefs are also found in Dry Tortugas National Park west of the Marquesas Keys . There are more than 6,000 individual reefs in the system . The reefs are 5,000 to 7,000 years old , having developed since sea levels rose following the Wisconsinan glaciation . The densest and most spectacular reefs are found to the seaward of Key Largo ( in and beyond John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Park ) and Elliott Key where the two long keys help protect the reefs from the effects of water exchange with Florida Bay , Biscayne Bay , Card Sound and Barnes Sound . The bays and sounds ( all between the Florida Keys and the mainland ) tend to have lower salinity , higher turbidity and wider temperature variations than the water in the open ocean . Channels between the Keys allow water from the bays to flow onto the reefs ( especially in the middle Keys ) , limiting their growth .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Florida_Reef", "rank": 13, "score": 113175 }, { "content": "Title: Shrewsbury Rock Content: This article is about the Great Barrier Marine Park feature , not to be confused with Shrewsbury Rocks , New Jersey . Shrewsbury Rock , or sometimes `` Shrewsbury Reef '' , is a rocky feature off the Queensland coast . It is located between Hotspur Island and Pine Peak Island , within the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park . The nearest major coastal town is Mackay .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Shrewsbury_Rock", "rank": 14, "score": 112382 }, { "content": "Title: St. Crispin's Reef Content: St. Crispin 's Reef is an elongate outer-shelf coral reef in the Great Barrier Reef , Australia .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "St._Crispin's_Reef", "rank": 15, "score": 111517 }, { "content": "Title: Fine Fettle Yorkshire Content: Fine Fettle Yorkshire ( formerly Yorkshire Feta ) is a British cheese made from the milk of sheep produced in North Yorkshire by Shepherds Purse Cheeses . The owner , Judy Bell , was forced to change the cheese 's name after an EU ruling meant that all Feta cheese must be produced in Greece , its country of origin .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Fine_Fettle_Yorkshire", "rank": 16, "score": 110420 }, { "content": "Title: Reef HQ Content: Reef HQ ( typeset as ReefHQ ) is the largest living coral reef aquarium . It is located in Townsville , Queensland , Australia . The aquarium was built as a Bicentennial Commemorative project and is a part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority ( GBRMPA ) . The Coral Reef Exhibit has 130 coral species and 120 fish species along with hundreds of species of sea stars , sea urchins , sea cucumbers , brittle stars , feather stars , snails , worms and sponges .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Reef_HQ", "rank": 17, "score": 110252 }, { "content": "Title: Great Astrolabe Reef Content: The Great Astrolabe Reef is in Fiji and surrounds the fourth largest island , Kadavu Island , which is approximately 65 km in length . Kadavu Island is approximately 100 km south of Viti Levu , the main island of Fiji . The Great Astrolabe Reef is one of the largest barrier reefs in the world and encompasses Kadavu Island , Ono Island and other small islands within a natural protective lagoon . The reef is predominantly located along the southern coast of Kadavu Island and arks north around Ono Island and further north to Buliya . The reef is a breeding ground for many large billfish ( marlin ) species , sharks , tuna , giant trevally , mahi-mahi ( dolphinfish ) and snapper , due to it having many channels leading from extremely deep water into shallow lagoons . Parts of the reef , such as Naiqoro Passage , one of the main passages , are protected from fishing and require entry fees . This is because Naiqoro Passage is one of the main thoroughfares for large fish . The marine lagoon ecosystem of the reef contributes to its national significance as outlined in Fiji 's Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Great_Astrolabe_Reef", "rank": 18, "score": 109241 }, { "content": "Title: Great Barrier Reef Airport Content: Great Barrier Reef Airport or Hamilton Island Airport is the primary airport of the Whitsunday Islands Group , and the airport of Hamilton Island . The airport is settled on mostly reclaimed land and due the island 's tourism status , is occupied mostly and favoured by Australia 's leading low-cost airlines ( Jetstar Airways and Virgin Australia ) and Qantas . Hamilton Island Airport handles direct flights from Sydney , Melbourne , Brisbane and Cairns and is also the airport launch pad for scenic flights to the Great Barrier Reef and Whitehaven Beach . Private flights and charters also fly into Great Barrier Reef Airport , along with locally operated helicopters , light planes and seaplanes . The airport suffered heavily in September 2001 with the demise of Ansett Australia , which operated more heavily out of the airport than any other airline with flights to Cairns , Townsville , Brisbane , the Gold Coast , Queensland , Sydney , Melbourne and Adelaide . In the year ending 30 June 2011 the airport handled 457,641 passengers making it the 19th busiest airport in Australia .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Great_Barrier_Reef_Airport", "rank": 19, "score": 109230 }, { "content": "Title: Impacts of ocean acidification on the Great Barrier Reef Content: Ocean acidification threatens the Great Barrier Reef by reducing the viability and strength of coral reefs . The Great Barrier Reef , considered one of the seven natural wonders of the world and a biodiversity hotspot , is located in Australia . Similar to other coral reefs , it is experiencing degradation due to ocean acidification . Ocean acidification results from a rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide , which is taken up by the ocean . This process can increase sea surface temperature , decrease aragonite , and lower the pH of the ocean . Calcifying organisms are under risk , due to the resulting lack of aragonite in the water and the decreasing pH. This decreased health of coral reefs , particularly the Great Barrier Reef , can result in reduced biodiversity . Organisms can become stressed due to ocean acidification and the disappearance of healthy coral reefs , such as the Great Barrier Reef , is a loss of habitat for several taxa .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Impacts_of_ocean_acidification_on_the_Great_Barrier_Reef", "rank": 20, "score": 108993 }, { "content": "Title: Barrier Reef (TV series) Content: Barrier Reef was an Australian television series that was first screened in 1971 . Barrier Reef was about a group of marine biologists on board a sailing ship called the New Endeavour , researching around the Great Barrier Reef , off Queensland , Australia . `` It was the first series in the world to feature extensive colour underwater filming on location '' . It was also a unique location for a TV show .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Barrier_Reef_(TV_series)", "rank": 21, "score": 108270 }, { "content": "Title: Capricorn and Bunker Group Content: The islands and reefs of the Capricorn and Bunker Group are situated astride the Tropic of Capricorn at the southern end of the Great Barrier Reef , approximately 80 kilometres east of Gladstone , which is situated on the central coast of Queensland . Many of these islands form part of the Capricornia Cays National Park and are part of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Capricorn_and_Bunker_Group", "rank": 22, "score": 107918 }, { "content": "Title: Barrier reef Content: Barrier reef may refer to : a kind of coral reef the Great Barrier Reef in Australia the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System the Belize Barrier Reef the New Caledonia Barrier Reef Barrier Reef ( TV series ) , an Australian television series", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Barrier_reef", "rank": 23, "score": 107067 }, { "content": "Title: Endeavour Reef Content: Endeavour Reef is a coral reef within the Great Barrier Reef . It is within the Shire of Cook , Queensland , Australia . The reef is about 7 km long and runs in an east-west direction . The center of the reef is located at . It is about 6 km south-east of the Hope Islands in the Hope Islands National Park and 12 km off the mainland . It was encountered by Lieutenant James Cook when HM Bark Endeavour ran aground there on 11 June 1770 . In his journals , Cook described striking the south-eastern end of the reef at 11pm after having passed just north of Pickersgill Reef about one hour before . Philip Parker King described the region in his Voyages for the Survey of the Intertropical coasts of Australia Volume 2 following his expeditions between 1818 and 1820 . King described the reef as being '' ... nine miles long ; it lies in a North-West direction ; the north end , in 15 degrees 39 minutes South , bears due from the North-east Hope . '' and stated that there was a dry rock on the western edge '' ... in latitude 15 degrees 39 minutes 55 seconds . '' It is probable that he was referring to Cairns Reef which is further to the north . In 1969 an underwater search discovered the six abandoned cannons , ballast and an anchor which had been discarded by the Endeavour crew in 1770 whilst attempting to refloat the ship . A replica cannon is on display at the Australian National Maritime Museum in Darling Harbour , Sydney , while the six original cannons are on display at Botany Bay , Cooktown , Canberra , Philadelphia ( USA ) , Wellington ( NZ ) . and London ( UK ) .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Endeavour_Reef", "rank": 24, "score": 106978 }, { "content": "Title: Sudbury Reef Content: Sudbury Reef is a small coral reef , with a few unnamed cays but no substantial islands , lying about 20 km off the east coast of Far North Queensland , Australia . It is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park at about the same latitude as Cairns .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Sudbury_Reef", "rank": 25, "score": 106973 }, { "content": "Title: Lady Elliot Island Content: Lady Elliot Island is the southernmost coral cay of the Great Barrier Reef , Australia . The island lies 46 nmi north-east of Bundaberg and covers an area of approximately 45 ha . It is part of the Capricorn and Bunker Group of islands and is owned by the Commonwealth of Australia . The island is home to a small eco resort and an airstrip , which is serviced daily by flights from Bundaberg , Hervey Bay , Brisbane and the Gold Coast . Lady Elliot Island is located within the ` Green Zone ' of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park , which is the highest possible classification designated by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority . Marine National Park Green Zones protect the biodiversity within the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park by protecting important breeding and nursery areas such as seagrass beds , mangrove communities , deepwater shoals and reefs . The island is particularly renowned for its scuba diving and snorkelling , as its location far offshore at the southern end of the Great Barrier Reef results in excellent water clarity .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Lady_Elliot_Island", "rank": 26, "score": 106615 }, { "content": "Title: Belize Barrier Reef Content: The Belize Barrier Reef is a series of coral reefs straddling the coast of Belize , roughly 300 m offshore in the north and 40 km in the south within the country limits . The Belize Barrier Reef is a 300 km long section of the 900 km Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System , which is continuous from Cancún on the north-eastern tip of the Yucatán Peninsula through the Riviera Maya and up to Honduras , making it the second largest coral reef system in the world after the Great Barrier Reef in Australia . It is Belize 's top tourist destination , popular for scuba diving and snorkeling and attracting almost half of its 260,000 visitors . It is also vital to the country 's fishing industry . Charles Darwin described it as `` the most remarkable reef in the West Indies '' in 1842 . In addition to its barrier reef , it also boasts three distinct Caribbean atolls : Turneffe Atoll , Glover 's Reef and Lighthouse Reef . Lighthouse Reef is the most easterly diving area in Belize , it is home to the Great Blue Hole , made famous by Jacques Cousteau in 1970 ; Turneffe Atoll lies directly to the east of Belize City and is the nearest of the atolls to the capital . These different reefs provide diverse scuba diving opportunities that include walls , pinnacles and reef flats that are located throughout an enormous area of sea .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Belize_Barrier_Reef", "rank": 27, "score": 105915 }, { "content": "Title: Amphiprion akindynos Content: Amphiprion akindynos , the Barrier Reef anemonefish is a species of anemonefish that is principally found in the Great Barrier Reef of Australia , but also in nearby locations in the Western Pacific . The species name ` akindynos ' is Greek , meaning ` safe ' or ` without danger ' in reference to the safety afforded amongst the tentacles of its host anemone . Like all anemonefishes it forms a symbiotic mutualism with sea anemones and is unaffected by the stinging tentacles of the host anemone . It is a sequential hermaphrodite with a strict sized based dominance hierarchy : the female is largest , the breeding male is second largest , and the male non-breeders get progressively smaller as the hierarchy descends . They exhibit protandry , meaning the breeding male will change to female if the sole breeding female dies , with the largest non-breeder becomes the breeding male . The fish 's natural diet includes zooplankton .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Amphiprion_akindynos", "rank": 28, "score": 105362 }, { "content": "Title: MV Reef Endeavour Content: MV Reef Endeavour built in Suva Fiji and was the first ship to contact the Great Barrier Reef as an attraction , in 1996 , an important milestone for tourism in Australia . She is today one of many ships that operate around the Fiji Islands exploring the Mamanuca and Yasawa Islands every week and Vanua Levu once a month . What makes the Reef Endeavour exceptional , is her small size allows her to reach remote reefs , islands and shallow bays , where bigger ships can not proceed . Her design allows for big ship qualities , whilst maintaining a small ship feel . These features include , a pool , spa , and an embarkation platform allowing access and storage for smaller boats .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "MV_Reef_Endeavour", "rank": 29, "score": 105231 }, { "content": "Title: Threatened species known to occur in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area Content: Threatened species known to occur in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area and listed under the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals ( Bonn Convention ) , CITES ( CITES ) Agreement , China -- Australia Migratory Bird Agreement ( CAMBA ) , Japan -- Australia Migratory Bird Agreement and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature Red List ( IUCN Red List ) status for the species .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Threatened_species_known_to_occur_in_the_Great_Barrier_Reef_World_Heritage_Area", "rank": 30, "score": 105219 }, { "content": "Title: Bushy Island Content: Bushy Island is a vegetated coral cay in Queensland , Australia in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Queensland , Australia . It is about 70 km east of Mackay . There are no other vegetated cays in the more than 600 km stretch between Bushy Island and Green Island . The coral species Acropora bushyensis , one of many species in the Acropora genus , is most heavily concentrated in Bushy Island lagoon , existing only rarely elsewhere in the eastern portion of the Great Barrier Reef and not at all in the western portion . The island is an accumulation of biogenic sediment similar to Heron Island , and it has been sufficiently stable to accumulate vegetation . A major component of the mobile sands of Bushy Island is Foraminifera , a type of amoeboid protist . Foraminiferan sands are more easily eroded off of the cay . Bushy Island is located inside the zero isobase on an elevated reef flat , onto which the cay often erodes .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Bushy_Island", "rank": 31, "score": 105193 }, { "content": "Title: Barney's Barrier Reef Content: Barney 's Barrier Reef is a British documentary program launched by the CBBC in 2009 , presented by Barney Harwood and Gemma Hunt . The structure of the program shows the links between animals from the Great Barrier Reef . It involves at least 10 to 12 animals each episode . Barney used an animal as a ` little cheat ' as described by Gemma , because it was Humans . Barney 's Barrier Reef mostly involves fish since the Great Barrier Reef is in an ocean . Land animals are hardly used in this series , but then they are mostly used in the proceeding series : Barney 's Latin America , although some fish , like the blind sea shrimp , are featured . Barney 's Barrier Reef featured 20 episodes . Category : British children 's television programmes", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Barney's_Barrier_Reef", "rank": 32, "score": 104893 }, { "content": "Title: Pandora Reef Content: Pandora Reef is a low-lying island in addition to being an adjacent fringing reef . It is in Halifax Bay in Queensland , Australia . It is 13 km from the Greater Palm group . The name Pandora Reef dates back to at least 1889 . The surrounding waters are in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in the Coral Sea . The GBRMPA designation is 18-051 . Zoned as a Marine National Park , fishing is not permitted , although diving and photography are allowed .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Pandora_Reef", "rank": 33, "score": 104866 }, { "content": "Title: Batt Reef Content: Batt Reef is a coral reef off Port Douglas in Queensland , Australia . It is centred at and is part of the Great Barrier Reef . The reef is about 18 km long by 5 km ( 11 miles by 3 miles ) wide , lying northwest to southeast , at the northern side of Trinity Passage that leads from the inner Reef channel from Trinity Bay to the Pacific Ocean . The north-west tip of the reef lies 15 km east of the Low Islets ( Low and Woody Islands ) which are in turn 16 km east of Newell Beach and 11 km northeast of Port Douglas . The area received a high level of media attention following the death of The Crocodile Hunter star Steve Irwin on 4 September 2006 while filming an underwater documentary entitled Ocean 's Deadliest .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Batt_Reef", "rank": 34, "score": 104763 }, { "content": "Title: Fine-speckled moray Content: The Fine-speckled moray ( Echidna delicatula , also known as the Mottled moray ) is a moray eel ( family Muraenidae ) . It was described by Johann Jakob Kaup in 1856 , originally under the genus Poecilophis . It is a marine , tropical eel which is known from the Indo-Pacific , including Sri Lanka , Samoa , and Japan . It inhabits coral reefs . It can reach a maximum total length of 65 cm . The Mottled moray is a gonochoristic species .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Fine-speckled_moray", "rank": 35, "score": 104761 }, { "content": "Title: Echidna delicatula Content: Echidna delicatula , the mottled moray , also known as the fine-speckled moray , is a moray eel ( family Muraenidae ) . It was described by Johann Jakob Kaup in 1856 , originally under the genus Poecilophis . It is a marine , tropical eel which is known from the Indo-Pacific , including Sri Lanka , Samoa , and Japan . It inhabits coral reefs . It can reach a maximum total length of 65 cm . The mottled moray is a gonochoristic species .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Echidna_delicatula", "rank": 36, "score": 103589 }, { "content": "Title: Hydrographers Passage Content: Hydrographers Passage is a deep-water shipping channel through the Great Barrier Reef , that reduced the previous route by 250 miles . It was discovered by James Bond , commander of the Royal Australian Navy survey ship HMAS Flinders in 1981 .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Hydrographers_Passage", "rank": 37, "score": 102990 }, { "content": "Title: The Best Job in the World (advertising) Content: In 2009 , Tourism Queensland promoted the Great Barrier Reef as a global tourism destination with a website encouraging people worldwide to apply for The Best Job In The World , to be a `` Caretaker of the Islands '' to `` house-sit '' the islands of the Great Barrier Reef for half a year , based on Hamilton Island .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "The_Best_Job_in_the_World_(advertising)", "rank": 38, "score": 102855 }, { "content": "Title: Leggatt Island Content: Leggatt Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and the easternmost island in the Cole Islands group and National Park and is about 100 km south-east of Cape Melville , Queensland . Leggatt Island is a vegetated sand cay located 15 km from the coast , well established with coconut palms and sisal that provide a habitat for a number of roosting birds and Green Turtles and Hawksbill Turtles . This island is used by a number of tour operators . Category : Islands on the Great Barrier Reef Category : Uninhabited islands of Australia Category : Islands of Far North Queensland Category : Great Barrier Reef Marine Park", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Leggatt_Island", "rank": 39, "score": 102445 }, { "content": "Title: Acropora globiceps Content: Acropora globiceps is a species of acroporid coral found in the oceanic central and western Pacific Ocean and central Indo-Pacific . It can also be found in the Great Barrier Reef , the Philippines , the Andaman Islands , Polynesia , Micronesia and the Pitcairn Islands . It occurs on the slopes of reefs , the flats of reefs , in tropical shallow reefs , and at depths of around 8 m . It was described by Dana in 1846 .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Acropora_globiceps", "rank": 40, "score": 101173 }, { "content": "Title: North West Island Content: North West Island is a coral cay in the southern Great Barrier Reef , located 75 kilometres northeast of Gladstone , Queensland . North West Island forms part of Capricornia Cays National Park and with an area of 1.05 km2 , the island is the second largest coral cay in the Great Barrier Reef . It is part of the Capricornia Cays Important Bird Area .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "North_West_Island", "rank": 41, "score": 100544 }, { "content": "Title: Sunter Island Content: Sunter Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in Lloyd Bay between LockhartRiver and Cape Direction , Queensland . It 's approximately 0.01 square kilometers in size .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Sunter_Island", "rank": 42, "score": 100336 }, { "content": "Title: Sherrard Island Content: Sherrard Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park north-west of Cape Melville , Queensland and north-east of Coen between the first 3 mi opening and the second 3 mi opening of the Barrier Reef about 100 km south-east of Lockhart River in the Osborn Channel . The island is 10 km east of Old Lockhart River and 30 km south of Cape Direction .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Sherrard_Island", "rank": 43, "score": 100200 }, { "content": "Title: Hales Island (Queensland) Content: Hales Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park 5 km east of Cape Melville , Queensland . It is around 1 hectares or 0.01 square km in size . There is a significant population of Torresian imperial pigeons in the area .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Hales_Island_(Queensland)", "rank": 44, "score": 99929 }, { "content": "Title: Hay Island (Queensland) Content: Hay Island is a 10 ha coral cay that is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park west of Cape Melville , Queensland , Australia . It lies east of Coen in the Claremont Isles . It is part of the Islands North of Port Stewart Important Bird Area . It is around 42 hectares or 0.42 square km in size .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Hay_Island_(Queensland)", "rank": 45, "score": 99867 }, { "content": "Title: Hoskyn Islands Content: Hoskyn Islands is a pair of small coral cays . They are located near the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern Great Barrier Reef , 107 km due east of Gladstone , Queensland , Australia , and 412 km north of the state capital Brisbane . The island is the fourth island in the Great Barrier Reef chain of islands ( with the first being Lady Elliot Island ) , and is part of the Capricorn and Bunker Group of islands , forming part of the Capricornia Cays National Park as well as part of the Capricornia Cays Important Bird Area . Most people only see the island by the more easily reached Lady Musgrave Island , which can be readily reached by fast catamaran from the town of 1770 , Queensland , or from Gladstone , both of which are located approximately five hours ' drive north of Brisbane . The pair of Hoskyn cays are East Hoskyn West Hoskyn", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Hoskyn_Islands", "rank": 46, "score": 99697 }, { "content": "Title: Noble Island Content: Noble Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in the Howick Group National Park and is about 100 km south-east of Cape Melville , Queensland . It is around 30 hectares or 0.3 square km in size . The island is 25 km east of Howick Island and home to sea turtles and sea pigeons .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Noble_Island", "rank": 47, "score": 99530 }, { "content": "Title: Devonian Reef Content: Devonian Reef is located in the Kimberley region in an area once covered by tropical sea . It is now a protected area of Western Australia and includes three National Parks , the Geikie Gorge National Park , the Tunnel Creek National Park and the Windjana Gorge National Park . All the parks originated as the Western Australia reef , around 350 million years ago , during the Devonian Period , and now feature rocky landscapes and formation , rich gorges , and plenty of wildlife . . The three ranges cut through the Devonian `` Great Barrier Reef '' and is now exposed to reveal some of the most spectacular landforms in the Kimberley Region .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Devonian_Reef", "rank": 48, "score": 99517 }, { "content": "Title: William Graham Henderson Maxwell Content: William Graham Henderson Maxwell ( 1929-18 July 1999 ) was an Australian geologist and academic who did important research on the Great Barrier Reef . William Graham Henderson Maxwell ( known as Graham Maxwell ) was born in Atherton , Queensland in 1929 . He attended Gordonvale State School and Thornburgh College in Charters Towers . He enrolled in the University of Queensland and took his B.Sc . with Honours degree in 1950 . He was awarded a CSIRO scholarship to continue his studies . Maxwell was the first person to be awarded a PhD at the University of Queensland , in 1952 , under the supervision of Dorothy Hill . He was awarded the Beit Fellowship for Scientific Research to Imperial College London in 1952 .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "William_Graham_Henderson_Maxwell", "rank": 49, "score": 99169 }, { "content": "Title: Pipon Island Content: Pipon Island or ( Walmbaywi ) is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park at the tip of Cape Melville , Queensland . Pipon Island contains a cruise ship anchorage . This island is the locus of the major carpet snake myth of the area . There is a painting of the snake in Cape Melville and a major traditional residential site . The Cape was also the scene of several wrecks and mass drownings of lugger crews in the 1890s and there is a monument on the 300 m high mountain on the cape . It is around 67 hectares or 0.67 square km in size .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Pipon_Island", "rank": 50, "score": 99167 }, { "content": "Title: Barrier Reef Hotel Content: Barrier Reef Hotel is a heritage-listed hotel at Abbott Street , Cairns , Cairns Region , Queensland , Australia . It was designed by Lawrence and Lordan in conjunction with Richard Hill built in 1926 by Carl Peter Jorgensen . It was also known as Empire Hotel . It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 29 July 1997 .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Barrier_Reef_Hotel", "rank": 51, "score": 98987 }, { "content": "Title: Rocky Point Island Content: Rocky Point Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park , 10 km east of Cape Melville , Queensland .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Rocky_Point_Island", "rank": 52, "score": 98985 }, { "content": "Title: Inanidrilus carterensis Content: Inanidrilus carterensis is a species of annelid worm . It is known from subtidal coral sands from the Carter Reef , near the Lizard Island in the northern part of the Great Barrier Reef . It is a very small species : the holotype measures 2.7 mm .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Inanidrilus_carterensis", "rank": 53, "score": 98900 }, { "content": "Title: Chaetodon rainfordi Content: Chaetodon rainfordi is a species of marine angelfish with a range restricted to Papua New Guinea , the Great Barrier Reef and Lord Howe Island . Greater than 50 % of its distribution is within the protected waters of Australia 's Great Barrier Reef Marine Park . There has been a significant population decline of C. rainfordi in the Great Barrier Reef due to extensive coral loss , its primary food source . It inhabits coastal and offshore reefs at depths of 5-20 m.", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Chaetodon_rainfordi", "rank": 54, "score": 98783 }, { "content": "Title: Beanley Island Content: Beanley Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in the Howick Group National Park and is about 100 km south-east of Cape Melville in the Australian state of Queensland . It is around 7 hectares or 0.07 square km in size . This island is north-west of Howick Island .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Beanley_Island", "rank": 55, "score": 98683 }, { "content": "Title: Albino Rock Content: Albino Rock , formerly White Rock , is an island east of Great Palm Island , part of the Greater Palm group in Queensland , Australia . The island is in the Hinchinbrook jurisdiction , and is part of Orpheus Island National Park . The surrounding waters are in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in the Coral Sea , which is administrated by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority ( GBRMPA ) . The island once held the Albino Rock lighthouse . The older name `` White Rock '' is at least as old as 1939 .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Albino_Rock", "rank": 56, "score": 98675 }, { "content": "Title: Bewick Island Content: Bewick Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in the Howick Group National Park and is about 100 km south-east of Cape Melville , Queensland . It is around 130 hectares or 1.3 square km in size . The island is north-west of Howick Island and home to sea turtles and sea pigeons .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Bewick_Island", "rank": 57, "score": 98588 }, { "content": "Title: Maclear Island Content: Maclear Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park at the tip of Cape Melville , Queensland in Bathurst Bay . It is north of Denham Island in the Flinders Group National Park and south of Flinders Island , at Latitude -14.210 and Longitude 144.250 . It is named after John Maclear .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Maclear_Island", "rank": 58, "score": 97942 }, { "content": "Title: Meiacanthus lineatus Content: Meiacanthus lineatus , the lined fangblenny , is a venomous species of combtooth blenny found in the Great Barrier Reef in the western Pacific ocean . This species grows to a length of 9.5 cm TL .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Meiacanthus_lineatus", "rank": 59, "score": 97627 }, { "content": "Title: The Reef Content: The Reef may refer to The Reef , an alternative name for the Witwatersrand in South Africa The Reef ( novel ) , a 1912 novel by Edith Wharton The Reef ( 1999 film ) , a film adaptation of the novel The Reef ( 2010 film ) , an Australian film Great Barrier Reef , the planet 's largest coral reef Shark Bait , a 2006 animated film released as The Reef in the United States , South Africa and Ireland ; and as Pi 's Story in South Korea Shark Bait 2 : High Tide , a sequel to that film released as The Reef 2 : High Tide in the United States , South Africa and Ireland and as Pi 's Story 2 : High Tide in South Korea", "qid": "3124", "docid": "The_Reef", "rank": 60, "score": 97627 }, { "content": "Title: Fairfax Islands Content: Fairfax Islands is a pair of small coral cays , both of which have been used as a bombing range . They are located near the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern Great Barrier Reef , 113 km due east of Gladstone , Queensland , Australia , and 405 km north of the state capital Brisbane . The island is the third island in the Great Barrier Reef chain of islands ( with the first being Lady Elliot Island ) , and is part of the Capricorn and Bunker Group of islands and forms part of the Capricornia Cays National Park as well as of the Capricornia Cays Important Bird Area . Most people only see the island by the more easily reached Lady Musgrave Island , which can be readily reached by fast catamaran from the town of 1770 , Queensland , or from Gladstone , both of which are located approximately five hours drive north of Brisbane . Fairfax Islands East Fairfax West Fairfax", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Fairfax_Islands", "rank": 61, "score": 97402 }, { "content": "Title: Stephens Island (Great Barrier Reef) Content: Stephens Island is about 40 km north of Dunk Island . With nearby Sisters Island it forms the South Barnard Islands Group , which is protected within the Barnard Island Group National Park . It is a popular site for tourist kayaking . The island is part of the South Barnard Islands Important Bird Area , identified as such by BirdLife International because of its importance as a breeding site for terns .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Stephens_Island_(Great_Barrier_Reef)", "rank": 62, "score": 97282 }, { "content": "Title: Acropora loripes Content: Acropora loripes is a species of branching colonial stony coral . It is common on reefs , upper reef slopes and reef flats in the tropical Indo-Pacific . Its type locality is the Great Barrier Reef .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Acropora_loripes", "rank": 63, "score": 96805 }, { "content": "Title: Cymbiolacca pulchra wisemani Content: Cymbiolacca pulchra wisemani is a subspecies of large sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusc in the family volutidae , the volutes . This species occurs in shallow water on top of the Great Barrier Reef , Queensland , Australia from at least as far north as Saint Crispins Reef Reef east of Cape Tribulation to at least as far south as Stanley Reef north east of Bowen . This subspecies is closely related to , and may be conspecific with , Cymbiolacca pulchra peristicta from the Swain Reefs region at the southern end of the Great Barrier Reef . The shell shape and colour pattern vary from population to population , with many endemic colour forms known .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Cymbiolacca_pulchra_wisemani", "rank": 64, "score": 96452 }, { "content": "Title: Erskine Island Content: Erskine Island is a small coral cay in the southern Great Barrier Reef , located 60 kilometres northeast of Gladstone , Queensland and 17 km west-south-west of Heron Island . It is part of the Capricornia Cays National Park and of the Capricornia Cays Important Bird Area .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Erskine_Island", "rank": 65, "score": 96442 }, { "content": "Title: Coquet Island (Queensland) Content: Coquet Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and the easternmost island in the Cole Islands group and National Park and is about 100 km south-east of Cape Melville , Queensland . Coquet Island is a vegetated sand cay located 25 km from the coast , well established with coconut palms and sisal which provide a habitat for a number of roosting birds and Green Turtles and Hawksbill Turtles . The island houses a massive steel tower used for reef research or navigation . Category : Islands on the Great Barrier Reef Category : Uninhabited islands of Australia Category : Islands of Far North Queensland Category : Protected areas of Far North Queensland", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Coquet_Island_(Queensland)", "rank": 66, "score": 96242 }, { "content": "Title: Tom and Eileen Lonergan Content: Thomas Joseph Lonergan and Eileen Cassidy ( née Hains ) Lonergan , born 1964 and 1969 , respectively , were a married couple from Baton Rouge , Louisiana , United States , who were mistakenly stranded in the Coral Sea on January 25 , 1998 . The Lonergans were scuba diving with a group at St. Crispin 's Reef in Australia 's Great Barrier Reef . The boat that had transported the group to the dive site departed before the Lonergans returned from the water . None of the vessel 's crew or passengers noticed that the two had not come back aboard . At the time of the incident , the couple had recently completed a two-year tour of duty with the Peace Corps at Funafuti atoll in the small South Pacific island nation of Tuvalu and were repeating that work in Fiji .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Tom_and_Eileen_Lonergan", "rank": 67, "score": 96081 }, { "content": "Title: Ellis Island (Queensland) Content: Ellis Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park West of Cape Melville , Queensland and East of Coen in the Claremont Isles between the first 3 mi and the second three-mile opening of the Barrier Reef .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Ellis_Island_(Queensland)", "rank": 68, "score": 96063 }, { "content": "Title: Tryon Island Content: Tryon Island is a coral cay located in the southern Great Barrier Reef , 86 km northeast of Gladstone , Queensland , Australia , and 465 km north of the state capital Brisbane . The island is a protected area and forms part of Capricornia Cays National Park . It is part of the Capricornia Cays Important Bird Area . The cay covers an area of 0.21 km2 and is surrounded by a coral reef that is partially exposed at low-tide .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Tryon_Island", "rank": 69, "score": 95957 }, { "content": "Title: G. E. Richards Content: G. E. Richards , was a commander of the survey ship HMQS Paluma which in the late 19th century surveyed the Great Barrier Reef in Queensland , Australia . Richards served aboard the schooner in 1878 , and HMQS Paluma in 1887 . He was commanding officer of surveying the Strait of Belle Isle in 1897 . The 1887 voyage named the following places : Cid Harbour 1887 Orpheus Island 1887 Pioneer Bay Acacia Island Mausoleum Island Combe Island Paluma Rock in the Palm Islands", "qid": "3124", "docid": "G._E._Richards", "rank": 70, "score": 95788 }, { "content": "Title: Heron Island Research Station Content: Heron Island Research Station is a marine research station located on Heron Island , an island within the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park , 80 km from Gladstone , off the coast of Queensland , Australia . It is located at the leeward end of a coral cay on a 10 x 5 kilometre platform reef . Although the island had been used as a turtle cannery in the 1920s , after this was abandoned , it was taken over as a resort in the 1930s , by Captain Christian Poulsen . A number of researchers travelled to the island from the 1930s using the resort facilities . The island became a National Park in 1943 , and following the end of World War II , saw the first groups of university students from the University of Queensland arrive . Today the island is divided into three sections - the resort , research station and National Park .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Heron_Island_Research_Station", "rank": 71, "score": 95680 }, { "content": "Title: Lady Musgrave Island Content: Lady Musgrave Island is a 14 ha coral cay on Australia 's Great Barrier Reef , with a 1192 ha surrounding reef . The island is the second island in the Great Barrier Reef chain of islands ( with the first being Lady Elliot Island ) , and is most easily reached from the town of 1770 , Queensland , located on approximately 5 hours north of Brisbane.You can also get to the Island via boat on the Lady Musgrave Experience that leaves from the Bundaberg Port in Burnett Heads . The Island is named for the wife of Sir Anthony Musgrave , a colonial governor of Queensland . Lady Musgrave Island , and the immediate surrounds , is a national park and can be reached by excursion boat from the Town of 1770 . It is also part of the Capricornia Cays Important Bird Area . Lady Musgrave island is actually also referred to as Wallaginji by local Australian Aboriginal tribes . The name Wallaginji means beautiful reef .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Lady_Musgrave_Island", "rank": 72, "score": 95559 }, { "content": "Title: Wreck Island Content: Wreck Island is a small coral cay . It is located near the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern Great Barrier Reef , 93 km due north east of Gladstone , Queensland , Australia , and 460 km north of the state capital Brisbane . The island is part of the Great Barrier Reef chain of islands , and is part of the Capricorn and Bunker Group of island and forms part of the Capricornia Cays National Park . It is also part of the Capricornia Cays Important Bird Area .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Wreck_Island", "rank": 73, "score": 95516 }, { "content": "Title: Houghton Island Content: Houghton Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and the easternmost island in the Cole Islands group and National Park and is about 100 km south-east of Cape Melville , Queensland . It is around 73 hectares or 0.73 square km in size . Houghton Island is a vegetated sand cay located 25 km from the coast , well established with coconut palms and sisal that provide a habitat for a number of roosting birds and Green Turtles and Hawksbill Turtles .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Houghton_Island", "rank": 74, "score": 95471 }, { "content": "Title: Cod Hole Content: Cod Hole is one of the best known dive sites in the world and is located on the northern end of the Great Barrier Reef in Queensland , Australia on ribbon reef number 10 . It is notable for and is named after the dozen or so potato cod that live there . The sanctioned feeding of these fish and number of visitors to the site has also made it a focal point in the debate over reef management .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Cod_Hole", "rank": 75, "score": 95436 }, { "content": "Title: Amphimedon queenslandica Content: Amphimedon queenslandica ( formerly known as Reniera sp . ) is a sponge native to the Great Barrier Reef . Its genome has been sequenced . It has been the subject of various studies on the evolution of metazoan development . A. queenslandica was first discovered in 1998 on Heron Island Reef by Sally Leys during a survey of sponge species , and was formally described by John Hooper and Rob van Soest in 2006 . Like most sponges , it has a biphasic life cycle , passing through a planktonic phase whilst a larva , but later becoming a benthic dweller . It is hermaphroditic , and reproduces via spermcast spawning , meaning it releases sperm into water but retains eggs , which are fertilised internally . The embryos develop in brood chambers until they reach a certain size , then disperse as parenchymella larvae . During this larval stage , they have a strong preference for darkness . The sponge is difficult or impossible to maintain in captivity .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Amphimedon_queenslandica", "rank": 76, "score": 95264 }, { "content": "Title: SS Wairarapa Content: The SS Wairarapa was a New Zealand ship of the late 19th century plying the route between the Auckland , New Zealand and Australia . It came to tragic fame when it hit a reef at the northern edge of Great Barrier Island , about 100 km out from Auckland , and sank . The death toll of around 140 people remains one of the largest such losses in the country 's history . The ship was named for the Wairarapa region .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "SS_Wairarapa", "rank": 77, "score": 95080 }, { "content": "Title: Nigger Head Content: Nigger Head is a small island in the northern part of Shelburne Bay in far north Queensland , Australia about 30 km north of Cape Grenville , Cape York Peninsula in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Queensland , Australia . It is named so because it is an isolated coral outcrop ; such outcrops were previously known as niggerheads by British sailors .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Nigger_Head", "rank": 78, "score": 95040 }, { "content": "Title: Barrow Island (Queensland) Content: Barrow Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in Ninian Bay , 90 km South East of Cape Melville , Queensland . It is a few hundred metres from Barrow Point , where a mine is located .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Barrow_Island_(Queensland)", "rank": 79, "score": 94703 }, { "content": "Title: Murdock Island Content: Murdock Island is an island in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park situated about 90 km south-east of Cape Melville and about 300 km south-east of Coen Queensland . Category : Islands on the Great Barrier Reef Category : Uninhabited islands of Australia Category : Islands of Far North Queensland Category : Great Barrier Reef Marine Park", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Murdock_Island", "rank": 80, "score": 94678 }, { "content": "Title: Pigeon Island (North Queensland) Content: Pigeon Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in Weymouth Bay north of Lockhart River and Iron Range National Park Cape York Peninsula , Queensland . It is around 2.5 hectares in size . The island is a few hundred metres from the mouth of the Pascoe River .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Pigeon_Island_(North_Queensland)", "rank": 81, "score": 94620 }, { "content": "Title: Lloyd Island Content: Lloyd Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in Lloyd Bay between Lockhart River and Cape Direction , Queensland , Australia . Lloyd Island is a popular subject for Aboriginal artists such as Adrian King .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Lloyd_Island", "rank": 82, "score": 94525 }, { "content": "Title: Odell Down Under Content: Odell Down Under is a game for the PC and Macintosh that takes place in the Great Barrier Reef . It is the sequel to Odell Lake .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Odell_Down_Under", "rank": 83, "score": 94520 }, { "content": "Title: New Caledonian barrier reef Content: The New Caledonian barrier reef is located in New Caledonia in the South Pacific , and is the second-longest double-barrier coral reef in the world , after the Belize Barrier Reef . The New Caledonian barrier reef surrounds Grande Terre , New Caledonia 's largest island , as well as the Ile des Pins and several smaller islands , reaching a length of 1500 km . The reef encloses a lagoon of 24000 km2 , which has an average depth of 25 m . The reefs lie up to 30 km from the shore , but extend almost 200 km to the Entrecasteaux reefs in the northwest . This northwestern extension encloses the Belep Islands and other sand cays . Several natural passages open out to the ocean . The Boulari passage , which leads to Noumea , the capital and chief port of New Caledonia , is marked by the Amédée lighthouse .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "New_Caledonian_barrier_reef", "rank": 84, "score": 94405 }, { "content": "Title: Hampton Island Content: Hampton Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and the southern most island in the Cole Islands group and National Park and is about 100 km south-east of Cape Melville , Queensland . It is around 28 hectares or 0.28 square km in size .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Hampton_Island", "rank": 85, "score": 94402 }, { "content": "Title: OceanWorld 3D Content: OceanWorld 3D is a 2009 stereoscopic 3D documentary by Jean-Jacques Mantello about the variety of animal life in the ocean . It features Californian kelp forests , the Great Barrier Reef in Australia , and the Roca Partida island off the coast of Mexico , which is home to thousands of sharks and other marine animals . Among the featured species are the manta ray , the hammerhead shark , the lionfish , the Spanish dancer , the dolphin , and a few of the largest cetaceans on the planet .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "OceanWorld_3D", "rank": 86, "score": 93915 }, { "content": "Title: Quoin Island National Park Content: Quoin Island is a national park in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Queensland , Australia , 1,947 km northwest of Brisbane . It is situated about 30 km North East of Iron Range National Park and Lockhart River in the Cape Weymouth area near Portland Roads", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Quoin_Island_National_Park", "rank": 87, "score": 93890 }, { "content": "Title: Chapman Island (Queensland) Content: Chapman Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park West of Cape Melville , Queensland and East of Coen between the second three mile opening and Providential Channel of the Barrier Reef about 30 km South East of Lockhart River . The island is 10 km North East of Old Lochart River and 5 km South East of Cape Direction .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Chapman_Island_(Queensland)", "rank": 88, "score": 93850 }, { "content": "Title: Lady Elliot Island Light Content: Lady Elliot Island Light is an active lighthouse located on Lady Elliot Island , the southern-most coral cay of the Great Barrier Reef , 46 nmi north-east of Bundaberg , Queensland , Australia . The lighthouse is located on the western side of the island . It was the third lighthouse erected in Queensland after its formation in 1859 and the first in Australia to be constructed of a timber frame clad with iron plates . The original lighthouse was deactivated in 1995 and the light was replaced by a modern skeletal tower standing close to the original lighthouse .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Lady_Elliot_Island_Light", "rank": 89, "score": 93777 }, { "content": "Title: Newton Island Content: Newton Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and the southernmost island in the Howick Group National Park and is about 100 km south-east of Cape Melville , Queensland . It is around 43 hectares or 0.43 square km in size . The island is west of Howick Island .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Newton_Island", "rank": 90, "score": 93662 }, { "content": "Title: Green Island National Park Content: Green Island National Park is a protected area declared over a small ( 12 ha ) coral cay known to the local Gungganyji Aboriginal peoples as Dabuukji . The Gungganyji people used the island as an initiation ground . It is 27 km offshore from Cairns ( 1394 km northwest of Brisbane ) , Queensland , can be accessed by a choice of boats leaving daily from Cairns , and is reputed to be the most visited ( popular ) island National Park within the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Green_Island_National_Park", "rank": 91, "score": 93489 }, { "content": "Title: Alice Pruvot-Fol Content: Alice Pruvot-Fol ( 4 August 1873 -- 28 March 1972 ) was a French opisthobranch malacologist . She was the author of many new species , mostly described on the basis of preserved animals . She even described a new species ( Nembrotha rutilans , Pruvot-Fol , 1931 ) on the basis of a painted illustration in a book by William Saville-Kent , ( 1893 ) entitled The Great Barrier Reef of Australia . She continued working and naming new species until late in her life . Even in 1962 , when she was 89 years old , she named Phyllidia pulitzeri . Some of the species described by her : Aldisa banyulensis Pruvot-Fol , 1951 Aplysiopsis formosa Pruvot-Fol Atagema gibba Pruvot-Fol Atagema rugosa Pruvot-Fol , 1951 Chelidonura africana Pruvot-Fol Chromodoris kuniei Pruvot-Fol , 1930 Cumanotus cuenoti Pruvot-Fol , 1948 Doriopsilla rarispinosa Pruvot-Fol , 1951 Elysia babai Pruvot-Fol , 1945 Elysia mercieri Pruvot-Fol , 1930 Facelina dubia Pruvot-Fol , 1949 Glossodoris hikuerensis ( Pruvot-Fol , 1954 ) Goniodoridella savignyi Pruvot-Fol , 1933 Hermaea paucicirra Pruvot-Fol , 1953 Hypselodoris dollfusi ( Pruvot-Fol , 1933 Hypselodoris fontandraui Pruvot-Fol , 1951 . Marianina rosea ( Pruvot-Fol , 1930 ) Nembrotha rutilans ( Pruvot-Fol , 1931 ) is a synonym for Nembrotha purpureolineata O'Donoghue , 1924 Phyllidia bataviae Pruvot-Fol , 1957 Phyllidia pulitzeri Pruvot-Fol , 1962 Phyllidiopsis krempfi Pruvot-Fol , 1957 Trapania Pruvot-Fol , 1931 Thecacera darwini , Pruvot-Fol , 1950 Thordisa filix Pruvot-Fol , 1951 Several genera and species were named in her honor : Aegires pruvotfolae Fahey & Gosliner , 2004 Elysia pruvotfolae Ernst Marcus , 1957 Hallaxa apefae Marcus & Marcus , ( using just the initials APF ) Pruvotaplysia Engel , 1936 Pruvotfolia Tardy , 1970 Pruvotfolia pselliotes Pruvotfolia longicirrha n.comb .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Alice_Pruvot-Fol", "rank": 92, "score": 93470 }, { "content": "Title: North Direction Island Content: North Direction Island is 25 km north-east of Cape Flattery in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority and about 15 km south of Lizard Island . It is around 51 hectares or 0.51 square km in size .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "North_Direction_Island", "rank": 93, "score": 93442 }, { "content": "Title: Masthead Island Content: Masthead Island is a coral cay located in the southern Great Barrier Reef , 60 kilometres northeast of Gladstone , Queensland . The island is a protected area and forms part of Capricornia Cays National Park . Masthead Island is one of the most undisturbed cays in the national park because human and feral animal impacts have been rare . The cay covers an area of 0.45 km2 and is surrounded by a coral reef that is partially exposed at low-tide . It is part of the Capricornia Cays Important Bird Area . The island is closed to the public from mid-October to Easter to protect nesting seabirds and turtle hatchlings . At other times the island is open for camping , however there are no facilities provided . Masthead Island was the shooting location for the 2010 film Uninhabited .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Masthead_Island", "rank": 94, "score": 93396 }, { "content": "Title: Denham Island Content: Denham Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park at the tip of Cape Melville , Queensland in Bathurst Bay . It is the southernmost island in the Flinders Group National Park . It is south of Flinders Island . It is around 390 hectares or 3.9 square km in size . Aboriginal mythology ( Cooktown ) states Denham Island as a major Moon-Myth site , believed to have been originally joined to Bathurst Heads but later pushed out by the moon .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Denham_Island", "rank": 95, "score": 93139 }, { "content": "Title: Inanidrilus wasseri Content: Inanidrilus wasseri is a species of annelid worm . It is known from subtidal sands near the Lizard Island in the northern part of the Great Barrier Reef . Preserved specimens measure 14.1 - in length . The specific name wasseri honours Mr Robert Wasser , a maintenance officer at the Lizard Island Research Station .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Inanidrilus_wasseri", "rank": 96, "score": 93083 }, { "content": "Title: Trochus Island Content: Trochus Island is an island of the Torres Strait Islands archipelago , located in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park , east of Cape York Peninsula , in Queensland , Australia . The island is located in Newcastle Bay at the mouth of Escape River and Middle River , not far from Jackey Jackey Creek and adjacent to the Jardine River National Park . The island lies approximately 30 km southeast of Bamaga and has an approximate area of 2.1 km2 .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Trochus_Island", "rank": 97, "score": 93070 }, { "content": "Title: Clack Island Content: Clack Island is part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park at the tip of Cape Melville , Queensland in Bathurst Bay , Australia . It is north-east of Denham Island and Flinders Island in the Flinders Group National Park.It is around 21 hectares or 0.21 square km in size , Clack Island has a major place in Aboriginal ritual and mythology , and also has a large number of paintings . It is the traditional centre for male ritual activities and is the resting-place of the two culture heroes , Itjibiya and Almbarrin , who are the dominant figures of traditional mythology in the region .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Clack_Island", "rank": 98, "score": 93024 }, { "content": "Title: Turtle Group Content: The Turtle Group is the name of four very small and vegetated islands part of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in Queensland , Australia . Turtle Islands are 30 km west of Lizard Island . Nymph Island is 35 km east of Murdoch Point . Access is by private boat . The Turtle Group is also referred to as Turtle Group National Park Category : Islands on the Great Barrier Reef", "qid": "3124", "docid": "Turtle_Group", "rank": 99, "score": 93004 }, { "content": "Title: South Direction Island Content: South Direction Island is 25 km north-east of Cape Flattery in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority and about 25 km south of Lizard Island , Queensland , Australia .", "qid": "3124", "docid": "South_Direction_Island", "rank": 100, "score": 92812 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years", "rank": 1, "score": 149825 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 2, "score": 136481 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 3, "score": 130958 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 4, "score": 129608 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 5, "score": 124833 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 6, "score": 124598 }, { "content": "Title: Medieval Warm Period Content: The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Medieval_Warm_Period", "rank": 7, "score": 123321 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Global_warming_hiatus", "rank": 8, "score": 121886 }, { "content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming", "rank": 9, "score": 121808 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 10, "score": 119867 }, { "content": "Title: Hockey stick graph Content: Hockey stick graphs present the global or hemispherical mean temperature record of the past 500 to 2000 years as shown by quantitative climate reconstructions based on climate proxy records . These reconstructions have consistently shown a slow long term cooling trend changing into relatively rapid warming in the 20th century , with the instrumental temperature record by 2000 exceeding earlier temperatures . The term `` hockey stick graph '' was coined by the climatologist Jerry Mahlman , to describe the pattern shown by the ( MBH99 ) reconstruction , envisaging a graph that is relatively flat with a downward trend to 1900 as forming an ice hockey stick 's `` shaft '' followed by a sharp , steady increase corresponding to the `` blade '' portion . The reconstructions have featured in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports as evidence of global warming . Arguments over the reconstructions have been taken up by fossil fuel industry funded lobbying groups attempting to cast doubt on climate science . Paleoclimatology dates back to the 19th century , and the concept of examining varves in lake beds and tree rings to track local climatic changes was suggested in the 1930s . In the 1960s , Hubert Lamb generalised from historical documents and temperature records of central England to propose a Medieval Warm Period from around 900 to 1300 , followed by Little Ice Age . This was the basis of a `` schematic diagram '' featured in the IPCC First Assessment Report of 1990 beside cautions that the medieval warming might not have been global . The use of indicators to get quantitative estimates of the temperature record of past centuries was developed , and by the late 1990s a number of competing teams of climatologists found indications that recent warming was exceptional . introduced the `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method used by most later large scale reconstructions . Their study was featured in the IPCC Second Assessment Report of 1995 . In 1998 Michael E. Mann , Raymond S. Bradley and Malcolm K. Hughes developed new statistical techniques to produce ( MBH98 ) , the first eigenvector-based climate field reconstruction ( CFR ) . This showed global patterns of annual surface temperature , and included a graph of average hemispheric temperatures back to 1400 with shading emphasising that uncertainties ( to two standard error limits ) were much greater in earlier centuries . independently produced a CPS reconstruction extending back for a thousand years , and ( MBH99 ) used the MBH98 methodology to extend their study back to 1000 . A version of the MBH99 graph was featured prominently in the 2001 IPCC Third Assessment Report ( TAR ) , which also drew on Jones et al. 1998 and three other reconstructions to support the conclusion that , in the Northern Hemisphere , the 1990s was likely to have been the warmest decade and 1998 the warmest year during the past 1,000 years . The graph became a focus of dispute for those opposed to the strengthening scientific consensus that late 20th century warmth was exceptional . In 2003 , as lobbying over the 1997 Kyoto Protocol intensified , a paper claiming greater medieval warmth was quickly dismissed by scientists in the Soon and Baliunas controversy . Later in 2003 , Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick published disputing the data used in MBH98 paper . In 2004 Hans von Storch published criticism of the statistical techniques as tending to underplay variations in earlier parts of the graph , though this was disputed and he later accepted that the effect was very small . In 2005 McIntyre and McKitrick published criticisms of the principal components analysis methodology as used in MBH98 and MBH99 . Their analysis was subsequently disputed by published papers including and which pointed to errors in the McIntyre and McKitrick methodology . Political disputes led to the formation of a panel of scientists convened by the National Research Council , their North Report in 2006 supported Mann 's findings with some qualifications , including agreeing that there were some statistical failings but these had little effect on the result . More than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , support the broad consensus shown in the original 1998 hockey-stick graph , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears . The 2007 IPCC Fourth Assessment Report cited 14 reconstructions , 10 of which covered 1,000 years or longer , to support its strengthened conclusion that it was likely that Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the 20th century were the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . Further reconstructions , including Mann et al. 2008 and , have supported these general conclusions .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Hockey_stick_graph", "rank": 11, "score": 117709 }, { "content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer", "rank": 12, "score": 117188 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years", "rank": 13, "score": 117183 }, { "content": "Title: 8.2 kiloyear event Content: In climatology , the 8.2 kiloyear event was a sudden decrease in global temperatures that occurred approximately 8,200 years before the present , or c. 6,200 BCE , and which lasted for the next two to four centuries . Milder than the Younger Dryas cold spell that preceded it , but more severe than the Little Ice Age that would follow , the 8.2 kiloyear cooling was a significant exception to general trends of the Holocene climatic optimum . During the event , atmospheric methane concentration decreased by 80 ppb or an emission reduction of 15 % , by cooling and drying at a hemispheric scale .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "8.2_kiloyear_event", "rank": 14, "score": 116352 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 15, "score": 116211 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 16, "score": 114385 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Japan Content: Climate change in Japan is being addressed at a governmental level . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) proposes two hypothetical future scenarios . One is Scenario `` A1B '' based on the assumption that a future world will have more global economic growth ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 720ppm in 2100 ) . The other is Scenario `` B1 '' based on the assumption that a future world will have global green economy ( the concentration of carbon dioxide will be 550ppm in 2100 ) . Earth Simulator calculations , reveal the daily increase in mean temperature in Japan during the period of 2071 to 2100 . The temperature has increased by 3.0 ° C in Scenario B1 and 4.2 ° C in A1B compared to that of 1971 to 2000 . Similarly , the daily maximum temperature in Japan increased by 3.1 ° C in B1 and 4.4 ° C in A1B . The precipitation in summer in Japan increased steadily due to global warming ( the annual average precipitation increased by 17 % in Scenario B1 and by 19 % in Scenario A1B during the period of 2071 to 2100 compared to that of 1971 to 2000 ) . Currently , Japan is a world leader in the development of new climate-friendly technologies . Honda and Toyota hybrid electric vehicles were named to have the highest fuel efficiency and lowest emissions . The fuel economy and emissions decrease is due to the advanced technology in hybrid systems , biofuels , use of lighter weight material and better engineering . As a signatory of the Kyoto Protocol , and host of the 1997 conference which created it , Japan is under treaty obligations to reduce its carbon dioxide emissions and to take other steps related to curbing climate change . The Cool Biz campaign introduced under former Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi was targeted at reducing energy use through the reduction of air conditioning use in government offices .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Japan", "rank": 17, "score": 113923 }, { "content": "Title: Subatlantic Content: The Subatlantic is the current climatic age of the Holocene epoch . It started at about 2,500 years BP and is still ongoing . Its average temperatures were slightly lower than during the preceding Subboreal and Atlantic . During its course the temperature underwent several oscillations which had a strong influence on fauna and flora and thus indirectly on the evolution of human civilizations . With intensifying industrialisation , human society started to stress the natural climatic cycles with increased greenhouse gas emissions .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Subatlantic", "rank": 18, "score": 113361 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 19, "score": 113045 }, { "content": "Title: 1997–98 El Niño event Content: The 1997 -- 98 El Niño was regarded as one of the most powerful El Niño -- Southern Oscillation events in recorded history , resulting in widespread droughts , flooding and other natural disasters across the globe . It caused an estimated 16 % of the world 's reef systems to die , and temporarily warmed air temperature by 1.5 ° C , compared to the usual increase of 0.25 ° C associated with El Niño events . It led to a severe outbreak of Rift Valley fever after extreme rainfall in north-eastern Kenya and southern Somalia . It also led to record rainfalls in California during the water season of 1997 -- 98 and one of Indonesia 's worst droughts on record . 1998 ultimately became the warmest year in recorded history ( up until then ) .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "1997–98_El_Niño_event", "rank": 20, "score": 112570 }, { "content": "Title: Recession of 1969–70 Content: The Recession of 1969 -- 1970 was a relatively mild recession in the United States . According to the National Bureau of Economic Research the recession lasted for 11 months , beginning in December 1969 and ending in November 1970 , following an economic slump which began in 1968 and by the end of 1969 had become serious , thus ending the second longest economic expansion in U.S. history which had begun in February 1961 ( only the 1990s saw a longer period of growth ) . At the end of the expansion inflation was rising , possibly a result of increased deficit spending during a period of full employment . This relatively mild recession coincided with an attempt to start closing the budget deficits of the Vietnam War ( fiscal tightening ) and the Federal Reserve raising interest rates ( monetary tightening ) . During this relatively mild recession , the Gross Domestic Product of the United States fell 0.6 percent . Though the recession ended in November 1970 , the unemployment rate did not peak until the next month . In December 1970 , the rate reached its height for the cycle of 6.1 percent .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Recession_of_1969–70", "rank": 21, "score": 112469 }, { "content": "Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Global_dimming", "rank": 22, "score": 111581 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 23, "score": 111458 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 24, "score": 111407 }, { "content": "Title: Carnian Pluvial Event Content: The Carnian Pluvial Event ( CPE ) is a major global climate change and biotic turnover that occurred during the Carnian , early Late Triassic , ~ 230 million years ago . The base of the CPE is marked by a ~ 0.4 % negative shift in carbon stable isotopes of fossil molecules ( n-alkanes ) from higher plants and total organic carbon . A ~ 0.15 % negative shift in oxygen stable isotopes of conodont apatite suggests a global warming . Major changes in organisms responsible for calcium carbonate production occurred during the CPE . A halt of carbonate sedimentation is observed in deep water settings of Southern Italy that was probably caused by the rise of the Carbonate Compensation Depth ( CCD ) . High extinction rates occurred among ammonoids , conodonts , bryozoa , and crinoids . Major evolutionary innovations followed the CPE , as the first occurrence of dinosaurs , calcareous nannofossils and scleractinian corals .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Carnian_Pluvial_Event", "rank": 25, "score": 110379 }, { "content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén", "rank": 26, "score": 110053 }, { "content": "Title: Polar forests of the Cretaceous Content: Cretaceous polar forests were temperate forests that grew at polar latitudes during the final period of the Mesozoic Era , known as the Cretaceous Period 145 -- 66 Ma . During this period , global average temperature was about 10 C-change higher and carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) levels were approximately 1000 parts per million ( ppm ) , 2.5 times the current concentration in Earth 's atmosphere . The abundance of atmospheric carbon dioxide had a very significant impact on global climate and Earth 's natural systems as its concentration is considered one of the main factors in the development of a pronounced greenhouse Earth during the Cretaceous with a very low average global temperature gradient . As a consequence , high paleolatitudes in both hemispheres were much warmer than at present . This temperature gradient was partly responsible for the lack of continental ice sheets in polar regions . As a response to elevated global temperatures , the Earth 's hydrologic cycle was significantly enhanced due to greater volume of moisture evaporation from the surface of the ocean . In turn , the absolute sea level during this time period stood at elevations much higher than the present level . Continental encroachment of seawater formed widespread shallow seas , including expanses of epeiric seas . An increase in surface area between shallow , warm epeiric seawater and the atmosphere permits higher evaporation rates and more precipitation at various latitudes , producing a more temperate global climate . A widespread temperate climate also had significant effects on high latitude ecosystems .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Polar_forests_of_the_Cretaceous", "rank": 27, "score": 108768 }, { "content": "Title: United Kingdom Climate Change Programme Content: The United Kingdom 's Climate Change Programme was launched in November 2000 by the British government in response to its commitment agreed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) . The 2000 programme was updated in March 2006 following a review launched in September 2004 . In 2008 , the UK was the world 's 9th greatest producer of man-made carbon emissions , producing around 1.8 % of the global total generated from fossil fuels .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "United_Kingdom_Climate_Change_Programme", "rank": 28, "score": 108731 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 29, "score": 108412 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change", "rank": 30, "score": 108298 }, { "content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Climate_system", "rank": 31, "score": 107865 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.", "qid": "3125", "docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves", "rank": 32, "score": 106079 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Climate_change", "rank": 33, "score": 105890 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of climate change Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change , as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global instrumental temperature record shows increase in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view , although a few organisations hold non-committal positions . The way the media report on climate change in the English-speaking media , especially in the United States , has been widely studied , while studies of reporting in other countries have been fewer . A number of studies have shown that particularly in the United States and in the UK tabloid press , the media significantly understated the strength of scientific consensus on climate change established in IPCC Assessment Reports in 1995 and in 2001 . A peak in media coverage occurred in early 2007 , driven by the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report and Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth . A subsequent peak in late 2009 , which was 50 % higher , may have been driven by a combination of the November 2009 Climatic Research Unit email controversy and December 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference . Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair , while a few feel that it is biased ( see , for example , Bozel & Baker , 1990 ; Lichter & Rothman , 1984 , Nissani , 1999 ) . However , most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues . Moreover , they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias ( cf. , Bell , 1994 ; Trumbo , 1996 ; Wilkins , 1993 ) .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_climate_change", "rank": 34, "score": 105346 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves", "rank": 35, "score": 104279 }, { "content": "Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Little_Ice_Age", "rank": 36, "score": 103998 }, { "content": "Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Simon_Tett", "rank": 37, "score": 103476 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe", "rank": 38, "score": 102987 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan", "rank": 39, "score": 102037 }, { "content": "Title: Pliocene climate Content: During the Pliocene epoch ( 5.3 Ma to 2.6 Ma ) climate became cooler and drier , and seasonal , similar to modern climates . The global average temperature in the mid-Pliocene ( 3.3 Ma -- 3 Ma ) was 2 -- 3 ° C higher than today , global sea level 25m higher and the northern hemisphere ice sheet was ephemeral before the onset of extensive glaciation over Greenland that occurred in the late Pliocene around 3 Ma . The formation of an Arctic ice cap is signaled by an abrupt shift in oxygen isotope ratios and ice-rafted cobbles in the North Atlantic and North Pacific ocean beds . Mid-latitude glaciation was probably underway before the end of the epoch . The global cooling that occurred during the Pliocene may have spurred on the disappearance of forests and the spread of grasslands and savannas . During the Pliocene the earth climate system response shifted from a period of high frequency-low amplitude oscillation dominated by the 41,000-year period of Earth 's obliquity to one of low-frequency , high-amplitude oscillation dominated by the 100,000-year period of the orbital eccentricity characteristic of the Pleistocene glacial-interglacial cycles . The equatorial pacific ocean sea surface temperature gradient was considerably lower than it is today , mean sea surface temperature in the east were substantially warmer than today but similar in the west , this condition has been described as a permanent El Niño state or El Padre", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Pliocene_climate", "rank": 40, "score": 101707 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 20 Content: Solar cycle 20 was the twentieth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.4 years , beginning in October 1964 and ending in March 1976 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 156.6 ( November 1968 ) , and the starting minimum was 14.3 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 20 to 21 , there were a total of 272 days with no sunspots . Comparison with other cycles shows that geomagnetic activity during the declining phase of cycle 20 ( 1973 -- 1975 ) was unusually high . Data from solar cycle 20 was used to build the K-1974 solar proton fluence model , used for planning space missions during solar cycle 21 .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Solar_cycle_20", "rank": 41, "score": 101463 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 42, "score": 101457 }, { "content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)", "rank": 43, "score": 101436 }, { "content": "Title: 1980 United States heat wave Content: The 1980 United States Heat Wave was a period of intense heat and drought that wreaked havoc on much of the Midwestern United States and Southern Plains throughout the summer of 1980 . It is among the most devastating natural disasters in terms of deaths and destruction in U.S. history , claiming at least 1,700 lives and because of the massive drought , agricultural damage reached US$ 20.0 billion ( US$ 55.4 billion in 2007 dollars , adjusted for the GNP inflation index ) . It is among the billion-dollar weather disasters listed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "1980_United_States_heat_wave", "rank": 44, "score": 101135 }, { "content": "Title: Global Carbon Project Content: The Global Carbon Project ( GCP ) was established in 2001 . The organisation seeks to quantify global carbon emissions and their causes . The main object of the group has been to fully understand the carbon cycle . The project has brought together emissions experts and economists to tackle the problem of rising concentrations of greenhouse gases . The Global Carbon Project works collaboratively with the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme , the World Climate Programme , the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change and Diversitas , under the Earth System Science Partnership . In late 2006 researchers from the project claimed that carbon dioxide emissions had dramatically increased to a rate of 3.2 % annually from 2000 . At the time , the chair of the group Dr Mike Raupach stated that `` This is a very worrying sign . It indicates that recent efforts to reduce emissions have had virtually no impact on emissions growth and that effective caps are urgently needed , '' . A 2010 study conducted by the Project and Nature Geoscience revealed that the world 's oceans absorb 2.3 billion metric tonnes of carbon dioxide . On December 5 , 2011 analysis released from the project claimed carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel burning jumped by the largest amount on record in 2010 to 5.9 percent from a growth rate in the 1990s closer to 1 percent annually . The combustion of coal represented more than half of the growth in emissions , the report found . They predict greenhouse gas emissions to occur according to the IPCC 's worst-case scenario , as CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 500ppm in the 21st century .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Global_Carbon_Project", "rank": 45, "score": 101061 }, { "content": "Title: Extreme weather events of 535–536 Content: The extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 were the most severe and protracted short-term episodes of cooling in the Northern Hemisphere in the last 2000 years . The event is thought to have been caused by an extensive atmospheric dust veil , possibly resulting from a large volcanic eruption in the tropics , or debris from space impacting the Earth . Its effects were widespread , causing unseasonal weather , crop failures and famines worldwide .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Extreme_weather_events_of_535–536", "rank": 46, "score": 100822 }, { "content": "Title: David Legates Content: David Russell Legates is a Professor of Geography at the University of Delaware . He is the former Director of the Center for Climatic Research at the same university , and a former Delaware State Climatologist . Legates has published research papers , opinion editorials , and spoken openly in opposition to the consensus scientific opinion on climate change . More recently , he has been known for his skepticism toward the anthropogenic cause of the observed global warming patterns and the severity of its consequences at the local geographical scale . Legates viewpoint , as stated in a 2015 study that he co-authored , is that the Earth will experience about 1.0 C warming over the 2000 to 2100 period .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "David_Legates", "rank": 47, "score": 100740 }, { "content": "Title: Neoglaciation Content: The neoglaciation ( `` renewed glaciation '' ) describes the documented cooling trend in the Earth 's climate during the Holocene , following the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciation , the most recent glacial period . Neoglaciation has followed the hypsithermal or Holocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest point in the Earth 's climate during the current interglacial stage . The neoglaciation has no well-marked universal beginning : local conditions and ecological inertia affected the onset of detectably cooler ( and wetter ) conditions . Driven inexorably by the Milankovitch cycle , cooler summers in higher latitudes of North America , which would cease to completely melt the annual snowfall , were masked at first by the presence of the slowly disappearing continental ice sheets , which persisted long after the astronomically calculated moment of maximum summer warmth : `` the neoglaciation can be said to have begun when the cooling caught up with the warming '' , remarked E. C. Pielou . With the close of the `` Little Ice Age '' ( mid-14th to late 19th centuries ) , neoglaciation appears to have been stalled in the late 20th century , assumed to be caused by anthropogenic global warming . Whether it has been temporarily or semi-permanently stalled , neoglaciation has been marked by a retreat from the warm conditions of the Climatic Optimum and the advance or reformation of glaciers that had not existed since the last ice age . In the mountains of western North America , montane glaciers that had completely melted reformed shortly before 5000 BP . The most severe part of the best documented neoglacial period , especially in Europe and the North Atlantic , is termed the `` Little Ice Age '' . In North America , neoglaciation had ecological effects in the spread of muskeg on flat , poorly drained land , such as the bed of recently drained Lake Agassiz and in the Hudson Bay lowlands , in the retreat of grassland before an advancing forest border in the Great Plains , and in shifting ranges of forest trees and diagnostic plant species ( identified through palynology ) . The view that neoglaciation is ending in present times , is assumed by those who identify the most recent climate changes and global warming as the onset of a new period in Earth history , speculatively calling it the `` Early anthropocene '' , as a coming geological age dominated by the effects of Homo sapiens .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Neoglaciation", "rank": 48, "score": 100529 }, { "content": "Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2", "rank": 49, "score": 100098 }, { "content": "Title: Theodor Landscheidt Content: Theodor Landscheidt ( Bremen , 1927 -- May 20 , 2004 ) was a German author , astrologer and amateur climatologist . In 1989 , Landscheidt forecast a period of sunspot minima after 1990 , accompanied by increased cold , with a stronger minimum and more intense cold which should peak in 2030 His work on solar cycles has been cited by global warming skeptics to argue that observed warming is not anthropogenic and will soon be reversed , based on an assumption that fluctuations in climate are controlled by solar activity . In 1983 he founded and financed the `` Schroeter Institute for Research in Cycles of Solar Activity '' in Lilienthal , near Bremen . The Institute later moved with him to Nova Scotia , Canada .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Theodor_Landscheidt", "rank": 50, "score": 99517 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska", "rank": 51, "score": 99440 }, { "content": "Title: Holocene climatic optimum Content: The Holocene Climate Optimum ( HCO ) was a warm period during roughly the interval 9,000 to 5,000 years BP . This event has also been known by many other names , including : Hypsithermal , Altithermal , Climatic Optimum , Holocene Optimum , Holocene Thermal Maximum , and Holocene Megathermal . This warm period was followed by a gradual decline until about two millennia ago . For other temperature fluctuations see : Temperature record For other past climate fluctuation see : Paleoclimatology For the pollen zone and Blytt-Sernander period associated with the climate optimum , see : Atlantic ( period )", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Holocene_climatic_optimum", "rank": 52, "score": 99327 }, { "content": "Title: African humid period Content: The African humid period (AHP) is a climate period in Africa during the late Pleistocene and Holocene geologic epochs, when northern Africa was wetter than today. The covering of much of the Sahara desert by grasses, trees and lakes was caused by changes in Earth's orbit around the Sun; changes in vegetation and dust in the Sahara which strengthened the African monsoon; and increased greenhouse gases, which may imply that anthropogenic global warming could result in a shrinkage of the Sahara desert. During the preceding last glacial maximum, the Sahara contained extensive dune fields and was mostly uninhabited. It was much larger than today, but its lakes and rivers such as Lake Victoria and the White Nile were either dry or at low levels. The humid period began about 14,600–14,500 years ago at the end of Heinrich event 1, simultaneously to the Bølling-Allerød warming. Rivers and lakes such as Lake Chad formed or expanded, glaciers grew on Mount Kilimanjaro and the Sahara retreated. Two major dry fluctuations occurred; during the Younger Dryas and the short 8.2 kiloyear event. The African humid period ended 6,000–5,000 years ago during the Piora Oscillation cold period. While some evidence points to an end 5,500 years ago, in the Sahel, Arabia and East Africa the period appears to have taken place in several steps such as the 4.2 kiloyear event. The AHP led to a widespread settlement of the Sahara and the Arabian Deserts, and had a profound effect on African cultures, such as the birth of the Pharaonic civilization. They lived as hunter-gatherers until the agricultural revolution and domesticated cattle, goats and sheep. They left archeological sites and artifacts such as one of the oldest ships in the world, and rock paintings such as those in the Cave of Swimmers and in the Acacus Mountains. Earlier humid periods in Africa were postulated after the discovery of these rock paintings in now-inhospitable parts of the Sahara. When the period ended, humans gradually abandoned the desert in favour of regions with more secure water supplies, such as the Nile Valley and Mesopotamia, where they gave rise to early complex societies.", "qid": "3125", "docid": "African_humid_period", "rank": 53, "score": 99067 }, { "content": "Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years", "rank": 54, "score": 99047 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic sea ice decline Content: Arctic sea ice decline is the sea ice loss observed in recent decades in the Arctic Ocean . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report states that greenhouse gas forcing is largely , but not wholly , responsible for the decline in Arctic sea ice extent . A study from 2011 suggested that internal variability enhanced the greenhouse gas forced sea ice decline over the last decades . A study from 2007 found the decline to be `` faster than forecasted '' by model simulations . The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report concluded with high confidence that sea ice continues to decrease in extent , and that there is robust evidence for the downward trend in Arctic summer sea ice extent since 1979 . It has been established that the region is at its warmest for at least 40,000 years and the Arctic-wide melt season has lengthened at a rate of 5 days per decade ( from 1979 to 2013 ) , dominated by a later autumn freezeup . Sea ice changes have been identified as a mechanism for polar amplification .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Arctic_sea_ice_decline", "rank": 55, "score": 98948 }, { "content": "Title: 4.2 kiloyear event Content: The 4.2 kiloyear BP aridification event was one of the most severe climatic events of the Holocene period . Starting in about 2200 BC , it probably lasted the entire 22nd century BC . The drought may have initiated southeastward habitat tracking within the Indus Valley Civilization . The 4.2 kiloyear BP event has been hypothesised to have caused the collapse of the Old Kingdom in Egypt as well as the Akkadian Empire in Mesopotamia , and the Liangzhu culture in the lower Yangtze River area . However , this theory has been criticised by archaeologists , with political causes for the collapse of these polities thought to be more probable .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "4.2_kiloyear_event", "rank": 56, "score": 98643 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth", "rank": 57, "score": 98618 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctica cooling controversy Content: An apparent contradiction in the observed cooling behavior of Antarctica between 1966 and 2000 became part of the public debate in the global warming controversy , particularly between advocacy groups of both sides in the public arena including politicians , as well as the popular media . In his novel State of Fear , Michael Crichton asserted that the Antarctic data contradict global warming . The few scientists who have commented on the supposed controversy state that there is no contradiction , while the author of the paper whose work inspired Crichton 's remarks has said that Crichton `` misused '' his results . There is no similar controversy within the scientific community , as the small observed changes in Antarctica are consistent with the small changes predicted by climate models , and because the overall trend since comprehensive observations began is now known to be one of warming . At the South Pole , where some of the strongest cooling trends were observed between the 1950s and 1990s , the mean trend is flat from 1957 through 2013 .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Antarctica_cooling_controversy", "rank": 58, "score": 98540 }, { "content": "Title: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates Content: Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) are cause by the exploitation of natural resources , rapid population growth , and high energy demand . The continuing temperature rise caused by global warming contributes to UAE 's water scarcity , drought , rising sea level and aridity . The countryside of the UAE , characterized with its great arid land , infrequent precipitation , and high temperatures are already facing long-term aridity . This precondition is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change and contributes to worsening water scarcity , quality , and water contamination . The United Arab Emirates are located in the Middle East between Oman and Saudi Arabia , adjoining the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf . In the last years , the impact of global warming on the UAE has intensified the already existing environmental issues , including water scarcity and limited agricultural land . The United Arab Emirates are a contributor to greenhouse gas emissions , listed as having the 29th highest carbon dioxide emissions . Since the boom of the oil-industry occurred in the early 21st century , the population and its consumption of energy have sharply increased . The UAE contains the world 's seventh largest natural resource of oil and seventeenth-largest natural gas reserve . This possession of a high amount of valuable natural resources , pushed the UAE to the position of the ninth wealthiest country in the world by 2016 GDP per capita . These financial resources support their adaptation capacity to `` climate change-induced challenges '' . Currently , they are investing in increasing air conditioning infrastructure , rainwater drainage systems , constructing flood barriers and new desalination plants . In June 2016 Abu Dhabi announced a project for an enhanced rainwater drainage system due to unnaturally occurring thunderstorms in March 2016 which caused 860 damages on properties and flooding . Also the three main characteristics of UAE 's politics contribute to the recent natural unsustainability : First , the Emirates feature components of a Rentier state . It is governed by an authoritarian political system and finally both facts cause critical natural resource-related trades . In particular , UAE as a rentier state means that the federalization gains external rent from foreign individuals , companies and governments . A rentier state 's economy is predominated by the dependency on external rents . Oil revenues also count as external rent .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Environmental_issues_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates", "rank": 59, "score": 98160 }, { "content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm", "rank": 60, "score": 97812 }, { "content": "Title: 2000 Southern United States heat wave Content: Aided by drought , a heat wave persisted in late Summer 2000 along the southern tier of the United States from July to early September of that year . Near the end of the period , daily , monthly , and even all-time record high temperatures were broken , with highs commonly peaking well over 100 degrees Fahrenheit . On September 4 , Houston hit 109 ° F ( 42.8 ° C ) and Dallas peaked at 111 ° F ( 43.9 ° C ) ; on September 5 , Corpus Christi peaked at 109 ° F ( 42.8 ° C ) , San Antonio peaked at 111 ° F ( 43.9 ° C ) while College Station and Austin reached 112 ° F ( 44.4 ° C ) . Damage totaled $ 4 billion , mainly due to wildfires and crop losses , and there were 140 deaths .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "2000_Southern_United_States_heat_wave", "rank": 61, "score": 97791 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Taylor (environmentalist) Content: Peter Taylor ( b. 24 Jan 1948 ) is a UK environmentalist with a long track record of public activism and scholarship on issues ranging from nuclear safety , ocean pollution , biodiversity strategies , renewable energy and climate change . His recent work on global warming has been questioned by environmentalists . His 2009 book Chill : a reassessment of global warming theory argued that most of the recent documented warming is caused by peaking natural cycles , that there is also a potential for global cooling and that adaptation not mitigation should be a priority . His views received widespread coverage in the media -- with front page on the Daily Express , and articles in the online versions of The Mail , The Times and an Al Jazeera video .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Peter_Taylor_(environmentalist)", "rank": 62, "score": 97554 }, { "content": "Title: Hirnantian Content: The Hirnantian is the seventh and final internationally recognized stage of the Ordovician Period of the Paleozoic Era . It was of short duration , lasting about 1.9 million years , from to Ma ( million years ago ) . The early part of the Hirnantian was characterized by cold temperatures , major glaciation , and a severe drop in sea level . In the latter part of the Hirnantian , temperatures rose , the glaciers melted , and sea level returned to the same or to a slightly higher level than it had been prior to the glaciation . Most scientists believe that this climatic oscillation caused the major extinction event that took place during this time . In fact , the Hirnantian ( also known as the End Ordovician and the Ordovician-Silurian ) mass extinction event represents the second largest such event in geologic history . Approximately 85 % of marine ( sea-dwelling ) species died . Only the End Permian mass extinction was larger . Unlike many smaller extinction events , however , the long-term consequences of the End Ordovician event were relatively small . Following the climatic oscillation , the climate returned to its previous state , and the species that survived soon ( within two or three million years ) evolved into species very similar to the ones that existed before .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Hirnantian", "rank": 63, "score": 97536 }, { "content": "Title: Roman Warm Period Content: The Roman Warm Period or the Roman climatic optimum has been proposed as a period of unusually warm weather in Europe and the North Atlantic that ran from approximately 250 BC to AD 400 .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Roman_Warm_Period", "rank": 64, "score": 97535 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 65, "score": 97515 }, { "content": "Title: Sixty Days and Counting Content: Sixty Days and Counting ( 2007 ) is the third book in the hard science fiction Science in the Capital trilogy by Kim Stanley Robinson . It directly follows the events of Fifty Degrees Below , beginning just after the election of character Phil Chase to the White House . It follows the previous novel 's deep freeze of the area surrounding Washington D.C. . Category :2007 American novels Category : Novels by Kim Stanley Robinson Category : Novels set in Washington , D.C. Category : Hard science fiction Category : Climate change novels", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Sixty_Days_and_Counting", "rank": 66, "score": 97396 }, { "content": "Title: Surveys of scientists' views on climate change Content: Surveys of scientists ' views on climate change - with a focus on human-caused or anthropogenic global warming ( AGW ) - have been undertaken since the 1990s . A 2016 paper ( which was co-authored by Naomi Oreskes , Peter Doran , William Anderegg , Bart Verheggen , Ed Maibach , J. Stuart Carlton and John Cook , and which was based on a half a dozen independent studies by the authors ) concluded that `` the finding of 97 % consensus -LSB- that humans are causing recent global warming -RSB- in published climate research is robust and consistent with other surveys of climate scientists and peer-reviewed studies . ''", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Surveys_of_scientists'_views_on_climate_change", "rank": 67, "score": 97299 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 68, "score": 97271 }, { "content": "Title: Solar maximum Content: -RSB- Solar maximum or solar max is a normal period of greatest solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the Sun . During solar maximum , large numbers of sunspots appear and the sun 's irradiance output grows by about 0.07 % . The increased energy output of solar maxima can impact Earth 's global climate and recent studies have shown some correlation with regional weather patterns . At solar maximum , the Sun 's magnetic field lines are the most distorted due to the magnetic field on the solar equator rotating at a slightly faster pace than at the solar poles . The solar cycle takes an average of about 11 years to go from one solar maximum to the next , with duration observed varying from 9 to 14 years . Large solar flares often occur during a maximum . For example , the solar storm of 1859 struck the Earth with such intensity that the northern lights were visible as far from the poles as Cuba and Hawaii .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Solar_maximum", "rank": 69, "score": 97227 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 70, "score": 97061 }, { "content": "Title: Dansgaard–Oeschger event Content: Dansgaard -- Oeschger events ( often abbreviated D -- O events ) are rapid climate fluctuations that occurred 25 times during the last glacial period . Some scientists say that the events occur quasi-periodically with a recurrence time being a multiple of 1,470 years , but this is debated . The comparable climate cyclicity during the Holocene is referred to as Bond events .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Dansgaard–Oeschger_event", "rank": 71, "score": 96716 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 19 Content: Solar cycle 19 was the nineteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.5 years , beginning in April 1954 and ending in October 1964 . The International Geophysical Year occurred at the peak of this solar cycle . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 285.0 , in March 1958 ( the highest on record ) , and the starting minimum was 5.1 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 19 to 20 , there were a total of 227 days with no sunspots . This was the lowest number since 1850 .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Solar_cycle_19", "rank": 72, "score": 96566 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 15 Content: Solar cycle 15 was the fifteenth solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.1 years , beginning in July 1913 and ending in August 1923 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 175.7 ( August 1917 ) , and the starting minimum was 2.5 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 15 to 16 , there were a total of 534 days with no sunspots . A major geomagnetic storm during 13 -- 15 May 1921 caused damage in communication systems and aurora displays in much of the eastern United States . Geomagnetic storms in March 1918 , August 1919 , October 1919 , and March 1920 affected telegraph lines , while a solar flare on 13 May 1921 also affected rail signal and switching equipment , in what was known as the `` New York Railroad Storm . ''", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Solar_cycle_15", "rank": 73, "score": 96451 }, { "content": "Title: Milankovitch cycles Content: Milankovitch cycles describes the collective effects of changes in the Earth 's movements on its climate over thousands of years . The term is named after Serbian geophysicist and astronomer Milutin Milanković . In the 1920s , he theorized that variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit resulted in cyclical variation in the solar radiation ( insolation ) reaching the Earth , and that this orbital forcing strongly influenced climatic patterns on Earth . The Earth 's orbit varies between nearly circular and mildly elliptical ( its eccentricity varies ) . When the orbit is more elongated , there is more variation in the distance between the Earth and the Sun , and in the amount of solar radiation , at different times in the year . In addition , the rotational tilt of the Earth ( its obliquity ) , which causes the seasons as the Earth revolves around the Sun , changes slightly . A greater tilt makes the seasons more extreme . Finally , the direction in the fixed stars pointed to by the Earth 's axis changes ( axial precession ) , while the Earth 's elliptical orbit around the Sun rotates ( apsidal precession ) . The combined effect of the two precessions is a cycle in which proximity to the Sun occurs during different astronomical seasons . If the Earth is closer to the Sun while the northern or southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun ( is in summer ) , then both effects work together to heat that hemisphere . If the Earth is further from the Sun during summer , the greater distance slightly reduces the heat of summer . Similar astronomical theories had been advanced in the 19th century by Joseph Adhemar , James Croll and others , but verification was difficult because there was no reliably dated evidence , and because it was unclear which periods were important . Now , materials on Earth that have been unchanged for millennia are being studied to indicate the history of Earth 's climate . A study of the chronology of Antarctic ice cores using oxygen-nitrogen ratios in air bubbles trapped in the ice , which appear to respond directly to the local insolation , concluded that the climatic response documented in the ice cores was driven by northern hemisphere insolation as proposed by the Milankovitch hypothesis . Analysis of deep-ocean cores and a seminal paper by Hays , Imbrie , and Shackleton provide additional validation of the Milankovitch hypothesis through physical artifacts . However , there are still several observations that the hypothesis does not explain .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Milankovitch_cycles", "rank": 74, "score": 96271 }, { "content": "Title: Sixty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India Content: The Sixty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India , officially known as The Constitution ( Sixty-second Amendment ) Act , 1989 , extended the period of reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and representation of the Anglo-Indians in the Lok Sabha and the State Legislative Assemblies for another ten years , i.e. up to 26 January 2000 . Article 334 of the Constitution had originally required the reservation of seats to cease in 1960 , but this was extended to 1970 by the 8th Amendment . The period of reservation was extended to 1980 and 1990 by the 23rd and 45th Amendments respectively . The 62nd Amendment extended the period of reservation to 2000 . The period of reservation was further extended to 2010 and 2020 by the 79th and 95th Amendments respectively .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Sixty-second_Amendment_of_the_Constitution_of_India", "rank": 75, "score": 96246 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 76, "score": 95880 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 21 Content: Solar cycle 21 was the 21st solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 10.5 years , beginning in March 1976 and ending in September 1986 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 232.9 , in December 1979 , and the starting minimum was 17.8 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 21 to 22 , there were a total of 273 days with no sunspots . The largest solar flare of this cycle ( X15 ) occurred on July 11 , 1978 .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Solar_cycle_21", "rank": 77, "score": 95583 }, { "content": "Title: Recession of 1960–61 Content: The Recession of 1960 -- 1961 was a recession in the United States . According to the National Bureau of Economic Research the recession lasted for 10 months , beginning in April 1960 and ending in February 1961 . The recession preceded the second longest economic expansion in U.S. history which lasted from February 1961 to the Recession of 1969 -- 70 in December 1969 ( only the 1990s saw a longer period of growth ) . The Federal Reserve began to tighten monetary policy in 1959 and eased off in 1960 . During this recession , the Gross Domestic Product of the United States fell 1.6 percent . Though the recession ended in November 1960 , the unemployment rate did not peak for several months . In May 1961 , the rate reached its height for the cycle of 7.1 percent .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Recession_of_1960–61", "rank": 78, "score": 95373 }, { "content": "Title: Younger Dryas Content: The Younger Dryas is a geological period from c. 12,900 to c. 11,700 calendar years ago ( BP ) . It is named after an indicator genus , the alpine-tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala . Leaves of Dryas octopetala are occasionally abundant in the Late Glacial , often minerogenic-rich , like the lake sediments of Scandinavian lakes . The Younger Dryas saw a sharp decline in temperature over most of the northern hemisphere , at the end of the Pleistocene epoch , immediately before the current warmer Holocene . It was the most recent and longest of several interruptions to the gradual warming of the Earth 's climate since the severe Last Glacial Maximum , c. 27,000 to 24,000 calendar years BP . The change was relatively sudden , taking place in decades , and resulted in a decline of 2 to 6 degrees Celsius , advances of glaciers and drier conditions , over much of the temperate northern hemisphere . It is thought to have been caused by a decline in the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation , which transports warm water from the equator towards the North Pole , and which in turn is thought to have been caused by an influx of fresh cold water from North America into the Atlantic . The Younger Dryas was a period of climatic change , but the effects were complex and variable . In the southern hemisphere , and some areas of the north such as southeastern North America , there was a slight warming . The presence of a distinct cold period at the end of the Late Glacial interval has been known for a long time . Paleobotanical and lithostratigraphic studies of Swedish and Danish bog and lake sites , e.g. the Allerød clay pit in Denmark , first recognized and described the Younger Dryas . The Younger Dryas is the youngest and longest of three stadials that resulted from typically abrupt climatic changes that took place over the last 16,000 calendar years . Within the Blytt-Sernander classification of north European climatic phases , the prefix ` Younger ' refers to the recognition that this original ` Dryas ' period was preceded by a warmer stage , the Allerød oscillation , which in turn was preceded by the Older Dryas around 14,000 calendar years BP . This is not securely dated , and estimates vary by 400 years , but it is generally accepted that it lasted around 200 years . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and more extensive than during the Younger Dryas . The Older Dryas , in turn , is preceded by another warmer stage , the Bølling oscillation that separates it from a third and even older stadial . This stadial is often , but not always , known as the Oldest Dryas . The Oldest Dryas occurred approximately 1,770 calendar years before the Younger Dryas and lasted about 400 calendar years . According to the GISP2 ice core from Greenland , the Oldest Dryas occurred between about 15,070 and 14,670 calendar years BP . In Ireland , the Younger Dryas has also been known as the Nahanagan Stadial , while in Great Britain it has been called the Loch Lomond Stadial . In the Greenland Summit ice core chronology , the Younger Dryas corresponds to Greenland Stadial 1 ( GS-1 ) . The preceding Allerød warm period ( interstadial ) is subdivided into three events : Greenland Interstadial-1c to 1a ( GI-1c to GI-1a ) .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Younger_Dryas", "rank": 79, "score": 95228 }, { "content": "Title: Interglacial Content: An interglacial period ( or alternatively interglacial , interglaciation ) is a geological interval of warmer global average temperature lasting thousands of years that separates consecutive glacial periods within an ice age . The current Holocene interglacial began at the end of the Pleistocene , about 11,700 years ago .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Interglacial", "rank": 80, "score": 94814 }, { "content": "Title: Climate pattern Content: A climate pattern is any recurring characteristic of the climate . Climate patterns can last tens of thousands of years , like the glacial and interglacial periods within ice ages , or repeat each year , like monsoons . A climate pattern may come in the form of a regular cycle , like the diurnal cycle or the seasonal cycle ; a quasi periodic event , like El Niño ; or a highly irregular event , such as a volcanic winter . The regular cycles are generally well understood and may be removed by normalization . For example , graphs which show trends of temperature change will usually have the effects of seasonal variation removed .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Climate_pattern", "rank": 81, "score": 94711 }, { "content": "Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Abrupt_climate_change", "rank": 82, "score": 94692 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United Kingdom Content: Climate change in the United Kingdom has been a subject of protests and controversies and various policies have been developed to mitigate its effects . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . The UK Government has a commitment to reduce CO2 equivalent emissions by 80 % on 1990 levels by 2025 and by 50 % on 1990 levels by 2050 .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom", "rank": 83, "score": 94655 }, { "content": "Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference", "rank": 84, "score": 94449 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal", "rank": 85, "score": 94167 }, { "content": "Title: 1970 Atlantic hurricane season Content: The 1970 Atlantic hurricane season was the first season in which reconnaissance aircraft flew into all four quadrants of a tropical cyclone . The season officially began on June 1 and lasted until November 30 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . The season was fairly average , with 10 total storms forming , of which five were hurricanes . Two of those five became major hurricanes , which are Category 3 or higher on the Saffir -- Simpson scale . The first system , Hurricane Alma , developed on May 17 . The storm killed eight people , seven from flooding in Cuba and one from a lightning strike in Florida . In July , Tropical Storm Becky brought minor flooding to Florida and other parts of the Southern United States , leaving one death and about $ 500,000 ( 1970 USD ) in damage . The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane Celia , a Category 3 hurricane that slammed South Texas in early August . Celia resulted in about $ 930 million in damage and was the costliest hurricane in Texas until Alicia in 1983 . There were 28 fatalities , with four in Cuba , eight in Florida , and sixteen in Texas . Later that month , Tropical Storm Dorothy caused severe flooding in Martinique , which left up to 51 deaths and $ 34 million in damage . One death occurred in Mexico as a result of Hurricane Ella after a house collapsed . In October , Tropical Depression Fifteen brought a devastating flood to Puerto Rico . At least 22 fatalities and $ 65.5 million in damage occurred . Collectively , the storms of this season left at least $ 1.03 billion in damage and 115 deaths . __ TOC __", "qid": "3125", "docid": "1970_Atlantic_hurricane_season", "rank": 86, "score": 94142 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle 11 Content: Solar cycle 11 was the eleventh solar cycle since 1755 , when extensive recording of solar sunspot activity began . The solar cycle lasted 11.8 years , beginning in March 1867 and ending in December 1878 . The maximum smoothed sunspot number ( SIDC formula ) observed during the solar cycle was 234.0 ( August 1870 ) , and the starting minimum was 9.9 . During the minimum transit from solar cycle 11 to 12 , there were a total of 1028 days with no sunspots ( the highest recorded of any cycle transit to date ) . Strong auroral displays were observed in October 1870 , February 1872 , and August 1872 .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Solar_cycle_11", "rank": 87, "score": 93961 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans", "rank": 88, "score": 93937 }, { "content": "Title: Diurnal cycle Content: A diurnal cycle is any pattern that recurs every 24 hours as a result of one full rotation of the Earth with respect to the Sun . In climatology , the diurnal cycle is one of the most basic forms of climate patterns . The most familiar such pattern is the diurnal temperature variation . Such a cycle may be approximately sinusoidal , or include components of a truncated sinusoid ( due to the sun 's rising and setting ) and thermal relaxation ( Newton cooling ) at night . Diurnal cycles of environmental conditions ( light or temperature ) can result in similar cycles in dependent biological processes , such as photosynthesis in plants , or clinical depression in humans . Plant responses to environmental cycles may even induce indirect cycles in rhizosphere microbial activities , including nitrogen fixation . A semi-diurnal cycle refers to a pattern that occurs about every twelve hours or about twice a day . Often these can be related to lunar tides , in which case the interval is closer to 12 hours and 25 minutes .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Diurnal_cycle", "rank": 89, "score": 93883 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 90, "score": 93736 }, { "content": "Title: GEO-2000 Content: GEO-2000 is the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) Global Environment Outlook 2000 . The UNEP launched the Global Environment Outlook in 1995 to assess environmental issues and to have them published . The first report was published in 1999 . As well as some of the more well known issues the report identified new threats such as : nitrogen 's harmful impact on ecosystems increased severity of natural disasters species invasion as a result of globalization increased environmental pressures caused by urbanization decline in the quality of governance in some countries new wars which impact on both the immediate environment and neighbouring states the impact of refugees on the natural environment", "qid": "3125", "docid": "GEO-2000", "rank": 91, "score": 93515 }, { "content": "Title: Programme for International Student Assessment (2000 to 2012) Content: The Programme for International Student Assessment has had several runs before the most recent one in 2012 . The first PISA assessment was carried out in 2000 . The results of each period of assessment take about one year and a half to be analysed . First results were published in November 2001 . The release of raw data and the publication of technical report and data handbook only took place in spring 2002 . The triennial repeats follow a similar schedule ; the process of seeing through a single PISA cycle , start-to-finish , always takes over four years . 470,000 15-year-old students representing 65 nations and territories participated in PISA 2009 . An additional 50,000 students representing nine nations were tested in 2010 . Every period of assessment focuses on one of the three competence fields of reading , math , science ; but the two others are tested as well . After nine years , a full cycle is completed : after 2000 , reading was again the main domain in 2009 .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Programme_for_International_Student_Assessment_(2000_to_2012)", "rank": 92, "score": 93444 }, { "content": "Title: European Climate Change Programme Content: The European Climate Change Programme ( ECCP ) was launched in June 2000 by the European Union 's European Commission , with the purpose of avoiding dangerous climate change . The goal of the ECCP is to identify , develop and implement all the necessary elements of an EU strategy to implement the Kyoto Protocol . All EU countries ' ratifications of the Kyoto Protocol were deposited simultaneously on 31 May 2002 . The European Union Greenhouse Gas Emission Trading Scheme ( EU ETS ) is perhaps the most significant contribution of the ECCP , and the EU ETS is the largest greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme in the world . In 1996 the EU adopted a target of a maximum 2 ° C rise in global mean temperature , compared to pre-industrial levels . Since then , European Leaders have reaffirmed this goal several times . Due to only minor efforts in global Climate change mitigation it is highly likely that the world will not be able to reach this particular target . The EU might then be forced to accept a less ambitious target or to change its climate policy paradigm .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "European_Climate_Change_Programme", "rank": 93, "score": 93435 }, { "content": "Title: Global temperature record Content: The global temperature record shows the fluctuations of the temperature of the atmosphere and the oceans through various spans of time. The most detailed information exists since 1850, when methodical thermometer-based records began. There are numerous estimates of temperatures since the end of the Pleistocene glaciation, particularly during the current Holocene epoch. Older time periods are studied by paleoclimatology.", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Global_temperature_record", "rank": 94, "score": 93409 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Sea_level_rise", "rank": 95, "score": 93288 }, { "content": "Title: Older Dryas Content: The Older Dryas was a stadial ( cold ) period between the Bølling and Allerød interstadials ( warmer phases ) approximately 14,000 years ago ( BP ) , towards the end of the Pleistocene epoch . Its age is not well defined , with estimates varying by 400 years , but its duration is agreed to have been around two centuries . The gradual warming since the last glacial maximum 27-24 ,000 years BP has been interrupted by two cold spells , the Older Dryas having been followed by the Younger Dryas ( c. 12,900-11 ,650 BP ) . In northern Scotland the glaciers were thicker and deeper during the Older than the succeeding Younger Dryas , and there is no evidence of human occupation of Britain . In north-west Europe an earlier Oldest Dryas is also recognised . They are named after an indicator genus , the arctic and alpine plant Dryas , the remains of which are found in higher concentrations in deposits from colder periods . The Older Dryas was a variable cold , dry Blytt-Sernander period , observed in climatological evidence in only some regions , depending on latitude . In regions where it is not observed , the Bølling-Allerød is considered a single interstadial ( warm ) period . Evidence of the Older Dryas is strongest in northern Eurasia , particularly part of North Europe roughly equivalent to Pollen zone Ic .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Older_Dryas", "rank": 96, "score": 93286 }, { "content": "Title: Climate oscillation Content: A climate oscillation or climate cycle is any recurring cyclical oscillation within global or regional climate , and is a type of climate pattern . These fluctuations in atmospheric temperature , sea surface temperature , precipitation or other parameters can be quasi-periodic , often occurring on inter-annual , multi-annual , decadal , multidecadal , century-wide , millennial or longer timescales . They are not perfectly periodic and a Fourier analysis of the data does not give a sharp spectrum . A prominent example is the El Niño Southern Oscillation , involving sea surface temperatures along a stretch of the equatorial Central and East Pacific Ocean and the western coast of tropical South America , but which affects climate worldwide . Records of past climate conditions are recovered through geological examination of proxies , found in glacier ice , sea bed sediment , tree ring studies or otherwise .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Climate_oscillation", "rank": 97, "score": 93183 }, { "content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Duncan_Wingham", "rank": 98, "score": 93137 }, { "content": "Title: Late Glacial Content: The Late Glacial ( c. 13,000 -- 10,000 years ago ) , or Tardiglacial ( `` Late Glacial '' ) , is defined primarily by the beginning of the modern warm period , in which climates in the Northern Hemisphere warmed substantially , causing a process of accelerated deglaciation following the Last Glacial Maximum ( c. 25,000 -- 13,000 years ago ) . At this time , human populations , previously forced into refuge areas as a result of Last Glacial Maximum climatic conditions , gradually begin to repopulate the Northern Hemisphere 's Eurasian landmass and eventually populate North America via Beringia for the first time . Evidence for its occurrence stems from two main types of analysis . The first is the use of oxygen isotope stages ( OIS ) gathered from stratified deep-sea sediment cores . Samples are gathered and measured for change in isotope levels to determine temperature fluctuation for given periods of time . The second is a proxy measurement , the observation of certain reappearing fauna and flora fossils that can survive only in temperate climates , thus indicating warming trends for a given geographic area . Archaeological evidence of settlement and resettlement in certain areas by humans also serve as proxy measurements . Towards the end of OIS 2 in which the Late Glacial Maximum occurs , the deep-sea sediment cores indicate a gradually warming climate , and the reappearance of certain warm-weather flora and fauna remains throughout the Northern Hemisphere correlate with that trend . A period of relatively brief cold oscillation , referred to as the Younger Dryas , is detected during OIS 2 , as can be inferred from an increase in isotope weight .", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Late_Glacial", "rank": 99, "score": 92856 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "3125", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 100, "score": 92587 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Mikhail Budyko Content: Mikhail Ivanovich Budyko ( 20 January 1920 -- 10 December 2001 ) was a Russian climatologist and one of the founders of physical climatology . He pioneered studies on global climate and calculated temperature of Earth considering simple physical model of equilibrium in which the incoming solar radiation absorbed by the Earth 's system is balanced by the energy re-radiated to space as thermal energy . Ethnically Belarussian , Budyko earned his M.Sc . in 1942 from the Division of Physics of the Leningrad Polytechnic Institute . As a researcher at the Leningrad Geophysical Observatory , he received his doctorate in physical and mathematical sciences in 1951 . Budyko served as deputy director of the Geophysical Observatory until 1954 , as director until 1972 , and as head of the Division for Physical Climatology at the observatory from 1972 until 1975 . In that year he was appointed director of the Division for Climate Change Research at the State Hydrological Institute in St. Petersburg . Budyko 's groundbreaking book , Heat Balance of the Earth 's Surface , published in 1956 , transformed climatology from a qualitative into a quantitative physical science . These new physical methods based on heat balance were quickly adopted by climatologists around the world . In 1963 , Budyko directed the compilation of an atlas illustrating the components of the Earth 's heat balance . He was the first researcher to discuss the role of humans in Pleistocene megafauna extinction .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Mikhail_Budyko", "rank": 1, "score": 141625 }, { "content": "Title: Climatology Content: Climatology ( from Greek κλίμα , klima , `` place , zone '' ; and - λογία , - logia ) or climate science is the study of climate , scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time . This modern field of study is regarded as a branch of the atmospheric sciences and a subfield of physical geography , which is one of the Earth sciences . Climatology now includes aspects of oceanography and biogeochemistry . Basic knowledge of climate can be used within shorter term weather forecasting using analog techniques such as the El Niño -- Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) , the Madden -- Julian oscillation ( MJO ) , the North Atlantic oscillation ( NAO ) , the Northern Annular Mode ( NAM ) which is also known as the Arctic oscillation ( AO ) , the Northern Pacific ( NP ) Index , the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , and the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation ( IPO ) . Climate models are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the weather and climate system to projections of future climate . Weather is known as the condition of the atmosphere over a period of time . While Climate has to do with the atmospheric condition over an extended to indefinite period of time .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Climatology", "rank": 2, "score": 126837 }, { "content": "Title: Dan King (skeptic) Content: Dan King ( 1791-1864 ) was an American physician and early skeptical writer . King was born in Mansfield , Connecticut . He practiced medicine in Rhode Island and Massachusetts until his retirement in 1859 . King is most notable for his book Quackery Unmasked ( 1858 ) which heavily criticized homeopathy and other alternative medicine claims . He was also critical of the use of tobacco and published a book on its negative health effects .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Dan_King_(skeptic)", "rank": 3, "score": 115403 }, { "content": "Title: The Skeptics Content: Skeptics were a New Zealand post-punk band from 1979 to 1990 . They became notorious in 1987 for an unusually graphic music video entitled `` AFFCO '' .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "The_Skeptics", "rank": 4, "score": 114777 }, { "content": "Title: Postdiction Content: Postdiction involves explanation after the fact . In skepticism , it is considered an effect of hindsight bias that explains claimed predictions of significant events such as plane crashes and natural disasters . In religious contexts , theologians frequently refer to postdiction using the Latin term vaticinium ex eventu ( foretelling after the event ) . Through this term , skeptics postulate that many biblical prophecies ( and similar prophecies in other religions ) appearing to have come true may have been written after the events supposedly predicted , or that the text or interpretation may have been modified after the event to fit the facts as they occurred . Skeptics of premonition use these terms in response to claims made by psychics , astrologers and other paranormalists to have predicted an event , when the original prediction was vague , catch-all , or otherwise non-obvious . Most predictions from such figures as Nostradamus and James Van Praagh express the future with such seemingly deliberate vagueness and ambiguity as to make interpretation nearly impossible before the event , rendering them useless as predictive tools . After the event has occurred , however , the psychics or their supporters shoehorn details into the prediction by using selective thinking -- emphasizing the `` hits '' , ignoring the `` misses '' -- in order to lend credence to the prophecy and to give the impression of an accurate `` prediction '' . Inaccurate predictions are omitted . Supporters of a prediction sometimes contend that the problem lies not with the wording of the prediction , but with the interpretation -- an argument sometimes used by supporters of religious texts . This argument may lead to the question : `` What is the point of a prediction that can not be interpreted correctly before the event ? '' However , the argument is not that the prediction could not have been interpreted correctly prior to the event , but simply that it was not in the case in question , thus the question is working from a false premise . Of course , any `` prediction '' that is so vague as to not be correctly interpreted before the event it allegedly `` predicted '' is functionally equivalent to no prediction at all .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Postdiction", "rank": 5, "score": 113276 }, { "content": "Title: NZ Skeptics Content: The NZ Skeptics is a New Zealand incorporated society created in 1986 , with the aim of promoting critical thinking . The main areas of interest to the NZ Skeptics are claims of psychic abilities , alternative medicine , creationism and other pseudoscientific claims . At its founding in 1986 it was known as the New Zealand Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal ( NZCSICOP ) . In 2007 the name was formally changed to NZ Skeptics Incorporated .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "NZ_Skeptics", "rank": 6, "score": 111597 }, { "content": "Title: Goma (software) Content: Goma is an open-source , parallel , and scalable multiphysics software package for modeling and simulation of real-life physical processes , with a basis in computational fluid dynamics for problems with evolving geometry . It solves problems in all branches of mechanics , including fluids , solids , and thermal analysis . Goma uses advanced numerical methods , focusing on the low-speed flow regime with coupled phenomena for manufacturing and performance applications . It also provides a flexible software development environment for specialty physics . Goma was created by Sandia National Laboratories and is currently supported by both Sandia and the University of New Mexico .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Goma_(software)", "rank": 7, "score": 109375 }, { "content": "Title: Dave Thomas (skeptic) Content: Dave Thomas ( born 1953 ) is a physicist and mathematician best known for his scientific skepticism research and writings . He is a graduate of the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology , and his work covers the Roswell and Aztec UFO sightings , the Bible code , global warming , the 9/11 Truth movement and chemtrails . Many of Thomas ' articles have been published in Skeptical Inquirer magazine .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Dave_Thomas_(skeptic)", "rank": 8, "score": 107666 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientific skeptics Content: This is a list of notable people that promote or practice scientific skepticism . In general , they favor science and are opposed to pseudoscience and quackery . They are generally skeptical of parapsychology , the paranormal , and alternative medicine . James Alcock , psychologist . Author of several skeptical books and articles . Isaac Asimov , biochemist , author . Wrote or edited over 500 popular science , other nonfiction , and science fiction books , including the Foundation series . Founding member of CSICOP ( now CSI ) . Robert A. Baker , psychologist , author . Wrote books on ghosts , alien abductions and false memory syndrome . Banachek , mentalist . participant in Project Alpha . Real name Steve Shaw Stephen Barrett , psychiatrist . Cofounder of the National Council Against Health Fraud , critic of alternative medicine . Founder of the Quackwatch website . Barry Beyerstein , psychologist . Founding member of CSICOP ( now CSI ) . Susan Blackmore , parapsychologist . Author , lecturer , and broadcaster . Maarten Boudry , philosopher and author . Derren Brown , mentalist , critic of alleged psychics and spiritual mediums . Robert Todd Carroll , philosopher . Author of The Skeptic 's Dictionary book and website . Milbourne Christopher , magician . Founding member of CSICOP ( now CSI ) . Derek Colanduno and Robynn McCarthy , co-hosts of the podcast Skepticality : The Official Podcast of Skeptic Magazine . David Colquhoun , pharmacologist and author of the website Improbable Science . Brian Cox , physicist Narendra Dabholkar , author and the founder-president of Maharashtra Andhashraddha Nirmoolan Samiti . Richard Dawkins , evolutionary biologist and author known for promoting the gene-centric view of evolution ( in his book The Selfish Gene ) , coining of the term meme , and atheist activism . Daniel Dennett , philosopher . Author of Darwin 's Dangerous Idea : Evolution and the Meanings of Life and Breaking the Spell : Religion as a Natural Phenomenon . Jared Diamond , scientist , author and member of the editorial board of Skeptic . Ann Druyan , popular science author and current head of the Planetary Society . Widow of the astronomer Carl Sagan . Brian Dunning , host of skeptical podcast Skeptoid . Mark Edward Skeptologist , column on Skepticblog , invented term Guerrilla Skepticism . Exposes psychics , steering member of IIG and author of tell-all psychic book . Richard Feynman , theoretical physicist known for his work in quantum mechanics . Kendrick Frazier , Editor of the Skeptical Inquirer . Martin Gardner , author , recreational mathematician . Writer of the long-running ` Mathematical Games ' column in Scientific American , and a longstanding columnist for the Skeptical Inquirer . Founding member of CSICOP ( now CSI ) . Pamela L. Gay , astronomer , co-host of Astronomy Cast , assistant research professor in the STEM center at SIUE and project director for CosmoQuest . Susan Gerbic , the founder of Guerrilla Skepticism on Wikipedia which has the mission of improving the skeptical content of Wikipedia . Ben Goldacre , physician , journalist . Author of the `` Bad Science '' column in The Guardian ( UK newspaper ) . David Gorski , surgical oncologist . A.k.a. Orac of Respectful Insolence . Critic of complimentary and alternative medicine . Stephen Jay Gould , paleontologist , evolutionary biologist , historian of science , Harvard University . Sven Ove Hansson , philosopher . Founding Chairperson of the Swedish Skeptics ( Vetenskap och Folkbildning ) and Editor of the organisation 's journal Folkvett . Sam Harris ( author ) , neuroscientist and author . Christopher Hitchens , journalist and author . Douglas Hofstadter , physicist , artificial intelligence researcher . Author of Pulitzer Prize-winning book Gödel , Escher , Bach : The Eternal Golden Braid and Scientific American column `` Metamagical Themas '' . Harry Houdini , magician . Critic of Modern Spiritualism who exposed fraudulent psychics and mediums and publicized their methods . George Hrab American skeptical musician , podcaster , speaker and emcee at The Amaz!ng Meeting Ray Hyman , psychologist , critic of parapsychology . Longstanding contributor to the Skeptical Inquirer . Founding member of CSICOP ( now CSI ) . Jamie Hyneman , co-creator of the TV show MythBusters . Leo Igwe , Nigerian human rights advocate . Edward Jenner , English physician and scientist who pioneered smallpox vaccine . Penn Jillette magician , half of Penn & Teller duo . Creator and host of the television series Bullshit ! Philip J. Klass , aerospace journalist . Known for his investigations of UFOs . Longstanding contributor to the Skeptical Inquirer . Founding member of CSICOP ( now CSI ) . Paul Kurtz , philosopher , author . Founder of CSICOP ( now CSI ) , Publisher of the Skeptical Inquirer . Michael Leunig , cartoonist . Ash Lieb , artist , comedian and writer . Scott Lilienfeld , professor of psychology , author , Consulting Editor for Skeptical Inquirer and Committee for Skeptical Inquiry Fellow Pat Linse , illustrator . Cofounder of the Skeptics Society , Copublisher and Art Director of Skeptic magazine . Creator of Junior Skeptic magazine . Daniel Loxton , illustrator , writer . Editor of Junior Skeptic magazine ( bound into Skeptic magazine ) . Tim Minchin , comedian , musician , actor . Has many songs illustrating his skepticism , most notably , Storm . Rob Nanninga , writer and editor of Skepter . Joe Nickell , investigator of the paranormal , author . Columnist for the Skeptical Inquirer . Steven Novella , neurologist . Founder of the New England Skeptical Society and host of The Skeptics ' Guide to the Universe podcast . James Oberg , aerospace journalist . Critic of UFOs and claims of a moon landing hoax . Robert L. Park , physicist , and author of Voodoo Science . Massimo Pigliucci , professor of philosophy at City University of New York and co-host of the skeptical podcast , Rationally Speaking . Steven Pinker , Canadian experimental psychologist , cognitive scientist , linguist , popular science author , Harvard College Professor and advocate of evolutionary psychology and the computational theory of mind . Philip Plait , astronomer , author . Founder of the Bad Astronomy website . Massimo Polidoro , writer , journalist . Student of James Randi , Co-Founder and Executive Director of CICAP , Research Fellow of CSICOP ( now CSI ) . Basava Premanand publisher of the Indian Skeptic magazine and chairman of the Indian CSICOP . Benjamin Radford , Managing Editor of the Skeptical Inquirer . James Randi , magician . Founder of the James Randi Educational Foundation . Notable for offering a million dollar cash reward for verifiable demonstration under laboratory conditions of any paranormal ability or event . Conceived and directed Project Alpha . Founding member of CSICOP ( now CSI ) . Emily Rosa , Guinness World Record youngest medical researcher ; at age 11 , published her study in the Journal of the American Medical Association on therapeutic touch , showing practitioners could n't feel the `` human energy field '' when not looking . Carl Sagan , astronomer , popular science author , and media personality . Advocate for SETI , founder of the Planetary Society , host of the TV series Cosmos and author of The Demon Haunted World : Science as a Candle in the Dark . Founding member of CSICOP ( now CSI ) . Adam Savage , co-creator of the TV series MythBusters . Eugenie Scott , anthropologist . Executive Director of the National Center for Science Education ( NCSE ) , critic of creationism and intelligent design . Robert Sheaffer , author . UFO investigator , columnist for the Skeptical Inquirer . Michael Shermer , historian , popular science author , founder of the Skeptics Society . Copublisher and Editor of Skeptic magazine . Also current writer for the Scientific American column `` Skeptic '' . Simon Singh , popular British science author . Julia Sweeney , actress , comedian , author and performer of Letting Go of God . Teller , magician , half of Penn & Teller duo . Creator and host of the television series Bullshit ! Marcello Truzzi , sociologist . First editor of the Skeptical Inquirer . Critic of organized skepticism . Founding member of CSICOP ( now CSI ) . Rebecca Watson , founder of Skepchick blog . Richard Wiseman , psychologist . Paul Zenon , magician and comedian .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "List_of_scientific_skeptics", "rank": 9, "score": 106783 }, { "content": "Title: Journal for Geoclimatic Studies Content: The Journal for Geoclimatic Studies is the name given to a nonexistent journal which published a fabricated global warming study in November 2007 entitled , `` Carbon dioxide production by benthic bacteria : the death of manmade global warming theory ? '' The published study identified the Journal for Geoclimatic Studies as an official publication of Okinawa University 's Institute for Geoclimatic Studies ( The Institute for Geoclimatic Studies is also fraudulent and does not exist ) . The spurious study , ostensibly authored by Daniel Klein and Mandeep J. Gupta of the University of Arizona 's Department of Climatology , and Philip Cooper and Arne FR Jansson at the University of Gothenburg 's Department of Atmospheric Physics , claimed that global warming was not human caused , but the work of carbon-dioxide emitting bacteria based on the ocean floor . The report was circulated by a number of global warming skeptics before discovery that the study authors and university departments identified in the publication did not exist . The website where the study was published was taken down once the deception was revealed , and its ownership was traced to David Thorpe , a science journalist and web designer based in the United Kingdom . The true author of the article is purportedly a man identifying himself as Mark Cox , who has claimed the hoax was designed to expose the gullibility and scientific illiteracy of global warming skeptics .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Journal_for_Geoclimatic_Studies", "rank": 10, "score": 103597 }, { "content": "Title: Femap Content: Femap ( Finite Element Modeling And Postprocessing ) is an engineering analysis program sold by Siemens PLM Software that is used to build finite element models of complex engineering problems ( `` pre-processing '' ) and view solution results ( `` post-processing '' ) . It runs on Microsoft Windows and provides CAD import , modeling and meshing tools to create a finite element model , as well as postprocessing functionality that allows mechanical engineers to interpret analysis results . The finite element method allows engineers to virtually model components , assemblies , or systems to determine behavior under a given set of boundary conditions , and is typically used in the design process to reduce costly prototyping and testing , evaluate differing designs and materials , and for structural optimization to reduce weight . Product simulation applications include basic strength analysis , frequency and transient dynamic simulation , system-level performance evaluation and advanced response , fluid flow and multi-physics engineering analysis for simulation of functional performance . Femap is used by engineering organizations and consultants to model complex products , systems and processes including satellites , aircraft , defense electronics , heavy construction equipment , lift cranes , marine vessels and process equipment .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Femap", "rank": 11, "score": 103159 }, { "content": "Title: Patrick Michaels Content: Patrick J. ( `` Pat '' ) Michaels ( born February 15 , 1950 ) is an American climatologist . Michaels is a senior fellow in environmental studies at the Cato Institute . Until 2007 he was research professor of environmental sciences at the University of Virginia , where he had worked from 1980 . A self-described skeptic on the issue of global warming , he is a past president of the American Association of State Climatologists . He has written a number of books and papers on climate change , including Sound and Fury : The Science and Politics of Global Warming ( 1992 ) , The Satanic Gases ( 2000 ) , and Meltdown : The Predictable Distortion of Global Warming by Scientists , Politicians , and the Media ( 2004 ) . He 's also the co-author of Climate of Extremes : Global Warming Science They Do n't Want You to Know ( 2009 ) . Michaels ' viewpoint , as argued in a 2002 article in the journal Climate Research , is that the planet will see `` a warming range of 1.3 -- 3.0 ° C , with a central value of 1.9 ° C '' for the 1990 to 2100 period ( an analysis far smaller than the IPCC 's average predictions ) .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Patrick_Michaels", "rank": 12, "score": 100541 }, { "content": "Title: Theodor Landscheidt Content: Theodor Landscheidt ( Bremen , 1927 -- May 20 , 2004 ) was a German author , astrologer and amateur climatologist . In 1989 , Landscheidt forecast a period of sunspot minima after 1990 , accompanied by increased cold , with a stronger minimum and more intense cold which should peak in 2030 His work on solar cycles has been cited by global warming skeptics to argue that observed warming is not anthropogenic and will soon be reversed , based on an assumption that fluctuations in climate are controlled by solar activity . In 1983 he founded and financed the `` Schroeter Institute for Research in Cycles of Solar Activity '' in Lilienthal , near Bremen . The Institute later moved with him to Nova Scotia , Canada .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Theodor_Landscheidt", "rank": 13, "score": 100019 }, { "content": "Title: Gillian Foulger Content: Gillian Rose Foulger ( born 1952 ) is a British geologist and academic . She is Professor of Geophysics at Durham University . She is one of the leading proponents of alternative models to the established deep mantle thermal plume hypothesis . This work makes an important contribution to the understanding of volcanic and earthquake areas such as the Hawaii , Iceland and Yellowstone hotspots . For her work she was awarded the 2005 Price Medal `` for investigations of outstanding merit in solid-earth geophysics , oceanography , or planetary sciences '' of the Royal Astronomical Society . That same year she was also made a Fellow of the Icelandic National Academy of Sciences .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Gillian_Foulger", "rank": 14, "score": 99634 }, { "content": "Title: Wim Betz Content: Willem ( Wim ) Betz ( born February 22 , 1943 ) is a Flemish physician and professor emeritus at the Belgian university Vrije Universiteit Brussel ( VUB ) , where he was head of the center for training in general medical practice until November 2007 . Betz is a leading skeptic in Flanders and participant in the EU COST B4 Project ( a European initiative for comprehensive research on complementary and alternative medicine ) . He is a founding member and current vice-president of the Belgian skeptic organization SKEPP . After twenty years as a general practitioner , he turned full-time to the teaching of general medical practice as well as conducting scientific research . He took courses in several types of alternative medicine ( homeopathy , neural therapy , manual therapy ) and practiced them successfully . However , he started to question the explanations given for the successes that were being claimed by alternative treatments and began to investigate the existing evidence for these methods . According to Betz , the explanations can be found in the field of psychosomatics ( which studies how the mind can affect the body ) , in the placebo effect , in the fact that many illnesses disappear spontaneously ( e.g. , common colds ) or fluctuate ( e.g. , allergies ) , as well as in the deceptive methods of quackery .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Wim_Betz", "rank": 15, "score": 99234 }, { "content": "Title: Skepter Content: Skepter is a popular science magazine of the Dutch skeptical foundation Stichting Skepsis . It describes paranormal or controversial theories and methods from a skeptical perspective .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Skepter", "rank": 16, "score": 98928 }, { "content": "Title: Irish Skeptics Society Content: The Irish Skeptics Society ( ISS ) is a scientific skeptical organisation based in Ireland . It was launched in December 2002 and publishes a newsletter called Skeptical Times . The ISS is a member of the European Council of Skeptical Organisations ( ECSO ) . The organisation regularly sponsors lectures on a variety of topics including self-awareness , tolerance , evolution and popularisation of science . In 2004 they sponsored a lecture by James Randi . They are a signatory to Sense About Science 's Keep Libel Laws out of Science campaign . Spokespersons from the organisation such as founding member Paul O'Donoghue ( a clinical psychologist ) are often quoted on paranormal and pseudoscience topics such as homeopathy , magnet therapy , Spiral Dynamics and UFOs in the Irish press . Paul O'Donoghue has commented on the amount of coverage alternative medicine gets in the media . The Irish Skeptics Society hosted the 13th European Skeptics Congress from 7 to 9 September 2007 at the Davenport Hotel in Dublin .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Irish_Skeptics_Society", "rank": 17, "score": 98828 }, { "content": "Title: Skeptic (U.S. magazine) Content: Skeptic , colloquially known as Skeptic magazine , is a quarterly science education and science advocacy magazine published internationally by The Skeptics Society , a nonprofit organization devoted to promoting scientific skepticism and resisting the spread of pseudoscience , superstition , and irrational beliefs . Founded by Michael Shermer , founder of the Skeptics Society , the magazine was first published in the spring of 1992 and is published through Millennium Press . Shermer remains the Publisher and Editor-in-Chief of the magazine and the magazine 's Co-publisher and Art Director is Pat Linse . Other noteworthy members of its editorial board include Oxford University evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins , Pulitzer Prize-winning scientist Jared Diamond , magician and escape artist turned educator James `` The Amazing '' Randi , actor , comedian , and Saturday Night Live alumna Julia Sweeney , professional mentalist Mark Edward , Science writer Daniel Loxton , Lawrence M. Krauss and Christof Koch Skeptic has an international circulation with over 50,000 subscriptions and is on newsstands in the U.S. and Canada as well as Europe , Australia , and other countries .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Skeptic_(U.S._magazine)", "rank": 18, "score": 98658 }, { "content": "Title: Debye model Content: In thermodynamics and solid state physics , the Debye model is a method developed by Peter Debye in 1912 for estimating the phonon contribution to the specific heat ( heat capacity ) in a solid . It treats the vibrations of the atomic lattice ( heat ) as phonons in a box , in contrast to the Einstein model , which treats the solid as many individual , non-interacting quantum harmonic oscillators . The Debye model correctly predicts the low temperature dependence of the heat capacity , which is proportional to -- the Debye T3 law . Just like the Einstein model , it also recovers the Dulong -- Petit law at high temperatures . But due to simplifying assumptions , its accuracy suffers at intermediate temperatures . See M. Shubin and T. Sunada for a rigorous treatment of the Debye model .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Debye_model", "rank": 19, "score": 98613 }, { "content": "Title: William D. Sellers Content: William D. Sellers ( 18 August 1928 -- 27 August 2014 ) was an American meteorologist , climate scientist , and pioneer of climate modelling . He created one the earliest climate models and was one of the first scientists to recognize the effects of CO2 in the atmosphere on the earth 's climate . He published the textbook `` Physical Climatology '' .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "William_D._Sellers", "rank": 20, "score": 97510 }, { "content": "Title: Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology Content: The Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology ( formerly Journal of Applied Meteorology ) is a scientific journal published by the American Meteorological Society . Applied research related to the physical meteorology , cloud physics , hydrology , weather modification , satellite meteorology , boundary layer processes , air pollution meteorology ( including dispersion and chemical processes ) , agricultural and forest meteorology , and applied meteorological numerical models of all types .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Journal_of_Applied_Meteorology_and_Climatology", "rank": 21, "score": 97171 }, { "content": "Title: David Willey (physicist) Content: David G. Willey ( born November 4 , 1947 ) , known as the Mad Scientist , is a physics instructor at the University of Pittsburgh in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . Physics has been a major interest in his life since he attended The Coleshill School and the John Port School in Etwall , Derbyshire . He has been presenting physics shows since the early 1980s . Willey is a scientific consultant for the skeptics group , C.S.I. ( Committee for Skeptical Inquiry ) . He also designs physics apparatus/equipment for the Science Kit Boreal Labs . In his spare time he enjoys hunting , gardening , woodworking , working with stained glass , and playing golf .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "David_Willey_(physicist)", "rank": 22, "score": 96338 }, { "content": "Title: The Skeptics Society Content: The Skeptics Society is a nonprofit , member-supported organization devoted to promoting scientific skepticism and resisting the spread of pseudoscience , superstition , and irrational beliefs . The Skeptics Society was founded by Michael Shermer as a Los Angeles-area skeptical group to replace the defunct Southern California Skeptics . After the success of its magazine , Skeptic , introduced in early 1992 , it became a national and then international organization . The stated mission of Skeptics Society and Skeptic magazine `` is the investigation of science and pseudoscience controversies , and the promotion of critical thinking . ''", "qid": "3127", "docid": "The_Skeptics_Society", "rank": 23, "score": 96130 }, { "content": "Title: The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe Content: The Skeptics ' Guide to the Universe is a weekly , 80-minute podcast hosted by Steven Novella , MD , and a panel of `` skeptical rogues '' . It is the official podcast of the New England Skeptical Society . The show features discussions of recent scientific developments in layman 's terms , and interviews authors , people in the area of science and other famous skeptics . The show also includes discussions of myths , conspiracy theories , pseudoscience , the paranormal , and many general forms of superstition , from the point of view of scientific skepticism . Steven Novella , the host of the show , has been particularly active in debunking pseudoscience in medicine . His activities include opposing the claims of anti-vaccine activists , homeopathy practitioners and individuals denying the link between HIV and AIDS .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "The_Skeptics'_Guide_to_the_Universe", "rank": 24, "score": 96030 }, { "content": "Title: Model, Colorado Content: Model is an unincorporated community and a U.S. Post Office in Las Animas County , Colorado , United States . The Model Post Office has the ZIP Code 81059 . A post office called Model has been in operation since 1912 . The community originally was a planned community or `` model community '' , hence the name .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Model,_Colorado", "rank": 25, "score": 95899 }, { "content": "Title: Barry Beyerstein Content: Barry L Beyerstein ( May 19 , 1947 -- June 25 , 2007 ) was a scientific skeptic and professor of psychology at Simon Fraser University in Burnaby , British Columbia . Beyerstein 's research explored brain mechanisms of perception and consciousness , the effects of drugs on the brain and mind , sense of smell and its lesser-known contributions to human cognition and emotion . He was founder and chair of the BC Skeptics Society . A Fellow and member of the Executive Council of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal ( CSICOP ) , now known as the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry . Associate editor of the Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine Journal as well as a contributor to Skeptical Inquirer Magazine . Beyerstein was one of the original faculty of CSICOP 's Skeptic 's Toolbox . Beyerstein was a co-founder of the Canadians for Rational Health Policy and a member of the Advisory Board of the Drug Policy Foundation of Washington D.C. . He was a founding board member of the Canadian Foundation for Drug Policy and contributed to the International Journal of Drug Policy . According to long-time friend James Alcock , Beyerstein once addressed the House of Commons Standing Committee on Health during discussions leading up to the passage of the Controlled Substances Act '' . Along with his brother Dale , Barry was active `` in the British Columbia Civil Liberties Association '' .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Barry_Beyerstein", "rank": 26, "score": 95755 }, { "content": "Title: Victor J. Stenger Content: Victor John Stenger ( January 29 , 1935 -- August 25 , 2014 ) was an American particle physicist , philosopher , author , and religious skeptic . Following a career as a research scientist in the field of particle physics , Stenger was associated with New Atheism and he also authored popular science books . He published twelve books for general audiences on physics , quantum mechanics , cosmology , philosophy , religion , atheism , and pseudoscience , including the 2007 best-seller God : The Failed Hypothesis : How Science Shows That God Does Not Exist . His final book was God and the Multiverse : Humanity 's Expanding View of the Cosmos ( September 9 , 2014 ) . He was also a regular featured science columnist for the Huffington Post . He was an advocate for removing the influence of religion from scientific research , commercial activity , and the political decision process , and he coined the phrase `` Science flies you to the moon . Religion flies you into buildings '' .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Victor_J._Stenger", "rank": 27, "score": 95710 }, { "content": "Title: Ocean heat content Content: Oceanic heat content ( OHC ) is the heat stored in the ocean . Oceanography and climatology are the science branches which study ocean heat content . Changes in the ocean heat content play an important role in the sea level rise , because of thermal expansion . It is with high confidence that ocean warming accounts for 90 % of the energy accumulation from global warming between 1971 and 2010 .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Ocean_heat_content", "rank": 28, "score": 95621 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal time hypothesis Content: The thermal time hypothesis is a possible solution to the problem of time in classical and quantum theory as has been put forward by Carlo Rovelli and Alain Connes . Physical time flow is modeled as a fundamental property of the theory , a macroscopic feature of thermodynamical origin .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Thermal_time_hypothesis", "rank": 29, "score": 95286 }, { "content": "Title: Miedema's Model Content: Miedema 's model is a semi-empirical approach developed by the Dutch scientist Andries Rinse Miedema ( 15 November 1933 - 28 May 1992 ) while working at Philips Research Laboratories Philips_Natuurkundig_Laboratorium for estimating the heat of formation of solid or liquid metal alloys and / or compounds in the framework of thermodynamic calculations for metals and minerals . It may provide or confirm basic enthalpy data that have always been needed for the calculation of phase diagrams of metals , and that are now currently approached by CALPHAD . The method has been introduced by Miedema in a couple of papers appeared in 1973 in Philips Technical Review Magazine entitled `` A simple model for alloys '' . While Miedema himself or with collaborators produced many scientific papers we report here in his own words the genuine motivation of his approach `` Reliable rules for the alloying behaviour of metals have long been sought . There is the qualitative rule that states that the greater the difference in the electronegativity of two metals , the greater the heat of formation - and hence the stability . Then there is the Hume-Rothery rule , which states that two metals that differ by more than 15 % in their atomic radius will not form substitutional solid solutions . This rule can only be used reliably ( 90 % success ) to predict poor solubility ; it can not predict good solubility . The author has proposed a simple atomic model , which is empirical like the other two rules , but nevertheless has a clear physical basis and predicts the alloying behaviour of transition metals accurately in 98 % of cases . The model is very suitable for graphical presentation of the data and is therefore easy to use in practice . '' There are several free web bases applications like Entall or Miedema Calculator . The latter has been recently reviewed and improved , with an extension of the method in a scientific publication . A simple presentation of the method is in the appendix B of the book , while the original Algol program has been ported in a fortran code", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Miedema's_Model", "rank": 30, "score": 94833 }, { "content": "Title: Thermomechanical analysis Content: Thermomechanical analysis ( TMA ) is a technique used in thermal analysis , a branch of materials science which studies the properties of materials as they change with temperature . Thermomechanical analysis is a subdiscipline of the thermomechanometry ( TM ) technique .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Thermomechanical_analysis", "rank": 31, "score": 94422 }, { "content": "Title: The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience Content: The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience is a collection of articles that discuss the Skeptics Society 's scientific findings of investigations into popular pseudoscientific and supernatural claims . It has been called `` a 2-volume set with an attitude . '' The editor , Michael Shermer , director of the Skeptics Society , pulled together articles originally published in Skeptic magazine with some conceptual overviews and historical documents to create this two-volume encyclopedia . Pat Linse is listed as a contributing editor . It was published by ABC-CLIO in 2002 . The encyclopedia has five sections . The first volume is composed of alphabetical write-ups on the scientific view of pseudoscientific concepts such as the `` Bermuda Triangle and dowsing , Shroud of Turin and Feng Shui , spiritualism and biorhythms , placebo effect and graphology , Alien abductions and UFOs , crop circles and astrology '' , followed by a section of investigations and discussions . The second volume explores such subjects in more depth with sections containing case studies , `` for and against '' essays , and historical documents . This final section has been criticized for containing only five documents .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "The_Skeptic_Encyclopedia_of_Pseudoscience", "rank": 32, "score": 94119 }, { "content": "Title: Relativistic heat conduction Content: Relativistic heat conduction refers to the modelling of heat conduction ( and similar diffusion processes ) in a way compatible with special relativity . This article discusses models using a wave equation with a dissipative term . Ali and Zhang claim their model of relativistic heat conduction is the only one compatible with the theory of special relativity , the second law of thermodynamics , electrodynamics , and quantum mechanics , simultaneously . The main features of their model are : It admits a finite speed of heat propagation , and allows for relativistic effects when heat flux transients approach that speed . It removes the possibility of paradoxical situations that may violate the second law of thermodynamics . It , implicitly , admits the wave -- particle duality of the heat-carrying `` phonon '' . These outcomes are achieved by ( 1 ) upgrading the Fourier equation of heat conduction to the form of a Telegraph equation of electrodynamics , and ( 2 ) introducing a new definition of the heat flux vector . Consequently , their model gives rise to a number of phenomena , such as thermal resonance and thermal shock waves , which are possible during high-frequency pulsed laser heating of thermal insulators .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Relativistic_heat_conduction", "rank": 33, "score": 94098 }, { "content": "Title: Coupled model intercomparison project Content: In climatology , the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project ( CMIP ) is a framework and the analog of the Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project ( AMIP ) for global coupled ocean-atmosphere general circulation models ( GCMs ) . CMIP began in 1995 under the auspices of the Working Group on Coupled Modeling ( WGCM ) , which is in turn under auspices of CLIVAR and the Joint Scientific Committee for the World Climate Research Program . The Program for Climate Model Diagnosis and Intercomparison at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory supports CMIP by helping WGCM to determine the scope of the project , by maintaining the project 's data base and by participating in data analysis . CMIP has received model output from the pre-industrial climate simulations ( `` control runs '' ) and 1 % per year increasing-CO2 simulations of about 30 coupled GCMs . More recent phases of the project ( 20C3M , ... ) include more realistic scenarios of climate forcing for both historical , paleoclimate and future scenarios .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Coupled_model_intercomparison_project", "rank": 34, "score": 93935 }, { "content": "Title: PP-format Content: The PP-format ( Post Processing Format ) is a proprietary file format for meteorological data developed by the Met Office , the United Kingdom 's national weather service . Simulations of the weather are performed by the Met Office 's Unified Model , which can be used for Numerical Weather Prediction or Climatology , and data is collected . This data is usually meteorological in nature and may include averaged data for parameters like global surface temperatures or accumulations of rainfall for locations inside the model , though the Unified Model is capable of outputting many sophisticated diagnostics to PP-format . These files are binary streams , structured in a proprietary file format which can then be processed and transformed into other , more portable , formats . The main reason for using such a format is to increase the rate at which data can be written from the moodel to disk , a major consideration when running a u simulation that must be timely and efficient .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "PP-format", "rank": 35, "score": 93526 }, { "content": "Title: Rob Nanninga Content: Roelof Hendrik `` Rob '' Nanninga ( 6 August 1955 -- 30 May 2014 ) was a Dutch skeptic , writer , board member of Stichting Skepsis and editor of its magazine Skepter . He became known for his critical writings about sects , alternative healers and therapists , paranormal claims and pseudoscientific trainings and courses .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Rob_Nanninga", "rank": 36, "score": 92918 }, { "content": "Title: EdGCM Content: The Educational Global Climate Model or EdGCM is a fully functional global climate model ( GCM ) that has been ported for use on desktop computers ( Windows PCs and Macs ) . It operates through a graphical user interface and is integrated with a relational database and scientific visualization utllities , all of which aim at helping improve the quality of teaching and understanding of climatology by making real-world research experiences more accessible . EdGCM is designed to permit teachers and students to conduct in-depth investigations of past , present and future climate scenarios in a manner that is essentially identical to the techniques used by national and international climate research organizations . EdGCM was developed at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies as a joint project of Columbia University and NASA scientists and programmers . The Global Climate Model at the core of EdGCM is GISS Model II . During the 1980s and early 1990s this GCM was one of NASA 's primary climate research tools . Results from the model have appeared in hundreds of scientific publications . The coarser resolution of the climate model in EdGCM ( 8 ° x 10 ° , latitude x longitude ) makes it inexpensive to run . But , because it contains most of the key atmospheric physics of modern GCMs , EdGCM is also used by climate researchers who do not have access to the most recent GCM versions .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "EdGCM", "rank": 37, "score": 92723 }, { "content": "Title: Glasgow Skeptics Content: Glasgow Skeptics is a skeptical organisation based in Glasgow , Scotland . It aims to promote public understanding of science , critical thinking , and freedom of expression .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Glasgow_Skeptics", "rank": 38, "score": 92654 }, { "content": "Title: The Skeptic Content: The Skeptic or The Skeptics may refer to : The Skeptic ( film ) , a 2009 film The Skeptic ( UK magazine ) , founded in 1987 The Skeptic , journal of Australian Skeptics The Skeptics , a New Zealand post-punk band from 1979 to 1990", "qid": "3127", "docid": "The_Skeptic", "rank": 39, "score": 92590 }, { "content": "Title: Skeptic Society Content: The Skeptic Society ( Russian : Общество скептиков , Óbščestvo skeptikov ) is a Russian-speaking skeptical society . Its aim is to spread critical thinking , popularise science , educate the general public , promote and teach critical and skeptical thinking skills and create a platform for science and skepticism communication .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Skeptic_Society", "rank": 40, "score": 91958 }, { "content": "Title: The Skeptic (UK magazine) Content: The Skeptic is a British magazine and is billed as `` the UK 's longest running and foremost sceptical magazine , which examines science , skepticism , secularism , critical thinking and claims of the paranormal . ''", "qid": "3127", "docid": "The_Skeptic_(UK_magazine)", "rank": 41, "score": 91898 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal history modelling Content: Thermal history modelling is an exercise undertaken during basin modelling to evaluate the temperature history of stratigraphic layers in a sedimentary basin . The thermal history of a basin is usually calibrated using thermal indicator data , including vitrinite reflectance and fission tracks in the minerals apatite and zircon . The temperatures undergone by rocks in a sedimentary basin are crucial when attempting to evaluate the quantity , nature and volume of hydrocarbons ( fossil fuels ) produced by diagenesis of kerogens ( a group of chemicals formed from the decay of organic matter ) . Fourier 's Law provides a simplified one-dimensional description of the variation in heat flow Q as a function of thermal conductivity k and thermal gradient dT/dz : ( The minus sign indicates that heat flows in the opposite direction to increasing depth , that is , towards the Earth 's surface . ) If the assumptions used to justify this simplified approximation ( i.e. steady-state heat conduction , no convection or advection ) are accepted , we define the simple 1-dimensional heat diffusion equation where temperature T at a depth z and time t is given by the equation : where Tt0 is the surface temperature history , Qt is the heat flow history and k is thermal conductivity . The integral thus represents the integrated thermal conductivity history of a 1-dimensional column of rock . Thermal history modelling attempts to describe the temperature history Tz , t and therefore requires a knowledge of the burial history of the stratigraphic layers which is obtained through the process of back-stripping .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Thermal_history_modelling", "rank": 42, "score": 91853 }, { "content": "Title: Michael W. Friedlander Content: Michael W. Friedlander ( born 1928 ) is an American physicist and skeptic . Friedlander is Professor Emeritus of physics at Washington University in St. Louis . His research has involved the study of cosmic rays and gamma ray astronomy . He is the author of the book At The Fringes Of Science ( 1998 ) , a scholarly study of fringe science . The book is notable for its criticism of the ideas of Immanuel Velikovsky .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Michael_W._Friedlander", "rank": 43, "score": 91644 }, { "content": "Title: Skeptic's Toolbox Content: The Skeptic 's Toolbox is an annual four-day workshop devoted to scientific skepticism . It was formed by psychologist and now-retired University of Oregon professor Ray Hyman , has been held every August since 1992 , and is sponsored by the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry . The workshop focuses on educating people to be better critical thinkers , and involves a central theme . The attendees are broken up into groups and given tasks that they must work on together and whose results they must present in front of the entire group on the last day .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Skeptic's_Toolbox", "rank": 44, "score": 91382 }, { "content": "Title: Special relativity (alternative formulations) Content: As formulated by Albert Einstein in 1905 , the theory of special relativity was based on two main postulates : The principle of relativity -- The form of a physical law is the same in any inertial frame . The speed of light is constant -- In all inertial frames , the speed of light c is the same whether the light is emitted from a source at rest or in motion . ( Note this does not apply in non-inertial frames , indeed between accelerating frames the speed of light can not be constant . Although it can be applied in non-inertial frames if an observer is confined to making local measurements . ) There have been various alternative formulations of special relativity over the years . Some of these formulations are equivalent to the original formulation whereas others result in modifications .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Special_relativity_(alternative_formulations)", "rank": 45, "score": 91342 }, { "content": "Title: Taner Edis Content: Taner Edis ( born August 20 , 1967 ) is a Turkish American physicist and skeptic . He is a professor of physics at Truman State University . He received his B.S. from Bogaziçi University in Turkey and his M.A. and Ph.D. from Johns Hopkins University . Edis is the author of several books on creationism , religion and science . He is a Scientific and Technical Consultant for the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Taner_Edis", "rank": 46, "score": 91096 }, { "content": "Title: Model Engine Content: Model Engine was an alternative rock band based in Santa Barbara , California . Prior to 1997 the trio , consisting of Jeremy Post , Brad McCarter and Brent Nims were known as Black Eyed Sceva . Confusion over the meaning of the name and its constant mispronunciation led the band to change its moniker when drummer Erik Herzog replaced Nims prior to the release of the group 's third album . They disbanded in 2000 . Influenced by artists as diverse as The Police , Rush and Uncle Tupelo , Model Engine/Black Eyed Sceva 's music was a blend of alternative rock , grunge , and progressive rock . All of the group 's albums were recorded and released under the 5 Minute Walk label and produced by Bruce Winter , an associate of Toad the Wet Sprocket .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Model_Engine", "rank": 47, "score": 90876 }, { "content": "Title: Process study Content: Process study is the phenomenological approach used in climatology . Process studies are used `` to develop the parameterizations -LSB- e.g. of circulation models -RSB- , and observations -LSB- are -RSB- used to calibrate -LSB- the latter -RSB- '' . A parametrization is a set of fitted equations to represent physical phenomena instead of deducing them from first principals . An example for a parametrized phenomenon are thunderstorms which can not be simulated within a circulation model if the spatial resolution of several km is too coarse to resolve single storm cell .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Process_study", "rank": 48, "score": 90763 }, { "content": "Title: Föreningen Vetenskap och Folkbildning Content: Vetenskap och Folkbildning ( Swedish : Science and Popular Enlightenment ) or The Swedish Skeptics ' Association , abbreviated as VoF , is a Swedish skeptics ' association . It was founded in 1982 with the purpose to raise the general public 's awareness of scientific methods and results . The association publishes the quarterly journal Folkvett and organises lectures on themes related to science and pseudoscience . Since 1987 the association has annually awarded prizes for `` Enlightener of the Year '' and `` Misleader of the Year '' .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Föreningen_Vetenskap_och_Folkbildning", "rank": 49, "score": 90726 }, { "content": "Title: Historical climatology Content: Historical climatology is the study of historical changes in climate and their effect on human history and development . This differs from paleoclimatology which encompasses climate change over the entire history of Earth . The study seeks to define periods in human history where temperature or precipitation varied from what is observed in the present day . The primary sources include written records such as sagas , chronicles , maps and local history literature as well as pictorial representations such as paintings , drawings and even rock art . The archaeological record is equally important in establishing evidence of settlement , water and land usage .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Historical_climatology", "rank": 50, "score": 90381 }, { "content": "Title: Alternative model Content: Alternative modeling is a branch of the modeling industry that features models who do not conform to mainstream ideals of beauty . Alternative models are often niche-specific , with a personal style that represents subcultures like goth , steampunk , and fetishism . An alternative model may , for example , be tattooed , pierced , or have other body modifications , have distinctively subcultural hair such as being shaved , dyed a distinctively unnatural color , or styled into a mohawk or dreadlocks . Alternative modeling can be clothed or unclothed . Alternative modeling was given substantial mainstream media coverage in the last decade , partly through the creation and popularization of community-based alternative modeling paysites , like GodsGirls and SuicideGirls . Alternative modeling community sites usually promote their models for their personality as well as for their looks and portfolio .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Alternative_model", "rank": 51, "score": 90332 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Skeptics Content: Australian Skeptics is a loose confederation of like-minded organisations across Australia that began in 1980 . Australian Skeptics investigate paranormal and pseudoscientific claims using scientific methodologies . This page covers all Australian skeptical groups who are of this mindset . The title `` Australian Skeptics '' can be easily confused with one of the more prominent groups , `` Australian Skeptics Inc. '' which is based in Sydney and is one of the central organising groups within the Australian Skeptics .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Australian_Skeptics", "rank": 52, "score": 90102 }, { "content": "Title: The Skeptic's Dictionary Content: The Skeptic 's Dictionary is a collection of cross-referenced skeptical essays by Robert Todd Carroll , published on his website skepdic.com and in a printed book . The skepdic.com site was launched in 1994 and the book was published in 2003 with nearly 400 entries . As of January 2011 the website has over 700 entries . A comprehensive single-volume guides to skeptical information on pseudoscientific , paranormal , and occult topics , the bibliography contains some seven hundred references for more detailed information . According to the back cover of the book , the on-line version receives approximately 500,000 hits per month .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "The_Skeptic's_Dictionary", "rank": 53, "score": 90038 }, { "content": "Title: Richard F. Post Content: Richard Freeman Post ( 14 November 1918 -- 7 April 2015 ) was an American physicist notable for his work in nuclear fusion , plasma physics , magnetic mirrors , magnetic levitation , magnetic bearing design and direct energy conversion . Post was a winner of the James Clerk Maxwell Prize in Plasma Physics and led the controlled thermonuclear research group at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory for 23 years . He held a total of 34 patents in the fields of nuclear fusion , particle accelerators , and electronic and mechanical energy storage .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Richard_F._Post", "rank": 54, "score": 89919 }, { "content": "Title: Skeptik.ee Content: skeptik.ee is the website and primary communication outlet of MTÜ Eesti Skeptik , a non-profit organisation established in 2007 and dedicated to the study of paranormal phenomena and claims , and coordination of communication between skeptics . It aims to popularize science among students and promote skeptical thought in Estonia .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Skeptik.ee", "rank": 55, "score": 89811 }, { "content": "Title: Theoretical and Applied Climatology Content: Theoretical and Applied Climatology is a monthly journal published by Springer Science + Business Media which focuses on atmospheric sciences and climatology . It was established in 1949 as Archives for Meteorology , Geophysics and Bioclimatology , Series B and obtained its current name in 1986 . It is published by Springer Science + Business Media and the editor-in-chief is Hartmut Graßl . According to the Journal Citation Reports , the journal has a 2012 impact factor of 1.759 , ranking it 34th out of 74 journals in the category `` Meteorology and Atmospheric Sciences '' .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Theoretical_and_Applied_Climatology", "rank": 56, "score": 89776 }, { "content": "Title: Monod-Wyman-Changeux model Content: In biochemistry , the Monod-Wyman-Changeux model ( MWC model , also known as the symmetry model ) describes allosteric transitions of proteins made up of identical subunits . It was proposed by Jean-Pierre Changeux based on his PhD experiments , and described by Jacques Monod , Jeffries Wyman , and Jean-Pierre Changeux . It stands in opposition to the sequential model . The concept of two distinct symmetric states is the central postulate of the MWC model.The main idea of the model is that regulated proteins , such as many enzymes and receptors , exist in different interconvertible states in the absence of any regulator . The ratio of the different conformational states is determined by thermal equilibrium . This model , alternatively termed the MWC model , is defined by the following rules : An allosteric protein is an oligomer of protomers that are symmetrically related ( for hemoglobin , we shall assume , for the sake of algebraic simplicity , that all four subunits are functionally identical ) . Each protomer can exist in ( at least ) two conformational states , designated T and R ; these states are in equilibrium whether or not ligand is bound to the oligomer . The ligand can bind to a protomer in either conformation . Only the conformational change alters the affinity of a protomer for the ligand . The regulators merely shift the equilibrium toward one state or another . For instance , an agonist will stabilize the active form of a pharmacological receptor . Phenomenologically , it looks as if the agonist provokes the conformational transition . One crucial feature of the model is the dissociation between the binding function ( the fraction of protein bound to the regulator ) , and the state function ( the fraction of protein under the activated state ) , cf below . In the models said of `` induced-fit '' , those functions are identical . In the historical model , each allosteric unit , called a protomer ( generally assumed to be a subunit ) , can exist in two different conformational states - designated ` R ' ( for relaxed ) or ` T ' ( for tense ) states . In any one molecule , all protomers must be in the same state . That is to say , all subunits must be in either the R or the T state . Proteins with subunits in different states are not allowed by this model . The R state has a higher affinity for the ligand than the T state . Because of that , although the ligand may bind to the subunit when it is in either state , the binding of a ligand will increase the equilibrium in favor of the R state . Two equations can be derived , that express the fractional occupancy of the ligand binding site ( Y ) and the fraction of the proteins in the R state ( R ) : Where is the allosteric constant , that is the ratio of proteins in the T and R states in the absence of ligand , is the ratio of the affinities of R and T states for the ligand , and , the normalised concentration of ligand . This model explains sigmoidal binding properties as change in concentration of ligand over a small range will lead to a vast increase in the proportion of molecules in the R state , and thus will lead to a high association of the ligand to the protein . The MWC model proved very popular in enzymology , and pharmacology , although it has been shown inappropriate in a certain number of cases . The best example of a successful application of the model is the regulation of hemoglobin function . Extension of the model have been proposed for lattices of proteins , for instance by Changeux , Thiery , Tung and Kittel , by Wyman or by Duke , Le Novere and Bray .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Monod-Wyman-Changeux_model", "rank": 57, "score": 89521 }, { "content": "Title: Absolute hot Content: Absolute hot is a concept of temperature that postulates the existence of a highest attainable temperature of matter . The concept has been popularized by the television series Nova . In this presentation , absolute hot is assumed to be the high end of a temperature scale starting at absolute zero , which is the temperature at which entropy is minimal and classical thermal energy is zero . Contemporary models of physical cosmology postulate that the highest possible temperature is the Planck temperature , which has the value , or 142 quintillion kelvins ( 142 nonillion on the short scale ) . Above about , particle energies become so large that gravitational forces between them would become as strong as other fundamental forces according to current theories . There is no existing scientific theory for the behavior of matter at these energies . A quantum theory of gravity would be required . The models of the origin of the universe based on the Big Bang theory assume that the universe passed through this temperature about 10 − 42 seconds after the Big Bang as a result of enormous entropy expansion . Another theory of absolute hot is based on the Hagedorn temperature , where the thermal energies of the particles exceed the mass-energy of a hadron particle-antiparticle pair . Instead of temperature rising , at the Hagedorn temperature more and heavier particles are produced by pair production , thus preventing effective further heating , given that only hadrons are produced . However , further heating is possible ( with pressure ) if the matter undergoes a phase change into a quark -- gluon plasma . Therefore , this temperature is more akin to a boiling point rather than an insurmountable barrier . For hadrons , the Hagedorn temperature is 2 × 1012 K , which has been reached and exceeded in LHC and RHIC experiments . However , in string theory , a separate Hagedorn temperature can be defined , where strings similarly provide the extra degrees of freedom . However , it is so high ( 1030 K ) that no current or foreseeable experiment can reach it . Quantum physics formally assumes infinitely positive or negative temperatures in descriptions of spin system undergoing population inversion from the ground state to a higher energy state by excitation with electromagnetic radiation . The temperature function in these systems exhibits a singularity , meaning the temperature tends to positive infinity , before discontinuously switching to negative infinity . However , this applies only to specific degrees of freedom in the system , while others would have normal temperature dependency . If equipartitioning were possible , such formalisms ignore the fact that the spin system would be destroyed by the decomposition of ordinary matter before infinite temperature could be reached uniformly in the sample .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Absolute_hot", "rank": 58, "score": 89192 }, { "content": "Title: Alternatives to the Standard Model Higgs Content: Although the Higgs boson , as included in the Standard Model , is arguably the simplest method of achieving the Higgs mechanism , it is not without problems . Consequently , particle physicists have searched for alternative models which solve one or more of these problems , including the Higgs hierarchy problem and Quantum triviality .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Alternatives_to_the_Standard_Model_Higgs", "rank": 59, "score": 89173 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal quantum field theory Content: In theoretical physics , thermal quantum field theory ( thermal field theory for short ) or finite temperature field theory is a set of methods to calculate expectation values of physical observables of a quantum field theory at finite temperature . In the Matsubara formalism , the basic idea ( due to Felix Bloch ) is that the expectation values of operators in a canonical ensemble may be written as expectation values in ordinary quantum field theory where the configuration is evolved by an imaginary time . One can therefore switch to a spacetime with Euclidean signature , where the above trace ( Tr ) leads to the requirement that all bosonic and fermionic fields be periodic and antiperiodic , respectively , with respect to the Euclidean time direction with periodicity ( we are assuming natural units ) . This allows one to perform calculations with the same tools as in ordinary quantum field theory , such as functional integrals and Feynman diagrams , but with compact Euclidean time . Note that the definition of normal ordering has to be altered . In momentum space , this leads to the replacement of continuous frequencies by discrete imaginary ( Matsubara ) frequencies and , through the de Broglie relation , to a discretized thermal energy spectrum . This has been shown to be a useful tool in studying the behavior of quantum field theories at finite temperature . It has been generalized to theories with gauge invariance and was a central tool in the study of a conjectured deconfining phase transition of Yang-Mills theory . In this Euclidean field theory , real-time observables can be retrieved by analytic continuation . The alternative to the use of fictitious imaginary times is to use a real-time formalism which come in two forms . A path-ordered approach to real-time formalisms includes the Schwinger-Keldysh formalism and more modern variants . The latter involves replacing a straight time contour from ( large negative ) real initial time to by one that first runs to ( large positive ) real time and then suitably back to . In fact all that is needed is one section running along the real time axis as the route to the end point , , is less important . The piecewise composition of the resulting complex time contour leads to a doubling of fields and more complicated Feynman rules , but obviates the need of analytic continuations of the imaginary-time formalism . The alternative approach to real-time formalisms is an operator based approach using Bogoliubov transformations , known as thermo field dynamics . As well as Feynman diagrams and perturbation theory , other techniques such as dispersion relations and the finite temperature analog of Cutkosky rules can also be used in the real time formulation . An alternative approach which is of interest to mathematical physics is to work with KMS states .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Thermal_quantum_field_theory", "rank": 60, "score": 89130 }, { "content": "Title: Kari Enqvist Content: Kari-Pekka Enqvist ( born February 16 , 1954 in Lahti , Finland ) is a professor of cosmology in the Department of Physical Sciences at the University of Helsinki . Enqvist was awarded his PhD in theoretical physics in 1983 . Enqvist is the chairman of the scientific advisory board of Skepsis ry ( a Finnish sceptics ' society ) and has written many books that popularize physics . In 1997 Enqvist was granted the Magnus Ehrnrooth Foundation Physics Award for his efforts in particle physics and cosmology . In 1999 , he was awarded the Tieto-Finlandia award , Finland 's most significant award for non-fiction , for his book Olemisen porteilla .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Kari_Enqvist", "rank": 61, "score": 89076 }, { "content": "Title: Launceston Skeptics Content: The Launceston Skeptics is a nonprofit organisation that promotes scientific skepticism in Launceston , Tasmania . Founded in 2010 by Jin-oh Choi through a meetup group , the organisation has participated in community events , challenged the claims of ghosts , and hosts regular meetups in Launceston . Their mission is to encourage the media to adopt a more critical outlook , encourage scientific knowledge and address questions about human rights and social issues .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Launceston_Skeptics", "rank": 62, "score": 89048 }, { "content": "Title: Pseudophysics Content: Pseudophysics is a pseudoscientific practice using the language of physics or discussing issues related to or pertinent to physics to promote ideas which are either incoherent or contradictory to known physics ( experimental phenomenology ) . According to physicists , skeptics , and science writers , pseudophysics tends to be promoted by so-called `` cranks '' , whose ideas lack peer review , lack falsifiable predictions , and/or blatantly contradict scientific facts and experimental results . Mathematical physicist John C. Baez famously invented a crackpot index to give an idea of what sort of claims and rhetoric were commonplace among pseudophysics proposals he had come across .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Pseudophysics", "rank": 63, "score": 88226 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal physics Content: Thermal physics is the combined study of thermodynamics , statistical mechanics , and kinetic theory . This umbrella-subject is typically designed for physics students and functions to provide a general introduction to each of three core heat-related subjects . Other authors , however , define thermal physics loosely as a summation of only thermodynamics and statistical mechanics .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Thermal_physics", "rank": 64, "score": 88080 }, { "content": "Title: Australian Vaccination-Skeptics Network Content: The Australian Vaccination-Skeptics Network , formerly known as the Australian Vaccination Network ( AVN ) , is an Australian anti-vaccination pressure group registered in New South Wales . As Australia 's most controversial anti-vaccination organisation , it has lobbied against a variety of vaccination-related programs , downplayed the danger of childhood diseases such as measles and pertussis , championed the cause of alleged vaccination victims , and promoted the use of ineffective alternatives such as homeopathy and chiropractic . The vast majority of doctors agree that opposition to vaccination applies to a fringe medical science viewpoint . The group has been described as a provider of `` misleading , inaccurate , and deceptive '' vaccination information by the New South Wales Health Care Complaints Commission ( HCCC ) , and has been heavily criticised by doctors and other experts on immunisation . The group has been called the `` stronghold of the anti-vaccination movement '' in Australia and is subject to widespread criticism from medical professionals , scientists and other proponents of vaccination . It has also been criticised for harassing the parents of a victim of vaccine-preventable disease , and for promoting the false idea that shaken baby syndrome is actually vaccine injury . On 14 October 2010 , the organisation 's right to fund-raise was stripped from it by the New South Wales Office of Liquor , Gaming and Racing , stating that its appeals had `` not been conducted in good faith for charitable purposes '' . In December 2012 , the New South Wales Office of Fair Trading issued an order for the group to change its name within two months or be de-registered . The department described the group 's name as being `` misleading and a detriment to the community '' . The group changed its name in February 2014 .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Australian_Vaccination-Skeptics_Network", "rank": 65, "score": 88071 }, { "content": "Title: Bjørn Lomborg Content: Bjørn Lomborg ( -LSB- bjɶɐ̯n ˈlʌmbɒˀw -RSB- ; born 6 January 1965 ) is a Danish author and adjunct professor at the Copenhagen Business School as well as President of the Copenhagen Consensus Center . He is former director of the Danish government 's Environmental Assessment Institute ( EAI ) in Copenhagen . He became internationally known for his best-selling and controversial book , The Skeptical Environmentalist ( 2001 ) , in which he argues that many of the costly measures and actions adopted by scientists and policy makers to meet the challenges of global warming will ultimately have minimal impact on the world 's rising temperature . In 2002 , Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus , a project-based conference where prominent economists sought to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methods based on the theory of welfare economics . In 2009 , Business Insider cited Lomborg as one of `` The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics '' . While Lomborg campaigned against the Kyoto Protocol and other measures to cut carbon emissions in the short-term , he argued for adaptation to short-term temperature rises , and for spending money on research and development for longer-term environmental solutions . His issue is not with the reality of climate change , but rather with the economic and political approaches being taken ( or not taken ) to meet the challenges of that climate change . He is a strong advocate for focusing attention and resources on what he perceives as far more pressing world problems , such as AIDS , malaria and malnutrition . In his critique of the 2012 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development , Lomborg stated : `` Global warming is by no means our main environmental threat . '' In 2011 and 2012 , Lomborg was named a Top 100 Global Thinker by Foreign Policy `` for looking more right than ever on the politics of climate change '' .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Bjørn_Lomborg", "rank": 66, "score": 88044 }, { "content": "Title: Young Australian Skeptics Content: The Young Australian Skeptics ( YAS ) is an Australian skeptical organisation whose primary focus is its collaborative blog , which attempts to address topics central to science , critical thinking and scientific skepticism . The group has published a Skeptical Blog Anthology Book reviewed in Scientific American , and has been represented in national broadcast media in Australia and North America , skeptically addressing conspiracy theories , as well as discussing topics specific to young members of the skeptical movement .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Young_Australian_Skeptics", "rank": 67, "score": 87838 }, { "content": "Title: Thomsen–Berthelot principle Content: In thermochemistry , the Thomsen -- Berthelot principle is a hypothesis in the history of chemistry which argued that all chemical changes are accompanied by the production of heat and that processes which occur will be ones in which the most heat is produced . This principle was formulated in slightly different versions by the Danish chemist Julius Thomsen in 1854 and by the French chemist Marcellin Berthelot in 1864 . This early postulate in classical thermochemistry became the controversial foundation of a research program that would last three decades . This principle came to be associated with what was called the thermal theory of affinity , which postulated that the heat evolved in a chemical reaction was the true measure of its affinity . This hypothesis was later disproved , however , when in 1882 the German scientist Hermann von Helmholtz proved that affinity was not given by the heat evolved in a chemical reaction but rather by the maximum work , or free energy , produced when the reaction was carried out reversibly .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Thomsen–Berthelot_principle", "rank": 68, "score": 87791 }, { "content": "Title: The International Network of Cholesterol Skeptics Content: The International Network of Cholesterol Skeptics ( or THINCS ) is a group of scientists , physicians , and other academicians from around the world who dispute the widely accepted lipid hypothesis of atherosclerosis . THINCS was founded in January 2003 , and its founder and current spokesman is Uffe Ravnskov .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "The_International_Network_of_Cholesterol_Skeptics", "rank": 69, "score": 87691 }, { "content": "Title: Merseyside Skeptics Society Content: The Merseyside Skeptics Society ( MSS ) is a nonprofit organisation that promotes scientific skepticism in Merseyside and the United Kingdom . Founded in 2009 , the society has campaigned against the use of homeopathy , challenged the claims of psychics , and hosts regular events in Liverpool , podcasts , and an annual conference in Manchester , QED : Question . Explore . Discover . As part of their Liverpool Skeptics in the Pub events the society hosts guest speakers , who have included Simon Singh , David Nutt , and Robert Llewellyn . It also organises the awareness and protest against homeopathy campaign , 10:23 .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Merseyside_Skeptics_Society", "rank": 70, "score": 87647 }, { "content": "Title: John F. B. Mitchell Content: John Francis Brake Mitchell OBE FRS ( born 7 October 1948 ) is a British climatologist and climate modeller . He studied Applied Mathematics at Queen 's University Belfast in 1970 , staying on to gain a PhD in Theoretical Physics in 1973 . In 1978 , he was appointed head of the Climate Change group in what is now the Met Office 's Hadley Centre for Climate Prediction and Research . He was Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2008 and Director of Climate Science from 2008 to 2010 . He is the most cited scientist regarding the topic of global warming . He was a convening lead author for the first and third IPCC Working Group I reports and lead author for the second . He was also chair of the World Meteorological Organization JSC/CLIVAR Working Group on Climate Modelling and a member of WMO Executive Council from 2005 to 2008 . He now ( 2014 ) works part-time as Principal Research Fellow , advising the Met Office Chief Scientist on climate change and is Visiting Professor at the University of Reading .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "John_F._B._Mitchell", "rank": 71, "score": 87615 }, { "content": "Title: Skeptics in the Pub Content: Skeptics in the Pub ( abbreviated SITP ) is an informal social event designed to promote fellowship and social networking among skeptics , critical-thinkers , freethinkers , rationalists and other like-minded individuals . It provides an opportunity for skeptics to talk , share ideas and have fun in a casual atmosphere , and discuss whatever topical issues come to mind , while promoting skepticism , science , and rationality .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Skeptics_in_the_Pub", "rank": 72, "score": 87532 }, { "content": "Title: Earth rainfall climatology Content: Earth rainfall climatology Is the study of rainfall , a sub-field of Meteorology . Formally , a wider study includes water falling as ice crystals , i.e. hail , sleet , snow ( parts of the hydrological cycle known as precipitation ) . The aim of rainfall climatology is to measure , understand and predict rain distribution across different regions of planet Earth , a factor of air pressure , humidity , topography , cloud type and raindrop size , via direct measurement and remote sensing data acquisition . Current technologies accurately predict rainfall 3 -- 4 days in advance using numerical weather prediction . Geostationary orbiting satellites gather IR and visual wavelength data to measure realtime localised rainfall by estimating cloud albedo , water content , and the corresponding probability of rain . Geographic distribution of rain is largely governed by climate type , topography and habitat humidity . In mountainous areas , heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation . On the leeward side of mountains , desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating . The movement of the monsoon trough , or intertropical convergence zone , brings rainy seasons to savannah climes . The urban heat island effect leads to increased rainfall , both in amounts and intensity , downwind of cities . Global warming may also cause changes in the precipitation pattern globally , including wetter conditions at high latitudes and in some wet tropical areas , and drier conditions in parts of the subtropics and middle latitudes . Precipitation is a major component of the water cycle , and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet . Approximately 505000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year ; 398000 km3 of it over the oceans . Given the Earth 's surface area , that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 mm . Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes . Most of Australia is semi-arid or desert , making it the world 's driest continent . Australia 's rainfall is mainly regulated by the movement of the monsoon trough during the summer rainy season , with lesser amounts falling during the winter and spring in its southernmost sections . Almost whole North Africa is semi-arid , arid or hyper-arid , containing the Sahara Desert which is the largest hot desert in the world , while central Africa ( known as Sub-Saharan Africa ) sees an annual rainy season regulated by the movement of the intertropical convergence zone or monsoon trough , though the Sahel Belt located at the south of the Sahara Desert knows an extremely intense and a nearly permanent dry season and only receives minimum summer rainfall . Across Asia , a large annual rainfall minimum , composed primarily of deserts , stretches from the Gobi Desert in Mongolia west-southwest through Pakistan and Iran into the Arabian Desert in Saudi Arabia . In Asia , rainfall is favored across its southern portion from India east and northeast across the Philippines and southern China into Japan due to the monsoon advecting moisture primarily from the Indian Ocean into the region . Similar , but weaker , monsoon circulations are present over North America and Australia . In Europe , the wettest regions are in the Alps and downwind of bodies of water , particularly the Atlantic west coasts . Within North America , the drier areas of the United States are the Desert Southwest , Great Basin , valleys of northeast Arizona , eastern Utah , central Wyoming , and the Columbia Basin . Other dry regions within the continent are far northern Canada and the Sonoran Desert of northwest Mexico . The Pacific Northwest United States , the Rockies of British Columbia , and the coastal ranges of Alaska are the wettest locations in North America . The equatorial region near the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) , or monsoon trough , is the wettest portion of the world 's continents . Annually , the rain belt within the tropics marches northward by August , then moves back southward into the Southern Hemisphere by February and March .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Earth_rainfall_climatology", "rank": 73, "score": 87520 }, { "content": "Title: Simulation modeling Content: Simulation modeling is the process of creating and analyzing a digital prototype of a physical model to predict its performance in the real world . Simulation modeling is used to help designers and engineers understand whether , under what conditions , and in which ways a part could fail and what loads it can withstand . Simulation modeling can also help to predict fluid flow and heat transfer patterns . It analyses the approximate working conditions by applying the simulation softwares .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Simulation_modeling", "rank": 74, "score": 87461 }, { "content": "Title: Postma Content: Postma is a surname of Frisian origin . In 2007 there were 12,395 people in the Netherlands with the surname , most concentrated in the province of Friesland . The form Postema ( 2,069 people ) is more common in the neighboring province of Groningen . The surname 's origin may be in `` posthumous '' ( a child born after the death of his father ) , occupational ( mailman , guard ) or toponymic ( from an outpost , etc. ) . People with the name include : Angela Postma ( born 1971 ) , Dutch freestyle swimmer Anni Friesinger-Postma ( born 1977 ) , German world-champion speed skater , married to Ids Postma Antoon Postma ( 1929 -- 2016 ) , Dutch anthropologist living among the Hanunó ' o tribe in the Philippines ( born 1951 ) , Dutch pathophysiologist Erik Postma ( 1953-2002 ) , Dutch mayor Gerriet Postma ( 1932 -- 2009 ) , Dutch painter Herman Postma ( 1933-2004 ) , American scientist and educator Ids Postma ( born 1973 ) , Dutch world-champion speed skater , married to Anni Friesinger ( 1895-1944 ) , Dutch Communist politician ( born 1983 ) , Dutch ice hockey player Mariska Kramer-Postma ( born 1974 ) , Dutch triathlete Martine Postma -RSB- ( born 1970 ) , Dutch founder of Repair Café ( 1868-1963 ) , Dutch West-Frisian poet Paul Postma ( born 1989 ) , Canadian ice hockey player Pieter-Jan Postma ( born 1982 ) , Dutch Olympic sailor Stefan Postma ( born 1976 ) , Dutch footballer Tineke Postma ( born 1978 ) , Dutch saxophonist Willy Postma ( born 1932 ) , Dutch track-and-field athlete Postema ( 1919 -- 2013 ) , Dutch author ( born 1932 ) , Dutch television reporter and presenter Pam Postema ( born 1954 ) , American baseball umpire", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Postma", "rank": 75, "score": 87449 }, { "content": "Title: Tim Trachet Content: Tim Trachet ( born 1958 ) is a Belgian writer , publicist , journalist and skeptic . He studied mathematics , astronomy and philosophy at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel and is a reporter at the VRT , where he produces history television documentaries . Since its foundation in 1976 , he was active in the working group Prometheus of the Vereniging voor Sterrenkunde ( Society for Astronomy ) , that focused on the critical investigation of pseudoscience . This working group resulted in the foundation of SKEPP , of which he became the first chairman from 1990 to 1998 . At present he is honorary chairman and general secretary of SKEPP . In 1990s and sometimes thereafter , Trachet frequently wrote for Skepter , the magazine of the Dutch skeptical organisation Stichting Skepsis . In 2000 , its Flemish counterpart Wonder en is gheen wonder was founded , where he has since been member of the editorial staff and regularly publishes articles . Since 1988 , he is also editorial board member of the popular science magazine Zenit for astronomy , meteorology and space research . Since 2013 , Trachet is vice-chairman ( previously as treasurer ) in the board of directors of the European Council of Skeptical Organisations ( ECSO ) , of which he was one of the founders in 1994 . In the frame of the 100th anniversary of the First World War in 2014 , Trachet wrote about a series of myths that still surround ` The Great War ' .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Tim_Trachet", "rank": 76, "score": 87368 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric physics Content: Atmospheric physics is the application of physics to the study of the atmosphere . Atmospheric physicists attempt to model Earth 's atmosphere and the atmospheres of the other planets using fluid flow equations , chemical models , radiation budget , and energy transfer processes in the atmosphere ( as well as how these tie into other systems such as the oceans ) . In order to model weather systems , atmospheric physicists employ elements of scattering theory , wave propagation models , cloud physics , statistical mechanics and spatial statistics which are highly mathematical and related to physics . It has close links to meteorology and climatology and also covers the design and construction of instruments for studying the atmosphere and the interpretation of the data they provide , including remote sensing instruments . At the dawn of the space age and the introduction of sounding rockets , aeronomy became a subdiscipline concerning the upper layers of the atmosphere , where dissociation and ionization are important .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Atmospheric_physics", "rank": 77, "score": 87066 }, { "content": "Title: Hanno Essén Content: Hanno Essén ( born 27 September 1948 ) is an associate professor of theoretical physics and a lecturer at the Swedish Royal Institute of Technology and former chairman of the Swedish Skeptics Society . Hanno Essén received his Ph.D. at Stockholm University in 1979 . The thesis was titled Topics in Molecular Mechanics and touched the approximate separations of nuclear and electron motion and the vibrational and rotational motion of molecules . He continued his research as a postdoc at Oxford University , England , for one year , and then for two years at McMaster University in Hamilton , Canada . After some years as a temporary lecturer at the Physics Department at Stockholm University and at the Quantum Chemistry , Uppsala University , Essen got permanent employment as a lecturer at the Mechanics dept at the Royal Institute of Technology in 1988 . Since 1990 he has been Director of undergraduate studies ( Studierektor ) at the Department of Mechanics , Royal Institute of Technology . He is member of the Editorial Board of the European Journal of Physics since September 2006 and has been Chairman of the Swedish Skeptics Society for three years ( from 19 April 2008 to 2 April 2011 ) .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Hanno_Essén", "rank": 78, "score": 87063 }, { "content": "Title: Werner Kuhn Content: Werner Kuhn ( February 6 , 1899 -- August 27 , 1963 ) was a Swiss physical chemist who developed the first model of the viscosity of polymer solutions using statistical mechanics . He is known for being the first to apply Boltzmann 's entropy formula : to the modeling of rubber molecules , i.e. the `` rubber band entropy model '' , molecules which he imagined as chains of N independently oriented links of length b with an end-to-end distance of r . This model , which resulted in the derivation of the thermal equation of state of rubber , has since been extrapolated to the entropic modeling of proteins and other conformational polymer chained molecules attached to a surface . Kuhn received a degree in chemical engineering at the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule ( ETH , Federal Institute of Technology ) , in Zürich , and later a doctorate ( 1923 ) in physical chemistry . He was appointed professor of physical chemistry at the University of Kiel ( 1936 -- 39 ) and then returned to Switzerland as director of the Physico-Chemical Institute of the University of Basel ( 1939 -- 63 ) , where he also served as rector ( 1955 -- 56 ) . In a 1951 lecture along with his student V.B. Hargitay , he was the first to hypothesize the countercurrent multiplier mechanism in the mammalian kidney , later to be discovered in many other similar biological systems .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Werner_Kuhn", "rank": 79, "score": 87044 }, { "content": "Title: Skepsis ry Content: Skepsis ry or the Finnish Association of Skeptics is a Finnish scientific skepticism organization founded in 1987 .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Skepsis_ry", "rank": 80, "score": 87010 }, { "content": "Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Simon_Tett", "rank": 81, "score": 86876 }, { "content": "Title: Free electron model Content: In solid-state physics , the free electron model is a simple model for the behaviour of valence electrons in a crystal structure of a metallic solid . It was developed principally by Arnold Sommerfeld who combined the classical Drude model with quantum mechanical Fermi -- Dirac statistics and hence it is also known as the Drude -- Sommerfeld model . The free electron empty lattice approximation forms the basis of the band structure model known as nearly free electron model . Given its simplicity , it is surprisingly successful in explaining many experimental phenomena , especially the Wiedemann -- Franz law which relates electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity ; the temperature dependence of the electron heat capacity ; the shape of the electronic density of states ; the range of binding energy values ; electrical conductivities ; thermal electron emission and field electron emission from bulk metals .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Free_electron_model", "rank": 82, "score": 86485 }, { "content": "Title: Skeptic (disambiguation) Content: Skeptic may refer to : One who practises skepticism Skeptic ( U.S. magazine ) , magazine of The Skeptics Society , edited by Michael Shermer", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Skeptic_(disambiguation)", "rank": 83, "score": 86320 }, { "content": "Title: Vladimír Székely Content: Dr. Vladimír Székely ( born January 11 , 1941 ) is a Hungarian physicist , professor emeritus at the Budapest University of Technology and Economics and a corresponding member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences . He was Head of Department of Electron Devices at the Budapest University of Technology and Economics between 1990 and 2005 . He has published research results in 360 peer-reviewed papers listed in Web of Science , the most cited being referenced over 200 times , along with 12 books or book-chapters based on his theoretical and practical results . He received an electrical engineering degree from the Technical University of Budapest , in 1964 and joined the Department of Electron Devices in the same year . He completed a PhD in 1977 with a thesis entitled `` Modelling of electro-thermal phenomena in ICs ) '' . His first research area was the theory of Gunn devices . Later research interests were mainly in the area of computer aided design ( CAD ) of integrated circuits , with a particular emphasis on circuit simulation , thermal simulation , and device modelling . He oversaw the development of several CAD programs in the field of integrated circuit design and simulation with another area of technical interest being computer-graphics and image-processing . He has been engaged in the investigation of thermal properties of semiconductor devices and integrated circuits for the last 35 years . This resulted in the development of novel thermal based IC elements and thermal IC simulator programs . He pioneered and elaborated the mathematical method of calculating Structure Functions for thermal characterization of semiconductor packaging from thermal transient measurements . This non-destructive distributed resistor-capacitor network approach is used extensively today around the world by the electronics industry to diagnose the quality of thermal paths after becoming an IEEE JEDEC standard in 2010 . He was a co-founder of Microelectronics Research and Development group Ltd. ( MicReD ) in 1997 , a spin-off company created by himself and fellow researchers , Prof. Márta Rencz , Dr András Poppe and Éva Nikodémusz ( a development engineer ) from the Department of Electron Devices at the Budapest University of Technology and Economics . Dr. Székely led MicReD to develop the T3Ster Thermal Transient Tester measurement equipment in 2000 as part of the EU PROFIT project . T3Ster is used for thermal characterization of semiconductor chip packages and power electronics and is a precision measurement device . MicReD was acquired by Flomerics Limited in 2005 , a UK based electronics cooling company . Flomerics itself was acquired by Mentor Graphics Corporation in 2008 and MicReD is now part of its Mechanical Analysis Division . In 2000 , he won the Harvey Rosten Award for Excellence in the Physical Design of Electronics with Marta Rencz for their paper titled `` Dynamic thermal multiport modeling of IC packages '' . In April 2010 , he won the International Dennis Gabor Award for the development of T3Ster technology for thermal testing of semiconductor packaging and he became a Member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences in the same year .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Vladimír_Székely", "rank": 84, "score": 85974 }, { "content": "Title: Clathrate gun hypothesis Content: The clathrate gun hypothesis is the popular name given to the hypothesis that increases in sea temperatures ( and/or drops in sea levels ) can trigger the sudden release of methane from methane clathrate compounds buried in seabeds and that are contained within seabed permafrost which , because methane itself is a powerful greenhouse gas , leads to further temperature rise and further methane clathrate destabilization -- in effect initiating a runaway process as irreversible , once started , as the firing of a gun . In its original form , the hypothesis proposed that the `` clathrate gun '' could cause abrupt runaway warming on a timescale less than a human lifetime . It was thought to be responsible for warming events in and at the end of the last glacial maximum , however this is now thought to be unlikely . However , there is stronger evidence that runaway methane clathrate breakdown may have caused drastic alteration of the ocean environment ( such as ocean acidification and ocean stratification ) and of the atmosphere of earth on a number of occasions in the past , over timescales of tens of thousands of years . These events include the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum 56 million years ago , and most notably the Permian -- Triassic extinction event , when up to 96 % of all marine species became extinct , 252 million years ago .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Clathrate_gun_hypothesis", "rank": 85, "score": 85943 }, { "content": "Title: Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics Content: The philosophy of thermal and statistical physics is that part of the philosophy of physics whose subject matter is classical thermodynamics , statistical mechanics , and related theories . Its central questions include : What is entropy , and what does the second law of thermodynamics say about it ? Does either thermodynamics or statistical mechanics contain an element of time-irreversibility ? If so , what does statistical mechanics tell us about the arrow of time ?", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Philosophy_of_thermal_and_statistical_physics", "rank": 86, "score": 85917 }, { "content": "Title: Skepticon Content: Skepticon is one of the largest skeptic and secular conventions held in the United States . It was co-founded by Missouri State University students Lauren Lane and JT Eberhard . Guest speakers are invited to discuss skepticism , science , education , activism , and other related topics . This free event is in part sponsored by organizations including American Atheists and the American Humanist Association , among others . To explain the goals of the event organizer JT Eberhard wrote : `` Skeptics conferences are an important part of the movement . They not only grant people access to the icons of the movement , they also arm those in attendance with information ; the key weapon for the side of reason . They also provide a sense of community for a group of people who can often feel isolated in a largely religious population . ''", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Skepticon", "rank": 87, "score": 85821 }, { "content": "Title: Sakuma–Hattori equation Content: The Sakuma -- Hattori equation is a mathematical model for predicting the amount of thermal radiation , radiometric flux or radiometric power emitted from a perfect blackbody or received by a thermal radiation detector .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Sakuma–Hattori_equation", "rank": 88, "score": 85624 }, { "content": "Title: Pattern Recognition in Physics Content: Pattern Recognition in Physics was an open-access journal originally published by Copernicus Publications which was established in March 2013 and terminated in January 2014 . The editors-in-chief were Sid-Ali Ouadfeul ( Algerian Petroleum Institute ) and Nils-Axel Mörner , the latter of whom is a well-known global warming skeptic . Copernicus ceased its publication due to concerns over the publications views towards the scientific consensus of global climate change and the method of peer review . In March 2014 Ouadfeul reopened the journal , `` run on private founding '' -LSB- sic -RSB-", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Pattern_Recognition_in_Physics", "rank": 89, "score": 85068 }, { "content": "Title: Anima pop Content: Anima Pop is an alternative pop band formed in 2006 until 2010 , under the influence of Post-Punk : The Cure , Joy Division as well as the 90 's sounds as exemplified by bands such as Placebo , Kent , Moose and Radiohead . The band gained a considerable amount of recognition and has recently embarked on International Tour of 150 concerts across the United States , United Kingdom , Spain , France , etc. . . Spanish Press Awards `` Best New Band 2008 '' and Top 5 UK Demo 2010 `` MySpace Eurodemo Contest 2010 ''", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Anima_pop", "rank": 90, "score": 84977 }, { "content": "Title: John Abraham (professor) Content: John P. Abraham is an American engineering professor , known for his interest in climate science . Abraham is professor of thermal and fluid sciences at the University of St. Thomas School of Engineering , Minnesota . His area of research includes thermodynamics , heat transfer , fluid flow , numerical simulation , and energy . After gaining his doctorate at the University of Minnesota in 2002 , he joined St. Thomas as an adjunct instructor , later becoming a full-time member of the faculty . He has published over 200 papers in journals and conferences , and since 1997 has also been an engineering consultant working on industrial research in aerospace , biomedical , energy and manufacturing industries . He works on clean and renewable wind and solar projects in the developing world , and has also produced numerous books , such as a 2014 text on small-scale wind power and a 2010 groundbreaking text on laminar-to-turbulent fluid flow . Abraham felt it was necessary to respond to a talk given to the Minnesota Free Market Institute in October 2009 by a well-known skeptic of human-caused global warming , Christopher Monckton . He thought `` this guy is a great speaker and he is very convincing . If I did n't know the science , I would believe him . Frankly , the nonscientists in the audience did n't have a chance . They had no way of knowing what he said was not true . I felt Monckton took advantage of them and he knew he was taking advantage of them . '' In the following months he carried out research , contacting scientists cited by Monckton , and in late May 2010 he posted online an 83-minute video rebutting Monckton 's statements . This attracted little attention at first , until it was highlighted by an article George Monbiot published in The Guardian . Abraham 's presentation and the response from Monckton subsequently received world-wide attention . More recently , Abraham and a number of colleagues including Michael E. Mann submitted a document to the US Congress which claimed to refute nine errors in Christopher Monckton 's May 6 , 2010 , testimony . In November 2010 , Abraham ( and two colleagues , Professor Scott Mandia and Dr. Ray Weymann ) launched the Climate Science Rapid Response Team , to provide rapid , high-quality scientific information to the media and government decision makers . The intention of this group is to enable scientists to share their work directly with the general public . This effort has been covered by many media outlets . The effort has an online page for media to submit their questions . Abraham estimated early in 2012 that since beginning his rebuttal he had put around 1,000 unpaid hours into work on climate change and the controversy . He has given numerous speeches to publicize global warming issues , but does not accept funding for climate research or ask for an honorarium for speeches : if payment is given he asks that it goes to St. Thomas or to charity .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "John_Abraham_(professor)", "rank": 91, "score": 84810 }, { "content": "Title: Lorin Blodget Content: Lorin Blodget ( born in Chautauqua County , New York , May 23 , 1823 - 1901 ) , American physicist and writer . Blodget was born near Jamestown and attended the Jamestown Academy . He later attended a college now called Hobart College in Geneva , NY . In 1851 , he became assistant professor at the Smithsonian Institution at Washington . He may be said to have laid the foundation of American climatology . In 1855 , he published a quarto volume of climatological observations , and in 1857 Climatology in the United States , a work extensively circulated and very favorably received in Europe . He was editor of the North American , published in Philadelphia , and secretary of the Philadelphia Board of Trade from 1858 to 1864 . He contributed articles on finance to the North American Review in 1866 and 1867 , besides making contributions to various other publications . Besides his work for the Smithsonian , Blodget worked for the War Department to conduct climatological research . Afterward , he worked for the Treasury Department , preparing statistical and financial reports , and later working in specialized positions in the Customs and Treasury Department . Subsequently , he moved to Philadelphia to become the secretary of the Board of Trade and editor of the `` North American Review . ''", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Lorin_Blodget", "rank": 92, "score": 84798 }, { "content": "Title: Hungarian Skeptic Society Content: The Hungarian Skeptic Society ( HSS ) ( Hungarian : Szkeptikus Társaság Egyesület ) is a skeptic organisation based in Hungary . Founded in 2006 , it has been a member of the European Council of Skeptical Organisations ( ECSO ) since 2007 . Its current president is Gábor Hraskó , who also serves as the chairman of the ECSO since 2013 .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Hungarian_Skeptic_Society", "rank": 93, "score": 84744 }, { "content": "Title: Physical modelling synthesis Content: In sound synthesis , physical modelling synthesis refers to methods in which the waveform of the sound to be generated is computed by using a mathematical model , being a set of equations and algorithms to simulate a physical source of sound , usually a musical instrument . Such a model consists of ( possibly simplified ) laws of physics that govern the sound production , and will typically have several parameters , some of which are constants that describe the physical materials and dimensions of the instrument , while others are time-dependent functions that describe the player 's interaction with it , such as plucking a string , or covering toneholes . For example , to model the sound of a drum , there would be a formula for how striking the drumhead injects energy into a two dimensional membrane . Thereafter the properties of the membrane ( mass density , stiffness , etc. ) , its coupling with the resonance of the cylindrical body of the drum , and the conditions at its boundaries ( a rigid termination to the drum 's body ) would describe its movement over time and thus its generation of sound . Similar stages to be modelled can be found in instruments such as a violin , though the energy excitation in this case is provided by the slip-stick behavior of the bow against the string , the width of the bow , the resonance and damping behavior of the strings , the transfer of string vibrations through the bridge , and finally , the resonance of the soundboard in response to those vibrations . In addition , the same concept has been applied to simulate voice and speech sounds . In this case , the synthesizer includes mathematical models of the vocal fold oscillation and associated laryngeal airflow , and the consequent acoustic wave propagation along the vocal tract . Further , it may also contain an articulatory model to control the vocal tract shape in terms of the position of the lips , tongue and other organs . Although physical modelling was not a new concept in acoustics and synthesis , having been implemented using finite difference approximations of the wave equation by Hiller and Ruiz in 1971 , it was not until the development of the Karplus-Strong algorithm , the subsequent refinement and generalization of the algorithm into the extremely efficient digital waveguide synthesis by Julius O. Smith III and others , and the increase in DSP power in the late 1980s that commercial implementations became feasible . Yamaha signed a contract with Stanford University in 1989 to jointly develop digital waveguide synthesis , and as such most patents related to the technology are owned by Stanford or Yamaha . The first commercially available physical modelling synthesizer made using waveguide synthesis was the Yamaha VL1 in 1994 . While the efficiency of digital waveguide synthesis made physical modelling feasible on common DSP hardware and native processors , the convincing emulation of physical instruments often requires the introduction of non-linear elements , scattering junctions , etc. . In these cases , digital waveguides are often combined with FDTD , finite element or wave digital filter methods , increasing the computational demands of the model .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Physical_modelling_synthesis", "rank": 94, "score": 84697 }, { "content": "Title: Post Orgasmic Chill Content: Post Orgasmic Chill is the third studio album by British rock band Skunk Anansie , first released in 1999 . Two album covers exist : the European version with the band lounging in an oceanside apartment , and the American version with the band standing on the Atlantic City boardwalk . It was a complete departure from their previous two albums , which had elements of punk rock and alternative rock by moving to a new harder sound with elements of hard rock and alternative metal .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Post_Orgasmic_Chill", "rank": 95, "score": 84674 }, { "content": "Title: Edinburgh Skeptics Content: Edinburgh Skeptics ( Edinburgh Skeptics Society ) is a nonprofit organisation that promotes science , reason and critical thinking in Edinburgh and throughout Scotland . It was founded in 2009 . The Society hosts regular social and educational events in Edinburgh and has campaigned against the use of homeopathy and challenged claims of ghost sightings . The Society organizes regular talks as part of `` Skeptics in the Pub '' . The speaker invited to launch the group in March 2009 was Chris French . Subsequent speakers have included David Aaronovitch and Julian Baggini . In 2010 the Society created the award-winning Skeptics on the Fringe event , which is held annually during the Edinburgh Festival Fringe . Skeptics on the Fringe won an Ockham Award after a vote by the readers of The Skeptic magazine in 2013 and has been awarded 4 stars by the publication Broadway Baby . Speakers such as Simon Singh , Richard Wiseman , A C Grayling , Edzard Ernst and Paul Zenon have taken part in this event . Other Fringe activities include themed walking tours of Edinburgh . Current activities include a range of talks held as part of the Edinburgh International Science Festival , a cinema night , a discussion group and a mobile stall to deliver science and rationalism outreach to the public . In 2015 the Society started the Edinburgh Skeptics Podcast on a variety of platforms with content including interviews with various personalities as well as recordings of the Society 's events . In the past the Society has also co-hosted special events , such as a talk by Marc Abrahams , founder of the Ig Nobel Prizes and continues to work with various groups in the scientific and skeptical community .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Edinburgh_Skeptics", "rank": 96, "score": 84445 }, { "content": "Title: Stefan–Boltzmann constant Content: The Stefan -- Boltzmann constant ( also Stefan 's constant ) , a physical constant denoted by the Greek letter σ ( sigma ) , is the constant of proportionality in the Stefan -- Boltzmann law : `` the total intensity radiated over all wavelengths increases as the temperature increases '' , of a black body which is proportional to the fourth power of the thermodynamic temperature . The theory of thermal radiation lays down the theory of quantum mechanics , by using physics to relate to molecular , atomic and sub-atomic levels . Slovenian physicist Josef Stefan formulated the constant in 1879 , and it was later derived in 1884 by Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann . The equation can also be derived from Planck 's Law , by integrating over all wavelengths at a given temperature , which will represent a small flat black body box . `` The amount of thermal radiation emitted increases rapidly and the principal frequency of the radiation becomes higher with increasing temperatures '' . The Stefan -- Boltzmann constant can be used to measure the amount of heat that is emitted by a blackbody , which absorbs all of the radiant energy that hits it , and will emit all the radiant energy . Furthermore , the Stefan -- Boltzmann constant allows for temperature ( K ) to be converted to units for intensity ( W m − 2 ) , which is power per unit area . The value of the Stefan -- Boltzmann constant is given in SI units by In cgs units the Stefan -- Boltzmann constant is : σ ≈ . In thermochemistry the Stefan -- Boltzmann constant is often expressed in cal cm − 2 day − 1 K − 4 : σ ≈ . In US customary units the Stefan -- Boltzmann constant is : σ ≈ . The value of the Stefan -- Boltzmann constant is derivable as well as experimentally determinable ; see Stefan -- Boltzmann law for details . It can be defined in terms of the Boltzmann constant as : where : kB is the Boltzmann constant ; h is the Planck constant ; ħ is the reduced Planck constant ; c is the speed of light in vacuum . The CODATA recommended value is calculated from the measured value of the gas constant : where : R is the Universal gas constant ; NA is the Avogadro constant ; R ∞ is the Rydberg constant ; Ar ( e ) is the `` relative atomic mass '' of the electron ; Mu is the molar mass constant ( 1 g/mol by definition ) ; α is the fine structure constant . Dimensional formula : -LSB- M1 L0 T − 3 Θ − 4 -RSB- A related constant is the radiation constant ( or radiation density constant ) a which is given by :", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Stefan–Boltzmann_constant", "rank": 97, "score": 84433 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal analysis Content: Thermal analysis is a branch of materials science where the properties of materials are studied as they change with temperature . Several methods are commonly used -- these are distinguished from one another by the property which is measured : Dielectric thermal analysis ( DEA ) : dielectric permittivity and loss factor Differential thermal analysis ( DTA ) : temperature difference verus temperature or time Differential Scanning Calorimetry ( DSC ) : heat flow changes versus temperature or time Dilatometry ( DIL ) : volume changes with temperature change Dynamic Mechanical Analysis ( DMA or DMTA ) : measures storage modulus ( stiffness ) and loss modulus ( damping ) versus temperature , time and frequency Evolved Gas Analysis ( EGA ) : analysis of gases evolved during heating of a material , usually decomposition products Laser flash analysis ( LFA ) : thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity Thermogravimetric Analysis ( TGA ) : mass change versus temperature or time Thermomechanical analysis ( TMA ) : dimensional changes versus temperature or time Thermo-optical analysis ( TOA ) : optical properties Derivatography : A complex method in thermal analysis Simultaneous Thermal Analysis ( STA ) generally refers to the simultaneous application of Thermogravimetry ( TGA ) and differential scanning calorimetry ( DSC ) to one and the same sample in a single instrument . The test conditions are perfectly identical for the TGA and DSC signals ( same atmosphere , gas flow rate , vapor pressure of the sample , heating rate , thermal contact to the sample crucible and sensor , radiation effect , etc. ) . The information gathered can even be enhanced by coupling the STA instrument to an Evolved Gas Analyzer ( EGA ) like Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy ( FTIR ) or mass spectrometry ( MS ) . Other , less common , methods measure the sound or light emission from a sample , or the electrical discharge from a dielectric material , or the mechanical relaxation in a stressed specimen . The essence of all these techniques is that the sample 's response is recorded as a function of temperature ( and time ) . It is usual to control the temperature in a predetermined way - either by a continuous increase or decrease in temperature at a constant rate ( linear heating/cooling ) or by carrying out a series of determinations at different temperatures ( stepwise isothermal measurements ) . More advanced temperature profiles have been developed which use an oscillating ( usually sine or square wave ) heating rate ( Modulated Temperature Thermal Analysis ) or modify the heating rate in response to changes in the system 's properties ( Sample Controlled Thermal Analysis ) . In addition to controlling the temperature of the sample , it is also important to control its environment ( e.g. atmosphere ) . Measurements may be carried out in air or under an inert gas ( e.g. nitrogen or helium ) . Reducing or reactive atmospheres have also been used and measurements are even carried out with the sample surrounded by water or other liquids . Inverse gas chromatography is a technique which studies the interaction of gases and vapours with a surface - measurements are often made at different temperatures so that these experiments can be considered to come under the auspices of Thermal Analysis . Atomic force microscopy uses a fine stylus to map the topography and mechanical properties of surfaces to high spatial resolution . By controlling the temperature of the heated tip and/or the sample a form of spatially resolved thermal analysis can be carried out . Thermal analysis is also often used as a term for the study of heat transfer through structures . Many of the basic engineering data for modelling such systems comes from measurements of heat capacity and thermal conductivity .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Thermal_analysis", "rank": 98, "score": 84114 }, { "content": "Title: Tropical cyclone windspeed climatology Content: Tropical cyclone windspeed climatology is the study wind distribution amongst tropical cyclones , a significant threat to land and people . Since records began in 1851 , winds from hurricanes , typhoons and cyclones have been responsible for fatalities and damage in every basin . Major hurricanes ( Category 3 or above ) usually cause the most wind damage . Hurricane Andrew for example caused $ 45 billion ( 2005 USD ) in damage , most of it wind damage . Although wind damage is common to tropical cyclones near landmasses , there are a few factors that lead to high wind speeds . Warm water temperatures , which was seen during Hurricane Wilma when it winds rapidly strengthened to 185 mph ( 295 km/h ) in a 24-hour period due to the presence of abnormally warm water temperatures . Size and speed of the storm , which results in damage along a wide area as seen in Hurricane Isabel and Great New England Hurricane of 1938 .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "Tropical_cyclone_windspeed_climatology", "rank": 99, "score": 84101 }, { "content": "Title: James Hays Content: James D. Hays is a professor of Earth and environmental sciences at Columbia University 's Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory . Hays founded and led the CLIMAP project , which collected sea floor sediment data to study surface sea temperatures and paleoclimatological conditions 18,000 years ago . Hays is probably best known as a co-author of the 1976 paper in Science , `` Variations in the Earth 's orbit : Pacemaker of the ice ages . '' Using ocean sediment cores , the Science paper verified the theories of Milutin Milanković that oscillations in climate can be correlated with Earth 's orbital variations of eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession around the Sun ( see Milankovitch cycles ) .", "qid": "3127", "docid": "James_Hays", "rank": 100, "score": 83991 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Climate_change", "rank": 1, "score": 160219 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 2, "score": 144809 }, { "content": "Title: Solar activity and climate Content: Solar irradiance variation has been a main driver of climate change over geologic time , but its role in the recent warming has been found to be insignificant .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Solar_activity_and_climate", "rank": 3, "score": 144174 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 4, "score": 141817 }, { "content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Climate_system", "rank": 5, "score": 138183 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 6, "score": 135620 }, { "content": "Title: Peter Thejll Content: Peter Andreas Thejll ( born 1956 ) is a Danish astrophysicist and climate researcher . His research in solar variation helped provide evidence of the greenhouse effect on the Earth 's climate in the late 20th century . In particular , his study with Knud Lassen on Northern Hemisphere land air temperature showed that the rise of 0.4 degrees Celsius since 1980 could not be accounted for by the solar cycle . Climatologists have pointed to this finding as an `` actual piece of evidence for greenhouse warming '' . Thejll received his undergraduate education at the University of Copenhagen . He received an M.S. in physics and a Ph.D. in astrophysics from the University of Delaware . Thejll was a Carlsberg Fellow at the Niels Bohr Institute and worked at the Nordic Institute for Theoretical Physics . Thejll currently is a senior scientist at the Danish Meteorological Institute in Copenhagen . He is currently involved in the creation of a global automatic system to observe the Earth 's reflectivity - albedo - using observations of the earthshine on the Moon . Such data can be used for climate change studies and calibration of satellite data as the measurements deliver independent data on the albedo . A telescope is now installed on Hawaii at the Mauna Loa Observatory . The Swedish research agency VINNOVA is funding this project .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Peter_Thejll", "rank": 7, "score": 132548 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 8, "score": 131901 }, { "content": "Title: Solar core Content: The core of the Sun is considered to extend from the center to about 0.2 to 0.25 of solar radius . It is the hottest part of the Sun and of the Solar System . It has a density of 150 g/cm ³ ( 150 times the density of liquid water ) at the center , and a temperature of 15 million degrees Celsius . The core is made of hot , dense gas in the plasmic state ( ions and electrons ) , at a pressure estimated at 265 billion bar ( 3.84 trillion psi or 26.5 petapascals ( PPa ) ) at the center . Due to fusion , the composition of the solar plasma drops from 68-70 % hydrogen by mass at the outer core , to 33 % hydrogen at the core/Sun center . The core inside 0.20 of the solar radius , contains 34 % of the Sun 's mass , but only 0.8 % of the Sun 's volume . Inside 0.24 solar radius , the core generates 99 % of the fusion power of the Sun . There are two distinct reactions in which four hydrogen nuclei may eventually result in one helium nucleus : the proton-proton chain reaction -- which is responsible for most of the Sun 's released energy -- and the CNO cycle .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Solar_core", "rank": 9, "score": 129658 }, { "content": "Title: Solar phenomena Content: Solar phenomena are the natural phenomena occurring within the magnetically heated outer atmospheres in the Sun . These phenomena take many forms , including solar wind , radio wave flux , energy bursts such as solar flares , coronal mass ejection or solar eruptions , coronal heating and sunspots . These phenomena are generated by a helical dynamo near the center of the Sun 's mass that generates strong magnetic fields and a chaotic dynamo near the surface that generates smaller magnetic field fluctuations . The total sum of all solar fluctuations is referred to as solar variation . The collective effect of all solar variations within the Sun 's gravitational field is referred to as space weather . A major weather component is the solar wind , a stream of plasma released from the Sun 's upper atmosphere . It is responsible for the aurora , natural light displays in the sky in the Arctic and Antarctic . Space weather disturbances can cause solar storms on Earth , disrupting communications , as well as geomagnetic storms in Earth 's magnetosphere and sudden ionospheric disturbances in the ionosphere . Variations in solar intensity also affect Earth 's climate . These variations can explain events such as ice ages and the Great Oxygenation Event , while the Sun 's future expansion into a red giant will likely end life on Earth . Solar activity and related events have been recorded since the 8th century BCE . Babylonians inscribed and possibly predicted solar eclipses , while the earliest extant report of sunspots dates back to the Chinese Book of Changes , . The first extant description of the solar corona was in 968 , while the earliest sunspot drawing was in 1128 and a solar prominence was described in 1185 in the Russian Chronicle of Novgorod . The invention of the telescope allowed major advances in understanding , allowing the first detailed observations in the 1600s . Solar spectroscopy began in the 1800s , from which properties of the solar atmosphere could be determined , while the creation of daguerreotypy led to the first solar photographs on 2 April 1845 . Photography assisted in the study of solar prominences , granulation and spectroscopy . Early in the 20th century , interest in astrophysics surged in America . A number of new observatories were built with solar telescopes around the world . The 1931 invention of the coronagraph allowed the corona to be studied in full daylight .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Solar_phenomena", "rank": 10, "score": 128916 }, { "content": "Title: Effect of Sun angle on climate Content: The amount of heat energy received at any location on the globe is a direct effect of Sun angle on climate , as the angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth varies by location , time of day , and season due to the Earth 's orbit around the Sun and the Earth 's rotation around its tilted axis . Seasonal change in the angle of sunlight , caused by the tilt of the Earth 's axis , is the basic mechanism that results in warmer weather in summer than in winter . Change in day length is another factor . ( See also season . )", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Effect_of_Sun_angle_on_climate", "rank": 11, "score": 127846 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific consensus on climate change Content: There is currently a strong scientific consensus that the Earth is warming and that this warming is mainly caused by human activities. This consensus is supported by various studies of scientists' opinions and by position statements of scientific organizations, many of which explicitly agree with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) synthesis reports. Nearly all actively publishing climate scientists (97–98%) support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change, and the remaining 2% of contrarian studies either cannot be replicated or contain errors.", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change", "rank": 12, "score": 125573 }, { "content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Earth's_energy_budget", "rank": 13, "score": 123588 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change (general concept) Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth\\'s energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth\\'s energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling.\\nThe energy moving through Earth\\'s climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region\\'s climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system\\'s components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism.\\nClimate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Climate_change_(general_concept)", "rank": 14, "score": 122755 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 15, "score": 122047 }, { "content": "Title: Milankovitch cycles Content: Milankovitch cycles describes the collective effects of changes in the Earth 's movements on its climate over thousands of years . The term is named after Serbian geophysicist and astronomer Milutin Milanković . In the 1920s , he theorized that variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit resulted in cyclical variation in the solar radiation ( insolation ) reaching the Earth , and that this orbital forcing strongly influenced climatic patterns on Earth . The Earth 's orbit varies between nearly circular and mildly elliptical ( its eccentricity varies ) . When the orbit is more elongated , there is more variation in the distance between the Earth and the Sun , and in the amount of solar radiation , at different times in the year . In addition , the rotational tilt of the Earth ( its obliquity ) , which causes the seasons as the Earth revolves around the Sun , changes slightly . A greater tilt makes the seasons more extreme . Finally , the direction in the fixed stars pointed to by the Earth 's axis changes ( axial precession ) , while the Earth 's elliptical orbit around the Sun rotates ( apsidal precession ) . The combined effect of the two precessions is a cycle in which proximity to the Sun occurs during different astronomical seasons . If the Earth is closer to the Sun while the northern or southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun ( is in summer ) , then both effects work together to heat that hemisphere . If the Earth is further from the Sun during summer , the greater distance slightly reduces the heat of summer . Similar astronomical theories had been advanced in the 19th century by Joseph Adhemar , James Croll and others , but verification was difficult because there was no reliably dated evidence , and because it was unclear which periods were important . Now , materials on Earth that have been unchanged for millennia are being studied to indicate the history of Earth 's climate . A study of the chronology of Antarctic ice cores using oxygen-nitrogen ratios in air bubbles trapped in the ice , which appear to respond directly to the local insolation , concluded that the climatic response documented in the ice cores was driven by northern hemisphere insolation as proposed by the Milankovitch hypothesis . Analysis of deep-ocean cores and a seminal paper by Hays , Imbrie , and Shackleton provide additional validation of the Milankovitch hypothesis through physical artifacts . However , there are still several observations that the hypothesis does not explain .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Milankovitch_cycles", "rank": 16, "score": 121227 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 17, "score": 119542 }, { "content": "Title: Climate variability Content: Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. In the time since the industrial revolution the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities that are causing global warming and climate change.The climate system receives nearly all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also radiates energy to outer space. The balance of incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of the energy through the climate system, determines Earth's energy budget. When the incoming energy is greater than the outgoing energy, earth's energy budget is positive and the climate system is warming. If more energy goes out, the energy budget is negative and earth experiences cooling. The energy moving through Earth's climate system finds expression in weather, varying on geographic scales and time. Long-term averages and variability of weather in a region constitute the region's climate. Such changes can be the result of \"internal variability\", when natural processes inherent to the various parts of the climate system alter the distribution of energy. Examples include variability in ocean basins such as the Pacific decadal oscillation and Atlantic multidecadal oscillation. Climate variability can also result from external forcing, when events outside of the climate system's components nonetheless produce changes within the system. Examples include changes in solar output and volcanism. Climate variability has consequences for sea level changes, plant life, and mass extinctions; it also affects human societies.", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Climate_variability", "rank": 18, "score": 119139 }, { "content": "Title: Orbital effects on climate Content: There are various solar/celestial effects that exist which have an effect on Earth 's climate . These effects usually occur in cycles , and primarily include how Earth 's obliquity , the eccentricity of Earth 's orbit , and the precession of the equinoxes and solstices affect Earth 's climate . In addition to these effects , there are also other factors that have an effect on Earth 's climate . These other factors include how sun activity affects climate and how celestial phenomena , such as meteors , affect Earth 's climate . Some of these factors are n't yet well understood , for instance the ice ages occur on 100,000 year cycles , and it 's not completely understood why the various effects with this periodicity have such a strong effect on glaciation ( see the 100,000-year problem ) .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Orbital_effects_on_climate", "rank": 19, "score": 118990 }, { "content": "Title: History of climate change science Content: The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect first identified . In the late 19th century , scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change the climate . Many other theories of climate change were advanced , involving forces from volcanism to solar variation . In the 1960s , the warming effect of carbon dioxide gas became increasingly convincing . Some scientists also pointed out that human activities that generated atmospheric aerosols ( e.g. , `` pollution '' ) could have cooling effects as well . During the 1970s , scientific opinion increasingly favored the warming viewpoint . By the 1990s , as a result of improving fidelity of computer models and observational work confirming the Milankovitch theory of the ice ages , a consensus position formed : greenhouse gases were deeply involved in most climate changes and human caused emissions were bringing discernible global warming . Since the 1990s , scientific research on climate change has included multiple disciplines and has expanded . Research has expanded our understanding of causal relations , links with historic data and ability to model climate change numerically . Research during this period has been summarized in the Assessment Reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years . It may be a change in average weather conditions , or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions ( such as more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes ( such as oceanic circulation ) , biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions , and human-induced alterations of the natural world . The latter effect is currently causing global warming , and `` climate change '' is often used to describe human-specific impacts .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "History_of_climate_change_science", "rank": 20, "score": 118169 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 21, "score": 117528 }, { "content": "Title: HD 12039 Content: HD 12039 is a variable star in the constellation of Cetus at a distance of about 133 ly . It is categorized as a BY Draconis variable because of luminosity changes caused by surface magnetic activity coupled with rotation of the star . The stellar classification G4V is similar to the Sun , indicating this is a main sequence star that is generating energy at its core through the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen . The effective temperature of 5,585 K gives the star a yellow hue . It has about the same mass as the Sun , but only emits 89 % of the Sun 's luminosity . This is a young star with age estimates ranging from 7.5 − 8 million years to 30 million years . In 2006 , a debris field was discovered in orbit around this star using infrared observations by the Spitzer telescope . This debris is thought to be an asteroid belt . The measured temperature of the debris is 110 K , which places it in an orbit between 4 and 6 AU from the star , or about the same distance where Jupiter orbits the Sun . This debris disk may have been created by the breakup of a single , 100 km diameter planetesimal through a collision . The star system does not show any excess emission at 70 μm , indicating it does not have a cold outer dust disk . The star was examined for the presence of an extrasolar planet with a mass in the range 2-10 Jupiter masses and an orbital distance of 3-15 .5 AU . Instead , in 2007 , a close stellar companion was likely discovered . This object is separated from the primary by 0.15 arcseconds , making it unlikely to be a background object . This star has been proposed as a member of the Tucana-Horoglium Association ( T-WA ) , a stream of young stars with a common motion through space . The T-WA association is about 30 million years old . The space velocity components of this star are = . It is orbiting the Milky Way galaxy with an orbital eccentricity of 0.06 , with a distance that varies from 7.11 − 8.01 kpc of the galactic core . The inclination of its orbit carries it as far as 90 parsecs above the galactic plane .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "HD_12039", "rank": 22, "score": 115592 }, { "content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model", "rank": 23, "score": 114568 }, { "content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Climate_inertia", "rank": 24, "score": 112924 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 25, "score": 112283 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska", "rank": 26, "score": 111694 }, { "content": "Title: Climate engineering Content: Climate engineering , commonly referred to as geoengineering , also known as climate intervention , is the deliberate and large-scale intervention in the Earth 's climatic system with the aim of limiting adverse global warming . Climate engineering is an umbrella term for measures that mainly fall into two types : carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management . Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of global warming by removing one of the greenhouse gases ( carbon dioxide ) from the atmosphere . Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of greenhouse gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation . Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as additional potential options for limiting global warming , alongside mitigation and adaptation . There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering can not substitute for climate change mitigation . Some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions . Given that all types of measures for addressing climate change have economic , political , or physical limitations , some climate engineering approaches might eventually be used as part of an ensemble of measures . Research on costs , benefits , and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at an early stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy and feasibility . Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests , and an attempt to move to outdoor experimentation was controversial . Some carbon dioxide removal practices , such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects , are underway . Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is , however , debated . Ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials , sparking substantial controversy . Most experts and major reports advise against relying on climate engineering techniques as a simple solution to global warming , in part due to the large uncertainties over effectiveness and side effects . However , most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of dangerous global warming . Interventions at large scale may run a greater risk of disrupting natural systems resulting in a dilemma that those approaches that could prove highly ( cost - ) effective in addressing extreme climate risk , might themselves cause substantial risk . Some have suggested that the concept of engineering the climate presents a so-called `` moral hazard '' because it could reduce political and public pressure for emissions reduction , which could exacerbate overall climate risks ; others assert that the threat of climate engineering could spur emissions cuts . Some are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing and deployment of solar radiation management ( SRM ) .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Climate_engineering", "rank": 27, "score": 111504 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe", "rank": 28, "score": 110970 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 29, "score": 110757 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans", "rank": 30, "score": 110277 }, { "content": "Title: Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment Content: The Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment ( SORCE ) is a NASA-sponsored satellite mission that measures incoming X-ray , ultraviolet , visible , near-infrared , and total solar radiation . These measurements specifically address long-term climate change , natural variability and enhanced climate prediction , and atmospheric ozone and UV-B radiation . These measurements are critical to studies of the Sun , its effect on our Earth system and its influence on humankind . The SORCE spacecraft launched on January 25 , 2003 on a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to provide NASA 's Earth Science Enterprise ( ESE ) with precise measurements of solar radiation . SORCE measures the Sun 's output using radiometers , spectrometers , photodiodes , detectors , and bolometers mounted on a satellite observatory . The SORCE satellite orbits the Earth accumulating solar data . Spectral measurements identify the irradiance of the Sun by characterizing the Sun 's energy and emissions in the form of color that can then be translated into quantities and elements of matter . Data obtained by the SORCE experiment can be used to model the Sun 's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun 's radiation on the Earth 's atmosphere and climate . Flying in a 645 km , 40 degree orbit , SORCE is operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics ( LASP ) at the University of Colorado at Boulder , Colorado . It will continue the precise measurements of total solar irradiance that began with the ERB instrument in 1979 and has continued to the present with the ACRIM series of measurements . SORCE will also provide the measurements of the solar spectral irradiance from 1 nm to 2000 nm , accounting for 95 % of the spectral contribution to the total solar irradiance . SORCE carries four instruments including the Total Irradiance Monitor ( TIM ) , Solar Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment ( SOLSTICE ) , Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SIM ) , and the XUV Photometer System ( XPS ) .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Solar_Radiation_and_Climate_Experiment", "rank": 31, "score": 109164 }, { "content": "Title: Ian Clark (geologist) Content: Ian D. Clark is a professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Ottawa ( Canada ) , who has been publishing research on geoscience , groundwater and geochemistry since 1982 . His graduate work in isotope hydrogeology was at the University of Waterloo and the University of Paris . Clark is among the scientists who reject the mainstream scientific opinion on climate change ; in the 2007 UK television documentary The Great Global Warming Swindle , he states that changes in global temperature correlate with solar activity , saying `` Solar activity of the last hundred years , over the last several hundred years correlates very nicely on a decadal basis , with sea ice and Arctic temperatures . ''", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Ian_Clark_(geologist)", "rank": 32, "score": 108937 }, { "content": "Title: Solar cycle Content: The solar cycle or solar magnetic activity cycle is the nearly periodic 11-year change in the Sun 's activity ( including changes in the levels of solar radiation and ejection of solar material ) and appearance ( changes in the number and size of sunspots , flares , and other manifestations ) . They have been observed ( by changes in the sun 's appearance and by changes seen on Earth , such as auroras ) for centuries . The changes on the sun cause effects in space , in the atmosphere , and on Earth 's surface . While it is the dominant variable in solar activity , aperiodic fluctuations also occur .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Solar_cycle", "rank": 33, "score": 108519 }, { "content": "Title: Gerard C. Bond Content: Gerard Clark Bond ( May 20 , 1940 -- June 29 , 2005 ) was a widely published and highly respected American geologist . Bond received his Bachelor of Science degree at Capital University in Columbus , Ohio , where his father Ralph Bond was a Professor of Geology . He worked at the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory in Palisades , New York as Head of the Deep-Sea Sample Repository , after teaching briefly at Williams College in Williamstown , Massachusetts and the University of California , Davis . Bond theorized that variations in solar activity -- the appearance of sunspots and changes in the emission of solar radiation -- might be driving 1,500-year-cycles of amplified variability in northern hemisphere climate during the last glaciation , resulting in increases in iceberg discharges from the Laurentide ice sheet into the North Atlantic ocean , as evidenced by changes in the petrology of grains he extracted from deep sea cores covering this period . The cyclicity is also found during the Holocene , where the events are referred to as Bond events . Bond was awarded the Ewing Medal at the AGU Fall Meeting Honors Ceremony , December 2003 .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Gerard_C._Bond", "rank": 34, "score": 108494 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric temperature Content: Atmospheric temperature is a measure of temperature at different levels of the Earth 's atmosphere . It is governed by many factors , including incoming solar radiation , humidity and altitude . When discussing surface temperature , the annual atmospheric temperature range at any geographical location depends largely upon the type of biome , as measured by the Köppen climate classification .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Atmospheric_temperature", "rank": 35, "score": 108384 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse and icehouse Earth Content: Throughout the Phanerozoic history of the Earth , the planet 's climate has been fluctuating between two dominant climate states : the greenhouse earth and the icehouse earth . These two climate states last for millions of years and should not be confused with glacial and interglacial periods , which occur only during an icehouse period and tend to last less than 1 million years . There are five known glaciations in Earth 's climate history ; the main factors involved in changes of the paleoclimate are believed to be the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide , changes in the Earth 's orbit , and oceanic and orogenic changes due to tectonic plate dynamics . Greenhouse and icehouse periods have profoundly shaped the evolution of life on Earth .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Greenhouse_and_icehouse_Earth", "rank": 36, "score": 107986 }, { "content": "Title: Abrupt climate change Content: An abrupt climate change occurs when the climate system is forced to transition to a new climate state at a rate that is determined by the climate system energy-balance , and which is more rapid than the rate of change of the external forcing . Past events include the end of the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse , Younger Dryas , Dansgaard-Oeschger events , Heinrich events and possibly also the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum . The term is also used within the context of global warming to describe sudden climate change that is detectable over the time-scale of a human lifetime . One proposed reason for the observed abrupt climate change is that feedback loops within the climate system both enhance small perturbations and cause a variety of stable states . Timescales of events described as ` abrupt ' may vary dramatically . Changes recorded in the climate of Greenland at the end of the Younger Dryas , as measured by ice-cores , imply a sudden warming of + 10 C-change within a timescale of a few years . Other abrupt changes are the + 4 C-change on Greenland 11,270 years ago or the abrupt + 6 C-change warming 22,000 years ago on Antarctica . By contrast , the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum may have initiated anywhere between a few decades and several thousand years . Finally , Earth Systems models project that under ongoing greenhouse gas emissions as early as 2047 , the Earth 's near surface temperature could depart from the range of variability in the last 150 years , affecting over 3 billion people and most places of great species diversity on Earth .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Abrupt_climate_change", "rank": 37, "score": 107560 }, { "content": "Title: 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference Content: The 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference , COP 21 or CMP 11 was held in Paris , France , from 30 November to 12 December 2015 . It was the 21st yearly session of the Conference of the Parties ( COP ) to the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the 11th session of the Conference of the Parties ( CMP ) to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol . The conference negotiated the Paris Agreement , a global agreement on the reduction of climate change , the text of which represented a consensus of the representatives of the 196 parties attending it . The agreement will enter into force when joined by at least 55 countries which together represent at least 55 percent of global greenhouse emissions . On 22 April 2016 ( Earth Day ) , 174 countries signed the agreement in New York , and began adopting it within their own legal systems ( through ratification , acceptance , approval , or accession ) . According to the organizing committee at the outset of the talks , the expected key result was an agreement to set a goal of limiting global warming to less than 2 degrees Celsius ( ° C ) compared to pre-industrial levels . The agreement calls for zero net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to be reached during the second half of the 21st century . In the adopted version of the Paris Agreement , the parties will also `` pursue efforts to '' limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C . The 1.5 ° C goal will require zero emissions sometime between 2030 and 2050 , according to some scientists . Prior to the conference , 146 national climate panels publicly presented draft national climate contributions ( called `` Intended Nationally Determined Contributions '' , INDCs ) . These suggested commitments were estimated to limit global warming to 2.7 degrees Celsius by 2100 . For example , the EU suggested INDC is a commitment to a 40 percent reduction in emissions by 2030 compared to 1990 . The agreement establishes a `` global stocktake '' which revisits the national goals to `` update and enhance '' them every five years beginning 2023 . However , no detailed timetable or country-specific goals for emissions were incorporated into the Paris Agreement -- as opposed to the previous Kyoto Protocol . A number of meetings took place in preparation for COP21 , including the Bonn Climate Change Conference , 19 to 23 October 2015 , which produced a draft agreement .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference", "rank": 38, "score": 107388 }, { "content": "Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Climate_sensitivity", "rank": 39, "score": 107160 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Idaho Content: Like other parts of the world , climate in Idaho has changed dramatically over the geologic history of the Earth . Paleo-climatic records give some indication of these changes . The longest instrumented records of climate in Idaho extend back to the late 1800s . Concern over human induced climate change through the emission of carbon dioxide from fossil fuels and methane from agriculture and industry , are driving research efforts across the state at university , state , and federals levels to understand what the implications of climate change could be in Idaho . In the big picture of greenhouse gas emissions , Idaho emits the least carbon dioxide per person of the United States , less than 23,000 pounds a year . It relies mostly on nonpolluting hydroelectric power from its rivers . Like other parts of the world , Idaho has seen significant temperature increases , especially in the last several decades . From 1971-2005 the average annual observed temperature in the Snake River Plain , located in southern Idaho , has increased by 1.4 degrees Celsius based on data from 10 climate stations ( Dubois , Ashton , Oakely , Pocatello , Aberdeen , Hazelton , Jerome , Boise , Nampa , and Payette ) . Statistically the increasing temperature trends are most significant in the months of January , March , and April . While precipitation has generally increased , since the early 1900s . The high variability in precipitation makes the identification of precipitation trends statistically difficult . Over the next century , climate in Idaho will experience additional changes due both to ` natural ' climate variability and due to feedbacks related to the interaction between climate variability and increasing greenhouse gases . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Idaho could increase by 5 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 9 F-change ) in winter and summer and 4 F-change ( with a range of 2 F-change to 7 F-change ) in spring and fall . Precipitation is estimated to change little in summer , to increase by 10 % in spring and fall ( with a range of 5-20 % ) , and to increase by 20 % in winter ( with a range of 10-40 % ) . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of winter storms is possible .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Idaho", "rank": 40, "score": 107113 }, { "content": "Title: Little Ice Age Content: The Little Ice Age ( LIA ) was a period of cooling that occurred after the Medieval Warm Period . Although it was not a true ice age , the term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939 . It has been conventionally defined as a period extending from the 16th to the 19th centuries , but some experts prefer an alternative timespan from about 1300 to about 1850 . Climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of the period , which varied according to local conditions . The NASA Earth Observatory notes three particularly cold intervals : one beginning about 1650 , another about 1770 , and the last in 1850 , all separated by intervals of slight warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report considered the timing and areas affected by the Little Ice Age suggested largely-independent regional climate changes rather than a globally-synchronous increased glaciation . At most , there was modest cooling of the Northern Hemisphere during the period . Several causes have been proposed : cyclical lows in solar radiation , heightened volcanic activity , changes in the ocean circulation , variations in Earth 's orbit and axial tilt ( orbital forcing ) , inherent variability in global climate , and decreases in the human population .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Little_Ice_Age", "rank": 41, "score": 106834 }, { "content": "Title: Future of Earth Content: The biological and geological future of Earth can be extrapolated based upon the estimated effects of several long-term influences . These include the chemistry at Earth 's surface , the rate of cooling of the planet 's interior , the gravitational interactions with other objects in the Solar System , and a steady increase in the Sun 's luminosity . An uncertain factor in this extrapolation is the ongoing influence of technology introduced by humans , such as climate engineering , which could cause significant changes to the planet . The current Holocene extinction is being caused by technology and the effects may last for up to five million years . In turn , technology may result in the extinction of humanity , leaving the planet to gradually return to a slower evolutionary pace resulting solely from long-term natural processes . Over time intervals of hundreds of millions of years , random celestial events pose a global risk to the biosphere , which can result in mass extinctions . These include impacts by comets or asteroids with diameters of 5 -- or more , and the possibility of a massive stellar explosion , called a supernova , within a 100-light-year radius of the Sun , called a Near-Earth supernova . Other large-scale geological events are more predictable . If the long-term effects of global warming are disregarded , Milankovitch theory predicts that the planet will continue to undergo glacial periods at least until the Quaternary glaciation comes to an end . These periods are caused by variations in eccentricity , axial tilt , and precession of the Earth 's orbit . As part of the ongoing supercontinent cycle , plate tectonics will probably result in a supercontinent in 250 -- 350 million years . Some time in the next 1.5 -- 4.5 billion years , the axial tilt of the Earth may begin to undergo chaotic variations , with changes in the axial tilt of up to 90 ° . During the next four billion years , the luminosity of the Sun will steadily increase , resulting in a rise in the solar radiation reaching the Earth . This will result in a higher rate of weathering of silicate minerals , which will cause a decrease in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . In about 600 million years from now , the level of CO2 will fall below the level needed to sustain C3 carbon fixation photosynthesis used by trees . Some plants use the C4 carbon fixation method , allowing them to persist at concentrations as low as 10 parts per million . However , the long-term trend is for plant life to die off altogether . The extinction of plants will be the demise of almost all animal life , since plants are the base of the food chain on Earth . In about one billion years , the solar luminosity will be 10 % higher than at present . This will cause the atmosphere to become a `` moist greenhouse '' , resulting in a runaway evaporation of the oceans . As a likely consequence , plate tectonics will come to an end , and with them the entire carbon cycle . Following this event , in about 2 − 3 billion years , the planet 's magnetic dynamo may cease , causing the magnetosphere to decay and leading to an accelerated loss of volatiles from the outer atmosphere . Four billion years from now , the increase in the Earth 's surface temperature will cause a runaway greenhouse effect , heating the surface enough to melt it . By that point , all life on the Earth will be extinct . The most probable fate of the planet is absorption by the Sun in about 7.5 billion years , after the star has entered the red giant phase and expanded to cross the planet 's current orbit .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Future_of_Earth", "rank": 42, "score": 106394 }, { "content": "Title: Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower Content: The Amundsen-Nobile Climate Change Tower ( CCT ) is a 34-meter research tower installed in Ny-Ålesund , Svalbard , Norway , for the study of various physical parameters in the boundary layer of the lower troposphere . In particular it continuously measured meteorological parameters ( temperature , relative humidity , intensity and direction of the wind ) at four different levels of height , and the four components of solar radiation and infrared at the top of the tower itself . They also measure the height of the layer of snow and its temperature at two depths . The tower was funded by the Department of Earth and Environment ( DTA ) of the National Research Council of Italy ( CNR ) and installed by Kings Bay in science village of Ny-Ålesund on Svalbard island . The inauguration took place on30 April 2009 . The CCT is an important point of reference for the study of the energy balance at the surface , and the processes of interaction and exchange between the various components of the climate system . The structure is dedicated to the Arctic expeditions of Norwegian Roald Amundsen and Italian Umberto Nobile explorers .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Amundsen-Nobile_Climate_Change_Tower", "rank": 43, "score": 105218 }, { "content": "Title: The Cloud Mystery Content: The Cloud Mystery is a documentary by Danish director Lars Oxfeldt Mortensen . It explores the published theory by Danish scientist Henrik Svensmark on how galactic cosmic rays and solar activity affects cloud cover , and how this influences the earth 's climate . Also known as Klimamysteriet in Danish . This documentary presents the work done to develop the theory that cloud cover change is caused by variations in cosmic rays as the major originator of global climate variation . It also mentions that these scientist to not subscribe to the view that human influence and the effect of greenhouse gases as significant drivers of climate . However , the focus is on the work they have done and not on other climate theories like anthropogenic global warming for instance .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "The_Cloud_Mystery", "rank": 44, "score": 105147 }, { "content": "Title: Mesopause Content: The mesopause is the temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere atmospheric regions . Due to the lack of solar heating and very strong radiative cooling from carbon dioxide , the mesosphere is the coldest region on Earth with temperatures as low as -100 ° C ( -148 ° F or 173 K ) . The altitude of the mesopause for many years was assumed to be at around 85 km ( 53 mi . ) , but observations to higher altitudes and modeling studies in the last 10 years have shown that in fact the mesopause consists of two minima - one at about 85 km and a stronger minimum at about 100 km . ( 62 mi . ) Another feature is that the summer mesopause is cooler than the winter ( sometimes referred to as the mesopause anomaly ) . It is due to a summer-to-winter circulation giving rise to upwelling at the summer pole and downwelling at the winter pole . Air rising will expand and cool resulting in a cold summer mesopause and conversely downwelling air results in compression and associated increase in temperature at the winter mesopause . In the mesosphere the summer-to-winter circulation is due to gravity wave dissipation , which deposits momentum against the mean east-west flow , resulting in a small north-south circulation . In recent years the mesopause has also been the focus of studies on global climate change associated with increases in CO2 . Unlike the troposphere , where greenhouse gases result in the atmosphere heating up , increased CO2 in the mesosphere acts to cool the atmosphere due to increased radiative emission . This results in a measurable effect - the mesopause should become cooler with increased CO2 . Observations do show a decrease of temperature of the mesopause , though the magnitude of this decrease varies and is subject to further study . Modeling studies of this phenomenon have also been carried out .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Mesopause", "rank": 45, "score": 104874 }, { "content": "Title: Hans Oeschger Content: Hans Oeschger ( 2 April 1927 , Ottenbach -- 25 December 1998 , Bern ) was the founder of the Division of Climate and Environmental Physics at the Physics Institute of the University of Bern in 1963 and director until his retirement in 1992 . Oeschger was the first to date the `` age '' of Pacific deep water . The Oeschger counter was the leading instrument for many years which enabled the Oeschger 's team to measure the activity of naturally occurring radioisotopes . Oeschger was a pioneer and leader in ice core research . In collaboration with his colleagues he was the first to measure the glacial-interglacial change of atmospheric . They showed in 1979 that the atmospheric concentration of during the glacial was almost 50 % lower than today . Together with his colleagues Chester C. Langway and Willi Dansgaard , he documented a series of abrupt climate changes in the Greenland ice cores now known as Dansgaard-Oeschger events . Hans Oeschger was deeply troubled by the potential of an increased greenhouse effect caused by the steady increase of atmospheric . He said : `` The worst for me would be , if there were serious changes in the next 5 to 10 years and we scientists are helpless and did not have the courage to point at these dangerous developments early . '' He was a Lead Author of the First Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The European Geophysical Society established the Hans Oeschger Medal in his honour in 2001 . The centre of excellence for climate research at the University of Bern ( Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research ) , which was founded in 2007 , is named after Hans Oeschger .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Hans_Oeschger", "rank": 46, "score": 104577 }, { "content": "Title: Willie Soon Content: Wei-Hock `` Willie '' Soon ( born 1966 ) is an externally-funded part-time researcher of the Smithsonian at the Solar and Stellar Physics ( SSP ) Division of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics . Soon co-authored The Maunder Minimum and the Variable Sun -- Earth Connection with Steven H. Yaskell . The book treats historical and proxy records of climate change coinciding with the Maunder Minimum , a period from 1645 to about 1715 when sunspots became exceedingly rare . Soon disputes the current scientific understanding of climate change , and contends that most global warming is caused by solar variation rather than by human activity . He gained visibility in part due to strong scientific criticism of the methodology of a paper which he co-wrote . Climate scientists such as Gavin Schmidt of the Goddard Institute for Space Studies have strongly refuted Soon 's arguments , and the Smithsonian does not support his conclusions . He is nonetheless frequently cited by politicians opposed to climate-change legislation .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Willie_Soon", "rank": 47, "score": 103842 }, { "content": "Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Ice-albedo_feedback", "rank": 48, "score": 103678 }, { "content": "Title: Cyclostratigraphy Content: Cyclostratigraphy is the study of astronomically forced climate cycles within sedimentary successions . Astronomical cycles are variations of the Earth 's orbit around the sun due to the gravitational interaction with other masses within the solar system . Due to this cyclicity solar irradiation differs through time on different hemispheres and seasonality is affected . These insolation variations have influence on Earth 's climate and so on the deposition of sedimentary rocks . The main orbital cycles are precession with at present main periods of 19 and 23 kyr , obliquity with at present main periods of 41 kyr , and 1.2 Myr , and eccentricity with at present main periods of around 100 kyr , 405 kyr , and 2.4 Myr . Cyclostratigraphic studies of rock records can lead to accurate dating of events in the geological past , to increase understanding of cause and consequences of Earth 's ( climate ) history , and to more control on depositional mechanisms of sediments and the acting of sedimentary systems .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Cyclostratigraphy", "rank": 49, "score": 102921 }, { "content": "Title: Degree (temperature) Content: The term degree is used in several scales of temperature . The symbol ° is usually used , followed by the initial letter of the unit , for example `` ° C '' for degree ( s ) Celsius . A degree can be defined as a set change in temperature measured against a given scale , for example , one degree Celsius is one hundredth of the temperature change between the point at which water starts to change state from solid to liquid state and the point at which it starts to change from its gaseous state to liquid .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Degree_(temperature)", "rank": 50, "score": 102782 }, { "content": "Title: Deforestation and climate change Content: Deforestation is one of the main contributors to climate change . It is the second largest anthropogenic source of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere , after fossil fuel combustion . Deforestation and forest degradation contribute to atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions through combustion of forest biomass and decomposition of remaining plant material and soil carbon . It used to account for more than 20 % of carbon dioxide emissions , but it 's currently somewhere around the 10 % mark . By 2008 , deforestation was 12 % of total , or 15 % if peatlands are included . These proportions are likely to have fallen since given the continued rise of fossil fuel use . Averaged over all land and ocean surfaces , temperatures warmed roughly 1.53 ° F ( 0.85 ° C ) between 1880 and 2012 , according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . In the Northern Hemisphere , 1983 to 2012 were the warmest 30-year period of the last 1400 years .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Deforestation_and_climate_change", "rank": 51, "score": 102777 }, { "content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén", "rank": 52, "score": 102588 }, { "content": "Title: Milutin Milanković Content: Milutin Milanković ( Милутин Миланковић , pronounced -LSB- milǔtin milǎːnkɔʋitɕ -RSB- 28 May 1879 -- 12 December 1958 ) was a Serbian mathematician , astronomer , climatologist , geophysicist , civil engineer , doctor of technology , university professor and popularizer of science . Milanković gave two fundamental contributions to global science . The first contribution is the `` Canon of the Earth 's Insolation '' , which characterizes the climates of all the planets of the Solar system . The second contribution is the explanation of Earth 's long-term climate changes caused by changes in the position of the Earth in comparison to the Sun , now known as Milankovitch cycles . This explained the ice ages occurring in the geological past of the Earth , as well as the climate changes on the Earth which can be expected in the future . He founded planetary climatology by calculating temperatures of the upper layers of the Earth 's atmosphere as well as the temperature conditions on planets of the inner Solar system , Mercury , Venus , Mars , and the Moon , as well as the depth of the atmosphere of the outer planets . He demonstrated the interrelatedness of celestial mechanics and the Earth sciences , and enabled consistent transition from celestial mechanics to the Earth sciences and transformation of descriptive sciences into exact ones .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Milutin_Milanković", "rank": 53, "score": 102389 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 54, "score": 102234 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 55, "score": 102112 }, { "content": "Title: Radiative forcing Content: Radiative forcing or climate forcing is the difference between insolation ( sunlight ) absorbed by the Earth and energy radiated back to space . Typically , radiative forcing is quantified at the tropopause in units of watts per square meter of the Earth 's surface . Positive forcing ( incoming energy exceeding outgoing energy ) warms the system , while negative forcing ( outgoing energy exceeding incoming energy ) cools it . Causes of radiative forcing include changes in insolation and the concentrations of radiatively active gases , commonly known as greenhouse gases and aerosols .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Radiative_forcing", "rank": 56, "score": 102018 }, { "content": "Title: Solar radiation management Content: Solar radiation management ( SRM ) projects are a type of climate engineering which seek to reflect sunlight and thus reduce global warming . Proposed examples include the creation of stratospheric sulfate aerosols . Their principal advantages as an approach to climate engineering is the speed with which they can be deployed and become fully active , their potential low financial cost , and the reversibility of their direct climatic effects . Solar radiation management projects could , for example , be used as a temporary response while levels of greenhouse gases can be brought under control by mitigation and greenhouse gas removal techniques . They would not reduce greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere , and thus do not address problems such as ocean acidification caused by excess carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Solar_radiation_management", "rank": 57, "score": 101828 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan", "rank": 58, "score": 101593 }, { "content": "Title: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera Content: Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera is a theoretical physicist and researcher at the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico ( UNAM ) . He disagrees with predictions about future climate change , arguing that they ignore the most important factor , which is sun activity . In the summer of 2008 , he also predicted the world to soon enter a little ice age . `` The models and forecasts of the U.N. IPCC `` are incorrect because they only are based on mathematical models and presented results at scenarios that do not include , for example , solar activity . '' -- Victor Manuel Velasco Herrera .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Victor_Manuel_Velasco_Herrera", "rank": 59, "score": 101535 }, { "content": "Title: Medieval Warm Period Content: The Medieval Warm Period ( MWP ) , Medieval Climate Optimum , or Medieval Climatic Anomaly was a time of warm climate in the North Atlantic region that may also have been related to other climate events around the world during that time , including China and other areas , lasting from about 950 to 1250 . It was followed by a cooler period in the North Atlantic and elsewhere termed the Little Ice Age . Some refer to the event as the Medieval Climatic Anomaly as this term emphasizes that effects other than temperature were important . Despite uncertainties , especially for the period prior to 1600 for which data are scarce , the warmest period of the last 2,000 years prior to the 20th century in the Northern Hemisphere very likely occurred between 950 and 1100 . Proxy records show peak warmth occurred at different times for different regions , indicating that the Medieval Warm Period was not a time of globally uniform change . Temperatures in some regions matched or exceeded recent temperatures in these regions , but globally the Medieval Warm Period was cooler than recent global temperatures . Possible causes of the Medieval Warm Period include increased solar activity , decreased volcanic activity , and changes to ocean circulation .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Medieval_Warm_Period", "rank": 60, "score": 101452 }, { "content": "Title: Cool early Earth Content: The cool early Earth ( CEE ) theory posits that for part of the Hadean geological eon , at the beginning of the Earth 's history , it had a modest influx of bolides and a cool climate , allowing the presence of liquid water . This would have been after the extreme conditions of earth 's earliest history between 4.6 and 4.4 billion years ( Ga ) ago , but before the Late Heavy Bombardment of 4.1 to 3.8 Ga ago . In 2002 John Valley et al argued that detrital zircons found in Western Australia , dating to 4.0 -- 4.4 Ga ago , were formed at relatively low temperatures , that meteorite impacts may have been less frequent than previously thought , and that the earth may have gone through long periods when liquid oceans and life were possible . In 2016 Gavin Kenny et al replied to suggestions that zircons were formed by melting during tectonic subduction at plate boundaries , and argued that at least some of them were formed by meteorite impacts .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Cool_early_Earth", "rank": 61, "score": 101409 }, { "content": "Title: Human Rights and Climate Change Content: Human Rights and Climate Change is a conceptual and legal framework under which international human rights and their relationship to global warming are studied , analyzed , and addressed . The framework has been employed by governments , United Nations organs , intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations , human rights and environmental advocates , and academics to guide national and international policy on climate change under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) and the core international human rights instruments . Human rights and climate change analysis focuses on the anticipated consequences to humans associated with global environmental phenomena including sea level rise , desertification , temperature increases , extreme weather events , and changes in precipitation , as well as adaptation and mitigation measures taken by governments in response to those phenomena that may involve human rights or related legal protections .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Human_Rights_and_Climate_Change", "rank": 62, "score": 101388 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in New York City Content: Climate change in New York City could affect buildings/structures , wetlands , water supply , health , and energy demand , due to the high population and extensive infrastructure in the region . New York is especially at risk if the sea level rises , due to many of the bridges connecting to boroughs , and entrances to roads and rail tunnels . High-traffic locations such as the airports , the Holland Tunnel , the Lincoln Tunnel , and the New York Passenger Ship Terminal are located in areas vulnerable to flooding . Flooding would be expensive to reverse . Rising temperatures could bring a higher risk of heat related deaths from heat waves and increased concentrations of ground-level ozone ( potentially causing asthma and other health concerns ) .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Climate_change_in_New_York_City", "rank": 63, "score": 101369 }, { "content": "Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Runaway_greenhouse_effect", "rank": 64, "score": 101108 }, { "content": "Title: Upper-atmospheric models Content: Upper-atmospheric models are simulations of the Earth 's atmosphere between 20 and 100 km ( 65,000 and 328,000 feet ) that comprises the stratosphere , mesosphere , and the lower thermosphere . Whereas most climate models simulate a region of the Earth 's atmosphere from the surface to the stratopause , there also exist numerical models which simulate the wind , temperature and composition of the Earth 's tenuous upper atmosphere , from the mesosphere to the exosphere , including the ionosphere . This region is affected strongly by the 11 year Solar cycle through variations in solar UV/EUV/Xray radiation and solar wind leading to high latitude particle precipitation and aurora . It has been proposed that these phenomena may have an effect on the lower atmosphere , and should therefore be included in simulations of climate change . For this reason there has been a drive in recent years to create whole atmosphere models to investigate whether or not this is the case .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Upper-atmospheric_models", "rank": 65, "score": 100728 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change litigation and the California Environmental Quality Act Content: Litigation related to climate change and greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions has become increasingly common in federal and state courts . Following adoption of the Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 ( AB 32 ) and publication of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fourth Assessment Report ( AR4 ) , additional pressure was placed on California public agencies to evaluate potential adverse effects to global climate change caused by GHG emissions . In particular , several lawsuits have been filed against agencies for failure to analyze GHG emissions generated by projects subject to the California Environmental Quality Act ( CEQA ) . Court decisions prior to the 2010 revisions to the CEQA guidelines gave early insights as to how CEQA would be used as a vehicle to identify and mitigate GHG emissions within the state . Decisions issued after adoption of the revised guidelines are now being used to interpret CEQA 's new requirement to evaluate GHG emissions and climate change .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Climate_change_litigation_and_the_California_Environmental_Quality_Act", "rank": 66, "score": 100412 }, { "content": "Title: Solar maximum Content: -RSB- Solar maximum or solar max is a normal period of greatest solar activity in the 11 year solar cycle of the Sun . During solar maximum , large numbers of sunspots appear and the sun 's irradiance output grows by about 0.07 % . The increased energy output of solar maxima can impact Earth 's global climate and recent studies have shown some correlation with regional weather patterns . At solar maximum , the Sun 's magnetic field lines are the most distorted due to the magnetic field on the solar equator rotating at a slightly faster pace than at the solar poles . The solar cycle takes an average of about 11 years to go from one solar maximum to the next , with duration observed varying from 9 to 14 years . Large solar flares often occur during a maximum . For example , the solar storm of 1859 struck the Earth with such intensity that the northern lights were visible as far from the poles as Cuba and Hawaii .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Solar_maximum", "rank": 67, "score": 100293 }, { "content": "Title: The Index (Dubai) Content: The Index is a 328 m tall , 80-storey skyscraper in Dubai , United Arab Emirates . Of the 80 floors , the first four floors are service floors , 5th -- 29th are to be offices and 31st -- 77th are residential use , 73rd and 75th floors are duplex penthouses and 77th to 80th floor are triplex penthouses . The tower is oriented exactly along the east -- west axis so that the eastern and western concrete cores shelter the floors from the harsh , desert sun and the climatic effects of the area . The concrete cores shelter the building from the low angle , highly penetrating morning and evening sun leaving only the south facade exposed to the high angle , low penetrating midday sun . The south-facing facade utilizes extensive sun shades to lower solar gain . The Index is one of the first towers in the region to intelligently embrace its climatic surrounding environment within its fundamental design principles . The tower 's environmental strategy significantly lowers the requirement for air conditioning within the building and therefore substantially reduces the energy costs for its tenants . During the height of the summer , without air conditioning , the tower 's internal temperatures will not surpass 28 degrees Celsius . The tower has car parking for 2,442 cars . A double height sky lobby separates the offices and apartments with recreational facilities , such as the swimming pool and gym . In June 2011 , The Index Tower was the recipient of the 2011 Best Tall Building Middle East & Africa award by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat . As of December 2015 , the full retail space , two third of the office floors and 1404 car parks are owned by Emirates REIT , UAE 's first Real Estate Investment Trust .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "The_Index_(Dubai)", "rank": 68, "score": 100280 }, { "content": "Title: Weather Content: Weather is the state of the atmosphere , to the degree that it is hot or cold , wet or dry , calm or stormy , clear or cloudy . Most weather phenomena occur in the lowest level of the atmosphere , the troposphere , just below the stratosphere . Weather refers to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity , whereas climate is the term for the averaging of atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time . When used without qualification , `` weather '' is generally understood to mean the weather of Earth . Weather is driven by air pressure , temperature and moisture differences between one place and another . These differences can occur due to the sun 's angle at any particular spot , which varies with latitude . The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the largest scale atmospheric circulations : the Hadley Cell , the Ferrel Cell , the Polar Cell , and the jet stream . Weather systems in the mid-latitudes , such as extratropical cyclones , are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow . Because the Earth 's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane , sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of the year . On Earth 's surface , temperatures usually range ± 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F to 100 ° F ) annually . Over thousands of years , changes in Earth 's orbit can affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth , thus influencing long-term climate and global climate change . Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences . Higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes as most atmospheric heating is due to contact with the Earth 's surface while radiative losses to space are mostly constant . Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location . The Earth 's weather system is a chaotic system ; as a result , small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large effects on the system as a whole . Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout history , and there is evidence that human activities such as agriculture and industry have modified weather patterns . Studying how the weather works on other planets has been helpful in understanding how weather works on Earth . A famous landmark in the Solar System , Jupiter 's Great Red Spot , is an anticyclonic storm known to have existed for at least 300 years . However , weather is not limited to planetary bodies . A star 's corona is constantly being lost to space , creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System . The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Weather", "rank": 69, "score": 100027 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Texas", "rank": 70, "score": 99793 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of climate change on terrestrial animals Content: Climate change has had a significant direct effect on terrestrial animals , by being a major driver of the processes of speciation and extinction . The best known example of this is the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse which occurred 350 million years ago . This event decimated amphibian populations and spurred on the evolution of reptiles . Climate change is a natural event that has occurred throughout history . However , with the recent increased emission of CO2 in the Earth 's atmosphere , abrupt climate change has occurred . It has been hypothesized that anthropogenic greenhouse gas forcing has significantly influenced global climate since about 8000 before present ( Van Hoof 2006 ) . Animals have had specific responses to climate change . Species respond to climate changes by migration , adaptation , or if neither of those occur , death . These migrations can sometimes follow an animal 's preferred temperature , elevation , soil , etc. , as said terrain moves due to climate change . Adaptation can be either genetic or phenological , and death can occur in a local population only ( extirpation ) or as an entire species , otherwise known as extinction . Climate changes is projected to affect individual organisms , populations , species distributions and ecosystem composition and function both directly ( ex . Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation ) and indirectly ( through climate changing the intensity and frequency of disturbances such as wildfires and severe storms ) ( IPCC 2002 ) . Every organism has a unique set of preferences or requirements , a niche and biodiversity has been tied to the diversity of animals ' niches . These can include or be affected by temperature , aridity , resource availability , habitat requirements , enemies , soil characteristics , competitors , and pollinators . Since the factors that compose a niche can be so complex and interconnected , the niches of many animals are bound to be affected by climate change ( Parmesan Yohe 2003 ) . One study done by Camille Parmesan and Gary Yohe from University of Texas , Austin shows the global fingerprint of climate change on natural systems . The results of their global analysis of 334 species were recorded to demonstrate the correlation of patterns consistent with global climate change of the 20th century . Using the IPCC 's ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ) ` levels of confidence ' , this study proved significant nonrandom behavioral changes due to global climate change with very high confidence ( > 95 ) . Furthermore , an accuracy of 74-91 % change in species has displayed predicted change for species in response to climate change .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Effects_of_climate_change_on_terrestrial_animals", "rank": 71, "score": 99777 }, { "content": "Title: List of climate research satellites Content: The invention of climate research through the use of satellite remote telemetry began in the 1960s through development of space probes to study other planets . During the U.S. economic decline in 1977 , with much of NASA 's money going toward the Shuttle program , the Reagan Administration proposed to reduce spending on planetary exploration . During this time , new scientific evidence emerged from ice and sediment cores that Earth 's climate had experienced rapid changes in temperature , running contrary to the previously held belief that the climate changed on a geological time scale . These changes increased political interest in gathering remote-sensing data on the Earth itself and stimulated the science of climatology .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "List_of_climate_research_satellites", "rank": 72, "score": 99727 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 73, "score": 99605 }, { "content": "Title: Tropical climate Content: A tropical climate in the Köppen climate classification is a non-arid climate in which all twelve months have mean temperatures of at least 18 C . In tropical climates there are often only two seasons , a wet season and a dry season . Tropical climates are frost-free and changes in the solar angle are small . In tropical climates temperature remains relatively constant ( hot ) throughout the year .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Tropical_climate", "rank": 74, "score": 99590 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in South Korea Content: In recent decades most countries have been experiencing huge industrial progress . Urban and industrial areas in South Korea also had fast development from 1960s to 1980s . Industrialization and the increase in population have produced various pollutants and greenhouse gases , which are anthropogenic factors for climate change . South Korea is experiencing changes in climate parameters , including annual temperature , rainfall amounts , and precipitation . The most distinct climate change predicted for South Korea is an increase in the range of temperature fluctuation throughout the four seasons . The number of record minimum temperature days has decreased rapidly , and maximum precipitation during the summer has increased . Ongoing global climate change has produced local climate changes and extreme weather that affects : social , economy , industry , culture , and many other sectors . The increased possibility for new types of strong weather damage evokes the seriousness and the urgency of climate change . To quickly adapt to climate change , the South Korean government began an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , and is one step closer to having a low-carbon based socio-economic nation .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Climate_change_in_South_Korea", "rank": 75, "score": 99274 }, { "content": "Title: Antarctic Cold Reversal Content: The Antarctic Cold Reversal ( ACR ) was an important episode of cooling in the climate history of the Earth during the deglaciation at the close of the last ice age . It illustrates the complexity of the climate changes at the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epochs . The Last Glacial Maximum and sea-level minimum occurred c. 21,000 years before present ( BP ) . Antarctic ice cores show gradual warming beginning 3000 years later . At about 14,700 BP , there was a large pulse of meltwater , identified as Meltwater pulse 1A , probably from either the Antarctic ice sheet or the Laurentide ice sheet . Meltwater pulse 1A produced a marine transgression that raised global sea level about 20 meters in two to five centuries and is thought to have influenced the start of the Bølling / Allerød interstadial , the major break with glacial cold in the Northern Hemisphere . Meltwater pulse 1A was followed in Antarctica and the Southern Hemisphere by a renewed cooling , the Antarctic Cold Reversal , in c. 14,500 BP , which lasted for two millennia -- an instance of warming causing cooling . The ACR brought an average cooling of perhaps 3 ° C . The Younger Dryas cooling , in the Northern Hemisphere , began while the Antarctic Cold Reversal was still ongoing , and the ACR ended in the midst of the Younger Dryas . This pattern of climate decoupling between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and of `` southern lead , northern lag '' would manifest in subsequent climate events . The cause or causes of this hemispheric decoupling , of the `` lead/lag '' pattern and of the specific mechanisms of the warming and cooling trends are still subjects of study and dispute among climate researchers . The specific dating and intensity of the Antarctic Cold Reversal are also under debate . The onset of the Antarctic Cold Reversal was followed , after about 800 years , by an Oceanic Cold Reversal in the Southern Ocean .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Antarctic_Cold_Reversal", "rank": 76, "score": 99137 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic winter Content: A volcanic winter is a reduction in global temperatures caused by volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid and water obscuring the Sun and raising Earth 's albedo ( increasing the reflection of solar radiation ) after a large particularly explosive volcanic eruption . Long-term cooling effects are primarily dependent upon injection of sulfur gasses into the stratosphere where they undergo a series of reactions to create sulfuric acid which can nucleate and form aerosols . Volcanic stratospheric aerosols cool the surface by reflecting solar radiation and warm the stratosphere by absorbing terrestrial radiation . The volcanic aerosols , resulting from the 1991 Pinatubo eruption and others , have been shown to contribute to anthropogenic ozone depletion . The variations in atmospheric warming and cooling results in changes in tropospheric and stratospheric circulation .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Volcanic_winter", "rank": 77, "score": 99058 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in West Virginia Content: Climate change in West Virginia is of a concern due to the effects on the environment . Over the last century , the average temperature in Charleston , West Virginia , has increased 1.1 ° F ( 0.61 ° C ) , and precipitation has increased by up to 10 % in many parts of the state . These past trends may or may not continue into the future . Over the next century , climate in West Virginia may change even more . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in West Virginia could increase by 3 ° F ( 1.67 ° C ) in winter , spring , and summer ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and 4 ° F ( 2.23 ° C ) in fall ( with a range of 2-7 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to increase by 20 % ( with a range of 10-30 % ) in all seasons , slightly more in summer . Other climate models may show different results , especially regarding estimated changes in precipitation . The impacts described in the sections that follow take into account estimates from different models . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how the severity of storms might be affected , although an increase in the frequency and intensity of summer thunderstorms is possible", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Climate_change_in_West_Virginia", "rank": 78, "score": 98972 }, { "content": "Title: Tropical rain belt Content: Rainfall and the tropical climate dominate the tropical rain belt , which oscillates from the northern to the southern tropics over the course of the year , roughly following the solar equator . The tropical rain belt is an area of active rain that is positioned mostly around the tropics . According to the website Journey North , the reason the rain belt is situated near the tropics can be attributed to the fact that most of the sun 's radiation is directed toward the equator , which is located in the middle of the tropics . This solar radiation generates large amounts of heat near the equator providing tropical regions with higher temperatures than most other regions on Earth . With all this solar radiation , the air around the tropics begins to warm up . Because hot air is less dense than cold air , the hot air rises into the upper levels of the atmosphere and as a result , cold air filters down into the lower levels of the atmosphere . The dynamics that provide the tropics with the rain belt are founded on the principal that warmer air is able to retain more moisture than colder air . When the colder air replaces the warmer air in the lower atmosphere , the abundant moisture from the tropics loses the ability to be stored in the atmosphere . As a result , the excess moisture that can not be held by the colder air is then turned into thunderstorms and rain showers . These thunderstorms and rain showers are usually located along the equator , but they will extend out to the Tropic of Cancer , which is the 23.5 north latitude , as well as the Tropic of Capricorn , which is the 23.5 south latitude . It is largely a manifestation of the ITCH ( incorrect citation ) . The tropical rain belt lies in the southern hemisphere of the Indian ocean and western Pacific ocean roughly from October to March , and during this time the northern tropics experience a dry season in which precipitation is very rare , and days are typically hot and sunny throughout . From April to September , the rain belt lies in the northern hemisphere , and a wet season occurs there , while the southern tropics experience their dry season . The rain belt reaches roughly as far north as the Tropic of Cancer and as far south as the Tropic of Capricorn in the western Pacific ocean . Its variation in the Western Hemisphere is minimal , roughly between the equator and the 15th parallel north latitude . Near these latitudes , there is one wet season and one dry season annually . On the equator , there are two wet and two dry seasons as the rain belt passes over twice a year , one moving north and one moving south . Between the tropics and the equator , locations may experience both a short wet and a long wet season . Local geography may substantially modify these climate patterns .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Tropical_rain_belt", "rank": 79, "score": 98891 }, { "content": "Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics", "rank": 80, "score": 98819 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Greenhouse_effect", "rank": 81, "score": 98491 }, { "content": "Title: Robert D. Cess Content: Robert D. Cess is professor emeritus of atmospheric sciences at Stony Brook University . He earned his bachelor of science degree in mechanical engineering from Oregon State University and his master 's degree from Purdue University in Indiana in 1956 . Cess received a Ph.D. from the University of Pittsburgh in 1959 . He is a recognized leader in the fields of climate change and atmospheric radiation transfer . His research interest involve modeling of climate feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish global climate change , and interpreting surface and satellite remote sensing data . He has been a part of studies which have found problems with the ability of model the transmission of shortwave radiation through a cloud-free atmosphere , and designed an experiment to test the accuracy of the models . They reported that they found agreement between the models and the observations of clear-sky shortwave radiation at the surface for the period studied , 1985 to 1988 . Cess was a lead author of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and worked with the National Science Foundation on understanding greenhouse warming and its associated policy implications .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Robert_D._Cess", "rank": 82, "score": 98409 }, { "content": "Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Hypercane", "rank": 83, "score": 98262 }, { "content": "Title: Runaway climate change Content: Runaway climate change or runaway global warming is hypothesized to follow a tipping point in the climate system , after accumulated climate change initiates a reinforcing positive feedback . This is thought to cause the climate to rapidly change until it reaches a new stable condition . These phrases may be used with reference to concerns about rapid global warming . Some astronomers use the expression runaway greenhouse effect to describe a situation where the climate deviates catastrophically and permanently from the original state -- as happened on Venus . Although these terms are rarely used in the peer-reviewed climatological literature , that literature does use the similar phrase `` runaway greenhouse effect '' , which refers specifically to climate changes that cause a planetary body 's water to boil off .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Runaway_climate_change", "rank": 84, "score": 98011 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 85, "score": 98008 }, { "content": "Title: Theta Ceti Content: Theta Ceti ( θ Ceti , θ Cet ) is a solitary , orange-hued star in the equatorial constellation of Cetus . It is visible to the naked eye with an apparent visual magnitude of 3.60 . Based upon an annual parallax shift of 28.66 mas as seen from Earth , it is located about 114 light years from the Sun . At that distance , the visual magnitude is diminished by an extinction factor of 0.10 due to interstellar dust . With an age of about 2.2 billion years , this is an evolved , K-type giant star with a stellar classification of K0 III . It is a red clump star on the horizontal branch , which means it is generating energy through helium fusion at its core . The star has an estimated 1.8 times the mass of the Sun and has expanded to 10 times the Sun 's radius . It is radiating 53 times the solar luminosity from its photosphere at an effective temperature of 4,660 K.", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Theta_Ceti", "rank": 86, "score": 97660 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming", "rank": 87, "score": 97597 }, { "content": "Title: 100,000-year problem Content: The 100,000-year problem ( `` 100 ky problem '' , `` 100 ka problem '' ) of the Milankovitch theory of orbital forcing refers to a discrepancy between the reconstructed geologic temperature record and the reconstructed amount of incoming solar radiation , or insolation over the past 800,000 years . Due to variations in the Earth 's orbit , the amount of insolation varies with periods of around 21,000 , 40,000 , 100,000 , and 400,000 years ( Milankovitch cycles ) . Variations in the amount of incident solar energy drive changes in the climate of the Earth , and are recognised as a key factor in the timing of initiation and termination of glaciations . While there is a Milankovitch cycle in the range of 100,000 years , related to Earth 's orbital eccentricity , its contribution to variation in insolation is much smaller than those of precession and obliquity . The 100,000-year-problem refers to the lack of an obvious explanation for the periodicity of ice ages at roughly 100,000 years for the past million years , but not before , when the dominant periodicity corresponded to 41,000 years . The unexplained transition between the two periodicity regimes is known as the mid-Pleistocene transition , dated to some 800,000 years ago . The related `` 400,000-year-problem '' refers to the absence of a 400,000-year periodicity due to orbital eccentricity in the geological temperature record over the past 1.2 million years .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "100,000-year_problem", "rank": 88, "score": 97430 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Climate_change_and_potatoes", "rank": 89, "score": 97301 }, { "content": "Title: Stratospheric aerosol injection (climate engineering) Content: The ability of stratospheric sulfate aerosols to create a global dimming effect has made them a possible candidate for use in solar radiation management climate engineering projects to limit the effect and impact of climate change due to rising levels of greenhouse gases . Delivery of precursor sulfide gases such as sulfuric acid , hydrogen sulfide or sulfur dioxide by artillery , aircraft and balloons has been proposed . It presently appears that this proposed method could counter most climatic changes , take effect rapidly , have very low direct implementation costs , and be reversible in its direct climatic effects . One study calculated the impact of injecting sulfate particles , or aerosols , every one to four years into the stratosphere in amounts equal to those lofted by the volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , but did not address the many technical and political challenges involved in potential solar radiation management efforts . If found to be economically , environmentally and technologically viable , such injections could provide a `` grace period '' of up to 20 years before major cutbacks in greenhouse gas emissions would be required , the study concludes . It has been suggested that the direct delivery of precursors could be achieved using sulfide gases such as dimethyl sulfide , sulfur dioxide , carbonyl sulfide , or hydrogen sulfide . These compounds would be delivered using artillery , aircraft ( such as the high-flying F-15C ) or balloons , and result in the formation of compounds with the sulfate anion SO42 − . According to estimates , `` one kilogram of well placed sulfur in the stratosphere would roughly offset the warming effect of several hundred thousand kilograms of carbon dioxide . ''", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_(climate_engineering)", "rank": 90, "score": 97123 }, { "content": "Title: The Chilling Stars Content: The Chilling Stars is a non-fiction book about the possible causes and effects of global climate change by Henrik Svensmark and Nigel Calder . The paperback version was published by Totem Books on March 19 , 2003 . An updated version titled The Chilling Stars : A New Theory of Climate Change was published in 2007 . Svensmark is otherwise known as a Danish physicist and professor while Calder has worked as a science journalist . The authors argue that cloud cover changes caused by variations in cosmic rays are a major contributor to global temperature increases , and they state that human influences have been exaggerated .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "The_Chilling_Stars", "rank": 91, "score": 97088 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Uranus Content: The climate of Uranus is heavily influenced by both its lack of internal heat , which limits atmospheric activity , and by its extreme axial tilt , which induces intense seasonal variation . Uranus 's atmosphere is remarkably bland in comparison to the other gas giants which it otherwise closely resembles . When Voyager 2 flew by Uranus in 1986 , it observed a total of ten cloud features across the entire planet . Later observations from the ground or by the Hubble Space Telescope made in the 1990s and the 2000s revealed bright clouds in the northern ( winter ) hemisphere . In 2006 a dark spot similar to the Great Dark Spot on Neptune was detected .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Climate_of_Uranus", "rank": 92, "score": 97032 }, { "content": "Title: Six Degrees: Our Future on a Hotter Planet Content: Six Degrees : Our Future on a Hotter Planet ( 358 pages ) , ISBN 978-0-00-720905-7 is a 2007 ( 2008 in USA ) non-fiction book by author Mark Lynas about global warming . The book looks and attempts to summarize results from scientific papers on climate change .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Six_Degrees:_Our_Future_on_a_Hotter_Planet", "rank": 93, "score": 96870 }, { "content": "Title: 4° Content: 4 ° may refer to : 4 ° , or Quarto a book or pamphlet produced from full ` blanksheets ' , each of which is printed with eight pages of text , four to a side 4 ° , a reference to a 4-degrees Celsius increase in the global average temperature due to climate change , 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference `` 4 ° '' , the third single by the progressive rock band Tool from their 1993 album Undertow `` 4 Degrees '' , the first single by experimental pop singer Anohni from her 2016 album Hopelessness", "qid": "3130", "docid": "4°", "rank": 94, "score": 96725 }, { "content": "Title: Solar gain Content: Solar gain ( also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain ) refers to the increase in temperature ( heat gain ) in a space , object or structure that results from solar radiation . The amount of solar gain increases with the strength of the sunlight , and with the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the radiation . Objects struck by sunlight absorb the short-wave radiation from the light and reradiate the heat at longer infrared wavelengths . Certain materials and substances , such as glass , are more transparent to the shorter wavelengths than the longer ; when the sun shines through such materials , the net result is an increase in temperature -- solar gain . This effect , the greenhouse effect , so called due to the solar gain that is experienced behind the glass of a greenhouse , has since become well known in the context of global warming .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Solar_gain", "rank": 95, "score": 96663 }, { "content": "Title: List of parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Content: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC or FCCC ) is an international environmental treaty negotiated at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ( UNCED ) , informally known as the Earth Summit , held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992 . The objective of the treaty is to `` stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system '' . The treaty itself set no binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions for individual countries and contains no enforcement mechanisms . In that sense , the treaty is considered legally non-binding . Instead , the treaty provides a framework for negotiating specific international treaties ( called `` protocols '' ) that may set binding limits on greenhouse gases . The UNFCCC was opened for signature on 9 May 1992 , after an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee produced the text of the Framework Convention as a report following its meeting in New York from 30 April to 9 May 1992 . It entered into force on 21 March 1994 . As of December 2015 , UNFCCC has 197 parties .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "List_of_parties_to_the_United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change", "rank": 96, "score": 96487 }, { "content": "Title: Faint young Sun paradox Content: The faint young Sun paradox describes the apparent contradiction between observations of liquid water early in Earth 's history and the astrophysical expectation that the Sun 's output would be only 70 percent as intense during that epoch as it is during the modern epoch . The issue was raised by astronomers Carl Sagan and George Mullen in 1972 . Explanations of this paradox have taken into account greenhouse effects , astrophysical influences , or a combination of the two . The unresolved question is how a climate suitable for life was maintained on Earth over the long timescale despite the variable solar output and wide range of terrestrial conditions .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Faint_young_Sun_paradox", "rank": 97, "score": 96474 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change mitigation scenarios Content: Climate change mitigation scenarios are possible futures in which global warming is reduced by deliberate actions , such as a comprehensive switch to energy sources other than fossil fuels . A typical mitigation scenario is constructed by selecting a long-range target , such as a desired atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , and then fitting the actions to the target , for example by placing a cap on net global and national emissions of greenhouse gases . An increase of global temperature by more than 2 ° C has come to be the majority definition of what would constitute intolerably dangerous climate change with efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 ° C above pre-industrial levels per the Paris Agreement . Some climate scientists are increasingly of the opinion that the goal should be a complete restoration of the atmosphere 's preindustrial condition , on the grounds that too protracted a deviation from those conditions will produce irreversible changes .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Climate_change_mitigation_scenarios", "rank": 98, "score": 96386 }, { "content": "Title: Tidal heating of Io Content: Tidal heating ( also known as tidal working ) occurs through the tidal friction processes : orbital and rotational energy are dissipated as heat in the crust of the moons and planets involved . Io has a similar mass and size as the Moon , but Io is the most geologically active body in the Solar System . This is caused by the heating mechanism of Io . The major heating source of Earth and its moon is radioactive heating , but the heating source on Io is tidal heating . As Jupiter is very massive , the side of Io nearest to Jupiter has a slightly larger gravitational pull than the opposite side . This difference in gravitational forces cause distortion of Io 's shape . Differently from the Earth 's only moon , Jupiter has several moons ( i.e. Io , Europa , Ganymede and Callisto ) . As Io is the innermost moon of Jupiter , Jupiter pulls Io inward and other moons pull Io outward . This causes Io 's orbit to be elliptical and eccentric . The distance between Jupiter and Io changes all the time and the distortion of Io likewise changes all the time . The constant change in the shape of Io results in a large amount of friction in the moon and the friction-induced heating drives strong volcanic activities on the surface of Io . Although there is general agreement that the cause of the heat as manifested in Io 's many volcanoes is tidal heating from the pull of gravity from Jupiter and its moon Europa , the volcanoes are not in the positions predicted with tidal heating . They are shifted 30 to 60 degrees to the East . A study published in 2015 , explains the eastern shift by an ocean of molten rock under the surface . The movement of this magma would generate extra heat . Liquids especially if they are sticky ( or viscous ) can produce heat through friction . The team who wrote the paper , believe that the subsurface ocean is a mixture of molten and solid rock . When the molten rock flows , it may swirl and rub against the surrounding rock , thus generating heat . Other moons in the Solar System undergo tidal heating , and they too may have more heat generated by this process , including heat from the movement of water . This ability to generate heat in a subsurface ocean increases the chance of life on bodies like Europa and Enceladus .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Tidal_heating_of_Io", "rank": 99, "score": 96319 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud formation and climate change Content: Nephology ( -LSB- nɪˈfɒlədʒi -RSB- from the Greek word nephos for ` cloud ' ) is the study of clouds and cloud formation . British meteorologist Luke Howard was a major researcher within this field , establishing a cloud classification system . While this branch of meteorology still exists today , the term nephology , or nephologist is rarely used . The term came into use at the end of the nineteenth century , and fell out of common use by the middle of the twentieth . Recently , interest in nephology ( if not the name ) has surged as many meteorologists have begun to focus on the relationship between clouds and global warming . Since the late 1990s , some have suggested that when high solar activity lowers levels of cosmic rays , that in turn reduces cloud cover and warms the planet . Others say that there is no statistical evidence for such an effect . Some nephologists believe that an increase in global temperature could decrease the thickness and brightness ( ability to reflect light energy ) , which would further increase global temperature . Recently research has been going on at CERN 's CLOUD facility to study the effects of the solar cycle and cosmic rays on cloud formation .", "qid": "3130", "docid": "Cloud_formation_and_climate_change", "rank": 100, "score": 96074 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Idealized greenhouse model Content: The surface of the Sun radiates light and heat at approximately 5,500 ° C . The Earth is much cooler and so radiates heat back away from itself at much longer wavelengths , mostly in the infrared range . The idealized greenhouse model is based on the fact that certain gases in the Earth 's atmosphere , including carbon dioxide and water vapour , are transparent to the high-frequency , high-energy solar radiation , but are much more opaque to the lower frequency infrared radiation leaving the surface of the earth . Thus heat is easily let in , but is partially trapped by these gases as it tries to leave . Rather than get hotter and hotter , Kirchhoff 's law of thermal radiation says that the gases of the atmosphere also have to re-emit the infrared energy that they absorb , and they do so , also at long infrared wavelengths , both upwards into space as well as downwards back towards the Earth 's surface . In the long-term , thermal equilibrium is reached when all the heat energy arriving on the planet is leaving again at the same rate . In this idealized model , the greenhouse gases cause the surface of the planet to be warmer than it would be without them , in order for the required amount of heat energy finally to be radiated out into space from the top of the atmosphere . The greenhouse effect can be illustrated with an idealized planet . This is a common `` textbook model '' : the planet will have a constant surface temperature Ts and an atmosphere with constant temperature Ta . For diagrammatic clarity , a gap can be depicted between the atmosphere and the surface . Alternatively , Ts could be interpreted as a temperature representative of the surface and the lower atmosphere , and Ta could be interpreted as the temperature of the upper atmosphere . In order to justify that Ta and Ts remain constant over the planet , strong ocean and atmospheric currents can be imagined to provide plentiful lateral mixing . Furthermore , any daily or seasonal cycles in temperature are assumed to be insignificant .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Idealized_greenhouse_model", "rank": 1, "score": 101058 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 2, "score": 100053 }, { "content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Earth's_energy_budget", "rank": 3, "score": 99281 }, { "content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Polar_amplification", "rank": 4, "score": 93221 }, { "content": "Title: Anti-greenhouse effect Content: The anti-greenhouse effect is a mechanism similar to the greenhouse effect , but with the opposite consequence of cooling the surface temperature of a planet . If gases in the atmosphere of a planet have a lesser transmittance for inbound radiation ( for instance , solar rays in the Solar System ) than for outbound radiation ( typically thermal radiation of the planet 's surface in the infrared domain ) , the surface temperature at which inbound and outbound heat fluxes are at equilibrium is lower .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Anti-greenhouse_effect", "rank": 5, "score": 93140 }, { "content": "Title: Rate of heat flow Content: The rate of flow of heat between two systems is measured in watts ( joules per second ) . The formula for rate of heat flow is ∆ Q / ∆ t = - K × A × ∆ T/x , where ∆ Q / ∆ t is the rate of heat flow ; - K is the thermal conductivity factor ; A is the surface area ; ∆ T is the change in temperature and x is the thickness of the material ( ∆ T/x is called the temperature gradient and is always negative because of the heat of flow always goes from more thermal energy to less ) .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Rate_of_heat_flow", "rank": 6, "score": 91811 }, { "content": "Title: Earth's internal heat budget Content: The flow of heat from Earth 's interior to the surface is estimated at 47 terawatts ( TW ) and comes from two main sources in roughly equal amounts : the radiogenic heat produced by the radioactive decay of isotopes in the mantle and crust , and the primordial heat left over from the formation of the Earth . Earth 's internal heat powers most geological processes and drives plate tectonics . Despite its geological significance , this heat energy coming from Earth 's interior is actually only 0.03 % of Earth 's total energy budget at the surface , which is dominated by 173,000 TW of incoming solar radiation . The insolation that eventually , after reflection , reaches the surface penetrates only several tens of centimeters on the daily cycle and only several tens of meters on the annual cycle . This renders solar radiation irrelevant for internal processes .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Earth's_internal_heat_budget", "rank": 7, "score": 90779 }, { "content": "Title: Effect of radiation on perceived temperature Content: The `` radiation effect '' results from radiation heat exchange between human bodies and surrounding surfaces , such as walls and ceilings . It may lead to phenomena such as houses feeling cooler in the winter and warmer in the summer at the same temperature . For example , in a room in which air temperature is maintained at 22 ° Celsius at all times , but in which the inner surfaces of the house is estimated to be an average temperature of 10 ° Celsius in the winter or 25 ° Celsius in the summer , heat transfer from the surfaces to the individual will occur , resulting in a difference in the perceived temperature . We can observe and compare the rate of radiation heat transfer between a person and the surrounding surfaces if we first make a few simplifying assumptions : The heat exchange in the environment is in a `` steady state '' , meaning that there is a constant flow of heat either into or out of the house . The person is completely surrounded by the interior surfaces of the room . Heat transfer by convection is not considered . The walls , ceiling , and floor are all at the same temperature . For an average person , the outer surface area is 1.4 m ² , the surface temperature is 30 ° Celsius , and the emissivity is 0.95 . Emissivity is the ability of a surface to emit radiant energy compared to that of a black body at the same temperature . We will be using the following equation to find out how much heat is lost by a person standing in the same room in summertime as compared to the winter , at exactly the same thermostat reading temperature : Q ̇ = εσA_s ( T_s ^ 4-T_surr ^ 4 ) Where Q ̇ is the rate of heat loss ( W ) , ε is the emissivity ( or the ability of an objects surface to emit energy by radiation ) of a person , σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( 5.670 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) W/m2 ∙ K4 ) , As is the surface area of a person , Ts is the surface temperature of a person ( K ) , and Tsurr is the surface temperature of the walls , ceiling , and floor ( K ) . Please note that this equation is only valid for an object standing in a completely enclosed room , box , etc. . In the winter , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 10 degrees Celsius , was found to be 152 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 10 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 152 ) ̇ In the summer , the amount of heat loss from a person , when the inner surfaces of the room were 25 degrees Celsius , was found to be 40.9 Watts . ( Q ̇ = ( 0.95 ) ( 5.67 x 10 ^ ( -8 ) ) ( 1.4 ) -LSB- ( 30 +273 ) ^ 4 - ( 25 +273 ) ^ 4 -RSB- = 40.9 ) ̇ Thermal radiation is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature . It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as x-rays , gamma rays , microwaves , radio waves , and television rays that are not related to temperature . Scientists have found that all bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation . People are constantly radiating their body heat , but at different rates . From these values , the rate of heat loss from a person is almost four times as large in the winter than in the summer , which explains the `` chill '' we feel in the winter even if the thermostat setting is kept the same .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Effect_of_radiation_on_perceived_temperature", "rank": 8, "score": 90271 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Greenhouse_effect", "rank": 9, "score": 89601 }, { "content": "Title: Climate system Content: Earth's climate arises from the interaction of five major climate system components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things). Climate is the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes in the climate system, such as ocean currents and wind patterns. Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans is primarily driven by solar radiation and transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, different chemical elements, necessary for life, are constantly recycled between the different components. The climate system can change due to internal variability and external forcings. These external forcings can be natural, such as variations in solar intensity and volcanic eruptions, or caused by humans. Accumulation of heat-trapping greenhouse gases, mainly being emitted by people burning fossil fuels, is causing global warming. Human activity also releases cooling aerosols, but their net effect is far less than that of greenhouse gases. Changes can be amplified by feedback processes in the different climate system components.", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Climate_system", "rank": 10, "score": 89173 }, { "content": "Title: Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean Content: The Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean ( SHEBA ) study was a National Science Foundation-funded research project designed to quantify the heat transfer processes that occur between the ocean and the atmosphere over the course of a year in the Arctic Ocean , where the sun is above the horizon from spring through summer and below the horizon the rest of the time . The study was designed to provide data for use in global climate models , which scientists use to study global climate change .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Surface_Heat_Budget_of_the_Arctic_Ocean", "rank": 11, "score": 88590 }, { "content": "Title: Cold-core low Content: A cold-core low , also known as an upper level low or cold-core cyclone , is a cyclone aloft which has an associated cold pool of air residing at high altitude within the Earth 's troposphere . It is a low pressure system which strengthens with height in accordance with the thermal wind relationship . These systems can be referred to as upper level lows . If a weak surface circulation forms in response to such a feature at subtropical latitudes of the eastern north Pacific or north Indian oceans , it is called a subtropical cyclone . Cloud cover and rainfall mainly occurs with these systems during the day . Severe weather , such as tornadoes , can occur near the center of cold-core lows . Cold lows can help spawn cyclones with significant weather impacts , such as polar lows , and Von Karman Vortices . In regard to tropical cyclones , cold lows can lead directly to their development due to their associated cold pool of air aloft or by acting as additional outflow channels to aid in further development .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Cold-core_low", "rank": 12, "score": 88039 }, { "content": "Title: Effect of Sun angle on climate Content: The amount of heat energy received at any location on the globe is a direct effect of Sun angle on climate , as the angle at which sunlight strikes the Earth varies by location , time of day , and season due to the Earth 's orbit around the Sun and the Earth 's rotation around its tilted axis . Seasonal change in the angle of sunlight , caused by the tilt of the Earth 's axis , is the basic mechanism that results in warmer weather in summer than in winter . Change in day length is another factor . ( See also season . )", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Effect_of_Sun_angle_on_climate", "rank": 13, "score": 86735 }, { "content": "Title: Simon Tett Content: Simon Tett is a climatologist working at the University of Edinburgh . He used to work at the Hadley Centre . His most-cited paper , is , and of it he says : All attempts at detecting and attributing climate change signals need a reliable observed data set and simulations with mechanisms that drive climate change included . In a nutshell , this paper is important because it was the first study to investigate the effect of sulphate aerosols in a general circulation model of the climate system . The experiments simulate the climate back to 1860 ( which is when the global records of surface temperature became reliable ) ... After 1970 our model with greenhouse gases alone begins to depart significantly from the observations . However , when we included sulphate aerosols , which have a cooling effect , the model agreed with the data from the 1930s and onwards . The rapid warming that has taken place since 1970 is , according to the model , attributable to a heating effect from greenhouse gases and a cooling effect from sulphate aerosols .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Simon_Tett", "rank": 14, "score": 86632 }, { "content": "Title: Climate model Content: Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the important drivers of climate , including atmosphere , oceans , land surface and ice . They are used for a variety of purposes from study of the dynamics of the climate system to projections of future climate . All climate models take account of incoming energy from the sun as short wave electromagnetic radiation , chiefly visible and short-wave ( near ) infrared , as well as outgoing long wave ( far ) infrared electromagnetic . Any imbalance results in a change in temperature . Models vary in complexity : A simple radiant heat transfer model treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy This can be expanded vertically ( radiative-convective models ) and/or horizontally Finally , ( coupled ) atmosphere -- ocean -- sea ice global climate models solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange . Box models can treat flows across and within ocean basins . Other types of modelling can be interlinked , such as land use , allowing researchers to predict the interaction between climate and ecosystems .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Climate_model", "rank": 15, "score": 86242 }, { "content": "Title: Isothermal flow Content: Isothermal flow is a model of compressible fluid flow whereby the flow remains at the same temperature while flowing in a conduit . In the model , heat transferred through the walls of the conduit is offset by frictional heating back into the flow . Although the flow temperature remains constant , a change in stagnation temperature occurs because of a change in velocity . The interesting part of this flow is that the flow is choked at and not at Mach number equal to one as in the case of many other model such as Fanno flow . This fact applies to real gases as well as ideal gases . For an important practical case of a gas flow through a long tube , the model has an applicability in situations which occurs in a relatively long distance and where heat transfer is relatively rapid so that the temperature can be treated , for engineering purposes , as a constant . This model has also applicability as upper boundary to Fanno flow .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Isothermal_flow", "rank": 16, "score": 85929 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric temperature Content: Atmospheric temperature is a measure of temperature at different levels of the Earth 's atmosphere . It is governed by many factors , including incoming solar radiation , humidity and altitude . When discussing surface temperature , the annual atmospheric temperature range at any geographical location depends largely upon the type of biome , as measured by the Köppen climate classification .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Atmospheric_temperature", "rank": 17, "score": 85005 }, { "content": "Title: Wind-induced surface heat exchange Content: The wind-induced surface heat exchange ( WISHE ) is a positive feedback mechanism between the ocean and atmosphere in which a stronger ocean-to-atmosphere heat flux results in a stronger atmospheric circulation , which results in a strong heat flux . It has been hypothesized that this is the mechanism by which low pressure areas in the tropics develop into tropical cyclones .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Wind-induced_surface_heat_exchange", "rank": 18, "score": 84848 }, { "content": "Title: Radiant cooling Content: A radiant cooling system refers to a temperature-controlled surface that cools indoor temperatures by the removing sensible heat and where more than half of heat transfer occurs through thermal radiation . Heat will flow from objects , occupants , equipment and lights in a space to a cooled surface as long as their temperatures are warmer than that of the cooled surface and they are within the line of sight of the cooled surface . The process of radiant exchange has a negligible effect on air temperature , but through the process of convection , the air temperature will be lowered when air comes in contact with the cooled surface . Radiant cooling systems use the opposite effect of radiant heating systems , which rely on the process of heat flow from a heated surface to objects and occupants .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Radiant_cooling", "rank": 19, "score": 84111 }, { "content": "Title: Geothermal heating Content: Geothermal heating is the direct use of geothermal energy for heating some applications . Humans have taken advantage of geothermal heat this way since the Paleolithic era . Approximately seventy countries made direct use of a total of 270 PJ of geothermal heating in 2004 . As of 2007 , 28 GW of geothermal heating capacity is installed around the world , satisfying 0.07 % of global primary energy consumption . Thermal efficiency is high since no energy conversion is needed , but capacity factors tend to be low ( around 20 % ) since the heat is mostly needed in the winter . Geothermal energy originates from the heat retained within the Earth since the original formation of the planet , from radioactive decay of minerals , and from solar energy absorbed at the surface . Most high temperature geothermal heat is harvested in regions close to tectonic plate boundaries where volcanic activity rises close to the surface of the Earth . In these areas , ground and groundwater can be found with temperatures higher than the target temperature of the application . However , even cold ground contains heat , below 6 m the undisturbed ground temperature is consistently at the Mean Annual Air Temperature and it may be extracted with a heat pump .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Geothermal_heating", "rank": 20, "score": 84046 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal Content: A thermal column ( or thermal ) is a column of rising air in the lower altitudes of Earth 's atmosphere , a form of atmospheric updraft . Thermals are created by the uneven heating of Earth 's surface from solar radiation , and are an example of convection , specifically atmospheric convection . The Sun warms the ground , which in turn warms the air directly above it .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Thermal", "rank": 21, "score": 83146 }, { "content": "Title: Ice core Content: An ice core is a core sample that is typically removed from an ice sheet , most commonly from the polar ice caps of Antarctica , Greenland or from high mountain glaciers elsewhere . As the ice forms from the incremental buildup of annual layers of snow , lower layers are older than upper , and an ice core contains ice formed over a range of years . The properties of the ice and the recrystallized inclusions within the ice can then be used to reconstruct a climatic record over the age range of the core , normally through isotopic analysis . This enables the reconstruction of local temperature records and the history of atmospheric composition . Ice cores contain an abundance of information about climate . Inclusions in the snow of each year remain in the ice , such as wind-blown dust , ash , pollen , bubbles of atmospheric gas and radioactive substances . The variety of climatic proxies is greater than in any other natural recorder of climate , such as tree rings or sediment layers . These include ( proxies for ) temperature , ocean volume , precipitation , chemistry and gas composition of the lower atmosphere , volcanic eruptions , solar variability , sea-surface productivity , desert extent and forest fires . The length of the record depends on the depth of the ice core and varies from a few years up to 800 kyr ( 800,000 years ) for the EPICA core . The time resolution ( i.e. the shortest time period which can be accurately distinguished ) depends on the amount of annual snowfall , and reduces with depth as the ice compacts under the weight of layers accumulating on top of it . Upper layers of ice in a core correspond to a single year or sometimes a single season . Deeper into the ice the layers thin and annual layers become indistinguishable . An ice core from the right site can be used to reconstruct an uninterrupted and detailed climate record extending over hundreds of thousands of years , providing information on a wide variety of aspects of climate at each point in time . It is the simultaneity of these properties recorded in the ice that makes ice cores such a powerful tool in paleoclimate research .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Ice_core", "rank": 22, "score": 82875 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal low Content: Thermal lows , or heat lows , are non-frontal low-pressure areas that occur over the continents in the subtropics during the warm season , as the result of intense heating when compared to their surrounding environments . Thermal lows occur near the Sonoran Desert , on the Mexican plateau , in California 's Great Central Valley , the Sahara , over north-west Argentina in South America , over the Kimberley region of north-west Australia , the Iberian peninsula , and the Tibetan plateau . Over land , intense , rapid solar heating of the land surface results in heating of the lowest layers of the atmosphere via reradiated energy in the infrared spectrum . The resulting hotter air is less dense than surrounding cooler air . This , combined with the rising of the hot air , results in the formation of a low pressure area . Elevated areas can enhance the strength of the thermal low as they warm more quickly than the atmosphere which surrounds them at the same altitude . Over the water , instability lows form during the winter when the air overlying the land is colder than the warmer water body . Thermal lows tend to have weak circulations , and can extend to 3100 m in height . Thermal lows over the western and southern portions of North America , northern Africa , and southeast Asia are strong enough to lead to summer monsoon conditions . Development of thermal lows inland of the coastline lead to the development of sea breezes . Sea breezes combined with rugged topography near the coast can encourage poor air quality .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Thermal_low", "rank": 23, "score": 82810 }, { "content": "Title: Migration of marine species in the Northern Atlantic Ocean Content: The world 's oceans are warming due to climate change . Climate change is caused by three major factors which are the greenhouse effect , variation in the sun 's energy that reaches Earth , and changes in reflectivity within Earth 's atmosphere and its surface . The greenhouse effect is caused by greenhouse gases that absorb sunlight . Energy from the sun that reaches Earth is either retained or sent into space . Greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere such as carbon dioxide , methane , and water vapor absorb energy which cause a blanketing effect that warms the earth . Aerosols such as black carbon also catalyze the warming effect as they are unreflective and absorb energy from the sun supplementing greenhouse gases in the warming effect . These combined factors are warming the Earth 's land as well as the oceans . Many fish species possess a certain range of water temperature that they are able to tolerate which is causing species to migrate to different areas where the water temperature is livable . The warming of the Atlantic Ocean is causing many fish species to shift north towards once cooler waters so they can live within their temperature range . Tropical species are being found outside their normal range and into more northern waters causing an array of ecological , economic , and fishery management problems .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Migration_of_marine_species_in_the_Northern_Atlantic_Ocean", "rank": 24, "score": 82712 }, { "content": "Title: Internal heating Content: Internal heat is the heat source from the interior of celestial objects , such as stars , brown dwarfs , planets , moons , dwarf planets , and ( in the early history of the Solar System ) even asteroids such as Vesta , resulting from contraction caused by gravity ( the Kelvin -- Helmholtz mechanism ) , nuclear fusion , tidal heating , core solidification ( heat of fusion released as molten core material solidifies ) , and radioactive decay . The amount of internal heating depends on mass ; the more massive the object , the more internal heat it has ; also , for a given density , the more massive the object , the greater the ratio of mass to surface area , and thus the greater the retention of internal heat . The internal heating keeps celestial objects warm and active .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Internal_heating", "rank": 25, "score": 82658 }, { "content": "Title: Volcanic impacts on the oceans Content: Explosive volcanic eruptions affect the global climate mainly through injecting sulfur bearing gases into the stratosphere , which oxidize to form sulfate aerosols . Stratospheric sulfur aerosols spread around the globe by the atmospheric circulation , producing surface cooling by scattering solar radiation back to space . This cooling effect on the ocean surface usually lasts for several years as the lifetime of sulfate aerosols is about 2 -- 3 years . However , in the subsurface ocean the cooling signal may persist for a longer time and may have impacts on some decadal variabilities , such as the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation ( AMOC ) .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Volcanic_impacts_on_the_oceans", "rank": 26, "score": 82431 }, { "content": "Title: Halothermal circulation Content: The term halothermal circulation refers to the part of the large-scale ocean circulation that is driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and evaporation . The adjective halothermal derives from halo - referring to salt content and thermo - referring to temperature , factors which together determine the density of sea water . Halothermal circulation is driven primarily by salinity changes and secondarily by temperature changes ( as opposed to the thermohaline mode in modern oceans ) . The generation of high salinity surface waters at low latitudes , which were therefore of higher density and thus sank , is thought to have been the dominant ocean circulation driver during greenhouse climates such as the Cretaceous . Similar dynamics operate today in the Mediterranean . The formation of bottom waters by halothermal dynamics is considered to be one to two orders of magnitude weaker than in thermohaline systems .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Halothermal_circulation", "rank": 27, "score": 82422 }, { "content": "Title: Duncan Wingham Content: Duncan John Wingham ( born 12 October 1957 ) is a British physicist who is Professor of Climate Physics at University College London , and was the first Director of the Centre for Polar Observation & Modelling . He is chief executive of the Natural Environment Research Council and Principal Scientist for the CryoSat Satellite Mission . In the 1990s , Wingham was involved in a four-year satellite study of the Antarctic ice sheet . His conclusion then , and from later research , is that the Antarctic has contributed little to observed rising sea levels in the 20th century . However , he has also stated that `` it is possible that the consequences of global warming on sea level rise have been underestimated ... Other sources of rise must be underestimated . In particular it is possible that the effect of global warming on thermal expansion -LSB- on the oceans -RSB- is larger than we thought '' . In a 2005 interview Wingham stated '' -LSB- t -RSB- he Antarctic is to some extent insulated from global warming because to its north are zonal flows in the atmosphere and ocean , unimpeded by other landmasses ... I am not denying global warming . ''", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Duncan_Wingham", "rank": 28, "score": 82271 }, { "content": "Title: Solar core Content: The core of the Sun is considered to extend from the center to about 0.2 to 0.25 of solar radius . It is the hottest part of the Sun and of the Solar System . It has a density of 150 g/cm ³ ( 150 times the density of liquid water ) at the center , and a temperature of 15 million degrees Celsius . The core is made of hot , dense gas in the plasmic state ( ions and electrons ) , at a pressure estimated at 265 billion bar ( 3.84 trillion psi or 26.5 petapascals ( PPa ) ) at the center . Due to fusion , the composition of the solar plasma drops from 68-70 % hydrogen by mass at the outer core , to 33 % hydrogen at the core/Sun center . The core inside 0.20 of the solar radius , contains 34 % of the Sun 's mass , but only 0.8 % of the Sun 's volume . Inside 0.24 solar radius , the core generates 99 % of the fusion power of the Sun . There are two distinct reactions in which four hydrogen nuclei may eventually result in one helium nucleus : the proton-proton chain reaction -- which is responsible for most of the Sun 's released energy -- and the CNO cycle .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Solar_core", "rank": 29, "score": 82008 }, { "content": "Title: Hans Oeschger Content: Hans Oeschger ( 2 April 1927 , Ottenbach -- 25 December 1998 , Bern ) was the founder of the Division of Climate and Environmental Physics at the Physics Institute of the University of Bern in 1963 and director until his retirement in 1992 . Oeschger was the first to date the `` age '' of Pacific deep water . The Oeschger counter was the leading instrument for many years which enabled the Oeschger 's team to measure the activity of naturally occurring radioisotopes . Oeschger was a pioneer and leader in ice core research . In collaboration with his colleagues he was the first to measure the glacial-interglacial change of atmospheric . They showed in 1979 that the atmospheric concentration of during the glacial was almost 50 % lower than today . Together with his colleagues Chester C. Langway and Willi Dansgaard , he documented a series of abrupt climate changes in the Greenland ice cores now known as Dansgaard-Oeschger events . Hans Oeschger was deeply troubled by the potential of an increased greenhouse effect caused by the steady increase of atmospheric . He said : `` The worst for me would be , if there were serious changes in the next 5 to 10 years and we scientists are helpless and did not have the courage to point at these dangerous developments early . '' He was a Lead Author of the First Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The European Geophysical Society established the Hans Oeschger Medal in his honour in 2001 . The centre of excellence for climate research at the University of Bern ( Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research ) , which was founded in 2007 , is named after Hans Oeschger .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Hans_Oeschger", "rank": 30, "score": 81775 }, { "content": "Title: LOWERN Content: LOWERN is an acronym for 6 factors that affect climate . Latitude . Depending on how close or how far it is to the equator . Ocean currents . Certain ocean currents have different temperatures . Warm ocean currents warm the air above it , which warms the coast . Cold ocean currents cool the air above it , which cools the coast . This helps keep the coast a consistent temperature . Wind and Air masses . Heated ground causes air to rise which results in lower air pressure . As it rises it cools and descends to the ground resulting in high air pressure . This cycle repeats which creates wind . These air masses absorb the climate of the air below it . Elevation . The higher up you are , the colder and drier it will be . When air rises it expands due to low air pressure which causes it to cool . Relief . The differences in the elevation in land . As air is forced to rise over a piece of land ( e.g. a mountain ) the temperature decreases and condensation increases . As it condensates water droplets get bigger and heavier and are forced to fall . Once the air mass goes over the mountain the temperature and evaporation increases but condensations decreases , resulting in a halt in precipitation and rain shadows . Nearness to Water . Water heats up and cools down slower than land does , having a moderating effect . On colder days , the water heats up the land , whereas on hotter days , the land is cooled down by the water . These areas also experience more precipitation . Category : Climatology", "qid": "3131", "docid": "LOWERN", "rank": 31, "score": 81710 }, { "content": "Title: Runaway greenhouse effect Content: A runaway greenhouse effect is a process in which a net positive feedback between surface temperature and atmospheric opacity increases the strength of the greenhouse effect on a planet until its oceans boil away . An example of this is believed to have happened in the early history of Venus . On the Earth , the IPCC states that `` a ` runaway greenhouse effect ' -- analogous to -LSB- that of -RSB- Venus -- appears to have virtually no chance of being induced by anthropogenic activities . '' Other large-scale climate changes are sometimes loosely called a `` runaway greenhouse effect '' although it is not an appropriate description . For example , it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian -- Triassic extinction event or Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum . Other terms , such as `` abrupt climate change '' , or tipping points could be used when describing such scenarios .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Runaway_greenhouse_effect", "rank": 32, "score": 81480 }, { "content": "Title: Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study Content: The Surface Ocean Lower Atmosphere Study or Surface Ocean - Lower Atmosphere Study ( SOLAS ) is an international scientific research initiative that is one of the core projects of the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme . SOLAS has a goal to achieve quantitative understanding of the key biogeochemical-physical interactions and feedbacks between the ocean and atmosphere , and of how this coupled system affects and is affected by climate and environmental change . Thus , this international project is a critical component to understanding the Earth system and the effects of climate change on this system . The project includes meteorologists , oceanographers , marine biologists , and policy-makers . SOLAS has three major focus areas : Biogeochemical interactions and feedbacks between ocean and atmosphere , Exchange processes at the air-sea interface and the role of transport and transformation in the atmospheric and oceanic boundary layers , and Air-sea flux of carbon dioxide and other long-lived radiatively active gases ( this last focus is developed jointly with the Integrated Marine and Biogeochemistry and Ecosystem Research project ; IMBER ) . These three focuses are detailed in the project 's Science Plan and Implementation Strategy and in three separate Implementation Plans , and each focus has its own Implementation Working Group . The project is administered by a panel of scientific experts in the Scientific Steering Committee , and project coordination is handled by the SOLAS International Project Office at the University of East Anglia in Norwich UK . Scientific research is conducted by nations across the globe , and SOLAS has 23 established National Networks . SOLAS runs a successful biennial International Summer School , held at the Institut d'Etudes Scientifiques de Cargèse in Corsica France , and the next Summer School is scheduled for 2007 . Communications from SOLAS include a monthly e-bulletin , a biannual newsletter , and a website . An Open Science Meeting was held in Xiamen China in March 2007 .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Surface_Ocean_Lower_Atmosphere_Study", "rank": 33, "score": 81162 }, { "content": "Title: Aerodynamic heating Content: Aerodynamic heating is the heating of a solid body produced by its high-speed passage through air ( or by the passage of air past a test object in a wind tunnel ) , whereby its kinetic energy is converted to heat by skin friction on the surface of the object at a rate that depends on the viscosity and speed of the air . In science and engineering , it is most frequently a concern regarding meteors , reentry vehicles , and the design of high-speed aircraft . At high speeds through the air , the object 's kinetic energy is converted to heat through compression and friction . At lower speed , the object will lose heat to the air through which it is passing , if the air is cooler . The combined temperature effect of heat from the air and from passage through it is called the stagnation temperature ; the actual temperature is called the recovery temperature . These viscous dissipative effects to neighboring sub-layers make the boundary layer slow down via a non-isentropic process . Heat then conducts into the surface material from the higher temperature air . The result is an increase in the temperature of the material and a loss of energy from the flow . The forced convection ensures that other material replenishes the gases that have cooled to continue the process . The stagnation and the recovery temperature of a flow increases with the speed of the flow and are greater at high speeds . The total thermal loading of the object is a function of both the recovery temperature and the mass flow rate of the flow . Aerodynamic heating is greatest at high speed and in the lower atmosphere where the density is greater . In addition to the convective process described above , there is also Thermal radiation from the flow to the body and vice versa with the net direction set by the relative temperature of each . Aerodynamic heating increases with the speed of the vehicle . Its effects are minimal at subsonic speeds but at supersonic speeds beyond about M2 .2 it dictates the design/materials of the vehicle structure and internal systems . The heating effects are greatest at leading edges but the whole vehicle heats up to a stabilized temperature if it remains at speed . Aerodynamic heating is dealt with by the use of high temperature alloys for metals , the addition of insulation of the exterior of the vehicle , or the use of ablative material .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Aerodynamic_heating", "rank": 34, "score": 80729 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 35, "score": 80229 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal neutral zone Content: A thermal neutral zone ( TNZ ) is essentially an endotherm 's temperature tolerance range . Within the TNZ the basal rate of heat production is in equilibrium with the rate of heat loss to the external environment . The endotherm does not have to use large amounts of energy to control its temperature within the thermal neutral zone , the organism adjusts to the temperatures within the zone through different responses requiring little energy . It can show postural changes where it changes its body shape or moves and exposes different areas to the sun/shade , and through radiation , convection and conduction , heat exchange occurs . Vasomotor responses allow control of the flow of blood between the periphery and the core to control heat loss from the surface of the body . Lastly , the organism can show insulation adjustments ; a common example being `` goosebumps '' in humans where hair follicles are raised by pilomotor muscles , also shown in animals ' pelage and plumage . This allows heat to be trapped between hairs . Below the thermal neutral zone there is the zone of LCT ( lower critical temperature ) and above there is the zone of UCT ( upper critical temperature ) . The organism reaches the LCT when the Ta ( ambient temp . ) decreases . When an organism reaches this stage the metabolic rate increases significantly and thermogenesis increases the Tb ( body temp . ) If the Ta continues to decrease far below the LCT hypothermia occurs . When the Ta reaches too far out of the UCT the rate heat gain and heat production become higher than the rate of heat dissipation ( heat loss through evaporative cooling ) , resulting in hyperthermia .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Thermal_neutral_zone", "rank": 36, "score": 80098 }, { "content": "Title: Stellar atmosphere Content: The stellar atmosphere is the outer region of the volume of a star , lying above the stellar core , radiation zone and convection zone . It is divided into several regions of distinct character : The photosphere , which is the atmosphere 's lowest and coolest layer , is normally its only visible part . Light escaping from the surface of the star stems from this region and passes through the higher layers . The Sun 's photosphere has a temperature in the 5,770 K to 5,780 K range . Starspots , cool regions of disrupted magnetic field lie on the photosphere . Above the photosphere lies the chromosphere . This part of the atmosphere first cools down and then starts to heat up to about 10 times the temperature of the photosphere . Above the chromosphere lies the transition region , where the temperature increases rapidly on a distance of only around 100 km . The outermost part of the stellar atmosphere is the corona , a tenuous plasma which has a temperature above one million Kelvin . While all stars on the main sequence feature transition regions and coronae , not all evolved stars do so . It seems that only some giants , and very few supergiants , possess coronae . An unresolved problem in stellar astrophysics is how the corona can be heated to such high temperatures . The answer lies in magnetic fields , but the exact mechanism remains unclear . During a total solar eclipse , the photosphere of the Sun is obscured , revealing its atmosphere 's other layers . Observed during eclipse , the sun 's chromosphere appears ( briefly ) as a thin pinkish arc , and its corona is seen as a tufted halo . The same phenomenon in eclipsing binaries can make the chromosphere of giant stars visible .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Stellar_atmosphere", "rank": 37, "score": 80074 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Pakistan Content: Pakistan makes a tiny contribution to total global greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions , less than 1 % ( among the lowest in the world ) but it is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change , and it has very low technical and financial capacity to adapt to its adverse impacts . The effects of climate change and global warming on Pakistan , the melting of glaciers in the Himalayas , threatening the volumetric flow rate of many of the most important rivers of Pakistan . In Pakistan , such effects are projected to impact millions of lives . As a result of ongoing climate change , the climate of Pakistan has become increasingly volatile over the past several decades ; this trend is expected to continue . Climate Change Mitigation Pakistan 's greenhouse gas ( GHG ) emissions are low compared to international standards . In 2008 Pakistan 's total GHG emissions were 310 million tons of CO2 equivalent . These comprised : CO2 54 % ; Methane ( CH4 ) 36 % ; Nitrous Oxide ( N2O ) 9 % ; Carbon Monoxide ( CO ) 0.7 % ; and Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds 0.3 % . ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . The energy sector is the single largest source of GHG emission in Pakistan ; it accounts for nearly 51 % of these emissions and is followed by the agriculture sector ( 39 % ) , industrial processes ( 6 % ) , land use , land use change and forestry ( LULUCF ) ( 3 % ) emissions and waste ( 1 % ) ( Source : National GHG inventory 2008 ) . As such , the most important targets for mitigation efforts focused on reduction of GHG emissions are the energy and agriculture sectors . In the energy sector , integration of climate change and energy policy objectives is particularly important as today 's investment will `` lock in '' the infrastructure , fuel and technologies to be used for decades to come . Similarly , the building and transport infrastructure put in place today should meet the design needs of the future . Therefore , greater attention must be paid to energy efficiency requirements in building codes and long-term transport planning .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Pakistan", "rank": 38, "score": 80062 }, { "content": "Title: Sea surface temperature Content: Sea surface temperature ( SST ) is the water temperature close to the ocean 's surface . The exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used , but it is between 1 mm and 20 m below the sea surface . Air masses in the Earth 's atmosphere are highly modified by sea surface temperatures within a short distance of the shore . Localized areas of heavy snow can form in bands downwind of warm water bodies within an otherwise cold air mass . Warm sea surface temperatures are known to be a cause of tropical cyclogenesis over the Earth 's oceans . Tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake , due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 m of the ocean . SST changes diurnally , like the air above it , but to a lesser degree . There is less SST variation on breezy days than on calm days . In addition , ocean currents such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation ( AMO ) , can effect SST 's on multi-decadal time scales , a major impact results from the global thermohaline circulation , which affects average SST significantly throughout most of the world 's oceans . Coastal SSTs can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling , which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses , but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer . Onshore winds can cause a considerable warm-up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant , such as the northwest coast of South America . Its values are important within numerical weather prediction as the SST influences the atmosphere above , such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog . It is also used to calibrate measurements from weather satellites .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Sea_surface_temperature", "rank": 39, "score": 79939 }, { "content": "Title: Robert Corell Content: Robert W. Corell ( born November 4 , 1934 , in Detroit , Michigan ) is an American global climate scientist , Principal for the Global Environment Technology Foundation , an Ambassador for ClimateWorks , Professor II at the University of the Arctic 's new Institute of Circumpolar Reindeer Husbandry and a Professor II at the University of Tromso . He is a Partner of the Sustainability Institute and its C-ROADS Climate Interactive Initiative , and Head of US Office for the Global Energy Assessment ( please see his website for further information ) . In 1996 he was Awarded Brazilian Order of Scientific Merit by the President of Brazil . In 2003 a Mountain region in Antarctic was named the `` Corell Cirque '' in his honor . He contributed to the assessment reports of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , an organisation that was co-awarded the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize , and in 2010 he was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Veterinarian Medicine by the Norges veterinærhøgskole ( Norwegian School of Veterinarian Science ) . He joined the H. John Heinz III Center for Science , Economics and the Environment in 2006 as Vice President for Programs and Policy ( until Jan. 2010 ) . Dr. Corell served as an Affiliate of the Washington Advisory Group and is a Senior Policy Fellow at the Policy Program of the American Meteorological Society . He recently completed an appointment that began in January 2000 as a Senior Research Fellow in the Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs at Harvard University 's Kennedy School of Government . Dr. Robert Corell has been quoted in the Washington Post , Vanity Fair , Golf Digest , CBS News ' 60 Minutes , and many additional public media outlets such as Skavla . Dr. Corell is actively engaged in research concerned with the sciences of global change and the interface between science and public policy , particularly research activities that are focused on global and regional climate change , related environmental issues , and science to facilitate understanding of vulnerability and sustainable development . He co-chairs an international strategic planning group that is developing a strategy designed to harness science , technology , and innovation for sustainable development ; serves as the Chair of the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment ; counsels as Senior Science Advisor to ManyOne.Net ; and is Chair of the Board of the Digital Universe Foundation . Dr. Corell was Assistant Director for Geosciences at the National Science Foundation where he had oversight for the Atmospheric , Earth , and Ocean Sciences and the global change programs of the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) . He was also a professor and academic administrator at the University of New Hampshire . Dr. Corell is an oceanographer and engineer by background and training , having received Ph.D. , M.S. , and B.S. degrees at Case Western Reserve University and MIT . He has also held appointments at the Woods Hole Institution of Oceanography , the Scripps Institution of Oceanography , the University of Washington , and Case Western Reserve University .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Robert_Corell", "rank": 40, "score": 79456 }, { "content": "Title: Cold and heat adaptations in humans Content: Cold and heat adaptations in humans are a part of the broad adaptability of Homo sapiens . Adaptations in humans can be physiological , genetic , or cultural , which allow people to live in a wide variety of climates . There has been a great deal of research done on developmental adjustment , acclimatization , and cultural practices , but less research on genetic adaptations to cold and heat temperatures . The human body always works to remain in homeostasis . One form of homeostasis is thermoregulation . Body temperature varies in every individual , but the average internal temperature is 37.0 ° C ( 98.6 ° F ) . Stress from extreme external temperature can cause the human body to shut down . When the body becomes hypothermic , the core temperature drops to 35 ° C ( 95 ° F ) . Hyperthermia results when the core body temperature rises above 37.5-38 .3 ° C ( 99.5-100 .9 ° F ) . These temperatures commonly result in mortality . Humans have adapted to living in these extreme climates primarily through culture and technology , such as the use of clothing and shelter .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Cold_and_heat_adaptations_in_humans", "rank": 41, "score": 79415 }, { "content": "Title: Trace heating Content: Electric heat tracing , heat tape or surface heating , is a system used to maintain or raise the temperature of pipes and vessels . Trace heating takes the form of an electrical heating element run in physical contact along the length of a pipe . The pipe must then be covered with thermal insulation to retain heat losses from the pipe . Heat generated by the element then maintains the temperature of the pipe . Trace heating may be used to protect pipes from freezing , to maintain a constant flow temperature in hot water systems , or to maintain process temperatures for piping that must transport substances that solidify at ambient temperatures . Electric trace heating cables are an alternative to steam trace heating where steam is not available or unwanted .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Trace_heating", "rank": 42, "score": 79379 }, { "content": "Title: Heater core Content: A heater core is a radiator-like device used in heating the cabin of a vehicle . Hot coolant from the vehicle 's engine is passed through a winding tube of the core , a heat exchanger between coolant and cabin air . Fins attached to the core tubes serve to increase surface for heat transfer to air that is forced past them , by a fan , thereby heating the passenger compartment .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Heater_core", "rank": 43, "score": 79261 }, { "content": "Title: Dye 3 Content: Dye 3 is an ice core site and previously part of the Distant Early Warning ( DEW ) line , located at ( , 2480 masl ) in Greenland . As a DEW line base , it was disbanded in years 1990/1991 . An ice core is a core sample from the accumulation of snow and ice that has re-crystallized and trapped air bubbles over many years . The composition of these ice cores , especially the presence of hydrogen and oxygen isotopes , provides a picture of the climate at the time . Ice cores contain an abundance of climate information . Inclusions in the snow , such as wind-blown dust , ash , bubbles of atmospheric gas and radioactive substances , remain in the ice . The variety of climatic proxies is greater than in any other natural recorder of climate , such as tree rings or sediment layers . These include ( proxies for ) temperature , ocean volume , precipitation , chemistry and gas composition of the lower atmosphere , volcanic eruptions , solar variability , sea-surface productivity , desert extent and forest fires . Typical ice cores are removed from an ice sheet such as the ice cap internal to Greenland . Greenland is , by area , the world 's largest island . The Greenland ice sheet covers about 1.71 million km2 and contains about 2.6 million km3 of ice .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Dye_3", "rank": 44, "score": 79199 }, { "content": "Title: Fin (extended surface) Content: In the study of heat transfer , fins are surfaces that extend from an object to increase the rate of heat transfer to or from the environment by increasing convection . The amount of conduction , convection , or radiation of an object determines the amount of heat it transfers . Increasing the temperature gradient between the object and the environment , increasing the convection heat transfer coefficient , or increasing the surface area of the object increases the heat transfer . Sometimes it is not feasible or economical to change the first two options . Thus , adding a fin to an object , increases the surface area and can sometimes be an economical solution to heat transfer problems .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Fin_(extended_surface)", "rank": 45, "score": 79088 }, { "content": "Title: Geothermal energy Content: Geothermal energy is heat energy generated and stored in the Earth . Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter . The geothermal energy of the Earth 's crust originates from the original formation of the planet and from radioactive decay of materials ( in currently uncertain but possibly roughly equal proportions ) . The geothermal gradient , which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface , drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface . The adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots γη ( ge ) , meaning earth , and θερμος ( thermos ) , meaning hot . Earth 's internal heat is thermal energy generated from radioactive decay and continual heat loss from Earth 's formation . Temperatures at the core -- mantle boundary may reach over 4000 ° C ( 7,200 ° F ) . The high temperature and pressure in Earth 's interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to behave plastically , resulting in portions of the mantle convecting upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock . Rock and water is heated in the crust , sometimes up to 370 ° C ( 700 ° F ) . From hot springs , geothermal energy has been used for bathing since Paleolithic times and for space heating since ancient Roman times , but it is now better known for electricity generation . Worldwide , 11,700 megawatts ( MW ) of geothermal power is online in 2013 . An additional 28 gigawatts of direct geothermal heating capacity is installed for district heating , space heating , spas , industrial processes , desalination and agricultural applications as of 2010 . Geothermal power is cost-effective , reliable , sustainable , and environmentally friendly , but has historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries . Recent technological advances have dramatically expanded the range and size of viable resources , especially for applications such as home heating , opening a potential for widespread exploitation . Geothermal wells release greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth , but these emissions are much lower per energy unit than those of fossil fuels . The Earth 's geothermal resources are theoretically more than adequate to supply humanity 's energy needs , but only a very small fraction may be profitably exploited . Drilling and exploration for deep resources is very expensive . Forecasts for the future of geothermal power depend on assumptions about technology , energy prices , subsidies , plate boundary movement and interest rates . Pilot programs like EWEB 's customer opt in Green Power Program show that customers would be willing to pay a little more for a renewable energy source like geothermal . But as a result of government assisted research and industry experience , the cost of generating geothermal power has decreased by 25 % over the past two decades . In 2001 , geothermal energy costs between two and ten US cents per kWh .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Geothermal_energy", "rank": 46, "score": 79076 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse gas Content: A greenhouse gas ( abbrev . GHG ) is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within the thermal infrared range . This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse effect . The primary greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere are water vapor , carbon dioxide , methane , nitrous oxide , and ozone . Without greenhouse gases , the average temperature of Earth 's surface would be about -18 ° C , rather than the present average of 15 ° C . In the Solar System , the atmospheres of Venus , Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause a greenhouse effect . Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution ( taken as the year 1750 ) have produced a 40 % increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide , from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017 . This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various natural `` sinks '' involved in the carbon cycle . Anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions ( i.e. , emissions produced by human activities ) come from combustion of fossil fuels , principally coal , oil , and natural gas , along with deforestation , soil erosion and animal agriculture . It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate , Earth 's surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047 , with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems , biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide . Recent estimates suggest that on the current emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 2 ° C global warming , which the United Nations ' IPCC designated as the upper limit to avoid `` dangerous '' global warming , by 2036 .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Greenhouse_gas", "rank": 47, "score": 79052 }, { "content": "Title: Tropical cyclogenesis Content: Tropical cyclogenesis is the development and strengthening of a tropical cyclone in the atmosphere . The mechanisms through which tropical cyclogenesis occurs are distinctly different from those through which mid-latitude cyclogenesis occurs . Tropical cyclogenesis involves the development of a warm-core cyclone , due to significant convection in a favorable atmospheric environment . There are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis : sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures , atmospheric instability , high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere , enough Coriolis force to develop a low pressure center , a preexisting low level focus or disturbance , and low vertical wind shear . Tropical cyclones tend to develop during the summer , but have been noted in nearly every month in most basins . Climate cycles such as ENSO and the Madden -- Julian oscillation modulate the timing and frequency of tropical cyclone development . There is a limit on tropical cyclone intensity which is strongly related to the water temperatures along its path . An average of 86 tropical cyclones of tropical storm intensity form annually worldwide . Of those , 47 reach hurricane/typhoon strength , and 20 become intense tropical cyclones ( at least Category 3 intensity on the Saffir -- Simpson Hurricane Scale ) .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Tropical_cyclogenesis", "rank": 48, "score": 78966 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric circulation Content: Atmospheric circulation is the large-scale movement of air , and together with ocean circulation is the means by which thermal energy is redistributed on the surface of the Earth . The Earth 's atmospheric circulation varies from year to year , but the large scale structure of its circulation remains fairly constant . The smaller scale weather systems -- mid-latitude depressions , or tropical convective cells -- occur `` randomly '' , and long range weather predictions of those can not be made beyond ten days in practice , or a month in theory ( see Chaos theory and Butterfly effect ) . The Earth 's weather is a consequence of its illumination by the Sun , and the laws of thermodynamics . The atmospheric circulation can be viewed as a heat engine driven by the Sun 's energy , and whose energy sink , ultimately , is the blackness of space . The work produced by that engine causes the motion of the masses of air and in that process it redistributes the energy absorbed by the Earth 's surface near the tropics to space and incidentally to the latitudes nearer the poles . The large scale atmospheric circulation `` cells '' shift polewards in warmer periods ( for example , interglacials compared to glacials ) , but remain largely constant as they are , fundamentally , a property of the Earth 's size , rotation rate , heating and atmospheric depth , all of which change little . Over very long time periods ( hundreds of millions of years ) , a tectonic uplift can significantly alter their major elements , such as the jet stream , and plate tectonics may shift ocean currents . During the extremely hot climates of the Mesozoic , a third desert belt may have existed at the Equator .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Atmospheric_circulation", "rank": 49, "score": 78914 }, { "content": "Title: Reflective surfaces (climate engineering) Content: Reflective surfaces are surfaces that can deliver high solar reflectance ( the ability to reflect the visible , infrared and ultraviolet wavelengths of the sun , reducing heat transfer to the surface ) and high thermal emittance ( the ability to radiate absorbed , or non-reflected solar energy ) . Reflective surfaces are a form of geoengineering . The most well-known type of reflective surface is the cool roof . While cool roofs are mostly associated with white roofs , they come in a variety of colors and materials and are available for both commercial and residential buildings . Today 's `` cool roof '' pigments allow metal roofing products to be EnergyStar rated in dark colors , even black . Solar reflective cars or cool cars reflect more sunlight than dark cars , reducing the amount of heat that is transmitted into the car 's interior . Therefore , it helps decreasing the need for air conditioning , fuel consumption , and emissions of greenhouse gases and urban air pollutants . Cool color parking lots are parking lots made with a reflective layer of paint . The project is being undertaken by Jordan Woods of the Berkeley Lab .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Reflective_surfaces_(climate_engineering)", "rank": 50, "score": 78278 }, { "content": "Title: Barotropic vorticity equation Content: This Barotropic vorticity equation assumes the atmosphere is nearly barotropic , which means that the direction and speed of the geostrophic wind are independent of height . In other words , there is no vertical wind shear of the geostrophic wind . It also implies that thickness contours ( a proxy for temperature ) are parallel to upper level height contours . In this type of atmosphere , high and low pressure areas are centers of warm and cold temperature anomalies . Warm-core highs ( such as the subtropical ridge and Bermuda-Azores high ) and cold-core lows have strengthening winds with height , with the reverse true for cold-core highs ( shallow arctic highs ) and warm-core lows ( such as tropical cyclones ) . A simplified form of the vorticity equation for an inviscid , divergence-free flow ( solenoidal velocity field ) , the barotropic vorticity equation can simply be stated as where is the material derivative and is absolute vorticity , with being relative vorticity , defined as the vertical component of the curl of the fluid velocity and f is the Coriolis parameter where is the angular frequency of the planet 's rotation ( = 0.7272 * 10 − 4 s − 1 for the earth ) and is latitude . In terms of relative vorticity , the equation can be rewritten as where is the variation of the Coriolis parameter with distance in the north-south direction and is the component of velocity in this direction . In 1950 , Charney , Fjørtoft , and von Neumann integrated this equation ( with an added diffusion term on the RHS ) on a computer for the first time , using an observed field of 500 hPa geopotential height for the first timestep . This was one of the first successful instances of numerical weather prediction .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Barotropic_vorticity_equation", "rank": 51, "score": 78134 }, { "content": "Title: Satellite temperature measurements Content: The temperature of the atmosphere at various altitudes as well as sea and land surface temperatures can be inferred from satellite measurements . These measurements can be used to locate weather fronts , monitor the El Niño-Southern Oscillation , determine the strength of tropical cyclones , study urban heat islands and monitor the global climate . Wildfires , volcanos , and industrial hot spots can also be found via thermal imaging from weather satellites . Weather satellites do not measure temperature directly . They measure radiances in various wavelength bands . Since 1978 microwave sounding units ( MSUs ) on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration polar orbiting satellites have measured the intensity of upwelling microwave radiation from atmospheric oxygen , which is related to the temperature of broad vertical layers of the atmosphere . Measurements of infrared radiation pertaining to sea surface temperature have been collected since 1967 . Satellite datasets show that over the past four decades the troposphere has warmed and the stratosphere has cooled . Both of these trends are consistent with the influence of increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Satellite_temperature_measurements", "rank": 52, "score": 77990 }, { "content": "Title: Cloud feedback Content: Cloud feedback is the coupling between cloudiness and surface air temperature where a surface air temperature change leads to a change in clouds , which could then amplify or diminish the initial temperature perturbation . Cloud feedbacks can affect the magnitude of internally generated climate variability or they can affect the magnitude of climate change resulting from external radiative forcings . Global warming is expected to change the distribution and type of clouds . Seen from below , clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface , and so exert a warming effect ; seen from above , clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space , and so exert a cooling effect . Cloud representations vary among global climate models , and small changes in cloud cover have a large impact on the climate . Differences in planetary boundary layer cloud modeling schemes can lead to large differences in derived values of climate sensitivity . A model that decreases boundary layer clouds in response to global warming has a climate sensitivity twice that of a model that does not include this feedback . However , satellite data show that cloud optical thickness actually increases with increasing temperature . Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud ; details that are difficult to represent in climate models .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Cloud_feedback", "rank": 53, "score": 77902 }, { "content": "Title: Climate sensitivity Content: Climate sensitivity is the equilibrium temperature change in response to changes of the radiative forcing . Therefore , climate sensitivity depends on the initial climate state , but potentially can be accurately inferred from precise palaeoclimate data . Slow climate feedbacks , especially changes of ice sheet size and atmospheric CO2 , amplify the total Earth system sensitivity by an amount that depends on the time scale considered . Although climate sensitivity is usually used in the context of radiative forcing by carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , it is thought of as a general property of the climate system : the change in surface air temperature ( ΔTs ) following a unit change in radiative forcing ( RF ) , and thus is expressed in units of ° C / ( W/m2 ) . For this to be useful , the measure must be independent of the nature of the forcing ( e.g. from greenhouse gases or solar variation ) ; to first order this is indeed found to be so . The climate sensitivity specifically due to is often expressed as the temperature change in ° C associated with a doubling of the concentration of carbon dioxide in Earth 's atmosphere . For coupled atmosphere-ocean global climate models ( e.g. CMIP5 ) the climate sensitivity is an emergent property : it is not a model parameter , but rather a result of a combination of model physics and parameters . By contrast , simpler energy-balance models may have climate sensitivity as an explicit parameter . The terms represented in the equation relate radiative forcing ( RF ) to linear changes in global surface temperature change ( ΔTs ) via the climate sensitivity λ . It is also possible to estimate climate sensitivity from observations ; however , this is difficult due to uncertainties in the forcing and temperature histories .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Climate_sensitivity", "rank": 54, "score": 77808 }, { "content": "Title: Evershed effect Content: The Evershed effect , named after the British astronomer John Evershed , is the radial flow of gas across the photospheric surface of the penumbra of sunspots from the inner border with the umbra towards the outer edge . The speed varies from around 1 km/s at the border between the umbra and the penumbra to a maximum of around double this in the middle of the penumbra and falls off to zero at the outer edge of the penumbra . Evershed first detected this phenomenon in January 1909 , whilst working at the Kodaikanal Solar Observatory in India , when he found that the spectral lines of sunspots showed doppler shift . Afterwards , measurements of the spectral emission lines emitted in the ultraviolet wavelengths have shown a systematic red-shift . The Evershed effect is common to every spectral line formed at a temperature below 105 K ; this fact would imply a constant downflow from the transition region towards the chromosphere . The observed velocity is about 5 km/s . Of course , this is impossible , since if it were true , the corona would disappear in a short time instead of being suspended over the Sun at temperatures of million degrees over distances much larger than a solar radius . Many theories have been proposed to explain this redshift in line profiles of the transition region , but the problem is still unsolved , since a coherent theory should take into account all the physical observations : UV line profiles are redshifted on average , but they show back and forth velocity oscillations at the same time . In synthesis , the proposed mechanisms are : siphon flows in coronal loops driven by a pressure difference , different cross-sections of the coronal loops footpoints , the return of spicules , multiple flows , nanoflares , and thermal instabilities during chromospheric condensation . The effect was commemorated in a postage stamp issued in India on 2 December 2008 .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Evershed_effect", "rank": 55, "score": 77685 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Uranus Content: The climate of Uranus is heavily influenced by both its lack of internal heat , which limits atmospheric activity , and by its extreme axial tilt , which induces intense seasonal variation . Uranus 's atmosphere is remarkably bland in comparison to the other gas giants which it otherwise closely resembles . When Voyager 2 flew by Uranus in 1986 , it observed a total of ten cloud features across the entire planet . Later observations from the ground or by the Hubble Space Telescope made in the 1990s and the 2000s revealed bright clouds in the northern ( winter ) hemisphere . In 2006 a dark spot similar to the Great Dark Spot on Neptune was detected .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Climate_of_Uranus", "rank": 56, "score": 77583 }, { "content": "Title: Urban dust dome Content: Urban dust domes are a meteorological phenomenon in which soot , dust , and chemical emissions become trapped in the air above urban spaces . This trapping is a product of local air circulations . Calm surface winds are drawn to urban centers , they then rise above the city and descend slowly on the periphery of the developed core . This cycle is often a cause of smog through photochemical reactions that occur when strong concentrations of the pollutants in this cycle are exposed to solar radiation . These are one result of urban heat islands : pollutants concentrate in a dust dome because convection lifts pollutants into the air , where they remain because of somewhat stable air masses produced by the urban heat island . The urban heat island which causes a city to heat up , caps the dust and other particulates at a low level in the atmosphere . If there is not a strong enough wind , then this dome that is created remains intact and causes that heated up air within the urban heat island . Though if the wind does blow strong enough , then this dome is blown downwind causing it to move out of the city .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Urban_dust_dome", "rank": 57, "score": 77493 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 58, "score": 77255 }, { "content": "Title: Planetary equilibrium temperature Content: The planetary equilibrium temperature is a theoretical temperature that a planet would be at when considered simply as if it were a black body being heated only by its parent star . In this model , the presence or absence of an atmosphere ( and therefore any greenhouse effect ) is not considered , and one treats the theoretical black body temperature as if it came from an idealized surface of the planet . Other authors use different names for this concept , such as equivalent blackbody temperature of a planet , or the effective radiation emission temperature of the planet . Similar concepts include the global mean temperature , global radiative equilibrium , and global-mean surface air temperature , which includes the effects of global warming .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Planetary_equilibrium_temperature", "rank": 59, "score": 76985 }, { "content": "Title: Ghrsst-pp Content: The Group for High Resolution SST ( GHRSST ) is a follow on activity form the Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment ( GODAE ) high-resolution sea surface temperature pilot project ( GHRSST-PP ) provides a new generation of global high-resolution ( < 10 km ) SST data products to the operational oceanographic , meteorological , climate and general scientific community , in real time and delayed mode . See GHRSST for full details . Sea surface temperature ( SST ) measured from Earth Observation Satellites in considerable spatial detail and at high frequency , is increasingly required for use in the context of operational monitoring and forecasting of the ocean , for assimilation into coupled ocean-atmosphere model systems and for applications in short-term numerical weather prediction and longer term climate change detection . Currently there are many different SST data sets available derived from satellite systems . But , scientists and operational agencies alike are presented with a bewidering set of options in terms of SST product content , coverage , spatial resolution , timeliness , format and accuracy . The international GODAE steering committee realised that SST data products were not adequate for GODAE forecast systems and initiated the GODAE High Resolution SST Pilot Project ( GHRSST-PP ) . User Requirements were collected together to define the optimal SST data products that could be developed to suit the widest possible number of applications . In 2008 the GHRSST-PP Science Team agreed to close the Pilot Project as the GODAE project was completed . A follow on activity called the Group for High Resolution SST is now continuing the coordination of GHRSST activities .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Ghrsst-pp", "rank": 60, "score": 76865 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Climate_change", "rank": 61, "score": 76743 }, { "content": "Title: Hurricane dynamics and cloud microphysics Content: Tropical convective clouds play an important part in the Earth 's climate system . Convection and release of latent heat transports energy from the surface into the upper atmosphere . Clouds have a higher albedo than the underlying ocean , which causes more incoming solar radiation to be reflected back to space . Since the tops of tropical systems are much cooler than the surface of the Earth , the presence of high convective clouds cools the climate system . The most recognizable cloud system in the tropics is the hurricane . In addition to the important climatic effects of tropical weather systems , hurricanes possess enough energy to cause massive death and destruction . Therefore , their accurate prediction is of utmost importance . Cloud microphysics describe the structure and properties of clouds on the microscopic scale .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Hurricane_dynamics_and_cloud_microphysics", "rank": 62, "score": 76651 }, { "content": "Title: H1504+65 Content: H1504 +65 is an enigmatic peculiar star in the constellation Ursa Minor . With a surface temperature of 200,000 K and an atmosphere composed of carbon , oxygen and 2 % neon , it is the hottest white dwarf ever discovered . It is thought to be the stellar core of a post AGB star , though its composition is unexplainable by current models of stellar evolution .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "H1504+65", "rank": 63, "score": 76523 }, { "content": "Title: Helium flash Content: A helium flash is a very brief thermal runaway nuclear fusion of large quantities of helium into carbon through the triple-alpha process in the core of low mass stars ( between 0.8 solar masses and 2.0 ) during their red giant phase ( the Sun is predicted to experience a flash 1.2 billion years after it leaves the main sequence ) . A much rarer runaway helium fusion process can also occur on the surface of accreting white dwarf stars . Low mass stars do not produce enough gravitational pressure to initiate normal helium fusion . As the hydrogen in the core is exhausted , some of the helium left behind is instead compacted into degenerate matter , supported against gravitational collapse by quantum mechanical pressure rather than thermal pressure . This increases the density and temperature of the core until it reaches approximately 100 million kelvin , which is hot enough to cause helium fusion ( or `` helium burning '' ) in the core . However , a fundamental quality of degenerate matter is that changes in temperature do not produce a change of volume of the matter until the thermal pressure becomes so very high that it exceeds degeneracy pressure . In main sequence stars , thermal expansion regulates the core temperature , but in degenerate cores this does not occur . Helium fusion increases the temperature , which increases the fusion rate , which further increases the temperature in a runaway reaction . This produces a flash of very intense helium fusion that lasts only a few minutes , but briefly emits energy at a rate comparable to the entire Milky Way galaxy . In the case of normal low mass stars , the vast energy release causes much of the core to come out of degeneracy and causes it to thermally expand ( a processes requiring so much energy , it is roughly equal to the total energy released by the helium flash to begin with ) , and any left-over energy is absorbed into the star 's upper layers . Thus the helium flash is mostly undetectable to observation , and is described solely by astrophysical models . After the core 's expansion and cooling , the star 's surface rapidly cools and contracts ( in as little as 10,000 years ) until it is roughly 2 % of its former radius and luminosity . It is estimated that the electron-degenerate helium core weighs about 40 % of the star mass and that 6 % of the core is converted into carbon .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Helium_flash", "rank": 64, "score": 76503 }, { "content": "Title: Tip of the red-giant branch Content: Tip of the red-giant branch ( TRGB ) is a primary distance indicator used in astronomy . It uses the luminosity of the brightest red-giant-branch stars in a galaxy as a standard candle to gauge the distance to that galaxy . It has been used in conjunction with observations from the Hubble Space Telescope to determine the relative motions of the Local Cluster of galaxies within the Local Supercluster . The Hertzsprung -- Russell diagram ( HR diagram ) is a plot of stellar luminosity versus surface temperature for a population of stars . During the core hydrogen burning phase of a Sun-like star 's lifetime , it will appear on the HR diagram at a position along a diagonal band called the main sequence . When the hydrogen at the core is exhausted , energy will continue to be generated by hydrogen fusion in a shell around the core . The center of the star will accumulate the helium `` ash '' from this fusion and the star will migrate along an evolutionary branch of the HR diagram that leads toward the upper right . That is , the surface temperature will decrease and the total energy output ( luminosity ) of the star will increase as the surface area increases . At a certain point , the helium at the core of the star will reach a pressure and temperature where it can begin to undergo nuclear fusion through the triple-alpha process . For a star with less than 1.8 times the mass of the Sun , this will occur in a process called the helium flash . The evolutionary track of the star will then carry it toward the left of the HR diagram as the surface temperature increases under the new equilibrium . The result is a sharp discontinuity in the evolutionary track of the star on the HR diagram . This discontinuity is called the tip of the red-giant branch . When distant stars at the TRGB are measured in the I-band ( in the infrared ) , their luminosity is somewhat insensitive to their composition of elements heavier than helium ( metallicity ) or their mass ; they are a standard candle with an I-band absolute magnitude of -- 4.0 ± 0.1 . This makes the technique especially useful as a distance indicator . The TRGB indicator uses stars in the old stellar populations ( Population II ) .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Tip_of_the_red-giant_branch", "rank": 65, "score": 76482 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal history modelling Content: Thermal history modelling is an exercise undertaken during basin modelling to evaluate the temperature history of stratigraphic layers in a sedimentary basin . The thermal history of a basin is usually calibrated using thermal indicator data , including vitrinite reflectance and fission tracks in the minerals apatite and zircon . The temperatures undergone by rocks in a sedimentary basin are crucial when attempting to evaluate the quantity , nature and volume of hydrocarbons ( fossil fuels ) produced by diagenesis of kerogens ( a group of chemicals formed from the decay of organic matter ) . Fourier 's Law provides a simplified one-dimensional description of the variation in heat flow Q as a function of thermal conductivity k and thermal gradient dT/dz : ( The minus sign indicates that heat flows in the opposite direction to increasing depth , that is , towards the Earth 's surface . ) If the assumptions used to justify this simplified approximation ( i.e. steady-state heat conduction , no convection or advection ) are accepted , we define the simple 1-dimensional heat diffusion equation where temperature T at a depth z and time t is given by the equation : where Tt0 is the surface temperature history , Qt is the heat flow history and k is thermal conductivity . The integral thus represents the integrated thermal conductivity history of a 1-dimensional column of rock . Thermal history modelling attempts to describe the temperature history Tz , t and therefore requires a knowledge of the burial history of the stratigraphic layers which is obtained through the process of back-stripping .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Thermal_history_modelling", "rank": 66, "score": 76457 }, { "content": "Title: Polar High Content: The polar highs are areas of high atmospheric pressure around the north and south poles ; the north polar high being the stronger one because land gains and loses heat more effectively than sea . The cold temperatures in the polar regions cause air to descend to create the high pressure ( a process called subsidence ) , just as the warm temperatures around the equator cause air to rise to create the low pressure intertropical convergence zone . Rising air also occurs along bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs around the 50th parallels of latitude . These extratropical convergence zones are occupied by the polar fronts where air masses of polar origin meet and clash with those of tropical or subtropical origin . This convergence of rising air completes the vertical cycle around the polar cell in each latitudinal hemisphere . Closely related to this concept is the polar vortex . Surface temperatures under the polar highs are the coldest on Earth , with no month having an average temperature above freezing . Regions under the polar high also experience very low levels of precipitation , which leads them to be known as `` polar deserts '' . Air flows outwards from the poles to create the polar easterlies in the arctic and antarctic areas .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Polar_High", "rank": 67, "score": 76401 }, { "content": "Title: Thermohaline circulation Content: Thermohaline circulation ( THC ) is a part of the large-scale ocean circulation that is driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and freshwater fluxes . The adjective thermohaline derives from thermo - referring to temperature and referring to salt content , factors which together determine the density of sea water . Wind-driven surface currents ( such as the Gulf Stream ) travel polewards from the equatorial Atlantic Ocean , cooling en route , and eventually sinking at high latitudes ( forming North Atlantic Deep Water ) . This dense water then flows into the ocean basins . While the bulk of it upwells in the Southern Ocean , the oldest waters ( with a transit time of around 1000 years ) upwell in the North Pacific . Extensive mixing therefore takes place between the ocean basins , reducing differences between them and making the Earth 's oceans a global system . On their journey , the water masses transport both energy ( in the form of heat ) and matter ( solids , dissolved substances and gases ) around the globe . As such , the state of the circulation has a large impact on the climate of the Earth . The thermohaline circulation is sometimes called the ocean conveyor belt , the great ocean conveyor , or the global conveyor belt . On occasion , it is used to refer to the meridional overturning circulation ( often abbreviated as MOC ) . The term MOC is more accurate and well defined , as it is difficult to separate the part of the circulation which is driven by temperature and salinity alone as opposed to other factors such as the wind and tidal forces . Moreover , temperature and salinity gradients can also lead to circulation effects that are not included in the MOC itself .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Thermohaline_circulation", "rank": 68, "score": 76287 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming", "rank": 69, "score": 76241 }, { "content": "Title: Hypothermia Content: Hypothermia is reduced body temperature that happens when a body dissipates more heat than it absorbs . In humans , it is defined as a body core temperature below 35.0 C. Symptoms depend on the temperature . In mild hypothermia there is shivering and mental confusion . In moderate hypothermia shivering stops and confusion increases . In severe hypothermia there may be paradoxical undressing , in which a person removes his or her clothing , as well as an increased risk of the heart stopping . Hypothermia has two main types of causes . It classically occurs from exposure to extreme cold . It may also occur from any condition that decreases heat production or increases heat loss . Commonly this includes alcohol intoxication but may also include low blood sugar , anorexia , and advanced age , among others . Body temperature is usually maintained near a constant level of 36.5 -- through thermoregulation . Efforts to increase body temperature involve shivering , increased voluntary activity , and putting on warmer clothing . Hypothermia may be diagnosed based on either a person 's symptoms in the presence of risk factors or by measuring a person 's core temperature . The treatment of mild hypothermia involves warm drinks , warm clothing and physical activity . In those with moderate hypothermia heating blankets and warmed intravenous fluids are recommended . People with moderate or severe hypothermia should be moved gently . In severe hypothermia extracorporeal membrane oxygenation ( ECMO ) or cardiopulmonary bypass may be useful . In those without a pulse cardiopulmonary resuscitation ( CPR ) is indicated along with the above measures . Rewarming is typically continued until a person 's temperature is greater than 32 C . If there is no improvement at this point or the blood potassium level is greater than 12 mmol/liter at any time resuscitation may be discontinued . Hypothermia is the cause of at least 1500 deaths a year in the United States . It is more common in older people and males . One of the lowest documented body temperatures from which someone with accidental hypothermia has survived is 13.0 C in a near-drowning of a 7-year-old girl in Sweden . Survival after more than six hours of CPR has been described . In those in whom ECMO or bypass is used survival is around 50 % . Deaths due to hypothermia have played an important role in many wars . The term is from Greek ὑπο , ypo , meaning `` under '' , and θερμία , thermía , meaning `` heat '' . The opposite of hypothermia is hyperthermia , an increased body temperature due to failed thermoregulation .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Hypothermia", "rank": 70, "score": 76177 }, { "content": "Title: Heat current Content: A heat current is a kinetic exchange rate between molecules , relative to the material in which the kinesis occurs . It is defined as , where is heat and is time . For conduction , heat current is defined by Fourier 's law as where is the amount of heat transferred per unit time -LSB- W -RSB- and is an oriented surface area element -LSB- m2 -RSB- The above differential equation , when integrated for a homogeneous material of 1-D geometry between two endpoints at constant temperature , gives the heat flow rate as : where A is the cross-sectional surface area , is the temperature difference between the ends , is the distance between the ends . For thermal radiation , heat current is defined as where the constant of proportionality is the Stefan -- Boltzmann constant , is the radiating surface area , and is temperature . Heat current can also be thought of as the total phonon distribution multiplied by the energy of one phonon , times the group velocity of the phonons . The phonon distribution of a particular phonon mode is given by the Bose-Einstein factor , which is dependent on temperature and phonon energy .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Heat_current", "rank": 71, "score": 76108 }, { "content": "Title: Natural circulation Content: Natural circulation refers to the ability of a fluid in a system to circulate continuously , with gravity and possible changes in heat energy . The difference of density being the only driving force . If the differences of density are caused by heat , this force is called as `` thermal head '' or `` thermal driving head . '' A fluid system designed for natural circulation will have a heat source and a heat sink . Each of these is in contact with some of the fluid in the system , but not all of it . The heat source is positioned lower than the heat sink . Most materials that are fluid at common temperatures expand when they are heated , becoming less dense . Correspondingly , they become denser when they are cooled . At the heat source of a system of natural circulation , the heated fluid becomes lighter than the fluid surrounding it , and thus rises . At the heat sink , the nearby fluid becomes denser as it cools , and is drawn downward by gravity . Together , these effects create a flow of fluid from the heat source to the heat sink and back again . Systems of natural circulation include tornadoes and other weather systems , ocean currents , and household ventilation . Some solar water heaters use natural circulation . The Gulf Stream circulates as a result of the evaporation of water . In this process , the water increases in salinity and density . In the North Atlantic Ocean , the water becomes so dense that it begins to sink down . In a nuclear reactor , natural circulation can be a design criterion . It is achieved by reducing turbulence and friction in the fluid flow ( that is , minimizing head loss ) , and by providing a way to remove any inoperative pumps from the fluid path . Also , the reactor ( as the heat source ) must be physically lower than the steam generators or turbines ( the heat sink ) . In this way , natural circulation will ensure that the fluid will continue to flow as long as the reactor is hotter than the heat sink , even when power can not be supplied to the pumps . Notable examples are the S5G and S8G United States Naval reactors , which were designed to operate at a significant fraction of full power under natural circulation , quieting those propulsion plants . The S6G reactor can not operate at power under natural circulation , but can use it to maintain emergency cooling while shut down . By the nature of natural circulation , fluids do not typically move very fast , but this is not necessarily bad , as high flow rates are not essential to safe and effective reactor operation . In modern design nuclear reactors , flow reversal is almost impossible . All nuclear reactors , even ones designed to primarily use natural circulation as the main method of fluid circulation , have pumps that can circulate the fluid in the case that natural circulation is not sufficient .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Natural_circulation", "rank": 72, "score": 76087 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 73, "score": 75635 }, { "content": "Title: Climate of Mars Content: The climate of Mars has been an issue of scientific curiosity for centuries , in part because Mars is the only terrestrial planet whose surface can be directly observed in detail from the Earth with help from a telescope . Although Mars is smaller than the Earth , at 11 % of Earth 's mass , and 50 % farther from the Sun than the Earth , its climate has important similarities , such as the polar ice caps , seasonal changes and the observable presence of weather patterns . It has attracted sustained study from planetologists and climatologists . While Mars 's climate has similarities to Earth 's , including periodic ice ages , there are also important differences , such as much lower thermal inertia . Mars ' atmosphere has a scale height of approximately 11 km , 60 % greater than that on Earth . The climate is of considerable relevance to the question of whether life is or was present on the planet . The climate briefly received more interest in the news due to NASA measurements indicating increased sublimation of the south polar icecap leading to some popular press speculation that Mars was undergoing a parallel bout of global warming , although Mars ' average temperature has actually cooled in recent decades . Mars has been studied by Earth-based instruments since the 17th century but it is only since the exploration of Mars began in the mid-1960s that close-range observation has been possible . Flyby and orbital spacecraft have provided data from above , while direct measurements of atmospheric conditions have been provided by a number of landers and rovers . Advanced Earth orbital instruments today continue to provide some useful `` big picture '' observations of relatively large weather phenomena . The first Martian flyby mission was Mariner 4 which arrived in 1965 . That quick two-day pass ( July 14 -- 15 , 1965 ) was limited and crude in terms of its contribution to the state of knowledge of Martian climate . Later Mariner missions ( Mariner 6 , and Mariner 7 ) filled in some of the gaps in basic climate information . Data-based climate studies started in earnest with the Viking program in 1975 and continues with such probes as the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter . This observational work has been complemented by a type of scientific computer simulation called the Mars general circulation model . Several different iterations of MGCM have led to an increased understanding of Mars as well as the limits of such models .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Climate_of_Mars", "rank": 74, "score": 75489 }, { "content": "Title: Optical overheating protection Content: With all solar thermal collector systems there is a potential risk that the solar collector may reach an equilibrium or stagnation temperature higher than the maximum safe operating temperature . Various measures are taken for optical overheating protection . Stagnation temperatures are encountered under conditions of high radiation while no heat transfer fluid is flowing through the collector , for example during power failures , component failures , servicing , energy storage capacity limitations , or periods when little hot water is extracted from the system . More generally , stagnation conditions can be considered to be any situation under which the solar collector can not adequately dispatch the absorbed solar heat to the heat transfer fluid . Besides any damaging effects to the system , high stagnation temperatures also place constraints on collector materials . These materials must retain their important properties during and after exposure to the high stagnation temperatures . This implies that solar collectors are generally built from high temperature resistant materials . These materials are usually expensive , heavy , and have an overall high environmental impact . Polymeric materials offer a significant cost-reduction and environmental improvement potential for solar thermal collectors and may thus benefit a broader utilization of solar energy for various heating purposes . However , the long-term service temperature of plastics is limited . Thus , for potential applications of plastics in solar absorbers an appropriate design including overheating protection is essential . Feasible ways would be a reduction in optical gain ( for example , using thermotropic layers , or electrochromic devices ) or an increase in system losses , by dumping of the hot water excess . In this article an alternative method to decrease the optical gain is presented . The method is based on the geometry of prisms and the phenomenon of Total Internal Reflection .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Optical_overheating_protection", "rank": 75, "score": 75479 }, { "content": "Title: High-pressure area Content: A high-pressure area , high or anticyclone is a region where the atmospheric pressure at the surface of the planet is greater than its surrounding environment . Winds within high-pressure areas flow outward from the higher pressure areas near their centers towards the lower pressure areas further from their centers . Gravity adds to the forces causing this general movement , because the higher pressure compresses the column of air near the center of the area into greater density -- and so greater weight compared to lower pressure , lower density , and lower weight of the air outside the center . However , because the planet is rotating underneath the atmosphere , and frictional forces arise as the planetary surface drags some atmosphere with it , the air flow from center to periphery is not direct , but is twisted due to the Coriolis effect , or the merely apparent force that arise when the observer is in a rotating frame of reference . Viewed from above this twist in wind direction is in the same direction as the rotation of the planet . The strongest high-pressure areas are associated with cold air masses which push away out of polar regions during the winter when there is less sun to warm neighboring regions . These Highs change character and weaken once they move further over relatively warmer water bodies . Somewhat weaker but more common are high-pressure areas caused by atmospheric subsidence , that is , areas where large masses of cooler drier air descend from an elevation of 8 to 15 km after the lower temperatures have precipitated out the water vapor . Many of the features of Highs may be understood in context of middle - or meso-scale and relatively enduring dynamics of a planet 's atmospheric circulation . For example , massive atmospheric subsidences occur as part of the descending branches of Ferrel cells and Hadley cells . Hadley cells help form the subtropical ridge , steer tropical waves and tropical cyclones across the ocean and is strongest during the summer . The subtropical ridge also helps form most of the world 's deserts . On English-language weather maps , high-pressure centers are identified by the letter H. Weather maps in other languages may use different letters or symbols .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "High-pressure_area", "rank": 76, "score": 75367 }, { "content": "Title: Indonesian Throughflow Content: The Indonesian throughflow ( ITF ) is an ocean current with importance for global climate since it provides a low-latitude pathway for warm , fresh water to move from the Pacific to the Indian Ocean and this serves as the upper branch of the global heat conveyor belt . Higher ocean surface topography in the western Pacific than in the Indian Ocean drives upper thermocline water from the North Pacific through the western route of the Makassar Strait to either directly exit through the Lombok Strait or flow eastward into the Banda Sea . Weaker flow of saltier and denser South Pacific water passes over the Lifamatola Passage into the Banda Sea , where these water masses are mixed due to tidal effects , Ekman pumping , and heat and fresh water flux at the ocean surface . From the Banda Sea the ITF exits Timor , Ombai , and Lombok passages . The location and topography of the channels that make up the ITF are shown in the Figure . Lombok Strait is 300m deep and roughly 35 km wide and the currents vary between 0.286 m/s ( 0.6 mi/hr ) eastward to 0.67 m/s westward and average 0.25 m/s westward . Currents in Ombai vary between 0.12 m/s eastward to 0.16 m/s westward , averaging 0.11 m/s westward and are funneled within the 1250m deep and 35 km wide passage . Timor passage , which is 1890 m deep by 160 km wide , is the widest of the exit pathways and averages only 0.02 m/s . From 2004 -- 2006 , 11 moorings were deployed across the entrance and exit regions of the ITF and were positioned to accurately measure each passage 's contribution as part of the International Nusantara Stratification and Transport ( INSTANT ) program . Flow in through Makassar ( 11.6 Sv , 1 Sv = 106 m ³ / s ) and Lifamatola ( 1.1 Sv ) sums to 12.7 Sv . Total outflow transport corresponds to 15.0 Sv ( varying from 10.7 to 18.7 Sv ) and is made up of Lombok ( 2.6 Sv ) , Ombai ( 4.9 Sv ) and Timor ( 7.5 Sv ) contributions . Heat Transport of the Indonesian Throughflow is 1.087 PW ( 1 PW = 1015 Watt ) . Circulation and transport within the Indonesian Seas varies along with large-scale monsoon flow . During June to August , southeasterlies of the southwest monsoon predominate over Indonesia and drive strong Ekman divergence ( southwestward flow in the Southern Hemisphere thus increasing ITF to 15 Sv ) whereas from December to February , Northwest Monsoon westerlies serve to directly reduce the ITF . During monsoon transitions , strong westerly winds in the eastern Indian Ocean force equatorial downwelling Kelvin waves ( eastward moving , eastward flow ) that propagate through the Indonesian passages as coastally trapped Kelvin waves and serve to reduce the ITF flow with a minimum in April of 9 Sv . Another way to think about it is that downwelling on the Indian Ocean side increases sea level and so reduces the normal Pacific-to-Indian pressure head reducing the flow . Global-scale , ocean waves such as equatorial/coastal Kelvin and Rossby waves drive interannual variation of the ITF with an amplitude of roughly + / -3 Sv . Western-central Pacific westerly winds from El Nino force westward moving-equatorial Rossby waves and eastward currents that hit eastern New Guinea and propagate around the west coast as coastal Kelvin waves and down through the ITF along the west Australia Shelf coast serving to reduce the ITF . Upwelling ( i.e. reduced sea level ) associated with Rossby waves on the Pacific side reduces the Pacific-to-Indian pressure gradient and reduces the ITF . Interannual variability of Indian Ocean westerlies act in the same manner as the seasonal equatorial Kelvin waves to reduce the normal westward ITF flow as well . An important feature of the Indonesian Throughflow is that because the water in the western equatorial Pacific Ocean has a higher temperature and lower salinity than the water in the Indian Ocean , the Throughflow transports large amounts of relatively warm and fresh water to the Indian Ocean . When the Indonesian Throughflow ( through Lombok Strait , Ombai and the Timor Passages ) enters the Indian Ocean it is advected towards Africa within the Indian South Equatorial Current . There it eventually exits the Indian Ocean with the Agulhas Current around South Africa into the Atlantic Ocean . So the Indonesian Throughflow transports a significant amount of Pacific Ocean heat into the southwest Indian Ocean , which is approximately 10000 km away from the Lombok Strait .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Indonesian_Throughflow", "rank": 77, "score": 75160 }, { "content": "Title: Land Surface Model (LSM version 1.0) Content: The Land Surface Model ( LSM ) is a unidimensional computational model developed by Gordon Bonan that describes ecological processes joined in many ecosystem models , hydrological processes found in hydrological models and flow of surface common in surface models using atmospheric models . In this way , the model examines interactions especially biogeophysics ( sensible and latent heat , momentum , albedo , emission of long waves ) and biogeochemistry ( CO2 ) of the land-atmosphere the effect of surface of the land in the climate and composition of the atmosphere . This model has a simplified treatment of the surface flows that reproduce at the very least computational cost the essential characteristics of the important interactions of the land-atmosphere for climatic simulations . As the types of surface vegetated for some species are several , have a standardization of types of covering being enclosed surfaces covered with water as lakes ( amongst others ) ; thus the model wheel for each point of independent form , with the same average of the atmospheric interactions . The model functions in a space grating that can vary of a point until global .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Land_Surface_Model_(LSM_version_1.0)", "rank": 78, "score": 74984 }, { "content": "Title: Process flowsheeting Content: Process flowsheeting is the use of computer aids to perform steady-state heat and mass balancing , sizing and costing calculations for a chemical process . It is an essential and core component of process design . The process design effort may be split into three basic steps synthesis analysis and optimization .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Process_flowsheeting", "rank": 79, "score": 74890 }, { "content": "Title: Heat-affected zone Content: The heat-affected zone ( HAZ ) is the area of base material , either a metal or a thermoplastic , which is not melted and has had its microstructure and properties altered by welding or heat intensive cutting operations . The heat from the welding process and subsequent re-cooling causes this change from the weld interface to the termination of the sensitizing temperature in the base metal . The extent and magnitude of property change depends primarily on the base material , the weld filler metal , and the amount and concentration of heat input by the welding process . The thermal diffusivity of the base material plays a large role -- if the diffusivity is high , the material cooling rate is high and the HAZ is relatively small . Alternatively , a low diffusivity leads to slower cooling and a larger HAZ . The amount of heat input during the welding process also plays an important role as well , as processes like oxyfuel welding use high heat input and increase the size of the HAZ . Processes like laser beam welding and electron beam welding give a highly concentrated , limited amount of heat , resulting in a small HAZ . Arc welding falls between these two extremes , with the individual processes varying somewhat in heat input . To calculate the heat input for arc welding procedures , the following formula is used : where Q = heat input ( kJ/mm ) , V = voltage ( V ) , I = current ( A ) , and S = welding speed ( mm/min ) . The efficiency is dependent on the welding process used , with shielded metal arc welding having a value of 0.75 , gas metal arc welding and submerged arc welding , 0.9 , and gas tungsten arc welding , 0.8 .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Heat-affected_zone", "rank": 80, "score": 74728 }, { "content": "Title: Inner core Content: The Earth 's inner core is the Earth 's innermost part . It is primarily a solid ball with a radius of about 1220 km , which is about 70 % of the Moon 's radius . It is composed of an iron -- nickel alloy and some light elements . The temperature at the inner core boundary is approximately 5700 K ( 5400 ° C ) .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Inner_core", "rank": 81, "score": 74431 }, { "content": "Title: Afterdrop Content: Afterdrop is a continued cooling of a patient 's core temperature during the initial stages of rewarming from hypothermia . Afterdrop is attributed to the return of cold blood from the extremities to the core due to peripheral vasodilatation , thus causing a further decrease of deep body temperature . However a second theory explains afterdrop as a side effect of conductive heat transfer . `` The hypothermic patient cools from the outside in . Consequently , a heat gradient is established from the relatively warm core to the cool periphery . This heat gradient does not reverse immediately upon initiation of rewarming . Until the gradient is reversed , further heat transfer occurs from the warmer core to cooler peripheral tissues . '' In severe cases , afterdrop can lead to post-rescue collapse , but has not been shown to be of any clinical importance in rewarming the hypothermic patient . Afterdrop is not observed in the rewarming of all hypothermic patients . It is more common in patients who were rapidly cooled or rewarmed . Afterdrop was less common in patients for whom rewarming was delayed , or when cooling was slow and prolonged .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Afterdrop", "rank": 82, "score": 74416 }, { "content": "Title: Climate inertia Content: Climate inertia describes the widespread inherent characteristic of the climate , ecological , and socio-economic systems . Inertia from anthropogenic impacts may be slow to become apparent , or could be irreversible if climate change crosses associated thresholds . Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica take time to respond to the emissions of fossil fuel carbon in the climate system . The global warming also causes thermal inertia , thermal expansion of the oceans , which contributes to sea level rise . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Climate_inertia", "rank": 83, "score": 74354 }, { "content": "Title: Surface Chemistry of Microvasculature Content: Microvasculature is defined as vessels ( venules or capillaries ) with a maximum average diameter of 0.3 millimeters . As the vessels decrease in size , they increase their surface-area-to-volume ratio . This allows surface properties to play a significant role in the function of the vessel . Diffusion occurs through the walls of the vessels due to a concentration gradient , allowing the necessary exchange of ions , molecules , or blood cells . The permeability of a capillary wall is determined by the type of capillary and the surface of the endothelial cells . A continuous , tightly spaced endothelial cell lining only permits the diffusion of small molecules . Larger molecules and blood cells require adequate space between cells or holes in the lining . The high resistivity of a cellular membrane prevents the diffusion of ions without a membrane transport protein . The hydrophobicity of an endothelial cell surface determines whether water or lipophilic molecules will diffuse through the capillary lining . The blood brain barrier restricts diffusion to small hydrophobic molecules , making drug diffusion difficult to achieve . Blood flow is directly influenced by the thermodynamics of the body . Changes in temperature affect the viscosity and surface tension of the blood , altering the minimum blood flow rate . At high temperatures the minimum flow rate will decrease and the capillary will expand . This allows heat transfer through the increased surface area of the inner capillary lining and through increased blood flow . At low temperatures the minimum flow rate will increase and the capillary will constrict . This restricts blood flow and decreases the surface area of the capillary , reducing heat transfer . Fluid mechanics are primarily affected by pressure , temperature , heat transfer , and electrokinetics . An increase in pressure increases the flow rate given by the Starling equation . An increase in temperature increases the wettability of the surface , promoting fluid flow . Heat also decreases the viscosity of the lumen . Heat transfer is monitored by thermoreceptors which regulate the amount of capillary beds open for heat dissipation . The surface chemistry of the endothelial cell lining also dictates fluid flow . A charged surface will acquire a layer of stagnant diffuse ions that hinder the flow of ions in the lumen . This decreases the lumen velocity and promotes the exchange of molecules through the capillary lining .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Surface_Chemistry_of_Microvasculature", "rank": 84, "score": 74260 }, { "content": "Title: Ice-albedo feedback Content: Ice-albedo feedback ( or snow-albedo feedback ) is a positive feedback climate process where a change in the area of snow-covered land , ice caps , glaciers or sea ice alters the albedo . This change in albedo acts to reinforce the initial alteration in ice area . Cooling tends to increase ice cover and hence the albedo , reducing the amount of solar energy absorbed and leading to more cooling . Conversely , warming tends to decrease ice cover and hence the albedo , increasing the amount of solar energy absorbed , leading to more warming . The effect also applies on the small scale to snow-covered surfaces . A small amount of snow melt exposes darker ground which absorbs more radiation , leading to more snowmelt . The effect has mostly been discussed in terms of the recent trend of declining Arctic sea ice . Internal feedback processes may also potentially occur , as land ice melts and causes eustatic sea level rise , and also potentially induces earthquakes as a result of isostatic rebound , which further acts to disrupt glaciers , ice shelves , etc. .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Ice-albedo_feedback", "rank": 85, "score": 74240 }, { "content": "Title: John Abraham (professor) Content: John P. Abraham is an American engineering professor , known for his interest in climate science . Abraham is professor of thermal and fluid sciences at the University of St. Thomas School of Engineering , Minnesota . His area of research includes thermodynamics , heat transfer , fluid flow , numerical simulation , and energy . After gaining his doctorate at the University of Minnesota in 2002 , he joined St. Thomas as an adjunct instructor , later becoming a full-time member of the faculty . He has published over 200 papers in journals and conferences , and since 1997 has also been an engineering consultant working on industrial research in aerospace , biomedical , energy and manufacturing industries . He works on clean and renewable wind and solar projects in the developing world , and has also produced numerous books , such as a 2014 text on small-scale wind power and a 2010 groundbreaking text on laminar-to-turbulent fluid flow . Abraham felt it was necessary to respond to a talk given to the Minnesota Free Market Institute in October 2009 by a well-known skeptic of human-caused global warming , Christopher Monckton . He thought `` this guy is a great speaker and he is very convincing . If I did n't know the science , I would believe him . Frankly , the nonscientists in the audience did n't have a chance . They had no way of knowing what he said was not true . I felt Monckton took advantage of them and he knew he was taking advantage of them . '' In the following months he carried out research , contacting scientists cited by Monckton , and in late May 2010 he posted online an 83-minute video rebutting Monckton 's statements . This attracted little attention at first , until it was highlighted by an article George Monbiot published in The Guardian . Abraham 's presentation and the response from Monckton subsequently received world-wide attention . More recently , Abraham and a number of colleagues including Michael E. Mann submitted a document to the US Congress which claimed to refute nine errors in Christopher Monckton 's May 6 , 2010 , testimony . In November 2010 , Abraham ( and two colleagues , Professor Scott Mandia and Dr. Ray Weymann ) launched the Climate Science Rapid Response Team , to provide rapid , high-quality scientific information to the media and government decision makers . The intention of this group is to enable scientists to share their work directly with the general public . This effort has been covered by many media outlets . The effort has an online page for media to submit their questions . Abraham estimated early in 2012 that since beginning his rebuttal he had put around 1,000 unpaid hours into work on climate change and the controversy . He has given numerous speeches to publicize global warming issues , but does not accept funding for climate research or ask for an honorarium for speeches : if payment is given he asks that it goes to St. Thomas or to charity .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "John_Abraham_(professor)", "rank": 86, "score": 74226 }, { "content": "Title: Core shroud Content: A core shroud is a stainless steel cylinder surrounding a nuclear reactor core whose main function is to direct the cooling water flow . The nuclear reactor core is where the nuclear reactions take place . Because the reactions are exothermic , cool water is needed to prevent the reactor core from melting down . The core shroud helps by directing this cool water towards the reactor core , providing stability to the nuclear reactions .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Core_shroud", "rank": 87, "score": 74207 }, { "content": "Title: Hydrodynamic escape Content: Hydrodynamic escape refers to a thermal atmospheric escape mechanism that can lead to the escape of heavier atoms of a planetary atmosphere through numerous collisions with lighter atoms . The classical thermal escape mechanism is when individual molecules from the high velocity tail of the Maxwell -- Boltzmann distribution reach the escape velocity and overcome the gravity field . This is known as Jeans escape and depends on the temperature of the planet 's exosphere and the strength of its gravity field . It can be shown that for cold giant gas planets such as Jupiter and Saturn there is no thermal driven atmospheric escape of significance while for smaller and warmer planets such as Earth only light atoms may escape in this manner ( heavier atoms stay ) . Hydrodynamic escape occurs if there is a strong thermal driven atmospheric escape of light atoms which through drag effects ( collisions ) also drive off heavier atoms -- a bulk flow type of escape of the upper atmosphere , a so-called `` blowoff '' . The heaviest species of atom that can be removed in this manner is called the cross-over mass . It requires a large source of energy at a certain altitude to maintain a significant hydrodynamic escape . Solar radiation is seldom enough for known present day atmospheres in the Solar System . It is speculated that early atmospheres of Earth , Venus and Mars have experienced periods of hydrodynamic escape due to the heat input from planetary accretion processes . Exoplanets that are extremely close to their star , such as hot Jupiters can experience significant hydrodynamic escape to the point that they cease to be gas giants and are left with just the core , at which point they would be called Chthonian planets .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Hydrodynamic_escape", "rank": 88, "score": 74059 }, { "content": "Title: Pressure system Content: A pressure system is a relative peak or lull in the sea level pressure distribution . The surface pressure at sea level varies minimally , with the lowest value measured 87 kPa and the highest recorded 108.57 kPa . High - and low-pressure systems evolve due to interactions of temperature differentials in the atmosphere , temperature differences between the atmosphere and water within oceans and lakes , the influence of upper-level disturbances , as well as the amount of solar heating or radiationized cooling an area receives . Pressure systems cause weather to be experienced locally . Low-pressure systems are associated with clouds and precipitation that minimize temperature changes throughout the day , whereas high-pressure systems normally associate with dry weather and mostly clear skies with larger diurnal temperature changes due to greater radiation at night and greater sunshine during the day . Pressure systems are analyzed by those in the field of meteorology within surface weather maps .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Pressure_system", "rank": 89, "score": 74039 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture", "rank": 90, "score": 73903 }, { "content": "Title: Geothermal gradient Content: Geothermal gradient is the rate of increasing temperature with respect to increasing depth in the Earth 's interior . Away from tectonic plate boundaries , it is about 25 ° C per km of depth ( 1 ° F per 70 feet of depth ) near the surface in most of the world . Strictly speaking , geo-thermal necessarily refers to the Earth but the concept may be applied to other planets . A line tracing the gradient through the planetary body is called a geotherm on Earth and other terrestrial planets . On the Moon it is called a selenotherm . The Earth 's internal heat comes from a combination of residual heat from planetary accretion , heat produced through radioactive decay , and possibly heat from other sources . The major heat-producing isotopes in the Earth are potassium-40 , uranium-238 , uranium-235 , and thorium-232 . At the center of the planet , the temperature may be up to 7,000 K and the pressure could reach 360 GPa ( 3.6 million atm ) . Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay , scientists believe that early in Earth history , before isotopes with short half-lives had been depleted , Earth 's heat production would have been much higher . Heat production was twice that of present-day at approximately 3 billion years ago , resulting in larger temperature gradients within the Earth , larger rates of mantle convection and plate tectonics , allowing the production of igneous rocks such as komatiites that are not formed anymore today .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Geothermal_gradient", "rank": 91, "score": 73818 }, { "content": "Title: Subtropical Countercurrent Content: The subtropical countercurrent ( STCC ) is a narrow eastward ocean current in the central North Pacific Ocean ( 20 -- 30 ° N ) where the Sverdrup theory predicts a broad westward flow . It originates in the western North Pacific around 20 ° N , and flows eastward against the northeast trade winds and stretches northeastward to the north of Hawaii . It is accompanied by a subsurface temperature and density front called the subtropical front , in thermal wind relation with the STCC . Furthermore , the STCC maintains a sea surface temperature front during winter and spring . During April and May when the SST front is still strong , the seasonal warming makes the region conductive to atmospheric convection , and surface wind stress curls turn weakly positive along the front on the background of negative curls that drive the subtropical gyre . On the weather timescale , positive wind curls are related to low-pressure systems of a subsynoptic scale in space , energized by surface baroclinicity and latent heat release along the STF front . The SST front also anchors a meridional maximum in column-integrated water vapor , indicating a deep structure of the atmosphere response .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Subtropical_Countercurrent", "rank": 92, "score": 73650 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal runaway Content: Thermal runaway occurs in situations where an increase in temperature changes the conditions in a way that causes a further increase in temperature , often leading to a destructive result . It is a kind of uncontrolled positive feedback . In other words , `` thermal runaway '' describes a process which is accelerated by increased temperature , in turn releasing energy that further increases temperature . In chemistry ( and chemical engineering ) , it is associated with strongly exothermic reactions that are accelerated by temperature rise . In electrical engineering , thermal runaway is typically associated with increased current flow and power dissipation , although exothermic chemical reactions can be of concern here too . Thermal runaway can occur in civil engineering , notably when the heat released by large amounts of curing concrete is not controlled -LCB- Citation needed -RCB- . In astrophysics , runaway nuclear fusion reactions in stars can lead to nova and several types of supernova explosions , and also occur as a less dramatic event in the normal evolution of solar mass stars , the `` helium flash '' . There are also concerns regarding global warming that a global average increase of 3 -- 4 degrees Celsius above the preindustrial baseline could lead to a further unchecked increase in surface temperatures . For example , releases of methane , a greenhouse gas more potent than CO2 , from wetlands , melting permafrost and continental margin seabed clathrate deposits could be subject to positive feedback .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Thermal_runaway", "rank": 93, "score": 73525 }, { "content": "Title: Atmosphere of Earth Content: The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases , commonly known as air , that surrounds the planet Earth and is retained by Earth 's gravity . The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by absorbing ultraviolet solar radiation , warming the surface through heat retention ( greenhouse effect ) , and reducing temperature extremes between day and night ( the diurnal temperature variation ) . By volume , dry air contains 78.09 % nitrogen , 20.95 % oxygen , 0.93 % argon , 0.04 % carbon dioxide , and small amounts of other gases . Air also contains a variable amount of water vapor , on average around 1 % at sea level , and 0.4 % over the entire atmosphere . Air content and atmospheric pressure vary at different layers , and air suitable for use in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and breathing of terrestrial animals is found only in Earth 's troposphere and in artificial atmospheres . The atmosphere has a mass of about 5.15 kg , three quarters of which is within about 11 km of the surface . The atmosphere becomes thinner and thinner with increasing altitude , with no definite boundary between the atmosphere and outer space . The Kármán line , at 100 km , or 1.57 % of Earth 's radius , is often used as the border between the atmosphere and outer space . Atmospheric effects become noticeable during atmospheric reentry of spacecraft at an altitude of around 120 km . Several layers can be distinguished in the atmosphere , based on characteristics such as temperature and composition . The study of Earth 's atmosphere and its processes is called atmospheric science ( aerology ) . Early pioneers in the field include Léon Teisserenc de Bort and Richard Assmann .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Atmosphere_of_Earth", "rank": 94, "score": 73404 }, { "content": "Title: Brown ocean effect Content: The brown ocean effect is an observed weather phenomenon where tropical cyclones , which are commonly expected to lose energy when they make landfall , instead maintain strength or intensify over land surfaces . While these systems are highly common in the United States and China , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) names Australia the most conducive environment after 30 years of research . In Australia such storm systems are called agukabams . One source of the brown ocean effect has been identified as the large amount of latent heat that can be released from extremely wet soils . A 2013 NASA study found that , from 1979-2008 , 45 of 227 tropical storms either gained or maintained strength after making landfall . The press release stated , `` The land essentially mimics the moisture-rich environment of the ocean , where the storm originated . '' Originally , countless research devoted to extratropical cyclones , storms that first derive energy from the warm ocean waters and later from the conjecture of various air masses , explained the intensification of storms after landfall . However , as research into these storms persists , Anderson and Shepherd , the two leading scientists behind the NASA study , discovered that some of these storms were not transitioning from warm-core to cold-core but were actually maintaining their warm-core dynamics , while ultimately outputting a greater measure of rainfall . In order for the brown ocean effect to take place , three land conditions must be met : `` First , the lower level of the atmosphere mimics a tropical atmosphere with minimal variation in temperature . Second , soils in the vicinity of the storms need to contain ample moisture . Finally , evaporation of the soil moisture releases latent heat , which the team found must measure at least 70 watts averaged per square meter . '' Storm systems impacted by the brown ocean effect gave rise to a new sub-category of tropical storm type called Tropical Cyclone Maintenance and Intensification Event or TCMI . Another study concluded that latent surface heat flux from land surfaces actually have the potential to be larger than from the ocean , albeit for brief periods only . Anderson and Shepherd are also examining the effects of climate change on TCMIs , looking into the potential intensification of these storms due to increase or decrease in the degree of wetness and dryness in areas susceptible to these systems .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Brown_ocean_effect", "rank": 95, "score": 73397 }, { "content": "Title: Cooling flow Content: A cooling flow occurs according to the theory that the intracluster medium ( ICM ) in the centres of galaxy clusters should be rapidly cooling at the rate of tens to thousands of solar masses per year . This should happen as the ICM ( a plasma ) is quickly losing its energy by the emission of X-rays . The X-ray brightness of the ICM is proportional to the square of its density , which rises steeply towards the centres of many clusters . Also the temperature falls to typically a third or a half of the temperature in the outskirts of the cluster . The typical -LSB- predicted -RSB- timescale for the ICM to cool is relatively short , less than a billion years . As material in the centre of the cluster cools out , the pressure of the overlying ICM should cause more material to flow inwards ( the cooling flow ) . In a steady state , the rate of mass deposition , i.e. the rate at which the plasma cools , is given by where L is the bolometric ( i.e. over the entire spectrum ) luminosity of the cooling region , T is its temperature , k is the Boltzmann constant and μm is the mean molecular mass .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Cooling_flow", "rank": 96, "score": 73391 }, { "content": "Title: North Greenland Ice Core Project Content: The drilling site of the North Greenland Ice Core Project ( NGRIP or NorthGRIP ) is near the center of Greenland ( 75.1 N , 42.32 W , 2917 m , ice thickness 3085 ) . Drilling began in 1999 and was completed at bedrock in 2003 . The cores are cylinders of ice 11 centimeters in diameter that were brought to the surface in 3.5-meter lengths . The NGRIP site was chosen to extract a long and undisturbed record stretching into the last glacial , and it succeeded . The site was chosen for a flat basal topography to avoid the flow distortions that render the bottom of the GRIP and GISP cores unreliable . Unusually , there is melting at the bottom of the NGRIP core - believed to be due to a high geothermal heat flux locally . This has the advantage that the bottom layers are less compressed by thinning than they would otherwise be : NGRIP annual layers at 105 kyr age are 1.1 cm thick , twice the GRIP thicknesses at equal age . The NGRIP record helps to resolve a problem with the GRIP and GISP2 records - the unreliability of the Eemian Stage portion of the record . NGRIP covers 5 kyr of the Eemian , and shows that temperatures then were roughly as stable as the pre-industrial Holocene temperatures were . This is confirmed by sediment cores , in particular MD95-2042 . In 2003 , NGRIP recovered what seem to be plant remnants nearly two miles below the surface , and they may be several million years old . `` Several of the pieces look very much like blades of grass or pine needles , '' said University of Colorado at Boulder geological sciences Professor James White , an NGRIP principal investigator . `` If confirmed , this will be the first organic material ever recovered from a deep ice-core drilling project , '' he said .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "North_Greenland_Ice_Core_Project", "rank": 97, "score": 73347 }, { "content": "Title: Solar phenomena Content: Solar phenomena are the natural phenomena occurring within the magnetically heated outer atmospheres in the Sun . These phenomena take many forms , including solar wind , radio wave flux , energy bursts such as solar flares , coronal mass ejection or solar eruptions , coronal heating and sunspots . These phenomena are generated by a helical dynamo near the center of the Sun 's mass that generates strong magnetic fields and a chaotic dynamo near the surface that generates smaller magnetic field fluctuations . The total sum of all solar fluctuations is referred to as solar variation . The collective effect of all solar variations within the Sun 's gravitational field is referred to as space weather . A major weather component is the solar wind , a stream of plasma released from the Sun 's upper atmosphere . It is responsible for the aurora , natural light displays in the sky in the Arctic and Antarctic . Space weather disturbances can cause solar storms on Earth , disrupting communications , as well as geomagnetic storms in Earth 's magnetosphere and sudden ionospheric disturbances in the ionosphere . Variations in solar intensity also affect Earth 's climate . These variations can explain events such as ice ages and the Great Oxygenation Event , while the Sun 's future expansion into a red giant will likely end life on Earth . Solar activity and related events have been recorded since the 8th century BCE . Babylonians inscribed and possibly predicted solar eclipses , while the earliest extant report of sunspots dates back to the Chinese Book of Changes , . The first extant description of the solar corona was in 968 , while the earliest sunspot drawing was in 1128 and a solar prominence was described in 1185 in the Russian Chronicle of Novgorod . The invention of the telescope allowed major advances in understanding , allowing the first detailed observations in the 1600s . Solar spectroscopy began in the 1800s , from which properties of the solar atmosphere could be determined , while the creation of daguerreotypy led to the first solar photographs on 2 April 1845 . Photography assisted in the study of solar prominences , granulation and spectroscopy . Early in the 20th century , interest in astrophysics surged in America . A number of new observatories were built with solar telescopes around the world . The 1931 invention of the coronagraph allowed the corona to be studied in full daylight .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Solar_phenomena", "rank": 98, "score": 73253 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric thermodynamics Content: Atmospheric thermodynamics is the study of heat-to-work transformations ( and their reverse ) that take place in the earth 's atmosphere and manifest as weather or climate . Atmospheric thermodynamics use the laws of classical thermodynamics , to describe and explain such phenomena as the properties of moist air , the formation of clouds , atmospheric convection , boundary layer meteorology , and vertical instabilities in the atmosphere . Atmospheric thermodynamic diagrams are used as tools in the forecasting of storm development . Atmospheric thermodynamics forms a basis for cloud microphysics and convection parameterizations used in numerical weather models and is used in many climate considerations , including convective-equilibrium climate models .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "Atmospheric_thermodynamics", "rank": 99, "score": 72904 }, { "content": "Title: General circulation model Content: A general circulation model ( GCM ) is a type of climate model . It employs a mathematical model of the general circulation of a planetary atmosphere or ocean . It uses the Navier -- Stokes equations on a rotating sphere with thermodynamic terms for various energy sources ( radiation , latent heat ) . These equations are the basis for computer programs used to simulate the Earth 's atmosphere or oceans . Atmospheric and oceanic GCMs ( AGCM and OGCM ) are key components along with sea ice and land-surface components . GCMs and global climate models are used for weather forecasting , understanding the climate and forecasting climate change . Versions designed for decade to century time scale climate applications were originally created by Syukuro Manabe and Kirk Bryan at the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory in Princeton , New Jersey . These models are based on the integration of a variety of fluid dynamical , chemical and sometimes biological equations .", "qid": "3131", "docid": "General_circulation_model", "rank": 100, "score": 72897 } ]

[ { "content": "Title: Global warming Content: Global warming , also referred to as climate change , is the observed century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented in the instrumental temperature record which extends back to the mid 19th century , and in paleoclimate proxy records over thousands of years . In 2013 , the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) Fifth Assessment Report concluded that `` It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century . '' The largest human influence has been emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide , methane and nitrous oxide . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0.3 to for their lowest emissions scenario and 2.6 to for the highest emissions scenario . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing . Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large `` inertia '' and greenhouse gases will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years . Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0 C-change relative to pre-industrial levels , with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5 C-change . Public reactions to global warming and concern about its effects are also increasing . A global 2015 Pew Research Center report showed a median of 54 % consider it `` a very serious problem '' . There are significant regional differences , with Americans and Chinese ( whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions ) among the least concerned .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Global_warming", "rank": 1, "score": 113627 }, { "content": "Title: List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming Content: This is a list of scientists who have made statements that conflict with the scientific consensus on global warming as summarized by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and endorsed by other scientific bodies . As approximately 97 % of publishing climate scientists support the consensus on anthropogenic climate change , this list represents a minority viewpoint . The scientific consensus is that the global average surface temperature has risen over the last century . Scientific opinion on climate change was summarized in the 2001 Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The main conclusions on global warming at that time were as follows : The global average surface temperature has risen 0.6 ± 0.2 ° C since the late 19th century , and 0.17 ° C per decade in the last 30 years . `` There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities '' , in particular emissions of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane . If greenhouse gas emissions continue the warming will also continue , with temperatures projected to increase by 1.4 ° C to 5.8 ° C between 1990 and 2100 . Accompanying this temperature increase will be increases in some types of extreme weather and a projected sea level rise . The balance of impacts of global warming become significantly negative at larger values of warming . These findings are recognized by the national science academies of all the major industrialized nations ; the consensus has strengthened over time and is now virtually unanimous . The level of consensus correlates with expertise in climate science . There have been several efforts to compile lists of dissenting scientists , including a 2008 US senate minority report , the Oregon Petition , and a 2007 list by the Heartland Institute , all three of which have been criticized on a number of grounds . For the purpose of this list , a `` scientist '' is defined as an individual who has published at least one peer-reviewed research article in the broad field of natural sciences , although not necessarily in a field relevant to climatology . Since the publication of the IPCC Third Assessment Report , each has made a clear statement in his or her own words ( as opposed to the name being found on a petition , etc. ) disagreeing with one or more of the report 's three main conclusions . Their views on climate change are usually described in more detail in their biographical articles . Few of the statements in the references for this list are part of the peer-reviewed scientific literature ; most are from other sources such as interviews , opinion pieces , online essays and presentations . NB : Only individuals who have their own Wikipedia article may be included in the list .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "List_of_scientists_opposing_the_mainstream_scientific_assessment_of_global_warming", "rank": 2, "score": 106993 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, Hong Kong, North Africa and the European continent as a whole, along with parts of Canada, Russia, Indochina, South Korea and Japan during May, June, July, and August 2010. The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event, which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010. The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010, and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected. But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected, in the Northern Hemisphere. The second phase (the main, and most devastating phase) was caused by a very strong La Niña event, which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011. According to meteorologists, the 2010–11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed. That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia. The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010, caused severe heat waves, and multiple record-breaking temperatures. The heatwaves began on April 2010, when strong anticyclones began to develop, over most of the affected regions, in the Northern Hemisphere. The heatwaves ended in October 2010, when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated. The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June, over the Eastern United States, Middle East, Eastern Europe and European Russia, and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia. June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally, at 0.66 °C (1.22 °F) above average, while the period April–June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere, at 1.25 °C (2.25 °F) above average. The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 °C (1.19 °F), and the previous warm record for April–June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 °C (2.09 °F), set in 2007. The strongest of the anticyclones, the one situated over Siberia, registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars. The weather caused forest fires in China, where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali, as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17. A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January. In August, a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland, the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off, the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years. By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010, about $500 billion (2011 USD) of damage was done, in the Northern Hemisphere alone. The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves, droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century, include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's 2007 4th Assessment Report. Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels.", "qid": "3134", "docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_heat_waves", "rank": 3, "score": 106592 }, { "content": "Title: 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves Content: The 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves included severe heat waves that impacted most of the United States , Kazakhstan , Mongolia , China , Hong Kong , North Africa and the European continent as a whole , along with parts of Canada , Russia , Indochina , South Korea and Japan during May , June , July , and August 2010 . The first phase of the global heatwaves was caused by a moderate El Niño event , which lasted from June 2009 to May 2010 . The first phase lasted only from April 2010 to June 2010 , and caused only moderate above average temperatures in the areas affected . But it also set new record high temperatures for most of the area affected , in the Northern Hemisphere . The second phase ( the main , and most devastating phase ) was caused by a very strong La Niña event , which lasted from June 2010 to June 2011 . According to meteorologists , the 2010 -- 11 La Niña event was one of the strongest La Niña events ever observed . That same La Niña event also had devastating effects in the Eastern states of Australia . The second phase lasted from June 2010 to October 2010 , caused severe heat waves , and multiple record-breaking temperatures . The heatwaves began on April 2010 , when strong anticyclones began to develop , over most of the affected regions , in the Northern Hemisphere . The heatwaves ended in October 2010 , when the powerful anticyclones over most of the affected areas dissipated . The heat wave during the summer of 2010 was at its worst in June , over the Eastern United States , Middle East , Eastern Europe and European Russia , and over Northeastern China and southeastern Russia . June 2010 marked the fourth consecutive warmest month on record globally , at 0.66 ° C ( 1.22 ° F ) above average , while the period April -- June was the warmest ever recorded for land areas in the Northern Hemisphere , at 1.25 ° C ( 2.25 ° F ) above average . The previous record for the global average temperature in June was set in 2005 at 0.66 ° C ( 1.19 ° F ) , and the previous warm record for April -- June over Northern Hemisphere land areas was 1.16 ° C ( 2.09 ° F ) , set in 2007 . Sometime during June 2010 , the highest recorded temperature caused by the heatwave was 53.5 ° C , in Southeastern Russia , just north of Kazakhstan . The strongest of the anticyclones , the one situated over Siberia , registered a maximum high pressure of 1040 millibars . The weather caused forest fires in China , where three in a team of 300 died fighting a fire that broke out in the Binchuan County of Dali , as Yunnan suffered the worst drought in 60 years by February 17 . A major drought was reported across the Sahel as early as January . In August , a section of the Petermann Glacier tongue connecting northern Greenland , the Nares Strait and the Arctic Ocean broke off , the biggest ice shelf in the Arctic to detach in 48 years . By the time the heatwaves had ended in late October 2010 , about $ 500 billion ( 2011 USD ) of damage was done , in the Northern Hemisphere alone . The World Meteorological Organization stated that the heat waves , droughts and flooding events fit with predictions based on global warming for the 21st century , include those based on the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 's 2007 4th Assessment Report . Some climatologists argue that these weather events would not have happened if the atmospheric carbon dioxide was at pre-industrial levels .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "2010_Northern_Hemisphere_summer_heat_waves", "rank": 4, "score": 105748 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming controversy Content: The global warming controversy concerns the public debate over whether global warming is occurring , how much has occurred in modern times , what has caused it , what its effects will be , whether any action should be taken to curb it , and if so what that action should be . In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view , though a few organizations with members in extractive industries hold non-committal positions . Disputes over the key scientific facts of global warming are more prevalent in the media than in the scientific literature , where such issues are treated as resolved , and such disputes are more prevalent in the United States than globally . Political and popular debate concerning the existence and cause of climate change includes the reasons for the increase seen in the instrumental temperature record , whether the warming trend exceeds normal climatic variations , and whether human activities have contributed significantly to it . Scientists have resolved these questions decisively in favour of the view that the current warming trend exists and is ongoing , that human activity is the cause , and that it is without precedent in at least 2000 years . Public disputes that also reflect scientific debate include estimates of how responsive the climate system might be to any given level of greenhouse gases ( climate sensitivity ) , how global climate change will play out at local and regional scales , and what the consequences of global warming will be . Global warming remains an issue of widespread political debate , often split along party political lines , especially in the United States . Many of the issues that are settled within the scientific community , such as human responsibility for global warming , remain the subject of politically or economically motivated attempts to downplay , dismiss or deny them -- an ideological phenomenon categorised by academics and scientists as climate change denial . The sources of funding for those involved with climate science -- both supporting and opposing mainstream scientific positions -- have been questioned by both sides . There are debates about the best policy responses to the science , their cost-effectiveness and their urgency . Climate scientists , especially in the United States , have reported official and oil-industry pressure to censor or suppress their work and hide scientific data , with directives not to discuss the subject in public communications . Legal cases regarding global warming , its effects , and measures to reduce it have reached American courts . The fossil fuels lobby has been identified as overtly or covertly supporting efforts to undermine or discredit the scientific consensus on global warming .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Global_warming_controversy", "rank": 5, "score": 104738 }, { "content": "Title: Polar amplification Content: Polar amplification is the phenomenon that any change in the net radiation balance ( for example greenhouse intensification ) tends to produce a larger change in temperature near the poles than the planetary average . On a planet with an atmosphere that can restrict longwave radiation to space ( a greenhouse effect ) , surface temperatures will be warmer than a simple planetary equilibrium temperature calculation would predict . Where the atmosphere or an extensive ocean is able to convect heat polewards , the poles will be warmer and equatorial regions cooler than their local net radiation balances would predict . In the extreme , the planet Venus is thought to have experienced a very large increase in greenhouse effect over its lifetime , so much so that its poles have warmed sufficiently to render its surface temperature effectively isothermal ( no difference between poles and equator ) . On Earth , water vapor and trace gasses provide a lesser greenhouse effect , and the atmosphere and extensive oceans provide efficient poleward heat transport . Both palaeoclimate changes and recent global warming changes have exhibited strong polar amplification , as described below .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Polar_amplification", "rank": 6, "score": 100899 }, { "content": "Title: Scientific opinion on climate change Content: The scientific opinion on climate change is the overall judgment among scientists regarding the extent to which global warming is occurring , its causes , and its probable consequences . The scientific consensus is that the Earth 's climate system is unequivocally warming , and that it is extremely likely ( meaning 95 % probability or higher ) that this warming is predominantly caused by humans . It is likely that this mainly arises from increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , such as from deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels , partially offset by human caused increases in aerosols ; natural changes had little effect . This scientific opinion is expressed in synthesis reports , by scientific bodies of national or international standing , and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists . Individual scientists , universities , and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their peer-reviewed publications , and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these respected reports and surveys . National and international science academies and scientific societies have assessed current scientific opinion on global warming . These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report stated that : Warming of the climate system is unequivocal , as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean temperatures , the widespread melting of snow and ice , and rising global average sea level . Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human activities . Benefits and costs of climate change for -LSB- human -RSB- society will vary widely by location and scale . Some of the effects in temperate and polar regions will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative . Overall , net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming . The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage costs of climate change are likely to be significant and to increase over time . The resilience of many ecosystems is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change , associated disturbances ( e.g. flooding , drought , wildfire , insects , ocean acidification ) and other global change drivers ( e.g. land-use change , pollution , fragmentation of natural systems , over-exploitation of resources ) . Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments , and science can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change . Policy decisions , however , may require value judgements and so are not included in the scientific opinion . No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points . The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the American Association of Petroleum Geologists , which in 2007 updated its statement to its current non-committal position . Some other organizations , primarily those focusing on geology , also hold non-committal positions .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change", "rank": 7, "score": 99195 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the United States Content: Because of global warming , there has been concern in the United States and internationally , that the country should reduce total greenhouse gas which is relatively high per capita . In 2012 , the United States experienced its warmest year on record . , the thirteen warmest years for the entire planet have all occurred since 1998 , transcending those from 1880 . From 1950 to 2009 , the American government 's surface temperature record shows an increase by 1 F-change , approximately . Global warming has caused many changes in the U.S. . According to a 2009 statement by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) , trends include lake and river ice melting earlier in the spring , plants blooming earlier , multiple animal species shifting their habitat ranges northward , and reductions in the size of glaciers . Predicting future climate changes are fraught with difficulty . Some research has warned against possible problems due to American climate changes such as the spread of invasive species and possibilities of floods as well as droughts . Changes in climate in the regions of the United States appear significant . Drought conditions appear to be worsening in the southwest while improving in the northeast for example . President Barack Obama committed in the December 2009 Copenhagen Climate Change Summit to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in the range of 17 % below 2005 levels by 2020 , 42 % below 2005 levels by 2030 , and 83 % below 2005 levels by 2050 . In an address towards the U.S. Congress in June 2013 , Obama detailed a specific action plan to achieve the 17 % carbon emissions cut from 2005 by 2020 . He included such measures as shifting from coal-based power generation to solar and natural gas production . Climate change is seen as a national security threat to the United States . In 2015 , according to The New York Times and others , oil companies knew that burning oil and gas could cause global warming since the 1970s but , nonetheless , funded deniers for years . 2016 was an historic year for billion-dollar weather and climate disasters in U.S.", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_United_States", "rank": 8, "score": 98612 }, { "content": "Title: Year Without a Summer Content: The year 1816 is known as the Year Without a Summer ( also the Poverty Year , the Summer that Never Was , Year There Was No Summer , and Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death ) because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4 -- 0.7 ° C ( 0.7 -- 1.3 ° F ) . This resulted in major food shortages across the Northern Hemisphere . Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a volcanic winter event caused by the massive 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Dutch East Indies ( the largest eruption in at least 1,300 years after the extreme weather events of 535 -- 536 ) , perhaps plus the 1814 eruption of Mayon in the Philippines . The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of global cooling that started in the 14th century . Known today as the Little Ice Age , it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe . The Little Ice Age 's existing cooling was aggravated by the eruption of Tambora , which occurred during its concluding decades .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Year_Without_a_Summer", "rank": 9, "score": 96708 }, { "content": "Title: Heat wave Content: A heat wave is a prolonged period of excessively hot weather , which may be accompanied by high humidity , especially in oceanic climate countries . While definitions vary , a heat wave is measured relative to the usual weather in the area and relative to normal temperatures for the season . Temperatures that people from a hotter climate consider normal can be termed a heat wave in a cooler area if they are outside the normal climate pattern for that area . The term is applied both to hot weather variations and to extraordinary spells of hot which may occur only once a century . Severe heat waves have caused catastrophic crop failures , thousands of deaths from hyperthermia , and widespread power outages due to increased use of air conditioning . A heat wave is considered extreme weather , and a danger because heat and sunlight may overheat the human body .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Heat_wave", "rank": 10, "score": 95921 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming potential Content: Global warming potential ( GWP ) is a relative measure of how much heat a greenhouse gas traps in the atmosphere . It compares the amount of heat trapped by a certain mass of the gas in question to the amount of heat trapped by a similar mass of carbon dioxide . A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval , commonly 20 , 100 , or 500 years . GWP is expressed as a factor of carbon dioxide ( whose GWP is standardized to 1 ) . In the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , methane has a lifetime of 12.4 years and with climate-carbon feedbacks a global warming potential of 86 over 20 years and 34 over 100 years in response to emissions . User related choices such as the time horizon can greatly affect the numerical values obtained for carbon dioxide equivalents . For a change in time horizon from 20 to 100 years , the GWP for methane decreases by a factor of approximately 2.5 . The substances subject to restrictions under the Kyoto protocol either are rapidly increasing their concentrations in Earth 's atmosphere or have a large GWP . The GWP depends on the following factors : the absorption of infrared radiation by a given species the spectral location of its absorbing wavelengths the atmospheric lifetime of the species Thus , a high GWP correlates with a large infrared absorption and a long atmospheric lifetime . The dependence of GWP on the wavelength of absorption is more complicated . Even if a gas absorbs radiation efficiently at a certain wavelength , this may not affect its GWP much if the atmosphere already absorbs most radiation at that wavelength . A gas has the most effect if it absorbs in a `` window '' of wavelengths where the atmosphere is fairly transparent . The dependence of GWP as a function of wavelength has been found empirically and published as a graph . Because the GWP of a greenhouse gas depends directly on its infrared spectrum , the use of infrared spectroscopy to study greenhouse gases is centrally important in the effort to understand the impact of human activities on global climate change .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Global_warming_potential", "rank": 11, "score": 95554 }, { "content": "Title: 2002 India heat wave Content: More than 1,030 people were killed in the 2002 heatwave in south India . Most of the dead were poor and elderly and a majority of deaths occurred in the southern state of Andhra Pradesh . In districts that were impacted most , the heat was so severe that ponds and rivers evaporated and in those same districts birds had fallen from the sky and animals were collapsing from the intense heat . It is said by officials to be the worst heat wave in four years . The relief commissioner of Andhra Pradesh , Rosaiah , said that the maximum number of 172 deaths related to heat took place in the East Godavari district . There were also 166 deaths in Prakasam and 144 deaths in West Godavari . Unusually high temperatures were detected across India during April of the year 2002 . In addition , this heat wave over northern zones of India lasted from the middle of April to the third week in May , thus , causing these fatalities . On May 10 the highest temperature recorded in the region of Gannavaram ( Vijayawada ) was 49 degrees Celsius ( 120.2 degrees Fahrenheit ) . According to the BBC News , `` Heatwaves are defined as periods of abnormally high temperatures and usually occur between March and June in India . May is the country 's hottest month , with an average maximum temperature of 41C ( 104F ) in Delhi . Longer , more severe heatwaves are becoming increasingly frequent globally . Intense heat can cause cramps , exhaustion and heat stroke . Thousands of people have died across India during heatwaves in 2002 and 2003 . '' The heatwaves also affected the northern states of Punjab , Haryana , Orissa and 100 people suffered from heat-related sickness . 2010 Indian heatwave", "qid": "3134", "docid": "2002_India_heat_wave", "rank": 12, "score": 94812 }, { "content": "Title: Future sea level Content: The rate of global mean sea-level rise ( ~ 3 mm/yr ; SLR ) has accelerated compared to the mean of the 20th century ( ~ 2 mm/yr ) , but the rate of rise is locally variable . Factors contributing to SLR include decreased global ice volume and warming of the ocean . On Greenland , the deficiency between annual ice gained and lost tripled between 1996 and 2007 . On Antarctica the deficiency increased by 75 % . Mountain glaciers are retreating and the cumulative mean thickness change has accelerated from about − 1.8 to − 4 m in 1965 to 1970 to about − 12 to − 14 m in the first decade of the 21st century . From 1961 to 2003 , ocean temperatures to a depth of 700 m increased and portions of the deeper ocean are warming . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( 2007 ) projected sea level would reach 0.18 to 0.59 m above present by the end of the 21st century but lacked an estimate of ice flow dynamics calving . Calving was added by Pfeffer et al. ( 2008 ) indicating 0.8 to 2 m of SLR by 2100 ( favouring the low end of this range ) . Rahmstorf ( 2007 ) estimated SLR will reach 0.5 to 1.4 m by the end of the century . Pielke ( 2008 ) points out that observed SLR has exceeded the best case projections thus far . These approximations and others indicate that global mean SLR may reach 1 m by the end of this century . However , sea level is highly variable and planners considering local impacts must take this variability into account .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Future_sea_level", "rank": 13, "score": 93931 }, { "content": "Title: Atmospheric methane Content: Atmospheric methane is the methane present in Earth 's atmosphere . Atmospheric methane concentrations are of interest because it is one of the most potent greenhouse gases in Earth 's atmosphere . The 100-year global warming potential of methane is 28 . That is , over a 100-year period , it traps 28 times more heat per mass unit than carbon dioxide and 32 times the effect when accounted for aerosol interactions . Global methane levels , had risen to 1800 parts per billion ( ppb ) by 2011 , an increase by a factor of 2.5 since pre-industrial times , from 722 ppb , the highest value in at least 800,000 years . Its concentration is higher in the Northern Hemisphere since most sources ( both natural and human ) are located on land and the Northern Hemisphere has more land mass . The concentrations vary seasonally , with , for example , a minimum in the northern tropics during April − May mainly due to removal by the hydroxyl radical . Early in the Earth 's history carbon dioxide and methane likely produced a greenhouse effect . The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes . During this time , Earth 's earliest life appeared . These first , ancient bacteria added to the methane concentration by converting hydrogen and carbon dioxide into methane and water . Oxygen did not become a major part of the atmosphere until photosynthetic organisms evolved later in Earth 's history . With no oxygen , methane stayed in the atmosphere longer and at higher concentrations than it does today . Methane is created near the surface , and it is carried into the stratosphere by rising air in the tropics . Uncontrolled build-up of methane in Earth 's atmosphere is naturally checked -- although human influence can upset this natural regulation -- by methane 's reaction with hydroxyl radicals formed from singlet oxygen atoms and with water vapor .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Atmospheric_methane", "rank": 14, "score": 93413 }, { "content": "Title: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 Content: Eocene Thermal Maximum 2 ( ETM-2 ) , also called H-1 or the Elmo ( Eocene Layer of Mysterious Origin ) event , was a transient period of global warming that occurred approximately 53.7 million years ago ( Ma ) . It appears to be the second major hyperthermal that punctuated the long-term warming trend from the Late Paleocene through the early Eocene ( 58 to 50 Ma ) . The hyperthermals were geologically brief time intervals ( < 200,000 years ) of global warming and massive carbon input . The most extreme and best-studied event , the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM or ETM-1 ) , occurred about 1.8 million years before ETM-2 , at approximately 55.5 Ma . Other hyperthermals likely followed ETM-2 at nominally 53.6 Ma ( H-2 ) , 53.3 ( I-1 ) , 53.2 ( I-2 ) and 52.8 Ma ( informally called K , X or ETM-3 ) . The number , nomenclature , absolute ages and relative global impact of the Eocene hyperthermals are the source of much current research . In any case , the hyperthermals appear to have ushered in the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum , the warmest interval of the Cenozoic Era . They also definitely precede the Azolla event at about 49 Ma . ETM-2 is clearly recognized in sediment sequences by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition of carbon-bearing material . The 13C/12C ratio of calcium carbonate or organic matter drops significantly across the event . This is similar to what happens when one examines sediment across the PETM , although the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursion is not as large . The timing of Earth system perturbations during ETM-2 and the PETM also appear different . Specifically , the onset of ETM-2 may have been longer ( perhaps 30,000 years ) while the recovery seems to have been shorter ( perhaps < 50,000 years ) . ( Note , however , that the timing of short-term carbon cycle perturbations during both events remains difficult to constrain ) . A thin clay-rich horizon marks ETM-2 in marine sediment from widely separated locations . In sections recovered from the deep-sea ( for example those recovered by Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 on Walvis Ridge ) , this layer is caused by dissolution of calcium carbonate . However , in sections deposited along continental margins ( for example those now exposed along the Clarence River , New Zealand ) , the clay-rich horizon represents dilution by excess accumulation of terrestrial material entering into the ocean . Similar changes in sediment accumulation are found across the PETM . In sediment from Lomonosov Ridge in the Arctic Ocean , intervals across both ETM-2 and the PETM shows signs of higher temperature , lower salinity and lower dissolved oxygen . The PETM and ETM-2 are thought to have a similar generic origin , although this idea is at the edge of current research . During both events , a tremendous amount of 13C-depleted carbon rapidly entered the ocean and atmosphere . This decreased the 13C/12C ratio of carbon-bearing sedimentary components , and dissolved carbonate in the deep ocean . Somehow the carbon input was coupled to an increase in Earth surface temperature and a greater seasonality in precipitation , which explains the excess terrestrial sediment discharge along continental margins . Possible explanations for changes during ETM-2 are the same as those for the PETM , and are discussed under the latter entry . The H-2 event appears to be a `` minor '' hyperthermal that follows ETM-2 ( H-1 ) by about 100,000 years . This has led to speculation that the two events are somehow coupled and paced by changes in orbital eccentricity . As in the case of the PETM , reversible dwarfing of mammals has been noted during the ETM-2 .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Eocene_Thermal_Maximum_2", "rank": 15, "score": 93300 }, { "content": "Title: Global cooling Content: Global cooling was a conjecture during the 1970s of imminent cooling of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere culminating in a period of extensive glaciation . This hypothesis had little support in the scientific community , but gained temporary popular attention due to a combination of a slight downward trend of temperatures from the 1940s to the early 1970s and press reports that did not accurately reflect the full scope of the scientific climate literature , which showed a larger and faster-growing body of literature projecting future warming due to greenhouse gas emissions . The current scientific opinion on climate change is that the Earth has not durably cooled , but underwent global warming throughout the 20th century .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Global_cooling", "rank": 16, "score": 92334 }, { "content": "Title: January 2014 southeastern Australia heat wave Content: The January 2014 southeastern Australia heat wave was a significant heat wave event which affected most of southeastern Australia from 13 to 18 January 2014 . The main areas affected were Victoria , Tasmania , southern New South Wales away from the coast and the southern half of South Australia . The event ranked along with the 2009 heat wave , 1939 heat wave and 1908 heat wave as one of the most significant multi-day heatwaves on record . The heat wave broke a number of records for extended periods of heat . A spike in heat waves and record breaking high temperatures across Australia over the past five years has led to concerns over the effects of global warming and climate change on the country . Adelaide , South Australia suffered the brunt of the summer heat wave , recording 13 days with temperatures above 40 ° C.", "qid": "3134", "docid": "January_2014_southeastern_Australia_heat_wave", "rank": 17, "score": 91326 }, { "content": "Title: Heatwave (film) Content: Heatwave is a 1982 Australian film directed by Phillip Noyce based on the murder of Juanita Nielsen . It was the second of two films inspired by this story that came out around this time , the first being The Killing of Angel Street ( 1981 ) .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Heatwave_(film)", "rank": 18, "score": 91286 }, { "content": "Title: Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum Content: The Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum ( PETM ) , alternatively ( ETM1 ) , and formerly known as the `` Initial Eocene '' or '' '' was a time period with more than 8 ° C warmer global average temperature than today . This climate event began at the time boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene geological epochs . The exact age and duration of the event is uncertain but it is estimated to have occurred around 55.5 million years ago . The associated period of massive carbon injection into the atmosphere has been estimated to have lasted no longer than 20,000 years . The entire warm period lasted for about 200,000 years . Global temperatures increased by 5 -- 8 ° C . The carbon dioxide was likely released in two pulses , the first lasting less than 2,000 years . Such a repeated carbon release is in line with current global warming . A main difference is that during the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum , the planet was essentially ice-free . The onset of the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has been linked to an initial 5 ° C temperature rise and to extreme changes in Earth 's carbon cycle . The period is marked by a prominent negative excursion in carbon stable isotope records from around the globe ; more specifically , there was a large decrease in 13C/12C ratio of marine and terrestrial carbonates and organic carbon . Stratigraphic sections of rock from this period reveal numerous other changes . Fossil records for many organisms show major turnovers . For example , in the marine realm , a mass extinction of benthic foraminifera , a global expansion of subtropical dinoflagellates , and an appearance of excursion , planktic foraminifera and calcareous nanofossils all occurred during the beginning stages of PETM . On land , modern mammal orders ( including primates ) suddenly appear in Europe and in North America . Sediment deposition changed significantly at many outcrops and in many drill cores spanning this time interval . At least since 1997 , the Paleocene -- Eocene Thermal Maximum has become a focal point of considerable geoscience research because it probably provides the best past analog by which to understand impacts of global climate warming and of massive carbon input to the ocean and atmosphere , including ocean acidification . Although it is now widely accepted that the PETM represents a `` case study '' for global warming and massive carbon input to Earth 's surface , the cause , details and overall significance of the event remain perplexing .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Paleocene–Eocene_Thermal_Maximum", "rank": 19, "score": 91256 }, { "content": "Title: Regional effects of global warming Content: Regional effects of global warming are long-term significant changes in the expected patterns of average weather of a specific region due to global warming . The world average temperature is rising due to the greenhouse effect caused by increasing levels of greenhouse gases , especially carbon dioxide . When the global temperature changes , the changes in climate are not expected to be uniform across the Earth . In particular , land areas change more quickly than oceans , and northern high latitudes change more quickly than the tropics , and the margins of biome regions change faster than do their cores . Regional effects of global warming vary in nature . Some are the result of a generalised global change , such as rising temperature , resulting in local effects , such as melting ice . In other cases , a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather system . In such cases , the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow the global trend . The increasing temperatures from greenhouse gases have been causing sea levels to rise for many years . There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate : melting or forming ice , changing the hydrological cycle ( of evaporation and precipitation ) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere . The coast can also be considered a region , and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Regional_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 20, "score": 90671 }, { "content": "Title: Heatwave (magazine) Content: Heatwave was a short-lived libertarian socialist journal launched by Charles Radcliffe . Only two issues of the journal were produced , appearing in July and September 1966 . The first issue positioned itself as an ` experimental , perhaps slightly crazed libertarian socialist journal ' , and included a statement of intent : ` HEATWAVE is not a rival to existing publications on the libertarian left , but an addition to the libertarian press and an extension of its ideology , both conscious and unconscious , into new fields . HEATWAVE wants to generate heat in every field . We believe the time is ripe for an explosion of revolutionary energy which would alter the face of the earth . HEATWAVE advocates the use of any and all means that may bring to a climax the crisis of capitalism and authoritarianism , and result in the total extinction of all forms of exploitation or authority . ' The journal 's formation was inspired by , and aspired to be the British counterpart of a similar , Chicago based publication , The Rebel Worker , which was associated with the Industrial Workers of the World .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Heatwave_(magazine)", "rank": 21, "score": 89792 }, { "content": "Title: Temperature record of the past 1000 years Content: For information on the description of the Medieval Warm Period and Little Ice Age in various IPCC reports see MWP and LIA in IPCC reportsThe temperature record of the past 1,000 years is reconstructed using data from climate proxy records in conjunction with the modern instrumental temperature record which only covers the last 150 years at a global scale . Large-scale reconstructions covering part or all of the 1st millennium and 2nd millennium have shown that recent temperatures are exceptional : the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report of 2007 concluded that `` Average Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the second half of the 20th century were very likely higher than during any other 50-year period in the last 500 years and likely '' the highest in at least the past 1,300 years . '' The curve shown in graphs of these reconstructions is widely known as the hockey stick graph because of the sharp increase in temperatures during the last century . As of 2010 this broad pattern was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th-century `` shaft '' appears . Sparseness of proxy records results in considerable uncertainty for earlier periods . Individual proxy records , such as tree ring widths and densities used in dendroclimatology , are calibrated against the instrumental record for the period of overlap . Networks of such records are used to reconstruct past temperatures for regions : tree ring proxies have been used to reconstruct Northern Hemisphere extratropical temperatures ( within the tropics trees do not form rings ) but are confined to land areas and are scarce in the Southern Hemisphere which is largely ocean . Wider coverage is provided by multiproxy reconstructions , incorporating proxies such as lake sediments , ice cores and corals which are found in different regions , and using statistical methods to relate these sparser proxies to the greater numbers of tree ring records . The `` Composite Plus Scaling '' ( CPS ) method is widely used for large-scale multiproxy reconstructions of hemispheric or global average temperatures ; this is complemented by Climate Field Reconstruction ( CFR ) methods which show how climate patterns have developed over large spatial areas , making the reconstruction useful for investigating natural variability and long-term oscillations as well as for comparisons with patterns produced by climate models . During the 1,900 years before the 20th century , it is likely that the next warmest period was from 950 to 1100 , with peaks at different times in different regions . This has been called the Medieval Warm Period , and some evidence suggests widespread cooler conditions during a period around the 17th century known as the Little Ice Age . In the hockey stick controversy , contrarians have asserted that the Medieval Warm Period was warmer than at present , and have disputed the data and methods of climate reconstructions .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Temperature_record_of_the_past_1000_years", "rank": 22, "score": 89283 }, { "content": "Title: 1906 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The 1906 United Kingdom heat wave occurred all over the country from August to September . This was unusual as the highest temperatures were recorded in early September and the intense heat began in late August , whereas most heat waves in the UK begin in June and July . Even so , the heatwave had a comparable intensity to the 1990 heat wave , and it has been described as the most intense September heat wave in the 20th century . From 31 August to 3 September , the temperature in the UK exceeded 32 C consecutively over most of the UK on these four days . In September , CET Central England and Birmingham recorded a highest temperature of 31.5 C , and Oxford recorded a highest temperature of 33.1 C ; however , this record for September in Oxford was broken in 1911 with a temperature of 33.4 C. 2 September was the hottest day of the month as temperatures reached 35.6 C in Bawtry . This day was also the hottest over the most of the UK , again unusual because of its late occurrence . This remains the hottest September temperature of any day in the UK and the eighth-hottest day overall in the 20th century . Scotland also had temperatures reaching 32.2 C at Gordon Castle , Moray , and Northern Ireland had temperatures reaching 27.8 C in Armagh , County Armagh both recorded on 1 September 1906 .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "1906_United_Kingdom_heat_wave", "rank": 23, "score": 89152 }, { "content": "Title: Ross Gelbspan Content: Ross Gelbspan is a writer and environmentalist . He has written two books relating to global warming : The Heat Is On ( 1997 ) and Boiling Point ( 2004 ) . The Heat Is On received national attention when President Bill Clinton told the press he was reading it . Boiling Point was the subject of the lead review in the Sunday New York Times Book Review . That review was written by former Vice President Al Gore . Gelbspan maintains the website heatisonline.org , which he updates on a daily basis . Prior to his involvement in the climate issue , Gelbspan worked as an editor and reporter at a number of newspapers , including The Philadelphia Bulletin , The Washington Post and the Boston Globe . At the Globe , he conceived , directed and edited a series of articles that won a Pulitzer Prize in 1984 . Since becoming involved in the climate issue , Gelbspan has delivered a number of lectures , radio and television interviews and has published multiple articles on the subject . He is a regular contributor on DeSmogBlog . He has published op-ed articles in a number of major newspapers -- as well as articles in a number of other outlets including Harper 's , The Atlantic Monthly , The American Prospect , Sierra Magazine , The Nation , and many others . He has spoken in venues that include the World Economic Forum and the Boston Social Forum . His media interviews include , among others , appearances on Nightline , All Things Considered , Talk of the Nation , World News Tonight and other outlets .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Ross_Gelbspan", "rank": 24, "score": 89151 }, { "content": "Title: Hypercane Content: A hypercane is a hypothetical class of extreme tropical cyclone that could form if ocean temperatures reached 50 C , which is 15 C-change warmer than the warmest ocean temperature ever recorded . Such an increase could be caused by a large asteroid or comet impact , a large supervolcanic eruption , or extensive global warming . There is some speculation that a series of hypercanes resulting from an impact by a large asteroid or comet contributed to the demise of the non-avian dinosaurs . The hypothesis was created by Kerry Emanuel of MIT who also coined the term .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Hypercane", "rank": 25, "score": 88886 }, { "content": "Title: Central Heating (Heatwave album) Content: Central Heating is the second album by funk-disco band Heatwave , released in 1977 on the GTO label in the UK and in '78 on the Epic label in the US . It was produced by Barry Blue . It was the last Heatwave album to feature bassist Mario Mantese and guitarist Eric Johns , as well as the first to feature new member Roy Carter on guitar . The album was also the final performance of Rod Temperton as an official member of Heatwave , although he would continue to write songs for the band after his departure . The album was remastered and reissued with bonus tracks in 2015 by Big Break Records .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Central_Heating_(Heatwave_album)", "rank": 26, "score": 88878 }, { "content": "Title: Late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave Content: The late 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave ( also referred to as the November 2009 heat wave and the South Australian heat wave ) was a heat wave that occurred in the southeastern Australian states of South Australia , Victoria and southern New South Wales . Daily maximum temperatures during the heat wave were roughly 10 ° C ( 18 ° F ) above average in many locations . Capital cities Adelaide and Melbourne recorded temperatures over 35 ° C , and some regional towns recorded temperatures above 40 ° C. Above average temperatures in the region began in late October and persisted until mid-November 2009 . Many locations through the region broke temperature records for November . This heat wave was the second experienced in the region within a 10-month period , following the early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave in January and February 2009 , to which 374 deaths were attributed . Although the earlier heat wave was far more intense , the later heat wave was more extensive and long lasting . The heat wave was caused by a combination of factors , including hot , dry winds caused by a slow-moving high-pressure system that had settled over the Tasman Sea , an El Niño event occurring in the Pacific Ocean , and gradually rising temperatures across southern Australia , probably as a result of global warming .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Late_2009_southeastern_Australia_heat_wave", "rank": 27, "score": 88691 }, { "content": "Title: Sea level rise Content: A sea level rise is an increase in the volume of water in the world 's oceans , resulting in an increase in global mean sea level . Sea level rise is usually attributed to global climate change by thermal expansion of the water in the oceans and by melting of Ice sheets and glaciers on land . Melting of floating ice shelves or icebergs at sea raises sea levels only slightly . Sea level rise at specific locations may be more or less than the global average . Local factors might include tectonic effects , subsidence of the land , tides , currents , storms , etc. . Sea level rise is expected to continue for centuries . Because of the slow inertia , long response time for parts of the climate system , it has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea-level rise of approximately 2.3 m for each degree Celsius of temperature rise within the next 2,000 years . IPCC Summary for Policymakers , AR5 , 2014 , indicated that the global mean sea level rise will continue during the 21st century , very likely at a faster rate than observed from 1971 to 2010 . Projected rates and amounts vary . A January 2017 NOAA report suggests a range of GMSL rise of 0.3 -- 2.5 m possible during the 21st century . Sea level rises can considerably influence human populations in coastal and island regions and natural environments like marine ecosystems .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Sea_level_rise", "rank": 28, "score": 88509 }, { "content": "Title: Heatwave (album) Content: Heatwave is the fifth album by Belgian RIO band Univers Zero . Released in 1986 , the album is a continued exploration of the Middle Eastern influences , which first appeared on Uzed . The instrumentation here is more electronic than in their previous works . The album was recorded and mixed by Didier de Roos at Daylight Studio , Brussels . The album is unusual among Univers Zero albums in that drummer/bandleader Daniel Denis did not write the majority of the material . Keyboardist Andy Kirk takes the compositional lead instead , penning both the title track and `` The Funeral Plain . '' The latter is notable for being the second longest Univers Zero song ( Only the track `` La Faulx '' , off the Heresie album , is longer ) . `` The Funeral Plain '' is dedicated to `` all living hardships that lead into self-awareness . '' The band would not release their next album , The Hard Quest , until 1999 . Denis temporarily broke up the band after the release of Heatwave due to financial difficulties and tension within the group .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Heatwave_(album)", "rank": 29, "score": 88490 }, { "content": "Title: Attribution of recent climate change Content: Attribution of recent climate change is the effort to scientifically ascertain mechanisms responsible for recent climate changes on Earth , commonly known as ` global warming ' . The effort has focused on changes observed during the period of instrumental temperature record , when records are most reliable ; particularly in the last 50 years , when human activity has grown fastest and observations of the troposphere have become available . The dominant mechanisms are anthropogenic , i.e. , the result of human activity . They are : increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases global changes to land surface , such as deforestation increasing atmospheric concentrations of aerosols . There are also natural mechanisms for variation including climate oscillations , changes in solar activity , and volcanic activity . According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , it is `` extremely likely '' that human influence was the dominant cause of global warming between 1951 and 2010 . The IPCC defines `` extremely likely '' as indicating a probability of 95 to 100 % , based on an expert assessment of all the available evidence . Multiple lines of evidence support attribution of recent climate change to human activities : A basic physical understanding of the climate system : greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established . Historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual . Computer-based climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included . Natural forces alone ( such as solar and volcanic activity ) can not explain the observed warming . The IPCC 's attribution of recent global warming to human activities is a view shared by the scientific community , and is also supported by 196 other scientific organizations worldwide ( see also : scientific opinion on climate change ) .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Attribution_of_recent_climate_change", "rank": 30, "score": 88191 }, { "content": "Title: 2019 heat wave in India and Pakistan Content: From mid-May to mid-June 2019, India and Pakistan had a severe heat wave. It was one of the hottest and longest heat waves since the two countries began recording weather reports. The highest temperatures occurred in Churu, Rajasthan, reaching up to 50.8 °C (123.4 °F), a near record high in India, missing the record of 51.0 °C (123.8 °F) set in 2016 by a fraction of a degree. As of 12 June 2019, 32 days are classified as parts of the heatwave, making it the second longest ever recorded.As a result of hot temperatures and inadequate preparation, more than 184 people died in the state of Bihar, with many more deaths reported in other parts of the country. In Pakistan, five infants died after extreme heat exposure.The heat wave coincided with extreme droughts and water shortages across India and Pakistan. In mid-June, reservoirs that previously supplied Chennai ran dry, depriving millions. The water crisis was exacerbated by high temperatures and lack of preparation, causing protests and fights that sometimes led to killing and stabbing.", "qid": "3134", "docid": "2019_heat_wave_in_India_and_Pakistan", "rank": 31, "score": 87870 }, { "content": "Title: 1911 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The United Kingdom heatwave of 1911 was a particularly severe heat wave and associated drought . Records were set around the country for temperature in England , including the highest accepted temperature , at the time , of 36.7 C ( 98.6 F ) , only broken 79 years later in the 1990 heatwave , which reached 37.1 C ( 98.78 F ) . The highest ever accepted temperature is currently 38.5 C ( 101.3 F ) recorded on 10 August 2003 in Faversham , Kent . North America was also affected around about this time .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "1911_United_Kingdom_heat_wave", "rank": 32, "score": 87106 }, { "content": "Title: Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C Content: The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018. The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries. In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report. The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to \"deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments\" to deal with climate change.Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require \"deep emissions reductions\" and \"rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society.\" Furthermore, the report finds that \"limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being\" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts. SR15 also has modelling that shows that, for global warming to be limited to 1.5 °C, \"Global net human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) would need to fall by about 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching 'net zero' around 2050.\" The reduction of emissions by 2030 and its associated changes and challenges, including rapid decarbonisation, was a key focus on much of the reporting which was repeated through the world.", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Special_Report_on_Global_Warming_of_1.5_°C", "rank": 33, "score": 86896 }, { "content": "Title: Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years Content: Unstoppable Global Warming : Every 1,500 Years is a book about climate change , written by Siegfried Fred Singer and Dennis T. Avery , which asserts that natural changes , and not CO2 emissions , are the cause of Global Warming . Published by Rowman & Littlefield in 2006 , the book sold well and was reprinted in an updated edition in 2007 . The title refers to the hypothesis of 1,500-year climate cycles in the Holocene first postulated by Gerard C. Bond , mainly based on petrologic tracers of drift ice in the North Atlantic .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Unstoppable_Global_Warming:_Every_1,500_Years", "rank": 34, "score": 86786 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and potatoes Content: Global warming is predicted to have significant effects on global potato production . Like many crops , potatoes are likely to be affected by changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide , temperature and precipitation , as well as interactions between these factors . As well as affecting potatoes directly , climate change will also affect the distributions and populations of many potato diseases and pests . Potato is one of the world 's most important food crops . Potato production must be adapted to climate change to avoid reductions in crop yields .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Climate_change_and_potatoes", "rank": 35, "score": 86695 }, { "content": "Title: 2015 Indian heat wave Content: In May 2015 , India was struck by a severe heat wave . , it has caused the deaths of at least 2,500 people in multiple regions . The heat wave occurred during the Indian dry season , which typically lasts from March to July with peak temperatures in April and May . Although it typically remains hot until late October , Indian monsoons often provide some respite from the heat . The South Indian states of Andhra Pradesh and the neighbouring Telangana , where more than 1,735 and 585 people died respectively , were the areas most affected by the heat wave . Other casualties were from the eastern states of West Bengal and Odisha . The high demand for electricity to power air conditioning led to power outages in some cities . The 2015 heat wave has had the highest recorded temperatures since 1995 . In May 2016 , a new record was set in Phalodi .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "2015_Indian_heat_wave", "rank": 36, "score": 86664 }, { "content": "Title: Arctic geoengineering Content: Temperatures in the Arctic region have tended to increase more rapidly than the global average . Projections of sea ice loss that are adjusted to take account of recent rapid Arctic shrinkage suggest that the Arctic will likely be free of summer sea ice sometime between 2059 and 2078 . Various climate engineering schemes have been suggested to reduce the chance of significant and irreversible effects such as Arctic methane release . Several climate engineering proposals have been made which are specific to the Arctic . They are usually hydrological in nature , and principally centre upon measures to prevent Arctic ice loss . In addition , other solar radiation management climate engineering techniques , such as stratospheric sulfate aerosols have been proposed . These would cool the Arctic by adjusting the albedo of the atmosphere .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Arctic_geoengineering", "rank": 37, "score": 86416 }, { "content": "Title: Heatwave (English band) Content: Heatwave was the original London pop group ( 1969 -- 1972 ) by that name . Known as The Moving Targets , featuring John Fellows ( bass & vocals ) , Terry Shea ( rhythm guitar & vocals ) ; Richard Steen ( lead guitar & vocals ) , they auditioned for a drummer in 1969 and Martin Samuel ( drums & pyrotechnics ) was signed on and they became Heatwave . They were a progressive pop harmony group , doing local gigs , playing cover versions of the popular artists of the day with lead vocals shared between Terry and John with a few songs from Richard . In the winter of 1969 , Johnny Edward Entertainment Agency was looking for pop groups , Heatwave auditioned and the band was asked to sign that same night . Touring the country as a four-piece , playing four sets a night , they became a tight vocal harmony band with a solid dance beat , often ` opening ' for ` name ' acts while earning a large fan following . John Edward believed the band needed a stronger voice to be a successful recording group and set up auditions with an advert in the Melody Maker . Peter Allatt ( lead vocals & percussion ) then completed the group as a five-piece . Playing one night stands around the country , The Pheasantry ( London ) , California Ballroom ( Dunstable ) and the Cavern Club ( Liverpool ) , where they have a brick in the Wall of Fame , were but three of many favourite venues played . The band 's stage gear was made by The Carnaby Cavern in Ganton Street , just off Carnaby Street . A stage act was later suggested whereupon , Martin incorporated a pyrotechnic display of fire eating . Heatwave was invited to appear on the Terry Wogan radio show without having the usual audition and , from that , were given the opportunity to record for the Dave Cash , Kenny Everett , Dave Lee Travis , Jimmy Young and Radio One Club shows -- Heatwave became one of the most-oft heard ` live ' professional bands on BBC Radio One between 1969 and 1970 . On 16 October 1970 , Heatwave released `` Sister Simon ( Funny Man ) '' b/w `` Rastus Ravel ( Is A Mean Old Man ) '' ( PEN 738 ) on the Larry Page Penny Farthing Records label . Both songs were written and produced by John Edward for Instant Sound Productions . The single featured Rick Wakeman on keyboards and Doris Troy with Maggie Stredder , Gloria George and Marian Davis , The Ladybirds , as back-up singers . On 2 April 2013 , `` Rastus Ravel ( Is A Mean Old Man ) '' , was re-released as track 4 on Piccadilly Sunshine , Part Twelve -- British Pop Psych and Other Flavours 1967-1971 , on the bootleg Particles label . On 11 April 2013 , Paul Martin reviewed Piccadilly Sunshine , Part Twelve in Shindig magazine , and wrote , `` So here 's another hamper of low calorie sooth-sayers with pictures to paint . The indulgence food in this particular feast comes from Heatwave 's `` phat '' mod-soul funker , `` Rastus Ravel '' '' . On 24 April 2013 , Newtracks ( Germany ) selected `` Rastus Ravel ( Is Mean Old Man ) '' for the music game , Bands , for Facebook and mobile devices .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Heatwave_(English_band)", "rank": 38, "score": 86218 }, { "content": "Title: 2014 South-Eastern Australian heatwave Content: The 2014 South-Eastern Australian Heatwave was a prolonged period of time in which highly unseasonal weather was recorded across the south and south-eastern corridor of mainland Australia . The heatwave commenced during early May , and was the longest ever recorded in Australia 's modern history , lasting in some places up to 15 days . Sydney , Melbourne and Adelaide were most hard hit , with temperatures in these areas breaking late Autumn records and causing a distinct lack of precipitation , especially in Sydney , Australia 's most populous city . The cause of this phenomenon was a large blocking High pressure system situated over the Tasman sea , which pushed usual Autumn cold fronts far south of the mainland .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "2014_South-Eastern_Australian_heatwave", "rank": 39, "score": 86097 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming Content: The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused ( directly or indirectly ) by human emissions of greenhouse gases . There is a scientific consensus that climate change is occurring , and that human activities are the primary driver . Many impacts of climate change have already been observed , including glacier retreat , changes in the timing of seasonal events ( e.g. , earlier flowering of plants ) , and changes in agricultural productivity . Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social development . The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and adapting to the impacts of climate change . Geoengineering is another policy option . Near-term climate change policies could significantly affect long-term climate change impacts . Stringent mitigation policies might be able to limit global warming ( in 2100 ) to around 2 ° C or below , relative to pre-industrial levels . Without mitigation , increased energy demand and extensive use of fossil fuels might lead to global warming of around 4 ° C. Higher magnitudes of global warming would be more difficult to adapt to , and would increase the risk of negative impacts .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 40, "score": 85933 }, { "content": "Title: 1980 United States heat wave Content: The 1980 United States Heat Wave was a period of intense heat and drought that wreaked havoc on much of the Midwestern United States and Southern Plains throughout the summer of 1980 . It is among the most devastating natural disasters in terms of deaths and destruction in U.S. history , claiming at least 1,700 lives and because of the massive drought , agricultural damage reached US$ 20.0 billion ( US$ 55.4 billion in 2007 dollars , adjusted for the GNP inflation index ) . It is among the billion-dollar weather disasters listed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "1980_United_States_heat_wave", "rank": 41, "score": 85823 }, { "content": "Title: Heaven and Earth (book) Content: Heaven and Earth : Global Warming -- The Missing Science is a popular science book published in 2009 and written by Australian geologist , professor of mining geology at Adelaide University , and mining company director Ian Plimer . It disputes the scientific consensus on climate change , including the view that global warming is `` very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic ( man-made ) greenhouse gas concentrations '' and asserts that the debate is being driven by what the author regards as irrational and unscientific elements . The book received what The Age newspaper called `` glowing endorsements '' from the conservative press . The Australian said it gave `` all the scientific ammunition climate change skeptics could want . '' Other reviewers criticised the book as unscientific , inaccurate , based on obsolete research , and internally inconsistent . Ideas in it have been described as `` so wrong as to be laughable '' . Heaven and Earth was a bestseller in Australia when published in May 2009 , and is in its seventh printing , according to the publisher . The book has also been published in the United States and the United Kingdom .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Heaven_and_Earth_(book)", "rank": 42, "score": 85701 }, { "content": "Title: Summer 2012 North American heat wave Content: In the Summer of 2012 , a heat wave took place , leading to more than 82 heat-related deaths across the United States and Canada . An additional twenty-two lives were lost in the resultant June 2012 North American derecho . This long-lived , straight-line wind and its thunderstorms cut electrical power to 3.7 million customers . Over 500,000 were still without power on July 6 , as the heat wave continued . Temperatures generally decreased somewhat the week of July 9 in the east , but the high pressure shifted to the west , causing the core of the hot weather to the build in the Mountain States and the southwest U. S. shifting eastwards again by mid-July . By early August , the core of the heat remained over the Southern Plains .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Summer_2012_North_American_heat_wave", "rank": 43, "score": 85649 }, { "content": "Title: Heatwave (festival) Content: Heatwave was a rock festival August 23 , 1980 , outside of Toronto at Mosport Park , Bowmanville , Ontario . The slogans used to promote the show were variously the `` Punk Woodstock '' , the `` New Wave Woodstock '' , or `` The 1980s Big Beat Rock and Roll Party '' . The festival was noteworthy because of the importance of the headliner bands that played and the timing in the evolution of new wave music , and from the size of the crowd .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Heatwave_(festival)", "rank": 44, "score": 85492 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on Sri Lanka Content: Sri Lanka is an equatorial island of 65,610 km2 which hosts many diverse endemic species , and is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot . It has 400 bird species , 26 are endemic , and 105 amphibian species , 85 % are endemic . Sri Lanka also has a declining marine ecosystem , with ongoing threats to the coastal coral reef environments . If climate change proceeds unchecked , Sri Lanka will undergo widespread effects , such as climate variability and sea-level rise , which will directly affect the overall abundance and security of endemic species . Local and global policy changes are crucial in reducing CO2 emissions so islands located near the equator will not be as drastically affected .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_Sri_Lanka", "rank": 45, "score": 85146 }, { "content": "Title: Heatwave (band) Content: Heatwave is an international funk/disco band formed in 1975 . Its most popular lineup featured Americans Johnnie Wilder Jr. and Keith Wilder ( vocals ) of Dayton , Ohio ; Englishman Rod Temperton ( keyboards ) ; Swiss Mario Mantese ( bass ) ; Czechoslovak Ernest `` Bilbo '' Berger ( drums ) ; Jamaican Eric Johns ( guitar ) ; and Briton Roy Carter ( guitar ) . They were known for their singles `` Boogie Nights '' , `` The Groove Line '' , and `` Always and Forever '' .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Heatwave_(band)", "rank": 46, "score": 84942 }, { "content": "Title: Heatwave! (1974 film) Content: Heatwave ! is an American disaster movie that was broadcast on the ABC television network on January 26 , 1974 . It was an ABC Movie of the Week . Its running time was 90 minutes . The film was directed by Jerry Jameson , produced by Herbert F. Solow and Harve Bennett . The plot focuses upon the effect an intense and prolonged heat wave and water shortage has on Frank Taylor and his pregnant wife Laura Taylor , both while they are in the city where they live and after they decide to relocate .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Heatwave!_(1974_film)", "rank": 47, "score": 84604 }, { "content": "Title: 2007 North America South and Eastern heatwave Content: The 2007 North America South and Eastern heatwave was a continuation and eastward expansion of the 2007 Western North American heat wave which began in late June 2007 . The heatwave expanded eastward starting at the very end of July and lasting into the first weeks of August . This heat wave was notable for both associated severe drought over a large swath of the southeastern United States , and parts of the Great Lakes region , and its late season ending , with temperatures continuing , although more sporadically , well into the 90s ° F ( 30s ° C ) into September and October in the mid-Atlantic region .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "2007_North_America_South_and_Eastern_heatwave", "rank": 48, "score": 84550 }, { "content": "Title: Global dimming Content: Global dimming is the gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface that was observed for several decades after the start of systematic measurements in the 1950s . The effect varies by location , but worldwide it has been estimated to be of the order of a 4 % reduction over the three decades from 1960 -- 1990 . However , after discounting an anomaly caused by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991 , a very slight reversal in the overall trend has been observed . Global dimming is thought to have been caused by an increase in particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere due to human action . It has interfered with the hydrological cycle by reducing evaporation and may have reduced rainfall in some areas . Global dimming also creates a cooling effect that may have partially counteracted the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Global_dimming", "rank": 49, "score": 84171 }, { "content": "Title: Bølling-Allerød warming Content: The Bølling-Allerød interstadial was an abrupt warm and moist interstadial period that occurred during the final stages of the last glacial period . This warm period ran from c. 14,700 to c. 12,700 years before the present ( BP ) . It began with the end of the cold period known as the Oldest Dryas , and ended abruptly with the onset of the Younger Dryas , a cold period that reduced temperatures back to near-glacial levels within a decade . In some regions , a cold period known as the Older Dryas can be detected in the middle of the Bølling-Allerød interstadial . In these regions the period is divided into the Bølling oscillation , which peaked around 14,500 BP , and the Allerød oscillation , which peaked closer to 13,000 BP . Estimates of CO2 rise are 20 -- 35 ppmv within 200 years , a rate less than 29 -- 50 % compared to the anthropogenic global warming signal from the past 50 years , and with a radiative forcing of 0.59 -- 0.75 W m − 2 .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Bølling-Allerød_warming", "rank": 50, "score": 84001 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change Content: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time ( i.e. , decades to millions of years ) . Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions , or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions ( i.e. , more or fewer extreme weather events ) . Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes , variations in solar radiation received by Earth , plate tectonics , and volcanic eruptions . Certain human activities have been identified as primary causes of ongoing climate change , often referred to as global warming . Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models . A climate record -- extending deep into the Earth 's past -- has been assembled , and continues to be built up , based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles , cores removed from deep accumulations of ice , floral and faunal records , glacial and periglacial processes , stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers , and records of past sea levels . More recent data are provided by the instrumental record . General circulation models , based on the physical sciences , are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data , make future projections , and link causes and effects in climate change .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Climate_change", "rank": 51, "score": 83985 }, { "content": "Title: Outgoing longwave radiation Content: Outgoing Longwave Radiation ( OLR ) is the energy radiating from the Earth as infrared radiation at low energy to Space . OLR is electromagnetic radiation emitted from Earth and its atmosphere out to space in the form of thermal radiation . The flux of energy transported by outgoing longwave radiation is measured in W/m ² . Over 99 % of outgoing longwave radiation has wavelengths between 4 µm and 100 µm , in the thermal infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum . Contributions with wavelengths larger than 40 µm are small , therefore often only wavelengths up to 50 µm are considered . In the wavelength range between 4 µm and 10 µm the spectrum of outgoing longwave radiation overlaps that of solar radiation , and for various applications different cut-off wavelengths between the two may be chosen . Radiative cooling by outgoing longwave radiation is the primary way the Earth System loses energy . The balance between this loss and the energy gained by radiative heating from incoming solar shortwave radiation determines global heating or cooling of the Earth system ( Energy budget of Earth 's climate ) . Local differences between radiative heating and cooling provide the energy that drives atmospheric dynamics .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Outgoing_longwave_radiation", "rank": 52, "score": 83743 }, { "content": "Title: 2007 European heat wave Content: The 2007 European heatwave was a heat wave that affected most of Southern Europe and the Balkans . The phenomenon began affecting Italy and Turkey on June 17 and expanded into Greece and the rest of the Balkans , Hungary and Ukraine on June 18 .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "2007_European_heat_wave", "rank": 53, "score": 83636 }, { "content": "Title: 2006 North American heat wave Content: The 2006 North American heat wave spread throughout most of the United States and Canada beginning on July 15 , 2006 , killing at least 225 people . That day the temperature reached 117 ° F ( 47 ° C ) in Pierre , South Dakota , with many places in South Dakota that hit well into the 120s . In early reports from this heat wave , at least three died in Philadelphia , Arkansas , and Indiana . In Maryland , the state health officials reported that three people died of heat-related causes . Another heat related death was suspected in Chicago . Although many heat related deaths go unreported , by July 19 , the Associated Press reported that the soaring heat was blamed for 12 deaths from Oklahoma City to the Philadelphia area . Reports by early morning July 20 raised the death toll to at least 16 in seven states . This period of heat also saw a wind storm ( derecho ) in St. Louis that caused widespread power outages , including for cooling centers designed to provide relief for those suffering from the heat . In addition , places on the West Coast , like California 's Central Valley and Southern California experienced humid heat , which is unusual for the area .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "2006_North_American_heat_wave", "rank": 54, "score": 83362 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on humans Content: Climate change has brought about possibly permanent alterations to Earth 's geological , biological and ecological systems . These changes have led to the emergence of large-scale environmental hazards to human health , such as extreme weather , ozone depletion , increased danger of wildland fires , loss of biodiversity , stresses to food-producing systems and the global spread of infectious diseases . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) estimates that 160,000 deaths , since 1950 , are directly attributable to climate change . Many believe this to be a conservative estimate . To date , a neglected aspect of the climate change debate , much less research has been conducted on the impacts of climate change on health , food supply , economic growth , migration , security , societal change , and public goods , such as drinking water , than on the geophysical changes related to global warming . Human impacts can be both negative and positive . Climatic changes in Siberia , for instance , are expected to improve food production and local economic activity , at least in the short to medium term . Numerous studies suggest , however , that the current and future impacts of climate change on human society are and will continue to be overwhelmingly negative . The majority of the adverse effects of climate change are experienced by poor and low-income communities around the world , who have much higher levels of vulnerability to environmental determinants of health , wealth and other factors , and much lower levels of capacity available for coping with environmental change . A report on the global human impact of climate change published by the Global Humanitarian Forum in 2009 , estimated more than 300,000 deaths and about $ 125 billion in economic losses each year , and indicating that most climate change induced mortality is due to worsening floods and droughts in developing countries .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_humans", "rank": 55, "score": 83184 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming in Turkey Content:", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Global_warming_in_Turkey", "rank": 56, "score": 82925 }, { "content": "Title: Heat Wave (Alphabeat song) Content: `` Heat Wave '' is a song by Danish pop band Alphabeat from their second studio album , The Spell ( 2009 ) . The song was released in Denmark on 21 June 2010 as the album 's fourth and final single . `` Heat Wave '' peaked at number four on the Danish Singles Chart , and was certified gold by IFPI Denmark in October 2010 , denoting sales in excess of 15,000 copies .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Heat_Wave_(Alphabeat_song)", "rank": 57, "score": 82846 }, { "content": "Title: 2011 North American heat wave Content: The 2011 North American heat wave was a deadly summer 2011 heat wave that affected the Southern Plains , Midwestern United States , Eastern Canada , Northeastern United States , and much of the Eastern Seaboard , and had Heat index/Humidex readings reaching upwards of 131 ° F. On a national basis , the heat wave was the hottest in 75 years .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "2011_North_American_heat_wave", "rank": 58, "score": 82845 }, { "content": "Title: Media coverage of global warming Content: Media coverage of climate change has had effects on public opinion on climate change, as it mediates the scientific opinion on climate change that the global temperature has increased in recent decades and that the trend is mainly caused by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases. Almost all scientific bodies of national or international standing agree with this view, although a few organisations hold non-committal positions. Climate change communication research frequently studies the effectiveness of that media. Some researchers and journalists believe that media coverage of political issues is adequate and fair, while a few feel that it is biased. However, most studies on media coverage of the topic are neither recent nor concerned with coverage of environmental issues. Moreover, they are only rarely concerned specifically with the question of bias.Despite recent trends in increased coverage on climate change, media coverage is not constant, and researchers wonder if the current increase in attention will be sustained.", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Media_coverage_of_global_warming", "rank": 59, "score": 82797 }, { "content": "Title: Heatwave (Wiley song) Content: `` Heatwave '' is a single from British grime artist Wiley , featuring vocals from Ms D - known for singing on the Chipmunk song `` Oopsy Daisy '' . It was released as the lead single from his eighth studio album The Ascent on 27 July 2012 for digital download in the United Kingdom . It was written by Wiley , Dayo Olatunji and produced by Rymez , who is unofficially credited as a featured artist . `` Heatwave '' received major radio airplay , while managing to enter on BBC Radio 1 's A-list . The song debuted at number 1 on the UK Singles Chart on 5 August 2012 , selling over 114,000 copies , while becoming Wiley 's first ever solo number 1 .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Heatwave_(Wiley_song)", "rank": 60, "score": 82346 }, { "content": "Title: Greenhouse effect Content: The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet 's atmosphere warms the planet 's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere . If a planet 's atmosphere contains radiatively active gases ( i.e. , greenhouse gases ) the atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions . Part of this radiation is directed towards the surface , warming it . The downward component of this radiation -- that is , the strength of the greenhouse effect -- will depend on the atmosphere 's temperature and on the amount of greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains . On Earth , the atmosphere is warmed by absorption of infrared thermal radiation from the underlying surface ( heated by the sun ) , absorption of shorter wavelength radiant energy from the sun , and convective heat fluxes from the surface . Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere radiate energy , some of which is directed to the surface and lower atmosphere . The mechanism that produces this difference between the actual surface temperature and the effective temperature is due to the atmosphere and is known as the greenhouse effect . Earth 's natural greenhouse effect is critical to supporting life . Human activities , primarily the burning of fossil fuels and clearing of forests , have intensified the natural greenhouse effect , causing global warming . The mechanism is named after a faulty analogy with the effect of solar radiation passing through glass and warming a greenhouse . The way a greenhouse retains heat is fundamentally different , as a greenhouse works by reducing airflow and retaining warm air inside the structure .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Greenhouse_effect", "rank": 61, "score": 82103 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming hiatus Content: A global warming hiatus , also sometimes referred to as a global warming pause or a global warming slowdown , is a period of relatively little change in globally averaged surface temperatures . In the current episode of global warming many such 15-year periods appear in the surface temperature record , along with robust evidence of the long-term warming trend ; climate is classically averaged over 30-year periods . Publicity has surrounded claims of a global warming hiatus during the period 1998 -- 2013 . The exceptionally warm El Niño year of 1998 was an outlier from the continuing temperature trend , and so subsequent annual temperatures gave the appearance of a hiatus : by January 2006 , it appeared to some that global warming had stopped or paused . A 2009 study showed that decades without warming were not exceptional , and in 2011 a study showed that if allowances were made for known variability , the rising temperature trend continued unabated . There was increased public interest in 2013 in the run-up to publication of the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report , and despite concerns that a 15-year period was too short to determine a meaningful trend , the IPCC included a section on a hiatus , which it defined as a much smaller increasing linear trend over the 15 years from 1998 to 2012 , than over the 60 years from 1951 to 2012 . Various studies examined possible causes of the short-term slowdown . Even though the overall climate system has continued to accumulate energy due to Earth 's positive energy budget , the available temperature readings at the Earth 's surface indicate slower rates of increase in surface warming than in the prior decade . Since measurements at the top of the atmosphere show that Earth is receiving more energy than it is radiating back into space , the retained energy should be producing warming in the Earth 's climate system . Research reported in July 2015 on an updated NOAA dataset casts doubt on the existence of a hiatus , and it finds no indication of a slowdown even in earlier years . Scientists working on other datasets welcomed this study , though they have expressed the view that the recent warming trend was less than in previous periods of the same length . Subsequently , a detailed study supports the conclusion that warming is continuing , but it also find there was less warming between 2001 and 2010 than climate models had predicted , and that this slowdown might be attributed to short-term variations in the Pacific decadal oscillation ( PDO ) , which was negative during that period . Another review finds `` no substantive evidence '' of a pause in global warming . A statistical study of global temperature data since 1970 concludes that the term ` hiatus ' or ` pause ' is not justified . Independent of these discussions about data and measurements for earlier years , 2015 turned out to be much warmer than any of the earlier years , already before El Niño conditions started . The warmth of 2015 largely ended any remaining scientific credibility of claims that the supposed `` hiatus '' since 1998 had any significance for the long-term warming trend . In January 2017 , a study published in the journal Science Advances cast further doubt on the existence of a recent pause , with more evidence that ocean temperatures have been underestimated . An April 2017 study found the data consistent with a steady warming trend globally since the 1970s , with fluctuations within the expected range of short term variability .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Global_warming_hiatus", "rank": 62, "score": 82074 }, { "content": "Title: Thermal Credits Content: Thermal credits is a new holistic concept which corresponds to the percentage of the climate impact saving obtained through mitigation and adaptation measures applied against global warming , taking as reference the global temperature rise projected in a given time scale . Thermal credits are measured in percentages of global warming reduction in a given time .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Thermal_Credits", "rank": 63, "score": 82047 }, { "content": "Title: Six Degrees: Our Future on a Hotter Planet Content: Six Degrees : Our Future on a Hotter Planet ( 358 pages ) , ISBN 978-0-00-720905-7 is a 2007 ( 2008 in USA ) non-fiction book by author Mark Lynas about global warming . The book looks and attempts to summarize results from scientific papers on climate change .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Six_Degrees:_Our_Future_on_a_Hotter_Planet", "rank": 64, "score": 81978 }, { "content": "Title: Heatwave (Robin Schulz song) Content: `` Heatwave '' is a song by German DJ and record producer Robin Schulz featuring vocals from American singer , rapper and songwriter Akon . The song was released as a digital download in Germany on 12 February 2016 as the fourth and final single from his second studio album Sugar ( 2015 ) . The song was written by Thomas Troelsen , Aliaune Thiam and Bryan Nelson .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Heatwave_(Robin_Schulz_song)", "rank": 65, "score": 81962 }, { "content": "Title: Solar gain Content: Solar gain ( also known as solar heat gain or passive solar gain ) refers to the increase in temperature ( heat gain ) in a space , object or structure that results from solar radiation . The amount of solar gain increases with the strength of the sunlight , and with the ability of any intervening material to transmit or resist the radiation . Objects struck by sunlight absorb the short-wave radiation from the light and reradiate the heat at longer infrared wavelengths . Certain materials and substances , such as glass , are more transparent to the shorter wavelengths than the longer ; when the sun shines through such materials , the net result is an increase in temperature -- solar gain . This effect , the greenhouse effect , so called due to the solar gain that is experienced behind the glass of a greenhouse , has since become well known in the context of global warming .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Solar_gain", "rank": 66, "score": 81960 }, { "content": "Title: 1955 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The UK drought of 1955 and associated heatwave were a set of severe weather events that occurred over all parts of the country . The drought was the 7th worst drought in Yorkshire , and worse than the famous 1976 drought and heatwave in the region . The drought followed a period of extremely wet weather previous to the event , limiting the effects . However , the usual impacts were seen with water levels and the water table dropping and reservoirs running low .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "1955_United_Kingdom_heat_wave", "rank": 67, "score": 81912 }, { "content": "Title: Economics of global warming Content: The economics of global warming concerns the economic aspects of global warming ; this can inform policies that governments might consider in response . A number of factors make this a difficult problem from both economic and political perspectives : it is a long-term , intergenerational problem ; benefits and costs are distributed unequally both within and across countries ; and scientific and public opinions may diverge . One of the most important greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide . Around 20 % of carbon dioxide which is emitted due to human activities can remain in the atmosphere for many thousands of years . The long time scales and uncertainty associated with global warming have led analysts to develop `` scenarios '' of future environmental , social and economic changes . These scenarios can help governments understand the potential consequences of their decisions . The impacts of climate change include the loss of biodiversity , sea level rise , increased frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , and acidification of the oceans . Economists have attempted to quantify these impacts in monetary terms , but these assessments can be controversial . The two main policy responses to global warming are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions ( climate change mitigation ) and to adapt to the impacts of global warming ( e.g. , by building levees in response to sea level rise ) . Another policy response which has recently received greater attention is geoengineering of the climate system ( e.g. injecting aerosols into the atmosphere to reflect sunlight away from the Earth 's surface ) . One of the responses to the uncertainties of global warming is to adopt a strategy of sequential decision making . This strategy recognizes that decisions on global warming need to be made with incomplete information , and that decisions in the near term will have potentially long-term impacts . Governments might choose to use risk management as part of their policy response to global warming . For instance , a risk-based approach can be applied to climate impacts which are difficult to quantify in economic terms , e.g. , the impacts of global warming on indigenous peoples . Analysts have assessed global warming in relation to sustainable development . Sustainable development considers how future generations might be affected by the actions of the current generation . In some areas , policies designed to address global warming may contribute positively towards other development objectives . In other areas , the cost of global warming policies may divert resources away from other socially and environmentally beneficial investments ( the opportunity costs of climate change policy ) .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Economics_of_global_warming", "rank": 68, "score": 81900 }, { "content": "Title: Wibjörn Karlén Content: Wibjörn Karlén ( born 26 August 1937 in Kristine , Kopparberg County , Sweden ) , Ph.D. , is a professor emeritus of physical geography and quaternary geology at Stockholm University , Sweden . In an article which describes Karlén as a paleoclimatologist , he is quoted as saying : `` One of the big problems with trying to determine long-term temperature changes , is that weather records only go back to about 1860 . By relying on statistical reconstruction of the last 1000 years , using only the temperature patterns of the last 140 years instead of actual temperature readings , the IPCC report and Summary missed both a major cooling period as well as a significant warming trend during that millennium . '' Karlén has also criticized the mainstream media for `` spreading the exaggerated views of a human impact on climate . '' He was also named in a 2007 minority report of the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee as one of 400 `` prominent scientists '' who were said to dispute global warming . In 2010 , he predicted that natural climate changes , caused to a large degree by the sun 's activity , would more likely make the climate colder than warmer in the next decades . He is a contributing author to the Fraser Institute 2007 Independent Summary for Policymakers . Karlén is a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Wibjörn_Karlén", "rank": 69, "score": 81899 }, { "content": "Title: Heat Wave (Martha and the Vandellas album) Content: Heat Wave is the second album released by American Motown girl group Martha and the Vandellas . Released in 1963 on Motown 's Gordy imprint , intended to capitialize on the success of the title track , which rose to number four on the pop singles chart and number-one on the R&B singles chart . The album was produced by the likes of Holland-Dozier-Holland ( who composed the group 's first five hit singles ) and Mickey Stevenson . This was the last album to feature original Vandella Annette Beard . The material is composed almost entirely of cover versions of songs that were popular at the time . These range from pop tunes like `` Then He Kissed Me '' and `` My Boyfriend 's Back '' to mainstream standards such as `` More '' ( the theme from the 1962 film Mondo Cane ) and `` Danke Schoen . '' The folk song `` If I Had a Hammer '' is also included as the Peter , Paul , and Mary version was big at the time . On its original release Heat Wave charted lowly at 125 on the U.S. albums chart .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Heat_Wave_(Martha_and_the_Vandellas_album)", "rank": 70, "score": 81707 }, { "content": "Title: Earth's energy budget Content: Earth 's energy budget accounts for the energy Earth receives from the Sun . Much of this energy is lost when the earth re-radiates it back into outer space , and the rest of the energy is distributed throughout the five components of Earth 's climate system . This system is made up of earth 's water , ice , atmosphere , rocky crust , and all living things . Quantifying changes in these amounts is required to accurately model the Earth 's climate . Received radiation is unevenly distributed over the planet , because the Sun heats equatorial regions more than polar regions . Energy is absorbed by the atmosphere , hydrosphere , and lithosphere , and , in a process informally described as Earth 's heat engine , the solar heating is redistributed through evaporation of surface water , convection , rainfall , winds , and ocean circulation . When the incoming solar energy is balanced by an equal flow of heat to space , the Earth is said to be in radiative equilibrium and under that condition , global temperatures will be stable . Disturbances of Earth 's radiative equilibrium , such as an increase of greenhouse gases , will change global temperatures in response . However , Earth 's energy balance and heat fluxes depend on many factors , such as atmospheric composition ( mainly aerosols and greenhouse gases ) , the albedo ( reflectivity ) of surface properties , cloud cover and vegetation and land use patterns . Changes in surface temperature due to Earth 's energy budget do not occur instantaneously , due to the inertia of the oceans and the cryosphere . The net heat flux is buffered primarily by becoming part of the ocean 's heat content , until a new equilibrium state is established between radiative forcings and the climate response .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Earth's_energy_budget", "rank": 71, "score": 81703 }, { "content": "Title: 1901 eastern United States heat wave Content: The 1901 eastern United States heat wave was the most severe and deadly heat wave in the United States prior to the 1930s dust bowl . Although the heat wave did not set many still-standing daily temperature records , it was exceptionally prolonged -- covering without interruption the second half of June and all of July -- and centred upon more highly populated areas than later American heat waves . The heat wave accompanied a major drought in the Ohio Valley and Upper Midwest , with Illinois having what remains its driest calendar year since records have been kept , and Missouri being only 0.21 in above its driest calendar year of 1953 .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "1901_eastern_United_States_heat_wave", "rank": 72, "score": 81670 }, { "content": "Title: 2006 European heat wave Content: The 2006 European heat wave was a period of exceptionally hot weather that arrived at the end of June 2006 in certain European countries . The United Kingdom , France , Belgium , the Netherlands , Luxembourg , Italy , Poland , the Czech Republic , Hungary , Germany and western parts of Russia were most affected . Several records were broken . In the Netherlands , Belgium , Germany , Ireland and the United Kingdom , July 2006 was the warmest month since official measurements began .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "2006_European_heat_wave", "rank": 73, "score": 81540 }, { "content": "Title: 2018 British Isles heat wave Content: The 2018 Britain and Ireland heat wave was a period of unusually hot weather that took place in June, July and August. It caused widespread drought, hosepipe bans, crop failures, and a number of wildfires. These wildfires worst affected northern moorland areas around the Greater Manchester region, the largest was at Saddleworth Moor and another was at Winter Hill, together these burned over 14 square miles (36 km2) of land over a period of nearly a month.A heat wave was officially declared on 22 June, with Scotland and Northern Ireland recording temperatures above 30 °C (86 °F) for the first time since the July 2013 heat wave. The British Isles were in the middle of a strong warm anticyclone inside a strong northward meander of the jet stream, this was part of the wider 2018 European heat wave. The Met Office declared summer 2018 the joint hottest on record together with 1976, 2003 and 2006.", "qid": "3134", "docid": "2018_British_Isles_heat_wave", "rank": 74, "score": 81272 }, { "content": "Title: 2003 European heat wave Content: The 2003 European heat wave led to the hottest summer on record in Europe since at least 1540 . France was hit especially hard . The heat wave led to health crises in several countries and combined with drought to create a crop shortfall in parts of Southern Europe . Peer-reviewed analysis places the European death toll at more than 70,000 . The predominant heat was recorded in July and August , partly a result of the western European seasonal lag from the maritime influence of the Atlantic warm waters in combination with hot continental air and strong southerly winds .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "2003_European_heat_wave", "rank": 75, "score": 81231 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming taxes Content:", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Global_warming_taxes", "rank": 76, "score": 81009 }, { "content": "Title: Global warming (disambiguation) Content: Global warming is one of the common names for the current change in Earth 's climate . Global warming may also refer to : Global Warming ( Pitbull album ) , a 2011 music album by Pitbull Global Warming ( Sonny Rollins album ) , a 1998 music album by Sonny Rollins Global warming game , several games based on the concept Not to be confused with the Global warming controversy , which refers to the public debate over scientific conclusions on climate change .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Global_warming_(disambiguation)", "rank": 77, "score": 81002 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Texas Content: Over the next century , climate in Texas could experience additional changes . For example , based on projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and results from the United Kingdom Hadley Centre 's climate model ( HadCM2 ) , a model that accounts for both greenhouse gases and aerosols , by 2100 temperatures in Texas could increase by about 3 ° F ( ~ 1.7 ° C ) in spring ( with a range of 1-6 ° F ) and about 4 ° F ( ~ 2.2 ° C ) in other seasons ( with a range of 1-9 ° F ) . Precipitation is estimated to decrease by 5-30 % in winter and increase by about 10 % in the other seasons . Increases in summer could be slightly larger ( up to 30 % ) than in spring and fall . Other climate models may show different results . The amount of precipitation on extreme wet or snowy days in winter is likely to decrease , and the amount of precipitation on extreme wet days in summer is likely to increase . The frequency of extreme hot days in summer would increase because of the general warming trend . It is not clear how severe storms such as hurricanes would change .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Texas", "rank": 78, "score": 80699 }, { "content": "Title: Economic impacts of climate change Content: This article describes the economic impacts of climate change . Given the inherent nature of economic forecasting , which involves significant degrees of uncertainty , estimates of the results of global warming over the 21st century have varied widely . Many analyses , such as that of the Stern Review presented to the British Government , have predicted reductions by several percent of world gross domestic product due to climate related costs such as dealing with increased extreme weather events and stresses to low-lying areas due to sea level rises . Other studies by independent economists looking at the effects of climate change have found more ambiguous results around the range of net-neutral changes when all aspects of the issue are evaluated , though the issue remains intensely debated .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Economic_impacts_of_climate_change", "rank": 79, "score": 80611 }, { "content": "Title: Living in the Hothouse Content: Living in the Hothouse : How Global Warming Affects Australia is a 2005 book by Professor Ian Lowe which is a sequel to his Living in the Greenhouse ( 1989 ) . The book presents a detailed analysis of climate change science and the likely impact of climate change in Australia . Living in the Hothouse also offers a critical overview of the Howard government 's policy response to climate change in Australia . Ian Lowe , AO , is a scientist , environmental policy analyst , and president of the Australian Conservation Foundation , who has served on many federal , state and local government committees . Other books by Ian Lowe include Reaction Time and A Big Fix .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Living_in_the_Hothouse", "rank": 80, "score": 80595 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Saskatchewan Content: The effects of climate change in Saskatchewan are now being observed in parts of the province . There is evidence of reduction of biomass in Saskatchewan 's boreal forests ( as with those of other Canadian prairie provinces ) that is linked by researchers to drought-related water stress stemming from global warming , most likely caused by greenhouse gas emissions . While studies , as early as 1988 ( Williams , et al. , 1988 ) have shown that climate change will affect agriculture , whether the effects can be mitigated through adaptations of cultivars , or crops , is less clear . Resiliency of ecosystems may decline with large changes in temperature . The provincial government has responded to the threat of climate change by introducing a plan to reduce carbon emissions , `` The Saskatchewan Energy and Climate Change Plan '' , in June 2007 .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Saskatchewan", "rank": 81, "score": 80445 }, { "content": "Title: Heatwave (comics) Content: Heatwave is a comic book character from Top Cow Productions . He was also a member of the Cyberforce .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Heatwave_(comics)", "rank": 82, "score": 79952 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in the Arctic Content: The effects of global warming in the Arctic , or climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures , loss of sea ice , and melting of the Greenland ice sheet with a related cold temperature anomaly , observed in recent years . Potential methane release from the region , especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates , is also a concern . The Arctic warms twice as fast compared to the rest of the world . The pronounced warming signal , the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming , it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming . The melting of Greenland 's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification . According to a study published in 2016 , about 0.5 ◦ C of the warming in the Arctic has been attributed to reductions in sulfate aerosols in Europe since 1980 .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Climate_change_in_the_Arctic", "rank": 83, "score": 79637 }, { "content": "Title: The Coming Global Superstorm Content: The Coming Global Superstorm ( ISBN 0-671-04190-8 ) is a 1999 book by Art Bell and Whitley Strieber , which warns that global warming might produce sudden and catastrophic climatic effects . First , the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift would generate a cordon of warm water around the North Pole , which in turn , holds in a frozen mass of Arctic air . Second , if the North Atlantic drift were to shut down , that barrier would fail , releasing a flood of frozen air into the Northern Hemisphere , causing a sudden and drastic temperature shift . The book discusses a possible cause of the failure of the Gulf Stream : the melting of the polar ice caps could drastically affect the salinity of the North Atlantic drift by dumping a large quantity of freshwater into the world 's oceans . Bell and Strieber explain the possibility that such current destabilizations have occurred before , as well as seemingly impossible engineering feats by the ancients . Among their examples is the island city of Nan Madol . The book claims that its construction , with exacting tolerances and extremely heavy basalt materials , necessitates a high degree of technical competency . Since no such society exists in the modern record or even , in legend , the society must have been destroyed by dramatic means . While other explanations beside a global meteorological event are possible , a correlating evidence set is presented in the woolly mammoth . Strieber and Bell assert that since mammoths have been found preserved with food still in their mouths and undigested in their stomachs , these animals must have been killed quickly , in otherwise normal conditions . They were preserved so well by quick freezing , which is taken as evidence of a rapid onset of a global blizzard or similar event . Interspersed with the analytical parts of the book are a series of interlinked short fictional scenarios , written in italics , describing what might transpire today if a destabilization of the North Atlantic Current were to occur . The fictional accounts of `` current events '' as the meteorological situation deteriorates provided background and inspiration for the 2004 science fiction film The Day After Tomorrow . Indeed , some events from the book are portrayed in the film with little modification .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "The_Coming_Global_Superstorm", "rank": 84, "score": 79631 }, { "content": "Title: Heat Wave (Irving Berlin song) Content: `` Heat Wave '' is a popular song written by Irving Berlin for the 1933 musical As Thousands Cheer , and introduced in the show by Ethel Waters . The song was featured in the 1938 movie Alexander 's Ragtime Band , where it was performed by Ethel Merman . It was also featured in the 1946 movie Blue Skies , where it was performed by Olga San Juan and in the 1954 movie There 's No Business Like Show Business , where it was performed by Marilyn Monroe . ( Note : based on the lyrics alone , the Marilyn song is different , and ironically , within the film 's narrative Monroe 's version is a sexier variant of the original that 's `` stolen '' from Ethel Merman 's character ) . A snippet of the song can be heard in the beginning of the 1954 film White Christmas , sung by Bing Crosby and Danny Kaye . Crosby also recorded the song on his 1956 album Bing Sings Whilst Bregman Swings and on his 1975 album At My Time of Life . Ella Fitzgerald sang the song on her 1958 album Ella Fitzgerald Sings the Irving Berlin Songbook . Enoch Light gave a symphonic treatment of the song , which can be found on the album Stereo 35-MM ( 1961 ) . More recently , covers of the song were performed by Patti LuPone and the Hollywood Bowl Orchestra on the album Heatwave : Patti LuPone Sings Irving Berlin .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Heat_Wave_(Irving_Berlin_song)", "rank": 85, "score": 79450 }, { "content": "Title: 2016 Indian heat wave Content: In April and May 2016 , India experienced a major heat wave . A national record high temperature of 51.0 ° C ( 123.8 ° F ) was set in the town of Phalodi , in the state of Rajasthan . A total of over 160 people have died and 330 million affected . There are also water shortages . Drought has worsened the heat wave .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "2016_Indian_heat_wave", "rank": 86, "score": 79329 }, { "content": "Title: 2015 North American heat wave Content: The 2015 North American heat wave was a heatwave in the Northwest United States and southern British Columbia , that took place from June 18 - July 3 , 2015 . Many all time and monthly record highs and record high lows were recorded . In Canada , the heat wave mostly affected the Lower Mainland , and the Southern Interior .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "2015_North_American_heat_wave", "rank": 87, "score": 79326 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in southeast Alaska Content: Climate change in southeast Alaska are changes which occur in southeast Alaska as average temperatures rise as a result of global warming . The temperate rainforest that covers this area is a result of humid summers and transient snow cover in winter . The conifers that thrive in this moist climate are free from fire risk as compared to the forests to both the north and south . Warmer weather will lengthen the growing period of the trees and the increase in evapotranspiration is likely to outweigh the increase of precipitation . Assuming a scenario involving a mid-range increase in emissions , the average temperature may rise by about 3 ° F by the year 2040 and by 6 ° F by 2080 . The trees will grow more vigorously but fungi that cause rot will also thrive , there is likely to be an increase in windthrow , and fire risk may rise . With winter temperatures increasing , the type of precipitation will change . Lack of snow cover on the ground will expose tree roots to colder soils , and yellow ceder is already showing the result of this with many trees dying . The melting of glaciers in the watershed is likely to accelerate and will cause hydrological changes that will impact the wetland habitats and the distribution of wildlife . Animals such as the black-tailed deer , moose and mountain goat may benefit from less snow cover , while such mammals as the northwestern deer mouse that tunnels under the snow are likely to be disadvantaged .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Climate_change_in_southeast_Alaska", "rank": 88, "score": 79112 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change and agriculture Content: -RSB- Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes , both of which take place on a global scale . Climate change affects agriculture in a number of ways , including through changes in average temperatures , rainfall , and climate extremes ( e.g. , heat waves ) ; changes in pests and diseases ; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations ; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods ; and changes in sea level . Climate change is already affecting agriculture , with effects unevenly distributed across the world . Future climate change will likely negatively affect crop production in low latitude countries , while effects in northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for some vulnerable groups , such as the poor . Agriculture contributes to climate change by ( 1 ) anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases ( GHGs ) , and ( 2 ) by the conversion of non-agricultural land ( e.g. , forests ) into agricultural land . Agriculture , forestry and land-use change contributed around 20 to 25 % to global annual emissions in 2010 . There are a range of policies that can reduce the risk of negative climate change impacts on agriculture , and to reduce GHG emissions from the agriculture sector .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Climate_change_and_agriculture", "rank": 89, "score": 79110 }, { "content": "Title: Effects of global warming on South Asia Content:", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Effects_of_global_warming_on_South_Asia", "rank": 90, "score": 78970 }, { "content": "Title: Heat Wave Island Content: is a 1969 Japanese drama film directed by Kaneto Shindo and starring Nobuko Otowa .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Heat_Wave_Island", "rank": 91, "score": 78966 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Australia Content: Climate change has been a major issue in Australia since the beginning of the 21st century . In 2013 , the CSIRO released a report stating that Australia is becoming hotter , and that it will experience more extreme heat and longer fire seasons because of climate change . In 2014 , the Bureau of Meteorology released a report on the state of Australia 's climate that highlighted several key points , including the significant increase in Australia 's temperatures ( particularly night-time temperatures ) and the increasing frequency of bush fires , droughts and floods , which have all been linked to climate change . Since the beginning of the 20th century Australia has experienced an increase of nearly 1 ° C in average annual temperatures , with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years than in the previous 50 years . Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the impacts of climate change in Australia . Rainfall in southwestern Australia has decreased by 10 -- 20 % since the 1970s , while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s . Rainfall patterns are expected to be problematic , as rain has become heavier and infrequent , as well as more common in summer rather than in winter , with little or no uptrend in rainfall in the Western Plateau and the Central Lowlands of Australia . Water sources in the southeastern areas of Australia have depleted due to increasing population in urban areas ( rising demand ) coupled with climate change factors such as persistent prolonged drought ( diminishing supply ) . At the same time , Australia continues to have the highest per capita greenhouse gas emissions . Temperatures in Australia have also risen dramatically since 1910 and nights have become warmer . A carbon tax was introduced in 2011 by the Gillard government in an effort to reduce the impact of climate change and despite some criticism , it successfully reduced Australia 's carbon dioxide emissions , with coal generation down 11 % since 2008 -- 09 . The subsequent Australian Government , elected in 2013 under then Prime Minister Tony Abbott was criticised for being `` in complete denial about climate change '' . Furthermore , the Abbott government repealed the carbon tax on 17 July 2014 in a heavily criticised move . The renewable energy target ( RET ) , launched in 2001 , was heavily modified under Abbott 's government . However , under the government of Malcolm Turnbull , Australia attended the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference and adopted the Paris Agreement . This agreement includes a review of emission reduction targets every 5 years from 2020 . The federal government and all state governments ( New South Wales , Victoria , Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia , Tasmania , Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory ) have explicitly recognised that climate change is being caused by greenhouse gas emissions , in conformity with the scientific opinion on climate change . Sectors of the population have campaigned against new coal mines and coal-fired power stations , reflecting concerns about the effects of global warming on Australia . The Garnaut Climate Change Review predicted that a net benefit to Australia may be derived by stabilising greenhouse gases in the atmosphere at 450ppm CO2 eq . The per-capita carbon footprint in Australia was rated 12th in the world by PNAS in 2011 , considerably large given the small population of the country .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Australia", "rank": 92, "score": 78954 }, { "content": "Title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years Content: This list of large scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2000 years . The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale , and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies . In an early attempt to show that climate had changed , Hubert Lamb 's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical , botanical and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the north Atlantic region . Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger scale reconstructions . Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere , and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions . Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century . This pattern as seen in was dubbed the hockey stick graph , and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions , using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records , with variations in how flat the pre-20th century `` shaft '' appears .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years", "rank": 93, "score": 78881 }, { "content": "Title: Long-term effects of global warming Content: See also Effects of global warming . The focus of this article is on the effects beyond 2100 . There are expected to be various long-term effects of global warming . Most discussion and research , including that by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reports , concentrates on the effects of global warming up to 2100 , with only an outline of the effects beyond this .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Long-term_effects_of_global_warming", "rank": 94, "score": 78843 }, { "content": "Title: Heat Wave (1935 film) Content: Heat Wave is a 1935 British comedy film directed by Maurice Elvey and starring Albert Burdon , Cyril Maude and Les Allen . A British vegetable salesman accidentally gets mixed up in a planned revolution in South America . It was made at Islington Studios by Gainsborough Pictures . The film 's sets were designed by the Austrian art director Oscar Friedrich Werndorff .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Heat_Wave_(1935_film)", "rank": 95, "score": 78794 }, { "content": "Title: Climate change in Europe Content: Climate change in Europe describes the climate change related issues in Europe . This includes the climate politics , contribution in the global warming and the influence of the global warming in Europe . According to international climate experts global temperature rise should not exceed 2 ° C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of the climate change . It is estimated to demand at least 80-85 % emission reductions in the EU during 2008-2050 with reductions as soon as technically possible . It is estimated that from the now living persons alive are 70 % in the year 2050 . Emission reduction means development and implementation of new energy technology solutions . Some people consider that the technology revolution has already started in Europe since the markets of the renewable technology have annually grown . European Union climate chief is Connie Hedegaard since 10 February 2010 .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Climate_change_in_Europe", "rank": 96, "score": 78768 }, { "content": "Title: 1990 United Kingdom heat wave Content: The 1990 heat wave in the United Kingdom was a particularly severe heat event with temperatures hitting record highs of 37.1 C on 3 August . The temperature was recorded at Cheltenham , Gloucestershire , and was a full degree Celsius above the previous record , set in 1911 . However , this record was subsequently broken in the 2003 heatwave .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "1990_United_Kingdom_heat_wave", "rank": 97, "score": 78472 }, { "content": "Title: Heat Wave (Ahmad Jamal album) Content: Heat Wave is an album by American jazz pianist Ahmad Jamal featuring performances recorded in 1966 and released on the Cadet label .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Heat_Wave_(Ahmad_Jamal_album)", "rank": 98, "score": 78455 }, { "content": "Title: Heat wave (disambiguation) Content: A heat wave is a prolonged period of unusually hot weather . Heat Wave , or similar , may refer to :", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Heat_wave_(disambiguation)", "rank": 99, "score": 78448 }, { "content": "Title: Heat Wave (The Jazz Crusaders album) Content: Heat Wave is the fifth album by The Jazz Crusaders recorded in 1963 and released on the Pacific Jazz label .", "qid": "3134", "docid": "Heat_Wave_(The_Jazz_Crusaders_album)", "rank": 100, "score": 78322 } ]