Datasets:

jacquelinehe

/

dedup_fineweb_10bt_shuffled

like 0

"Defining and Identifying Cultural Appropriation\nHere's what's going on and why I'm doing this now.\nFirst of all, I'm not gonna deal with global cultural appropriation, but rather focus on American appropriation of cultures brought into the US either by immigrants or by Americans who went abroad and brought stuff back. Okay, here's a brief and incomplete definition of \"cultural appropriation\" I wrote in this post a couple of years ago (you have to read the whole post to really get where I'm coming from.):\nI think that's adequate as a basis, but I DO think I need to distinguish between two concepts so that people get it. The two concepts are:\n- Cultural Appropriation\n- Cultural Syncretism\nMore or less discrete cultures that come into contact with one another, either through geographical proximity, migration, conquest, trade and exploration, or in other ways, will start to syncretize aspects of each culture. This is inevitable, and neither undesirable nor preventable. Cultural items tend to get taken on in a new culture if they are useful, convenient, resolve a problem, or appeal to a value that already exists in the host culture. Examples of this would be:\n- the adoption of potatoes into the European diet after contact with the new world (the introduction of potatoes was more or less deliberate, but the spread of potatoes was a natural cultural movement)\n- Christianity becoming a cult (one of many) in ancient Rome, a culture that tolerated multiple gods from many cultural origins, and incorporated them into its pantheon\n- the partial adoption of Japanese corporate organizing practices in the US auto industry in the eighties, when Japanese auto companies began building factories in the States\nAnd of course, small things like words and whole slang idioms, small gestures or sets of gestures, rituals and ceremonies, manners, clothing and accessories, music, visual design elements, etc. can get taken on deliberately or without thought.\nThis is just how we are. US mainstream culture is a mass of syncretism, from our political culture, to our language (\"ketchup\" is Chinese, \"frankfurter\" and \"wiener\" are German, \"chili\" is Nahuatl, \"onion\" is Latin, and \"soda\" is Arabic, so your standard chili dog and coke is about as syncretic -- and American -- as you can get), our religions, our design, our ... etc.\nHOW syncretism happens is not defined under the term. It can be forced (Indian boarding schools, Catholic church incorporation of local gods as saints), it can be friendly, or it can happen unconsciously. Cultural appropriation is actually, therefore, a subset of cultural syncretism -- one way that syncretism happens.\nIt's a strange, post-colonial way of making syncretism happen, though. Whereas previous to modern decolonization, no one was truly uncomfortable with the idea that the Other was \"barbaric\" (it was only the argument over who constituted the Other, us or them), it's only since the 20th century that we've consciously moralized this position, and created an understanding of Otherness as having value and even virtue, simply because it is Other. This is the \"noble savage\" point of view, the exotifying point of view, the model minority point of view, that elevates Otherness rather than denigrating it. It's still a process of Othering, though.\nIt's also only since the 20th century that groups of people have accepted their identity as Other to the mainstream or dominant group, and turned it into a power position.\nToday, in the United States, we have groups, tribes, cultures, of people whose primary identity is that of Other. Although we spend a lot of time saying \"we are not Other,\" people of color ... African Americans, Asian Americans, etc. ... are people and Americans who must define themselves using a modifier. This is an Other identity, not a mainstream one. You can see the difference when you talk to my mom, who immigrated in her twenties and has been a US citizen for half her life: she'll tell you she's Chinese. Not Chinese American, Chinese. She has a mainstream identity from a different country. Here, she's a foreigner or immigrant, but there's a place where she is not an Other. I, on the Other hand, am Chinese American and multiracial. I was born an Other in the world, and have no home ground to go to where I'm not Other.\nI make this point because accepting and claiming an Other identity, which has politically empowered a lot of people of color, has been largely misunderstood on the white side as meaning that \"it's better to be colored than white.\" This is an unconscious understanding, but it feeds into the noble-savaging and Othering of POC. This comes about because it's accepted and empowering to be outspokenly proud to be \"black,\" \"Asian,\" \"brown,\" \"Latino,\" what have you, but it's not okay to use the same language to be outspokenly proud to be \"white.\" So this gets translated into the following set of principles:\n- whites have no 'ethnic' identity because being proud of one's whiteness is just racism\n- people of color are the only ones with real ethnicity\n- having an ethnicity is better than not having an ethnicity\nWhich brings us to cultural appropriation.\nCultural appropriation is a method of cultural syncretism that is specific to our primary-Other-identity, post-colonial, identity-politics era. It arises when a dominant culture, as I said above, raids a subordinate culture for cultural items that it then pulls out of context. The dominant culture -- in our case, white Americans -- doesn't properly acknowledge the borrowing -- or else the dominant culture makes a complete hash of the borrowing and then tries to pass it off as authentic. This happens for three reasons:\n- Whites want/need ethnicity, so they find or make up a nonwhite ancestor and go acquire aspects of that ancestor's culture (see \"1/16th Cherokee\" or \"we're southern so we must have a black ancestor\") which they weren't brought up in and haven't acquired in ways that people generally consider to be \"authentic.\"\n- Whites want/need ethnicity, so they decide to strongly identify with a nonwhite culture and then acquire aspects of that culture (see \"I taught English in China for two years,\" or \"I'm blacker than you are!\")\n- Whites of a particular class or position need to appear worldly and eclectic -- not to mention liberal -- so they spend a great deal of cultural time \"broadening their horizons\" in ethnic shops and exercise/dance classes. This last one is itself an item of a liberal white American subculture: the need to have a culturally eclectic affect.\nThe reason I made this distinction between cultural syncretism in general and cultural appropriation specifically is that -- you guessed it -- cultural appropriation is about an exploitive power dynamic, whereas not all forms of cultural sycretism are. We see cultural syncretism everywhere in our mainstream culture because the US is an immigrant country and we really do meld a lot more than we give ourselves credit for. The power dynamic lies in the fact that the genuinely syncretic and layered culture of the mainstream is dominated by whites. That broad river of culture is considered -- consciously by POC and unconsciously by whites -- to be the home ground and domain of whites, even though everyone has contributed to it.\nSo when a new cultural item is added to that mainstream, it is done by whites deliberately, and in a manner that doesn't acknowledge its debt to any subculture or alternate culture. That mainstream is powerful because it is the mainstream and because it is the homeground of the white power-majority. Likewise, whites are powerful because they are white and because they control the powerful mainstream, both. It's true cultural synergy.\nThe principle of the mainstream is inherently melting-pot-ish, so once something has joined the mainstream, it becomes very difficult to pick out its origin and path to the mainstream. This is an aspect of the cultural mainstream that shores up its power. Likewise, people of color rarely see their cultural product make it into the mainstream intact because of the melting pot principle; it's easier to not give up power if you dismantle a subculture and incorporate it piecemeal: for every Boyz 'n' the Hood there will be twenty Colors's; for every Better Luck Tomorrow there will be twenty Fast and Furious sequels. Dismantle, then control. This is why the live action Avatar can be cast all white. Avatar already began the process of dismantling the cultures by making them secondary cultures.\nCultural appropriation is also hard for whites to understand because it's hard to distinguish between melding and appropriation when we simply don't know where each individual got it from.\nFor example: generation after generation, African American slang gets incorporated into mainstream white slang. At one point in this process, it's straight up cultural appropriation. But there does come a moment when enough white people are using the slang, that other white people are picking it up from whites in their own communities, without necessarily knowing its origin. At that point, it's already fused into the mainstream culture and the less \"cutting edge\" whites really aren't appropriating it ... because it's already thoroughly appropriated.\nI'll give you a funny example: I left the US (Tucson) in 1992 and came back (to San Francisco) in 1998. During that time, a new set of \"urban\" slang hit the mainstream. Not a lot of this reached us in Europe during that time. So when I came back to the States in 98/99, I was working at a number of Asian American arts orgs. A lot of the volunteers had gone to ivy league colleges (model minorities) and I noticed something: all the people I knew who had gone to Yale were using this slang expression \"My bad.\" I'd never heard that before so I pointed it out to a Yalie friend and asked if it was a Yale thing. She found that very amusing. Of course, subsequently, I heard it all over the place and it became clear that it was part of a slang set that -- once again -- came from African America. But by the time it reached me, it was so thoroughly appropriated that I was able to think -- just for a moment -- that it was an ivy league thing.\nBecause cultural appropriation either succeeds or fails -- that is, items are either thoroughly appropriated or they aren't -- it can be hard to tell with successful appropriations where they've been appropriated from. So a LOT of whites, who get these things from their white communities, hear POC screaming about cultural appropriation and are genuinely confused. Aren't we a melting pot? I didn't steal this from anybody! Even my Mom says it for chrissake!\nThere's also a lot of unconscious disagreement about a statute of limitations on accusations of cultural appropriation. For example, I still hear some Af Ams complaining about how Elvis jacked Little Richard and others. It's true, but we're so many musical generations down the line from Elvis, and most Af Am musicians wouldn't touch rockabilly with a ten-foot pole now, so can we let go of that? I'd still be willing to talk about Vanilla Ice, but there are folks who think that's over, too. So that's another issue that no one can agree on: when does it stop being cultural appropriation and just become culture?\nSadly, I have no answers for you today. Because, of course, cultural syncretism and its various methods are a spectrum, not a clearly defined taxonomy. And where your own actions fall on that spectrum will depend on your point of view.\nOne thing I can say, and have said before, is that when it comes to creating fictional worlds and fictional characters, you do have the opportunity to control your cultural appropriation, to step back and err on the side of not appropriating. That is not the same thing as not writing the Other, but I happen to fall down on the side of don't write the Other if you can't do it right. Rather, make sure that enough People of Color are getting published and noticed.\nBut that's just me."

"environmentally-friendly transportation solutions\nMeet the new clean-diesel. It’s the same great fuel you know; only greener.\nDiesel is tried-and-true and with today’s engine and fuel refinery technologies diesel has never been cleaner. The evolution of clean diesel technologies has brought harmful emission levels to near zero helping protect the air that we breathe.\nToday’s clean diesel is more fuel efficient than gasoline and it is yielding significant public health benefits. To see the difference between today’s clean diesel and that of just a few years ago watch the “White Towel Test” demonstrated in the following video."

"Veteran’s Day had its origin at the end of World War I in 1918, a conflict so horrendous that it was dubbed, “the Great War,” or “the war to end all wars,” with the United States playing the decisive role in the Allied powers’ final victory. It was first known as Armistice Day, celebrated on November 11 because that was the day agreed upon by the Allied nations and Germany to begin a total cessation of hostilities. It went into effect on the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month in 1918, after some 20 million people from both sides had given their lives in the war effort.\nThereafter for many years, Armistice Day was just recognized on a state level. Ironically, on the eve of World War II, with Germany having annexed Austria and widely-recognized preparations being made to take over Czechoslovakia, the U.S. Congress finally passed an act to establish Armistice Day — “a day to be dedicated to the cause of world peace”—as a legal federal holiday on May 13, 1938.\nAs it turned out, World War II was almost four times more costly for the U.S. with 405,400 lives lost, than World War I, in which 116,516 Americans died. Needless to say, the focus on the 1918 Armistice was overshadowed, and eventually, after World War II and the Korean War, President Eisenhower changed the name of the holiday to Veterans Day in June 1954, so as to make November 11 “a day to honor American veterans of all wars.”\nAs the holiday evolved, Veterans Day became one of America’s most patriotic holidays, with profuse display of the red, white and blue and Main street parades of veterans in towns across the country. “We the people of the United States” owe our veterans so much, for they were willing to make the ultimate sacrifice — to fight to their deaths if need be — in the defense of freedom for other countries as well as our homeland.\nNot surprisingly, the number of veterans who turn out to vote has been consistently higher than non-veterans by 16-30%. The political importance of veterans has also advanced with the passage of time. In March of 1989, President Reagan elevated the Veterans Administration (VA) to a cabinet level department, with the creation of the Secretary of Veterans Affairs.\nDonald Trump, to his credit, has done more to help American veterans than any prior modern President. He has not only gone out of his way to thank and honor veterans at public events and political rallies, but more importantly he has delivered on providing real reform of the VA and its health care options for veterans. The VA Mission Act was a landmark bill that for the first time expanded private health care options to veterans, providing them with prompt access to the best medical care available, whether at the VA or at a private provider.\nThe United States military never initiated major hostilities, and was often more of a reluctant responder. That was true for both World War I and II and subsequent wars in Korea, Vietnam, Iraq and Afghanistan. The United States has always stood for freedom and against aggression and tyranny. Surely many Americans who enlisted to serve in wartime knew neither the forsaken places they were going nor what they would encounter, but they all had a distinct conviction that they were fighting not only to set overseas captives free, but to protect freedom at home.\nOf all foreign wars in which Americans were engaged, World War II is by far the largest with over 16 million soldiers serving or deployed overseas. Today only about 1.5% of those veterans remain alive as the remnants of the “Greatest Generation.” When we think about these veterans this November 11th, who will all die of old age in a matter of four or five years, Christ’s teaching that “Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay down his life for his friends,” takes on new meaning.\nThe world remains as unsettled with bad actors as in previous times. Let us hope that present and future generations never forget the quote adapted by a modern statesman from Thomas Jefferson’s original that, “The price of freedom is eternal vigilance and a willingness to act in its defense.”"

"Pixelating our playgrounds\nNetworked Society Institute Fellow of Digital Media, Dr Bjorn Nansen, asks how we as parents, consumers, and citizens, should respond to the rise of digital technology in our parks.\nChildren’s playgrounds are becoming increasingly digitised through the ubiquity of mobile devices and interactive games.\nAnyone with a smartphone can take a photo at a playground and many of us walk around with phone in hand without anybody taking a second glance.\nParents supervising their children in the playground often juggle tasks on their phone with efforts to engage with or manage their children’s play; and entering into this already busy space are digital games and apps specifically designed to ‘enhance’ physical play experiences.\nDr Bjorn Nansen, senior lecturer in media and communications at the University of Melbourne, says children’s public play spaces are becoming digitised mostly through parents’ widespread, incidental use of personal mobile devices.\nHe studied two examples of digitally-augmented outdoor play, discovering there is a tolerance for a certain level of additional digitisation, but not too much.\nUnsurprisingly, parental mobile phone use has fed into concerns about adults becoming distracted and disengaged while caring for children, prompting calls for guidelines. This is despite evidence showing parents are twice as likely to use their phone to engage in – rather than disengage from – child-related activities, like taking photos.\nMoral panics about mobile phones aside, there are a range of experimental and more deliberate design interventions emerging that aim to embed or augment children’s play spaces with digital sensors, interfaces and software applications.\n“The aim is to build technology-enhanced installations and spaces that combine elements from digital games research with traditional play equipment and environments,” says Dr Nansen.\nHe studied Disney Fairy Trails, an augmented reality (AR) app that produced an outdoor fairy hunt in Sydney’s and Melbourne’s Royal Botanic Gardens, ostensibly to educate and promote engagement with nature, and HybridPlay, a smartphone game – currently not available – that ‘transforms’ playground equipment into gaming interfaces.\nThe fairy trail AR experience, much like but pre-dating the popular Pokémon Go launch, allowed children to find, collect and fly fairies, guided by a digital garden map using geo-location phone software as part of a temporary, school holiday installation.\nDr Nansen analysed public responses from posts, comments, threads and content-sharing using keywords and hashtags (like #disneyfairytrails) on the web and across social media, to gauge the public response.\n“Given this was overt commercial branding of public space and an explicit digital remediation of what is otherwise a natural, if constructed, physical setting; and that claims supporting curiosity, engagement and learning about nature were somewhat tenuous, there was surprisingly little volume or intensity of negative reaction,” he says.\n“Instead, most of the public posts and discussion revolved around enjoyment, with images of the app and experience shared on Instagram or conversations anticipating and planning when to go and who to take, especially as an activity to entertain children during the school holidays, or suggesting the experience to friends.”\nCriticism, when discovered, centred on more prosaic complaints such as difficulties loading the app, or the quality of coffee nearby.\n“In many ways, this temporary digitisation was not significant enough to challenge social values associated with children’s parks or outdoor play.”\nResponses to Hybrid Play, a system incorporating a sensory clip that attaches to play equipment and a smartphone game platform, were more critical, says Dr Nansen. Given its sensor was a physical attachment that seemed to be trying to restructure the physical space, and its marketing material included the tagline ‘Hybrid Play transforms playgrounds into video games’, this platform more directly implied playgrounds were somehow lacking or more appealing to children if turned into computer games.\n“Hybrid Play more profoundly reimagined what a playground could and should be,” he says.\nOnline comments reflected a widely felt sense of incompatibility between public parks and digital play.\n“This reimagining jarred with longstanding ideas and deeply held sensibilities about the role of parks – sensibilities shaped by personal and culture histories of association, memory and experiences that are deeply ingrained.”\nBut, Dr Nansen argues that the highly emotive online responses lamenting a digital corruption of physical play failed to recognise that these spaces are already full of digital infrastructures, devices, and cultural practices, like digitally recording and sharing children’s play, which are both ordinary and socially-valued.\n“While these examples are temporary or incomplete, they point to potential for the increased digitisation of public space and play, something that will to continue to generate moral panics whilst simultaneously creating new ways to experience and share in public life,” he says.\nThis paper was delivered as part of a Communicative Cities and Urban Space: Symposium and Workshop 2017 in Shanghai in partnership with the Research Unit in Public Cultures and Fudan University."

"Chronic Pain and Inactivity: How a Sedentary Lifestyle Could be Hurting You\nNo doubt we’ve all heard the adage, “use it or lose it,” and when it comes to the human body, no truer words were ever uttered. In an increasingly sedentary society, the effects of inactivity are becoming more prevalent today than ever. What is termed “disuse syndrome” has become a major factor in the diagnosis and progression of chronic pain symptoms. While many may be unaware of this term, it is simply used to describe a sedentary lifestyle and its effects on both the body and mind of inactive individuals.\nThe Relationship Between Disuse and Chronic Pain\nInactivity is possibly one of the worst things an individual can do for his or her health, both physically and mentally. Disuse of the skeletal muscles inevitably leads to muscle atrophy and contributes to cardiovascular problems such as high blood pressure and decreased blood oxygenation. For those suffering from chronic pain, disuse syndrome may be the very thing perpetuating the problem.\nWhen an individual in consistently inactive, the musculoskeletal system begins to deteriorate. This results in a reduction of skeletal muscle – hence, the adage, “use it or lose it.” When a sedentary individual resumes any level of activity, there is no longer sufficient muscle mass to support that activity. In turn, the majority of both the weight and force involved in the activity must be supported by the skeletal system, often leading to chronic pain symptoms. Compounding this issue is the likelihood of significant weight gain in sedentary individuals. Not only do such individuals no longer have the muscle mass to support physical activity, they also carry greater fat mass. This places even greater stress on the joints, tendons, and ligaments of the body, further exacerbating any symptoms.\nWhile there is no doubt that discomfort is a limiting factor in physical activity, remaining active is essential. Not only will physical activity help to maintain muscle mass to support the body, it will provide increased circulation, bringing more nutrients and oxygen to damaged areas that require healing. Even something as simple as regular walking or stretching is far better than no activity at all. While it’s no secret that chronic pain can make activity uncomfortable, developing disuse syndrome is avoidable in most cases. Simply making sure to add even a small amount of physical activity throughout the day can help prevent symptoms from worsening and may lead to increased quality of life.\nIt’s difficult to live with chronic pain as it seeps into every aspect of your life and keeps you from doing the things you need to do, and the things you love doing. If your pain persists, contact the Spine Institute. Our spine specialists in New Jersey will investigate the root of your pain and come up with a plan to tackle it. Call 973-538-4444 or contact us online to set an appointment."

"Septic arthritis has long been considered an orthopedic emergency. Historically, Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Staphylococcus aureus have been the most common causes of septic arthritis worldwide but in the modern era of biological therapy and extensive use of prosthetic joint replacements, the spectrum of microbiological causes of septic arthritis has widened considerably. There are also new approaches to diagnosis but therapy remains a challenge, with a need for careful consideration of a combined medical and surgical approach in most cases.\nSeptic arthritis is a major complication in both immunocompetent and immunocompromised hosts. It has long been viewed as an orthopedic emergency as it can lead to significant morbidity and even mortality. In addition, septic arthritis features prominently among the differential diagnoses of arthritis syndromes. Septic arthritis is sometimes difficult to diagnose, and depending on the etiology, it may present as acute monoarticular arthritis, chronic monoarticular arthritis, polyarticular arthritis, or prosthetic joint infection.\nAlthough all types of septic arthritis are infectious, not all infectious arthritis would be classified as septic arthritis in most contemporary classifications. For example, most viral arthritides and reactive arthritides are generally not classified as septic arthritis, although associated with infectious agents.\nViruses such as parvovirus and rubella are well-known causes of either monoarticular or polyarticular arthritis. The recently recognized alphaviruses – most commonly Ross River virus and now chikungunya – characteristically affect the large- and medium-sized joints and have well-defined geographic distributions. Chikungunya can cause chronic arthritis, with symptoms persisting for up to a year . Chikungunya is a mosquito-borne virus spread by the Aedes mosquito and has been increasingly recognized in the western part of the world, including southern United States. In cases of either alphavirus infections or infections due to other viruses, viruses are rarely isolated from joint fluid. Viral arthritis mainly involves the synovium and is usually self-limiting, with the articular cartilage relatively spared . Arthritis can also result from the deposition of immune complexes and complement components in the synovial membrane, for example, in hepatitis B and C infections.\nReactive arthritis is characteristically an oligoarthritis that arises following an acute infection – most commonly of the genitourinary or gastrointestinal tract – and associated with cutaneous changes and fever. Examples include rheumatic fever, Reiter’s syndrome, and the arthritis that occurs after gastrointestinal tract infections with Shigella spp., Salmonella spp., Campylobacter jejuni , or Yersinia enterocolitica . There are associations with HLA-B27, and a detailed description of reactive arthritis is beyond the scope of this chapter. Lyme arthritis is also, not strictly speaking, a form of septic arthritis, although it is caused by an infectious agent. For the remainder of this review, we will focus on the traditional understanding of septic arthritis caused by bacteria, mycobacteria, or fungi.\nRoute of infection\nThe hematogenous route of infection is the most common route in all age groups. Infections can also occur after penetrating injuries (including animal bites and scratches, and human bites) and from the local spread of infection but at a lower frequency compared with hematogenous spread .\nRoute of infection\nThe hematogenous route of infection is the most common route in all age groups. Infections can also occur after penetrating injuries (including animal bites and scratches, and human bites) and from the local spread of infection but at a lower frequency compared with hematogenous spread .\nPredisposing factors for septic arthritis were identified in a 2007 systematic review: age greater than 80 years, diabetes mellitus, rheumatoid arthritis, prosthetic joint, recent joint surgery, skin infection and cutaneous ulcers, intravenous drug abuse and alcoholism, and previous intra-articular corticosteroid administration . Elderly individuals are more likely to have underlying osteoarthritis as well as complications of treatment including joint injections or joint replacements, which could predispose them to septic arthritis. In particular, bacteremia is more likely to localize in a joint with preexisting arthritis, particularly if associated with synovitis . Patients with rheumatoid arthritis often have other risk factors including prior intra-articular corticosteroid injections and maintenance immunosuppressive agents, including anti-tumor necrosis factor (TNF) therapy.\nSkin infections and cutaneous ulcers can lead to contiguous septic arthritis, especially in patients with neuropathy and diabetes mellitus. Patients with diabetes mellitus are also immunocompromised for a variety of reasons and have microvascular and macrovascular diseases, which can lead to soft tissue infections and contiguous bone and joint infections .\nProsthetic joints are at risk of infection because of the underlying osteoarticular disease and, in particular, because of the presence of a foreign body and the development of a biofilm . Intravenous drug users are at increased risk of hematogenously derived septic arthritis because of the risk of bloodstream infections and endocarditis.\nHematogenous septic arthritis is usually monomicrobial. Polymicrobial infections are less common but can be seen in penetrating injuries or during contiguous spread from adjacent soft tissue infections and rarely caused by polymicrobial bloodstream infections.\nIn the modern era, the most common causative organism for monomicrobial septic arthritis is Staphylococcus aureus . In adults of all age groups with non-gonococcal septic arthritis, S. aureus is the most common causative organism . This is mostly hematogenous as S. aureus is the most common cause of bloodstream infections worldwide, although S. aureus can also cause septic arthritis from contiguous extension from an adjacent soft tissue infection. S. aureus bloodstream infections occur often after minor trauma or in health-care settings in association with a central venous catheter or peripheral intravenous device . S. aureus possesses a number of virulence factors, which enable the bacterium to enter the joint space and evade normal host defenses to cause symptomatic infection. These include bone sialoprotein-binding protein, collagen-binding protein, clumping factors A and B, and protein A, all of which share similar mechanisms of action – adhesion to extracellular matrix – leading to septic arthritis and osteomyelitis .\nAn important subset of S. aureus septic arthritis is septic arthritis caused by methicillin-resistant S . aureus (MRSA). First described several decades ago , septic arthritis caused by MRSA was originally described in hospitalized patients due to seeding of either native or prosthetic joints by MRSA in the setting of nosocomial bloodstream infections. In some populations of intravenous drug abusers, MRSA is the most common pathogen causing septic arthritis . In recent years, community-associated MRSA (CA-MRSA) is being increasingly reported from different parts of the world, including USA , Europe , Taiwan , and Australia . A systematic review by Vardakas et al. found that CA-MRSA bone and joint infections mainly affect patients younger than 2 years of age and African Americans – the reasons for this are not clear and it may be related to access to care or atypical presentations of bone and joint infections in very young children . For patients with septic arthritis of the hip or knee, if a patient were from a health-service-related environment, this was associated with an infection by MRSA more than that of a methicillin-sensitive S. aureus .\nIn the pre-antibiotic era, the most common cause of septic arthritis was gonococcal septic arthritis caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae . Among young sexually active adults, N. gonorrhoeae remains the most common causative organism. N. gonorrhoeae septic arthritis is suspected when a patient is young and sexually active; when there is associated tenosynovitis or vesicular pustules on the skin; or when the patient has a late complement deficiency. Although, historically, N. gonorrhoeae primarily affects the knee , there have been reports of N. gonorrhoeae infections of the axial skeleton as well .\nStreptococci are the second most common causes of non-gonococcal septic arthritis in the modern era. These infections could be hematogenous – in cases of streptococcal bloodstream infections, which are often associated with gastrointestinal pathologies, especially Streptococcus bovis (now renamed Streptococcus gallolyticus , spp. gallolyticus ) , including group G and group C streptococci . Group A streptococcal infections include the highly fatal streptococcal toxic shock syndrome and necrotizing fasciitis .\nIn Asia, serious infections are often caused by hypervirulent strains of Klebsiella pneumoniae , and these are often capsular serotypes K1 and K2 and are community acquired . These include bloodstream infections, which lead to septic arthritis . Intriguingly, there have been reports associating strains of Klebsiella spp. with HLA-B27-associated arthritides , via the mechanism of molecular mimicry. Several other gram-negative infections that cause bloodstream infections have also been associated with septic arthritis including primarily Enterobacteriaceae. Among the Enterobacteriaceae, Escherichia coli is the most commonly implicated organism causing bacteremic septic arthritis . Other Enterobacteriaceae that have been reported to cause septic arthritis include Enterobacter spp., Proteus spp., Salmonella spp., Morganella morganii , Citrobacter spp., and Serratias pp .\nMany of these infections caused by gram-negative bacilli are health-care associated and are caused by seeding of both native and prosthetic joints from health-care-associated bloodstream infections. Among the non-fermenting gram-negative bacilli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa has been implicated as a cause of septic arthritis after invasive procedures, for example, after prostate resection , and urologic surgery , and as a cause of septic arthritis of the knee after anterior cruciate ligament surgery and intra-articular injection of the knee . Burkholderia cepacia and Acinetobacter baumannii have also been implicated as causative pathogens, especially following procedures.\nIn endemic countries, Burkholderia pseudomallei is an important cause of community-acquired septic arthritis in native joints. This is a soil organism that is geographically concentrated in Southeast Asia and northern Australia. It can cause an acute septic picture with rapid development of septic shock in individuals without any underlying immune deficiency, although it tends to occur more commonly in patients with diabetes mellitus , renal disease , or alcoholism . Such patients are often bacteremic and can seed their joints with B. pseudomallei . It was found that the most important risk factor identified in patients with septic arthritis caused by B. pseudomallei was diabetes mellitus . Chronic melioidosis can present years after leaving an endemic area – this was described in US military personnel years after leaving the Vietnam War and many individuals have presented years later with bone and joint infections caused by B. pseudomallei , which were not easy to diagnose as the pathogen is not well known outside the tropics .\nOther gram-negative organisms and anaerobic bacteria can cause polymicrobial septic arthritis complicating soft tissue infections, most commonly in neuropathic individuals with pressure ulcers, due to spinal cord injury . Patients with ischemic limbs or chronic ulcers due to chronic venous insufficiency or arterial insufficiency may also have polymicrobial septic arthritis of the ankle or knee caused by gram-negative and anaerobic organisms in addition to staphylococci and streptococci . While making a microbiological diagnosis of a septic arthritis in a patient with a chronic ulcer, for example, of the ankle adjacent to a malleolar ulcer, it is critical not to depend on superficial swabs as these superficial swabs often only provide information on the organisms that are colonizing the surface of the ulcer. Samples should be obtained aseptically by going through “clean” skin. Many of these infections are indeed due to S. aureus , although gram-negative bacteria and anaerobic organisms such as Bacteroides fragilis and Prevotella spp. are important pathogens in diabetic foot infections .\nIn the pediatric age group, the most common organisms after S. aureus are Streptococcus pneumoniae , group A streptococcus, Kingella kingae , and Salmonella spp . Haemophilus influenzae type b is a major cause of septic arthritis in unimmunized populations. In neonates, the most common causes are S. aureus and group B streptococcus . Enteric gram-negative bacilli such as Klebsiella spp., E. coli , Enterobacter spp., non-typhoidal Salmonella spp., P. aeruginosa , and Proteus spp. are rare causes of septic arthritis in neonates in Western countries, but there are increasing reports in developing countries often due to nosocomial infections or unsafe water or injection practices. Other rare causes in neonates include coagulase-negative Staphylococcus , S. pneumoniae , group A streptococcus, Candida spp. , and anaerobes .\nIndividuals who are immunosuppressed can be infected with rarer organisms. Although staphylococci and streptococci are still the most common causes of septic arthritis in immunocompromised individuals, rarer opportunistic pathogens have been described. Among those reported include various Legionella species (e.g., Legionella pneumophila , Legionella bozemanae , Legionella dumoffii ), Sphingomonas paucimobilis , and B. cepacia complex . Bordetella holmesii , a well-described pathogen in asplenic and immunocompromised patients, has been reported rarely in immunocompetent patients . Although Cellulosimicrobium cellulans usually causes infection in immunosuppressed patients, there has been a case report of this organism causing septic arthritis after a penetrating injury in an immunocompetent patient .\nMycoplasma hominis , which is a commensal in the genitourinary tract of both males and females, usually causes infections such as pyelonephritis, pelvic inflammatory diseases, and postpartum sepsis. Uncommonly, it has also been reported as a cause of septic arthritis in prosthetic joints as well as in immunocompromised hosts . Steuer et al. reported a case wherein M. hominis septic arthritis was the presenting symptom for common variable immunodeficiency .\nPatients who are neutropenic because of either underlying diseases, such as aplastic anemia, or chemotherapy-induced neutropenia are at risk of bacterial infections, in particular gram-negative bacterial infections. These often arise endogenously from translocation of enteric gram-negative bacilli that colonize the gastrointestinal tract. P. aeruginosa remains an important organism in this category. Neutropenic patients are also at high risk of health-care-associated infections; when bacteremia occurs, there can be seeding to the joints. There has been a report of septic arthritis arising from catheter-associated Staphylococcus epidermidis bacteremia in a neutropenic patient . In prolonged neutropenia, fungal infections may ensue and so can infectious arthritis from fungal organisms such as Candida spp. . and Pseudallescheria boydii .\nPatients who are immunocompromised because of defects in cell-mediated immunity are predisposed to infections caused by intracellular bacteria, fungi, and mycobacteria. These include patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Musculoskeletal disorders in patients with HIV may be due to a direct effect of the virus, opportunistic infections, or noninfectious complications of HIV infection or its therapy . Various conditions can be seen in the setting of HIV, including painful articular syndrome, reactive arthritis, HIV-associated arthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, hypertrophic osteoarthropathy, acute gout, avascular bone necrosis, septic arthritis, and osteomyelitis . Similar to HIV-negative patients, septic arthritis occurring in HIV-infected patients is most commonly due to S. aureus . There have also been reports of septic arthritis caused by mycobacteria in patients infected with HIV .\nIn the modern era of highly active antiretroviral therapy, patients infected with HIV rarely now present with opportunistic infections; joint swellings in HIV patients may be due to noninfectious complications rather than septic arthritis as in the past before effective treatment options were available for HIV disease.\nTransplant patients are particularly prone to septic arthritis caused by unusual organisms. In the first few weeks after transplantation, joint infections are often hematogenous and caused by health-care-associated pathogens such as S. aureus (including MRSA) and gram-negative bacilli including P. aeruginosa . However, in the months following transplantation, as patients are maintained on immunosuppressive therapy, they are more prone to infections caused by fungi and mycobacteria.\nEndemic fungi, including Histoplasma capsulatum , Blastomyces dermatitidis , Coccidioides immitis , and Penicillium marneffei , are present in certain geographic regions. After transplantation, patients may manifest disease after primary exposure or through reactivation of latent infection . The most frequently implicated endemic fungal infection in the solid organ transplant population in the United States is histoplasmosis , and it has been transmitted to solid organ recipients via the transplanted organ . The above mentioned infections are commonly disseminated and have been reported to seed to bones and joints .\nMycobacterial septic arthritis is extremely common in the developing world due to the high prevalence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis . M. tuberculosis is the most common infectious disease in adults worldwide, with an estimated 1.5 billion people with latent tuberculosis infection. This infection is often acquired through the airborne route and reaches the bone and joints via hematogenous or lymphatic spread. As a result, the most common joints involved in septic arthritis due to tuberculosis are in the axial skeleton . Tuberculous vertebral osteomyelitis or Pott’s disease is a major cause of morbidity worldwide . The most common site is the thoracolumbar junction, but any segment of the spine can be involved. An uncommon site of spinal tuberculosis is the atlantoaxial junction, but infection in this site can have devastating consequences .\nThe appendicular skeleton is also at risk of tuberculous infections – primarily in developing countries where there is heavy exposure to the pathogen. Tuberculous arthritis commonly affects large weight-bearing joints such as the hip and knee. This is due to better perfusion of muscle insertions at these large joints, which allows mycobacteremia to seed in these joints . Joints such as the shoulder, ankle, elbow, and wrist are infrequently involved, and joints such as the sternoclavicular, acromioclavicular, sacroiliac, pubic symphysis, and small joints of the hands and foot are very rarely involved , with only occasional case reports of tuberculosis affecting bones of the foot .\nIn the developed world, the rate of tuberculosis has declined dramatically since the advent of effective chemotherapy and good public health measures. As a result, tuberculous arthritis is seen mainly in immunocompromised individuals. These include, for example, patients who are infected with HIV and patients who are treated with biologic agents.\nFor prosthetic joint infections, the microbiologic etiology and clinical presentation may vary according to whether the infection is early (within 3 months after surgery), delayed (3–24 months after surgery), or late (more than 24 months after surgery). Staphylococci are the most frequently isolated organisms at all timepoints – early, delayed, and late – with coagulase-negative staphylococci accounting for most of these (30–41%) and S. aureus as the second most common (12–39%) . Early infections are usually caused by more virulent organisms such as S. aureus and gram-negative bacilli, delayed infections are usually caused by less virulent organisms such as coagulase-negative staphylococci and Propionibacterium acnes , and late infections are usually caused by hematogenous seeding of a variety of organisms depending on the source of the infection .\nInfectious complications associated with biologic therapies have been described since their introduction in recent years for the treatment of rheumatologic disorders and other inflammatory conditions .\nThe risk of developing septic arthritis among patients with rheumatoid arthritis was specifically studied by Galloway and his colleagues when they compared the risk of septic arthritis between 11881 anti-TNF agent-treated and 3673 non-biological disease-modifying antirheumatic drug-treated patients . They found that the use of anti-TNF therapy was associated with a doubling of the risk of septic arthritis. The risk was the same for the three agents studied – adalimumab, etanercept, and infliximab – and was highest in the early months of therapy. The knee joint was the most frequent site of involvement in both the cohorts. S. aureus was the most common causative pathogen in both the cohorts. Other organisms that were seen in the anti-TNF cohort included Listeria monocytogenes , non-typhoidal Salmonella spp., and P. aeruginosa . This is consistent with prior case reports, implicating these less common intracellular organisms: L. monocytogenes and Salmonella enteritidis .\nRituximab is a monoclonal immunoglobulin G1 antibody that targets CD20 on B lymphocytes, and its use results in depletion of these B lymphocytes for 6–9 months . Rituximab has been linked to a wide spectrum of infectious complications including septic shock and bacteremias , but the actual incidence of septic arthritis associated with rituximab use is not as well defined as with the anti-TNF agents. There are mainly case reports of hip septic arthritis and septic polyarthritis with Ureaplasma urealyticum .\nAnti-interleukin-1 agents include anakinra and rilonacept. A meta-analysis by Salliot et al. found that the risk of serious infectious increased when a high dose of anakinra was used. Among the serious infections occurring in anakinra-treated patients were osteomyelitis, cellulitis, bursitis, infected bunion, and gangrene . Experience with rilonacept is still limited, although the rilonacept package insert reported a case of nontuberculous mycobacterial olecranon bursitis in a patient receiving rilonacept for an unapproved indication in combination with intra-articular glucocorticoid injections .\nAbatacept is a fully human soluble fusion protein, which downregulates T-cell activation. A meta-analysis by Salliot et al. did not find a significant increase in serious infections in patients with rheumatoid arthritis treated with abatacept . However, its use is relatively recent, and there have been case reports of infections caused by Nocardia and a number of viral infections in patients treated with abatacept. Alemtuzumab, an anti-CD52 agent, is associated with a wide spectrum of infectious complications, including invasive fungal infections and severe mycobacterial infections , but there are limited data on the extent of the association with septic arthritis per se. There have been case reports but no quantification of the risk to our knowledge.\nThe clinical features of acute septic arthritis of native joints are acute joint pain, swelling, warmth, erythema, decreased range of motion, fever, and malaise . As with any other condition, evaluation begins with detailed history taking, with a focus on determining the presence of risk factors described above. A long list of differential diagnoses exists for septic arthritis, including traumatic effusion, hemarthrosis, crystal arthropathy, bursitis, cellulitis, and transient synovitis of unknown etiology .\nClassical symptoms and signs are more subtle in children – they may present with simply irritability, anxiety, failure to thrive, tachycardia, and anemia . The hip joint is the most common joint for septic arthritis in children. In particular, an atraumatic irritable hip in children has several other differential diagnoses besides septic arthritis of the hip: transient synovitis, Perthes’ disease, slipped upper femoral epiphysis, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, bone tumors, sickle cell crisis, and referred pain . A prospective study found that fever (oral temperature >38.5 °C) was the best predictor of septic arthritis, followed by an elevated C-reactive protein (CRP) level, an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), refusal to bear weight, and an elevated serum leukocyte count .\nEarly prosthetic joint infections usually present with acute onset of fever, persistence of pain, swelling, effusion, erythema, and warmth at the implant site, whereas delayed prosthetic joint infections present more subtly with implant loosening or persistent joint pain. Late infections occasionally present with an acutely inflamed joint that may be associated with systemic features of sepsis .\nFor immunocompromised patients, symptoms may be very nonspecific and a careful clinical examination is needed to detect subclinical septic arthritis. This could be part of a workup of fever in an immunocompromised patient in which only subtle joint swelling is elicited or spinal tenderness may be the only clue to a discitis or other infection of the axial skeleton.\nIn a retrospective study of community-acquired septic arthritis from tropical Australia , hip infections were more common in people younger than 15 years of age and knee infections in those older than 45 years of age. Others have found similar distributions .\nAtypical joint infections (costochondral, sacroiliac, and sternoclavicular joints) have been associated with intravenous drug abuse or other hematogenous sources. Sternoclavicular septic arthritis is uncommon in the general population but has been documented much more frequently in intravenous drug abusers . Rarely, sternoclavicular septic arthritis can also result from infected central lines . The sacroiliac joint is the most common site of skeletal involvement in adult brucellosis.\nSeptic arthritis of the hand commonly follows bite–fight wounds or clenched fist injuries where there is perforation of the skin and hand joints. Often, this results in severe septic arthritis of the third metacarpal joint of the dominant hand . This is often accompanied by deep space infections in the hand, necessitating a hand surgery consultation . A history of bites and fights needs to be elicited when dealing with patients who present with septic arthritis of the hand, although this might not be forthcoming. As septic arthritis of the fingers is usually caused by bites, organisms that are a part of the oral flora of humans or animals are the common causative agents.\nIn immunocompromised patients, Mycobacterium marinum and other atypical mycobacterial infections can occur in patients with exposure to fish or aquatic environments . These can also occur in immunocompetent individuals . Also, penetrating trauma, including local corticosteroid therapy, may cause septic arthritis in atypical joints . Septic arthritis of the feet most commonly occurs in those with diabetes, other forms of peripheral neuropathy, or spinal cord lesions or those with vasculopathy – either arterial or venous. Evaluation would include eliciting a history of the underlying medical conditions, including history of neuropathy, claudication, peripheral edema, skin changes, or other signs and symptoms of chronic arterial or venous insufficiency.\nAcute monoarticular arthritis due to a hematogenous source most commonly affects the knees in adults, as described above, although hip joints are affected more commonly in young children. They present with painful, acutely tender, swollen knees with erythema, tenderness, and limitation of movement on examination. Differential diagnosis would include bursitis or soft tissue infections, although a careful physical examination usually allows for a distinction between these entities.\nVertebral osteomyelitis can be associated with a septic arthritis of the facet joints or more commonly a discitis. A comprehensive review of vertebral osteomyelitis is beyond the scope of this review, but it is important to note that septic arthritis of the axial skeleton is very difficult to diagnose clinically. The presentations are often protean, and patients may have very limited localizing symptoms, with only persistent fever and vague back or neck pain.\nThe diagnosis of septic arthritis is primarily clinical; however, it can be supported by laboratory evidence. Laboratory investigations can be divided into systemic and specific tests.\nFor systemic tests, peripheral leukocyte counts are frequently obtained and patients with septic arthritis often have leukocytosis. However, this has low sensitivity and specificity .\nInflammatory markers are widely used by clinicians to diagnose septic arthritis. ESR has been used for more than a 100 years in the diagnosis of infections, but its role in septic arthritis is limited, especially in individuals with rheumatic diseases who may have a high ESR due to their underlying rheumatological conditions. In patients with native joints without underlying hematological or rheumatological conditions, ESR can be useful . Serial ESR measurements are used to define the duration of therapy for patients on long-term antibiotic therapy for septic arthritis, especially with prosthetic joint infections.\nCRP is typically elevated in acute bacterial arthritis but as we know in clinical practice, this is not specific as many other conditions can also cause CRP to be elevated. At the same time, we should not exclude a diagnosis of septic arthritis because the CRP is not elevated. In patients with underlying rheumatological conditions, there is significant overlap in diagnostic values of CRP and ESR for septic and inflammatory arthritis. Hence, even though there is some data suggesting that the inflammatory markers can used to distinguish septic arthritis from flares of inflammatory conditions , our clinical experience suggests that clinical judgment is the most important factor in making this differentiation. A sudden increase in inflammation in one or two joints out of proportion to disease activity should raise the suspicion of superimposed bacterial arthritis .\nProcalcitonin was shown in a prospective study of 78 Thai patients with acute arthritis to have a sensitivity and specificity of 59.3% and 86% respectively for the diagnosis of bacterial septic arthritis when a cutoff of 0.5 ng/ml was used .\nRadiology is rarely helpful in the diagnosis of septic arthritis . Plain X-rays do not reliably distinguish septic arthritis from inflammatory arthritis unless there are classic features, for example, of gouty arthritis, although these can coexist with septic arthritis in some individuals .\nUltrasound performed by an experienced musculoskeletal radiologist has been reported as being able to identify cases of septic arthritis although in practice, few would use ultrasound for this purpose in the modern era.\nSimilarly to plain X-rays, computed tomography (CT) scans have limited use during the early stages of septic arthritis. However, the advantage of CT over plain films is that CT may allow visualization of joint effusion, soft tissue swelling, and para-articular abscesses. CT is more sensitive than plain X-rays in the imaging of joint space widening because of localized edema, bone erosions, and foci of osteitis and scleroses . There are artifacts that can limit the use of CT scans for prosthetic infections, but sometimes periprosthetic collections can be revealed in CT scans .\nMagnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is sometimes useful in native joint septic arthritis , but its role in prosthetic joint infections is limited primarily by scatter, although newer MRI scanners are less affected by implants and can actually define prosthetic infections, especially with associated collections and sinus tracts.\nPositron emission tomography scans have very limited data on their role in the diagnosis of both native and prosthetic joint infections .\nBone scintigraphy is a very sensitive method in detecting bone and joint infections, but it is not specific as it rarely is able to distinguish infection from other pathology. Labeled leukocyte scan has a role to play in the diagnosis of prosthetic joint infections as MRI has a lesser utility .\nAspiration of the joints is classically done to diagnose joint infections in large joints, both native and prosthetic . The aspiration of pus has typically been seen as diagnostic of infection from the pre-antibiotic era . Margaretten et al. have demonstrated in a systematic review that the combination of synovial fluid leukocyte count and percentage neutrophils was the best tool to predict bacterial arthritis before culture results became available . The higher the synovial fluid leukocyte count, the greater the likelihood of septic arthritis. In patients who are immunocompromised , who have been partially treated with prior antibiotics or who have prosthetic joints , the synovial fluid leukocyte count may be lower.\nThere are some intriguing preliminary data to show that a combination of leukocyte esterase and glucose strips can be used to diagnose septic arthritis rapidly at the point of care . This has a positive predictive value of 94% and a negative predictive value of 98%, which is very promising if validated.\nGram stain has a sensitivity and specificity of 37% and 99% respectively, but in the modern era when patients present early, specimens obtained from joint aspiration are often gram-stain negative .\nCytology is often performed during joint aspiration of acute arthritis primarily to exclude gouty or other crystal arthritides, although sometimes atypical organisms such as mycobacteria or fungi can be identified in cytopathologic specimens obtained by joint aspiration .\nCultures are the gold standard for the diagnosis of septic arthritis – for both native and prosthetic joints . These are usually done using standard media, but there is the need for selective media for gonorrhea, mycoplasma, and tuberculosis, although molecular diagnostic tests have been used for gonorrhea and tuberculosis with good sensitivity and specificity.\nAspiration of joints and injection of the aspirate into blood culture bottles is widely used in prosthetic joints, and it increases the sensitivity but at the potential expense of reduced specificity with possible contamination due to breaks in aseptic practices .\nSonication of whole explanted joints is widely used for prosthetic joint infections, especially by the group at the Mayo clinic .\nThe polymerase chain reaction in addition to its use in tuberculosis and atypical infections has also been widely used for the diagnosis of prosthetic joint infections. More recently, 16S rRNA gene sequencing is becoming increasingly employed in bacterial identification.\nCT- or ultrasound-guided biopsy is used primarily for septic arthritis of atypical joints such as in the axial skeleton or in sternoclavicular septic arthritis . Open biopsy has obviously the highest sensitivity and specificity in native joint septic arthritis, but it is rarely done. Arthroscopy is widely used for the diagnosis of septic arthritis of the knee, and it can have a therapeutic role ."

"Questions Applying financial concepts\nPurpose and analysis of financial ; Explain why company experienced a net statements – profit and loss; balance cash inflow compared to an outflow in 2002 sheet; cash flow statements. and discuss the impact that it could have had\non company’s activities.\n; Using examples, explain how the\ninformation in financial statements can be used\nto demonstrate the success of the company.\n1 mark for each relevant point + 4 additional\nmarks for development, reasoned reference to\nrelevant concepts and/or justified illustrative\nexamples from the case study.\nUsers of financial information – purposes ; Which information contained in the case\nfor which require information; sources of study is likely to be of value to such an\nrelevant information. organisation and why?\nManagement ; Identify information from financial\nEmployee statements which XXX uses as a measure to\nShareholders monitor the effectiveness of the company. Competitors Explain how the information you have chosen\ncan meet the requirements of XXX\n1 mark for each relevant point + 3 additional\nmarks for development and/or examples from\nthe case study.\nAt HND level, candidates should provide reasons and examples to justify the points\nthey make. For example, in a question asking for advantages, candidates must explain\nwhy the advantage they have identified actually is an advantage. This also means that\ncandidates must explain the way in which two factors are connected.\nAnswers should also be related to the case study. Candidates who do not make use of\nmaterial from the case study are only likely to gain sufficient marks to pass a question\nin exceptional circumstances.\nSpecific points on marking guidelines\nThe guidelines give advice on the following:\n; allocation of marks within each question\n; the use of development points — these are points which extend or justify an initial\npoint. They can include examples from the case study and relevant theoretical\n; the relevant concepts which answers could use — these are indications and it is\nnot expected that all of them necessarily be part of an answer\nExplain why company experienced a net cash inflow compared to an outflow in 2002 (8’)\nCash Flow Statement: 2003 and 2002\n?000 ?000 ?000 ?000\n19,737 12,989 Net cash flow from operating activities\nReturns on investment and servicing of\nInterest received 352 268\nInterest paid (12) (11)\nInterest element of hire purchase paid - (4)\nNet cash inflow from returns on\n340 253 investment and servicing of finance\nCorporation tax paid (3,349) (4,181)\nCapital expenditure and financial\nPurchase of tangible fixed assets (5,411) (7,750)\nSale of tangible fixed assets 328 258\nAcquisitions and disposals\nInvestment in subsidiary (105)\nNet overdraft acquired with subsidiary (90)\n(4,204) (4,200) Dividends paid\n7,441 (2,826) Cash inflow/(outflow) before financing\nIssue of share capital - 50\nCapital element of hire purchase repaid - (304)\nLoans repaid - (30)\n7,441 (3,110) Increase/(Decrease) in cash\nThe purpose of the cash flow statement is to show movements of cash over the accounting period. From the cash flow statements in the year of 2002, we can see a decrease in cash ?3,110,000. It indicates that a worsening position of cash flow. The main reason is ?7,492,000 paid for fixed assets. It’s an unreasonable cost. It can reduce through leasing fixed assets. An outflow ?4181000 of tax is unavoidable based on profit the company make. An outflow ?4,200,000 of dividend is reasonable amount. An outflow ?284,000 of loans repaid is payable in the future and it can avoid through issuing shares instead of debentures.\nIn the year of 2003, there are ?7,441,000 increase in cash ….\nThe net cash flow from operating activities in 2003 is more than it in the year in 2002(1’).\nThe interest received in 2003 is more than it in 2002(1’). The Barr’s spend less money in\n2003 than it in 2002 on fixed assets (1’). In 2002, Barr spend money in Subsidiary and in\n2003 Barr did not spend money in this way (1’). The corporation tax paid in 2003 is less\nthan it is 2002. (1’)\nOverall, the cash has increased by ?7441000 in 2003. This is an improvement of the cash flow position. The net cash in flow for operating activities has increased ?19737000 in 2003 compared with only ?12989000cash inflow in 2002 (1’)because of the higher turnover and\noperating profit in 2003(1’). Besides, the total net cash inflow from returns on investment and serving of finance has increasing from 2002 to 2003 because the interest received in 2003 is more than that in 2002(1’). On the contrary, the corporation tax paid in 2003 decreased compared with 2002(1’) due to tax paid in 2003 is calculated on the lower profit incurred in 2002(1’). In addition, the purchase of tangible fixed assets has decreased largely, but cash inflow from the sale of tangible fixed assets has increased. (1’) As result, the cash outflow on\nfixed assets decreased from 2002 to 2003(1’). There is no cash outflow on acquisition and\ndisposals in 2003(1’). Finally, ?284000 was paid on financial activities like repay debenture and hire purchase in 2002 but nothing happened in 2003 (1’). In a word, there is cash flow\nbefore financing with ?7441000 in 2003 that largely more than 2002 because of the increasing profit and interest received, less tax and fixed assets paid. (1’)\nA G Barr plc — A case study\nA G Barr plc manufactures, distributes and markets drinks, primarily carbonated soft drinks. Based in Glasgow, it has been manufacturing soft drinks in Scotland since 1875. Its most famous product, Irn-Bru, was first produced in 1901. Barr’s became\na public limited company in 1965. The business has always been associated with the Barr family and members of it own the majority of shares in the company. However, Robin Barr, the chairman, is the only member of the Barr family still directly employed in the business. Barr’s has a deliberate policy of focusing on the drinks market. It does not produce any other type of product and has no interests in any other fields of business activity. It describes itself as an ‘independent, consumer led and profitable\npublic company, engaged in the manufacture, distribution and marketing of branded soft drinks’.\nIn the last 40 years, the number of soft drinks manufacturers in Scotland has fallen from around 200 to about six. Barr’s is by far the biggest of those which survive.\nOver the years, Barr’s has acquired a number of other companies. These include other soft drinks firms, particularly ones in England, such as Tizer Limited in 1972 and Mandora St Clements of Mansfield in 1988. In 2001, Findlays Limited of Edinburgh, which produces Findlays Spring Mineral Water, became a wholly owned subsidiary of A G Barr plc.\nAppendix 1 gives details of the organisation of Barr’s.\nThe soft drinks market and Barr’s product portfolio\nBarr’s competes against internationally known brands owned by large multinational companies, like Coca-Cola and Pepsi-Cola. It does so by a combination of brands which it owns itself and brands belonging to other companies which it manages in the UK.\nBranding is highly significant in the soft drinks market. It means that companies must have funds available to spend on marketing their products. At the same time, they have to be able to produce in sufficient quantities to gain economies of scale in production.\nTraditionally, Barr’s strength is in Scotland where Irn-Bru is the leading grocery brand\nname. The company has a long-standing aim to increase sales south of the border. Sales there have been rising but they remain small compared to sales in Scotland. Nonetheless, Irn-Bru is now one of the top 100 grocery brands in the UK. It is the third biggest soft drink in the UK and the top non-cola brand. In most developed\ncountries Coca-Cola is comfortably the market leader but, in Scotland, this is not the case. In 2003, sales of Irn-Bru in Scotland exceeded those of Coke.\nAlthough brand names such as Coke, Pepsi and Sprite are known all over the world, the actual drinks are often produced and distributed by locally based companies. In some cases, these companies are subsidiaries of the big multinationals. In other cases, separate companies, like Barr’s, produce and market the drinks under licence from the brand owner. These partnership arrangements, known as franchise agreements, normally last for a specified period of time such as five years. Barr’s has the UK\nfranchise for Orangina and for Lipton Ice Tea.\nThese operations do not always run smoothly. Barr’s originally agreed a deal for Orangina with the French company, Pernod Ricard, for the period 1995–2001. In late\n1999, the French government vetoed a proposed take-over by Coca-Cola of Pernod Ricard. A year later, rumours that the brand was to be sold to Cadbury Schweppes, another soft drinks manufacturer, did not materialise. These events caused considerable uncertainty for Barr’s. However, in the event, Pernod Ricard retained ownership of the brand and Barr’s was able to extend its franchise deal.\nAppendix 2 summarises the main brands that Barr’s owns and manages.\nBuilding brand awareness\nBarr’s has a policy of developing its own brand identities. It has chosen this in preference to producing supermarket own label products which are low profit lines.\nBarr’s uses a range of promotional activities but makes considerable use of advertising. It sees this as a vital part in maintaining an up-to-date image for its products, particularly as carbonated soft drinks are mostly bought by young people. Barr’s is proud of its reputation for using innovative tactics alongside tried and tested methods.\nIrn-Bru is an example of how Barr’s has tried to build brand share and brand loyalty. A new design for it was launched in 1993 which increased the amount of blue on cans and bottles to contrast with the orange. Orange has been a key colour in recent advertising for Irn-Bru, which has followed an edgy humorous theme. The TV advert featuring ‘Jef’ won the ‘Best Commercial’ award at the 2002 Scottish Advertising Awards following the success of the ‘Electric Lady’ advert which gained the Chairman’s award in 2001. The advertising has not always met with everyone’s approval and Appendix 3 gives two examples of complaints received by the Advertising Standards Agency.\nBarr’s tailors its advertising and promotional activities very closely to the situation of the brand involved. For example, it uses different advertising and promotional methods for Irn-Bru in Scotland and England. In Scotland the aim is to maintain\nbrand awareness while in England the brand is still growing and awareness has to be increased.\nTizer also illustrates the building of a brand. It, too, was re-launched in 1993 with new packaging featuring a red plastic bottle and accompanied by advertising and other promotion. In late 1996, another redesign was introduced. This time the image was ‘A Red Head’ and it was based around the advertising strap line of ‘Refresh your head’. A further re-launch in 2003, repositioned Tizer as ‘redder’ but continued to use the Tizer head, although with a more laid back facial expression. Its target market is now 13–15 year old boys.\nIn the 2002 Annual Report, Robin Barr said, ‘We remain convinced, however, that the continuing investment in our brands will produce for A G Barr the optimum long term growth.’\nAppendix 4 gives some further examples of Barr’s promotional activities.\nBarr’s produces soft drinks in three manufacturing plants at Cumbernauld, Mansfield and Atherton in Manchester, while Findlay’s Spring Water is bottled at Pitcox, East Lothian. It has six distribution depots in Scotland and six in England.\nBarr’s manufactures soft drinks in recyclable cans as well as glass and plastic bottles. The combination of sizes and types of containers depends on the product. Barr’s controls costs of raw materials, like sugar, through rigorous procurement and purchase methods. It also has a programme of continually up-dating production facilities and investing in leading edge technology. As well as improving manufacturing efficiency, measures like these allow a greater volume of output to be produced.\nIn addition to its investment in operations, Barr’s has recently updated its IT systems and its supply chain activity.\nThe importance of cost control can be illustrated by an example. During 2001 and 2002, the value of the pound was high against the Euro. One consequence of this was that it was cheaper for wholesalers in the UK to import drinks such as Coca Cola from places like Spain than to buy them from the UK producer. This situation forced UK suppliers to cut prices and had a knock-on effect on other soft drinks, even those, like Irn-Bru, that could not be sourced abroad. In 2001, for example, Barr’s was forced to cut prices to wholesalers by 30%.\nBarr’s employs over 900 people, more than a third of whom have been with the company for 15 years or longer. It conducts an annual Employee Opinion Survey which measures the views of employees on their own jobs and the company as a whole. Communications and training and development are among the topics covered. Results are consistently positive. In 2001, for example, 81.5% of employees said that they were proud to work for the company. Barr’s encourages employee involvement at every level and, as part of this, managers discuss with employees their responses to each question with a view to identifying possible improvements. Managers give a formal briefing on company developments, including trading results, to employees twice a year.\nBarr’s provide specialist training programmes for employees and have recently introduced an ‘E-learning’ facility to enable employees to learn desktop PC skills.\nNormal terms and conditions are supplemented by some additional reward schemes. These include a Long Service Award scheme and several schemes to encourage employees to own shares in the company. More details of these are given in Appendix 5.\nExports: The Russian market\nRussia is Barr’s largest overseas market. In the first half of 2002, Barr’s export earnings were ?380,000, of which ?300,000 came from sales to Russia. Barr’s began exporting Irn-Bru directly to Russia in 1994 when the market opened up to western firms after the fall of the communist regime. Previously, goods like soft drinks were not readily available and awareness of all brands was low.\nIn 1998, Barr’s entered into a franchise deal with a Russian company, KLP. KLP\nwould produce Irn-Bru and Cream Soda under licence in a new soft drinks factory in Moscow using essence exported by Barr’s from Scotland. A significant factor was the help obtained by Barr’s from government agencies, particularly Scottish Trade\nInternational (STI), which is responsible for encouraging Scottish based companies to export. STI has offices in a number of foreign countries, including one in Moscow. Its contacts in Russia and elsewhere enabled it to bring together Barr’s, KLP and an\nAmerican firm, API, which provided the $7m needed to finance the Moscow factory.\nHowever, the Russian economy collapsed and, despite a successful advertising campaign in 1999 essence sales to Russia in 2001 fell.\nIn February 2002, Barr’s concluded a new franchise agreement with the Pepsi Bottling Group (PBG), the largest franchise bottler for Pepsi-Cola in the world. Irn-Bru is produced at its bottling plants in Russia and is distributed through PBG’s extensive distribution network. This arrangement seems to be working well: at the end of its first year, in 2003, Irn-Bru sales accounted for almost 1% of the Russian market.\nBarr’s other important European market is Spain, where Irn-Bru is also produced under\nfranchise. Sales are mainly in the tourist areas popular with Scottish holiday makers.\nAppendix 6 gives some financial information on the company.\n(The information in the case study is taken from the A G Barr plc Annual Reports, 1999 – 2003 and from the company’s website at www.agbarr.co.uk. Additional\nmaterial came from news reports from Scottish Enterprise at\nwww.scottish-enterprise.com; from the Advertising Standards Agency at\nwww.asa.org.uk; and from www.s1news.com; and www.trustnet.com)\nNote: The above, and the accompanying appendices, are current at 1 January 2004 and refer to the situation at that date.\nAppendix 1: Company Organisation\nThe company’s Head Office is in Glasgow, where members of senior management are based. As well as the Chairman, Robin Barr, and the Managing Director, Roger White, the executive directors are the Finance Director, the Operations Director and the Commercial Director, Jonathan Kemp, who is responsible for sales and marketing. The Group Personnel Department and the Export Team are also based in Glasgow. Robin Barr was previously Chairman and Managing Director. He is 65 years old and joined the company in 1960. Roger White, who is in his late 30s, was appointed in 2002. Jonathan Kemp, also in his 30s, was appointed in 2003. He replaces the previous Sales and Marketing Director who left after 21 years’ service. Both the other two Directors have worked for Barr’s for over 25 years.\nThe Finance teams are spread across three locations — Glasgow, Atherton and\nMansfield while the IT teams are based at Head Office and Atherton. Staff in the Operations function are located across the four production sites at Atherton, Cumbernauld, Mansfield and East Lothian as well as the Head Office in Glasgow and the Regional Office in Atherton. Administrative and clerical support for Sales and Marketing is provided by a Sales Services team based at Atherton."

"Disclaimer: I don’t recommend you use any of the compounds/drugs that will be mentioned in this post. Some of these drugs have the potential for serious side effects. This post is for informational purposed only.\nWeight-loss 101: The most important factor to losing weight\nHopefully, by this point, all of you have heard that to lose weight you need to be in a caloric deficit. It doesn’t matter what crazy diets/drugs/workouts you do if you are not in a caloric deficit you will not lose weight.\nAll of the drugs I’m going to mention in this list will help you achieve a caloric deficit one way or another. While I think all of these drugs can be dangerous, some of them are less dangerous than others. Make sure to read the full post to get the whole picture.\nSo let’s get started!\n#1: DNP- The Drug that can cook you alive, Literally! (also the most effective)\nDNP is a chemical that interferes with your bodies ability to produce ATP (energy) in the mitochondria. What happens as a result is your body has to keep burning “fuel” to produce enough usable energy, the rest is exerted as heat. DNP raised your Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) in a dose-dependent manner, making it almost impossible to not be in a caloric deficit.\nAccording to this paper, each 100mg of DNP is responsible for an 11% increase in BMR. Some anecdotal reports suggest an even larger increase with numerous reports of people losing over 10 lbs in a week. One of the only studies of DNP on humans found that doses of 2mg/kg and 3mg/kg resulted in an increase of BMR by 25% and 35-42% respectively.\nAs a result, DNP significantly increased your bodies natural temperature. This is where it becomes deadly. Your natural body temperature is around 36.5-37.5 deg Celcius. On DNP however, it can rise to above 40 putting you in a state of extreme hyperthermia. There have been numerous reported deaths for DNP due to hyperthermia. Additionally, there are some reports of users developing premature Cataracs following DNP use. Due to its effectiveness, DNP was actually given to German Soldiers during the invasion of Russia in WWII to help with managing the freezing temperatures.\nIt has a half-life of 36 hours so it does build up systemically if taken every 24 hours. There are no medium or large scale human trials conducted on DNP; as far as I know, it has only ever been tested on 3 women. Thus, we really have no idea of all the potential side effects.\nIn the fitness community, it is used mostly around 200mg every day for a period of 1-2 weeks. However, most of these users were heavy bodybuilders so theoretically the dose for a female should be quite a bit lower if it is used at all.\nThe anecdotal evidence for the efficacy of DNP for weight-loss is unrivaled. There are many reports of users losing 10 lbs and more within just a week of DNP. However, while it is effective, there is no antidote for DNP if you take a lethal dose of DNP the only thing that can be done in hopes of saving you are ice baths and such. Due to the inconsistency of the black market which sells DNP each capsule may be dose differently and result in an overdose.\nSo while DNP is very effective, it’s also VERY dangerous. There is no antidote and if you happen to overdose on DNP it can easily be fatal. Please do not take this lightly, this drug is super dangerous and is essentially a poison.\nKeep reading to see safer alternatives to weight loss.\nClenbuterol or clen is also a very popular weight loss drug in the fitness community. It is a beta receptor agonist with preferential binding towards the beta-2 receptor. Due to the activation of these receptors clenbuterol has been shown to have fat burning properties.\nIt also is not approved for human use, although it’s much less dangerous than DNP. It does cause an increase in heart rate and can cause slight twitching/shaking of the extremities. Another side effect of major concern is the development of necrotic tissue in the heart muscles.\nHowever, it also has some pretty great success stories and can increase your basal metabolic rate by 8-13% which can cause pretty significant fat loss. Say you are a normal sized female with a BMR of 1500 calories per day. Taking clenbuterol could increase your BMR by around 150 to 1650 calories. This would result in about 0.333 lb of fat loss per week without diet.\nClenbuterol is typically used by cycling it, typically 3 days on, 1-2 day off, to avoid desensitizing the beta receptors.\nWhile it is popular in the fitness community, clenbuterol is actually a veterinary drug mainly given to horses to help alleviate symptoms of asthma.\nOverall, it’s not the best choice and there are actually safer beta-agonists and other categories of drugs that can be more helpful for fat loss.\nAlbuterol is a very similar compound to clenbuterol also selectively binding to the beta-2-receptors. However, unlike clenbuterol, it is FDA approved and has very extensive research on human use. Additionally, it is not known to cause necrosis in the heart. It is actually the drug found in most asthma puffers today and is on the World Health Organization’s list for essential drugs.\nIt works in a similar way to clenbuterol but has a much shorter half-life of only 4 hours. This makes managing the side effects such as shaking/anxiety/headaches much easier than with clen. Also, it gives you the option to skip an evening dose to be able to get a good nights sleep.\nOverall, albuterol works in a very similar way to clenbuterol but is a much safer drug. For whatever reason, it’s not as common in the fitness industry which makes no sense given that its a better drug in almost every way.\nLike all beta-receptor agonists, albuterol would have to also be cycled in order to prevent tolerance.\n#4: T3 (Triiodothyronine)\nT3 is one of your natural thyroid hormones and works by increasing your BMR. It is responsible for numerous body functions but one of the effects of systemically administering T3 is weight loss. It is one of the strongest weight loss drugs 2nd only to DNP.\nIn high dosages, T3 will cause muscle as well as fat atrophy so if you are looking to keep muscle this drug is probably not the best choice. However, if you are looking for a slim figure it’s hard to think of a drug that can give you better results than T3.\nThe main risk of using T3 is shutting down/damaging your natural T3 production which may result in extreme weight gain as well as a host of other side effects after stopping T3 use. It is not something that should be used lightly as it can have long-lasting side effects. Should you choose to use this drug I urge you to do extensive research on thyroid function and how to recover it after the use of T3.\nMany people don’t know that Adderal is just the brand name for amphetamine also known as “speed” on the streets. It works by increasing your BMR but perhaps a more important function for weight loss is the extreme appetite suppression. Your hunger is almost guaranteed to go away at the right dose of amphetamine.\nWithing a 2-3 week period of using Adderall consistently, you can lose up to 7-12 pounds due to simply not eating. And of course, the stimulant effect will help with the lack of energy you would otherwise experience. The risks include high blood pressure, headaches, damage to your cardiovascular system, and developing an addiction/dependence on Adderall to function. Your tolerance will build quickly so it is not a sustainable fix for the long run.\nMost people will typically start at 10-15mg and increase until 40-60mg, in some cases up to 3x per day.\nOf course like all drugs it can be damaging, especially in long term use.\nEphedrine is quite similar to clen and albuterol also being a beta receptor agonist. However, it binds with similar affinity to the beta-1 and beta-2 receptors meaning it will cause a larger increase in heart rate and blood pressure than the other two.\nIt also leads to fat burning as well as appetite suppression. It was part of the famous ECA stack before it became a banned substance in most countries. Many bodybuilders report to having amazing workouts on ephedrine due to the extreme stim feeling it gives. Long term ephedrine use can cause adrenal fatigue so it would be wise to cycle it for 3 days on 2 days off or something similar.\nLastly, this one’s a drug many people don’t think of as a weight loss drug because most people are addicted to it anyways. However, if you don’t already have a tolerance, caffeine is a great drug to use for weight loss.\nFor one it causes appetite suppression while giving you an energy boost to function throughout the day. On top of this, it typically also causes a slight increase to your BMR. As a result, you can eat less and burn more calories. Sadly, most people already have a tolerance to it and will not be able to successfully use it as a diet aid even after an abstinence period, because once you’ve had a tolerance for a drug it will develop much quicker the second time.\nAn added benefit is that it is legal and very safe. A common mistake when trying this method is drinking fancy high-caloric caffeine drinks without realizing how hindering this is to your weight loss goals. Make sure to check how many calories your coffee has on apps like MyFitnessPal. If you want to skip this hassle completely, you can opt for caffeine pills which are available at most supplement stores.\nNothing Beats a Bad Diet\nIn the end, diet is king. Nothing, except for maybe DNP, can overcome a bad diet. Most of these drugs can have serious side effects, some more than others. You have to decide if it is worth it to you and how much risk you are willing to take.\nNone of these drugs will give you results that can’t be achieved with a good diet but can certainly help with the process and make it faster which… lets be real most of us are inpatient people."

"Not on display\nThis intricately rendered study depicts the imposing Château de Dieppe, built into a cliff overlooking the beach. The castle was constructed in the fourteenth century on foundations dating from the late twelfth century.1 In the distance at left is the profile of the city itself, with the dome of the Eglise Saint-Jacques. Other drawings of Dieppe Castle include: Tate D35465–D35466, D35476–D35477, D35541; Turner Bequest CCCLXI 7–8, 18–19, 31.\n‘Château de Dieppe, Ministère de Culture, accessed 4 November 2014, http://www\n.culture .gouv .fr /public /mistral /merimee_fr ?ACTION =RETROUVER &REQ =((PA00100620):REF)"

"Digital cameras, smartphone cameras and video cameras are all key parts of modern society. Although camera technology keeps advancing, the invention of the camera dates all the way back to the 18th century. In this post, educators can discover several people who are forever tied to the invention of the camera and the first geek gadgets that influenced photography.\nJoseph Nicephore Niepce\nJoseph Niepce took the earliest recorded photograph around 1826 or 1827. Along with his brother Claude, Joseph discussed using light to produce images. The brothers experimented with lithography, which began growing in popularity in France. From there, Niepce moved to heliography. Niepce’s photograph is an image of his workroom. Nicepe is marked in history as taking the earliest recording photograph and is an important figure in the invention of the camera.\nLouis Jacque Daguerre\nThe daguerreotype, named after Louis Jacque Daguerre, created the first image that was fixed and would not fade over time. The daguerreotype camera worked by coating a copper plate with silver, then treating it with chemicals to make it sensitive to light. Next, a photo was taken and developed. This invention needed thirty minutes of light exposure in order for the image to be fixed. Daguerre successfully utilized his creation around 1837. The daguerreotype marks Daguerre as an important participant in the invention of the camera.\nAlexander Wolcott patented the first camera around 1840. Patent No. 1,582 became the first patent for a camera in the United States. The design was actually a type of Louis Daguerre’s Daguerreotype mirror camera, much like modern-day Siemens C61 alternatives. Wolcott is also the first man to open a photography shop, which was located in New York. Due to his patent and photography shop, Wolcott is another key player in the invention of the camera.\nWilliam Henry Talbot\nWilliam Talbot was fed up with the camera Lucida, which was a popular camera at this time, long before the Bumtop app was ever even a possibility. The camera involved tracing refracted images, which seemed too difficult a process. So, Talbot designed his own camera. His mark in the invention of the camera comes from the Calotype process. Talbot patented the process in 1841. It was the first camera with the ability to make multiple copies. Talbot is another significant person deserving recognition for the invention of the camera.\nFranke And Heidecke Rolleiflex TLR\nThis camera was one of the first initial reflex cameras. This device was developed in 1928. The camera was much more compact than its bulky reflex camera predecessors. This revolutionary camera invention also led to the development of SLR designs a few years later in 1933. This is certainly one of the most important cameras for understand the importance of camera history in regards to modern day photography technology.\nKodak was the first company to become involved with the camera. Consider them the early innovation managers of photography. In the late 1800s, Kodak made strides with the invention. Kodak developed paper film, which was quickly followed by celluloid film. In 1900, the Kodak Brownie became the first camera to hit the market. Kodak kept making changes to its cameras through the 1900s. However, the Brownie created a major shift in society. This was the first time the mass public could get involved in photography. Kodak is not to be forgotten for their role in the invention and perfection of the camera.\nPhotography has a rich history dating back to the 5th Century BCE. However, taking pictures was still just an idea. It was not until the invention of the camera that this idea was brought to life. Joseph Nicephore Niepce, Louis Jacque Daguerre, Alexander Wolcott, William Henry Talbot and Kodak are all responsible for the invention of the camera.\nWhen Was The First Camera Invented?\nThe first camera, the camera obscura, was technically invented way back around 1000 AD. However, it wasn’t until Niepce used it in 1827 that it became the camera most of us think of today when thinking of 1000base t-devices. While the invention camera obscura was used to project images for quite some time, Joseph Niepce was the first to take a picture in terms of light exposure being printed into an image. In twelve years, Niepce lesses the exposure time from eight hours to around thirty minutes. Impressive, right?\nPhotochemistry Takes A Leap Forward\nAfter the camera obscura, photochemistry was the next big development in the field of photography. The camera obscura made real-time image viewing possible. However, it was not until photochemistry was discovered that photographers were able to capture still images for long-term preservation. Photochemistry was first discovered in the 18th century, and it continued to develop throughout the 19th century. Every time you take a picture, remember the photochemists that made it possible.\nBy reading this post, hopefully educators like yourself can give students a well-rounded history on the invention of the camera, and photographers can truly appreciate the vast digital camera uses of modern photography. 1\nPhoto from http://www.kodak.com/ek/gb/en/corp/aboutus/heritage/milestones/default.htm"

"Global Meaning and Definition in Dictionary\nDefinitions from Wordnet 2.0\n- involving the entire earth; not limited or provincial in scope; \"global war\"; \"global monetary policy\"; \"neither national nor continental but planetary\"; \"a world crisis\"; \"of worldwide significance\"\n- having the shape of a sphere or ball; \"a spherical object\"; \"nearly orbicular in shape\"; \"little globular houses like mud-wasp nests\"- Zane Grey\nWould you like to add your own explaination to this word 'Global'?\nGlobal Meaning and Definition in Wikipedia\nA globe is a picture of a planet drawn on a sphere. It is like a scale model of the planet. The word \"globe\" comes from the Latin word globus, meaning round mass or sphere.\nMost globes are maps of the Earth. The most common types are political and physical. Political globes show countries. Physical globes show landscape like mountains and rivers.\nGlobal as an adjective is used to mean the entire world rather than any special place. It is also used in fields like computers to mean dealing with a whole larger system, as distinguished from its individual little parts.\nThe fact that the Earth is a sphere was established by Hellenistic astronomy in the 3rd century BCE. The earliest globe of the Earth appeared in that period. The earliest known example is the one made by Crates of Mallus in Cilicia (now Çukurova in modern-day Turkey), in the mid-2nd century BCE.\nWords and phrases related to 'Global'\n'Global' example sentence in quotations\nClick here for more related quotations on 'Global'"

"May 18 - May 29, 2015\nBellingham, WA, USA\nTeacher Alan Doud's science class at Squalicum High visited the display in May 2015. Noting both the engaging images and the way they drew in his students, Doud (pictured with a student here) believes the display was\na perfect way to begin a discussion of light. \"The students were pulled in by the fascinating images, but they found the text engaging as well,\" Doud says. \"When we got back to class, the questions just spilled out: How does a fiber optic cable work? What is the difference between laser light and\nordinary light? What makes the different colors in the Northern Lights? How is light used to read a DVD?\" Doud says that he would certainly recommend this exhibit to other students as \"it will fire student imaginations and make them want to know the rest of the light story.\"\n-Margaret Gude, Bellingham Public Schools"

"Energy can neither be created nor destroyed\nIt is the principle of conservation of energy, meaning that:\nEnergy can neither be created nor destroyed, but rather transformed into various forms.\nIn thermodynamics, it is the most important law for analysis of most systems and the one that quantifies how thermal energy is transformed to other forms of energy. It follows, perpetual motion machines of the first kind are impossible.\nEnergy can be defined as the capacity for doing work. It may exist in a variety of forms and may be transformed from one type of energy to another in hundreds of ways.\nFor example, burning gasoline to power cars is an energy conversion process we rely on. The chemical energy in gasoline is converted to thermal energy, which is then converted to mechanical energy that makes the car move. The mechanical energy has been converted to kinetic energy. When we use the brakes to stop a car, that kinetic energy is converted by friction back to heat, or thermal energy.\nA consequence of the law of conservation of energy is that a perpetual motion machine of the first kind, which produces work without the input of energy, cannot exist.\nThe concept of energy conservation is widely used in many fields. In this article the following fields are discussed:\n- Conservation of Mechanical Energy\n- Conservation of Energy in Fluid Mechanics\n- Conservation of Energy in Thermodynamics\n- Conservation of Energy in Electrical Circuits\n- Conservation of Energy in Chemical Reactions\n- Conservation of Energy in Special Relativity Theory\n- Conservation of Energy in Nuclear Reactions\nLaw of Conservation of Mass-Energy – Mass-Energy Equivalence\nAt the beginning of the 20th century, the notion of mass underwent a radical revision. Mass lost its absoluteness. One of the striking results of Einstein’s theory of relativity is that mass and energy are equivalent and convertible one into the other. Equivalence of the mass and energy is described by Einstein’s famous formula E = mc2. In words, energy equals mass multiplied by the speed of light squared. Because the speed of light is a very large number, the formula implies that any small amount of matter contains a very large amount of energy. The mass of an object was seen to be equivalent to energy, to be interconvertible with energy, and to increase significantly at exceedingly high speeds near that of light. The total energy of an object was understood to comprise its rest mass as well as its increase of mass caused by increase in kinetic energy.\nIn special theory of relativity certain types of matter may be created or destroyed, but in all of these processes, the mass and energy associated with such matter remains unchanged in quantity. It was found the rest mass an atomic nucleus is measurably smaller than the sum of the rest masses of its constituent protons, neutrons and electrons. Mass was no longer considered unchangeable in the closed system. The difference is a measure of the nuclear binding energy which holds the nucleus together. According to the Einstein relationship (E = mc2) this binding energy is proportional to this mass difference and it is known as the mass defect.\nDuring the nuclear splitting or nuclear fusion, some of the mass of the nucleus gets converted into huge amounts of energy and thus this mass is removed from the total mass of the original particles, and the mass is missing in the resulting nucleus. The nuclear binding energies are enormous, they are of the order of a million times greater than the electron binding energies of atoms.\nGenerally, in both chemical and nuclear reactions, some conversion between rest mass and energy occurs, so that the products generally have smaller or greater mass than the reactants. Therefore the new conservation principle is the conservation of mass-energy.\nSee also: Energy Release from Fission\nWe hope, this article, Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, helps you. If so, give us a like in the sidebar. Main purpose of this website is to help the public to learn some interesting and important information about thermal engineering."

"Next-gen football helmet blunts impulse and impact\nUniversity of Michigan researchers have entered the race to build a lightweight, more affordable and more effective football helmet, with a system they've called Mitigatium. The design incorporates three different layers that are meant to blunt some dangerous physics that today's helmet designs ignore.\nAccording to the researchers involved in the project, current helmets do a good job of preventing the peak force of an impact that can cause skull fractures, but they still let the brain dissipate the energy created by that hit.\nThe University of Michigan researchers are focused on creating a helmet that absorbs the negative effects of impulse – the secondary effect of an initial force or hit that may be the cause of brain injury in football players. They explain that impulse is what gives objects momentum and energy. Given the speed and weight of current football players, helmets need to be designed to block or reduce the forces of both impulse and impact.\nAfter testing various materials in table-top collision simulators, the researchers found that the Mitigatium prototype did the best job, with a 20 percent reduction in impulse and a 30 percent reduction in peak pressure.\nThe three layers within the Mitigatium (seen above) include an initial layer of hard polycarbonate similar to what is used in helmet shells today, a second layer consisting of a flexible plastic, and a third layer that is described as having the consistency of dried tar. The first two layers work in tandem to reflect most of the initial force or incoming shock wave, while the third layer dissipates that force to reduce it even further. The overall effect is reduced impact to the brain.\nIn developing their prototype, the researchers found studies from 70 years ago that blamed impulse for damage caused by the quick, hard hits sustained in football. Yet, the results of those studies don't seem to have made it into the long-standing designs used today.\nThere's no indication as to when a helmet using Mitigatium might be put into production, since more studies and research need to be completed. Other universities and companies are engaged in similar projects, including the University of Washington with its Zero1 helmet, and Riddell's Speedflex that was introduced in 2014.\nThe video below provides more information on the University of Michigan project.\nSource: University of Michigan"

"Islamic Prophecies: Atomic energy and fission\nThe terms \"seed\" (al-habb) and \"kernel\" (an-nawa) in the above verse may indicate the splitting of the atom. Indeed, the dictionary meanings of an-nawa include \"nucleus, center, atomic nucleus.\" Furthermore, the description of bringing forth the living from the dead can be interpreted as Allah creating matter from dead energy. Producing the dead out of the living may refer to energy (dead) emerging from matter (living), since the atom is in motion. (Allah knows best.) That is because as well as \"living,\" al-hayy can also mean \"active, energetic.\" With its meaning of \"non-living,\" al-mayyit, translated above as \"dead,\" may very probably refer to energy.\nScientists define energy as the capacity for doing work. Matter, the material that comprises all things on Earth and in the universe, consists of atoms and molecules that can be seen to be in motion under an electron microscope. In the early twentieth century, Albert Einstein (d. 1955) theorized that matter could be converted into energy, suggesting that the two were inter-related at the atomic level. This may be the bringing forth of the dead from the living, as described above, or, in other words, obtaining energy from matter, which is in motion at the atomic level. In addition, yukhriju, translated as \"bringing forth,\" also means \"bringing out, emitting\" (as in the case of electrical waves). Therefore, the terms in this verse may be indicating the form of energy obtained from the atom. (Allah knows best.)Scientists can now split the atom by dividing its nucleus. Taking Einstein's theories as their starting point, they obtained energy from matter in the 1940s by means of nuclear fission, the process of splitting the atomic nucleus. The verb faliqu in Surat al-An`am 95, translated as \"to split,\" may be a reference to fission's dictionary meaning: the process of splitting (the atom's nucleus). When this process takes place, enormous amounts of energy are released. The words in Surat al-An`am 95 are very wise in terms of their meanings. The phenomena described in this verse bear a very close resemblance to the splitting of the atom's nucleus in order to obtain atomic energy. The verse may therefore be a reference to nuclear fission, which was only made possible by twentieth-century technology. (Allah knows best.)\nHere are three versions of the verse in question:\nYusuf Ali: It is Allah Who causeth the seed-grain and the date-stone to split and sprout. He causeth the living to issue from the dead, and He is the one to cause the dead to issue from the living. That is Allah: then how are ye deluded away from the truth?\nPickthal: Lo! Allah (it is) Who splitteth the grain of corn and the date-stone (for sprouting). He bringeth forth the living from the dead, and is the bringer-forth of the dead from the living. Such is Allah. How then are ye perverted?Shakir: Surely Allah causes the grain and the stone to germinate; He brings forth the living from the dead and He is the bringer forth of the dead from the living; that is Allah! how are you then turned away.\nNone of these mention “kernel” so the prophetic explanation of atoms and such starts to fall apart. Here are some tafsir's:\n[فَالِقُ الْحَبِّ وَالنَّوَى]\n(Who causes the seed grain and the fruit stone to split and sprout.) is explained by the next statement,\n[يُخْرِجُ الْحَىَّ مِنَ الْمَيِّتِ وَمُخْرِجُ الْمَيِّتِ مِنَ الْحَىِّ]\n(He brings forth the living from the dead, and it is He Who brings forth the deed from the living.) meaning, He brings the living plant from the seed grain and the fruit stone, which is a lifless and inanimate object. Allah said,\n[وَءَايَةٌ لَّهُمُ الاٌّرْضُ الْمَيْتَةُ أَحْيَيْنَـهَا وَأَخْرَجْنَا مِنْهَا حَبّاً فَمِنْهُ يَأْكُلُونَ ]\n(And a sign for them is the dead land. We gave it life, and We brought forth from it grains, so that they eat thereof.) [36:33] until,\n[وَمِنْ أَنفُسِهِمْ وَمِمَّا لاَ يَعْلَمُونَ]\n(as well as of their own (human) kind (male and female), and of that which they know not.) [36:36] Allah's statement,\n[وَيُخْرِجُ الْمَيِّتَ مِنَ الْحَىِّ]\n(and it is He Who brings forth the dead from the living. ) There are similar expressions in meaning such as, He brings the egg from the chicken, and the opposite. Others said that it means, He brings the wicked offspring from the righteous parent and the opposite, and there are other possible meanings for the Ayah. Allah said,\n(Such is Allah,) meaning, He Who does all this, is Allah, the One and Only without partners,\n[فَأَنَّى تُؤْفَكُونَ](then how are you deluded away from the truth) meaning, look how you are deluded from Truth to the falsehood of worshipping others besides Allah.\n6:95) Truly it is Allah Who causes the grain and the fruit-kernel to sprout. He brings forth the living from the dead and brings forth the dead from the living. Such is Allah. So whither are you tending in error? The one who causes the seed-grain to split open under the surface of the earth and then makes it grow and appear on the surface as a plant is no other than God.To 'bring forth the living from the dead' means creating living beings out of dead matter. Likewise, 'to bring out the dead from the living' means to remove the lifeless elements from a living organism.\nThis is regarding the cycle of life for people, plants, land, etc.. Being inventive with the Arabic and changing what the Quran says doesn't make it prophetic.\n- Al Islam's \"Fulfilled prophecies of the holy Quran\"\n- \"Hidden prophecies of the Quran\"\n- Quran miracles"

"This sculpture represents one of the eight great events of the Buddha’s earthly life. During a rainy season retreat, when a quarrel broke out between his followers, the Buddha, also known as Shakyamuni, left the monks to sort the matter out among themselves. He retreated to Parileyyaka Forest where he sheltered under a tree. He was joined by an elephant who had been separated from his herd and was seeking solitude. The elephant brought water to the Buddha. Later, the Buddha was also visited by a monkey who offered honey. So heartbroken were the two creatures after the Buddha’s departure that they both died and were reborn in Tavatimsa Heaven, also home to the Buddha’s mother.\nShakyamuni is shown here seated, with hands in his lap, one palm facing upwards, and dressed in finely decorated robes. The entire scene is embellished with gold leaf, and the setting of the forest is represented by a single tree with delicate, individually crafted leaves. The elephant and monkey kneel before the Buddha, with offerings of a water pot and honeycomb. The small size of the animals in relation to Shakyamuni reinforces the greatness of the Buddha and the humility of the devoted animals.\nText © National Gallery of Australia, Canberra 2010\nFrom: Ron Radford (ed), Collection highlights: National Gallery of Australia, National Gallery of Australia, Canberra, 2008"

"In today's tutorial, I'm going to show you how to create a quick and easy tranquil cloudy sky scene in Adobe Illustrator with help of the a Scatter Brush and the Blending Mode Screen. Also we learn how to draw a bird silhouette and create the sun by Flare Tool. So let's get started!\n1. Create the Background\nFirst of all we should draw the background. Take the Rectangle Tool (M) and draw a rectangle with the same dimensions as the Artboard. Fill it with the help of the Gradient. You can use standard Swatch Libraries of Adobe Illustrator to do this. Go to Window > Swatch Libraries > Gradients > Sky. Choose any sample. Set the angle of 90 degrees in the Gradient panel.\n2. Create a Scatter Brush\nTo create a Scatter Brush we need to draw a circle. Use the Ellipse Tool (L). Then drag and drop this circle to the Brushes panel. Create a Scatter Brush. Use random settings as shown in the image below.\n3. Draw the Shape of the Clouds\nTake the Paintbrush Tool (B) and select our new Scatter Brush. Then draw few different lines as shown in the image below. You should get shapes of the clouds.\nSelect all of the cloud shapes and go to Object > Expand Appearance to transform brushes into objects. Don't forget to Ungroup (Control + Shift + G) these shapes.\n4. Add Fluffy Effect by Using Gradients\nNow you can change the size of the clouds. I made them smaller. Then select all circles and fill them. Use black and white Radial Gradient.\nNext go to the Transparency panel and set Blending Mode to Screen. Now you can Group (Control + G) the shapes of each cloud. When using a black fill with Blending Mode Screen, it will become completely transparent. So this process will only show the white of the gradients. With a group of white gradients, it creates a fluffy, blurred effect which you'd usually achieve with the many raster Blur effects. However as these are gradients within vector shapes, your fluffy, blurred effect is 100% vector!\n5. Create a Cloudy Sky\nJust make a few copies of the clouds. You can use the hot keys Control + C and Control + V.\nMake more copies. Then select some of them and go to the Transparency panel. Set Opacity between 60% and 80%. This will give the impression of distance for some of the clouds.\n6. Draw a Bird\nCreate a bird frame:\n- The body and the head draw by the Ellipse Tool (L)\n- The beak draw by the Pen Tool (P)\n- The tail and wings draw by the Pencil Tool (N)\nTake the Width Tool (Shift + W) and add some extra thickness to the left wing. Pull the path in the middle and the Width Tool will add thickening.\nThen add some thickness closer to the tip of the wing. Use the Width Tool (Shift + W) again.\nFinally add extra thickness to the bottom of the wing.\nMake the second wing and the tail using the same technique.\nMake several copies of the tail. Now it looks much better.\nNow select all shapes of the bird and go Object > Expand Appearance. Finally Unite all shapes with the help of the Pathfinder panel.\n7. Add Birds to the Illustration\nMake three copies of the bird and fill them with white.\nSelect the birds and go Effect > Stylize > Feather. Feather Radius set to 2px.\n8. Create the Sun\nTake the Flare Tool, click and drag in any place of your illustration. Then left click anywhere else. You should get the flare like the sun on the sky.\nWasn't That Easy? Well Done!\nNow you can make the Clipping Mask to hide the protruding parts. Draw the square on the top of all objects with same size as the artboard. Select all and go Object > Clipping Mask > Make (Control + 7).\nI hope you've enjoyed this tutorial! If you like to draw the clouds just look for my another Quick Tip: How to Illustrate a Valentine's Card with Cloudy Text Effect"

"The presence of the Ph1 chromosome in the hematopoietic cells of individuals with apparent hematologic disorders is virtually diagnostic of CML. In patients without any hematologic or clinical symptoms, the presence of the Ph1 chromosome can be an indicator of the preleukemic state. Published data in cytogenetic studies of acute leukemia hae shown that approximately half the patients exhibit chromosomal abnormalities in their bone marrow. Rowley and Potter reviewed the available banding data for acute nonlymphocytic leukemia and noted that the incidence of chromosomally abnormal patients was underestimated by at least 10-20%. They found various nonrandom chromosome changes including an additional #8 chromosome, the loss of chromosome #7, a gain or loss of #21, frequent structural rearrangements of #8 and 21, and the loss of a sex chromosome. Less banding data are available for acute lymphocytic leukemia. The presence of aneuploid cells in the bone marrow before and/or after treatment did not necessarily indicate a poor prognosis if adequate treatment was given to eradicate the aneuploid cells. In fact, aneuploid cells are useful indicators, the disappearance of which suggests successful treatment leading to long-term survival and possible cure. In contract, the aggressive persistence of aneuploid cells in the bone marrow is a grave prognostic sign. Nowell proposed that a positive marrow chromosome study in nonirradiated patients with preleukemic symptoms suggests that a leukemic phase is imminent, whereas a negative study may indicate a protracted nonleukemic course. Although the new banding techniques appear to be highly useful in cytogenetic studies, relatively little banding data has been accumulated for such leukemia patients. This paucity of banding data is due, at least in part,to a number of technical difficulties encoutered in cytogenetic studies of leukemia patients.\n|頁（從 - 到）||525-530|\n|期刊||National Cancer Institute monograph|\n|出版狀態||已發佈 - 一月 1 1979|\nASJC Scopus subject areas\n- Cancer Research"

"DIY Train of Thought\nBuild your child’s vocabulary skills, their ability to express themself and create bonding moments at the same time. Use this free printable to make your own game and watch your child race to finish their Train of Thought! Encourage them to add complex words to their vocabulary and express themselves through this fun activity!\nTrain-ed Thinkers: A board game printable to improve your child’s vocabulary and speaking skills through simple playtime."

"Research on the support of green finance on sustainable economic growth\nAs a development mode supported by sustainable development, green finance is the trend of future economic development, and it’s development has attracted the attention of many countries.\nGreen finance refers to the protection of the ecological environment and the treatment of environmental pollution in financial business activities, and promotes the sustainable development of society through the guidance of social and economic resources. Compared with traditional finance, the most prominent feature is that it attaches more emphasis on the survival and environmental benefits of human society. It emphasizes the coordinated development of financial activities, environmental protection, and ecological balance, and ultimately achieves sustainable economic and social development.\nThe Green economy is a brand-new concept, which enables people to live in harmony with nature and sustainably develop. The development of green finance has an irreplaceable role, and it has gradually become an important concept for the development of modern financial industry. How to establish a high-efficient, market-oriented green financial system has important practical significance for promoting sustainable economic development.\nThe implementation of green finance is an inevitable choice. Although the economic benefits of environmental governance are generally difficult to reflect in a short period and require a long-term process to achieve, the long-term benefits it brings are immeasurable. The global legal system for green finance has already taken action. The United States first proposed the concept of “green finance” in the late 1990s, and pioneered the combination of environmental factors with financial innovation, assessing environmental risks in financial activities, and developed many successful environmental financial products. Western European countries such as Germany have unearthed recycling production lines with substantial short-term income in green projects such as garbage recycling.\nWhile in Asia, Japan and Korea’s green finance are also working hard on their respective development tracks, and at the same time showing some representation of the current global practice of green finance. Japan’s green finance mainly promotes green transformation development by enacting comprehensive green financial laws, increasing investment in environmental protection industries, and advocating socially responsible investments. South Korean’s green finance mainly involves formulating transformational development strategies, supporting the development of industries, participating in international financial cooperation, and creating conditions for the development of green finance.\nWe will take the sustainable development of green finance as the goal, and strive to create more economic value, social and environmental value in the process of daily work, and promote the development of green finance in the world."

"Some of us keep a close eye on the packaging dates that indicate the shelf life of the food. Others, however, refer to them as not a particularly important warning, the neglect of which does not have clear consequences. Do we really need to be aware?\nA report from the US Department of Agriculture shows that shelf life can be relatively conditional. If the label says “Use by …”, it is advisable to observe the limit of use for the product. However, the recommendation “Sell to …”, which is used in some countries, does not inform about the freshness of food.\nIt depends largely on how the product is stored. The food, stored in a fridge, will stay fresh much longer than the one left on the shelf.\nWhen choosing what to buy, take note of where the product was placed, under what conditions it was stored, and compare it with the date of packaging.\nUsually, this date indicates a short time before the actual spoilage of the product to avoid food poisoning. Here are some tips about how to determine the freshness of some common foods.\nThe ketchup will retain its quality for six months from the date of production if refrigerated. Keep a close eye on whether it smells weird and if it contains mold – if so, throw it away immediately!\nOlive oil stays fresh for 18-24 months, whether refrigerated or not. It is recommended to keep it in cool and dark places. In hot weather, you can leave it in the refrigerator. In most cases, you will finish the bottle long before it spoils.\nThey remain edible for 3-5 weeks in the refrigerator and up to a year in a freezer. However, it is not advisable to deep freeze them when they are raw and in the shell. To ensure that you store them properly, avoid the classic refrigerator door location and leave them in the coolest part.\nIt is usually consumed within one week after the expiry date. The surest sign, however, is the unusual smell or taste. Whatever it says on the pack, if the milk smells – don’t drink it!\nFruit milk lasts on average up to a week after expiration, studies show. If you have frozen it, let it thaw in the refrigerator and not in your sink.\nAn opened jar of mayonnaise is able to hold in the refrigerator for 2-3 months after the expiry date. The product becomes inedible when you see a change in its texture and color.\nPickles are specifically designed to survive long periods. They can be consumed about a year after they are prepared if refrigerated. The same applies to olives and capers.\nDespite common misconceptions, soy milk has the same durability as an ordinary one. It may last a maximum of one week after the date written on the packaging.\nSign up for our newsletter to get the best of The Sized delivered to your inbox daily."

"The Green Design Lab™ (GDL) is the only curricular blueprint of its kind that looks at the school building as both a laboratory for learning and a tool for environmental change. Using a creative approach to problem solving, GDL inspires students in STEM, emerging green technology, and green careers, while promoting behavioral change in the direction of energy efficiency and healthier, greener schools.\nThe GDL curriculum, with units for Elementary, Middle and High School, contains a wealth of hands-on activities for student-led investigations, with an emphasis on problem-solving, design, and innovation. Each curriculum unit comes complete with student readers and teacher instructional guides for leading the activities.\nThe K-5 and 6-8 curriculum is comprised of five units – Energy, Water, Materials, Air, and Food, each containing 10 lessons. Students explore solar power, power plants, watersheds, indoor air quality, and healthy living.\nCleanTech, Solar One’s high school curriculum funded by the National Science Foundation, engages students in sustainable design, emerging clean technologies and sustainability-related policy and economic issues at the local, national and global level. Through four units – Energy, Materials, Water and Food – students learn about topics like electric grid transmission, renewable energy, battery storage, demand management, water technologies, biomimicry, stormwater management, and hydroponics, to name a few."

"News & Policies >\nPolicies in Focus >\n\"Schools should be places of safety and sanctuary and learning. When that sanctuary is violated, the impact is felt in every American classroom and every American community.\"\n- President Bush, April 17, 2007\nA Cover Letter and \"Message from the Secretary\" summarizing the Conference and stressing the need to develop and practice emergency plans for use in association/school newsletters, Web sites, etc.; as well as the Practical Information on Crisis Planning brochure was e-mailed to all key associations (OCO); post secondary listservs and legislative and chief databases (OCO); and OSDFS listservs and grantees on October 27, 2006. A mass mailing of this letter, message and brochure to all 123,000 K-12 public and private schools was completed on December 15, 2006.\nThe U.S. Department of Education's Office of Safe and Drug Free Schools hosted a special School Safety Webcast (November 15, 1-2 p.m. ET) to review emergency planning and suggest how schools can mitigate, prevent, prepare for, respond to, and recover from a crisis.\nIn December 2006, the United States Secret Service and United States Department of Education announced the release of the latest tool for educators and communities to improve school safety. The interactive CD-ROM, titled A Safe School and Threat Assessment Experience: Scenarios Exploring the Findings of the Safe School Initiative, is designed to complement the existing Threat Assessment Guide. This CD-ROM, along with a copy of the Guide, was distributed to Superintendents, a small group of core associations, Safe School Centers and School Security Chiefs in January 2007.\nThe Crisis Planning Guide has been updated and is currently being reassembled with the updated pages/information. It is slated to be distributed to Superintendents, associations, Safe School Centers and School Security Chiefs at the end of April 2007.\n\"Our schoolchildren should never fear [for] their safety when they enter into a classroom.\"\n- President George W. Bush, 10/3/06\nOctober 10, 2006 -- The Conference On School Safety Will Help Empower Communities To Keep Our Children Safe. Recently, America experienced tragic school shootings in Colorado, Wisconsin, and Pennsylvania, and threats of violence that locked down or closed schools in many other States. In response, President Bush asked Attorney General Alberto Gonzales and Education Secretary Margaret Spellings to convene a meeting of leading experts and stakeholders to discuss how Federal, State, and local governments can work together with schools, communities, and families to help ensure our schools are safe places for students to learn. The conference is taking place at the National 4-H Youth Conference Center in Chevy Chase, Maryland.\nThe Conference Will Bring Together Experts, Law Enforcement Officials, Schools, Communities, And Families To:\nPanel I: Preventing Violence In Schools\nModerated By Attorney General Gonzales, Panel I Will Focus On Examining The Scope Of The School Violence Problem And Discussing Concrete Steps To Prevent Crime And Violence. Law enforcement has already learned many lessons from prior instances of school violence, such as the tragic Columbine shootings. The goal of this \"best practices\" session is to share practical ideas and solutions from law enforcement and security experts to help safeguard our schools from external and internal threats. The panel discussion will focus specifically on facility security, threat assessments, specialized enforcement expertise, and law enforcement community outreach.\nPanel II: Prepared Schools And Communities Are Safer\nModerated By Secretary Spellings, Panel II Will Focus On Steps Schools And Communities Can Take To Help Prevent Future Tragedies. Schools are generally safe places, but they can be made safer. The panel will discuss how school administrators and teachers, parents, students, law enforcement, and community groups can best coordinate their efforts to ensure their schools are prepared and safe. The panel will highlight effective prevention and intervention practices, model programs, and crisis plans that could be adapted by communities and districts.\nPanel III: Helping Communities Heal And Recover\nModerated By Secretary Spellings, Panel III Will Focus On The Short- And Long-Term Needs Of Schools And Communities Following Traumatic Events. The immediate goal in helping schools and communities recover from trauma is returning to a normal routine, but schools must also focus on long-term planning, including addressing post-traumatic stress and preparing for high-stress events such as anniversaries. This panel will highlight effective strategies, organizations, and resources that schools and communities can use for additional help in recovering from traumatic events. Mrs. Laura Bush will deliver brief remarks prior to the start of this panel discussion.\nClosing Discussion: Working Together To Make Our Schools Safe\nModerated By Attorney General Gonzales And Secretary Spellings, The Closing Discussion Will Be A Summary Discussion Between President Bush And A Representative Group Of Panel Participants Who Will Share Lessons Learned And Concrete Ways Schools And Communities Can Work Together After The Conference."

"It takes on many names. Chatbot, interactive agent, virtual assistant, and conversational interface are just a few of them.\nWhile the names may differ, the sole purpose of these bots remains the same – to answer questions quickly and efficiently.\nBut chatbots are special. Not only are they able to answer questions, but they can do so without the help of a human representative. This frees up valuable time and saves businesses money.\nWhat is a chatbot?\nA chatbot is a conversational piece of software powered by pre-programmed responses or artificial intelligence to answer questions without the need of a human operator.\nIn recent years, businesses have found purposes for chatbots beyond customer service support. You’ll now see chatbots playing key roles in marketing and sales.\nThere’s a lot to unpack regarding chatbots. In this guide, we’ll cover the basics of chatbots, how they work, why more businesses are using them, some chatbot best practices, and look at a few real-world examples of chatbots in action.\nTable of contents:\nChatbots are still relatively new, but they’re becoming extremely popular amongst businesses looking to automate customer service, marketing, or sales.\nPeople are ready to engage with chatbots, and some actually prefer this type of communication over human representatives. To prepare for a future ripe with chatbots, we need to understand the different types and how each of them work.\nHow do chatbots work?\nWe know chatbots are meant to solve questions and support multiple teams, but what exactly powers them? Well, there’s actually a few ways a chatbot can be built, and that depends on the type of chatbot we're looking at. Let's break down the main types of chatbots.\n|RELATED: Find out how to build a chatbot three different ways!|\nTypes of chatbots\nChatbots are buckets into main types: Rule-based chatbots (also known as pre-programmed chatbots) and AI chatbots:\n1. Rule-based chatbots\nThe first and perhaps most simple bot are rule-based chatbots. These bots are the most common, and many of us have likely interacted with one either through live chat features, on e-commerce sites, or on social media.\nRule-based chatbots are able to hold basic conversations using something called “if/then” logic. A human operator – typically a digital marketer – will map out the bot’s conversation using logical next steps and clear call-to-action buttons.\nTo put in perspective how rule-based chatbots work, we provided an example of one we currently use on our learning hub.\nAs you can see, the chat always starts with a welcome message. The visitor will have to opt-in to continue the chatbot conversation.\nIf the visitor sees our content as valuable, the bot asks if they’d like to subscribe to our weekly newsletter. It’ll also ask about their name, company, and role.\nOn the other hand, if they don’t seek to continue a conversation, the chatbot will see if there’s anything else it can help with.\nRule-based chatbots are simple and effective. The more if/then branches are mapped out, the better experience the visitor will have and the fewer errors they’ll run into.\nSocial media chatbots\nMost social media chatbots are rule-based, although, they live on social media networks like Facebook and Twitter.\nFacebook chatbots: There are more than 300,000 Facebook chatbots live today, making it the more common platform for chatbot use.\nBusinesses like Sephora, Pizza Hut, and Whole Foods are among the many using Facebook Messenger to automate customer service, marketing, and online sales.\nSimilar to chatbots you’ll find on websites, Facebook chatbots communicate with visitors using call-to-action buttons. Below is an example of Wall Street Journal's chatbot you can test right now by going to its page.\nTwitter chatbots: Twitter has fewer chatbots but is still a useful platform for communicating with followers.\nEtsy is one business using Twitter chatbots to automate customer service. As you can see, it also uses call-to-action buttons to resolve the visitor’s problems.\n2. AI chatbots\nBots powered by artificial intelligence software (AI) are more complex than rule-based chatbots. These bots are dynamic and don’t rely on call-to-action buttons to map out conversations with their visitors. There are actually two types of AI bots.\nNatural language chatbots\nThe first type of AI bot relies on natural language processing (NLP) to understand the visitor’s context and intent – something machines generally struggle with.\nAs far as machines are concerned, humans don’t speak in logical ways. We use idioms, slang, sometimes misspell words, and express ourselves differently. Machines, on the other hand, require structure, detail, and process.\nNLP basically assists machines with understanding human language. Here's an example of a natural language chatbot in action:\nWhat’s the advantage of NLP? Instead of the visitor having to navigate through buttons and menus, they can simply hold a conversation with the bot similar to text messaging. This creates a more personalized, human-like experience.\nMachine learning chatbots\nMachine learning chatbots are similar to NLP bots, however, they are optimized for learning about the visitor, retaining information on them, and predicting a conversation’s next steps.\nThese bots utilize artificial neural networks, which acts as an artificial brain to feed large sets of data. In regards to chatbots, these datasets are typically previous conversations and questions that can help the bot learn.\nLike NLP bots, machine learning chatbots create a personalized experience for the visitor. Both bots are commonly referred to as “smart bots.”\nWhy are businesses using chatbots?\nChatbots aren’t just useful for website visitors, app users, and customers, but businesses as well. Here are a few reasons why:\n1. More people are ready to use chatbots\nA joint study by Drift, Salesforce, and SurveyMonkey found 69 percent of consumers actually prefer using chatbots for quick communication with brands. On Facebook alone, more than 8 billion messages have already been exchanged between humans and bots.\nPeople are in front of their computer and phone screens now more than ever, so it only makes sense to provide them with a service they can access with their fingertips.\n2. Chatbots provide 24/7 service\nAnother benefit chatbots provide is instant service anytime, anywhere. Remember, bots are not constrained to traditional work hours or time zones. So, if a customer approaches the bot with a basic issue at 3 a.m., it can be resolved within minutes.\nResearch shows us that chatbots are on pace to save businesses around $8 billion in productivity by 2022. That alone is enough reason to consider chatbots.\n3. Chatbots are great at acquiring customer information\nThis benefit applies more to chatbots used for marketing or sales purposes.\nChatbots can be used to sign visitors up for marketing newsletters, webinars, schedule appointments, and even guide customers to a landing page or e-commerce site to finalize transactions.\nBut for a visitor to tap the benefits of a chatbot, they’ll need to provide some basic information like name and email address, and sometimes phone number and location. This information is then automatically stored in an internal database, and the customer can be retargeted at any time.\nJust think, this is all being done without the effort of a human representative.\nChatbot best practices\nBuild your business’ chatbot the way you want, but also consider some of these best practices to get the most out of your chatbot.\n1. Use human support when needed\nChatbots are not perfect by any means, and like their human counterparts, they’re prone to making mistakes. This is why it’s crucial for chatbots to have proper error handling and human support when all else fails.\nError handling refers to a software’s ability to anticipate, detect, and resolve issues. Unfortunately, because chatbots (particularly AI chatbots) communicate with customers, there’s a wide margin for error.\nHere’s an example of poor error handling I recently experienced with a Facebook Messenger chatbot.\nI only showed a brief portion of the discussion. There were about 10 more error messages beneath this.\nPoor error handling will leave the visitor confused and frustrated. Even more concerning, 73 percent of U.S. consumers said they’d abandon a chatbot after one bad experience.\nHaving human support on-hand is a great fail safe for your chatbot.\n2. Be transparent with visitors\nVisitors should be aware that a chatbot is on the other end of the conversation, so, this is something to upfront about before they choose to opt-in.\nOn the flip side, it could be useful to state when a human operator is leading the conversation. Here’s a great example of this I ran into on a real-estate platform:\nWith so much concern regarding data protection, another best practice is to make visitors aware of what information is being gathered on them and that this data is being stored securely.\n3. Keep messages short and concise\nUnless a visitor is getting news roundups from your chatbot, there’s really no reason why messages should be longer than two-three sentences each.\nRemember, the reason why a visitor opts-in to use a chatbot is to get information quickly and efficiently, not hold full-scale conversations. Keep messages short and concise, and if more information is required, move the conversation over to email or have a human representative step in.\n4. Create a branded persona, if applicable\nThis tip is subjective, but could be particularly beneficial for brands with mascots or certain personas.\nCreating a chatbot that echoes the tone of your brand adds to the personalized experience for a visitor. Here’s a neat example of Progressive’s chatbot modeled after their Flo mascot:\nFuture of chatbots\nRule-based chatbots are great at resolving simple queries, but the future of chatbots lie in the advancement of AI, natural language processing, and machine learning.\nThis is not to say rule-based chatbots will be left in the dark. Their low-code development and ease-of-use makes them great options for many businesses. However, smart bots are simply capable of gathering more information on visitors and completing a broader range of tasks.\nThen there’s the great chatbot debate. Will the future of chatbots be text-based through smart bots, or will users turn to voice assistants?\nIf you own an Amazon Echo, a Google Assistant, a Microsoft Cortana, or used the Siri function on your iOS device, you’ve interacted with a voice assistant.\nThese bots receive information audibly, analyze the data, map out a response, and output an answer for its user.\nOf course, voice assistants are not perfected, and just like smart bots, there are obstacles to overcome before they become fully mainstream. For now, it’s safe to say both types of bots are useful at automating simple tasks for users and businesses.\n2 types of software for building your next chatbot\nNow that you know the basics of chatbots, how they work, and why more businesses are leveraging them, it’s time to consider building your next bot using one of these types of software.\n1. Bot platforms\nBot platforms software is a full-scale system to deploy chatbots, and they’re typically built on top of analytics platforms so its easier to see the performance of the chatbot.\nFor example, you can see the entrance and exit rates for the chatbot, how long conversations are running, error messages, and much more.\n2. Chatbots software\nChatbots software consists of more entry-level systems to deploy live agents and help desk chatbots. These systems can be used to automate everything from customer service to marketing and sales.\nHowever you plan on using your chatbot, just remember to define its goal of how it helps the visitor and the business. Also, be sure to consider the best practices we listed above to get the most out of your chatbot."

"Presentation on theme: \"1 Environmental Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident and their Remediation: Twenty Years of Experience Presentation to the International Conference Chernobyl:\"— Presentation transcript:\n1 Environmental Consequences of the Chernobyl Accident and their Remediation: Twenty Years of Experience Presentation to the International Conference Chernobyl: Looking Back to Go Forwards. 6 September 2005 Lynn R. Anspaugh On behalf of 35 Scientists\n2 Many persons participated in the preparation of our report. These included Persons from the three more affected countries of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine. Scientists from other countries who had experience either in their own country or who had worked jointly with scientists from the three more affected countries. Members of the UN organizations. International Union of Radioecology.\n3 Method of operation Seven meetings –Usually general with work being done in subgroups. –Some meetings were topical. –Sections of the report were written during the meetings and circulated to all participants.\n4 Method of operation (concluded) This is a consensus document. –Drafts were circulated to participants. –There were no strong disagreements. –The document is based upon 18+ years of experience. –As far as possible we have relied upon peer-reviewed publications.\n5 Our report is long and detailed. The presentation will follow these topics: Radioactive contamination of the environment Environmental countermeasures and remediation Human exposure levels Radiation-induced effects on plants and animals\n6 Presentation (concluded) Environmental aspects of dismantlement of the Shelter and radioactive waste management Conclusions\n10 Releases were in the form of Gases, Condensed particles, and Fuel particles. The release of fuel particles is estimated to be 1.5% of the original contents. Most of the fuel particles were deposited within a few 10s of km.\n12 The radioactive cloud Went to high altitudes. Was detected throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Resulted in substantial depositions as far away as the United Kingdom.\n13 Radionuclides of primary concern 131 I 137 Cs 134 Cs Many other radionuclides have been measured. Of long-term interest close in are 239+240 Pu. 241 Am is the only radionuclide that is increasing with time due to decay of 241 Pu.\n15 A provisional level of “minimum contamination” was chosen. 137 Cs at 37 kBq m -2 (1 Ci km -2 ) –Easily measured –10 times the level from global fallout –Radiologically significant A rule of thumb is that dose from this deposition density would be about 1 mSv (0.1 rem) without countermeasures during the first year.\n16 Because the release took place over several days during many weather conditions Contamination was widespread and in many directions. Heavy deposits outside the near zone typically occurred during rainfall. Some “hotspots” occurred at far locations. The mixture of radionuclides was not the same everywhere.\n19 Areas (km 2 ) contaminated at >37 kBq m -2 (>1Ci km -2 ) Russian Federation57,900 Belarus46,500 Ukraine41,900 Sweden12,000 Finland11,500 Austria8,600 Norway5,200 Bulgaria4,800 Switzerland1,300 Greece1,200 Slovenia300 Italy300 Republic of Moldava60\n20 More than 5 million persons lived in the areas considered to be radioactively contaminated in Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia.\n21 Behaviour of deposited radionuclides Radionuclides deposited on virgin land or lawns will stay there, but will migrate slowly into deeper layers of soil. Radionuclides deposited on other surfaces (roofs, asphalt, trees, bushes, etc.) tend to weather away. A large fraction of deposited radionuclides in urban areas will end up in storm drains.\n22 Behaviour of radionuclides in terrestrial ecosystems\n23 Important pathways to man in terrestrial ecosystems External gamma exposure due to the presence of radionuclides on soil and other surfaces. Direct deposition on plant surfaces. The uptake of radionuclides from soil by plants. This pathway varies markedly with radionuclide mobility and soil characteristics. This mechanism is important for the radiocaesiums.\n24 The important pathway for radioiodines is Direct deposition on food to be consumed by milk-producing animals or by humans. The half lives of radioiodines are too short for uptake from soil to plants to occur in a significant way. Radioiodines are a major concern only during early periods. Milk-producing animals concentrate radioiodines in milk and humans concentrate radioiodines in the thyroid.\n25 Normalized concentration of 131 I in milk in Tula Oblast\n26 The pathways of radiocaesiums are more complicated. Direct deposition on forage to be consumed by milk- or meat-producing animals is also important. The uptake by plants from soil is important. This leads to contamination of –Plants –Milk –Meat\n31 Change with time of 137 Cs content in plants in Bryansk Oblast\n32 Changes with time of 137 Cs concentration in Bryansk Oblast\n33 The current situation for 137 Cs Levels in most agricultural products are below national action levels (typically 100 Bq kg -1 ). In limited areas of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine milk is above national action levels. Private milk was being produced above action levels 15 y post accident in 400, 200, and 100 settlements of Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia, respectively.\n34 Forest ecosystems are unique. Radionuclide cycling is rather different. Some trees are about as sensitive to the lethal effects of radiation as are humans. (The Red Forest, for example.) Some plants (e.g., mushrooms and berries) are very efficient at uptake of 137 Cs, and this varies with season and weather. Animals that eat such plants can accumulate substantial amounts of 137 Cs. Wood ash can have elevated levels.\n35 137 Cs concentration in mushrooms in Zhitomir Oblast\n36 137 Cs concentration in moose in one hunting area in Sweden\n37 Rivers can be contaminated by Direct deposition and Run off from the catchment area. Dilution is rapid 137 Cs rapidly attaches to sediments, but can be remobilized.\n39 Contamination of “closed” lakes is a larger problem. “Closed” lakes have little or no outflow or inflow, except from runoff. The nature of the bed sediments is an important determinant of the level of contamination in surface water. Predatory fish in some lakes can accumulate appreciable amounts of 137 Cs.\n40 137 Cs concentrations with time in Lake Vorsee, Germany\n41 The Chernobyl Cooling Pond Covers an area of 23 km 2 and contains about 150 million m 3 of water, Contains about 200 TBq of activity of which 137 Cs is 80% and Sr 10%, and Is a source of 90 Sr to the Pripyat River via groundwater flow. This is only a few per cent of the total flux to the River. The concentration of radionuclides in the Pond are currently low.\n42 Concentration with time of 137 Cs and 90 Sr in the Chernobyl Cooling Pond\n43 The reservoirs of the Dnieper Cascade Are an important source of drinking and irrigation water for a large number of people, and Have been monitored carefully.\n44 Concentration with time of 137 Cs in two reservoirs of the Dnieper Cascade.\n45 Groundwater Contamination in groundwater has been investigated extensively. There are areas of significant contamination near waste-disposal sites and the industrial site at the ChNPP. Movement of radionuclides to the Pripyat River is very slow, and is not considered to be a significant problem. There is no concern for off-site areas.\n46 Environmental Countermeasures and Remediation\n47 A full range of countermeasures has been applied in order to protect the public from radiation. These varied from urgent evacuation to long-term monitoring of food supplies. The ecosystems to which countermeasures have been applied are urban, agricultural, forest, and aquatic. Countermeasures are not without negative consequences, so justification has been an important consideration.\n48 Radiation protection criteria have changed markedly since the accident. In general, radiation-protection criteria have been reduced by approximately a factor of 10 since the accident. Temporary permissible levels (TPLs) for radionuclide content in food went from a goal of <50 mSv (5 rem) per year to <5 mSv (0.5 rem) per year in the USSR. The general level of radiation protection is now <1 mSv (0.1 rem) per year.\n49 Current radiation-protection criteria for radiocaesium in foods, Bq kg -1 Country, International bodyCACEUBelarusRussiaUkraine Year of adoption19891986199920011997 Milk 1000 370 100 Infant food3740–6040 Dairy products 600 50–200100–500100 Meat and meat products180–500160200 Fish150130150 Eggs–806 Bq/egg Vegetables, fruits, potato, root-crops40–10040–12040–70 Bread, flour, cereals4040–6020\n50 Urban dose-rate reduction factors (DRRFs) SurfaceTechniqueDRRF, dimensionless WindowsWashing10 WallsSandblasting10–100 RoofsHosing and/or sandblasting1–100 GardensDigging6 GardensRemoval of surface4–10 Trees and ShrubsCut back or remove~10 StreetsSweeping and vacuum cleaning1–50 Streets (asphalt)Lining>100\n51 Early agricultural countermeasures Early goal was to reduce the consumption of milk contaminated with 131 I. –Exclusion of animals’ diet of contaminated pasture. –Interdiction of contaminated milk. Later goal was to reduce the consumption of milk and meat contaminated with radiocaesiums. The early focus was on collective farms.\n52 Early agricultural countermeasures (concluded) Banning of cattle slaughter until they had received clean feed for 1.5 months. Restriction on the consumption of milk from private farms. Obligatory radiological monitoring of milk. Obligatory milk processing. Removal of agricultural soil was not a practical measure.\n53 Later agricultural countermeasures Relocation of people and their animals. Radical treatment of soil –Fertilizer and lime application –Deep ploughing Change in crops grown to those with lower uptake of radiocaesium. Clean feeding of animals before slaughter and “live monitoring” have been important.\n54 Comparative uptake of 137 Cs by crops measured in Belarus\n55 Administration of caesium binders Hexacyanoferrate compounds (commonly referred to a “Prussian Blue”) administered to animals can reduce the concentration of 137 Cs by up to tenfold. Can be applied in a variety of ways including salt licks, powder mixed with feed, and as boli. Clay mineral binders have been used in Ukraine.\n56 Current situation on agricultural countermeasures Clean feeding continues in Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine and in countries in Western Europe. Continued use of high potassium fertilisers. Diversion of contaminated milk to other uses. Use of caesium binders. Abandoned land is being returned to use.\n57 Forest countermeasures It is nearly impossible to manipulate forests, although there have been a few attempts. Countermeasures have largely been limited to –Restricted access to humans and animals, –Ban on gathering mushrooms and berries, –Ban on collection of firewood, –Control on hunting wild game, and –Treatment of grazing animals with binders.\n58 Aquatic countermeasures for drinking water Change to less contaminated rivers or groundwater supplies Special filtration during treatment Control of runoff Manipulation of flow Sediment traps were not effective Zeolite containing dykes were not effective\n59 Aquatic countermeasures for fish Ban on consumption Selective ban on consumption Attempts to treat lake water with the goal of reducing radiocaesium in fish have not been very successful. A temporary threefold reduction was noted in Belarus with the application of potassium chloride to a frozen lake. Altered food-preparation techniques\n61 Focus of our document Members of the general public exposed as a result of radionuclides deposited in the environment. Our data emphasise collective rather than individual dose. We did not consider dose to workers. Individual doses are considered in the health-effects report.\n63 Radiation dose from Chernobyl has decreased with time Decay of short-lived radionuclides (e.g., 131 I) Movement of radionuclides into the soil column (e.g., 137 Cs) Binding to soil particles—a process that can reduce uptake to plants (e.g., 137 Cs) We speak of ecological half lives for non- radioactive decay processes. Two component processes are typical Countermeasures\n64 Critical groups The concept of critical groups has been used traditionally in radiation protection. These persons may have a twofold or even larger than average exposure Who are they? –Persons spending much time outdoors –Persons consuming large amounts of mushrooms and other ‘wild’ foods –Infants drinking milk from goats\n65 Determination of external dose 1.Description of the external gamma- radiation field over undisturbed soil. Can be calculated from deposition of radionuclides or can be measured. 2.Human behaviour, including a description of how external exposure is modified by shielding in homes, etc. 3.Dose-conversion factors to describe dose to an organ compared to measured or calculated dose in air.\n66 Reduction of external dose rate due to “ecological” decay\n67 Location factors Consideration of location factors (occupancy, shielding, etc.) typically reduce calculated doses by a factor or two or more. There have been thousands of measurements by thermoluminescent dosimeters worn by members of the public.\n68 Projected external dose for 70 y following the accident 30% accumulated during the first year 70% accumulated during the first 15 y\n69 Examples of average normalized effective external dose for adults in the intermediate zone\n71 Model for internal dose (concluded) Food-consumption rates are taken from special surveys or from the literature. Dose-conversion factors are taken from the publications of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. Specific activities in foods are based on measurements or on ground depositions. Calculations are confirmed by whole body counts for radiocaesiums or thyroid counts for radioiodines.\n72 Estimates of thyroid doses in Ukraine based on measurements\n73 Projections All dose from radioiodines has been delivered. Radiocaesiums continue to deliver dose, but at a decreasing rate due to decay and ecological loss (binding of 137 Cs so that it is not available for uptake to plants).\n74 Examples of average effective internal dose for adults in the intermediate zone\n75 Annual (2001) mean dose to adult residents of areas >1 Ci km -2. Doses are in mSv per year.\n76 An example of dose contribution by pathway for a member of the critical group in Svetilovichi, Belarus\n77 Estimates of collective thyroid dose in the three more affected countries\n79 Projected 70-y dose from consumption of water from the Dnieper Cascade Projection is for a population of 32.5 million persons The additional dose to these persons over 70 years is 3,000 man-Sv. Most of the dose is due to consumption of 90 Sr.\n80 Radiation-Induced Effects on Plants and Animals\n81 Acute dose ranges to produce 100% lethality in taxonomic groups\n82 General threshold values for significant detrimental population- level effects To terrestrial and aquatic plant populations, and aquatic animal populations— 10 mGy per day. To terrestrial animal populations— 1 mGy per day.\n83 Effects on plants and animals have been observed in the 30-km zone The dose received depends upon the ecololgical niche—consideration of location and uptake of radionuclides. Effects depend on the radiosensitivity of the species.\n84 Measured exposure rates on 26 April near the reactor. Values are in R h -1 (1 R h -1 0.2 Gy day -1 )\n85 Effects can be considered to have occurred in three phases 1.Acute phase during first 20 days. Large doses that measurably impacted biota. High exposures to animal thyroids also occurred. 2.Summer and Autumn 1986. Dose rates declined to about 10% of the original, but doses were still high enough to produce effects. 3.Later and continuing. Effects are less and there is compensation by migration.\n86 Beta dose is very important for many species. In general, about 80% of the total radiation dose accumulated by plants and animals occurred within three months. 95% of the total dose was due to beta radiation.\n87 Effects on plants In April plants were vulnerable, as they were in phases of accelerated growth and reproduction. Within the 30-km zone effects were seen of short-term sterility and reduction in productivity. Pine forests in the near vicinity received very high doses (>80 Gy) and were killed.\n88 Effects on invertebrates Numbers of invertebrates and species composition were impacted within 3 to 7 km from the reactor. Doses were in the range of 30 Gy.\n89 Effects on mammals Most domestic animals were evacuated, but several hundred were maintained in the 30-km zone. Radiation dose to thyroids of cattle was sufficient to produce measurable effects. Some animals died. Reproductive failures occurred, and some offspring were effected. No increase in teratogenetic effects.\n90 Other effects No effect on birds was noted. The number of small rodents on some plots decreased by a factor of two to ten. Estimates of gamma dose varied from 23 to 110 Gy. The numbers of small rodents were recovering by Spring 1987.\n91 Genetic effects Somatic and genetic mutations have been reported in plants and rodents. Total doses were as high as 3 - 4 Gy per month. There are controversial reports on increased mutation frequencies in repeat DNA sequences termed ‘minisatellite loci.’ The meaning, if any, of this is currently unknown.\n92 Secondary effects The current dominant effect on plants and animals is the absence of the human population. The ecosystem has changed as a result of the loss of pine trees, in migration of new individuals, and the absence of the human pressure.\n94 Environmental Aspects of Dismantlement of the Shelter and Radioactive Waste Management\n95 So far this talk has focused on material that got out of the reactor Most of the fuel (180 t of uranium) lies in the reactor. There are two prominent nagging problems: –The Shelter –Proper disposal of wastes\n96 The Shelter Was erected in a short time period between May and November 1986 under conditions of severe radiation exposure to the workers. Rests on portions of the original reactor of uncertain stability. Has 1000 m 2 of openings through which about 2000 m 3 y -1 of precipitation enters. Further flooding might lead to criticality, but this is considered unlikely. There are large amounts of dust inside.\n97 There are concerns that the Shelter might collapse. This would complicate further recovery efforts. Collapse might lead to the release of 500 to 2000 kg of dust containing 8 to 50 kg of dispersed nuclear fuel. This material, if released, would be deposited within the 30-km zone.\n98 There are plans to build a New Safe Confinement (NSC)\n99 The NSC should allow for Dismantlement of the old Shelter, Removal of fuel-containing material (FCM) from the reactor, Eventual decommissioning of the reactor, and Decrease of environmental impacts. Removal of the FCM depends upon the establishment of a geologic disposal facility.\n100 Waste-management issues As part of the past remediation efforts, large amounts of radioactive waste were created and placed in temporary near- surface facilities in the Exclusion Zone. These waste storage sites do not meet contemporary safety requirements. Documentation of the wastes disposed was not a matter of priority at the time. New wastes would be created by the construction of the NSC and the dismantling of Reactor No. 4.\n101 Current conditions are not urgent from a public exposure view. Some sites are flooded and represent a minor source of contamination of ground and surface water in the nearby areas. Current calculations do not indicate any meaningful exposure pathway for the public. Institutional controls are currently adequate, but may not be over the long term.\n102 A comprehensive strategy for waste-management is needed. Some material from dismantlement should be placed in a geologic repository. Should existing sites be remediated? This would be costly in terms of money and exposure to workers."

"I am sure if we are ask any questions in relation to a gecko we would refer to the green one seen on the television during the insurance advertisements. Did you know that St Lucia has its own gecko?\nSphaerodactylus mirolepis is the scientific name for Saint Lucia’s Pygmy Gecko or the alternative name St Lucia Dwarf Gecko. The small lizard that grows to a length of 34 mm from the base of the tail to its snout is light brown or grey above. Dark brown cross bands can be seen between arms and legs. Dark strips extend from behind each eye and joins at the nape of the neck where a black or brown collar is formed. The top of the gecko’s head ranges from light brown to yellow with dark brown markings. Its tail is brown and the underside of the head and body is white or yellow. Bright green or blue grey iris compliments the gecko’s appearance.\nSaint Lucia pygmy gecko inhabits a range of areas, which includes coastal deciduous seasonal forests and lower montane rainforest. They survive by eating mainly ants and other very small invertebrates found in leaf litter on Maria Islands and Grand Anse. Females lay a few elongated eggs that usually hatch in May after five weeks of incubation.\nMongooses, rats, opossums and cane toads contribute to the patchy distribution of the geckos. Other factors being agro-chemicals in plantation areas and loss of habitats by removal of leaf litter for coastal recreational areas.\nWe, the public can play a vital role in the survival of the St Lucia Pygmy Gecko by keeping alien invasive mammals off Maria Islands and prohibit the importation of alien invasive lizards especially geckos."

"A misplaced modifier is one that is improperly separated from the word (or “element”) it is intended to describe, restrict, or alter. When the modifier within a sentence lacks a clear referent, the sentence often sounds ridiculous, or confusing. This is so, because, in English, the order of words affects the meaning of a sentence, as illustrated in these amusing examples from legal writing expert Richard C. Wydick’s Plain English for Lawyers, 5th ed.:\nThe defendant was arrested for fornicating under a little-used statute.\nMy client has discussed your proposal to fill the drainage ditch with his partners.\nBeing beyond any doubt insane, Judge Weldon ordered the petitioner’s transfer to a state mental hospital.\nSo as not to distract or confuse the reader, make sure to place the modifying words as close as possible to the words you want them to modify. That will help you avoid penning sentences like these.\nFor example, moving with his partners to the spot immediately after the word, discussed, eliminates the misplaced modifier problem in the second sentence.\nWatch out, too, for what Wydick calls the “squinting” modifier, that is, one whose mid-sentence placement makes the sentence’s meaning ambiguous. A “squinting” modifier can be read as modifying either what precedes it, or what comes after:\nA trustee who steals dividends often cannot be punished.\nWhat does often modify? Does the sentence mean, as Wydick puts it, that crime frequently pays? Or that frequent crime pays?\nA squinting modifier can easily be fixed by rearranging the words in the sentence.\nConsider this one:\nWhen workers are injured frequently no compensation is paid.\nIf the writer intends to say that injured workers frequently receive no compensation, the modifier should be moved to the front of the sentence, so that it no longer “squints.” Thus, the sentence’s meaning becomes clear:\nFrequently, workers who are injured receive no compensation.\nThe word only is a troublemaker as a modifier, as Wydick points out. Unless you are extra careful in placing it, you are likely to create a sentence that means something other than what you intended. For example, if you put only in each of the seven possible spots in the following sentence, you’ll see that six different meanings can be produced:\nShe said that he shot her.\nTo keep control of only, place it immediately before the word it is to modify, as Wydick tell us. Or if that creates ambiguity, isolate it at the beginning or end of the sentence, as he says.\nThe meaning of this sentence is ambiguous:\nLessee shall use the vessel only for recreation.\nBut the meaning of this one is clear:\nLessee must use the vessel for recreation only.\nFinally, watch out for ambiguity in sentences where a modifying phrase is followed by a relative clause:\nThe grantor was John Smith, the father of Sarah Smith, who later married Kelly Jones.\nWho married Kelly? John, or Sarah?\nClear up the confusion by placing the relative pronoun (like who, which, or that) immediately after the word it is supposed to modify. So, if Kelly’s husband is John Smith, the sentence should be re-written as follows:\nThe grantor was Sarah Smith’s father, John Smith, who later married Kelly Jones.\nAbout the author:\nAttorney Savannah Blackwell is a former news reporter who covered government and politics for more than a decade, mostly in San Francisco. She can be reached at firstname.lastname@example.org. Follow her on Twitter at @SavannahBinSF."

"This is a cross-post from Ready by 21 authored by Patrick Boyle.\nOriginal post date: July 17, 2014\nWhat does it take to get young people ready for life?\nIt’s not often that you get to listen in as three high-level thinkers in the youth field gather around a table to tackle such a question. That’s what several hundred of us did today.\nJohn Gomperts, president and CEO of the America’s Promise Alliance; Karen Pittman, CEO and co-founder of the Forum for Youth Investment; and Sean Slade, director of Whole Child Programs at ASCD, sat down together at the Forum’s Washington, D.C., headquarters to ponder that question and its spinoffs: How do we define readiness? Who’s responsible for instilling it? How do we measure it?\nHundreds of people listened in by conference call, and many of us simultaneously posted reactions and questions on Twitter at #readyyouth.\nExpand the Definition\nRight off the bat, the trio pressed the importance of expanding what it means for a young person to “be ready,” because just getting through high school doesn’t cut it. The diploma doesn’t mean that someone is ready for college, work or the many other responsibilities of life. “It’s not showing that you’re ready as a citizen, or ready to take on the world,” Slade noted. “It doesn’t show that you’re a problem-solver or collaborator. What is the ready that we’re looking for?”\nReadiness is “broader than education,” Gomperts said. “There’s readiness to enter the workplace, to behave properly, to adapt.”\n“In some ways we’ve duped young people into thinking they are ready” because they have a diploma, Pittman said. Then they start college or a job, she says, and find that they don’t have life skills they need for communicating, teamwork and self-regulating.\nSo where do they get these skills?\nGo Beyond the Classroom\nWhile all three said schools can and should do more to teach these competencies, they stressed that the skills are best learned and practiced beyond traditional classroom instruction. “They’re learned in other activities, they’re learned in life, from the people around you,” Gomperts said. “But a lot of young people are growing up in challenging circumstances, where they don’t have all of that surround sound that helps people observe behaviors, develop them and get corrected.”\nThere is no shortage of lists about the life skills, soft skills, etc., that kids need to succeed. Here is the challenge for the youth field, Pittman said: “What do we need to do to name them, to provide ample time for young people to practice them and get feedback on them?”\nAnswering that challenge, the trio agreed, requires pressing society to recognize more universally that young people learn many things in many places, and in many ways – not just in school. We need to give kids more high-quality learning time, wherever that learning happens.\nStrengthen Partnerships & Relationships\nThey discussed several ways to achieve that, from greater school/community partnerships, report cards that reflect personal skills rather than just academic achievement, and making sure every child has strong, positive relationships with adults wherever they learn – from schools to out-of-school time programs.\nOn school/community partnerships, for example, Slade said educators need to send the message to local organizations, leaders and parents that “you have a role to play. You have a purpose in this. It is not just six hours a day in this school in this environment.”\nWhile each pointed to specific laudable efforts, what they stressed was a holistic, child-centered approach that broadens the definition of readiness and the responsibility among stakeholders for helping young people achieve it.\nWhat’s needed, Gompers said, is “a national reframing of what it means to be ready.”\nComing soon: links to the recorded conversations, to writings about the quest for readiness and to examples of promising efforts.\nPatrick Boyle is the communications director at the Forum for Youth Investment. firstname.lastname@example.org."

"In Moab, Utah, a town constantly visited by jeepers and hikers from all over the world, the arrival of 300,000 beings from Kazakhstan hasn't received much press. But as the newcomers flutter in and make themselves more at home, people are starting to take notice.\nDiorhabda elongata is their sexy name, and most of us, not being big on Latin, simply know them as tamarisk beetles. In the Colorado River corridor, the animals have one mission: to kill invasive tamarisk trees. Importing beetles for use as lethal weapons represents a major shift in our approach to tamarisk control, and many people are saddling these tiny, green-and-gold creatures with big expectations.\nThey do our biological bidding by continuously stripping the leaves from tamarisk and sending the tree on the slow boat to die-off — a process that takes three years or more. And they work for a pittance: The three-year cost for the beetle in the Moab area is $10,000, whereas removing tamarisk mechanically would run about $3 million.\nAfter two years feeding at our tamarisk buffet, the Diorhabda clan is already leaving its mark. The tamarisk the bugs have attacked are browning out and dying, and the lack of foliage at the riverbank now affords brief glimpses of the mighty Colorado River. It's a sight for sore eyes. The pink-flowered trees the beetles are meant for were brought here during the 1850s, mainly to control erosion. Over time, the trees began to choke many of our waterways from southern Canada all the way down to Mexico. We in the Southwest are especially aware of these noxious weeds — referred to by some as the \"cockroach tree\" — because of the damage they do to our delicately dry ecosystems.\nTamarisk, which is sometimes called salt cedar, drives out native plants and sucks up gallons of water faster than you can say \"Colorado River Compact.\" One mature tamarisk tree can guzzle 200 gallons of water each day, adding up to 2.5 million acre-feet of water \"stolen\" from the Southwest each year.\nTamarisk eradication legislation has come up for years on both the national and state levels, and in 2003, Colorado Gov. Bill Owens, R, pledged to eliminate tamarisk from the state within 10 years. While no one is holding their breath on that one, it's a worthy goal. This October, even President Bush got in on the action, signing a tamarisk-control law that authorizes spending $15 million each year to help eradicate tamarisk.\nOver the years, land managers have tried everything they can think of to beat back tamarisk — from turning loose ravenous goats to stomp the trees, to bulldozing river banks. The most effective tammie-killer has proven to be the labor-intensive method of cutting the trees down and then quickly painting each stump with herbicide. Such an effort costs upwards of $3,000 an acre and requires a lot of sweat equity. I recently completed a week of invasive-species removal using this method along the Escalante River in Utah, and my lacerated skin and sore muscles bear witness to the nasty disposition of these trees. But if all goes well, our imported experts-in-eradication might save us money, time and the frivolous use of curse words directed toward plants.\nWe have a local test case to examine: Over the past two years, state, county and private landowners have released hundreds of thousands of the Diorhabda beetles along the Colorado River near Moab. (Federal land management agencies did not participate in the release because they haven't completed a regional environmental assessment on these critters. However, the BLM is preparing for the after-effects of this feeding frenzy, knowing that beetles pay no mind to jurisdiction.)\nMost people are aware that these little Kazakhstani creatures raise more questions than they answer. Will the bugs create a greater risk for wildfire? What kind of erosional effects will we see? Will all the dying or dead trees harm tourism? And will these beetles stick to the tamarisk and leave the native plants alone, as they have shown in test cases? The answers, of course, will come with time, but given too much time, any harmful impacts might be irreversible.\nThe Diorhabda beetles are dormant now. They'll sleep until May when they unleash their hunger upon the landscape once again. Until then, all we can do is speculate on the intentions of these new members of our community and keep our fingers crossed that the bugs stick to their job and make us proud. Jen Jackson is a contributor to Writers on the Range, a service of High Country News in Paonia, Colorado (hcn.org). She writes in Moab, Utah."

"As seen in?West Des Moines Living Magazine,?November 2012 issue.\nFatty acids are used to help with?arthritis, allergies, cardiovascular diseases, geriatric health, skin and coat, optimal neurological development, kidney treatment, thyroid disorders, inflammatory bowel disease, and cancer therapies in pets and people.\nThey are part of the barrier function of skin, essential for?neurological?and sight tissues, and maintain the normal inflammatory response.\nThere are two main types of fatty acids: Omega 6 and Omega 3.? Both types are used within the body, but pets and people naturally consume plenty of omega 6?s on a daily basis. Omega 3s counteract omega 6s.? Ideally we would strive for a balance of these two types, but since omega 6s are plentiful, we need to take in extra omega 3s as they reduce inflammation within the body.? The specific omega 3 fatty acid forms EPA and DHA are the beneficial types as long as they are in an absorbable form.\nWhere can we get these? Traditionally fatty acids were obtained from fish oil capsules.? Due to multiple reasons fish oil capsules are not the source from which to get the beneficial effects of EPA and DHA listed above.\nAccording to Dr. Kwochka?consideration of the source of fish oil has multiple factors:\n1)?? Wild salmon have historically been the primary type of fish used for fatty acids because of their high fat content. However, as they have been over fished, quantities have declined as has the fat content of the fish. Additionally, heavy metal toxicity is more of a concern with larger predator fish further up in the food chain.\n2)?? Farm-raised salmon have also become popular to address the dismissing wild population. However, concerns include higher levels of PCBs, higher levels of parasites such as sea lice, chemicals to give the fish color, pellets of chicken feces, corn meal, soy, etc., antibiotics at high levels, less omega 3?s due to lack of wild diet, crowding into small areas inhibiting movement, etc.\n3)?? A more satisfactory option for source of fish oil appears to be the use of wild, non-predatory smaller and more easily renewable high fat comment species such as anchovies and sardines.\n4)?? To address at least some of the above concerns, fish oils should be fully tested for heavy metals (especially PCBs, mercury and dioxins) and microbial content. Some of these standards have been set by the Council for Responsible Nutrition, World Health Organization, and the FDA. Every batch of fish oil product (diet or supplement) should be tested for EPA and DHA levels. Simply reporting total amount of fish oil or total amount of omega 3?s doesn?t tell one much about the most critical components.\nThese are real problems for interpreting labels as there is no regulatory requirement to list individual omega 3 components and AAFCO does not recognize them as essential nutrients in their Dog Food Nutrient Profiles. The form of fish oil is also usually not specified. They are usually triglycerides that have been chemically processed for stability, but are less than 30% absorbable.? Thus a product that says it has specific amounts of fatty acids often does not have them in an absorbable form.? Other times people may find flax as a source which is not absorbed well by our pets. Fish oil is also prone to oxidation and loss of activity making testing very important to prove stability.? Another concern is dose. To get the beneficial effects, a 100 pound dog needs 2300-3400mg of JUST the EPA to be absorbed per day!? If the over the counter products are accurate on the absorbable level of EPA or have it even listed specifically, many times the volume to be administered is unrealistic.? Recently a client brought in a bottle for evaluation: the 85 lb pet would have had to have twenty extra large fish oil capsules per day to get close to the same benefits as the purified form. Talk about fish breath!\nEPA is just one of the methods to help pets. Please visit us to learn how this piece can work with other therapies to reduce allergy flare ups, manage arthritis and pain, and protect organs. It is great that we have this along with other modalities for a safe alternative to therapies for painful arthritic pets. Pets with other medical problems now have safer options for treatment! For more information, contact Family Pet Veterinary Center at firstname.lastname@example.org or call us: 515-224-9750"

"Immigration and immigration policy have been an integral part of the American polity since the early years of the American Republic. Until late in the nineteenth century it had been the aim of American policy, and thus its diplomacy, to facilitate the entrance of free immigrants. From the 1880s until World War II—an era of immigration restriction of increasing severity—the diplomacy of immigration was chiefly concerned with the consequences of keeping some people out and, after 1924, when Congress made the diplomatic establishment partially responsible for immigration selection and its control, with keeping some prospective immigrants out. Since 1945, after only seemingly minor changes in policy during World War II, and partly due to the shift in American foreign policy from quasi-isolation to a quest for global leadership and hegemony, immigration policy has become less and less restrictive. Cold War imperatives plus a growing tendency toward more egalitarian attitudes about ethnic and racial minorities contributed to a change in immigration policy.\nMany foreigners clearly understood that there were certain ironies in these long-term changes. No one was more aware of this than the Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping. Visiting Washington in 1979 during a time when the United States was urging the Soviet Union to allow more Jews to emigrate, the Chinese leader, according to Jimmy Carter's memoirs, told the American president: \"If you want me to release ten million Chinese to come to the United States I'd be glad to do that.\" Obviously, Deng was \"pulling Carter's chain,\" but it is not clear from the text whether the Georgian realized that. Immigration was part of the raison d'être of the early Republic. One of the complaints in Thomas Jefferson's Declaration of Independence was that George III had \"endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.\" The Constitution, while not mentioning immigration directly, did instruct Congress \"to establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization\" (Article 1, Section 8) and provided that naturalized persons might hold any office under the Constitution save only President and Vice President. (Article 2, Section 1). The only other reference to migration referred obliquely to the African slave trade, providing that \"the Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight\" (Article 1, Section 9).\nIn 1790 Congress passed the first naturalization act, limiting those eligible to \"free white persons.\" This put the new nation on a collision course with Great Britain, which, although it had naturalization statutes of its own, often refused to recognize the switch of allegiance of its subjects. The question of the impressment of seamen was one of the issues that troubled Anglo-American relations from 1787, when the first of many American protests against impressment was made, until the end of the War of 1812. Foreign Secretary George Canning put the British case nicely when he declared that when British seamen \"are employed in the private service of foreigners, they enter into engagements inconsistent with the duty of subjects. In such cases, the species of redress which the practice of all times has … sanctioned is that of taking those subjects at sea out of the service of such foreign individuals.\" Impressment, of course, became one of the issues that led to the War of 1812. After that the British recognized, in practice, the right of naturalization, but one of the ongoing tasks of American diplomatic officials has been trying to ensure that naturalized American citizens are recognized as such when they visit their former native lands. This has been particularly a problem for men of military age during time of war.\nWhile barring the African slave trade at the earliest possible moment in 1808, immigration \"policy\" in the new nation universally welcomed free immigrants. American leaders understood that immigration was necessary to fill up their largely empty and expanding country and would have endorsed the nineteenth-century Argentine statesman Juan Bautista Alberdi's maxim that \"to govern is to populate.\" Even Millard Fillmore, while running for president on the nativist American Party ticket in 1856, found it necessary to insist that he had \"no hostility to foreigners\" and \"would open wide the gates and invite the oppressed of every land to our happy country, excluding only the pauper and the criminal.\" Actually the gates were open, and Fillmore's suggestion of restriction on economic grounds would not become law until 1882. As long as American immigration policy welcomed all free immigrants there were no policy issues for American diplomats to negotiate. Immigration first became a special subject for diplomatic negotiation during the long run-up to the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882.\nA few Chinese had come to the United States—chiefly to East Coast ports—in the late eighteenth century in connection with the China trade. After American missionaries were established in China, some Chinese, mostly young men, came to the eastern United States for education without raising any stir. But relatively large-scale Chinese immigration, mostly to California beginning with the gold rush of 1849, produced an anti-Chinese movement. Before this movement became a national concern, Secretary of State William H. Seward appointed a former Massachusetts congressman, Anson Burlingame, as minister to China in 1861. He was the first to reside in Beijing. A radical former free-soiler and antislavery orator, Burlingame supported Chinese desires for equal treatment by the Western powers. While still in Beijing, he resigned his post in late 1867 and accepted a commission as China's first official envoy to the West. With an entourage that included two Chinese co-envoys and a large staff, he traveled to Britain, France, Germany, Russia, and the United States seeking modification of China's unequal status. He was successful only in Washington. There he negotiated in 1868 what became known as the Burlingame Treaty—actually articles added to the Treaty of Tientsin (1858). The 1868 agreement, China's first equal treaty, was ratified without controversy and contained the first immigration clause in any American treaty:\nThe United States and the Emperor of China cordially recognize the inherent and inalienable right of man to change his home and allegiance and also the mutual advantage of free migration and emigration … for the purposes of curiosity, of trade, or as permanent residents … but nothing contained herein shall be held to confer naturalization upon the citizens of the United States in China, nor upon the subjects of China in the United States.\nThe United States would never again recognize a universal \"right to immigrate,\" and by 1870 the anti-Chinese movement was becoming national. Spurred by economic distress in California and a few instances of Chinese being used as strikebreakers in Massachusetts, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, anti-Chinese forces stemming largely from the labor movement made increasingly powerful demands for an end to Chinese immigration, usually blending their economic arguments with naked racism. That summer Congress was legislating the changes in the existing naturalization statute impelled by the end of slavery and the Fourteenth Amendment. Republican Senator Charles Sumner and a few other radicals wanted to make the new naturalization statute color blind, but the majority did not wish to extend that fundamental right to Chinese. The new statute amended the eligibility from \"free white persons\" to \"white persons and to aliens of African nativity and persons of African descent.\"\nIn 1876 Congress created a joint congressional committee to investigate Chinese immigration. It took testimony in the Palace Hotel in San Francisco just before and after that year's presidential election. By that time both national party platforms had anti-Chinese planks. The Republican version was somewhat tentative, declaring it \"the immediate duty of Congress to investigate the effects of the immigration and importation of Mongolians.\" The out-of-power Democrats denounced \"the policy which tolerates the revival of the coolie-trade in Mongolian women held for immoral purposes, and Mongolian men to perform servile labor.\" The majority report of the joint congressional committee claimed that the Pacific Coast had to become \"either American or Mongolian,\" insisting that there was \"not sufficient brain capacity in the Chinese race to furnish motive power for self-government\" and that \"there is no Aryan or European race which is not far superior to the Chinese.\" The committee report urged the president to get the Burlingame Treaty modified and Congress to legislate against \"Asiatic immigration.\" The report was presented to Congress while it was settling the election of 1876, so no immediate action was taken. After much debate the next Congress passed the so-called Fifteen Passenger bill, which barred any vessel from bringing in more than fifteen Chinese immigrants. The sticking point for many was the existing Burlingame Treaty: some wanted to over-ride it completely while others wanted to wait until the treaty was revised. The bill also instructed the president to notify the Chinese that portions of the treaty were abrogated, which passage of the bill would have accomplished.\nRutherford B. Hayes responded with a reasoned veto message that accepted the desirability of stemming Chinese immigration. He argued that the Chinese manifested \"all the traits of race, religion, manners, and customs, habitations, mode of life, segregation here, and the keeping up of the ties of their original home … [which] stamp them as strangers and sojourners, and not as incorporated elements of our national life.\" But, he insisted, there was no emergency to justify unilateral abrogation of the treaty, which could have disastrous consequences for American merchants and missionaries in China. He promised that there would be a renegotiation of the treaty.\nA somewhat protracted diplomatic renegotiation was completed by the end of 1880, and the new treaty was ratified and proclaimed in October 1881. It unilaterally gave the United States the right to \"regulate, limit, or suspend\" the \"coming or residence\" of Chinese laborers, but it allowed Chinese subjects \"proceeding to the United States as teachers, students, merchants, or from curiosity, together with their body and household servants, and Chinese laborers now in the United States to go and come of their own free will and accord.\"\nIn the spring of 1882, Congress passed a bill suspending the immigration of Chinese laborers for twenty years. President Chester A. Arthur vetoed it, arguing that while a permanent bar to Chinese labor might be eventually justified, prudence dictated a shorter initial term. Congress responded by repassing the bill but with a ten-year suspension, and Arthur signed it into law in May 1882. The law prohibited the entry of Chinese laborers—defined as \"both skilled and unskilled laborers and Chinese employed in mining\"—after 4 August 1882. It also provided that any Chinese who was in the country on 17 November 1880—the effective date of the Sino-American treaty—or had come between that date and 4 August 1882 had the right to leave and return. The law, as opposed to the treaty, did not spell out who was entitled to enter, although it did specify that diplomats and other officials of the Chinese government doing government business, along with their body and household servants, were admissible. Fines for bringing Chinese in illegally could run as high as $1,000 per individual, and vessels landing Chinese illegally were liable to seizure and condemnation.\nThus, what is commonly called the Chinese Exclusion Act—its proper title is \"To Execute Certain Treaty Stipulations Relating to Chinese\"—became law. The typical textbook treatment is a sentence or two, sometimes relating it to other discriminatory treatment. Its real significance goes much deeper than that. Viewed from the perspective of the early twenty-first century, the Exclusion Act is clearly a pivot on which subsequent American immigration policy turned, the hinge on which the poet Emma Lazarus's \"Golden Door\" began to swing toward a closed position. It initiated what can be called an era of steadily increasing restrictions on immigration of all kinds that would last for sixty-one years. It was also the first time that immigration policy per se became a focal point of a bilateral diplomatic relationship between the United States and another nation.\nDuring the exclusion era—1882–1943—the problematic enforcement of changing immigration statutes and regulations for Chinese created future diplomatic problems, brought the principle of family reunification into American immigration policy, shaped the culture of immigration enforcement in the United States, and established a precedent for negotiations about American immigration policies. Various changes, generally of a more restrictive character, were added to the Chinese exclusion laws and regulations between 1882 and 1902, when a modified law extended them \"until otherwise provided by law.\" These changes exacerbated relations and triggered repeated negotiations between the two nations.\nThe most significant of these negotiations occurred in the aftermath of the Geary Act of 1892, which not only extended exclusion for ten years but also required that all Chinese in the United States get a residence certificate (a kind of internal passport) within a year or be deported. The statute also reversed the usual presumption of innocence and provided that \"any Chinese person or person of Chinese descent\" was deemed to be in the country illegally unless he or she could demonstrate otherwise. This set off a mass civil disobedience campaign orchestrated by Chinese-American community organizations. They urged Chinese Americans not to register and hired a trio of leading constitutional lawyers to challenge the statute. Their suit, Fong Yue Ting v. United States (1893), was expedited to the Supreme Court, which quickly ruled, five to three, against Fong and two other litigants. Justice Horace Gray, writing for the majority, held that Chinese, like other resident aliens, were entitled \"to the safeguards of the Constitution, and to the protection of the laws, in regard to their rights of persons and of property, and to their civil and criminal responsibility,\" but insisted that the Constitution could not shield them if Congress decided that \"their removal is necessary or expedient for the public interest.\"\nAt the time of the Court's ruling only some 13,000 Chinese had registered; perhaps 90,000 had not and were presumably liable to immediate deportation. But both cabinet officers responsible for enforcement—Treasury Secretary John G. Carlisle and Attorney General Richard Olney—instructed their subordinates not to enforce the law. Carlisle estimated that mass deportations would cost at least $7.3 million and noted that his annual enforcement budget was $25,000. Secretary of State Walter Q. Gresham confidentially informed the Chinese minister, Yung Yu, that Congress would soon amend the law so that Chinese could register even though the deadline had passed. In November 1893, Congress extended the deadline by six months, and in that time about 93,000 additional Chinese registered and received the disputed certificates.\nWhile relations between China and the United States were complicated by actions of the federal government toward immigrants, those between Italy and the United States deteriorated because of discrimination by lesser governmental bodies. There was widespread violence directed against Italian Americans, but one outbreak in particular had the most serious international consequences. On 15 October 1890 the police superintendent in New Orleans was murdered by a group of men using sawed-off shotguns; before he died he whispered that the Italians had done it. He had been investigating so-called Mafia influence among the city's large Italian-American population. New Orleans authorities quickly arrested almost 250 local Italian Americans and eventually indicted nineteen of them, including one fourteen-year-old boy, for the murder. Nine were brought to trial. On 13 March 1891 the jury found six not guilty and could not agree on three others. All nine were returned to jail for trial on another charge. The day after the verdict, a notice signed by sixty-one prominent local residents was placed in the morning newspaper inviting \"all good citizens\" to a 10 a.m. mass meeting \"to remedy the failure of justice.\" A mob of perhaps 5,000 persons assembled, and, led by three members of the local bar, went first to the arsenal where many were issued firearms and then to the parish prison, where they shot and killed eight incarcerated Italians and removed three others and lynched them. Three or four of the victims were Italian citizens and the others were naturalized American citizens. None of the mob was ever punished.\nLocal public opinion hailed the result, as did much of the nation's press. The New York Times wrote that the victims were \"sneaking and cowardly Sicilians, the descendants of bandits and assassins\" but insisted in the same editorial that the lynching \"was not incited by any prejudice against Italians.\" The Italian government protested, demanding punishment for the lynchers, protection for the Italian Americans of New Orleans, and an indemnity. President Benjamin Harrison himself, acting during an illness of Secretary of State James G. Blaine, directed the American minister in Rome to explain \"the embarrassing gap in federalism—that in such cases the state alone has jurisdiction,\" while rejecting all the demands. There was nothing new about this. Similar responses had been made by the federal government in a number of previous instances, most notably in 1851 when Spaniards had been killed in New Orleans; in 1885 after the Rock Springs, Wyoming, massacre of twenty-eight Chinese miners; and in a whole host of other outrages, mostly against Chinese in the Far West. In all of these cases the president eventually called upon Congress to make an ex gratia payment. Congress, after debate, did so, and the matters were ended. For the Rock Springs affair, for example, the payment was nearly $150,000.\nThe lynching of Italians in New Orleans took a somewhat different course to the same essential result. Exasperated by the initial stonewalling, the Italian government recalled its minister in Washington but did not break relations. There was foolish talk of war in the press—all agreed that the Italian navy was superior to the American—and naval preparedness advocates used the speculation to their advantage. Eventually good relations were restored, but Harrison settled the matter without the traditional reference to Congress. In his December 1892 message to Congress Harrison reported the payment of $24,330.90 (125,000 francs) to the Italian government, a little over $6,000 per person. The money was taken from the general appropriation for diplomatic expenses. Congress was furious—or pretended to be—because of executive usurpation of its prerogatives and reduced the fund for diplomatic contingencies by $20,000.\nA more complex and potentially more serious situation developed from the mistreatment of Japanese in the United States—more serious because of the growing hostility between the United States and Japan over conflicting plans for Pacific expansion and more complex because both local and national discrimination was involved and because major tensions about Japanese immigrants continued for more than two decades. Long before diplomatic tensions over Japanese immigration to western states and the Territory of Hawaii surfaced, Tokyo had shown concern about possible mistreatment of its immigrants in America. As early as the 1890s internal Japanese diplomatic correspondence shows that there were fears in Tokyo that emigrant Japanese workers in the United States, who in many places were filling niches once occupied by Chinese workers, would eventually evoke the same kinds of official treatment—exclusion—that Chinese workers had experienced. This, Japanese officials were convinced, would negatively affect Japan's ambitions to achieve great-power status. The greatest fear—Tokyo's worst nightmare about this subject—was that someday there would be a \"Japanese Exclusion Act.\" This fear—and eventually resentment at the result, which was in effect exclusion—so pervaded Japanese culture that for decades Japanese texts continued to refer to the U.S. Immigration Act of 1924 as the \"Japanese Exclusion Act.\"\nAnti-Japanese activity had flared in race-sensitive California as early as 1892, when there were fewer than 5,000 Japanese persons in the entire country. In 1905 the state's leading newspaper, the San Francisco Chronicle, began what can be called an anti-Japanese immigrant crusade—a crusade that the rival publisher William Randolph Hearst soon made his own. In the same year San Francisco labor leaders organized the Japanese and Korean Exclusion League, the California legislature passed a resolution calling on Congress to \"limit and diminish Japanese immigration,\" and two California congressmen introduced the first bills calling for exclusion of Japanese into Congress.\nAlthough these events all took place beneath the radar of national press consciousness, they did not escape the notice of the man in the White House. In May 1905, Theodore Roosevelt fumed in a (private) letter about the \"foolish offensiveness\" of the [mostly Republican] \"idiots\" of the California legislature, while indicating sympathy for the notion of exclusion of Japanese and muttering about their being \"a serious problem in Hawaii.\" Two months later he instructed the U.S. Minister to Japan, Lloyd C. Griscom, to inform Tokyo that \"the American Government and … people\" had no sympathy with the agitation and that while \"I am President\" Japanese would be treated like \"other civilized peoples.\" In his prolix annual message of December 1905, Roosevelt insisted that there should be no discrimination \"against any man\" who wished to immigrate and be a good citizen, and he specifically included Japanese in a short list of examples of acceptable ethnic groups. In the next paragraph, Roosevelt, who had signed the 1902 extension of Chinese exclusion without hesitation, made it clear that Chinese laborers, \"skilled and unskilled,\" were not acceptable.\nAlmost a year later, on 11 October 1906, the San Francisco Board of Education ordered all Japanese and Korean pupils to attend the long established \"Oriental\" school in Chinatown. The announcement attracted little attention in the San Francisco press and seems to have been ignored outside California until nine days later, when garbled reports of what had happened were printed in Tokyo newspapers claiming that all Japanese pupils had been excluded from the public schools. Roosevelt reacted quickly. He wrote his high-ranking Harvard classmate Baron Kentaro Kaneko that he would take action; he also met with and gave similar assurances to the Japanese minister, Viscount Siuzo Aoki, and dispatched a cabinet member and former California congressman, Secretary of Commerce and Labor Victor H. Metcalf, to San Francisco to investigate the matter. In his December 1906 annual message the president formally recommended legislation \"providing for the naturalization of Japanese who come here intending to become American citizens.\" Roosevelt made no serious effort to get such legislation introduced, let alone passed, and just two months later Secretary of State Elihu Root, in reacting to a Japanese proposal that acceptance of exclusion be traded for naturalization, informed American negotiators that \"no statute could be passed or treaty ratified\" that granted naturalization.\nSecretary Metcalf's report was made public on 18 December 1906 and showed that rather than the hundreds or thousands of Japanese pupils discussed in the press there were only ninety-five Japanese students in the entire San Francisco school system, twenty-five of them native-born American citizens. He did find that twenty-seven of the aliens were teenagers enrolled in inappropriate grades because of language problems; the most extreme example was two nineteen-year-olds in the fourth grade. Metcalf's report recommended that age-grade limits be enforced, something that was acceptable to the Japanese community. Otherwise Metcalf found the segregation order unjust and against the public interest. But since the Supreme Court's decision in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) had affirmed the legality of racial segregation in the United States, the federal government had no power over a state's right to practice it. California politicians of all parties, undoubtedly representing the will of their constituents, adamantly refused to mitigate their discrimination in any way, and, in the session of the legislature that began in January 1907, proposed enacting more anti-Japanese legislation. Roosevelt and Root set to work to ameliorate the situation, and, in something over a year, worked out a solution that is known as the Gentlemen's Agreement, the substance of which is contained in six notes exchanged between the two governments in late 1907 and early 1908. It is instructive to note that Root actually instituted an action in the northern federal district court of California to prohibit segregation of alien Japanese school-children, who enjoyed most-favored-nation rights under the existing commercial treaty with Japan, but could do nothing for the pupils who were American citizens.\nIn the event, no suit was necessary. Roosevelt summoned members of the school board to Washington, jawboned them in the White House, and got them to rescind their order in February 1907. (The only Japanese pupils actually segregated in California were in a few rural districts around Sacramento. Although that segregation continued, no fuss was made about it, so the Japanese government, which was concerned with \"face\" rather than principle, never complained.) Then Congress passed an amendment, drafted in the State Department, to a pending immigration bill, which enabled the president to bar by executive order persons with passports issued for any country other than the United States from entering the country. Japan, in turn, agreed to mark any passports issued to laborers, skilled or unskilled, who had not previously established American residence, as not valid for the United States. But the eventual agreement allowed Japan to issue passports valid for the United States to \"laborers who have already been in America and to the parents, wives and children of laborers already resident there.\" Thus the principle of family reunification, which would become a hallmark of American immigration policy, was first introduced as a part of the process of restricting Asian immigration.\nThe Gentlemen's Agreement is an excellent example of the \"unintended consequences\" that have characterized much of the legal side of American immigration history. The diplomats and politicians involved assumed that with labor immigration at an end the Japanese American population would decline and the problems that its presence created in a white-dominated racist society would gradually fade away. They did not realize that through the family reunification provisions of the agreement tens of thousands of Japanese men would bring wives to California. Many if not most of these were \"picture brides,\" women married by proxy in Japan to men who in most instances they would not see until they came to America. Most of these newly married couples soon had children who were American citizens by virtue of being born on American soil, which meant that the American Japanese population grew steadily. Eventually the anti-Japanese forces in the United States campaigned without success for a constitutional amendment that would repeal the \"birthright citizenship\" clause of the Fourteenth Amendment and make the children of \"aliens ineligible to citizenship\" similarly ineligible. (In the 1970s nativist forces in the United States revived such demands but with a different target: they proposed making the American-born children of illegal immigrants ineligible for automatic citizenship.) When the Gentlemen's Agreement went into effect there were probably some 60,000 Japanese persons in the continental United States, the vast majority of them aliens. By 1940 there were more than 125,000, more than two-thirds of them native-born American citizens. Many white Californians and other concerned westerners who had been assured that the Gentlemen's Agreement was tantamount to exclusion came to believe that they had been betrayed by the uncaring politicians back east.\nBut even before the demographic consequences of the Gentlemen's Agreement became clear, a second crisis arose over Japanese immigrants. This one erupted in 1913 and focused on land rather than on people. Although most Japanese immigrants had come to California as laborers, many soon were able to become agricultural proprietors. As early as 1909 bills had been introduced into the California legislature barring the sale of agricultural land to Japanese, but Republican governors then and in 1911—the California legislature met only every other year—cooperated with Republican presidents in Washington and \"sat upon the lid,\" as Governor Hiram W. Johnson put it. But in 1913, with Johnson still governor and Democrat Woodrow Wilson in the White House, the lid was off. Although Washington was again taken unawares by the crisis, Tokyo had been expecting it. Its consul general in San Francisco had warned in November 1912 that \"the fear-laden anti-Japanese emotion of the people [of California] is a sleeping lion.\" By the time Wilson took office on 4 March 1913, bills restricting Japanese and other alien landholding had made considerable progress in the California legislature. The Japanese ambassador, Sutemi Chinda, called on the president during Wilson's second day in office: his dispatch to Tokyo quoted Wilson as saying \"that the constitution did not allow the federal government to intervene in matters relating to the rights of the individual states.\" After much debate and publicity, in mid-April the California legislature passed legislation forbidding the ownership of agricultural land by \"aliens ineligible to citizenship.\" This, of course, pointed the bill at Japanese, although it also affected other Asians. Californians argued that the discrimination—if such it was—was caused by federal rather than state law.\nEven before Governor Johnson signed the bill, angry anti-American demonstrations erupted in Tokyo: the California legislature had again helped to create an international crisis. The Wilson administration, while trying to adhere to traditional states' rights doctrines, nevertheless felt that it had to at least seem to be taking action. Wilson sent Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan on a cross-country train trip to Sacramento to meet with Governor Johnson and the legislature and urged that the bill not be enacted before Bryan arrived. In the event, Bryan's trip was anti-climactic. Unlike Roosevelt and Root, Wilson and Bryan had nothing to offer the Californians in return for moderation. Bryan returned to Washington, and Johnson signed the Alien Land Act into law: eventually ten other western states passed similar measures.\nThe California law, which was strengthened in 1920, was relatively ineffective. Japanese farmers and the white entrepreneurs with whom they dealt evaded the law in a number of ways, most of which had been foreseen by Johnson and his advisers. The two major methods were placing land in the name of citizen children or leasing rather than purchasing the land. For a few relatively large-scale operators adoption of a corporate form was also effective. When the California legislature passed an amendment to the land act barring \"aliens ineligible to citizenship\" from exercising guardianship over their citizen children, the federal courts ruled that such a statute violated the constitutional rights of those children to have their natural parents as guardians.\nThese disputes, of course, helped to poison relations between Japan and the United States, which were already problematic on other grounds. During the Versailles treaty negotiations and in early sessions of the League of Nations, Japan tried to get questions of immigration and racial equality discussed but the imperialist powers successfully stifled every attempt. (Of course Japan did not have clean hands in such matters, but that is another story.) The final and most traumatic act in the conflicts between the Pacific powers over immigration came in 1924 and involved federal rather than state discrimination.\nBy the 1920s the American people and the Congress were ready for a general and massive curtailment of immigration. Prior to that time statutory immigration restriction based on race or national origin had been directed only at Asians. The Immigration Act of 1917—best known for imposing a literacy test on some immigrants—had created a \"barred zone\" expressed in degrees of latitude and longitude, which halted the immigration of most Asians not previously excluded or limited. The first statute to limit most immigration, the Quota Act of 1921, placed numerical limits on European immigration while leaving immigration from the Western Hemisphere largely alone; it did not directly impact Japanese immigration, which was still governed by the Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907–1908. Under the 1921 act Japan got a small quota, and Tokyo could not and did not complain that the law was discriminatory. Had Japan been treated as European nations were in the 1924 statute, it would have received the minimum quota of 100, but the version of the more generally restrictive 1924 law that passed the House contained overt discrimination against Japanese by forbidding the immigration of \"aliens ineligible to citizenship.\" In an ill-starred attempt to preserve the Gentlemen's Agreement, Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes suggested verbally that Japanese Ambassador Masanao Hanihara write him a letter explaining the Gentlemen's Agreement, whereupon the American would transmit the letter to the Senate in an attempt to get the offending phrase removed. The note, which was not in itself either threatening or blustering, did contain the phrase \"grave consequences\" in referring to what might happen if the law were enacted with the offending phrase. Henry Cabot Lodge and other senators insisted that the phrase was a \"veiled threat\" against the United States and stampeded the Senate into accepting the House language. In The Presidency of Calvin Coolidge (1998), the historian Robert H. Ferrell presented evidence suggesting that Hughes and others in the State Department either drafted or helped to draft the original note, something that all those concerned categorically denied at the time and later.\nHow grave were the actual consequences? No one can say. Japan and the United States might well have engaged in what became a \"war without mercy\" even if no Japanese immigrant had ever come to America. But some authorities, such as George F. Kennan, have argued that the \"long and unhappy story\" of U.S.–Japanese relations were negatively affected by the fact that \"we would repeatedly irritate and offend the sensitive Japanese by our immigration policies and the treatment of people of Japanese lineage.\"\nThe 1924 act, which established a pattern of immigration restriction that prevailed until 1965, also established a \"consular control system\" by providing that aliens subject to immigration control could not be admitted to the United States without a valid visa issued by an American consular officer abroad. Visas were first required as a wartime measure in a 1918 act and were continued in peacetime by a 1921 act, but they were primarily an identification device. The 1924 act for the first time made the visa a major factor in immigration control. Although the State Department often claimed that Congress had tied the government's hands, the fact of the matter is that since 1924 much actual restriction of immigration has been based on the judgment of the individual federal officials administering it. That responsibility has been shared between the State Department and the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), then in the Department of Labor but switched to the Department of Justice in 1940. The diplomatic control is exercised by granting or failing to grant visas; the INS control is exercised largely at the borders, although since 1925 some INS personnel have been attached to some American embassies abroad as technical advisers. (The number of foreign countries with INS personnel has fluctuated. At the outset of the twenty-first century they were operating in thirty-eight countries. In Canada and a few other places, mostly in the Western Hemisphere, it has become possible to clear U.S. immigration and customs while still on foreign soil.)\nThe American foreign service—which was white, Christian (overwhelmingly Protestant), and elitist—had long exercised a largely negative influence on American immigration policy. Consular reports had provided much ammunition for the immigration restriction movement since the late nineteenth century. The tenure of Wilbur J. Carr as, in effect, head of the consular service from 1909 to 1937, placed a determined and convinced anti-Semitic nativist in a position to shape the formulation of both immigration and refugee policy. We now know that Carr, a skilled and manipulative bureaucrat, regularly fed anti-immigrant excerpts from unpublished consular reports to restrictionists such as Representative Albert Johnson, chief author of the 1924 immigration act. One Carr memo to him described Polish and Russian Jews as \"filthy, Un-American and often dangerous in their habits.\" Many American consuls shared these views. Richard C. Beer, for example, a career officer serving in Budapest in 1922–1923, complained that the law forced him to give visas to Hungarians, Gypsies, and Jews who were all barbarians and gave his office an odor that \"no zoo in the world can equal.\" Other consular officials, who might not have held such views, took their cues from their chief and the whole tone of the foreign service. During what was left of the \"prosperity decade\" after 1924 the INS and the State Department were pretty much on the same nativist page, although some INS officials resented their loss of control.\nAlthough there were no statutory limits on immigration from independent nations of the Western Hemisphere until 1965, President Herbert Hoover administratively limited Mexican and other Latin American immigration by use of the highly subjective \"likely to become a public charge\" clause that had been on the statute books since 1882. The clause had originally been designed to keep out persons who for reasons of physical or mental disability were patently unable to support themselves. From the Hoover administration on, the clause has been interpreted at times to bar persons who were able-bodied but poor. The prospective immigrant could be stopped at the border or at an immigrant receiving station by INS personnel or could have a visa denied by someone in the diplomatic service in the country of origin.\nThe onset of the Great Depression temporarily reduced immigration pressures—during two years in the early 1930s more immigrants left the United States than entered it—but an entirely different situation developed after the Nazi seizure of power in Germany. The unprecedented situation of large numbers of refugees and would-be refugees stemming from a western European power had not been foreseen by the drafters of American immigration legislation. The United States had an immigration policy but not a refugee policy. Congress had previously been favorable to political and religious refugees. Restrictive immigration acts dating from the nineteenth century barred persons with criminal records but always specifically excluded those convicted of political offenses. As late as 1917, in the part of a statute imposing a not very strenuous literacy test as a criterion for admission, Congress specifically exempted any person seeking admission \"to avoid religious persecution.\"\nBy 1933, however, under the stresses of the Great Depression and after going through what John Higham has aptly termed the \"tribal twenties,\" Congress was in no mood to ease immigration restrictions. And although some of the later apologists for the lack of an effective American refugee policy before the onset of the Holocaust put all or most of the onus on Congress, the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt must share that blame. There was nothing even resembling a new deal for immigration policy. To be sure, New Dealers at the top of Frances Perkins's Department of Labor, which continued to administer the INS until 1940, were much more sympathetic to immigrant concerns than the labor movement bureaucrats who had previously run the department. But the anti-immigrant culture of the INS continued. Moreover, the State Department's personnel and policies about immigration and many other matters were little affected by the New Deal. The administrative regulation of immigration was tightened during the early years of the Depression by both sets of government agents: the consular officials abroad and the INS at the borders.\nJews and others seeking visas in the 1930s quickly learned that some American consuls were better than others. George S. Messersmith, consul general in Berlin in the early 1930s and minister to Austria before the Anschluss, at a time when the German quota was undersubscribed, gained a positive rating from Jewish individuals and organizations. Even more proactive for refugees was Messersmith's successor in Berlin, Raymond Geist, who on occasion actually went to concentration camps to arrange the release of Jews with American visas. Although there is no thorough study of the work of American consular officials in Europe during the period between 1933 and Pearl Harbor, it is clear that men like Messersmith and Geist were exceptions and that the majority of consuls were indifferent if not hostile to Jews desiring American visas. The signals consuls received from Carr and other officials in the State Department certainly encouraged them to interpret the law as narrowly as possible.\nFor example, when Herbert Lehman, Franklin Roosevelt's successor as governor of New York, wrote the president on two occasions in 1935 and 1936 about the difficulties German Jews were having in getting visas from American consulates, Roosevelt assured him, in responses drafted by the State Department, that consular officials were carrying out their duties \"in a considerate and humane manner.\" Irrefutable evidence exists in a number of places to demonstrate that, to the contrary, many officials of the Department of State at home and abroad consistently made it difficult and in many cases impossible for fully eligible refugees to obtain visas. One example will have to stand as surrogate for hundreds of demonstrable cases of consular misfeasance and malfeasance. Hebrew Union College (HUC) in Cincinnati, the oldest Jewish seminary in America, had a Refugee Scholars Project that between 1935 and 1942 brought eleven such scholars to its campus. The 1924 immigration act specifically exempted from quota restriction professors and ministers of any religion as well as their wives and minor children. There should have been no difficulties on the American end in bringing the chosen scholars to Cincinnati. But in almost every case the State Department and especially Avra M. Warren, head of the visa division, raised difficulties, some of which seem to have been invented. In some instances the college, often helped by the intervention of influential individuals, managed to overcome them. In two instances, however, the college was unsuccessful.\nThe men involved were Arthur Spanier and Albert Lewkowitz. Spanier had been the Hebraica librarian at the Prussian State Library, and after the Nazis dismissed him, a teacher at the Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums. After Kristallnacht in November 1938, Spanier was sent to a concentration camp. The guaranteed offer of an appointment was enough to get him released from the camp but not enough to get him an American visa. The president of Hebrew Union College had to go to Washington even to discover why this was the case. Warren explained that the rejection was because Spanier's principal occupation was as a librarian and because after 1934 the Nazis had demoted the Hochschule (a general term for a place of higher education) to a Lehranstalt (educational institute), and an administrative regulation of the State Department not found in the statute held that a nonquota visa could not be given to a scholar coming to a high status institute in the United States from one of lower status abroad. Lewkowitz, a teacher of philosophy at the Breslau Jewish Theological Seminary, did get an American visa in Germany. Both men were able to get to the Netherlands and were there when the Germans invaded. The German bombing of Rotterdam destroyed Lewkowitz's papers, and American consular officials there insisted that he get new documents from Germany, an obviously impossible requirement. Visaless, both men were sent to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp. Lewkowitz was one of the few concentration camp inmates exchanged, and he reached Palestine in 1944. Spanier was murdered in Bergen-Belsen. If highly qualified scholars with impressive institutional sponsorship had difficulties, one can imagine what it was like for less well-placed individuals.\nApart from creating difficulties for refugees seeking visas, the State Department consistently downplayed international attempts to solve or ameliorate the refugee situation. For example, in 1936 brain trusters Felix Frankfurter and Raymond Moley urged Roosevelt to send a delegation that included such prominent persons as Rabbi Stephen S. Wise to a 1936 League of Nations conference on refugees. The president instead took the advice of the State Department and sent only a minor diplomatic functionary as an observer. It was then politic for him to accept the State Department's insistence that \"the status of all aliens is covered by law and there is no latitude left to the Executive to discuss questions concerning the legal status of aliens.\" When Roosevelt wanted to do something to he could almost always find a way. Immediately after the Anschluss, he directed that the Austrian quota numbers be used to expand the German quota, and shortly after Kristallnacht, he quietly directed the INS that any political or religious refugees in the United States on six-month visitor's visas could have such visas extended or rolled over every six months. Perhaps 15,000 persons were thus enabled to stay in the United States. On more public occasions however, such as the infamous early 1939 voyage of the German liner Saint Louis, loaded with nearly a thousand refugees whose Cuban visas had been canceled, he again took State Department advice and turned a deaf ear to appeals for American visas while the vessel hove to just off Miami Beach. The Saint Louis returned its passengers to Europe, where many of them perished in the Holocaust.\nAfter the Nazis overran France, Roosevelt showed what a determined president could do. In the summer of 1940 he instructed his Advisory Committee on Refugees to make lists of eminent refugees and told the State Department to issue visas for them. An agent named Varian Fry, operating out of Marseilles and with the cooperation of American vice consuls, managed to get more than a thousand eminent refugees into Spain and on to the United States. Those rescued by these means included Heinrich Mann, Marc Chagall, and Wanda Landowska. But at the same time, Roosevelt appointed his friend Breckinridge Long as assistant secretary of state. A confirmed nativist and anti-Semite, Long was in charge of the visa section and thus oversaw refugee policy. The president eventually became aware of the biases in the State Department, and when he decided in mid-1944 to bring in a \"token shipment\" of nearly a thousand refugees from American-run camps in Europe, he put Interior Secretary Harold L. Ickes in charge. Vice President Walter Mondale's acute 1979 observation that before and during the war the nations of the West \"failed the test of civilization\" is a sound assessment of American policy.\nTwo other wartime developments should be noted. First, the State Department became involved in American agricultural policy in connection with the wartime Bracero program, which brought temporary Mexican workers to the United States for work in agriculture and on railroads. The Mexican government was, with good reason, apprehensive about the treatment they might receive, so the State Department was in part responsible for the United States living up to its agreement. Second, the State Department was responsible for the wartime exchanges of diplomats and other enemy nationals with the Axis powers. It was also concerned with the treatment of American civilians in enemy hands, particularly Japan, and because of that justified concern persistently argued for humane treatment for both the few thousand interned Japanese nationals in INS custody and the 120,000 Japanese Americans, both citizen and alien, who were in the custody of the War Relocation Authority.\nThe war years also witnessed a historic if seemingly minor reversal of American immigration policy with the 1943 repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act. Few episodes show the connection between immigration and foreign policy so explicitly. President Roosevelt sent a special message to Congress urging the action. Speaking as commander in chief, he regarded the legislation \"as important in the cause of winning the war and of establishing a secure peace.\" Since China was a U.S. ally and its resistance depended in part on \"the spirit of her people and her faith in her allies,\" the president argued for a show of support:\nWe owe it to the Chinese to strengthen that faith. One step in this direction is to wipe from the statute books those anachronisms in our laws which forbid the immigration of Chinese people into this country and which bar Chinese residents from American citizenship. Nations, like individuals, make mistakes. We must be big enough to acknowledge our mistakes of the past and correct them.\nIn addition, Roosevelt argued that repeal would silence Japanese propaganda and that the small number of Chinese who would enter would cause neither unemployment nor job competition. The president admitted that \"While the law would give the Chinese a preferred status over certain other Oriental people, their great contribution to the cause of decency and freedom entitles them to such preference…. Passage will be an earnest of our purpose to apply the policy of the good neighbor to our relations with other peoples.\"\nThe repeal of Chinese exclusion was thus sold as a kind of good-behavior prize not for Chinese Americans, thousands of whom were then serving in the U.S. armed forces, but for the Chinese people. Nevertheless, Roosevelt's hint about future policy was right on the mark. Within three years Congress would pass similar special legislation granting naturalization rights and quotas to Filipinos and \"natives of India,\" and in 1952 it would enact legislation ending racial discrimination in naturalization policy. By that time the emphasis was on winning \"hearts and minds\" in the Cold War.\nTHE COLD WAR AND BEYOND\nEven before the Cold War came to dominate almost every facet of American policies toward the rest of the world, attitudes about immigration and immigration policies were beginning to change, as were the policies themselves. The increasing prevalence of an internationalist ideology, membership in the United Nations, and a growing guilt about and horror at the Holocaust all combined to impel the United States to do something about the European refugee crisis symbolized by the millions of displaced persons there. After some crucial months of inaction, Harry Truman issued a presidential directive just before Christmas 1945 that got some refugees into the United States. One important and often over-looked aspect of this directive enabled voluntary agencies, largely religious, to sponsor refugees, which virtually negated the application of the \"likely to become a public charge\" clause in such cases. Previously, sponsorship of most refugees without significant assets had to be assumed by American relatives. But it was only after passage and implementation of the Displaced Persons Acts of 1948 and 1950 that the United States could be said to have a refugee policy, one that the increasingly more diverse personnel of the State Department helped to carry out. That legislation brought more than 400,000 European refugees into the United States and expanded the use of voluntary agencies—later called VOLAGS (Voluntary Agencies Responsible for Refugees)—such as the Catholic and Lutheran welfare organizations and the Hebrew Immigrant Aid Association. In addition, U.S. sponsorship of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration and membership in its successors, the International Refugee Organization and the United Nations High Commission for Refugees, contributed to changed attitudes about and policies toward refugees even though general immigration policy remained tied to the quota principle introduced in 1921–1924, which lasted until 1965.\nEven the notorious McCarran-Walter Immigration Act of 1952—a quintessential piece of Cold War legislation that passed over Truman's veto and seemed merely to continue the restrictive policies begun in 1921 and 1924—contained liberalizing provisions that were more significant than most of its advocates and opponents realized. Chief of these was the total elimination of a color bar in naturalization. While some of the impetus for this came from liberals on racial issues, the push from those impelled by Cold War imperatives was probably more important. State Department representatives and others testified how difficult it was to become the leader of what they liked to term the \"free world\" when American immigration and naturalization policies blatantly discriminated against the majority of the world's peoples. In addition, a growing understanding that an important diplomatic objective was to win the hearts and minds of peoples and not just the consent of governments made diplomats more aware of the significance of immigrants and immigration. For example, when Dalip Singh Saund, the first Asian-born member of Congress, was elected in 1956, the State Department and the United States Information Agency sponsored him and his wife on a tour of his native India.\nAlthough the word \"refugee\" does not appear in the 1952 immigration act, an obscure section of it gave the attorney general discretionary parole power to admit aliens \"for emergency reasons or for reasons in the public interest.\" This was the method that Roosevelt had used in 1944, without congressional authorization, to bring in nearly a thousand refugees. This allowed the executive branch to respond quickly to emergency situations such as the Hungarian revolt of 1956 and the Cuban revolution of 1959. Between the displaced persons acts of the Truman administration and the inauguration of Ronald Reagan in 1981 about 2.25 million refugees were admitted, with about 750,000 Cubans and 400,000 refugees from America's misbegotten wars in Southeast Asia the largest increments. Since during that period some 10.4 million legal immigrants entered the United States, refugees accounted for some 20 percent of the total.\nAlthough most textbook accounts trace the transformation of post–World War II immigration and immigration policy to the act signed by Lyndon Johnson in the shadow of the Statue of Liberty in 1965, that is a gross exaggeration. The reality can be better glimpsed by considering the numerical incidence of immigration to colonial America and the United States over time. No official enumeration of immigration took place before 1819, but most authorities agree that perhaps a million European and African immigrants came before then. Between 1819 and the enactment of the 1924 immigration act some 36 million immigrants arrived. Between 1925 and 1945—with immigration inhibited first by the new restrictive law and then much more effectively by the Great Depression and World War II—nearly 2.5 million came, an average of fewer than 125,000 annually. In the decade before World War I more than a million came each year. Well into the post–World War II era, many authorities felt that as a major factor in American history immigration was a thing of the past, but as\n|LEGAL IMMIGRATION TO THE U.S. BY DECADE, 1951–1998|\n|(eight years only)|\nthe table indicates, based on INS data, this was a serious misperception.\nWith the self deconstruction of the Soviet Union at the end of the 1980s, domestic policy began to reassume paramount importance in American policy, including immigration policy. Input from the Department of State assumed less significance in immigration matters than during the Cold War era, although the increased volume of immigration greatly taxed and often overtaxed American embassies and consulates. For example, the State Department was given the responsibility of administering the lottery provisions of the Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) of 1986 and its successors. The department announced on 10 May 2001 that for the 2002 lottery its Consular Center in Williamsburg, Kentucky, had managed to sift 10 million qualified entries while rejecting an additional 3 million applicants for not following directions and notified 90,000 potential winners chosen at random what they had to do to gain admission to the United States as resident aliens. Each overseas applicant would have to pass an interview examination for eligibility at an American consulate; those applying from within the United States would apply through the INS. Only a maximum of 50,000 of the 90,000 could actually win and gain admittance to the United States along with certain of their qualified dependents. All paper work would have to be completed by 30 September 2002. Anyone who did not have a visa by then lost the presumed advantage of winning. Applications for the 2003 lottery were scheduled to take place during the following month, October 2002.\nThe major functions of IRCA were the socalled \"amnesty,\" which legalized some 2.7 million immigrants illegally in the United States, the majority of whom were from Mexico, and the promise of effective control measures to \"gain control of our borders\" by more effective interdiction of illegal border crosses and intensified deportation of remaining resident illegals. This created great fears in many nations of the circum-Caribbean, particularly the Dominican Republic and El Salvador, whose economies were greatly dependent on immigrant remittances, that large numbers of their citizens would be excluded and their remittances ended. These fears were chimerical; borders remained porous. But, in the meantime, to cite just one example, President José Napoléon Duarte wrote President Reagan in early 1987 requesting that Salvadorans in the United States illegally be given \"extended voluntary departure\" (EVD) status, an aspect of the attorney general's parole power enabling illegal immigrants to remain. While EVD was usually granted on humanitarian grounds, Duarte stressed the economic loss if immigrant remittances ceased. Assistant Secretary of State Elliot Abrams, who had opposed EVD on humanitarian grounds, now supported it, but the negative views of the Department of Justice and the congressional leadership prevailed. Forms of EVD or its equivalent were put into place during the Clinton presidency for Salvadorans and Nicaraguans by both the administration and Congress.\nThe State Department also had to deal with increasing complaints from foreign countries about the execution of its citizens by the criminal justice systems of American states, most of which had been practicing capital punishment with increased enthusiasm at a time when many nations had abolished it. Since it is a legal action, the United States cannot even consider paying compensation of any kind.\nThe more than 25 million post-1950 immigrants, as is well known, have changed the face of America. As late as the 1950s, immigrants from Europe, who had contributed the lion's share of nineteenth-and early-twentieth century immigrants, still were a bare majority of all immigrants. By the 1980s, thanks largely to the liberal 1965 immigration act and the Refugee Act of 1980, the European share was down to about 10 percent, and immigrants from Latin America and Asia predominated. Although anti-immigrant attitudes again came to the fore in 1980s—sparked in part by Ronald Reagan's warnings about being overrun by \"feet people\"—and some scholars saw \"a turn against immigration\" and predicted effective legislative restriction of immigration, those feelings were not turned into an effective legislative consensus. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, immigration continued at a very high rate, and screening and facilitating that influx continued to be an important aspect of the work of American diplomacy.\nBreitman, Richard, and Alan M. Kraut. American Refugee Policy and European Jewry, 1933–1945. Bloomington, Ind., 1987. A good account of nativist sentiment and activity in the State Department.\nCorbett, P. Scott. Quiet Passages: The Exchange of Civilians Between the United States and Japan During the Second World War. Kent, Ohio, 1987. Tells the story of the State Department's Special Division.\nDaniels, Roger. Coming to America: A History of Immigration and Ethnicity in American Life. New York, 1990. Surveys immigration and naturalization policy.\n——. The Politics of Prejudice: The Anti-Japanese Movement in California and the Struggle for Japanese Exclusion. 2d ed. Berkeley, Calif., 1991.\nDinnerstein, Leonard. America and the Survivors of the Holocaust. New York, 1982. Fundamental to an understanding of the postwar shift in American policy toward refugees.\nFry, Varian. Surrender on Demand. New York, 1945. Fry, whose papers are at Columbia University, tells his story.\nGillion, Steven M. \"That's Not What We Meant to Do\": Reform and Its Unintended Consequences in Twentieth-Century America. New York, 2000. A series of case studies, including one on the 1965 immigration act.\nHigham, John. Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860–1925. New Brunswick, N.J., 1955. The classic work on American nativism.\nKarlin, J. Alexander. \"The Indemnification of Aliens Injured by Mob Violence.\" Southwestern Social Science Quarterly 25 (1945): 235–246. Treats indemnification for victims of violence.\nLoewenstein, Sharon. Token Refuge: The Story of the Jewish Refugee Shelter at Oswego, 1944–1946. Bloomington, Ind., 1986. Describes the first mass shipment of refugees.\nMeyer, Michael A. \"The Refugee Scholars Project of the Hebrew Union College.\" In Bertram Wallace Korn, ed. A Bicentennial Festschrift for Jacob Rader Marcus. New York, 1976. Most instructive about difficulties to refugee admission created by the State Department.\nMitchell, Christopher, ed. Western Hemisphere Immigration and U.S. Foreign Policy. University Park, Pa., 1992. A collection of essays largely by political scientists.\nPeffer, George Anthony. If They Don't Bring Their Women Here: Chinese Female Immigration Before Exclusion. Urbana, Ill., 1999.\nReimers, David M. Still the Golden Door: The Third World Comes to America. 2d ed. New York, 1992.\n——. Unwelcome Strangers: American Identity and the Turn Against Immigration. New York, 1998. Along with Still the Golden Door, this book is part of the cutting edge of late-twentieth-century immigration history.\nSandmeyer, Elmer Clarence. The Anti-Chinese Movement in California. 2d ed. Urbana, Ill., 1991.\nSchulzinger, Robert D. The Making of the Diplomatic Mind: The Training, Outlook, and Style of United States Foreign Service Officers, 1908–1931. Middletown, Conn., 1975. Although many works on the foreign service ignore its immigration functions, this work is a happy exception.\nSchwartz, Donald. \"Breckinridge Long.\" In John A. Garraty and Mark C. Carnes, eds. American National Biography. New York, 2000. This sketch makes the subject's prejudices explicit.\nSmith, David A. \"From the Mississippi to the Mediterranean: The 1891 New Orleans Lynching and Its Effects on United States Diplomacy and the American Navy.\" Southern Historian 19 (1998): 60–85.\nWilson, Theodore A. \"Wilbur J. Carr.\" In John A. Garraty and Mark C. Carnes, eds. American National Biography. New York, 2000. This laudatory sketch of Wilbur J. Carr ignores Carr's prejudices and his role in immigration policy.\nSee also Asylum; Department of State; Refugee Policies .\nTHE IMMIGRATION ACT OF 1965\nThe Immigration Act of 1965 changed the face of America and is one of three laws passed that year—the others being the Voting Rights Act and the establishment of Medicare and Medicaid—which collectively represent the high-water mark of twentieth-century American liberalism. Yet the immigration statute was not always so perceived. At the signing ceremony on Liberty Island, with Ellis Island in the background, President Lyndon Johnson minimized the act's importance: \"The bill that we sign today is not a revolutionary bill. It does not affect the lives of millions. It will not reshape the structure of our daily lives, or add importantly to our wealth and power.\"\nThe law, in fact, changed the focus of immigration to the United States, greatly increasing the share going to Asia and the Western Hemisphere, and, through its heightened emphasis on family migration, led to a massive increase in the volume of immigration. Johnson was not dissimulating in his assessment. He was repeating what his advisers in the State and Justice departments had told him. They had focused on righting what they saw to be past mistakes of American immigration policy, and Johnson, following them, stressed the wrong done to those \"from southern or eastern Europe.\" Members of both departments had testified before Congress that few persons from the Third World would enter under its provisions, and it is highly doubtful that the law would have been recommended or enacted had anyone understood what the results would be. Political scientists later developed the concept of unintended consequences. As Stephen M. Gillion points out in \"That's Not What We Meant to Do\" (2000), the 1965 Immigration Act is one of the prime examples of this phenomenon.\n\"Immigration.\" Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy. . Encyclopedia.com. (January 19, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/immigration\n\"Immigration.\" Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy. . Retrieved January 19, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/immigration\nIMMIGRATION. Except for some 2.5 million Native Americans and Alaska natives, the 281 million persons recorded in the 2000 census are immigrants and their descendants. Some 70 million immigrants have come to what is now the United States, beginning with the Spanish settlers in Florida and New Mexico in the late sixteenth century. The United States only began counting immigrants in 1819, so the numbers before that time are problematic.\n|Immigration by Centuries|\n|Total (legal or legalized)||67,000,000|\n|Illegal Immigration (at least)||3,000,000|\nTable 1 shows a reasonable estimate of total immigration, legal and illegal, by centuries; as it shows, more than twothirds of all the immigrants who have come arrived in the twentieth century.\nFor a long time it seemed appropriate to many historians of immigration to focus on the so-called \"century of immigration\" that ran from 1815, the end of the Napoleonic Wars, to 1924, the date of the most restrictive immigration law in U.S. history. However, the large movements that occurred after World War II make such an emphasis inappropriate.\nBeginning of the Twenty-First Century\nApproximately 24 million immigrants—36 percent of all who have ever come—had arrived since 1960, leading many to fear that immigrants were swamping the nation. In fact, even in the immigrant-rich decade after 1990, the rate of immigration—computed by dividing the yearly number of immigrants by the total population—was well below peak level. In both the decade after 1850 and the one after 1900, the rate was over 10; for the first eight years after 1990, the rate was only 3.6. Such baseless fears about immigration—called \"nativism\" since the mid-nineteenth century—have often been present in America.\nThe Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries\nMost of the million immigrants who arrived in the nearly two and a half centuries between the Spanish founding of St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565 and 1800 came during the years of peace between the 1680s and the 1770s. Between the outbreak of the American Revolution and Napoleon's final defeat in 1815 there was little nonmilitary immigration, although perhaps eighty thousand American Loyalists emigrated during and after the Revolution, mostly to Canada and Britain.\nSince the largest single component of colonial immigration was English, and since Great Britain was the final European winner in the imperial wars of the era, the English language, English law, and English religious practices became norms to which later immigrants would be expected to conform. To be sure, the New World environment as well as distance and time worked cultural transformations, as did the influence of both aboriginal peoples and non-English immigrants. But the English were what John Higham has called the \"charter group\" and set norms for others to meet. About 48 percent of the total nonaboriginal population at the first census in 1790 has been estimated to be of English origin.\nEnglish: Virginia and the South. Permanent English settlement began at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607 and, although there were non-English in most settlements, English immigrants predominated in every seventeenth-century colony except New York. The Virginia colony was for two decades a demographic disaster in which more than half of the immigrants died within a year or so. The immigrant population there and in other southern colonies was heavily male, so natural increase—the excess of births over deaths—did not begin much before the beginning of the eighteenth century, if then.\nWhy then did English immigrants continue to come? Most were probably ignorant of the true conditions and for many there was no choice. A majority of those English who migrated to the American South in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries were indentured servants. The dependence on tobacco growing in Virginia created almost insatiable demands for labor, which were eventually filled by enslaved African immigrants, but for decades, most indentured laborers were English and other Britons. Later in the eighteenth century about fifty thousand persons, overwhelmingly male, were \"transported\" from English prisons to British colonies.\nBut others came voluntarily, attracted by the availability of land and the possibility of wealth—what students of migration call a \"pull factor,\" and/or repelled by wretched economic conditions and poor future prospects in England—a so-called push factor.\nMaryland, where settlement conditions were less harsh than in Virginia, was founded as a refuge for English Catholics. Much of the gentry was Catholic, but they were soon outnumbered by Protestant lower orders. South Carolina had settlement patterns similar to those in Virginia, but, because of Charleston, the one city of any size in a southern colony, it had more non-British immigrants, including French Huguenots and a few Jews, among its elite population.\nEnglish: Massachusetts and New England. Most of the early migration to Massachusetts, beginning with the Pilgrims in 1620, was family migration, much of it religiously motivated. Most of the leading figures and a considerable number of the lesser lights were Protestant dissenters from the Church of England. For significant numbers of the \"lesser sort,\" economic motives predominated. The largest increment of immigrants to New England, perhaps twenty-five thousand persons, came during the \"great migration\" of the two decades before 1641. Unlike the colonies on the Chesapeake, which were immigrant colonies until the beginning of the eighteenth century, persons born in the New World were a majority of the New England settlers within a few decades of settlement.\nNew England was less affected by non-British immigration than any other section.\nAfricans. Africans and their descendents have never been more statistically prominent in American society than in the colonial period. The best estimate is that, at the first federal census in 1790, Africans and their descendents were about 20 percent of the population. The earliest Africans in British North America—brought to Jamestown in 1619—were first treated as indentured servants. By about 1700 in all parts of the American colonies, most Africans were enslaved. Philip Curtin's conservative 1969 estimate judged that almost 430,000 Africans were brought to what is now the United States, about 4.5 percent of all those brought to the New World by the African slave trade. Africans made up more than a third of all immigrants to the United States before 1810. Perhaps fifty thousand more were brought after the United States outlawed further imports of foreign slaves in 1808; those fifty thousand were the first illegal immigrants and the only ones before 1882. Africans and African Americans were found in every colony and state: in 1790 more than 90 percent of the 750,000 Negroes enumerated in the census lived in the South, a percentage that remained fairly constant until well after the World War II era.\nUntil well into the twentieth century, scholars believed that African immigrants were stripped of their culture and brought nothing but their labor to the United States. It is now clear that African contributions to early American culture were considerable, consisting largely of agricultural and craft techniques.\nOther Europeans. The largest groups of non-English Europeans in the new United States were Irish, 7.6 percent; German, 6.9 percent; and Dutch, 2.5 percent; but they were distributed quite differently. The Irish, almost all of whom were Protestants, were dispersed widely throughout the colonies and had little impact as a group although a number of individuals were quite influential. The Germans, whose immigration in significant numbers began only in 1683, were heavily concentrated in Pennsylvania, where they constituted a third of the population. Many came as indentured servants, often called \"redemptioners\" because other relatives who had either come as free immigrants or had gained their freedom, would frequently purchase their remaining time. Their presence—and their politics—inspired some of the earliest American nativism. In 1751 Benjamin Franklin complained, \"Why should Pennsylvania, founded by the English, become a colony of Aliens, who will shortly be so numerous as to Germanize us instead of our Anglifying them, and will never adopt our language or customs. …\"\nFranklin's fears, of course, were groundless. Although the English and Germans each constituted about a third of Pennsylvania's population, most of the rest were Britons—Irish, Scots, and Welsh. The only ethnic political power exercised by a non-English group was in New York, where the Dutch had been in charge until the bloodless English conquest of 1660. Even though they were less than a sixth of the state's 1790 population, the Dutch, because of their status and wealth, continued to exercise significant political power. Although all of the American port cities, even Boston, contained considerable ethnic diversity in the colonial period, only New York was truly polyglot. Swedes had settled on the Delaware while a number of French Huguenots settled throughout the colonies: other French, the Acadians, were expelled by the British in 1755 from Nova Scotia and scattered throughout the colonies. Many wound up in Louisiana, which became an American territory after 1803.\nThe Nineteenth Century\nThe 19 million immigrants who came during the nineteenth century arrived at a generally accelerating pace, as table 2 indicates.\nThe Civil War in the first half of the 1860s and the economic slump during much of the 1890s account for the two decades in which the numbers decreased. But mere numbers do not properly indicate the impact of immigration: it is important to understand the rate or incidence of immigration. For example, in 1854 some 425,000 immigrants came, making it by far the heaviest single antebellum year for the arrival of immigrants. As there were about 26 million persons in the United States that year, the new immigrants amounted to, as such numbers are usually cited, 16 per 1,000 of the nation's people. Table 3 shows the rate of immigration per thousand averaged for each decade from the 1820s to the 1890s. Thus, the increase in actual numbers of immigrants from the 1860s to the 1870s was, in terms of incidence, a slight decrease. Beginning in 1850 each decennial census has recorded place of birth for every person enumerated, making it possible to calculate the percentage of foreign born in the population as indicated in table 4. The amazing consistency of the percentage of foreign-born persons shows clearly that, despite the fluctuations in other data, foreigners had a stable incidence in American life for a seventy-year period.\n|Immigration to the United States, 1801–1900|\n|*No statistics were collected prior to 1819. The data are taken from official sources.|\n|1801–1820||Fewer than 100,000*|\n|Rate of Immigration per 1,000, 1821–1900|\n|Foreign Born as a Percentage of Total Population, 1850–1920|\nFrom the 1830s through the 1860s a majority of immigrants were from just two ethnic groups—Irish and German. There were some 2.3 million of each, and in the 1850s and 1860s they were more than 70 percent of all immigrants. Their profiles, however, were quite different.\nIrish. For the Irish, one terrible event, the potato famine of the second half of the 1840s, has dominated the memory of emigration, but there was substantial Irish immigration both before and after the famine. The root causes of Irish migration were mass poverty, underdevelopment, and a burgeoning population. Irish population almost doubled in the half-century after 1791 so that on the eve of the famine there were 8.1 million persons in Ireland. In the 1830s over 200,000 Irish had immigrated to the United States, and large numbers went to Canada and across the Irish Sea to England. Those Irish and their predecessors came largely as single men, and Irish labor was vital to much of the American \"internal improvements\" of the era. Some three thousand Irishmen had done most of the digging for the Erie Canal before 1820 and several thousand dug the New Canal in New Orleans in the 1830s.\nThe great famine that began in 1845 had as its proximate cause an infestation of the fungus Phytophthora infestans. This blight was well known in Ireland: it had occurred at least twenty times in the previous 125 years and did not cause alarm at first. But in 1846 it struck more completely than ever before or since and triggered the last peacetime famine in western European history. Its impact was exacerbated by the disdain and ineptitude of the British government and Irish landlords as well as by the poverty and ignorance of the people. Disease, the constant companion of famine, took its toll. That and massive emigration in the next ten years reduced the population of Ireland by some 2.5 million people—nearly one person in three.\nThe migration of the famine years and beyond was largely family migration. Relatively few Irish settled in rural America, and the vast majority became residents of east coast cities between Boston and Baltimore, although there were large groups of Irish in such western cities as Cincinnati, Chicago, and San Francisco. They often filled the worst neighborhoods, such as the infamous Five Points in New York City. But they also began to fill the new urban occupations and came, in many cities, to dominate public services, particularly police and fire departments, and such new urban occupations as horse car drivers. And in city after city, they played a larger role in politics than their mere numerical incidence would indicate. Most became traditionally associated with the Democratic Party.\nBefore the end of the century, young, unmarried women became the majority of Irish emigrants. This reflected, in part, demographic and cultural changes greatly influenced by the famine and endemic poverty. Ireland had the oldest average age at marriage and the greatest percentage of persons who never married of any nation in western Europe. The Irish emigrants of these years were overwhelmingly Catholic and they soon came to dominate the Roman Catholic Church in America. For the Irish, and to a lesser degree for other Catholic immigrants, the immigrant church became what its historian, Jay P. Dolan, termed a fortress helping to protect its faithful from a largely hostile Protestant world.\nAnti-Catholic hostility was nowhere stronger than among the Protestant Irish already in America. Most American Protestant Irish began, in the 1830s and 1840s, to call themselves Scotch Irish, a term never used in Ireland or anywhere else. They formed the backbone of the most militant anti-Catholic movements in the United States, including the so-called Know-Nothing movement of the 1840s and 1850s and the American Protective Association of the 1880s and 1890s.\nGermans. The major push factor in nineteenth-century German immigration was the modernization of the German economy, which dislocated millions of Germans, a minority of whom chose emigration as a response. The Germans were the most numerous of nineteenth-century immigrants. They settled heavily in eastern cities from New York to Baltimore and in the midwestern area known as the German triangle, whose corners were Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Milwaukee. While most came in at eastern ports, a large number of those who settled in the \"triangle\" came to southern ports carried by ships in the cotton trade and made their way north by river boat and then railroad. Those in the cities worked largely at artisanal and mechanical pursuits, while one industry—the production of lager beer—was dominated by German producers and, for a time, consumers. Large numbers of German immigrants settled in rural areas, and some German American groups have shown very high levels of persistence in agriculture over several generations.\nAlthough seventeenth-and eighteenth-century German migration was almost all Protestant, and although Protestants have probably been a majority of German immigrants in every decade except the 1930s, very sizable numbers of those since 1800 have been Catholics, and a significant minority of them have been Jewish. Among the German Protestants the majority have always been Lutherans, even during the colonial period, when a considerable number were Mennonites of various persuasions.\nOne of the most impressive aspects of German immigration was the vast cultural apparatus German Americans created: newspapers, magazines, theaters, musical organizations, and schools proliferated throughout the nineteenth and into the twentieth century. Some of these institutions, particularly the German kindergartens, had great influence on the national culture. The Germans were largely Republican in politics. On one of the great cultural issues of the era—Prohibition—most took the wet rather than the dry side.\nScandinavians. Almost 1.5 million Swedes, Norwegians, and Danes came to America in the nineteenth century, and perhaps 750,000 followed in the twentieth. Predominantly agricultural, Scandinavians were driven to migrate by expanding populations and a shortage of arable land. No European country sent a greater proportion of its population to America than Norway. Most Scandinavians settled initially in the upper Midwest and the Great Plains, with a large later migration, some of it second generation, to the Pacific Northwest. They were overwhelmingly Protestant: the major exception was some 25,000 Scandinavian converts to Mormonism whose passage to Utah was aided by a church immigration fund. The Scandinavian groups founded a relatively large number of colleges for the training of ministers of religion, the first ethnic groups to do so in any significant degree since the colonial era. In politics they were even more predominantly Republican than the Germans, with a heavy tilt toward the dry side of the Prohibition issue.\nEra of Industrial Expansion, 1870s–1920\nPrior to the Civil War, most immigrants settled in rural and small town America, although the incidence of immigrants in cities was higher than that of native-born Americans. In the latter decades of the nineteenth century, as the industrial sector of the American economy became more dynamic, the cities, and the jobs that they held, attracted more and more immigrants. At the same time, the spread of railroad networks in Europe and the development of shipping lines for whom immigrants were\nthe major purpose rather than a sideline meant that more, and more ethnically varied, immigrants were able to cross the Atlantic. Although immigrants left from almost every port city in Europe, the lion's share left through Hamburg, Bremen, and Liverpool in the north and Genoa, Naples, and Trieste in the south. Conditions in the steer-age sections in which most immigrants came were frightful, particularly on the vessels from southern ports, but at least in the age of steam the voyages were measured in days rather than weeks.\nContrary to the impression often given, immigrants from southern and eastern Europe did not begin to outnumber those from western Europe until the 1890s. Even in the first two decades of the twentieth century immigrants from western Europe were some two-fifths of all immigrants. Poles, Italians, and eastern European Jews were the dominant European immigrant groups from the 1890s, although every European nationality was represented. These later immigrants are often described as \"new immigrants,\" a euphemism for \"undesirable.\" The United States Immigration Commission, for example, in its 1911 report that was a stimulus for immigration restriction, described such immigrants as having \"no intention of permanently changing their residence, their only purpose in coming to America being to temporarily take advantage of the greater wages paid for industrial labor in this country.\"\nThe charge of sojourning had been raised first against two non-European groups: the 250,000 Chinese who had begun to immigrate to California and the West Coast about the time of the gold rush of 1849, and the perhaps 500,000 French Canadians who poured into New England mill towns in the post–Civil War decades. While most Chinese immigrants were barred by the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, French Canadian immigrants remained unrestricted. The antisojourner argument ignored both the positive economic contributions that each group made and the fact that many Chinese and perhaps most French Canadian immigrants made permanent homes in the United States. The 1920 census identified some 850,000 first-and second-generation French Canadians, and some 60,000 Chinese.\nMany of the European immigrants of the industrial era did come as sojourners, and some came more than once. In one early-twentieth-century survey at Ellis Island, every tenth Italian reported having been in the United States before. Like their predecessors they were primarily motivated by economic opportunity; what set them off from most of their predecessors was that most found industrial rather than agricultural employment.\nPoles are difficult to enumerate because immigration data reflect nationality rather than ethnicity and most Poles had German, Russian, or Austrian nationality. The best approximation of their number comes from the 1910 census, which showed nearly 950,000 foreign-born persons who said that their mother tongue was Polish. Poles settled largely in the industrial region around the Great Lakes, and were concentrated in cities between Buffalo and Milwaukee. Polish immigrants were chiefly employed in factory work, often in the dirtiest and most difficult jobs.\nBetween 1890 and 1920 more than four million Italians were recorded as entering the United States. No other group had come to the United States in such numbers in a comparable period of time. Their prime region of settlement was near the eastern seaboard between Boston and Philadelphia, with goodly settlements in Chicago and northern California. Unlike the Poles, Italians were concentrated in outdoor employment in road construction, railroad maintenance, and in the less-skilled aspects of the building trades. A significant number of young, mostly unmarried Italian and Italian American women were employed in the garment trades.\nLike the Poles, eastern European Jews are difficult to track in the immigration data. Again in the 1910 census more than a million persons reported Yiddish or Hebrew as a mother tongue. (German Jewish immigrants would have reported German.) More than 850,000 of them were of Russian nationality, many of whom came from what is now Poland and the Baltic states; almost 125,000 came from some part of the Austrian Empire, and some 40,000 from Romania. Most had suffered some degree of persecution in Europe, and of all the immigrant groups in the industrial era, Jews were the least likely to sojourn. Almost all came intending to stay and did so. One scholar has calculated the remigration rate for European immigrants to the United States of various ethnicities in this era and found that fewer than 5 percent of Jews returned, as opposed to about a third of Poles and some 45 percent of Italians. Similarly, although there was a male majority for every European group of immigrants except the Irish, males were only about 55 percent of the Jews, while nearly two-thirds of the Poles and almost three-quarters of the Italians were male. For some of the other ethnic groups in this era both rates were even higher. Serb immigrants, for example, were calculated to have been 90 percent male and remigrated at a rate of almost 88 percent.\n|Annual Immigration and Emigration, 1905–1914*|\n|*Fiscal year ending 30 June|\n|**Emigrants not recorded before 1908|\nThe ten years before the outbreak of World War I saw the highest number of legal immigrants entering the United States than in any ten-year period before or since. These figures added fuel to the raging restrictionist fires. But, as the data in table 5 show, return migration was also heavy; the incidence of foreign born in the population remained remarkably constant, as was shown in table 4.\nThe outbreak of World War I in 1914 transformed American migration patterns, both internal and external. The surge of Allied war orders beginning in the spring of 1915 plus the requirements of American \"preparedness\" and, after April 1917, war needs, increased the demands for workers in northern factories. The drastic drop in the numbers of European immigrants—from a million a year just before the war to an average of only about 100,000 annually between 30 June 1914 and 30 June 1919—helped to stimulate the so-called \"Great Migration\" of African Americans from the South to northern cities. This migration involved perhaps 500,000 persons between 1916 and 1918 and probably another million before the onset of the Great Depression of the 1930s.\n1920s to 2000\nIn the 1920s, despite President Warren G. Harding's call for \"normalcy,\" immigration was not allowed to return to the essentially laissez faire pattern that had prevailed for everyone except Asians throughout U.S. history. The Quota Acts of 1921 and 1924 put numerical caps on European immigration while stopping Asian immigration except for Filipinos, who, as American nationals, could not be excluded. (Asia, as defined by Congress, did not include Russian-Soviet Asia, or nations from Persia-Iran east.) The onset of the Great Depression plus administrative regulations designed chiefly to stop otherwise unrestricted Mexican immigration, reduced immigration significantly, and World War II reduced it even further as table 6 demonstrates.\nThe steady reduction in the number of immigrants and the accompanying decline in foreign born from 13.2 percent in 1920 to 6.9 percent in 1950 mask three important wartime developments that helped to reshape the patterns of American immigration in the second half of the twentieth century. These were the beginning of the refugee crisis, repeal of the Chinese exclusion acts, and the increase of the Mexican presence in the American labor force.\nThe anti-Semitic policies of Nazi Germany that began in 1933 precipitated the refugee crisis, which was neither fully understood nor dealt with adequately by the nations of the West. Vice President Walter Mondale's 1979 judgment that the western democracies \"failed the test of civilization\" is a good capsule summary. Many have blamed this aspect of the Holocaust on the 1924 immigration act. But while many of the supporters of that act had anti-Semitic motives, the quota system it set up, while stacked against immigrants from southern and eastern Europe, provided a relatively generous quota for Germany. Between 1933 and 1940, fewer than half of the 211,895 German quota spaces were filled. At the beginning of the Nazi era, few German Jews were ready to leave their native land; however, during much of the 1930s, willful obstruction by many American consular officials frustrated the attempts of German Jews to gain admission to the United States, often with fatal consequences.\nThe administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt, which innovated in so many areas of American life, was conservative on this issue: there was no New Deal for immigration. Critics have correctly pointed to the undemocratically recruited foreign service as largely culpable in denying asylum to many, but the president himself, out of political caution, on several occasions refused to act. The failure to support legislation to admit Jewish children and the refusal to allow refugee passengers on the ill-fated German liner St. Louis to land even though the ship was in American waters are clear examples of Roosevelt's misfeasance.\nOn the other hand, once war came the president exercised his vaunted administrative ingenuity to assist refugees. The most significant example of this was his instruction to Labor Secretary Frances Perkins to allow refugees who were in the United States on six-month visitor visas to \"roll-over\" such visas indefinitely every six months, making them, for all intents and purposes, resident aliens. Later arrangements were made with Canada to allow many such persons to make pro forma exits from the United States and return immediately on immigrant visas. And, in 1944, as awareness of the dimensions of the Holocaust grew, Roosevelt created the War Refugee Board by executive order. Its function was to save Jews and other refugees in Europe, but its mandate did not include bringing them to the United States. In June 1944 Roosevelt invented a way to get refugees into the country: something he called \"parole power.\" He used it only once, in what historians have called a \"token shipment\" of nearly\n|Immigration and Emigration, 1921–1945|\n1,000 persons, almost all of them Jews who were kept in a camp at Oswego, New York, in the charge of the War Relocation Authority, whose major function was to warehouse Japanese Americans. Although the \"parolees\" were supposed to go back to Europe after the war, only one did. Roosevelt's successors used parole power to bring in hundreds of thousands of refugees, very few of them Jews, until the Refugee Act of 1980 regularized such admissions. Between 1946 and 2000 more than 3.5 million persons were admitted to the United States as refugees of one kind or another and many persons who were in fact refugees entered in other categories.\nThe repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1943, which also made alien Chinese eligible for naturalization, presaged a retreat from the blatant racism that had characterized American immigration policies. Similar legislation was passed regarding \"natives of India\" and Filipinos in 1946, and in 1952 the otherwise reactionary McCarran-Walter Act ended all ethnic bars to immigration and made naturalization color blind. Between 1943 and 2000, perhaps 8 million Asians, most of them from the formerly \"barred zone,\" legally immigrated to the United States.\nA third wartime initiative with long-term consequences for immigration was the so-called bracero program, which brought some 200,000 \"temporary\" Mexican workers to the United States, about half of whom worked in California. The program was restarted in 1951 during the Korean War and continued until 1964. In 1959 alone, 450,000 braceros were brought to the United States. None of these were counted as immigrants; many stayed or returned, contributing to the illegal immigrant phenomenon that loomed large in later immigration and even larger in rhetoric about it. The cumulative effect of the bracero program plus legal and illegal immigration was to make Mexico the largest single national contributor, by far, to immigration to the United States in the second half of the twentieth century. Since 1940 some 5 million Mexicans have either legally immigrated to the United States or been legalized later.\nTables 7 and 8 summarize the 26 million legal or legalized immigrants who entered the United States in the second half of the twentieth century. As table 8 demonstrates, not only did the total number of immigrants increase with each decade, but European immigration, which had always dominated American immigration, accounted for only one immigrant in five during the second half of the century.\n|Immigration and Foreign Born, 1951–2000|\n|*In last year of period, i.e., 1960, 1970, etc.|\n|**lowest figure ever recorded; no data before 1850|\n|Years||Immigration (millions)||Foreign Born* (millions)||Percentage of Foreign Born|\n|Sources of Immigration to the United States, 1951–1998 (in millions)|\nPrior to the 1930s, almost all of the immigrants had come in at or near the bottom of the socioeconomic ladder, and this remained true for a majority of immigrants during the rest of the twentieth century. But, beginning with some of the distinguished refugees who fled from Hitler's Europe, a growing minority of immigrants came with educational credentials that surpassed those of most American natives. The so-called brain drain intensified during the latter decades of the century, as engineers and computer scientists were attracted to the various Silicon Valleys of America. At the other end of the spectrum, even larger numbers of immigrants came not to build America but to serve it. The service sector and agriculture, not the\nshrinking manufacturing sector, were the major employers of immigrant labor, legal and illegal. California farms, Arkansas chicken processors, fast foodshops, and hotels and motels everywhere were among the largest employers.\nImmigration policy since World War II. The shifts in American immigration policy that made the renewal of large-scale immigration possible are often attributed solely to the Immigration Act of 1965. As the foregoing suggests, this is a serious error. Between the 1943 repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act and century's end, twenty-eight new substantive public laws revamped immigration and naturalization. Only a handful of the most significant can be noted here. Beginning with the hotly contested Displaced Persons Acts of 1948 and 1950—which brought some 400,000 European refugees, mostly gentiles, to the United States—a series of acts made taking refugees a part of the American consensus. By the end of the Eisenhower administration, the Fair Share Refugee Act symbolized the changed perception of American responsibility. Particularly noteworthy was the Carter administration's Refugee Act of 1980, which for the first time put the right to claim asylum into American law.\nTwo general statutes, the 1952 McCarran-Walter Act and the 1965 Immigration Act, transformed American immigration policy. While the most obvious innovation of the 1952 act was the ending of statutory racism in naturalization and immigration, it also eliminated overt gender bias in immigration. It seemed to continue the quota system much as it was enacted in 1924 but, because of other changes in the law, quota immigrants were only a minor fraction of legal immigration. Although the Japanese quota between 1953 and 1960 was only 185 a year—one-sixth of one percent of the Japanese population in the continental United States in 1920—a total of 46,250 Japanese legally immigrated in those seven years, almost all of them nonquota immigrants who were family members of U.S. citizens. European refugees, most of whom came from nations—or former nations—with tiny quotas were accounted for by \"mortgaging quotas,\" mortgages that were never paid. When the quota system was abolished in 1965 the Latvian annual quota of 286, to give an extreme example, had been mortgaged to the year 2274.\nThe 1965 act ended national quotas and substituted putative hemispheric caps that seemed to limit immigration to less than half a million a year. At the same time, it so expanded family-based immigration and other non-quota immigration that the gross number of immigrants continued to rise steadily. By the late 1970s there was increasing concern in the media and in Congress about illegal immigration. After years of acrimonious debate, Congress passed a compromise measure, the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA). \"Immigration Reform\" had become a code phrase for reducing immigration. IRCA was widely hailed as a way to \"fix\" what was commonly called a \"broken\" immigration system, but the proposed fix exacerbated many of the problems that it was supposed to cure. The centerpiece of the bill was an \"amnesty\" supposed to legalize perhaps 3.1 million persons who had been illegally present in the United States since 1982. But congress set aside 350,000 \"amnesty places\" for \"special agricultural workers\" who need only have done 90 days of agricultural labor and lived in the United States since 1 May 1985. Subsequent Congresses increased the share for these agricultural workers significantly. Of the 2.68 million persons actually legalized under IRCA by the end of 1998 almost 1.25 million, some 47 percent, were \"special agricultural workers\" of one kind or another.\nIn the final analysis the amnesty provisions of IRCA not only increased significantly the number of legal immigrants in the United States, but also created a well-publicized precedent for future liberalizations, which would be impossible for Congress to resist. The legalization did not contribute to the number of immigrants present, but each person legalized could become, in time, a naturalized American citizen, some of whose relatives would be eligible for privileged admission status. A growing awareness of the failure of IRCA to achieve its goals—plus the conservative mood epitomized by the so-called Gingrich revolution resulting from the Republican sweep of the 1994 congressional elections—produced a spate of measures passed by Congress and signed by President Clinton. These measures \"got tough\" with legal immigrants by denying them all kinds of benefits—usually described as \"welfare.\" Also, a number of statutes were designed to bolster the border patrol and, as the phrase went, \"regain control of our borders.\" These measures had only transitory effects on stemming immigration, whether legal or illegal, but did, many authorities believe, discourage many persons illegally working in the United States from going back to Mexico, for fear of being unable to return.\nAt the same time, California voters overwhelmingly adopted the patently unconstitutional Proposition 187, which made illegal aliens ineligible for public social services including public school education, and required all state officials to report anyone suspected of being an illegal alien to the INS. Not surprisingly, the passage of Proposition 187—whose enforcement was immediately blocked by the courts—and a growing perception that much of the national legislation was unfair, produced some unintended consequences. Hispanic citizens mobilized to register and vote in increasing numbers, both the Republican Congress and the Democratic Clinton administration modified some of the anti-immigrant legislation and after California Democrats swept the 1998 elections the anti-immigrant consensus, which had seemed so strong just four years previously, disappeared. The 2000 presidential campaign saw both parties actively courting Hispanic voters. The early months of the administration of George W. Bush continued the positive attitude toward immigration that he had evinced as governor of Texas between 1995 and 2000—his White House Web site was available in Spanish—and a second, major amnesty program seemed all but inevitable. However, the terrorist destruction of New York City's World Trade Center on 11 September 2001 and the economic recession that had begun six months earlier put at least a temporary damper on such plans. Most students of American immigration expected that the same forces that had created the post–Great Depression boom in immigration—an expanding economy and an aging population—would, in the long run, create conditions in which large-scale immigration would continue.\nBerlin, Ira. Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998. An account of the varieties of the slave experience.\nBukowczyk, John J. And My Children Did Not Know Me. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987. A brief history of Polish immigration.\nButler, Jon. Becoming America: The Revolution before 1776. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000. A striking analysis of the acculturation process.\nCurtin, Philip D. The African Slave Trade: A Census. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969. A pioneering survey.\nDaniels, Roger. Coming to America: Immigration and Ethnicity in American Life. 2d ed. New York: Harper Collins, 2002. An analytic narrative text.\nDaniels, Roger, and Otis Graham. Debating American Immigration, 1882–Present. Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2001. Dual approaches to twentieth-century immigration.\nDiner, Hasia R. Erin's Daughters in America: Irish Immigrant Women in the Nineteenth Century. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975. A gendered analysis.\nDolan, Jay P. The Immigrant Church: New York's Irish and German Catholics, 1815–1865. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975. An analysis of the civic functions of the Roman Catholic Church.\nGarcia, Maria Cristina. Havana USA: Cuban Exiles and Cuban Americans in South Florida, 1959–1994. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. A discriminating account of the Cuban American community.\nGoodfriend, Joyce. Before the Melting Pot: Society and Culture in Colonial New York City, 1664–1730. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992. An analysis of the most polyglot American colony.\nHigham, John. Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860–1925. 2d ed. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1988. The classic account of American Nativism.\nKitano, Harry H. L., and Roger Daniels. Asian Americans: Emerging Minorities. 3d ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 2001. A survey of most Asian American ethnic groups.\nMiller, Kerby A. Emigrants and Exiles: Ireland and the Irish Exodus to North America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. The standard account.\nMorgan, Edmund S. The Puritan Dilemma: The Story of John Winthrop. Edited by Oscar Handlin. Boston: Little, Brown, 1958. An accessible biography of a seventeenth-century immigrant leader.\nReimers, David M. Still the Golden Door: The Third World Comes to America. 2d ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1992. The standard account of the structural change in American immigration in the post–World War II decades.\nSanchez, George J. Becoming Mexican American: Ethnicity, Culture, and Identity in Chicano Los Angeles, 1900–1945. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. The formative years of this community.\nWokeck, Marianne S. Trade in Strangers: The Beginnings of Mass Migration to North America. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999. An account of the transportation of German immigrants before the American Revolution.\nYung, Judy. Unbound Feet: A Social History of Chinese Women in San Francisco. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995. A gendered analysis.\nPreference Systems, 1952 and 1965 Immigration Acts\nImmigration and Nationality Act, 1952\n- Highly skilled immigrants whose services are urgently needed in the United States and the spouses and children of such immigrants: 50%.\n- Parents of U.S. citizens over age twenty-one and unmarried adult children of U.S. citizens: 30%.\n- Spouses and unmarried children of permanent resident aliens: 20%.\n- Brothers, sisters, and married children of U.S. citizens and accompanying spouses and children: 50% of numbers not required for 1 through 3.\n- Nonpreference: applicants not entitled to any of the above: 50% of the numbers not required for 1 through 3 plus any not required for 4.\nImmigration Act of 1965\nExempt from preference requirements and numerical caps: spouses, unmarried minor children, and parents of U.S. citizens.\n- Unmarried adult children of U.S. citizens: 20%.\n- Spouses and unmarried adult children of permanent resident aliens: 20%.\n- Members of the professions and scientists and artists of exceptional ability: 10% (requires certification from U.S. Department of Labor).\n- Married children of U.S. citizens: 10%.\n- Brothers and sisters of U.S. citizens over age twenty-one: 24%.\n- Skilled and unskilled workers in occupations for which labor is in short supply in the U.S.: 10% (requires certification from U.S. Department of Labor).\n- Refugees from communist or communist dominated countries or from the Middle East: 6%.\n- Nonpreference: applicants not entitled to any of the above. (Since there have been more preference applicants than can be accommodated, this category has never been used. Congress eventually adopted the so-called lottery provision to provide for such persons.)\n\"Immigration.\" Dictionary of American History. . Encyclopedia.com. (January 19, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/immigration\n\"Immigration.\" Dictionary of American History. . Retrieved January 19, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/immigration\nImmigration is the term used to describe the process of a person entering and settling as a permanent resident in another country; emigration is the process of leaving one's country of origin. When the term immigration is used, emigration is assumed to have occurred first. Emigrating is the beginning and immigrating is the end of the process of international migration. International migration is when people move voluntarily (immigrants) or involuntarily (refugees) from one country to another, settling permanently or temporarily (sojourners) in another country.\nThe process of international migration has a profound effect on families. Family, economic, and political situations all influence reasons for immigrating. A country's immigration policies determine who is admitted and its approach to integration of newcomers. The decision to emigrate is made by one or more family members, and may be viewed initially as a permanent or temporary move. The tendency is to look at the effect of the immigration process on those who settle in a new country, although the effect extends to those who remain in the home country. Families also play a role in immigrant adaptation.\nReasons for Immigration\nResearchers from diverse disciplines focus on slightly different but interrelated reasons for the decision to immigrate. Economists identify push and pull factors, both of which emphasize employment opportunities. For example, if the economy in the other country compared to the home country offers better chances for job advancement, wages, and employment, the individual is pushed to emigrate. In a pull situation, a country is actively recruiting new workers for specific jobs, and the opportunities are sufficient to entice the person to immigrate (Suarez-Orozco and Suarez-Orozco 2001). Countries of origin may encourage people to leave for economic reasons. If some family members emigrate but others remain behind, the family and the country both benefit from the financial support sent back to family members (Rumbaut 1997).\nSociologists describe a chain migration process in which migration begets additional migration. The first person emigrating from the area sends information to those in the home country about jobs, housing, and schools in the new setting. Others immigrate and are assisted by those who preceded them. Eventually, within a geographic area in the new country, there are a number of immigrants from the same area in the home country.\nAnthropologists focus on changes in the standard of living and cultural reasons for immigration. First-hand accounts from new immigrants as well as media accounts of the country's standard of living entice people to immigrate to the new country for a better way of life. Parents place their children's interests before their own; immigration is worthwhile because it betters the lives of their children even if the parents' situation is not as good as they anticipated (Suarez-Orozco and Suarez-Orozco 2001).\nPsychologists suggest that personality factors are important in the desire to emigrate. Those who want to emigrate are more work-oriented, consider the family less central, are lower on affiliation motivation, and have higher achievement and power motivation. These personality factors are most salient for those who are not family-sponsored immigrants (Boneva and Frieze 2001).\nPolitical scientists emphasize ethnopolitical reasons for emigration. Countries may encourage emigration to ease ethnic conflict, or to establish presence in another country, by resettling particular ethnic groups voluntarily or involuntarily. Whether one is allowed to emigrate may depend upon payment to or permission of authorities in the country of origin.\nImmigration policy encompasses criteria for qualifying as an immigrant, through an independent application or family reunification. Policies vary over time based on the types of workers that are needed, definitions of family used in family reunification, and assessment of the impact of such policies on the country's social, political, and economic systems.\nIn an independent application, the immigrant is applying based on the country's employment admission criteria. Family reunification occurs when an immigrant applies to bring family members into the country. Priority for admission is given to spouses and children. Close relatives such as siblings and parents are included during periods of more openness in immigration policy.\nIn describing nine industrialized democratic nations' approaches to immigration policy at the end of the twentieth century, Wayne Cornelius, Philip Martin, and James Hollifield (1994) classified the countries as follows: countries of immigration (United States and Canada), reluctant countries of immigration (France, Germany, Belgium, and Britain), and latecomers to immigration (Italy, Spain, and Japan).\nAustralia, like the United States and Canada, is a country of immigration. All three countries are proud of being nations of immigrants and lands of opportunity for newcomers. Until the mid-1960s and 1970s, immigration to these countries was primarily from Europe; after that, larger-scale immigration of visible minorities from Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean began. Western nations are experiencing increased ethnic diversity because of the general movement of people in the last half of the twentieth century from developing to industrialized nations (Zlotnic 2001).\nAt the start of the twenty-first century, some Western countries wanted to limit admittance under family reunification and to place more controls on immigration. Controls involve sanctions against employers and immigrants. The government fines employers who hire immigrants who are in the country illegally, and family-sponsored immigrants are limited in eligibility for public resources such as welfare.\nThere are three primary reasons for needing controls. First, Western countries do not have the ability to provide employment for more newcomers and permanent residents. Second, immigration from developing nations affects national culture, language, and identity of the country of immigration. Finally, more immigrants strain already over-burdened government-funded health, education, and welfare systems (Cornelius et al. 1994).\nCritics suggest that the need for controls is overstated, and that the controls are based on ethnocentrism, reflecting Western views of marriage, family, and way of life. Such controls potentially have an impact on arranged marriages, adoption, extended family, and homosexual relationships. Marriages may be viewed as a way to enter a country—a marriage of convenience rather than a legitimate marriage (Cohen 2001).\nControls have an impact on families adjusting to their new country. If controls restrict the reuniting of family members, families remain separated by national boundaries or they enter as illegal immigrants. If family members are admitted, families remain responsible for them financially. This places a burden on the family, and also reinforces dependence, keeping spouses in an untenable marriage (violence, abuse) and limiting opportunities (Cohen 2001). Controls are based on the idea that family reunification is a drain on public resources. Some research suggests that this is not the situation ( Jasso and Rosenzweig 1995).\nPathways to Immigration\nThe path taken to become an immigrant varies and affects subsequent adjustment and opportunities in the new country. Two common patterns are for the family to immigrate at the same time or for the primary wage earner to immigrate first and sponsor the rest of the family later. The primary wage earner is usually the most employable family member, either a man or woman, depending upon job opportunities and who meets the criteria for immigration. This wage earner is expected to support family members back home financially while also saving enough money to sponsor their immigration.\nCarola and Marcelo Suarez-Orozco (2001), in their study of children of immigrants in fifty schools in Boston and San Francisco, noted that only 35 percent of their sample immigrated at the same time as their parents. Typically, the child stays in the home country with one parent or other relatives, with the separation lasting months or years. The child remains behind because the home country is the best place to raise the child, or the immigrant parent's work hours limit ability to care for the child. When further schooling is not available in the country of origin, the child immigrates. Whether detrimental effects occur depend upon how the parties involved view the situation. If it is considered acceptable in the child's native culture, and if positive relationships exist with parents and temporary caregivers, the effects are less negative. Shorter periods of separation, knowledge of when the separation will end, and frequent communication through letters, gifts, phone calls, and visits, result in less negative outcomes. Once the child is reunited with parents, there are additional adjustments—loss of not being with caregiver and friends in the home country, adjusting to the new country, specifically to school, to parent(s), and to siblings born in the interim.\nFamily sponsorship rather than employment is the major route of recent immigration to the United States, but not to Canada and Australia. In the year 2000, 71 percent of U.S. immigrants were family sponsored compared with 31 percent of Canadian and 45 percent of Australian immigrants (Dovidio and Esses 2001). Under family sponsorship, marriage to a citizen is the major route of entry in the United States. There is a multiplier effect of family reunification on immigration among legal immigrants. Individuals sponsored by family become permanent residents and are able to sponsor additional family members. Many recent immigrants have kin already living in and knowledgeable about life in the new country, facilitating their adjustment (Rumbaut 1997).\nIllegal or undocumented immigration is another route. Legal immigration is critical for full access to public benefits and opportunities afforded to legal residents. Illegal or undocumented immigrants may also be deported, splitting up the family unit if it contains citizens born in the country as well as nondocumented members (Suarez-Orozco and Suarez-Orozco 2001). Experts suggest that limits on family sponsorship result in additional illegal immigrants because they do not see a chance to reunite otherwise (Donato, Durand, and Massey 1992).\nNot all immigration involves a permanent move to another country. There are three types of temporary immigration: (1) A target earner goes to another country for employment, returning to the home country when a targeted amount of earnings have been saved. One or both parents may be such earners, but the children remain with relatives in the home country. Months or even years later, the earner has achieved the goal and reunites with family in the home country. (2) Sojourners are temporarily in the country. They may be executives or employees of multinational corporations, or seasonal workers in agriculture or construction. Spouse or children may go with them or remain behind in the home country. (3) Binationals work and live in two countries, having the legal status (work permits, citizenship) to do so. This pattern is not common, possibly because it requires proximity or ease of travel between the two nations and considerable financial resources (Suarez-Orozco and Suarez-Orozco 2001).\nImmigration's Effect on Families\nFamily ties are maintained across national boundaries. Some family members may not want to immigrate, others may not be allowed to immigrate, and the immigrant may have insufficient finances to sponsor relatives. Immigrants show considerable ingenuity in providing food, clothing, medical items, and money to relatives with less access to such resources in the home country. Items are shipped directly, or more complex exchanges are done to ensure that items reach the intended relatives. For example, an immigrant family might give money to another family in the country of immigration; in turn, that family instructs their relatives in the home country to give an equivalent amount of money to the other immigrant's relatives in the home country (Gold 1992).\nImmigrants who reside in the new country begin to create a new family life, one that is influenced by both past cultural customs and the ways of the new country, but is also different from both (Foner 1997; Kibria 1997). Such families exemplify integration or bicultural adjustment rather than assimilation. Assimilation (a melting pot approach) means giving up one's home culture to adopt the ways of the dominant culture. Integrated or bicultural families are possible if there are sufficient numbers in the ethnic community, if immigration continues from the country of origin, and if the ethnic community has links with the country of origin (Kibria 1997).\nNancy Foner (1997) summarizes research on how the immigrant family's cultural background, social and economic circumstances in the new country, and the legal system, help create an integrated or bicultural family. Although traditions change over time in the country of origin, the immigrant may continue to think that such customs are timeless, and interpret the present based upon the remembered past. Such cultural understandings are critical in reinforcing traditional family values and behaviors. Social influences, such as the availability of close kin and a balanced sex ratio, also help maintain traditional family life. For example, the absence of appropriate close kin such as older relatives to care for the children and to do housework results in nontraditional patterns of husbands assisting wives in such activities. An imbalance of men to women affects who gets married and whether spouses are from another ethnic group or are sought from the home country (Foner 1997). Even when there are sufficient numbers of women, a man may seek a marital partner from the home country because he wants a traditional wife, not one who exemplifies Western values (DeLaet 1999).\nYoung immigrants compared to their parents, and women more than men, may incorporate Western values (less patriarchy and more egalitarian views) because they represent independence or freedom from some traditional roles (Foner 1997). Women are expected to raise their children to understand cultural traditions as well as to fit into the new setting. Although there are pressures to retain specific gender roles, women have multiple opportunities for changing roles, especially when they are separated from extended families and receive limited reinforcement of cultural roles from the ethnic community. Olivia Espin (1999) suggests that \"the degree of integration of the women of a given immigrant group in the host society—rather than the integration and/or success of men—indicates the significance of the transformation occurring in the immigrant community. It signals their adaptation to the new life\" (p. 4).\nThe legal system identifies certain cultural practices as illegal (e.g., polygamy) and makes it possible for other practices to be challenged or prosecuted (e. g., physical abuse of wife or child). Legitimate children and legal but not common-law spouses can be sponsored under family reunification. Government agencies interact with women, not only the men in the household, thus increasing the woman's potential influence in the family (Foner 1997).\nEconomic circumstances shape family life: men's earnings may be insufficient, and women's earnings become essential for the family. Women's employment brings some economic independence, potentially altering traditional patterns of authority in the family (Foner 1997). When women work outside the home, men are expected to share household responsibilities (Suarez-Orozco and Suarez-Orozco 2001). Postmigration, Vietnamese immigrants have shown additional sharing in household tasks even though considerable sharing had been done traditionally. The pattern of sharing shifted from performance of tasks by several members of the household to husband and wife sharing the tasks ( Johnson 1998). If the elderly do not have financial resources, their authority may be weakened. On the other hand, access to public support such as welfare may provide the elderly with independence from their grown children (Foner 1997). Because it is easier for children than their parents to learn the country's language, children become the interpreters and serve as the family's contact with the outside world, undermining parental authority and status (Suarez-Orozco and Suarez-Orozco 2001).\nAssistance of family members is often important for ensuring economic viability of new immigrants, especially for those who have limited financial resources. When extended family members are not available, substitute family networks are created. Newcomers form households of all unrelated individuals, or of related and unrelated individuals, who view each other as family. They also marry to create kinship ties that are helpful if difficult financial times occur; sponsor relatives, even distant and less known ones, to ensure that kin are available to help out in the future; and form kin networks in which in-laws are treated as substitutes for siblings or parents. Reciprocal help, inherent in the kin-based households, is expected in these variant households (Kibria 1993). Sharing resources, such as pooling income earned by all household members, reduces the chance of the household being in poverty (Caplan, Whitmore, and Choy 1989) and provides the opportunity to own a home or other possessions more quickly (Gold 1993).\nFamily or ethnic businesses may be viewed as an optimal solution for new immigrants who have difficulty obtaining employment in nonethnic labor markets that require language fluency and other skills (Gold 1992). Ethnic businesses serve several functions: economic support for the family, employment of others in one's ethnic group or family, and autonomy that is not readily available with low- or minimum-wage employment. Other advantages of ethnic businesses are provision of in-kind wages such as food, clothing, or a chance to bring children to the work setting instead of hiring a caretaker (Gold 1992). In her study of Chinese restaurants in Britain, Miri Song (1999) noted that older children play an integral role in the business when parents need translation assistance and unpaid labor for the survival of the business. The children consider helping out in the family business as expected and done out of good will rather than for wages. In return, parents provide material and emotional support, exemplifying the importance of intergenerational exchanges.\nReading first-hand accounts enhances understanding the daily lives of immigrants as they adapt to life in the new country. Thomas Dublin (1993) provided a sampling of such stories and an extensive bibliography covering U.S. immigration from 1773–1986. He noted the similarities across the ethnically diverse waves of immigrants: similar motivations (economic and war dislocations) for immigrating and similar processes of becoming part of the new country. Common experiences included cultural differences that separate them from the existing population, resulting in discrimination, exclusion, and the formation of ethnic communities for mutual economic and social support. Cultural conflicts between generations and within one's beliefs were evident when immigrants were caught between the values of two cultures. The successes of immigrants—working hard and succeeding financially and academically, and contributing to their new country—were portrayed.\nIn Immigration and the Family, edited by Alan Booth, Ann Crouter, and Nancy Landale, a strong case was made for expanding the role of families in future immigration research and policy. As stated by Rubén Rumbaut, \"the family is perhaps the strategic research site . . . for understanding the dynamics of immigration flows (legal and illegal) and of immigrant adaptation processes.\" (1997, p. 4; emphasis in original).\nboneva, b. s., and frieze, i. h. (2001). \"toward a concept of a migrant personality.\" journal of social issues 57:477–491.\nbooth, a.; crouter, a. c.; and landale, n., eds. (1997).immigration and the family: research and policy on u.s. immigrants. mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates.\ncaplan, n.; whitmore, j. k.; and choy, m. h. (1989). theboat people and achievement in america. ann arbor: the university of michigan press.\ncohen, s. (2001). immigration controls, the family, and the welfare state. london: jessica kingsley publishers.\ncornelius, w.; martin, p. l.; and hollifield, j. f., eds.(1994). controlling immigration: a global perspective. stanford, ca: stanford university press.\ndelaet, d. l. (1999). \"introduction: the invisibility ofwomen in scholarship on international migration.\" in gender and immigration, ed. g. a. kelson and d. l. delaet. london: macmillan.\ndonato, k. m.; durand, j.; and massey, d. s. (1992).\"stemming the tide? assessing the deterrent effects of the immigration reform and control act.\" demography 29:139–157.\ndovidio j. f., and esses, v. m. (2001). \"immigrants andimmigration: advancing the psychological perspective.\" journal of social issues 57:375–387.\ndublin, t., ed. (1993). immigrant voices: new lives inamerica 1773–1986. urbana: university of illinois press.\nespin, o. m. (1999). women crossing boundaries: a psychology of immigration and transformations of sexuality. new york: routledge.\nfoner, n. (1997). \"the immigrant family: cultural legacies and cultural changes.\" international migration review 31:961–974.\ngold, s. j. (1992). refugee communities: a comparativefield study. newbury park, ca: sage.\ngold, s. j. (1993). \"migration and family adjustment: continuity and change among vietnamese in the united states.\" in family ethnicity: strength in diversity, h. p. mcadoo. newbury park, ca: sage.\njasso, g., and rosenzweig, m. r. (1995). \"do immigrantsscreened for skills do better than family reunification immigrants?\" international migration review 29:85–111.\njohnson, p. j. (1998). \"performance of household tasks by vietnamese and laotian refugees.\" journal of family issues 19:245–273.\nkibria, n. (1993). family tightrope: the changing lives ofvietnamese americans. princeton, nj: princeton university press.\nkibria, n. (1997). \"the concept of 'bicultural families' and its implications for research on immigrant and ethnic families.\" in immigration and the family. research and policy on u.s. immigrants, ed. a. booth, a. c. crouter, and n. landale. mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates.\nrumbaut, r. (1997). \"ties that bind: immigration and immigrant families in the united states.\" in immigration and the family: research and policy on u.s. immigrants, ed. a. booth, a. c. crouter, and n. landale. mahwah, nj: lawrence erlbaum associates.\nsong, m. (1999). helping out: children's labor in ethnicbusinesses. philadelphia, pa: temple university press.\nsuarez-orozco, c., and suarez-orozco, m. m. (2001).children of immigration. cambridge, ma: harvard university press.\nzlotnik, h. (2001). \"past trends in international migration and their implications for future prospects.\" in international migration into the 21st century, ed. m. a. b. siddique. northampton, ma: edward elgar.\nphyllis j. johnson\n\"Immigration.\" International Encyclopedia of Marriage and Family. . Encyclopedia.com. (January 19, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/reference/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/immigration\n\"Immigration.\" International Encyclopedia of Marriage and Family. . Retrieved January 19, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/reference/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/immigration\nImmigration is a major historical, yet current influence and integral part of how nations continue to grow and change in population and diversity. M. Fix and J. S. Passel (1994) list the principal goals of U.S. immigration policy as: social, economic, cultural, moral, and national and economic security (includes protection from infectious and animal-borne diseases, environmental hazards, food safety, terrorists, and various criminal acts). Canadian and European policies encompass similar goals, but with greater emphasis on the economic impact of immigration. In 1999 over 16 million legal immigrants in Western Europe earned more than $460 billion. However, despite the projection indicating that European countries face a dramatic population decline over the next 50 years, many European countries want to restrict immigration on the basis of economic reasons, including the fear of exacerbating the already significant problem of unemployment. Immigration policies are the responsibility of national governments, while the policies regarding how countries deal with immigrants are shared by the various levels of government—national, state, and local.\nAt the federal level in the United States, for example, several agencies play key roles in developing and implementing national immigration and immigrant policies. The principal immigration agencies are: the United States Department of Justice Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), which is responsible for enforcing the laws regulating the admission of foreign-born persons(i.e., aliens) to the United States and for administering various immigration benefits, including naturalization and resettlement of refugees; and the Department of Treasury U.S. Customs Service, which is the primary enforcement agency protecting the nation's borders. Other federal agencies deal more directly with the public health dimension of immigration and immigrants. Although many countries have organizations dealing with immigrants and immigration issues, there are international agencies that act as important brokers regarding migration among countries. The International Organization for Migration (IOM) is an intergovernmental body that is committed to the principle that humane and orderly migration benefits migrants and society. Since 1951, the IOM has acted with member countries (currently 79) to assist in meeting operational challenges of migration, to advance understanding of migration issues, to encourage social and economic development through migration, and to uphold human dignity and well being of migrants.\nThe United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is another international agency which, since 1951, has played a significant role in responding to the world's growing refugee predicament. As one of the world's principal humanitarian organizations, the UNHCR provides international protection to refugees and seeks durable solutions to their plight. For the year 2000, there were about 22.5 million refugees and other persons of concern to the UNHCR.\nHISTORY AND DEMOGRAPHICS\nImmigration policies have directly influenced the demographic composition of the immigrating populations over the lives of the nations. The first immigration office in the United States and Canadian federal governments were created in the nineteenth century by laws intended mainly to encourage immigration. Later, the U.S. Immigration Act of 1891 provided for deportation of aliens living unlawfully in the country. About this same time, in 1882, the U.S. Congress asserted the first broad federal regulatory power regarding immigration by passing the Chinese Exclusion Act, which suspended immigration of Chinese laborers for ten years. In Canada, although there was no law passed to exclude any particular group of immigrants, careful procedures were developed to ensure most applications submitted by black people were rejected. From the late nineteenth century to the year 2000, most North American, European, and Australian immigration policies have shifted from a focus on qualities of individuals(e.g., excluding illiterates, criminals, those with illnesses) to a focus on countries of origin with a more inclusionary focus using preference categories, to a sharpened humanitarian approach in admitting those in need (such as refugees) through permanent and systematic assessments. In European countries, various approaches for integrating immigrants are at work. Germany has developed special institutions and programs for foreigners, while France tends to stress general rather than foreigners-only programs. The European Union recognizes that immigrants are needed for demographic and economic reasons.\nCensus data indicate that the percent of foreign-born persons in the total U.S. population has waxed and waned from a high of 14.8 percent in 1910 to a low of 4.7 percent in 1970. In July 1999, the foreign-born resident population estimates totalled about 25.8 million, or about 9.5 percent of the total U.S. population. Likewise, Canada's peak year for immigration (1913) saw the arrival of about 400,000 people. Its 1996 census showed a continued growth in immigration with 17.4 percent of Canadian residents being first-generation immigrants. From 1990 to 1999, the United States foreign-born population increased. Hispanics increased from 8 to 11 million persons, and the Asian and Pacific Islander groups increased from4.5 to 6.3 million. More than 60 percent of the Asian and Pacific Islander populations in the United States and about 35 percent of Hispanics are foreign-born.\nThese statistics reveal how changes in immigration policies, especially within the past fifty years, have influenced the makeup of the foreignborn populations in the United States. For France, there have been several immigration priority shifts over the years. Initially priority was given to members of France's colonies, subsequently, to Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese, and, more recently, to North African guest workers. A shift of immigration priorities also occurred in Canada when, after its 1976 Immigration Act was passed, immigrants from Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, and Latin America were welcomed.\nThe late nineteenth century and the early twentieth century provided a different country-of-origin profile for immigration to the United States. Since 1820, Germany has been the greatest source of immigrants to the United States, with Mexico ranking second, Italy third, and the United Kingdom and Ireland a close fourth and fifth, respectively. Changes were evident in 1996 when the country-of-origin profile for immigration showed that of the top ten nations, four were Asian nations, three Latin American nations, two from the former Soviet Union, and one from the Caribbean. The United States Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 provided an amnesty for undocumented persons living in the United States under certain conditions, which resulted in about2.8 million persons attaining legal status—the majority of whom were Hispanic. The 1996 count used by the INS for \"illegal alien populations\" or undocumented persons is about 5 million, with about 2.7 million estimated to be from Mexico. Other countries in Europe indicate that 300,000 to 1,000,000 \"unauthorized immigrants\" reside within their borders.\nImmigrant populations in the United States from the Asian and European countries have more years of education than immigrants from Latin American countries. Further 1999 estimates of the average age of foreign-born racial and ethnic groups range from seven to eleven years older than the U.S. total population estimates for the respective groups. The occupations of immigrants depend on their education and their proficiency in speaking English. It was estimated that in 1990 about 40 percent of immigrants were either operators/laborers/fabricators or service workers. Immigrants contribute to the U.S. economy not only in terms of labor force participation rates but also in terms of taxes paid and earnings spent for goods and service on their local economies. On the other hand, in 1997, the unemployment rates for immigrants were much higher in France than for French nationals. The French nationals' rate was 12 percent compared with 31 percent for immigrants from non-European Union countries and 50 percent among North Africans.\nGeographic distribution of the foreign-born within the United States from the 1990 census indicates that most live in the West and are from Mexico. Immigrants settle and reside mainly in metropolitan areas such as New York City, Los Angeles, and Miami; this is also consistent with the living patterns of Hispanic and Asian populations in the United States. Projections of the immigrant populations by the Census Bureau at the low, middle, and highest series indicate that the largest growth will be in the Asian and Pacific Islander populations over the next fifty years. Using the 1990 base for population projections, the Census estimates that by the year 2045, foreign-born populations will grow to about 13.5 percent of the total population, compared to 9.5 percent in 1999. The distribution of immigrant ethnic groups in Canada shows people from the British Isles as the majority throughout Canada with the exception of Quebec where the French dominate. The West and prairie provinces include about 15 percent German and significant numbers (9 to 11 percent) of Ukrainians.\nIMPLICATIONS FOR PUBLIC HEALTH\nAlthough immigration policies are complex, much of the work of responsible public health professionals and organizations is to consider how best to serve the immigrant populations who arrive. As noted above, there are several public health agencies in the United States responsible for the health of the entering populations. Other nations and international organizations also help with caring for the education, social, and health needs of immigrants. For refugees, in particular, the resettlement process in the United States includes the federal agency working with local providers to ensure health services are provided. Other than refugees and asylees, immigrants must ensure that they do not become a \"public charge,\" that is, dependent on the government for subsistence. Based on determinations of INS in consultation with the Department of Health and Human Services, United States federal health services programs can be provided to immigrants without being considered \"public charges.\" There are other restrictions to public benefits that are part of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA), which restricts access by some legal immigrants to certain programs and denies access by undocumented/unauthorized immigrants to many government funded programs. Federal and state programs affected under this law include Medicaid, the Children's Health Insurance Program, Temporary Assistance for Needy Families, Supplemental Security Income, and food stamps.\nFor public health purposes, the state's restriction of certain public benefit programs must not inhibit the public health system in serving immigrant populations with interventions and services that target at-risk populations. Knowing the populations within the community is a fundamental requirement in public health. Assessments of immigrant populations must take into account the country of origin and its socio-political context, language use and level of language proficiency, age and educational profile, cultural nuances including specific gender practices and protocols, time in the country and familial ties, particular health practices and beliefs that may be common to the population, social and religious beliefs and practices, and the economic conditions of employment. Such assessments then include not only a quantitative epidemiological approach, but also a qualitative ethnographic inquiry as complementary data.\nPolicies developed for public health systems are critical in addressing the particular characteristics and needs of immigrant populations. Being consistent in serving the populations establishes a trusting environment for newly arrived and foreign-born populations who may have emigrated from countries where governments were not trustworthy. In keeping with the United States Healthy People 2010 report's second goal of eliminating health disparities, policies will also need to be flexible and allow for interpretation in the field.\nProviding the proper interventions and services through culturally competent systems becomes a major challenge for the public health community, not just the public health government agencies. Generally, immigrants are not familiar with the variety of places (both private and public) from which services and promotion of healthy practices are derived. Getting to know the different sources of services is much more complex than immigrant populations may have experienced in the past. (Moreover, it is not unlikely that in some countries the systems are such that even the native-born populations are still unfamiliar with how their public health systems work.) Such coordination requires collaborative trust among providers and their respective organizations, and will help to build more confidence in the use of the system by the immigrant populations.\nAs a final point for the public health community in refining experiences with immigrant populations, there is the need to keep up with what potential public health issues are occurring globally, nationally, statewide, and, of course, locally. Experience has shown that refugees and other immigrants can quickly be placed in a community due to some type of international disturbance. Keeping informed of immigrant populations as part of the community allows for better decisions on what health improvements may be needed, and what actions should be taken when more immigrants arrive.\nJ. Henry Montes\n(see also: Acculturation; Cross-Cultural Communication, Competence; Ethnicity and Health )\nApplied History Research Group. \"The Peopling of Canada: 1891–1921.\" World Wide Web document1997. Available at http://www.ucalgary.ca/HIST/tutor/canada1891/.\nCitizenship and Immigration Canada (2000). \"Forging Our Legacy: Canadian Citizenship and Immigration, 1900–1997.\" http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/about/legacy/.\nDustman, C., and Ian, P. (2000). \"Racial and Economic Factors in Attitudes to Immigration.\" Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). http://www.iza.org.\nEntorf, H. (2000). \"Rational Migration Policy Should Tolerate Non-Zero Illegal Migration Flows: Lessons from Modelling the Market for Illegal Immigration.\" Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). http://www. iza.org.\nFix, M., and Passel, J. S. (1994). Immigration and Immigrants: Setting the Record Straight. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.\nGerman Marshall Fund of the United States (2000). \"Migration Dialogue: Report of Seminar on Immigration and Integration; Focus on Lyons, France, May 6–8, 1999.\" http://migration.ucdavis.edu/ols/lyon.html.\nHeckmann, F. (1998). \"Managing Migration in the 21st Century.\" http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mm21/Heckmann2.html.\nInternational Organization for Migration. Official web site: http://www.iom.int./ion/Mandate_and_Structure.\nMartin, P. (1998). \"Managing Migration in the 21st Century.\" http://migration.ucdavis.edu/cmpr/Oct1998_ciip.html.\nMigration News (2000). http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/nov_2000–08.html.\n—— Canada. http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/nov_ 2000–05.html.\nSimon, J. L. (1989). The Economic Consequences of Immigration. London: Basil Blackwell, Ltd.\nSowell, T. (1996). Migrations and Cultures: A World View. New York: Basic Books.\nTurnoch, B. J. (1997). Public Health: What It Is and How It Works. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers.\nUnited Nations Economic and Social Council (1997). \"Report of the Secretary-General.\" http://srchO.un.org/plweb-cgi/Fastweb?state_id=974906104&view=unsd1&docrank=3&number.\nUnited Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Official web site information, 2001: http://www. unhcr.ch/.\nUniversity of Calgary (2001). \"The Peopling of Canada: 1861–1921.\" http://www.uccalgary.ca/HIST/tutor/canada1891/.\nU.S. Census Bureau. \"Annual Projections of the Total Resident Population as of July 1: Middle, Lowest, Highest, and Zero International Migration Series, 1999 to 2100.\" World Wide Web document, 2000. http://www.census.gov./population/projections/nation/summary/np-ti.txt.\n—— \"Foreign Born Resident Population Estimates of the United States by Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin: April 1, 1990 to July 1, 1999.\" World Wide Web document, 2000. http://www.census.gov/population/estimates/nation/nativity/ftab003.txt.\n—— \"Projections of the Resident Population by Race, Hispanic Origin, and Nativity: Middle Series, 2000 to 2005.\" World Wide Web document, 2000: http://www.census.gov/population/projections/nation/summary/np-t5.txt.\n—— \"Projections of the Resident Population by Race, Hispanic Origin, and Nativity: Middle Series, 2025 to 2045.\" World Wide Web document, 2000: http://www.census.gov/population/projections/nation/summary/np-t5.txt.\n—— \"Resident Population of the United States by Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin.\" World Wide Web document, 2000. http://www.census.gov/population/estimates/nation/intfiles3-l.txt.\nU.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service (1999). \"Fact Sheet on Public Charge.\" World Wide Web document: http://www.ins.usdoj.gov/graphics/publicaffairs/factsheets/public_cfs.htm.\n—— (2000). \"Statistics: State of Residence Tables.\" http://www.ins.usdoj.gov/graphics/aboutins/statistics/310.htm.\n—— (2000). \"Statistics: Country of Origin Tables.\" http://www.ins.usdoj.gov/graphics/aboutins/statistics/299.htm.\nWipf, J., and Wipf, P. (2000). \"Immigration Issues; Immigration Europe: Crisis or Denial?\" http://www.immigration.about.com/newsissues/library/weekly/aaD71700a/htm.\n\"Immigrants, Immigration.\" Encyclopedia of Public Health. . Encyclopedia.com. (January 19, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/education/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/immigrants-immigration\n\"Immigrants, Immigration.\" Encyclopedia of Public Health. . Retrieved January 19, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/education/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/immigrants-immigration\nImmigration had an important influence on the American population during the last third of the twentieth century comparable to peaks in the earliest decades of the century. In 1997, for example, nearly 800,000 persons immigrated legally to the United States. In that year, the mean age of native-born American adults eighteen and over was virtually identical to that of long-term immigrants (45.1 and 45.0 years, respectively), while recent immigrants averaged 33.5 years of age. Since people usually immigrate when they are young, immigration offsets the effects of population aging, but only in the short run. Because immigrants also grow older, 10.8 million new immigrants would be required annually to maintain year-2000 support ratios (the ratio of persons age fifteen to sixty-four to those sixty-five and older) until 2050. Since recent immigrants are largely from Asia and the Western hemisphere, the older population will grow more diverse in its ethnic and racial composition as young immigrants age.\nTypes of older immigrants\nPersons age sixty-five and older made up only 3 percent of immigrants who entered the United States between 1990 and 2000, as compared to 14 percent of immigrants who arrived before this period and 12 percent of the native-born population. Older people are less likely to move, if only because they have stronger ties to their place of residence. Despite this propensity to age in place, 41,780 immigrants age sixty-five and older were admitted to the United States as permanent residents in 1996. The majority of older immigrants in 1996 (57 percent) were women. While most of the older men were married (84 percent), the women were more evenly divided between the married (45 percent) and the widowed (40 percent).\nThe percentage of immigrants age sixty-five and older has climbed steadily—from 2 percent in the early 1960s to 4 to 5 percent in the late 1990s. Because overall immigration increased markedly, this period also saw an eight-fold increase in the number of elderly immigrants. Most older immigrants settled in states that already had large immigrant populations (e.g., California, New York, Texas, Florida, Hawaii).\nIn addition to immigrants admitted as permanent residents, many older people who entered the country earlier adjust their visas to permanent resident status. In 1996, adjustments included 6,230 refugees and asylees, age sixty-five and older who had sought protection from persecution in their countries of nationality. Furthermore, many older adults are among the tourists and visitors admitted to the United States on a temporary visa each year. Of the 1.4 million elderly nonimmigrant visitors in 1996, nearly half came from the United Kingdom, Japan, Germany, or Mexico.\nOlder people who immigrate permanently do so largely for family reasons, particularly to be close to children living in the United States. There are no numerical limits placed on immigrants who are immediate relatives of U.S. citizens, provided they are twenty-one years of age or older. In 1996, 87 percent of newly admitted immigrants, age sixty-five and older entered the country as parents of U.S. citizens. Another 11 percent of older immigrants entered under some other family reunification provision of U.S. immigration law (e.g., as spouses of U.S. citizens or permanent residents). Apparently, illegal immigration is unusual for those admitted as parents. Fewer than 2 percent of parents who immigrated to the United States in 1996 had been illegal immigrants at some point, as indicated by self-reports or visa documents, but almost 20 percent of all permanent immigrants had such irregularities.\nOrigins of older immigrants\nThe major countries that are departure points for older immigrants include China, Russia, Cuba, the Philippines, Mexico, India, Vietnam, and Iran. When the Immigration and Nationality Act Amendments of 1965 ended the system of national origin quotas, which favored European immigrants, there was a marked increase in Asian immigration. According to Immigration and Naturalization Service data, in 1991 over half of the permanent legal immigrants age sixty-five and older entered the United States from Asia. China and the Philippines each contributed over 10 percent of the older immigrants in 1991. Asia was the birthplace of nearly two-thirds of older people immigrating as parents of U.S. citizens. To become eligible to sponsor a parent's immigration, immigrant children must become naturalized citizens. Asians have high naturalization rates. In contrast, Mexican immigrants have relatively low naturalization rates, so the large Mexican immigrant population has proportionately fewer elderly immigrants than it might otherwise have.\nFew Europeans, except for those from formerly socialist countries such as Russia, immigrate to the United States today. In contrast, Europeans dominated immigration in the first two-thirds of the twentieth century. These immigrants became naturalized citizens, raised their families in the United States, and assimilated economically. Today, in advanced old age, their social and economic circumstances look very much like that of their native-born American counterparts, particularly in terms of their receipt of Social Security and Supplemental Security Income (SSI).\nAlthough they are generally younger than seniors from the earlier European immigration waves, recent older immigrants are not as well-off economically. In the sixty-five-and-older population, in 1990, those who immigrated during the 1980s were twice as likely to live in poverty as were all older Americans. By and large, recent elderly immigrants lack the human capital— education, English fluency, U.S.-based work experience, and good health—that would make them employable in the skills-based U.S. economy. In 1991, immigrating parents of U.S. citizens had completed only 7.4 years of schooling, on average, versus 12.7 years for all immigrants age 25 and older. Not surprisingly, less than 1 percent of permanent immigrants age fifty-five and older was admitted on an employment preference visa in 1996. Of those age sixty-five and older, almost nine out of ten immigrants are not in the labor force, a figure comparable to that for native-born seniors.\nLacking U.S. employment experience, older immigrants are not likely to qualify for Social Security, except perhaps as dependents of U.S. workers. According to the 1998 and 1999 Current Population Surveys, only 31 percent of persons age sixty-five and older who immigrated after 1990 received Social Security, compared to 78 percent of older long-term immigrants and 91 percent of native-born seniors. Since Social Security is a mainstay of retirement income, it is not surprising that older immigrants rely more heavily on public assistance—the surveys found that among recent immigrants, 24 percent received means-tested Supplemental Security Income (SSI), compared to 13 percent of their long-term counterparts and only 3 percent of native-born seniors.\nIn response to the growing numbers of aliens collecting SSI, Congress tightened eligibility requirements with the 1996 welfare reform legislation. Assuming they meet strict income and asset limits, legal aliens who are blind, disabled, or sixty-five years of age and older are eligible for SSI only if they are recent refugees or have worked forty quarters under Social Security-covered employment. SSI rules create an incentive for legal aliens to become citizens, but the requirements, particularly the knowledge of English, discourage older immigrants from naturalizing. In 1990, 41 percent of older people who had immigrated during the 1980s spoke no English. Whether the new SSI provisions will actually discourage elderly immigration remains to be seen.\nBecause of their limited economic resources, people who immigrate in old age usually depend on their children for support. Beginning in December 1997, new immigration rules reinforced family support obligations. Not only must the household income of those sponsoring a family member's immigration be at least 125 percent of the poverty line, but also the required affidavit of support is now a legally enforceable contract. Shared housing is one way for kin to support elderly immigrants. In contrast to the intimacy at a distance that characterizes native-born seniors, elderly immigrants are apt to live with offspring rather than independently. Coresidence may benefit the younger generation as much as, or more than, the older generation, because the older immigrant often assumes responsibility for childcare and housekeeping in a child's home.\nSome parents are, in fact, invited to immigrate by their grown children so that they can help out around the house. Cultural expectations for family togetherness and kin eldercare may also dictate that aging parents and grown children live in close proximity. Immigrant families are more likely than native-born Americans to rely on family care of the dependent aged, as opposed to formal means of support. Hispanic and Asian immigrants age sixty and older are even more likely than older, non-Hispanic white immigrants to reside with other family members. This relation is independent of economic resources, English-language fluency, and disability.\nAlthough older immigrants maintain close family ties, their adjustment to life in the United States can be slow, and is sometimes painful. Older people who are recent immigrants are at particular risk of depression. Age-related cognitive and physical limitations (e.g., mobility restrictions) can impede assimilation and acculturation. Structural aspects of the life course also contribute to elderly isolation. Unlike younger people, older immigrants are not exposed to the English language or to American customs in the school and workplace. Ethnic communities, where older immigrants can interact with other elderly people from their native land, can offer a comfortable accommodation for those who immigrate late in life. A growing number of older immigrants require specialized social service programs to address their particular needs in a culturally appropriate manner.\nJudith Treas Michael Tyler\nSee also Aging in Place; Intergenerational Exchanges.\nBlack, S. A.; Markides, K. S.; and Miller, T. Q. \"Correlates of Depressive Symptomatology among Older Community-Dwelling Mexican-Americans: The Hispanic EPESE.\" Journals of Gerontology 53 (1998): S198.\nGold, S. J. Refugee Communities: A Comparative Field Study. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage, 1992.\nJasso, G.; Massey, D. S.; Rosenberg, M. R.; and Smith, J. P. \"The New Immigrant Pilot (NIS-P): Overview and New Findings about U.S. Legal Immigrants at Admission.\" Demography 37 (2000): 127–138.\nKritz, M. M.; Gurak, D. T.; and Chen, L. W. \"Elderly Immigrants: Their Composition and Living Arrangements.\" Sociology and Social Welfare 27 (2000): 85–114.\nMin, P. G. Changes and Conflicts: Korean Families in New York. Boston, Mass.: Allyn Bacon, 1998.\nMoon, A.; Lubben, J. E.; and Villa, V. \"Awareness and Utilization of Community Long-Term Care Services by Elderly Korean and Non-Hispanic White Americans.\" The Gerontologist 38 (1998): 309–316.\nTreas, J. \"Older Americans in the 1990s and Beyond.\" Population Bulletin 50 (1995): 1–45.\nTreas, J. \"Older Immigrants and U.S. Welfare Reform.\" International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 17 (1997): 8–33.\nTreas, J., and Torrecilha, R. \"The Older Population.\" In State of the Union: America in the 1980s, Vol. 1. Edited by Reynolds Farley. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1995. Pages 47–91.\nU.N. Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Replacement Migration: Is It a Solution to Declining and Ageing Populations? New York: United Nations, 2000.\nU.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service. Statistical Yearbook of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1996. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997.\nVan Hook, J. \"SSI Eligibility and Participation among Elderly Naturalized Citizens and Noncitizens.\" Social Science Research 29 (2000): 51–67.\nWilmoth, J. \"Living Arrangements Among Older Immigrants in the United States.\" The Gerontologist 41 (2000): 228–238.\n\"Immigrants.\" Encyclopedia of Aging. . Encyclopedia.com. (January 19, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/education/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/immigrants\n\"Immigrants.\" Encyclopedia of Aging. . Retrieved January 19, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/education/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/immigrants\nImmigration studies have yet to reach a consensus on which kinds of human movements constitute immigration. This entry uses the term in its broadest sense, referring to people’s temporary or permanent movements and geographic relocation or displacement across political boundaries.\nThroughout history, immigration has been an important social force shaped by the world as well as shaping it. In Global Transformations (1998), David Held et al. delineate three phases of migration: premodern, modern, and contemporary migration. In the premodern societies, mass migration was instrumental to the formation of states, particularly in Asia but also in other parts of the world. Modern migration started from the fifteenth century and occurred in three major immigrant flows: (1) European settlers, or the first mass migrants, primarily sponsored by the states, to North America; (2) chattel slaves from Africa to North America, the largest forced migration in human history; and (3) indentured Asian laborers, or the coolie system, which replaced chattel slavery in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Contemporary migration is said to have started after World War II (1939–1945). In the contemporary era, major migration flows were not only to North America but also to Europe, Australasia, and the Middle East. Among the immigrant populations of the contemporary era were increasing numbers of refugees as a result of wars, localized poverty, and political persecution.\nMany scholars, including Joaquin Arango (2004) and Stephen Castles and Mark J. Miller (2003), also note that immigration since the 1970s has taken on distinct features. First, nation-states have exercised more control over immigration, drawing an increasingly more pronounced line between desired and undesired immigrants. On the one hand, there is state-engineered competition for skilled labor, particularly among traditional destination countries such as Australia, Canada, and the United States. On the other hand, border controls, mainly directed at immigrants deemed illegal, have been intensified. Despite the increased border control, however, human trafficking has become more salient. The second character of the latest immigration movements is the increasing number of actors shaping immigration flows. Attempts to manage international immigration have been coming from different levels of society, ranging from transnational immigrant communities to the United Nations. The third feature of the current migration trends is the changing demography of immigrants. Asians, Africans, and Latin Americans have gradually replaced the Europeans as the major immigrant population. In addition, the gendered composition of immigrants has changed. Women now account for around 50 percent of the total immigrant population. As well, more women than before move as independent immigrants. Whereas this change remains merely a statistical fact to many scholars, it has compelled others to try to bring women back into the history of immigration, which has largely been written in a gender-neutral or genderless tradition. A good example is the book Women, Gender, and Labour Migration: Historical and Global Perspectives (2001), edited by Pamela Sharpe, which offers perspectives on immigration that take gender into account.\nThe complex social phenomenon of human movements has spurred much theorizing about the causes and consequences of immigration. The three major theoretical approaches informing immigrant studies are the economic equilibrium approach, the historical-structural approach, and the migration system theory.\nThe economic equilibrium approach, also known as the push-and-pull theory, is the dominant perspective in the literature of immigrant studies, according to Castles and Miller. The major tenet of this approach is that immigration is the summation of human agency and an outcome of people’s rational cost-and-benefit calculations. Factors pushing immigrants to leave typically include poverty and political repression; factors pulling immigrants away from their origins are often better economic opportunities and political freedom. George Borjas (1989) presents a modern version of the equilibrium approach. He proposes a conception of an immigrant market wherein immigrants, instead of commodities, are exchanged. According to Borjas, individual people are “utility maximizers” responsive to the call of an immigrant market. That is, immigration is regarded as a mechanism through which an optimum distribution of land, labor, capital, and natural resources can be achieved and the social-economic equilibrium of different places can be established.\nWhereas the equilibrium approach takes individuals’ decisions as its units of analysis, the historical-structural approach locates the reasons and results of immigration in the macroeconomic and political structures of the world. As Castles and Miller point out, this approach is informed by Marxist political economy and the world system theory. It posits that contemporary immigration is a social process that mobilizes cheap labor for capital and thereby helps to sustain the capitalist mode of production in the era of globalization. From the perspective of the world system theory, immigration is considered a new link between developed and developing nations, which were previously connected through colonial occupation or other forms of domination. As the new link, immigration perpetuates the asymmetrical power relationship between the two.\nThe migration system theory is an attempt to capture all factors affecting the movements of people. A migration system is constituted by two or more countries involved in people’s movements. This theory directs researchers’ attention to the micro, macro, and meso aspects of migration, as well as historical conditions contributing to migration. Similar to the historical-structural approach, it suggests that prior links between immigrant sending and receiving countries, such as colonial domination, military occupation, trade, and investment, all help to lead to people’s migration movements between these countries. At the macro level, international relations, interstate relations, and immigration and other state policies are important incentives or disincentives to migration. At the meso level, the migration system theory is interested in the roles of individuals, groups, or institutions that mediate people’s movements. At the micro level, the theory addresses informal networks such as family and community connections that facilitate immigration. In recent years, the new links between transnational communities, in particular, have given rise to a new area of study on transnationalism, according to Castles and Miller.\nWhile insightful, each of the approaches proposed has significant limitations. A major critique of the equilibrium approach comes from Charles Wood (1982). Wood points out that, first of all, immigration movement has not brought about the anticipated social-economic equilibrium. Rather, recent decades have witnessed increased disparities in regional development. Second, the ahistorical nature of the approach is problematic. The notion of a free market, on which the whole approach is based, is not the empirical truth in all societies at all historical moments. Finally, with a sole focus on micro-level decision making, this approach misses the large social conditions conducive to the movements of people.\nIn contrast, the historical-structural approach is mainly criticized for failing to explain how the immigration decision comes about for individual actors, as discussed by Wood and also by Castles and Miller. As well, the consequences of immigration as proposed in the historical-structural approach are uni-dimensional and deterministic. Movements of people may not necessarily lead to deprivation in one country and capitalization in the other. Immigrants may bring multiple effects on both the sending and receiving countries. The central problem with this approach is that it reduces people to labor caught up in the capitalization process on a global scale, rather than treating them as human beings with diverse needs and interests.\nEpistemologically, the above two approaches are distinct from each other; whereas the former is functionalist in nature, seeing immigration as a means to social harmony, the latter construes immigration as a force adding to social inequalities and conflicts. Despite the differences, there is no doubt that both approaches illuminate some facets of immigration while disregarding others. For instance, neither of them has addressed the facilities and material conditions that contribute to or contain the movements of people. The migration system theory is advantageous to the others in that it focuses on all key dimensions of immigration. However, despite its promise for a holistic understanding of immigration, the migration system theory does not offer a means of interpretation.\nIn addition to the problems associated with each approach, there are significant issues related to how the phenomenon of immigration is approached in general. First of all, immigration is often considered an aberration that needs to be corrected or a problem that needs to be addressed. The fact that immigration is an integral part of human history has not been registered in the conceptual underpinning of studies on immigration. Second, studies tend to focus on why people move instead of why few people move or why the majority of human populations are not free to move, according to Arango. Posing the alternative questions makes it necessary to critically consider the roles that nation-states play in controlling or restraining people’s movements, which have yet to be deeply interrogated. Third, immigration studies mainly center on labor migration. Refugees and the so-called illegal and undesired immigrants remain at the margin of immigrant research. Finally, while immigration studies have started to address the issue of gender, insufficient attention has been paid to how the increasing presence of immigrant women engenders political, economic, and cultural changes in both sending and receiving countries.\nSEE ALSO Immigrants to North America; Immigrants, Asian; Immigrants, Black; Immigrants, European; Immigrants, Latin American; Immigrants, New York City; Migration; Refugees; Settlement; Transnationalism\nArango, Joaquin. 2004. Theories of International Migration. In International Migration in the New Millennium: Global Movement and Settlement, ed. Danièle Joly, 15–35. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing.\nBorjas, George. 1989. Economic Theory and International Migration. International Migration Review 23 (3): 457–478.\nCastles, Stephen, and Mark J. Miller. 2003. The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World. 3rd ed. New York: Guilford Press.\nHeld, David, Anthony G. McGrew, David Goldblatt, and Jonathan Perraton. 1998. Global Transformations: Politics, Economics and Culture. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.\nSharpe, Pamela, ed. 2001. Women, Gender, and Labour Migration: Historical and Global Perspectives. New York: Routledge.\nWood, Charles. 1982. Equilibrium and Historical-Structural Perspectives on Migration. International Migration Review 16 (2): 298–319.\n\"Immigration.\" International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. . Encyclopedia.com. (January 19, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/applied-and-social-sciences-magazines/immigration\n\"Immigration.\" International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. . Retrieved January 19, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/applied-and-social-sciences-magazines/immigration\nNewcomers. Two related developments brought a new sense of urgency to the work of reformers during the years between 1840 and 1860. First, a trend in the migration of Americans from rural areas to the cities of the Northeast (a product of industrialization) was already well under way by midcentury, leading to increased public concern over the growing concentrations of poor people in urban areas. These concerns were compounded after the mid 1840s, however, by the influx of hundreds of thousands of new immigrants into cities such as Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago. Of the two main sources of immigration during this period, Ireland and Germany, the Irish made up the vast majority of newcomers. Successive failures of the potato crop in Ireland had reduced its population by half between 1845 and 1855: up to two million died of hunger and another two million immigrated, many of them to the port cities of North America. The most striking feature of this wave of immigration was the sheer poverty of its participants: “no other contemporaneous migration,” historian Oscar Handlin wrote in Boston’s Immigrants (1959), “partook so fully of. . . poverty-stricken helplessness.” According to one contemporary observer, many of the new immigrants had “left Ireland with barely the passage money” and “landed . . . without a single penny.” Under the impact of this new influx, the population of Boston grew by a third between 1840 and 1850, and the result was increased strain on public and private institutions and panic on the part of descendants of the Puritans that their society would be overwhelmed by an “alien” culture.\nA New Challenge. In every major northern city, the sudden influx of immigrants forced an additional burden upon common-school reformers: the success of their project would be judged not only by its ability to defuse the tensions arising out of industrialization, but by its effectiveness in sustaining America’s cultural identity in\nthe face of massive immigration. The problem of visible, urban poverty and social conflict, one historian has pointed out, “took on a much more troubling character as it came to be associated with religious and cultural differences.” Against a backdrop of increasingly strident anti-immigrant prejudice, Horace Mann and others endeavored, from the late 1840s onward, to point out the utility of common schools as vehicles for assimilating the immigrant and welding a national identity out of the increasingly diverse populace.\nSecular Education. Mann had anticipated one of the potential flashpoints for conflict that would arise after 1850—sectarian conflict over religious instruction in the classroom—and, in the process, had established an important precedent by winning support for “religiously neutral” schooling well in advance of the peak in immigration. In his Twelfth Annual Report (1848) Mann pointed out that more than half of all children enrolled in Boston’s primary schools were from immigrant families. The vast majority of these were Irish and Catholic, Mann noted, reinforcing his view that the schools must observe a careful neutrality in religious matters. Otherwise, he argued, these youngsters would be lost to public education and the job of assimilating them made much more difficult, if not altogether impossible. His policy faced hostility from two sources: evangelical Protestants feared that the advent of secularism in the schools would lead to moral and social collapse. Spokesmen for the Catholic Church objected that the formal purge of Protestantism from the schools was not sufficient: in their eyes the schools remained bastions of anti-Catholicism, and, as an example, they pointed out the standard use of the Protestant King James Version of the Bible in the classroom. While large numbers of Irish immigrant children\nattended public schools in Boston, New York, and Philadelphia throughout this period, their religious leaders operated Sunday schools to compensate for the lack of Catholic instruction and were busy constructing an autonomous system of parochial, or religious, schools.\nAccommodation. Determined to bring immigrant children into the public schools, educational reformers displayed a flexible sensitivity toward Catholic fears of religious domination. In the industrial mill city of Lowell, Massachusetts, for example, educators had reached an agreement with church leaders whereby the town funded two Catholic schools. “The public School Committee would examine and hire teachers, and the books used would be those prescribed for other schools, but the teachers would be Catholic and the books would contain no facts not accepted by the church and no remarks reflecting upon Catholicism.” This system was in effect until 1852 but collapsed under the weight of growing anti-immigrant sentiment. Still, Mann’s associate John Green wrote from Lowell that the experiment had been a success: “the Irish may be found in every school in the city in considerable numbers....” By 1856 Catholic schools had been discontinued in nearby Lawrence, and public officials there noted that 2,279 of their students had been received into the public schools.\nCompulsory Attendance. The effectiveness of the public schools as vehicles for assimilation was greatly hampered, reformers believed, by the high absentee rates among immigrant children. It was during this period, therefore, that the first compulsory-school-attendance laws began to be passed by state and local legislatures. Prior to the 1850s, lawmakers shied away from any measure that might be viewed as interfering with individual parents’ prerogatives with respect to child rearing. But any remaining qualms were overwhelmed by the flood of immigration at midcentury and the sense of an impending social crisis. Barnas Sears, secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Education, expressed his concern in 1851 that “The non-attendance of a part of those children for whose benefit the Public Schools are especially intended, particularly the children of foreigners in our large cities and manufacturing towns, is assuming a fearful importance; and it will not be safe long to delay such measures as may be necessary to avert the impending danger.” A year later Sears secured a partial solution to the attendance problem: the state passed the first compulsory-attendance laws in the nation, and a corps of truant officers was dispatched through the major cities to keep school-age children off the streets.\nBilingual Education. While the religious question constituted an important obstacle in efforts to assimilate the Irish, another difficult problem arose in relation to immigrants from Germany and elsewhere: how to overcome the language barrier. In Boston no special language provisions had to be made for immigrant children during this period, but elsewhere—in New York, Chicago, and San Francisco—\nreformers launched the first efforts at bilingual education in what they considered a necessary concession to bring the children of immigrants into the public schools. Before San Francisco schools began offering classes in French and German, the superintendent there recalled in 1877, “hundreds of children of foreign parents were attending private schools in order that they might receive instruction in the language of their Tatherland.’ Now they are found under the care of American teachers, and are being molded in the true form of American citizenship.” In Chicago school officials began holding classes in German in an effort to draw students away from the “private schools . . . to be found in every nook and corner of the city,” hoping thereby that “the children of all nationalities” would be “assembled in the public schools, and thereby be radically Americanized.” By the end of this period, eight states in the Union permitted some form of bilingual education, establishing an important precedent for the next wave of immigration toward the end of the century.\nCharles Leslie Glenn Jr., The Myth of the Common School (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1988);\nOscar Handlin, Boston’s Immigrants: A Study in Acculturation (New York: Atheneum, 1959);\nDavid K. Schultz, The Culture Factory: Boston Public Schools, 1789–1860 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973).\n\"Immigration.\" American Eras. . Encyclopedia.com. (January 19, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/immigration\n\"Immigration.\" American Eras. . Retrieved January 19, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/immigration\nImmigration is the influx of people to a country or region which is different from their country of birth. In the United States, immigration has been a basic part of life at least since the settlement of Jamestown in 1607 and remains part of American life today. One of the truisms of U.S. history, then, would seem to be that all Americans are immigrants or the descendants of immigrants.\nWhile the early white settlers of America were largely English, there were significant numbers from other areas including Ireland, Scotland, and Wales in the British Isles, various German states, French Huguenots, as well as Dutch and Swedes who were absorbed when their settlements became English colonies. With the exception of the Huguenots who settled in Massachusetts and South Carolina, most of the non-English settlers were in New York, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. Immigration can be voluntary or involuntary. Africans, too, represented a significant portion of the immigrant colonial population, especially in Virginia and South Carolina. However, immigration was not a clear concept in the colonial period when all of the colonies were being settled. In fact, prior to 1820, no statistics were kept on immigration and regulation was largely left to the states. In that year the Department of State began to keep statistics. Thus, in the sense that immigration is an observed and recorded phenomenon, it can be said to have begun in the United States around 1820.\nEmigration (the outflow of people from the country of origin) was characterized by two factors—push and pull. Push is shorthand for the various reasons people might want or need to leave their home country; the pull consists of the attractions that the United States offered. Famine, religious persecution, failed revolutions, and war have been strong factors \"pushing\" emigrants toward the United States. Low-cost land in the late nineteenth century, religious and political freedom, and economic opportunity have been the major \"pull\" factors which helped immigrants (people of foreign heritage newly-landed in the United States) achieve the promise of success in their new country.\nU.S. immigration can be divided into several distinct phases based on the origins of those entering the country. Immigrants from the British Isles, including Ireland, and Germany heavily dominated the \"old\" phase of immigration, prior to the 1890s. The \"new\" immigration phase, from the 1890s to 1920, saw large numbers of immigrants from southern and eastern Europe. From 1920 to 1965 there were nationality quota limitations on the number of emigrants from a particular country entering the United States each year. The post-1965 period continued limitations on the numbers entering the country each year, but abandoned nationality quotas.\nBetween 1830 and 1880 some 9 million people entered the United States. Most were from western and northern Europe. Irish and Germans were the two most identifiable groups, although equally large numbers came from Great Britain and smaller but steadily increasing numbers from Scandinavia. Repeated failure of the potato crop in Ireland beginning in the mid-1840s and the failure of the 1848 revolutions in Europe were events that led to dramatic increases in migration.\nMany immigrants entered the United States through Castle Garden, New York City's immigration depot. In 1864 Congress established the Bureau of Immigration, but it was primarily concerned with collecting statistics. In 1882 the first comprehensive, national immigration law was passed, but primary responsibility still lay with the states. In 1891 Congress established immigration as a federal responsibility and established formal procedures and standards for admission to the U.S. Since most immigrants were entering the country through the port of New York a processing center was established at Ellis Island in 1892.\nBetween 1880 and the outbreak of World War I (1914–1918) 25 million people entered the United States. Beginning in the late 1880s increasing numbers of immigrants derived from eastern and southern Europe. They were Italians, Poles, Russian and other eastern European Jews. These \"new\" immigrants supplemented rather than replaced emigration from northern and western Europe, which continued as before. The new immigrants were overwhelmingly non-Protestant and few spoke English. The new immigrants triggered concerns about the future character of the United States and how such different groups could be assimilated. There was also concern about Asian immigrants that led to the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and the Gentlemen's Agreement between the United States and Japan in 1907. These concerns first led to demands for a literacy test for immigrants that was enacted over President Woodrow Wilson's (1913–1921) veto in 1917 and the establishment of quotas for various nationality groups based on the 1890 census, first enacted on a temporary basis in 1920.\nThe quota system was made permanent in 1924 and governed entry into the United States for forty years. Some countries rarely filled their quotas while others, in central eastern and southern Europe, often had long waiting lists. Latin American, Caribbean, African and Asian countries had minuscule quotas. The quota represented a significant reduction in the number of people allowed into the country. Between 1925 and 1929 the total quota was 164,667 people per year, a striking contrast to the 1.2 million immigrants in 1914, the last year before World War I. Some exceptions were made to the quotas for refugees from World War II through the Displaced Persons Act of 1948 and the McCarren-Walter Act (1952), but total immigration remained well below pre-quota levels.\nIn 1965 the Immigration and Nationality Act ended the national origin quota system and established new criteria for admission to the United States based on the need for certain skills in the workforce, refugee status, and the reunification of families. The changing nature of immigration is clear from the comparison between the origins of immigrants since 1820 and the origins of those arriving between 1981 and 1996. Seven out of the top ten nationalities represented in the emigration from 1820 to 1981 were European—Germany, Italy, the United Kingdom, Ireland, the former Soviet Union, Austria, and Hungary. The others are Mexico, Canada, and the Philippines. In contrast, no European nation appears in the list of most common nation of origin from 1981 to 1996. This group is dominated by Mexico, with nearly a quarter of all emigrants, along with Asian and Caribbean nations.\nSee also: Tenements\nBodnar, John. The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1985.\nHandlin, Oscar. The Uprooted. Boston, MS: Little, Brown and Company, 1951.\nHansen, Marcus Lee. The Atlantic Migration, 1607– 1860: A History of the Continuing Settlement of the United States. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1940.\nMarzio, Peter C. ed. A Nation of Nations. New York; Harper and Row, 1976.\nReimers, David. Still the Golden Door: The Third World Comes to America. New York: Columbia University Press, 1985.\nThernstrom, Stephan, ed. Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980.\n\"Immigration (Issue).\" Gale Encyclopedia of U.S. Economic History. . Encyclopedia.com. (January 19, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/immigration-issue\n\"Immigration (Issue).\" Gale Encyclopedia of U.S. Economic History. . Retrieved January 19, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/immigration-issue\nIrish Catholics . Most Irish immigrants who came to the United States in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries were Scots-Irish Protestants, many of whom possessed education, skills, and some capital. As the population soared in southern and western Ireland and small holdings became increasingly subdivided, by the 1830s more Irish Catholics immigrated to the United States. Although these young men and women who traveled across the Atlantic may have hoped to become landowning farmers, most of them found work as day laborers and domestic servants. As a result of the great potato famine of the late 1840s 1.5 million people left Ireland for the United States; most were destitute farmers, cottiers, and laborers, and about half of them arrived in family groups including children. Famine immigrants were mostly Catholic, and one-fourth to one-third were Gaelic-speaking; unaccustomed to an urban industrial society, they struggled to survive in Northeastern cities. About 85 percent of them were unskilled, and as a result, men found work mostly as laborers, driving carts, working in construction, or traveling to western areas to build railroads and dig canals. Women and children found work in small shops or joined the labor force in Eastern textile mills. In the 1840s Catholic priests began to protest the Protestant message taught in American public schools and nativist issues infused local politics. As the clergy struggled to church the famine immigrants in the context of inflamed nativism in the 1850s, Irish Americans began to create distinct ethnic communities and separate Catholic institutions. Much of this communitybuilding was done by women as nuns provided social services and founded parochial schools for girls. Parish schools for girls preceded those for boys and more girls attended them while boys attended public schools.\nCatholic Schools in the West . By mid century Catholics began to create new schools in the West. Existing educational institutions, such as the eighteenth-century French Ursuline Convent in New Orleans and schools conducted by the Sisters of Charity in St. Louis, were joined by parochial and industrial schools taught by such groups as the Sisters of Notre Dame or the Sisters of Mercy. Arriving in the United States from Ireland in 1843, the Sisters of Mercy migrated from Eastern cities to Chicago, St. Louis, San Francisco, and Sacramento in the 1850s, where they provided community hospitals, social services, and protection for destitute women. The Sisters of Notre Dame conducted a boarding school for girls in San Jose, California, by 1851. Girls, who were taught reading, writing, and fine needlework by nuns, internalized a Catholic domesticity, which they, in turn, as mothers, transmitted to their children. Yet many Irish girls also learned middle-class values through their employment as domestic servants. Although Irish American community leaders considered service in Protestant homes a threat to Catholic religious life, these immigrant girls learned middle-class attitudes and behaviors that, in turn, also influenced their communities and eventually their children.\nGerman Immigrants. As immigration rose to unprecedented levels in the 1840s and 1850s, 1.5 million Germans also entered the United States. Propelled in the 1830s by population growth and deterioration in crafts in home kingdoms, duchies, and provinces and by potato blight and the failed political revolution of 1848, German craftsmen, small proprietors, and laborers arrived alone or with their families. Although these immigrants settled in Northeastern cities from New York to Baltimore, many also traveled railroad lines, canals, and rivers to the Midwest, forming a “German-belt” that would eventually extend from Ohio to Nebraska and Missouri to Wisconsin. Most Germans brought with them a strong patriarchal tradition, yet many also espoused the liberal and democratic values of political movements fighting autocracy in Europe. Craftsmen and small-property owners who founded German organizations such as the Turnvereine expressed ideals of progressive democracy that were radical in mid-nineteenth-century America. Although German Catholics and both conservative and evangelical Lutherans favored parochial education, many of these immigrants were staunch supporters of American secular public schools. German Americans often advocated bilingual education, and they pressed for instruction in the German language. Legislatures passed laws permitting the teaching of German in public schools in Pennsylvania and Ohio before 1840, and in some remote areas in the West, such as rural Missouri, local school boards initiated German instruction in common schools without legal authorization.\nA German Immigrant’s Experience\nIn the American West, German immigrant families had varied options for the education of their children. Some families designated at least one child to become proficient in English. A tenant farmer named Wilhelm Stille emigrated from Lengerich in Westphalia with some of his siblings in 1833 and settled on an eighty-acre farm in Ohio. His sister Wilhelmina and her husband Wilhelm Krumme bought eighty additional acres across the Ohio River. Ten years later Stille had lost through death his firstborn child, his nineteen-year-old brother Rudolph, and his sister, Wilhelmina who left a three-year-old son, Johann. Wilhelm Krumme boarded his son with strangers and wrote to his in-laws in Wesphalia to send his wife’s inheritance. When Johann was seven, his father reported: “[H]e now goes to the English school every day which costs 8 talers a year; he can already read pretty well, and I hope he’ll take a shine to learning so he won’t have to do any heavy work.” Three years later he wrote of his ten-year-old son: “[H]e goes to school every day and he’s a good pupil, that is in the English language since he can handle books fairly well but he doesn’t know much German.” Stille’s sons would remain poor farmers, but Johann Krumme, assisted by money from his German relatives and his proficiency in English, assimilated into the American middle class. At the age of nineteen he clerked in a tobacco shop in Cincinnati; after marrying a native-born girl he advanced at the tobacco company to foreman and then to agent-salesman.\nSource: “Letters from Wilhelm Stille and Wilhelm Krumme to relatives in Westphalia,” in News from the Land of Freedom: German Immigrants Write Home, edited by Walter D. Kemphoefner, Wolfgang Helbich, and Ulrike Sommer; translated by Susan Carter Vogel (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1991).\nHasia R. Diner, Erin’s Daughters in America: Irish Immigrant Women in the Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983);\nBruce Levine, The Spirit of 1848: German Immigrants, Labor Conflict, and the Coming of the Civil War (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992);\n\"Immigrants.\" American Eras. . Encyclopedia.com. (January 19, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/immigrants\n\"Immigrants.\" American Eras. . Retrieved January 19, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/immigrants\nCeltic peoples came to the British Isles from the European mainland centuries before the Roman invasion of the 1st cent. ad. Celtic languages, Erse, Gaelic, Manx, and Welsh, continue to be spoken in Ireland, Scotland, Isle of Man, and Wales. In Cornwall, the Celtic language was spoken until the 18th cent. and even now is preserved in Celtic literature. Within the areas where these languages were spoken there were often separate legal traditions, particularly concerning landownership.\nIn those areas of the British Isles which formed part of the Roman empire immigrants settled alongside the indigenous people. After the Roman empire collapsed in the 5th cent., Angles, Saxons, and Jutes from continental Europe moved into most of what had been the Roman provinces. They were followed between the 9th and 11th cents. by Scandinavian immigrants, many of whom settled in the Danelaw, those parts which became Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, and Nottinghamshire as well as further north, particularly Yorkshire.\nThe Norman Conquest of 1066 brought settlers from various parts of northern continental Europe. Many continued to use the French language and maintained cultural and dynastic ties with their former homelands. Initially their prestige and military power set them apart. However, by the 14th cent. they had mingled with the indigenous population to such an extent that Anglo-Saxon and French had blended to form the English language and, in various arts, including architecture, distinctive English styles had emerged.\nSome groups of immigrants remained identifiable. For example the Jews, who arrived in Britain after the Normans, kept their religious and ethnic differences, but were dependent on royal protection to keep them from persecution. In addition Jews were forbidden to hold land and undertake a variety of trades and often they made their living by money-lending, an activity nominally forbidden for Christians. In 1297 Edward I expelled the Jews, after he had exploited their financial resources. Although it is not known whether all Jews left the country, there are records of Jews active as doctors in England during the reign of Elizabeth I. However, they did not receive religious toleration until the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell in the mid-17th cent. After that time there were further immigrations as a result of persecutions, particularly in the Russian empire during the 19th cent., and the Nazi regime in Germany during the 1930s. Other minorities have also settled in the British Isles. gypsies first came to Britain in the 15th cent., and in the 16th and 17th cents. numbers of protestant Christians came to England fleeing from persecution by Roman catholics in Europe. Amongst these the largest identifiable group was the Huguenots, who left France because of the hostility of Louis XIV. They brought with them economically important craft skills relating to silk textiles and created for themselves positions of wealth and prestige in their adopted country. Starting in the 17th and continuing into the 18th cent. black slaves were brought to Britain. Their number is unknown and their history has only recently attracted any attention.\nTo a considerable extent immigration during the later 19th and 20th cents. was characterized by the recruitment of workers with skills which were in demand. For example, a shortage of clerical labour in London gave rise to the recruitment of German clerks, as well as well-educated Germans who could develop applications of science and technology in industrial chemicals. Similarly in the 20th cent. after the Second World War labour shortages at all levels prompted the recruitment of workers from the Commonwealth and former empire, such as the West Indies, the Indian subcontinent, and western Africa. These workers were recruited to vacancies in a range of occupations in the health service, in public transport, in local government, as well as in textiles and heavy engineering.\nSince the 1960s the right of immigrants to settle in Britain has been subject to ever stricter political control focused on the definition of citizenship. The period after the Second World War was also marked by the immigration of refugees and others from communist-dominated societies in eastern and central Europe. See also asylum.\nIan John Ernest Keil\n\"immigration.\" The Oxford Companion to British History. . Encyclopedia.com. (January 19, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/immigration\n\"immigration.\" The Oxford Companion to British History. . Retrieved January 19, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/immigration\nimmigration, entrance of a person (an alien) into a new country for the purpose of establishing permanent residence. Motives for immigration, like those for migration generally, are often economic, although religious or political factors may be very important. High rates of immigration are frequently accompanied by militant, and sometimes violent, calls for immigration restriction or deportation by nationalist groups. See also naturalization.\nImmigration in the United States\nFrom 1820 to 1930, the United States received about 60% of the world's immigrants. Population expansion in developed areas of the world, improved methods of transportation, and U.S. desire to populate available space were all factors in this phenomenon. Through the 19th cent., the United States was in the midst of agricultural, then industrial, expansion. The desire for cheap, unskilled labor and the profits to be made importing immigrants fueled the movement. Immigrants were largely responsible for the rapid development of the country, and their high birthrates did much to swell the U.S. population. Often, however, immigrants formed distinct ethnic neighborhoods, tending to remain somewhat isolated from the wider culture. Frequently exploited, some immigrants were accused by organized labor of lowering wages and living standards, though other groups of immigrants rapidly became mainstays of the labor movement. Opposition was early manifested by such organizations as the Know-Nothing movement and in violent anti-Chinese riots on the West Coast.\nRestrictions placed on immigration were often based on race or nationality. There were also restrictions against the entrance of diseased persons, paupers, and other undesirables, and laws were passed for the deportation of aliens. The first permanent quota law was passed in 1924; it also provided for a national origins plan to be put into effect in 1929. In 1952, the Immigration and Nationality Act (the McCarran-Walter Act) was passed; while abolishing race as an overall barrier to immigration, it kept particular forms of national bias. The act was amended in 1965, abolishing the national origins quota. Despite overall limits, immigration to the United States has burgeoned since 1965, and the 1980s saw the highest level of new immigrants since the first decade of the 20th cent.\nIn 1986, Congress passed legislation that sought to limit the numbers of undocumented or illegal aliens living in America, imposing stiff fines on employers who hired them and giving legal status to a number of aliens who had already lived in the United States for some time. The Immigration Act of 1990 raised the total quota for immigrants and reorganized the preference system for entrance. The 1996 Illegal Immigration and Reform Responsibility Act led to massive deportations of illegal immigrants. Its provisions were later softened under political and legal attack, but a stricter approach to immigrants in general was adopted by the government following the Sept. 11, 2001, terror attacks.\nA number of states have also enacted legislation designed to combat illegal immigration. The state laws appear not to have led to any significant convictions, but in some cases they have increased tensions with the local Hispanic minority and led to a migration of Hispanics, whether illegal immigrants or not, from the state. A 2012 Supreme Court decision concerning Arizona's law largely reserved to the federal government the right to enact and enforce immigration law while permitting state law enforcement officers to review a person's immigration status.\nImmigration in Other Countries\nCanada, in the first third of the 20th cent., began to receive an increasing number of immigrants, attracted by the expansion of agriculture in the west and the development of industry in the east. Australia and New Zealand received many European immigrants in the 19th cent.; the former country has been characterized by a preference for immigrants of British stock and by a policy of excluding Africans and Asians that dated from the late 19th cent. After 1965, however, this policy began to change; by the 1970s Australia had abandoned the system of racial preferences, and Asian immigration rapidly increased. Two major trends in immigration emerged after World War II: Australia and New Zealand became the countries with the highest rates of increase, and large numbers of Europeans immigrated to Africa. In recent decades, immigration to Europe from Asia and Africa has also substantially increased, as has emigration from Eastern Europe to the newly reunified Germany.\nSee studies by M. R. Davie (1983), I. Glazier and L. DeRosa (1986), V. N. Sinha (1987), D. R. Steiner (1987), and A. Richmond (1988).\n\"immigration.\" The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.. . Encyclopedia.com. (January 19, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/reference/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/immigration-0\n\"immigration.\" The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.. . Retrieved January 19, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/reference/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/immigration-0\n\"immigration.\" A Dictionary of Ecology. . Encyclopedia.com. (January 19, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/science/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/immigration\n\"immigration.\" A Dictionary of Ecology. . Retrieved January 19, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/science/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/immigration\n\"immigration.\" A Dictionary of Plant Sciences. . Encyclopedia.com. (January 19, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/science/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/immigration-0\n\"immigration.\" A Dictionary of Plant Sciences. . Retrieved January 19, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/science/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/immigration-0\n\"immigration.\" A Dictionary of Zoology. . Encyclopedia.com. (January 19, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/science/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/immigration-1\n\"immigration.\" A Dictionary of Zoology. . Retrieved January 19, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/science/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/immigration-1\nim·mi·grant / ˈimigrənt/ • n. a person who comes to live permanently in a foreign country. ∎ Biol. an animal or plant living or growing in a region to which it has migrated.\n\"immigrant.\" The Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English. . Encyclopedia.com. (January 19, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/immigrant-0\n\"immigrant.\" The Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English. . Retrieved January 19, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/immigrant-0\nThe entrance into a country of foreigners for purposes of permanent residence. The correlative term emigration denotes the act of such persons in leaving their former country.\n\"Immigration.\" West's Encyclopedia of American Law. . Encyclopedia.com. (January 19, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/law/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/immigration\n\"Immigration.\" West's Encyclopedia of American Law. . Retrieved January 19, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/law/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/immigration\n\"immigration.\" A Dictionary of Sociology. . Encyclopedia.com. (January 19, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/immigration\n\"immigration.\" A Dictionary of Sociology. . Retrieved January 19, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/immigration\n\"immigrant.\" Oxford Dictionary of Rhymes. . Encyclopedia.com. (January 19, 2017). http://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/immigrant\n\"immigrant.\" Oxford Dictionary of Rhymes. . Retrieved January 19, 2017 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/immigrant"

"This elegant brochure has no date, but I suspect it was from 1929, when the Empire Builder began operating, or 1930, before the effects of the Depression were fully felt. The interior devotes six pages to the train’s observation-lounge car, two pages to sleeping accommodations, four pages to the diner, and two pages to the train’s route by Glacier Park and through the Cascades. In short, unlike Depression-era brochures, this one stresses luxury over economy.\nThe cream-colored pages inside the black cover are about 4-1/2″x7″. The cover overlaps the interior by about an eighth of an inch on the top, bottom, and outside. The cover page is double-thickness; that is, it is about 14-1/2″ tall, folded in half, and the interior pages are stapled into the inner part. This way, the staples don’t appear on the outer part of the cover, which gives it an extra-sumptuous feel. (To be honest, though, the paper feels about the same as what my kindergarten teacher called “construction paper,” in other words, cheap paper suitable for children.)\nThe highly stylized locomotive on the cover shows two pilot wheels, four drivers, and one trailing wheel–then cuts off without revealing whether there is a second trailing wheel. In other words, this could be a 4-8-2 Mountain locomotive or a 4-8-4 Northern, both of which were used to haul the pre-war Empire Builder over portions of its route. The art deco style of this image could mean that the brochure is from the later 1930s, when several railroads streamlined a few of their steam locomotives. But art deco precedes the 1930s, so the streamlined appearance (which was not replicated in any real Great Northern steam locomotive) could just be a coincidental bit of foresight on the part of GN graphics artists."

"Compartment pressure is measured to assist in diagnosing compartment syndrome. Measurement of compartment pressure is a hospital-based procedure that requires considerable technical skill; an orthopedic or general surgeon is typically consulted.\nCompartment pressures can be measured in the 3 compartments of the forearm (volar, dorsal, and mobile wad).\nThe Stryker® system, a commercially available instrument, is used here. Know what equipment is available at your particular institution.\n(See also Compartment Syndrome.)\n- Suspected compartment syndrome\nCompartment syndrome is suggested by worsening pain of the involved compartment that is disproportionate to the apparent severity of the injury and exacerbated by passive stretching of compartment muscles. On palpation, the compartment may be swollen and tense.\n- Infection of skin or deeper tissues at the anticipated site of needle insertion: If possible, use an alternate, uninfected site.\n- Bleeding diathesis, which may need to be corrected before compartment pressure measurement\n- Erroneously high or low pressure measurements that may be due to poorly placed or obstructed needles, faulty or inaccurately calibrated devices, patient agitation, or excess test saline injected into the compartment. These measurement errors can lead to incorrect treatment.\n- Infection, bleeding, or tissue damage resulting from needle insertion may occur.\n- Sterile gowns, gloves, and drapes\n- Sterile gauze\n- The Stryker® system, containing a needle, tubing, and transducer\n- Mild antiseptic cleanser (eg, 2% chlorhexidine)\n- Local anesthetic (eg, 1 or 2% lidocaine)\n- 25- to 27-gauge needle\n- About a 3- to 5-mL syringe for local anesthetic injection\n- Sterile dressings\n- If procedural sedation is needed, appropriate drugs (eg, propofol, ketamine) and pulse oximetry or capnometry\n- Sterile technique is required to prevent microbial contamination of the compartment tissues.\n- Maintain a low threshold for measuring compartment pressure in at-risk patients because deep compartments may not have palpable tenseness or swelling, pain is nonspecific, and, in obtunded patients, symptoms and signs can be absent or nonspecific.\n- Diagnosis must be made and treatment started before pallor or pulselessness develops.\nThe forearm has 3 compartments:\n- Volar compartment: Includes the flexor carpi ulnaris, flexor pollicis longus, flexor digitorum profundus, flexor digitorum superficialis, palmaris longus, and flexor carpi radialis muscles and also the ulnar, superficial radial, and median nerves and the radial, ulnar, and anterior interosseus arteries\n- Dorsal compartment: Includes the extensor pollicis longus, abductor pollicis longus, extensor digitorum, extensor digiti minimi, and the extensor carpi ulnaris muscles and also the posterior interosseus nerve and posterior interosseus artery\n- Mobile wad compartment: Includes the brachioradialis, the extensor carpi radialis brevis, and the extensor carpi radialis longus muscles\nThe volar compartment is most commonly affected by compartment syndrome.\n- Position the patient with the affected arm at heart level and so that the needle can enter the skin at an angle perpendicular to the compartment being measured.\nStep-by-Step Description of Procedure\nPrepare the equipment\n- Open the Stryker® system and remove the contents onto a sterile field.\n- Place the needle firmly onto the tapered stem of the diaphragm chamber. Remove the cap on the pre-filled syringe and attach it to the stem on the opposite side.\n- Open the cover of the monitor and place the chamber into the pressure monitor with the black surface down. Carefully push it until it is seated in place. Snap the cover of the monitor closed.\n- Hold the needle at a 45° angle upward and depress the plunger to purge the system of air. Do not allow saline to trickle down the needle into the transducer well.\n- Turn on the monitor and check for a numeric reading to appear in the display window.\n- Calibrate the device: Hold the device at the intended angle of insertion. Press the \"zero\" button and ensure that, after a few seconds, the display reads “00.” The display must read “00” before continuing. For each additional measurement, the unit must be recalibrated to “00.”\nGeneral steps for all compartments\n- Do a pre-procedure neurovascular examination of the affected forearm.\n- Prepare the skin overlying the area with an antiseptic cleanser such as chlorhexidine. Drape the area.\n- Using a 25- to 27-gauge needle, place a wheal of local anesthetic over the needle entry site. Avoid injecting anesthetic into the deeper tissues of the muscle and fascia. Doing so may falsely elevate the compartment pressure measurement.\n- Hold the assembled and calibrated pressure monitor perpendicular to the compartment being measured and insert the needle as gently as possible through the skin to a depth appropriate for the target compartment.\n- Slowly inject 0.3 mL of saline into the compartment.\n- Wait for the display window to show equilibrium has been reached and record the resultant pressure.\n- For each additional measurement, recalibrate the unit to \"00\" and repeat the process.\n- A measured pressure of more than about 30 mm Hg or within about 30 mm Hg of diastolic blood pressure supports the diagnosis of compartment syndrome and indicates consideration for immediate fasciotomy.\n- Compartment syndrome is possible even if compartment pressure is not elevated; if suspected based on clinical findings, the diagnosis should be presumed and compartment pressures should be measured serially.\nSpecific steps for the volar compartment\n- Position the patient supine with the forearm supinated.\n- Identify the palmaris longus tendon and its proximal course.\n- Insert the needle just medial to the palmaris longus at the junction of the proximal and middle thirds of the forearm.\n- Advance the needle perpendicularly and direct it toward the posterior border of the ulna to a depth of 1 to 2 cm.\n- Confirm proper needle placement by observing a rise in pressure when you press with your finger over the volar compartment just proximal or distal to the needle insertion site and with extension of the fingers and wrist.\nSpecific steps for the dorsal compartment\n- Position the patient supine with the forearm pronated.\n- Palpate the posterior aspect of the ulna at the level of the junction of the proximal and middle thirds of the forearm.\n- Insert the needle at this level, 1 to 2 cm lateral to the posterior aspect of the ulna.\n- Advance the needle perpendicularly to a depth of 1 to 2 cm.\n- Confirm proper needle placement by observing a rise in pressure when you press with your finger over the dorsal compartment just proximal or distal to the needle insertion site and with flexion of the wrist or fingers.\nSpecific steps for the mobile wad compartment\n- Position the patient supine with the arm supinated.\n- Identify the most lateral portions of the forearm at the junction of its proximal and middle thirds.\n- Insert the needle at this level and lateral to the radius.\n- Advance the needle perpendicularly to a depth of 1 to 1.5 cm.\n- Confirm proper needle placement by observing a rise in pressure when you press with your finger over the mobile wad just proximal or distal to the needle entry site and with ulnar deviation of the wrist.\n- Apply sterile dressings to all needle entry sites.\n- Repeat the neurovascular examination of the arm.\nWarnings and Common Errors\n- Compartment syndrome is a clinical, often difficult, diagnosis to make.\n- Presence of distal pulses and capillary refill and even normal compartment pressures do not rule out compartment syndrome.\n- Measure pressures for all possibly affected compartments in the involved extremity.\nTips and Tricks\n- To maximize accuracy, measure pressure at sites of trauma or maximum palpable tension.\nDrugs Mentioned In This Article\n|Drug Name||Select Trade|"

"The World Commission on Environment and Development defines sustainable development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”\nOur forests are an amazing resource. Wood from sustainably grown trees is renewable and recyclable, and is the primary element in thousands of products we use every day. Through responsible forest management and protective laws, Oregon has maintained our forestland for decades, while at the same time supplying the world with this remarkable and sustainable material. But achieving this careful balance is hard work. Pressure to convert our forestland to other uses is great – and mounting every day.\nTo some, protecting the forests means taking a “hands-off” approach. But in reality, part of protecting Oregon’s forests includes responsible forest management. This management not only decreases fire risks and increases forest health, but also supports the balance needed for all Oregonians – now and in the future.\nIt takes collaborative support from the public, landowner and legislature to have it all: a thriving forest sector economy, a recreational playground and healthy forest ecosystems.\nWith generations of forest management and harvesting experience, we’ve learned that it’s not always best to simply walk away from a forest and let nature take its course. Most forests, especially those near populated areas, need some form of management to ensure their health and sustainability. In cases of forests designated as wilderness, roadless or wild and scenic, the active management may be considerably less involved.\nOregon’s forests are not all managed in the same way. Generally, they fall into one of three management classifications, each accounting for about a third of the state’s forestland:\nForests managed mostly for income or timber production by large and small private landowners or tribes, in accordance with Oregon’s forest protection laws. Private forests supply about three-quarters of the annual statewide timber harvest.\nForests managed and conserved mostly for environmental and cultural reasons, with limited timber harvest. These forests are largely owned by the federal government and may be set aside as parks or wilderness areas, or as riparian, old-growth or endangered species habitat.\nForests managed for multiple uses, including recreation, water, wildlife habitat and timber production. These forestlands are primarily in public, tribal and private ownership.\nThis two-minute animated video answers the question, \"What the heck is forest management?\" Oregon forests are managed for a wide range of values, including wood products, wildlife habitat, recreation and more. Oregon laws and sustainable forest practices allow us to balance the environmental, social and economic needs of our state. This video is part of OFRI’s Forest Fact Breaks series, which uses bold animated graphics, sound effects and narration to teach about natural resource topics in a fun, easy-to-understand way.\nAt a minimum, forests managed for timber production are considered sustainable when annual harvest does not exceed annual forest growth. In addition, sustainable practices include managing for non-timber values such as protecting water quality, fish habitat and scenic vistas; planting tree seedlings as soon as possible after harvest; and being mindful of wildlife habitat and protected areas.\nThe Oregon Forest Practices Act is a set of laws and rules intended to ensure sustainable forest management practices for all Oregon forest landowners and forest operators. It was the nation’s first forest practices act and, through periodic updates based on sound science, remains one of the strongest.\nIn addition, many Oregon forest landowners rely on several internationally recognized certification programs to provide independent, third-party verification of sustainable forest management practices:\nWood from Oregon forestland regulated by the state’s forest protection laws can count toward the U.S. Green Building Council’s Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification for green building projects. An independent third-party audit commissioned by the Oregon Department of Forestry found that Oregon-grown wood meets the LEED criteria for wood use in a project if it comes from timberland subject to the Oregon Forest Practices Act. The audit showed the provisions of the law meet an international standard for responsible forestry."

"The events that took place on\nThe vietnam war timeline key us history events and dates. The tiananmen square protests of 1989 events named by date in chinese are conventionally named by the which took place inside the great hall and. Our revolutionary war timeline covers all the major events leading up to the war for independence, the battles and events of the war, and post-war events up to the. The renaissance lasted from the late 13th to early 16th century and came about in part due to the black death, which intensified peasant uprisings the savagery of.\nHappen, chance, occur refer to the taking place of an event happen, which originally denoted the taking place by hap or chance something has happened. This page of dates for major events in ancient history is a fine place for you to start your exploration of the ancient world: you would be wasting your time if you. What are the events that happened on the day of ashura the day of ashura is almost a turning point for the world and the humanity, through the events happened on it. Major events of the cold war, a timeline made with timetoast's free interactive timeline making software. Meanwhile, other attacks were unfolding nearer to the centre of town, around popular nightlife spots the first took place at about 21:25 in the 10th district.\nKey events in christian history with an early christianity timeline of the church and important dates god bible about 100 key events in church history. On this day in history, tiananmen square massacre takes place on jun 04, 1989 learn more about what happened today on history. Critical essays events surrounding the first atomic bombs two events occurred in mid to late july that sealed the fate of the citizens of hiroshima.\nThings very likely or certain to have happened which biblical events do the majority of historians agree actually took place what important events took place. Day by day listing of interesting historical events for april april 1, 1865 - during the houston and mexican forces led by santa anna took place near present.\nGet the facts on seven famous historical events that fell on christmas eve or christmas day. Amazing events around the world here are the most bizarre/amazing events around the the world that you are missing out on every year by not exploring.\nThe events that took place on\nGet an answer for 'what are five major events that happened in the help, by kathryn stockett ' and find homework help for other the help questions at enotes.\n- Talking aboutt life in the west of america in the late 1800's please helpp events that took place during real life in the west.\n- Test your knowledge with amazing and interesting facts, trivia, quizzes, and brain teaser games on mentalflosscom.\n- Historical events in 1956 see what famous, scandalous and important events happened in 1956 or search by date or keyword.\nCollection of important, popular, famous and memorable historical events happened around the world in the year 1914, nicely categorized month wise and many more. This timeline focuses on some major events of 1968 when necessary or indicated, contextual background material, or certain subsequent events will be referenced in. Major king events chronology: in an event that will become known as bloody sunday, voting rights marchers are beaten at the edmund pettus bridge in selma. The summary detailed below records the days before the passover and the events recorded in the gospels that took place on each day. Here is full list which happend in last five year major world events in 2011 wave of bombings kills more than 60 in iraq (12-21-2011, 25 records) north korean. Experience the revolution through its key events many of the places mentioned in this section can be visited today."

"Eco-friendly travel guide to Valladolid advises how to be a responsible tourist. Learn how to explore the attractions in a sustainable way and how to respect the local people and culture. Make your trip green by supporting locally owned hotels, organic restaurants and other businesses. Read more on how to protect the environment by making conscientious choices and how to travel green in Valladolid, Spain.\n- Air quality: 3 / 5\n- Exploring by foot: 4.5/ 5\n- Exploring by bicycle: 4/ 5\n- Public transportation: 4 / 5\n- Parks: 3.5 / 5\n- Outdoor activities: 3 / 5\n- Locals' English level: 3 / 5\n- Safety: 3 / 5\n- Accommodation: US$50 - $200\n- Budget per day: US$60 - $150\n- 1 Responsible Travel\n- 2 Air Quality and Pollution\n- 3 Respect the Culture\n- 4 Top 10 Places to Visit\n- 5 Explore\n- 6 Eat\n- 7 Drink\n- 8 Activities\n- 9 Accommodation\n- 10 How to Get There\n- 11 Moving Around\n- 12 Sustainable Shopping\n- 13 Recycling\n- 14 Work and Study Abroad\n- 15 See Also\nValladolid is a very beautiful city which is present in the country of Spain, and this city is the 13th most populated city in the country. This city has a population of more than 300000, and this city is the largest northwestern city of the country of Spain. Every year millions of tourists pay a visit to the city of Valladolid as it has so many places to explore, tourists who are on a trip to Spain should definitely visit this city. It is very important for the tourists to follow all the guidelines during the trip and they should break any rules and should travel responsibly.\nAir Quality and Pollution\nThe air quality of this city is moderate, and it is much better than other cities of the country Spain; the pollution level of this city is also low, which shows that local residents of this city are aware of the measures through which they can reduce pollution and improve the quality of air. Although the air quality is not safe for sensitive groups so for them, it is better that they should use masks and or purifiers if their health is getting affected.\nRespect the Culture\nThe city of Valladolid has a rich heritage of culture, and the residents love to take part in the cultural programs which are carried away in their city. It is extremely important for the tourists to respect the culture of this city; they should not say anything which goes against the culture of this city. They should disrespect the culture as there are some rules for the people who will disrespect the culture.\nTop 10 Places to Visit\nThere are so many places present in the city of Valladolid where the tourists should definitely visit, and all the places are best in their own way. The top 10 places that tourists can visit in this city are mentioned below.\n• Museo Nacional de Escultura, Valladolid- This is a very famous museum present in Calle Cadenas de San Gregorio of the city Valladolid, the architect of this museum is extremely fascinating. This beautiful museum belongs to the Spanish monastery of culture and gives information about the culture.\n• Pisuerga- This is a very famous river present in the city of Valladolid; this river is also Duero's second largest tributary. This water body is very neat and clean, and the people are strictly not allowed to throw any kind of garbage in it.\n• Catedral de Valladolid- This cathedral is one of the finest cathedrals that one could ever encounter. This cathedral was made in the 16 century. Every year, millions of people pay a visit to this cathedral.\n• Colegio de San Gregorio- Colegio de San Gregorio is a fascinating museum present in Calle Cadenas de San Gregorio of the city Valladolid. Earlier it was a college, but later it was turned into a museum after so much renovation.\n• Casa de Cervantes- Casa de Cervantes is one of the best museums in this city, this is a very famous and historic house museum, and hundreds of people pay a visit to this museum daily. This museum is present in Calle Rastro of the city Valladolid, and people can opt for any mode of transportation to reach here.\n• Christopher Columbus Museum- This is another very historical museum present in Calle colon of the city Valladolid. This beautiful museum was built in 1968. Since then, it has become prevalent amongst the people of this city.\n• Museo Patio Herreriano- This is another very beautiful museum present in Calle Jorge Guillén of the city Valladolid. This city has so many museums, and every museum is the best. This museum was opened for public display in 1918, and this museum showcases Spanish contemporary art, and people from the whole country visit this museum to see it.\n• Church of Saint Mary the Ancient- This is another fascinating cathedral present in Plaza Portugalete of the city Valladolid. The building is not in very good condition and requires renovation in some areas. It has a small garden with some chairs where people can sit and enjoy the cold breeze.\n• Academia de Caballeria- This building looks extremely beautiful during the night. It is decorated with so many lights of different colors. This beautiful building attracts people and tourists should definitely visit this place. This building is present in Paseo Zorrilla 2 of the city Valladolid, and there are so many ways to reach this place.\n• Museo Oriental- The city of Valladolid, is known for its so many museums, and this is another top-rated museum which is present in Real Colegio PP. Agustinos Paseo de Filipinos in Valladolid city. This museum has the biggest collection of oriental stuff in the whole country of Spain, and it has so many rooms.\nThe city of Valladolid is a tourist attraction spot where more than a million people pay a visit here every year so as to experience the beauty of this city. Tourists can visit various different kinds of places which are present in the city of Valladolid, every place of this city has its own significance and is best in its own way. It is important for the tourists to hire a guide who can help them during the trip, the guide will help them to explore this place in a very proper manner.\nIn the city of Valladolid, there are so many city parks that are always filled by visitors as they find this place extremely relaxing; the names of some of the city parks of this city are mentioned below.\n• Parque Principal Francisco Canton Rosado- This beautiful park is present in calle centro of the city Valladolid. This city park is extremely fascinating as it has fountains and the park is also very nicely maintained by the local staff.\n• Campo Grande- This beautiful park is the most visited park in this city as it has so many activities for the people to do, this park is also good for children as it has activities for them also to do. This park has an extensive surface area, and people have many things to explore in this park.\nThe national parks are the perfect place for people who are nature lovers, and national parks have a thick cover of the forest. Names of national parks that are present in this city are mentioned below.\n• Parque Zoologico La Era las Aves- This fascinating park is a perfect place for people who love bird watching. In this park, they can see so many different varieties of birds. People can also see various wild animals in this park; various species of reptilia are also present in this park.\n• Centro Ecuestre solero- This is a wonderful nature reserve where so many different species of ponies are available; they are kept here safe and away from human interaction. People can go on a horse ride in this nature reserve, and it is absolutely safe, and all the safety measures are followed properly.\nBeaches are ideal for spending a whole day with families, and people can do so many outdoor activities on the beaches. Names of beaches that are present in the city of Valladolid are mentioned below.\n• New Pacific Beach Resort and Picnic Grove- This is a beach resort where so many people visit every day as the atmosphere of this place is very relaxing and soothing. This resort is present in Brgy, Tabao Proper of the city Valladolid, people, have so many modes of transportation through which they can easily reach this beach resort.\n• Playa de Las Moreras- On this beach people can be seen doing so many outdoor activities, this place is very peaceful and is perfect for people who want to reduce their stress. This beautiful beach is maintained very nicely by the local staff, and the water body is also immaculate and clean.\nLandmarks are one of those places which are favourites amongst the tourists, they definitely visit the famous landmarks of the place they are on a trip. Names of the landmarks which are present in the city of Valladolid are mentioned below.\n• Catedral de Valladolid- Catedral de Valladolid is a very beautiful church which is present in Calle arribas of the city Valladolid, the architect of this cathedral is just fascinating. This cathedral was made so many years ago but still it is in a very good shape, it is very nicely maintained by the local staff.\n• Iglesia de San Pablo- This is another very beautiful church which is present in plaza de San Pablo of the city Valladolid, this is a very old cathedral which was built between 1445-1468 and still it is in a very good shape.\nMuseums are one of those places where people can gain so much knowledge of the place there are on a trip. The city of Valladolid also has so many museums, and every museum has its own significance; the names of some of the museums are mentioned below.\n• Casa de Cervantes- Casa de Cervantes is a magnificent museum that is present in Calle rastro of the city Valladolid. This museum has small gardens and a sitting area where people can sit and relax.\n• Valladolid Science Museum- As the name suggests, this museum is a science museum. It has all the information regarding the science and technology of this city and the country of Spain. This beautiful museum was opened in May 2003 for public display, and since then, it has become one of the finest museums of this city.\nIt is necessary for every tourist who is on a trip to Valladolid that he/she should consume the cuisine of this city; tourists can consume the cuisine of this city in any local restaurant. The cuisine of this city is quite similar to Spanish cuisine, as so many of the dishes are very similar to Spanish cuisine. Dishes that the tourists can try in the city of Valladolid are mentioned below.\n● lechazo Asado\n● Red and white sausages\n● Bread donuts\nTraditional Local Restaurants\nTraditional and local restaurants are ideal places for the tourists as this is the place where they can taste the local food of the city of Valladolid. These traditional and local restaurants serve quality food to their customers. Anyone can afford a meal in these restaurants as the prices are very affordable. Tourists can go to any of the local restaurants of this city to taste the local food; names of some of the restaurants which are present in the city of Valladolid are mentioned below.\n● Restaurant Zaci\n● El Jarden de los Frailes\nVegetarian and Vegan\nIn the city of Valladolid, there are dedicated restaurants for both vegetarian and vegan people, and people can eat their desired dishes over these restaurants without any second thought. Vegan people do not prefer to eat any food made from any kind of derivative from animals, and some restaurants in this city are made, especially for vegan people who serve vegan people. Names of some of the vegetarian and vegan restaurants present in this city are mentioned below.\n● Yerbabuena del sisal.\n● Casa Maca Vegan Concept\nThe local people of this city love to eat Street food as it is ready to make and very delicious also, the rates of this food are also very affordable. Tourists can consume street food in any of the food stalls available in the nearby locality, although the quality of the food served is not as good as the food which is served in the local restaurants of this city. Names of some of the places where people can consume local food are mentioned below.\n● Loncheria El Amigo Casiano\n● La Selva\nThe local people of this city love to consume drinks, whether it be an alcoholic or non-alcoholic, beer is one of the most common drinks consumed by most of the population of this city. People below 18 years of age are strictly not allowed to drink alcohol in Valladolid, and strict punishment is there for such kind of people who will break the rule. The local people of this city are very fond of drinking wine and it is also the most consumed drink in this city.\nThe tap water of this city is considered safe for the consumption of human beings. Also, it has some harmful impurities which can harm people who have kidney disorders. However, the local people have water purifiers at their homes to filter the tap water properly and remove the harmful microorganisms which are present in tap water. Tourists mostly opt for packaged drinking water as it is totally safe to drink, and it does not have any harmful chemical compounds.\n. ● Veggs Organic S.L\n● Bar la Salina\nIn Valladolid, some breweries produce good quality beer, beer is one of the most consumed drinks of this city, and the local people consume it every day because of its low alcohol content. Beer from these breweries are exported to other cities and regions of this country as the requirement for beer in this country is very high. Names of the breweries that are present in this city are mentioned below.\n● Cervecera Casasola\n● Absenta Pub\nIn this city, there are so many different kinds of activities that both the local people of this city and the tourists can do. Tourists will definitely enjoy doing activities they won't be able to do in their own country. This city is perfect for the people who love to do adventures as it has so many places and regions where people can do adventure activities. People can visit the nearby bars and pubs where they can relax themselves and enjoy, this city has some excellent pubs and bars.\nYoga and Retreats\nThe city of Valladolid has so many resorts, hotels, retreats, and many such places where people who are interested in doing yoga and practicing it there. Yoga is a scientifically proven practice that is catching the attention of people from all over the world as it is helping so many people to attain mental peace and remain fit. The popularity of yoga is increasing every day as it is very effective and very efficient. It has shown some outstanding results on the human body. Names of some yoga retreats which are present in this city are mentioned below.\n● Casa Axis Mundi\n● Temazcal Zac\nAccommodation is the most important factor for the tourists, and this is the first thing every tourist surf over the internet. The tourists can opt for any accommodation mode as per their needs and requirements and fulfill their wishlist. The city of Valladolid has different varieties of accommodation, both for the local people and the tourists. Modes of accommodation which are available in this city are mentioned below.\n● Green hotels\nThe intent behind switching to green hotels is that it is harmless towards the environment; the number of green hotels in the whole world is increasing at a very rapid pace as they are extremely efficient. In the city of Valladolid also various green hotels are totally eco-friendly; the other hotels which are present in this city are also looking to convert their hotels into green hotels. Names of some of the green hotels which are present in this city are mentioned below.\n● Zentik Boutique Hotel\n● Hotel okaan\nHostels and Guest Houses\nThe hostel is the most ideal and the most suitable accommodation mode for the students who came into this city to study, and such students don't have their local relatives or friends where they can live. Names of some hostels which are present in this city are mentioned below.\n● Hostel Casa Xtakay\n● Hostel Candelaria\nGuesthouses are another very convenient mode of accommodation available in the city of Valladolid. The names of some of the guesthouses present in this city are mentioned below.\n● Orchid guesthouse\n● El Jardin Valladolid\nApartments have become the first choice accommodation between the middle-class people of this city, and people can rent them from any of the apartment renting agencies that are present in this city. This mode of accommodation is perfect for people who have a low budget and cannot afford to purchase their own house. In the city of Valladolid, people can rent apartments at very reasonable prices; the names of some of the apartments present in this city are mentioned below.\n● Departamentos El Vallisoletano\n● Casa Valladolid\n● Departamentos San Gregorio\nFor doing couch surfing, one must have a local relative or a friend so that tourists can live in their accommodation, and couch surfing is a widespread practice which is done by so many people in the city. The local people are also very kind enough to welcome their relatives and friends with an open heart and provide them with the best hospitality to make their trip easy and convenient. Couch surfing is a very budget-friendly practice as it saves so much money on accommodation and food.\nCamping is an adventurous activity which can only be practiced in a forest, and camping should only be done if one has a good experience or has taken training from an expert. In the city of Valladolid, there are various camping centers where people who are interested in doing camping can do it over here. The local people are very fond of practicing it on off days to experience something new in their lives.\nHow to Get There\nIt is straightforward for all the tourists to reach this city as this city is very well connected with other urban cities and regions. Tourists can opt for air transportation if they want to reach here in a concise period of time, air transportation is very well developed in this city. Tourists can also take a train to reach this city as this city has a very well developed railway network. Buses are also available for transportation in this city, the city of Valladolid has well-connected roadways.\nThe city of Valladolid has very well-developed air transportation. This city has one international airport where all the flights, whether it be domestic flights or international flights, both land and take off daily. The Valladolid international airport accommodates over a million people every year, and this airport is spread in an extensive surface area. People who want to travel through airplanes can book their seats online without any difficulty, and they can choose their own seats as per their needs. This transportation mode is the most costly mode of transportation, and not every person can afford it.\nThe bus is another very convenient mode of transportation that both the tourists and the local people can opt to reach their respective destinations. The roads of this city are very nicely maintained and are in very good shape, which makes this mode of transportation very effective. There are various bus agencies present in this city, the number of private bus companies is higher than government bus agencies. Names of some of the bus stations which are present in this city are mentioned below.\n● Valladolid bus terminal\n● Central bus station\nThe city of Valladolid has a good network of railways, and the railway network connects this city with other urban areas and regions. People can book train tickets very conveniently online, they can choose their seats as per their convenience, and the ticket prices are also very cheap. Traveling in trains is very convenient and safe, these trains are very punctual, and they help passengers to reach their destinations on time. This city has various railway stations; the names of some of them are mentioned below.\n● Valladolid Campo Grande\nHitchhiking is only practiced in this city if there is any emergency situation. Local people are accommodating towards their fellow residents to help them in any emergency situation. Although people are terrified to practice hitchhiking as there were so many cases of robbery, people need to choose people very wisely for hitchhiking. The number of people doing hitchhiking is reducing day by day because of the risk factors it has.\nOther than buses and trains, another very convenient transportation mode that people can choose if they do not want to travel on buses and trains is taxis. There are various taxi hiring companies available in this city that provide their taxis to the passneci at very affordable rates. This mode of transportation is the most costly mode of transportation, so not everyone can afford to travel in it. Various bike renting companies are also available for people who love to go on bike rides.\nThere are so many modes of transportation available for the people to travel in the city of Valladolid from one place to another. Tourists should opt for public buses or taxis as they are not aware of the routes of this city, these two modes of transportation would be ideal for them. This place is just so perfect for the tourists to explore as it has so many places where they can visit, every place of this city has its own significance and importance.\nGoing on a walk will definitely help the tourists explore the places near their accommodation, this will enhance their trip experience as they will get to know more places they can visit in this city. Going on a walk is also very beneficial for health and the local people of this city love to go on a walk every day, there are various city parks where they like to go on a walk, there are dedicated tracks for walking in these city parks.\nTourists have the facility to take a bike on rent in Valladolid, and there are various agencies in this city that provide their bicycles on rent to interested people. Some city parks of the city have cycling tracks where people can go on a bicycle ride; going on bicycle rides is extremely beneficial for health. It is a very effective cardio exercise that keeps the heart health stable. People should use bicycles if they have to go to any of the nearby places in place of vehicles to decrease the pollution rates.\nElectric vehicles have many benefits over vehicles that run on fossil fuels; such vehicles do not cause any pollution and are very beneficial for the environment. The use of electric vehicles has not yet been started in the city of Valladolid, but in the near future, the use of these vehicles will definitely increase. Electric vehicles will soon replace the vehicles which run on fossil fuels as they are extremely harmful to the environment and cause a lot of pollution.\nThe public buses present in this city are considered to be the lifeline of transportation as daily thousands of people travel through them and reach their respective destinations. There is a different bus for every route, and these public buses cover almost the whole city of Valladolid. These public buses are very punctual, they are always on time, and the passengers don't need to wait for so long for these public buses.\nTram, Train and Subway\nThe city of Valladolid had trams earlier, but in 1933 they were removed by the government of this city. Train transportation is available in this city, and daily so many people travel through these trains as they are very affordable. People can also hire a bike if they are aware of all the routes of this city, while tourists can hire taxis as they are unaware of the routes of this city.\nSustainable shopping is a very effective measure that is contributing a lot towards the welfare of the environment. The use of sustainable commodities has increased at a very rapid pace as these products are not only good for the environment but are also very safe for the use of human beings. In Valladolid, there are various sustainable shops from where people can purchase these products; names of some of these shops are mentioned below.\n● ZAK IK\n● Rio shopping\nIn the city of Valladolid, there are various food markets from where the loc people of this city purchase food commodities. Very good quality food commodities are available in these food markets, and the prices are also very affordable. They provide heavy discounts to attract customers and keep them engaged, and people can very easily reach any of the food markets through public transportation. Names of some of the food markets of this city are mentioned below.\n● Mercado Municipal de Valladolid\n● CHAMOFRUT VALLADOLID\nThere are so many flea markets that are present in the city of Valladolid, and the local residents love to purchase commodities from these flea markets. Flea markets have so many varieties of commodities, and people can purchase any of the commodities as per their needs. The prices of the commodities which are available for sale here are very cheap and affordable, and food stalls are also available in these flea markets where people can taste the street food of their choice.\nSecond Hand Stores\nThe city of Valladolid has so many second-hand stores, and their numbers are increasing day by day as people purchasing second-hand commodities are increasing. People who can't afford to purchase any commodity in a new condition buy it over these second-hand stores at lower prices. Everything is available for sale over these second-hand stores; the names of some of the second-hand stores which are present in this city are mentioned below.\n● a favor\n● Prendamex Valladolid\nThe use of clothes that are made up of eco-friendly substances has increased rapidly in recent times. These products are free from any of the harmful chemical substances that harm the environment and harm human beings. The use of eco-friendly clothes should definitely be promoted as they are decreasing the rates of environmental degradation. The local people of this city have also started using clothes that are derived from eco-friendly substances.\nIn the city of Valladolid, there are several companies that have all the enhanu techniques and all the required technologies which are required for recycling substances. Recycling is a very difficult process to perform, and it requires a lot of precision, so people who have good knowledge regarding this process should perform this process. These companies have all the measures through which they can recycle any kind of material, whether it be non-degradable material.\nThe government of this city is opting for so many measures so that they can easily manage the waste substances produced. There are various agencies present in this city which is assigned by the government of this city to manage every kind of waste in this city. These agencies are trying their best to dispose of any kind of waste, and they are also asking the local people to follow the correct methods of disposal.\nWork and Study Abroad\nIn the city of Valladolid, there are ample amount of job opportunities present for the local people of this city, although they have to work extremely hard to get a decent job in this city. The students who are studying in the universities present in this city get good chances of settling abroad, although settling abroad requires a lot of money. Hence, it is difficult for students who don't have money to settle abroad.\nThe Universities present in the city of Valladolid carry exchange programs every year for the students of other regions and cities where they get a chance to enroll themselves in any of the universities of this city. Students who don't have a good budget can study in the universities of this city, and students can study at way lesser fees than any other university. The education system of the Universities of this city is perfect, and students will definitely get a good placement after the course.\nThe au pair companies and agencies have helped many people provide them with jobs and increase the employment rate. In Valladolid, there are so many au pair agencies and companies that provide jobs to so many deserving people to help them meet their needs. Although the wages in these jobs are not so high and people have to do some other work also so that they can make their living properly.\nVolunteering is considered one of the best practices that help the candidates get a decent job. The candidates of the city Valladolid also do volunteering to get a job, and so many candidates succeeded in this. Volunteering requires a lot of hard work and dedication, one has to have a lot of patience to practice it, and one should also be able to know how to catch the eyes of the head of the company."

"Mid-April is a good time to prepare to divide your perennials but only if they are looking congested, or losing vigour, or if you want more to make a better display.\nPlants look best in threes, fives, sevens or nines but, when planting, you should always avoid straight lines.\nForm a waving ribbon or drift - with one plant spaced away from the others - for a natural effect.\nAll three produce dense clumps that need sawing or cutting into chunky pieces using a hand saw or large kitchen knife.\nAutumn-flowering perennials (such as asters and heleniums) are also divided in spring, never in autumn. Many form loose clumps.\nLift the whole plant and use two forks back to back to lever the clump apart. Discard the middle section and use the more vigorous outer pieces.\nTighter clump-formers can be chopped into sections with a spade. Add a slow release fertiliser (such as blood, fish and bone) and replace, or move to fresh ground.\nIt's also time to cut back late-summer flowering shrubs (including buddleia and caryopteris) to strong lower buds. They flower on new wood.\nIf your buddleia is at the back of the border, you may want to reduce each stem by half to maintain height and give earlier flowers.\nBut if the whole bush is visible, take it back hard so that it stays compact."

"How do you spell begining?\nNote that the correct spelling is beginning: it has a double ‘n’ and only one ‘g’: ✗ In the begining the main energy source was wood.\nHow do you spell Stary?\nadjective, star·ri·er, star·ri·est.\n- abounding with stars: a starry night.\n- of, relating to, or proceeding from the stars.\n- of the nature of or consisting of stars: starry worlds.\n- resembling a star; star-shaped or stellate.\n- shining like stars: starry reflections on the dark water.\nWhat is the verb for beginning?\nverb (used with object), be·gan, be·gun, be·gin·ning. to proceed to perform the first or earliest part of (some action): Begin the job tomorrow. to originate; be the originator of: civic leaders who began the reform movement.\nWhat is the another word of beginning?\nWhat is another word for beginning?\nDavid Nilsen is the former editor of Fourth & Sycamore. He is a member of the National Book Critics Circle. You can find more of his writing on his website at davidnilsenwriter.com and follow him on Twitter as @NilsenDavid."

"Artist in America / Edition 5by Thomas Hart Benton\nControversial, flamboyant, contentious, brilliantThomas Hart Benton (1889-1975) was certainly all of those. Few American artists have stirred so much love and hatred as he did in a career that lasted almost seventy years. Although his painting aroused much controversy, perhaps equally as much was created by his words, for his piercing wit, profane sarcasms,… See more details below\nControversial, flamboyant, contentious, brilliantThomas Hart Benton (1889-1975) was certainly all of those. Few American artists have stirred so much love and hatred as he did in a career that lasted almost seventy years. Although his painting aroused much controversy, perhaps equally as much was created by his words, for his piercing wit, profane sarcasms, and insightful condemnations were fired off without restraint. In this fiery and provocative autobiography, Benton presents an intriguing records of American art and society during his lifetime.\nThe first installment of this work was published in 1937, but Benton continued his life story in chapters added to editions published in 1951 and 1968. This new edition includes seventy-six drawings that add much to his narrative, plus a foreword discussing Benton's place in American art and an afterword covering his career after 1968, both written by art historian Matthew Baigell.\nAlthough Benton is most famous as a regionalist painter and muralist, his complex and fascinating career brought him into contact with many of the most important artists and thinkers of the century, including Jackson Pollock, Grant Wood, Julian Huxley, Felix Frankfurter, Eugene Debbs, John Reed, and Harry Truman. While living in New York and on Martha's Vineyard in the 1920s and 1930s, Benton often associated with leading intellectuals and radicals. However, when his evolving principles of art led him away from an interest in Marxism, he was bitterly attacked by many of his former friends, and his account of that time reveals strikingly the fierce critical battles he faced in trying to establish his own artistic vision.\nCritics on the Left were not his only opponents, however, and equally revealing are his responses to the moral condemnations heaped on his murals done for the states of Indiana and Missouri and on his realistic nudes of the late 1930s.\nThroughout his account, from descriptions of his boyhood in southwest Missouri, his travels, and his career to discussions of specific works of art and other artists, Benton portrays people and events as vividly in words as he does in his paintings.\n- University of Missouri Press\n- Publication date:\n- Edition description:\n- Fifth Edition, 4th Revised Edition\n- Sales rank:\n- Product dimensions:\n- 6.00(w) x 8.90(h) x 1.20(d)\n- Age Range:\n- 18 Years\nand post it to your social network\nMost Helpful Customer Reviews\nSee all customer reviews >"

"This article analyzes the role of school education as a medium for indoctrinating young minds through school textbooks within the framework of India–Pakistan relations. This fact is more pronounced in Pakistan, but even in the case of India, efforts are not undertaken to objectively teach subjects in a way that helps sensitize students about the India–Pakistan relationship. The author argues that the young generations in India and Pakistan largely lack a shared understanding until they undergo a process of de-learning and re-learning. Hence, the borders between India and Pakistan remained intact and militarized but definite types of borders are also created in young minds. Unless the psychological borders melt, it is difficult to imagine a porous physical border between India and Pakistan. This article attempts to understand how pedagogically the image of an enemy is created in young minds serving the purpose of the state.\nDHANANJAY TRIPATHI is assistant professor in the department of International Relations of the South Asian University (SAU), New Delhi, India. SAU is an international university established by eight member countries of South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). He has authored a book on Development role of the European Union in South Asia and contributed to edited volumes and peer-reviewed journals, including Journal of Borderlands Studies, Eurasia Border Review, Quarterly of International Sociology, USI Journal. He is presently working on an edited volume on Afghanistan, Afghanistan post-2014: Power configurations and evolving trajectories. His research interests include regional integration process, border studies, international political economy, South Asian politics, the EU, and Indian foreign policy.\nDurrani, N. (2008). Schooling the “other”: The representation of gender and national identities in Pakistani curriculum texts. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education38(5), 595–610.\nDurrani, N. (2008). Schooling the “other”: The representation of gender and national identities in Pakistani curriculum texts. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education 38(5), 595–610.10.1080/03057920802351374)| false\nDurrani, N., & Dunne, M. (2010). Curriculum and national identity: Exploring the links between religion and nation in Pakistan. Journal of Curriculum Studies 42(2), 215–240.10.1080/00220270903312208)| false\nLall, M. (2008). Educate to hate: The use of education in the creation of antagonistic national identities in India and Pakistan. Compare: A Journal Comparative and International Education38(1), 103–119.\nLall, M. (2008). Educate to hate: The use of education in the creation of antagonistic national identities in India and Pakistan. Compare: A Journal Comparative and International Education 38(1), 103–119.10.1080/03057920701467834)| false\nSalim, A. (2008). Historical falsehoods and inaccuracies. In A.H.Nayyar & A.Salim (Eds.) The subtle subversion the state of curricula and textbooks in Pakistan (pp. 65–76). Retrieved from http://unesco.org.pk/education/teachereducation/reports/rp22.pdf)| false\nWojczewski, T. (2014). The persistency of the India-Pakistan conflict: Chances and obstacles of the bilateral composite dialogue. Journal of Asian Security and International Affairs 1(3), 319–345.10.1177/2347797014551269)| false"

"Appealing a School Decision\nThere are times when a family and school staff do not agree on the services or accommodations a student with a disability needs at school. Federal law provides parents the right to appeal a decision by the school in both special education (IDEA) and Section 504 accommodations for eligible students with disabilities. Also, state laws and regulations may provide additional rights or procedures. Every school is required to provide a description of the appeal process upon request. If you are considering this option, the first step is to request a copy.\nThe special education and Section 504 programs in your school district may have different procedures, so be certain that you are pursuing your rights through the correct department of the school system.\nIndividuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA)\nIDEA contains procedural safeguards that apply to the identification, evaluation, or educational placement of students who may be in need of special education and related services so they are able to receive a free and appropriate public education (FAPE). IDEA and its implementing regulations allow for a variety of mechanisms to resolve disputes, including requesting mediation, filing a complaint with the state education agency, or requesting a due process hearing.\nBefore Filing an Appeal\nConsider these options first:\nInformal Meeting—If school staff members are not aware of the depth of your concerns, consider asking for an informal meeting with all the staff involved in your child’s education to express your concerns. Be clear about the resolution you are seeking. Listen to the concerns of the school staff and identify what areas of agreement you have\nRequesting a Due Process Hearing (An Appeal)\nThe formal request for a due process hearing to appeal the decision of the school district typically must be filed within two years of when the parent or school district knew or should have known of the alleged violation of IDEA. The request for a due process hearing must be provided in writing to the other party, and filed with the state or local education agency responsible for providing the due process hearing. The written request for a hearing must include:\nA hearing will not be scheduled until proper notice is delivered to the other party and filed with the state or local education agency. States are required to disseminate a model form for how to develop the notice requesting a hearing. The content of the notice is considered to be sufficient unless the receiving party requests additional information within 15 days of receiving the notice.\nSince 2004, prior to a due process hearing, if mediation is not used, the parents and school district are required to attend a mandatory resolution session. The resolution session is scheduled by the local school district after a request for a due process hearing is filed. If the parent refuses to attend mediation, the resolution session must be scheduled within 15 days of receiving the request for a due process hearing. If the parties decide to schedule a resolution session, the session must be completed within 30 days after the school district receives the request for a due process hearing. If the parent and school district are able to reach an agreement about how to resolve the dispute, then a written settlement agreement will be drafted for both parties to sign. Both parties have the right to revoke the agreement within three days of the end of the resolution session. If no agreement is reached, then the due process hearing will be scheduled.\nAlthough the resolution session is mandatory, the parents and school district may agree in writing to waive the session, or opt to use mediation to attempt to resolve the dispute. If the parents refuse to participate in the resolution session, the request for a due process hearing can be dismissed. It is important that prior to deciding whether to seek mediation or a resolution session, that parents seek advice from local qualified special education attorneys and advocates who are able to provide guidance on which dispute resolution mechanism is most appropriate given their particular circumstances.\nIf parents are still unable to resolve their dispute through informal meetings, mediation, resolution session, or other mechanisms, then parents have the option of proceeding with their request for a due process hearing. The due process hearing will be conducted by an independent hearing officer or panel of impartial hearing officers. Depending on the state, the decision of the due process hearing may either be appealed directly to the local federal district court, or the decision may first need to be reviewed by an appeals panel of the state education agency. In either scenario, the U.S. District Court reviews the case, can decide whether to request additional evidence, and then will issue a decision based on the Court’s findings of facts.\nThe regulations implementing IDEA have timelines in place for when decisions must be issued after a due process hearing. Within 45 days of the education agency receiving the request for a hearing, the independent hearing officer must reach a decision, and mail a copy of the decision to the parents and school district. Also, within 30 days of receiving a request for the state appeals panel to review the decision, a final decision must be reached and a copy of the decision mailed to the parent and school district. Also, the regulations allow for either the parents or the school district to submit a request to the hearing officer for extension of the timelines. Typically, after a hearing officer issues a decision, IDEA requires that an appeal be filed within 90 days in either a state or federal court.\nSection 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973\nDue process hearings can also be requested when a student is denied accommodations under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. The Office of Civil Rights (OCR) of the US Department of Education is responsible for enforcing Section 504 in programs and activities that receive federal financial assistance from the Department of Education. According to OCR’s website, typically OCR requires that any appeal be made through a due process hearing, although OCR will investigate complaints received regarding systematic violations of Section 504.\nState Law May Impact the Appeal\nBefore attempting to appeal a school district decision, consult the websites of the state and local education agencies for guidance on state laws and regulations that may impact the filing of an appeal in that particular state. For example, state law determines whether a non‐lawyer can represent either party in a due process hearing, and where an appeal must be filed. Also, state laws may have more restrictive timelines or requirements for filing a notice requesting a due process hearing. It is important to remember that due process hearings are a formal and potentially time‐consuming and expensive means to attempt to resolve a dispute.\nResources for Finding an Advocate or Attorney\nWhen looking for an attorney or legal advocate, it is important to find one with experience in disability rights. The National Resource Center on ADHD is not able to provide direct referrals to individual attorneys; however, we can offer some suggestions on how to find an attorney who has experience with disability law:\nThe Protection and Advocacy (P&A) System and Client Assistance Program make up a national network of Congressionally mandated, legally-based disability rights agencies. P&A agencies have the authority to provide legal representation and other advocacy services, under all federal and state laws, to all people with disabilities (based on a system of priorities for services).\nYour local CHADD chapter may be able to make informal recommendations about attorneys in your community. Contact the CHADD chapter nearest you and ask if the chapter has a resource directory of local services and professionals.\nSpecial Needs Alliance (SNA). A national, nonprofit organization of attorneys dedicated to the practice of disability and public benefits law. Individuals with disabilities, their families and their advisors rely on the SNA to connect them with nearby attorneys who focus their practices in the disability law arena.\nLegal Services Corporation (LSC). LSC funds 136 independent nonprofit legal aid programs providing legal assistance to low-income individuals and families throughout the US."

"SINGAPORE - As far as she can recall, Madam Lai Sow Fong has never visited the dentist in her life.\nBut it was not for a lack of dental issues. The 72-year-old cleaner had a sweet tooth when she was younger, and has over the years lost many of her teeth.\nShe now has a fighting chance of retaining the teeth she still has, after going for the first dental check-up in her life about two months ago at a community nurse post in Chinatown, where she works.\nShe is one of more than 90 people who have received free dental screening to date under a new pilot programme by the National Dental Centre Singapore (NDCS).\nCalled the Oral Health Movement 8020, the programme is so named because it hopes to help people here retain at least 20 of their natural teeth beyond the age of 80.\nThe programme's leader, Dr Chan Pei Yuan, a consultant at NDCS' Department of Restorative Dentistry, told The Straits Times on Thursday (July 8): \"Research shows that if you have at least 20 teeth, you are still able to function; if you have less than that, you may need dentures or implants.\"\nHowever, a 2016 study here found that only 9 per cent of the population aged 80 and above had at least 20 teeth left, while 30 per cent of those aged 60 and up did not have any teeth at all.\nAdults have a full set of 32 teeth.\nThe most common reasons for people losing their teeth as they get older are tooth decay and gum disease, which are preventable with early intervention, said Dr Chan.\nShe said: \"Many believe that tooth loss is inevitable as we age, but this is untrue. With proper oral hygiene and regular dental screening, it is possible to retain natural teeth into old age.\"\nShe added that tooth loss can contribute to oral frailty, or the decline of good oral function, and affect one's choice of food.\nThose with extensive tooth loss tend to opt for food groups that are high in carbohydrates and fats, as opposed to meat, fruits and vegetables, which are more difficult to chew. This may lead to malnutrition and poor health.\nBeing orally frail or pre-frail, the stage preceding that, also increases one's risk of choking while eating or drinking.\nAs part of the programme, community nurses from Singapore General Hospital screen residents living in south-east Singapore, providing them with oral health education and encouraging good oral care habits to prevent further tooth loss.\nIn Madam Lai's case, this included being reminded to brush her teeth regularly and cut down on sweet treats.\nSenior Staff Nurse Sri Ratina Wati Bte Abdul Razak teaching an elderly resident proper toothbrushing methods. PHOTO: SINGAPORE GENERAL HOSPITAL\nThose identified as orally pre-frail or frail will be invited to take part in a prevention programme at NDCS.\nIn addition to further assessment and learning how to improve their oral health, participants may also be referred to dentists or speech therapists who will follow up on their condition.\nThese participants will be reviewed six months later to reassess their oral frailty status.\nAbout one-third of those screened since the programme started in March have been found to be either orally frail or pre-frail.\nThe two-year programme aims to screen at least 500 Singaporeans aged 40 and above for oral frailty.\nDr Chan said this age group was selected to allow for early intervention.\nShe noted that while there are systems in place in Singapore to maintain oral health when a person is schooling, there is a gap from early to late adulthood. \"During this period, if they neglect their oral health, they may be faced with decay and other dental issues, resulting in tooth loss by the time they reach 60 years old,\" she said.\nShe added: \"Oral health is intricately linked with general health. As such, it is important that we maintain good oral health throughout life.\n\"Studies have shown that maintaining at least 20 natural teeth at the age of 80 and beyond will let you eat well, speak well and age well, thereby improving quality of life.\""

"Common Rock Crab\nThe Common Rock Crab (Hemigrapsus edwardsi), is a marine large-eyed crab of the family Grapsidae. It is endemic to the sea coasts of New Zealand although not in the Chatham Islands or the southern islands. This common intertidal crab occurs in a variety of habitat, under boulders, on the rocky reef, and on sand and mud flats.\nIts shell grows to around 1.5 inches wide. Coloration is a reddish purple, mottled with dirty white patches, with pale green antennules with dark red spots, but there are two colour types: light and dark. Darker crabs are marked with dark purple, sometimes almost purplish black, and their legs are banded.\nFemales are in berry from March to August, and they carry up to 26,000 eggs for about 6 weeks, during which time the eggs change colour from light brown to transparent."

"Surprise Discovery About 'Split Genes' Wins Nobel Prize\nBy LAWRENCE K. ALTMAN\nPublished: October 12, 1993\nFOR 15 years, Dr. Phillip A. Sharp's secretary kept a bottle of champagne refrigerated and ready for the day her boss at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology won a Nobel Prize.\nYesterday, Dr. Sharp and his secretary, Margarita Siafaca, popped the cork and drank the bottle of Moet & Chandon after he and Dr. Richard J. Roberts of New England Biolabs of Beverly, Mass., were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine by the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm.\n\"It tasted pretty good,\" Ms. Siafaca said. Discovery of Split Genes\nThe two scientists will share the $842,000 prize for their independent discovery in 1977 of \"split genes.\"\nThat discovery proved that genes can be composed of several separate segments. It shattered scientific dogma that had held that genes were continuous segments within DNA, the chemical basis of heredity. In making their discovery, the scientists worked in the laboratory with adenoviruses, which can cause colds and conjunctivitis, or pink eye.\nDr. Roberts, who is now research director for New England Biolabs, did his award-winning work at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory on Long Island, where he worked from 1972 until last year. Dr. Sharp also worked there, from 1971 to 1974, before moving to M.I.T. in Cambridge, Mass., where he now heads the department of biology.\n\"Everybody thought that all the interesting stuff had been discovered,\" Dr. Roberts recalled yesterday. \"In fact, there were several very prominent scientists who went on the public record saying that the age of molecular biology was dead and there were no more interesting discoveries to make.\"\nBut in announcing the prize yesterday, the Nobel committee said, \"The discovery of split genes has been of fundamental importance for today's basic research in biology, as well as for more medically oriented research concerning the development of cancer and other diseases.\"\nThe discovery \"has changed our view on how genes in higher organisms develop during evolution,\" the Nobel committee said, adding that other scientists had found that split genes were frequent in higher forms of life, including humans.\n\"The discovery also led to the prediction of a new genetic process\" known as splicing, the committee said. And it led to the recognition of what are known as introns and exons, two different sequences in genes.\nThe discovery has given scientists a better understanding of how some hereditary diseases and cancers develop, the Nobel committee said. Other researchers have used the discovery to better elucidate a genetic form of anemia and one type of leukemia in which splicing errors occur.\nThe discovery of split genes \"does not give us cures, but the possibility to know how we are going to do therapy with genes in the future,\" Gosta Gahrton, a professor of medicine at the Karolinska Institute, told reporters in Stockholm.\nWhen Dr. Sharp heard of his award in a telephone call from Stockholm about 6:30 yesterday morning, he said that he could hardly believe the news. \"I was shaking,\" he said. \"I said, 'Could you please repeat that?' \"\nDr. Sharp, 49, was reared on a small farm in Falmouth, Ky., between Cincinnati and Lexington, where his parents grew tobacco and corn. \"I'm probably the only Nobel Prize winner who worked a horse when he was 7,\" Dr. Sharp said.\nDr. Sharp said he developed an interest in science from \"excellent teachers\" in high school. His parents, he said, who had not gone to college, gave him a piece of tobacco land to encourage him to save for college, and the earnings eventually paid for a year and a half at Union College in Barbourville, Ky., from which he graduated with a degree in chemistry and mathematics. He went on to earn a Ph.D. in chemistry from the University of Illinois in Urbana. He then moved to the California Institute of Technology before going to the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory as a postdoctoral fellow.\nCornelia Bargmann of the University of California at San Francisco, who worked in a laboratory next to Dr. Sharp's at M.I.T. for many years, said in an interview that \"even after he became an established scientist, he served as an inspiration to younger scientists by going out of his way to look at their posters at meetings\" and listen to their reports. Offer of M.I.T. Presidency\nIn 1990, Dr. Sharp was offered and accepted the position of president of M.I.T. Shortly afterward, he withdrew his acceptance, citing his commitment to science. \"I don't consider it the brightest moment in my life,\" he said, \"meaning I should have been more decisive and known myself earlier in that process to say I was not ready for that position.\"\nHe said he would \"not volunteer\" for such a position now.\nDr. Roberts, 50, was born in Derby, England, and earned degrees in chemistry at the University of Sheffield. He did research for three years at Harvard University before moving in 1972 to the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, where he stayed until he moved to New England Biolabs.\nDr. Roberts said he was surprised to win the prize more than 15 years after his discovery. \"I really thought if they were going to do it, they would have done it by now,\" he said."

"U.S. Secretary of State Frank Kellogg, right, sits with the U.S. Ambassador to France, Myron T. Herrick, centre, in the offices of the French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand in Havre, on Aug. 25 (1928).\nWhat, if anything, can we learn from the 1928 Paris Peace Pact?\nby Stephen Wertheim via The Nation on November 8, 2018\nHathaway and Shapiro open with a question of enduring importance. For centuries, wars of conquest were the way of the world. The powers of the West seized land from the rest, placing the majority of humanity under a colonial yoke. They even made a habit of invading and conquering the territories of their fellow Western nations. All of this was perfectly legitimate, at least according to the finest legal minds of the time. Rather than seeking to end wars of conquest, jurists like Hugo Grotius judged them to be sound methods of diplomatic conduct. What’s more, when states went to war, international law required third parties to stay neutral; the international community was prohibited from punishing aggressors or aiding their victims. The effect was to quarantine wars in time and space, but at the price of accepting whatever wars were fought.\nIf this logic sounds strange, that’s because the international order changed in the 20th century. Today, we regard war as anomalous and turn to law in order to stop it. Stopping war has become the business of the world, even at the risk of inflating small, regional wars into unlimited and global ones. Although violence plainly persists, Hathaway and Shapiro are encouraged by the results. Focusing on wars of conquest, they assemble data sets that purport to show how these conflicts have plummeted in frequency. After occurring an average of every 10 months from 1816 to 1928, the pair claim, wars of conquest have slackened in the past seven decades to an average rate of one every four years.\nHathaway and Shapiro argue that we owe the demise of wars of conquest to a small circle of internationalists who bent the self-interest of the great powers toward peace. The pivotal year was 1928, when, at the urging of transatlantic jurists, the United States and France devised a treaty that renounced the use of force between them and then opened their agreement to all comers. Soon, almost every state had joined the Paris Peace Pact, agreeing not to wage war against anyone else. In effect, the international community lined up behind the pact’s goal, what it called the “frank renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy.” In Hathaway and Shapiro’s view, this was an epochal achievement, ranking among “the most transformative events of human history, one that has, ultimately, made our world far more peaceful.”\nMost scholars have thought otherwise, when they’ve bothered to think about the pact at all."

"FoodCORE Center: New York City\nThe New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (NYC DOHMH) is the local health department for NYC, home to 40% of the population of New York State. The NYC-FoodCORE program was established to improve response to foodborne outbreaks in NYC.\n“Our FoodCORE-supported Team Salmonella has greatly improved our ability to conduct salmonellosis surveillance in New York City. We are now better prepared to obtain food histories and provide surge capacity during critical outbreaks.”\nHaeNa Waechter, Epidemiologist\nYear joined FoodCORE: 2009\nPopulation: 8.5 M1\n- Created a student interview team: Team Salmonella\n- Increased capacity to conduct detailed hypothesis-generating interviews\n- Increased capacity to identify and investigate outbreaks and clusters\n- Increased capacity for DNA fingerprinting (PFGE)\n- Implemented rapid molecular serotyping of Salmonella isolates\n- Implemented molecular detection of norovirus\n- Collaborated with Environmental Health Specialists Network (EHS-Net)\n12015 Population Estimate https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/External\nIn the fall of 2009, NYC DOHMH established Team Salmonella to improve surveillance for Salmonella infections. Since then, the timeliness and completeness of interviews have greatly improved. Complete and timely interviews help solve foodborne outbreak investigations. Before Team Salmonella, fewer than 10% of people with a Salmonella infection were interviewed. With Team Salmonella, the proportion of people interviewed has increased to a range of 85-90% annually.\nAdditionally, patients with a Salmonella infection are contacted within the same day of when NYC DOHMH receives the report from a health care provider or laboratory. This is significantly better than the 3 weeks it used to take before Team Salmonella was created. Overall, Team Salmonella has greatly improved NYC’s ability to investigate and solve suspected outbreaks."

"GUARDED WHEATSTONE BRIDGE PDF\nAt the National Institute of Metrological Research (INRIM), a Hamon guarded 10 $\\,\\times\\,$. By using a guarded scanner and two sources to form a guarded resistance bridge, This circuit is a wheatstone bridge where two legs of the bridge are voltage. Request PDF on ResearchGate | On Jul 1, , Omer Erkan and others published Active Guarded Wheatstone Bridge for High Resistance.\n|Published (Last):||16 August 2005|\n|PDF File Size:||6.81 Mb|\n|ePub File Size:||17.31 Mb|\n|Price:||Free* [*Free Regsitration Required]|\nPublished in “Engineering Science and Education Journal”, volume 10, no 1, Februarypages 37— This page was last edited on 8 Novemberat Voltage source 1 is adjusted so that the DVM always reads zero, which sets the center point of the two resistors being compared to zero volts.\nSchering Bridge Wien bridge. At this point, the voltage between the two midpoints B and D will be zero. Adjusting the source outputs to set the high impedance side of the bridge circuit to zero volts reduces errors caused by meter circuit loading.\nDifferent values of resistors can be compared over a wide range with the uncertainty is primarily dependant upon the scaling accuracy of the voltage source used.\nThe primary benefit of the circuit is its ability to provide extremely accurate measurements in contrast with something like a simple voltage divider. This system provides dheatstone simple yet effective way to activate both the high and low guard circuits.\nViews Read Edit View history. The low guard can be connected directly to ground because the sources are always adjusted so that the DMV reads zero. Some of the modifications are:. The standard low thermal scanner has leakages of about 10 12 W. Kelvin bridge Wheatstone bridge.\nLeeds & Northrup 4736 Guarded Wheatstone Bridge\nThis provides a convenient means to set up an make high resistance measurements. The Kelvin bridge was specially adapted from the Wheatstone bridge for measuring very low resistances. In other projects Wikimedia Commons. The equations for this are:. Diode bridge H bridge. Retrieved from ” https: This setup is frequently used in strain gauge and resistance thermometer measurements, as it is usually wheatsotne to read a voltage level off a meter than to adjust a resistance to zero the voltage.\nThis is done by using two voltage sources for two arms of the bridge as shown in the diagram below. The Wheatstone bridge is the fundamental bridge, but there are other modifications that can be made to measure various kinds of resistances when the fundamental Wheatstone bridge bricge not hweatstone.\nWheatstone bridge – Wikipedia\nBecause the sources have low impedances, the high guards can be connected directly to the source outputs. By using a fully guarded scanner, leakages can be significantly reduced.\nThe tare standard is always guadred the circuit, and the low thermal scanner is used to switch the standard and test resistors into the circuit one at a time. Breathalyzer Carbon dioxide sensor Carbon monoxide detector Catalytic bead sensor Chemical field-effect transistor Electrochemical gas sensor Electrolyte—insulator—semiconductor sensor Electronic nose Fluorescent chloride sensors Holographic sensor Hydrocarbon dew point analyzer Hydrogen sensor Hydrogen sulfide sensor Infrared point sensor Ion selective electrode Microwave chemistry sensor Nitrogen oxide sensor Nondispersive infrared sensor Olfactometer Optode Oxygen sensor Pellistor pH glass electrode Potentiometric sensor Redox electrode Smoke detector Zinc oxide nanorod sensor.\nThe concept was extended to alternating current measurements by James Clerk Maxwell in and further improved by Alan Blumlein around Air—fuel ratio meter Blind spot monitor Crankshaft position sensor Curb feeler Defect detector Engine coolant temperature sensor Hall effect sensor MAP sensor Mass wheatstoone sensor Omniview technology Oxygen sensor Parking sensors Radar gun Speed sensor Speedometer Throttle position sensor Tire-pressure monitoring system Torque sensor Transmission fluid temperature sensor Turbine speed sensor Variable reluctance sensor Vehicle speed sensor Water sensor Wheel speed sensor.\nKeeping both sides of the bridge at zero volts reduces leakage errors. By using a guarded scanner and two sources to form a guarded resistance bridge, measurements from K W to 10G W guaeded be made with excellent accuracy. In many cases, the significance of measuring the unknown resistance is related to measuring the impact of some physical phenomenon such as force, temperature, pressure, etc.\nAccelerometer Angular rate sensor Auxanometer Capacitive displacement sensor Capacitive sensing Gravimeter Inclinometer Integrated circuit piezoelectric sensor Laser rangefinder Laser surface velocimeter Lidar Linear encoder Linear variable differential transformer Liquid capacitive inclinometers Odometer Photoelectric sensor Piezoelectric accelerometer Position sensor Rotary encoder Rotary variable differential transformer Selsyn Sudden Motion Sensor Tachometer Tilt sensor Ultrasonic thickness gauge Variable reluctance sensor Velocity receiver.\nThe Wheatstone bridge illustrates the concept of a difference measurement, which can be extremely accurate. First, Kirchhoff’s first law is used to find the currents in junctions B and D:.\nGeophone Hydrophone Microphone Seismometer. To do so, one has to work out the voltage from each potential divider and subtract one from the other.\nElectrical meters Bridge circuits Measuring instruments English inventions Impedance measurements. Detecting zero current with a galvanometer can be done to extremely high guarved. Variations on the Wheatstone bridge can be used to measure capacitanceinductanceimpedance and other quantities, such as the amount of combustible gases in a sample, brudge an explosimeter.\nThe desired value of R x is now known to be given as:. A DVM measures the voltage across the bridge and a low thermal scanner is used to switch the resistors in the test. One of the Wheatstone bridge’s initial uses was for the purpose of soils analysis and comparison. A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge circuitone leg of which includes the unknown component.\nIn a normal arrangement the leakage currents would cause errors of about 1 ppm at the 1 M W and ppm at M W. OhmRef will allow up to 8 resistors to be compared at a time. Active pixel sensor Angle—sensitive pixel Back-illuminated sensor Charge-coupled device Contact image sensor Electro-optical sensor Flame detector Infrared Kinetic inductance detector LED as light sensor Light-addressable potentiometric sensor Nichols radiometer Optical fiber Photodetector Photodiode Photoelectric sensor Photoionization detector Photomultiplier Photoresistor Photoswitch Phototransistor Phototube Position sensitive device Scintillometer Shack—Hartmann wavefront sensor Single-photon avalanche diode Superconducting nanowire single-photon detector Transition edge sensor Tristimulus colorimeter Visible-light photon counter Wavefront sensor.\nOn the other hand, if the resistance of the galvanometer is high enough that I G is negligible, it is possible to compute R x from the three other resistor values and the supply voltage V Sor the supply voltage from all four resistor values."

"Please read a few pages everyday, of a book that you enjoy. This could be quietly to yourself or with a grown up to help you. Can you answer some questions about what you have read so far?\nCan you read the Stone Age Boy story with expression?\nRemember to take a breath whenever you see a comma or a full stop.\nSpelling, punctuation and grammar\nThe tasks below are all about our story from today (Monday 21st September) Stone Age Boy.\nOur Maths tasks focus on the place value of each digit in a number.\nTime to get active Year 3.\nPlease join in with Mr Danquah. Click on the link below\nOr, search for Byker Primary PE on Youtube then, choose a lesson.\nDon't forget to drink plenty of water afterwards!\nThis activity is all about healthy eating based on our first topic Health and Well Being."

"• Pressure intensifiers mechanical and bladder type\n• Specialty tools for abrasion strip removal\n• Welded vacuum bags made to size and shape\n• Specialty consumable kitting to reduce labor costs\n• Caul plate fabrication\n1. Application of compaction pressure to consolidate plies and minimize voids\n2. Extraction of moisture, solvents, and volatiles\n3. Allow the resin to flow and be absorbed\nA process using a two-sided mold set that forms both surfaces of the panel. On the lower side is a rigid mold and on the upper side is a flexible membrane made from silicone or an extruded polymer film such as nylon. Reinforcement materials can be placed manually or robotically. They include continuous fiber forms fashioned into textile constructions. Most often, they are pre-impregnated with the resin in the form of prepreg fabrics or unidirectional tapes. In some instances, a resin film is placed upon the lower mold and dry reinforcement is placed above. The upper mold is installed and vacuum is applied to the mold cavity. The assembly is placed into an autoclave. This process is generally performed at both elevated pressure and elevated temperature. The use of elevated pressure facilitates a high fiber volume fraction and low void content for maximum structural efficiency.\nRTM is a process using a rigid two-sided mold set that forms both surfaces of the panel. The mold is typically constructed from aluminum or steel, but composite molds are sometimes used. The two sides fit together to produce a mold cavity. The distinguishing feature of resin transfer molding is that the reinforcement materials are placed into this cavity and the mold set is closed prior to the introduction of the matrix material. Resin transfer molding includes numerous varieties which differ in the mechanics of how the resin is introduced to the reinforcement in the mold cavity. These variations include everything from the RTM methods used in out of autoclave composite manufacturing for high-tech aerospace components to vacuum infusion (for resin infusion see also boat building) to vacuum assisted resin transfer molding (VARTM). This process can be performed at either ambient or elevated temperature.\nPeel ply can be either a solid sheet, or it can have perforations which can vary in their spacing. Choose spacing based on the amount of resin that needs to be bled out; prepreg manufacturers can recommend spacing for their particular products, and net-resin systems, of course, use unperforated release films.\nFiberglass fabrics have many unique and outstanding properties, which provide design opportunities for the improvement of existing products and the development of new, lightweight, and cost-efficient products. When choosing your fiberglass, you must consider thickness, weight, construction, yarn size and finish desired.\nFlash Breaker Tapes are specifically used to hold down materials during the vacuum bagging process over a high range of temperatures and is formulated so it will release from cured resin."

"What would your dream house and neighbourhood look like?\nThis workshop introduces the participants to the architecture of small houses as well as town planning. The participants explore building materials, urban planning and different typologies of towns.\nThe participants design their own houses, which together form a happy town. Additional elements such as scale people, vehicles and trees are used to complete the model. The contribution made by each member of the team is an essential part of the whole. This workshop utilizes hands‑on learning and 3D model building methods.\nUltimately different versions of happy towns are compared and studied from different perspectives.\n- Math; scale\n- Engineering; materials\n- Architecture; interior design\n- Critical and creative thinking; problem solving\nInteractive lecture, design thinking, hands-on working, presentation\nPrice (excluding VAT):\n1090€ – for groups of up to 15 participants\n1490€ – for groups of up to 25 participants"

"The iCoverT is a rich data source on the incidence of child maltreatment in England and Wales, 1858 to 2016. The data source was developed using systematic methods to identify, digitalise, and harmonise six official statistics and accompanying documentation relating to measures of child maltreatment: Child Protection Statistics, Children In Care Statistics, Criminal Statistics, Homicide Index, Mortality Statistics and NSPCC Statistics. The data source spans over 150 years and consists of over 43,500 data points and 250 variables. Variables include estimates for rates of child maltreatment, as well as information on perpetrator and victim characteristics and type of maltreatment. Full methodological and data details are published elsewhere (Degli Esposti, Taylor, Humphreys, & Bowes, 2018, PLoS One; Degli Esposti et al 2019, Lancet Public Health). Ongoing work is underway to enhance the resource to create a national surveillance tool that monitors patterns in child maltreatment in real-time.\nDegli Esposti, M., Taylor, J., Bowes, L., & Humphreys, D. K. (2018, July 16). iCoverT: A data source on the incidence of Child maltreatment over Time in England and Wales. https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/CF7MV"

"- 1 Groundnut Stem borer (Scientific name, Pest characters, Nature of Damage and Control Measure)\nGroundnut Stem borer (Scientific name, Pest characters, Nature of Damage and Control Measure)\nScientific name: Sphenoptera perotetti.\nPest characters of Groundnut Stem borer\n1) Adults 10-12 mm in length.\n2) They are generally dark brown in colour with a strike metallic shine.\nNature of Damage of Groundnut Stem borer\n1. The beetles prefer to lay it’s eggs on branches.\n2. The young creamy white grubs bore into the branches, then the larval tunnel increases in length as the larvae grows in size and ultimately reach the top root.\n3. The grubs bore into the stem and root and cause damage by feeding inside root and stem resulting in plants death.\nControl Measure of Groundnut Stem borer\nA) Nonchemical control of Groundnut Stem borer\n1. Cutting and destroying the infested branches along with grubs is a direct advice for their control.\n2. Using of Systemic insecticides.\nB) Chemical of Groundnut Stem borer\n1. Apply Malathion 5D (or) endosulfan 4D (or) carbaryl 10D at 25 kg/ha to the hole or furrow prior to the sowing.\n2. Repeat the same on 40 DAS during earthing up and gypsum application."

"AARC Blog #1 - Chytrid\nDr. Teresa Bousquet\nExotic Animal Veterinarian and AARC Board Member\nMany herp-savy people are aware that there has been a catastrophic decline in amphibian populations world-wide over the last few decades. There are a number of factors that are causing this decline, including habitat loss, global warming, and pollution. One factor that is poorly understood, but that you may have heard of, is the emergence of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). Bd is a highly infectious fungal disease, and many scientists believe that it has resulted in the extinction of some amphibian species, and that more may be heading in that direction. No one is completely sure where this pathogen came from, but international trade of African Clawed frogs (Xenopus laevis) and/or American bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeiana) is thought to play a significant role in its spread around the world.\nBd has been shown to be able to infect all major classes of amphibians, though some species and populations are more susceptible than others. Bd is found on all continents where amphibians live, both in captive and wild populations. In adult animals, it attacks the skin, where it interferes with electrolyte balance, causing a spike in blood potassium levels, acidification of the blood, slowing of the heart, and ultimately cardiac arrest. Symptoms in adults vary from sudden death with no apparent signs, to abnormal posture and behavior, lethargy, loss of reflexes, roughening, sloughing, and reddening of the skin, and increased time soaking in water. In the tadpoles, the fungus causes damage to the mouthparts, leading to decreased food intake, slowed metamorphosis, failure to thrive, and death. Symptoms are difficult to detect, given the size of the patients, but they may have abnormal swimming, and discoloration of the mouthparts.\nChytrid can be spread by direct contact between an infected individual with a non-infected individual, but also indirectly through fomites (any object or substance capable of carrying infectious organisms), such as contaminated soil, contaminated water, boots, equipment, etc.\nFor keepers of captive amphibians, we always recommend quarantining new animals for 30-60 days prior to introducing them into an established population. There are some tests available through your herp-savy veterinarian to check new animals for Bd, which ideally should be completed during this quarantine period. Hard surfaces and cages should be cleaned with quaternary ammonium, didecyl dimethy ammonium chloride, sodium hypochlorite, ethanol and Virkon. All of these must be rinsed extremely thoroughly before returning amphibians to the enclosures. If you ever have suspicions that you might have infected individuals in your collection, please contact a herp-savy veterinarian immediately for advise on testing and preventing further spread.\nTo reduce the risk of spreading Chytrid from captive populations to wild populations, captive individuals must never be released into the wild. Some species can carry Bd without showing clinical symptoms, but can still transmit it to susceptible animals. Water from captive tanks should never be poured into storm drains, which are not treated before flowing into lakes and rivers.\nTo avoid accidentally spreading Chytrid between wild populations, boots, clothing and equipment must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected between herping trips. Do not relocate amphibians between bodies of water. If you ever find evidence of a mass mortality event, please report it to your local Fish and Wildlife office, and the Alberta Volunteer Amphibian Monitoring Program.\nFor more information, please see the following websites:"

"SINGAPORE – A tiny island in the world map, with a total population of about 5 million people; measuring an area of approximately 728 square meters (Singapore Population, 2021). That is an interesting start, isn’t it? But do we actually know our history and its culture? This is a bitter truth, but in fact many of us don’t. Writing this article will be a good opportunity for me and for those reading it to revisit some basic historical and cultural information of what Singapore was like and the amazing multi-racial culture we grow to cultivate here in this country.\nDuring the ancient days, our founder, Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, was the young man who created and given Singapore a successful framework of accomplishment. It was much later that our late Mr.Lee Kuan Yew, former Prime Minister of Singapore, moved on to shape Singapore to become an independent nation and continued to structure the path of success. Back then, Singapore was known for its unique geographical location as this tiny island served as a brilliant harbour port for trading purposes. Fast forward to many fruitful years after, Singapore gained its independence on 9th August 1965 and has developed to what it is today (About Singapore, 2021).\nKnown for its sophisticated and diverse society, people here in Singapore communicate and live amicably. People here refers to individuals from different race, religion and background. Due to our significant past, we have a mixture of Malay, Chinese, Indian and European influences, taken in as a total combination. And as we know, each racial group celebrates different and really interesting festivals that play an importance in each calendar year. Having said the above, our four official languages are Malay, Mandarin, Tamil and English (Singapore Culture & Language, 2021). At this point, it is crucial to understand that although there are four official languages here in Singapore, English will be deemed as the most frequently used.\nAs said, festivals in Singapore are generally enjoyed and experienced by all. In this way, we get to celebrate four auspicious festivals namely Chinese New year, Hari Raya, Deepavali and Christmas. What a handful of events! Out of the mentioned four, we are going to indulged a bit into Christmas, a festival widely observed by many. What happens during Christmas in Singapore? With brightly-colored lights hung and displayed everywhere and with of course the huge elegantly decorated Christmas tree, this flamboyant festival is definitely an eye-catcher. Even more so, what is special is all four races come together to share and bring love during this occasion. That is the beauty of Christmas, and I couldn’t agree less.\nAs you can evidently see, during special festivals like Christmas, the institute never fails to do the same in bringing our students from various levels together as one. Students get an opportunity to meet, mingle, converse and open up to each other. No doubt, all our students enjoy and treasure such moments here as these are the good memories worth remembering and cherishing.\nBase. 2021. Singapore Population. [online] Available at: <https://www.singstat.gov.sg/modules/infographics/population> [Accessed 26 February 2021].\nSingaporeexpats.com. 2021. Singapore Culture & Language, Religion of Singapore, Singlish • About Singapore. [online] Available at: <https://www.singaporeexpats.com/about-singapore/culture-and-language.htm> [Accessed 26 February 2021].\nVisitSingapore. 2021. About Singapore. [online] Available at: <https://www.visitsingapore.com/travel-guide-tips/about-singapore/> [Accessed 26 February 2021]."

"The Bataan Memorial Death March honors a special group of World\nWar II heroes. These brave soldiers were responsible for the defense of\nthe islands of Luzon, Corregidor and the harbor defense forts of the\nPhilippines. The conditions they encountered and the aftermath of the\nbattle were unique. They fought in a malaria-infested region, surviving\non half or quarter rations with little or no medical help. They fought\nwith outdated equipment and virtually no air power. On April 9, 1942,\ntens of thousands of American and Filipino soldiers were surrendered to\nJapanese forces. The Americans were Army, Army Air Corps, Navy and\nMarines. Among those seized were members of the 200th Coast Artillery,\nNew Mexico National Guard.\nThey were marched for days in the scorching heat through the\nPhilippine jungles. Thousands died. Those who survived faced the\nhardships of a prisoner of war camp. Others were wounded or killed when\nunmarked enemy ships transporting prisoners of war to Japan were sunk by\nU.S. air and naval forces.\nThe Bataan Memorial Death March is a challenging march through the\nhigh desert terrain of White Sand Missile Range, New Mexico, conducted\nin honor of the heroic service members who defended the Philippine\nIslands during World War II, sacrificing their freedom, health and, in\nmany cases, their very lives.\nStudents who join this team will participate in the GREEN route,\nwhich is the full 26.2-mile, while carrying 35 pounds. Awards are\npresented to the top two finishers in each category.\n26.2 Mile Route Description\nThe 26.2-mile course, the route\nproceeds northwest from Water Point 4/8, circling a small mountain known\nas Mineral Hill. Returning to Water Station 4/8, marchers travel south\nalong the paved road covered earlier in the route. The course then\nveers west along dirt and sand trails, coming up the backside of the\nWhite Sands community and returning to the finish line. The area know\nas the \"Sand Pit,\" featuring deep sand, comes after Water Station 9.\nBut, be aware, the dirt trails elsewhere along the route can be sandy\nand dusty as well. This is particularly true of the stretch between\nWater Station 1 and Water Station 3."

"Audubon and the Art of Birds\nOctober 4 2014 - January 4 2015\nAbout the Exhibition\nThis exhibition focuses on John James Audubon’s masterwork, The Birds of America, contextualizing Audubon’s work with examples of the finest ornithological art from the Renaissance to the present day. Built around a series of themes, the show compares rough woodcut prints from the early bestiaries with the refined elegance and brilliant colors of Francois Levaillant’s engravings. Prints from Mark Catesby and Alexander Wilson trace the work of early artist-naturalists in America before Audubon. The lavish publications that followed Audubon’s work are represented with lithographs by John Gould, Edward Lear, Joseph Wolf, and many others. During the 20th century, artists such as Louis Agassiz Fuertes, Francis Lee Jaques, Roger Tory Peterson, and Robert Bateman took bird art in new directions. The human fascination with birds continues to the present day, and the show will include works by a small, select group of living artists, such as Lars Jonsson and Walton Ford, who have made particular contributions to the study of birds, or whose work is inspired by Audubon’s example.\nGenerously sponsored by"

"Shifting the burden of proof\nShifting the burden of proof is a kind of logical fallacy in argumentation whereby the person who would ordinarily have the burden of proof in an argument attempts to switch that burden to the other person, e.g.:\n- If you don't think that the Invisible pink unicorn exists, then prove it!\nEstablishing the burden of proof\nIn an argument, the burden of proof is on the person making an assertion. That is, if a person says that the moon is made of cheese, then it is up to that person to support this assertion. Demanding that the other party demonstrate that the moon is not made of cheese would constitute shifting the burden of proof.\nIt can sometimes be tricky to determine who holds the burden of proof for a given assertion. If a bank's customer sues the bank, claiming that money was illegally withdrawin from his account, the customer is making a positive assertion, and should therefore have the burden of proving it. However, the bank has detailed financial records, and it is therefore easier for the bank to demonstrate that nothing illegal occurred, than it is for the customer to demonstrate that something illegal happened.\nSecondly, a rebuttal to a positive claim can also be a postitive claim, which also must be supported by evidence. Imagine the following conversation:\n- A: The moon is made of green cheese.\n- B: That's not true: astronauts have gone to the moon and found that it's made of rock.\nHere, the statement \"the moon is made of green cheese\" is a positive assertion, and person A has the burden of proving it. The second statement is a rebuttal of the first, but the statement \"astronauts have gone to the moon\" is a positive assertion. Since B is making a positive assertion (about space travel), it is B who has the burden of proving it.\nHowever, if a strong atheist makes the positive claim that no gods exist, then he or she has the burden of proving this claim.\nWell-established scientific theories\nOften, in debates over well-established scientific theories, the person arguing against the mainstream view will say that it is not up to him to disprove the theory, but that it is scientists' job to demonstrate it.\nThis is true, in a sense: when a new scientific hypothesis is introduced, its proponents have the onus of demonstrating it. The rest of the scientific establishment has no obligation to disprove the new hypothesis. However, a hypothesis can only rise to the rank of theory by being repeatedly tested, and by accumulating evidence in its favor. This evidence must now be taken into account by the theory's critics.\nThus, if person A says that relativity is unproven, and person B asks A for evidence, this may be seen as shifting the burden of proof, but B is really asking A to support the positive assertion that the mass of evidence for relativity is not conclusive.\nIn online debates, when a person challenges a well-established scientific theory, it is almost invariably the case that that person does not know or does not understand the evidence for the theory."

"When a chromosome is lost: How do human cells react to monosomy?\nHuman cells are usually diploid—they contain two sets of chromosome. Cells in which one chromosome is missing from the duplicated chromosome set are generally not viable. For a long time, the mechanisms responsible for the loss of viability were unknown. This is where researchers at the Technical University of Kaiserslautern (TUK) came in. In collaboration with the European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) in Heidelberg and the Koblenz University of Applied Sciences to investigate the effects of the reduced number of chromosomes in human cells. In the process, they have succeeded for the first time in implementing an experimental approach with viable monosomic cells. The journal Nature Communications has published the basic findings.\nMonosomy occurs when chromosomes are incorrectly distributed during routine cell division and cells subsequently lack one chromosome in an otherwise double (diploid) set. The only form of this deviation in chromosome number (aneuploidy) that human cells can survive is known as Turner syndrome. The hallmark of the hereditary disease, which occurs in women: only one of the two X sex chromosomes is present. \"However, what happens in human somatic cells that are missing other than sex chromosome had not been explored until now, because monosomic cells are generally not viable,\" explains Prof. Zuzana Storchova who conceived the study.\nDr. Narendra Kumar Chunduri, first author of the study, reports, \"When monosomy occurs, the protein 'p53,\" encoded by the so-called tumor suppressor gene TP53, ensures that the cell cycle stops. In other words, the cells stop dividing. Therefore, we have switched off this gene in one part of our cell lines, which were originally derived from human retina cell lines, to downregulate the production of the encoded protein. Thus, for the first time, we succeeded in generating stable monosomic cell lines for research purposes.\"\nThe research team subsequently focused on the effects of monosomy on proliferation (cell growth/multiplication), genomic stability and how chromosome loss affects the amount of mRNAs and proteins (transcriptome and proteome, respectively). \"Strikingly,\" Chunduri said, \"we observed reduced levels of cytoplasmic ribosomal proteins and reduced protein synthesis (protein translation) in all monosomal cell lines. Accordingly, we hypothesize that chromosome loss impairs ribosomal biogenesis and thereby cellular proliferation. We also showed that this change triggers cell cycle arrest and or senescence via the p53 signaling pathway.\nMonosomy and cancer\nThe findings also shed light on the link between cancer and monosomy. Recurrent loss of an entire chromosome or chromosome arm is common in certain tumors, such as neuroblastoma, lung cancer, and myeloid malignancies. Chunduri explains \"Since monosomies are viable only without p53, we predicted that the cancers with monosomy must have defective p53 pathway. The analysis of scientific databases of cancer-related changes, such as \"The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA)' and \"Cancer Cell Lines Encyclopedia (CCLE)\", indeed revealed a strong association of monosomy with p53 inactivation and ribosomal pathway impairment.\" This analysis would not be possible without collaboration with the biomathematicians Xiaoxiao Zhang and Prof. Maik Kschischo from UAS Koblenz.\nGene dosage effect\nThe research team also performed a systematic transcriptome and proteome analysis of monosomic cell lines in comparison to their parental cell lines—i.e., the quantification of all messenger RNAs (mRNAs) transcribed based on DNA, as well as the quantification of all proteins in the cells. As expected, this showed that the expression of genes localized on the monosome was reduced. Bioinformatician Paul Menges adds, \"Yet, we observed the lower levels in only 20 percent of the encoded proteins. We suspect that gene dosage effects came into play here. The cells need to return to their 'natural' diploid protein levels to sustain their function and thus compensate for the chromosome loss. We envision two possible scenarios: First, translation of mRNAs encoded using the genes could be selectively increased, or second, protein degradation is reduced. Our results suggest that cells use multiple pathways to mitigate the consequences of altered gene expression.\"\n\"In summary, we present for the first time a successful experimental approach to study the effects of monosomy in human somatic cells,\" Storchova summarizes. \"In doing so, we were able to build on our knowledge of aneuploid cells gained in previous studies. We will now further investigate the effects of monosomy, to better understand its contribution to cancer.\"\nMore information: Narendra Kumar Chunduri et al, Systems approaches identify the consequences of monosomy in somatic human cells, Nature Communications (2021). DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-25288-x\nJournal information: Nature Communications\nProvided by Technische Universität Kaiserslautern"

"This is a fascinating photograph I discovered in our collection. It shows a temporary memorial, constructed from white-painted wood. Although unfamiliar to us today because they have not survived, temporary memorials were relatively common immediately following the end of the First World War. They were often erected in towns and cities to provide a focus for remembrance activities before a permanent stone memorial could be erected.\nThe other intriguing thing about this photograph is the annotation:\nComrades of the Great War\n(Woolwich and District Branch)\nChildrens’ Xmas Treat\nA Child’s tribute to dear Daddy\nYour tribute to the child\nFrom this we can assume that the little boy to the left of the photo had lost his father in the war and the trip to visit the memorial had been organised as a Christmas treat by the local branch of the ‘Comrades of the Great War’, one of the forerunners of the Royal British Legion. The last line is rather more enigmatic – ‘Your tribute to the child.’ Perhaps the postcard was sold to encourage donations for a permanent memorial?"

"A new infographic making the rounds today claims to show the temperature history of planet Earth since 1850, this time using an animated spiral presentation (see video after the jump). There’s only one problem: the temperature record they rely on is spotty, doesn’t include vast amounts of sea surface temperatures (because they don’t exist), and disregards uninhabited areas like Antarctica or less developed regions like Africa, South America, Siberia, and rural China (which don’t have reliable historical data).\nThe new graphic also includes data for the first few months of 2016, which were abnormally warm due to a naturally occurring El Niño. Significantly, the former vice-chairman of the UN’s IPCC recently noted that the strong El Niño was not related to man-made global warming.\nThe assertions on temperature made in the new historical record conflict with statements by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) that global mean surface temperature change has been close to zero since the turn of the century. A more recent study shows a global warming hiatus since 2000. But the spiraling graphic shows a dramatic increase, with the recent, “massive” El Niño suggesting yet a further upward spiraling.\nNoticeably absent from much of this data record are accurate ocean temperature records. The Earth’s vast oceans make up 71 percent of the planet’s surface, but have only been measured with any degree of precision since the advent of weather satellites. Prior to actual measurements from ships, buoys, and satellites, scientists have had to rely on ice core samples, marine sediments, fossil records, and other less exacting methods.\nIn 1967, weather satellites were utilized to determine sea surface temperatures (SSTs), with the first amalgamations appearing in 1970. After 1982, satellites became the de facto method for measuring SSTs and are in basic agreement with more traditional methods. But one problem with these satellite measurements is they only measure the top .01 millimeters or less of the ocean’s surface, which may not be representative of the first upper meter of ocean heat content due to solar interference. Solar problems include surface heating during daytime, reflected radiation, plus heat loss and surface evaporation.\nSatellites can measure the oceans across the planet and not just from shipping lanes, where most temperature records were taken in the past. Fresh surface water makes up about one percent, and 2 to 3 percent is locked away in glaciers and ice caps. Most experts agree that SST measurements have had irregularities over their 130-year history primarily due to conflicting methodology. Interestingly, this new graphic extends back to 1850, a 166-year data record.\nTrackback from your site."

"There is some evidence that shows that younger children, presumably ones who aren't old enough to sit on their duffs and surf online for hours a day, are more fit, and less fat than older children who do use the computer for their primary source of relaxation.\nA study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), in July 2008 shows that exercise levels drop off as children get older. In the study, which lasted from 2000-2006, researchers recorded the movements of more than 1,000 kids using an accelerometer, which the children wore for one week at ages 9, 11, 12, and 15. Their finding are, in a word, frightening.\nThe average 9 year old got about 3 hours of activity a day during the week and on weekends, and they weren't doing to badly at age 11. But by age 15, about 30% were getting the minimum recommended amount of exercise during the week, and only 17% got that much on weekends.\nI know that teenagers' activities tend to slow down somewhat once they leave the rough and tumble puppy years of childhood and start sleeping until noon, but they used to have activities that helped their bodies move, even if they weren't involved in sports, such as walking to school, or to friends' houses, mowing the grass, raking leaves, and even cleaning house. Lifestyle changes have all but removed that from the list of things teenagers do -- more teens have cars than they used to, and more parents pay for lawn services than in the past, and a surprising number of kids don't even have household chores.\nWe also have the addition of technology to woo them away from a day tossing footballs at the lake, or taking a good walk with a friend: text messaging, cable television, movies and DVDs, online social networking, and instant messaging.\nBecause kids are rarely unable to think of how present behaviors will affect them in the future, (smoking, jumping off balconies into pools, drinking and driving, etc.) it may be up to you to manage their physical activities. Just like we feed them vegetables, even though the don't really want them, we have to keep them moving, even though they would rather stay plugged into something at home.\nIf your children plays sports -- fantastic! Make sure they stay signed up with a team. Help them to explore new sports. A rule in our house is one sport a semester -- a spring sport, such as flag football or track, and a fall sport such as Cross Country or Soccer.\nBut not all children are team sports kids. If you have one of those, you could try karate or dance, or even cycling. Get two bikes --one for you and one for your child, and ride together.\nIf none of these options will work for your family consider Frisbee, hiking, racquetball kayaking, and seasonal sports such as skiing or snowshoeing.\nMake fitness a part of your family life, and your children -- even the most reluctant of teens-- will probably warm up to a family fitness activity if you keep it light, good-natured and free of criticism."

"After watching this weeks TED Talk ( https://youtu.be/h11u3vtcpaY ) and reading Bud Hunt’s blog post about hacking, ( http://budtheteacher.com/blog/2012/05/24/centering-on-essential-lenses/ ) I have learned a few things.\nThe little boy speaking in the TED Talk video amazed me with his ideas on education and life in general. He talks about just wanting to be happy when he grows up, and hearing this come from such a young kid is inspiring. He also says similar things that Bud Hunt has in his blog post about hacking. Both said that the term hacking has a bad reputation and is misunderstood. Yes, there are bad things that come with hacking sometimes, but when done the right way, it can be an awesome thing. It can open up new and improved things for a website, help you find easier and quicker ways to do and learn things, and so on and so forth.\nAfter reading and watching what these two had to say, I learned that less can be more for some learners. Whether that means less homework for my students so they aren’t as stressed, or short cuts to a theory, and things like that, if it works faster and easier for a child to learn, why not try it? Not everything has to come with a take home assignment or a 5 page essay. Although these things can be important and help students learn, that’s not always the case for every single student. For some students, less is more.\nI would love to learn more about hacking in education. As a student, I loved short lessons that were straight to the point if I understood what was going on and catching on pretty easily. But if I didn’t understand something I would need to go over it a few times and need more detail. If I can find a way to teach my students what they need to be taught in a short, simple, and right to the point kind of way, and it be guaranteed that they would have a good grasp on the concept, that is exactly what I am going to do.\nI found this picture on flickr and thought that it fit just what we are discussing. In today’s world, people are worrying too much about being right than actually understand what they are doing. This fits in education and just in life in general. That is why I think if there is a shorter way to get students to understand something, it will focus more on the actual learning part, instead of the right answer part."

"Hiragana: [ a ] [ ka ] [ sa ] [ ta ] [ na ] [ ha ] [ ma ] [ ya ] [ ra ] [ wa, wo, n ] [ ゐ and ゑ (ancient hiragana in disuse) ]\nKatakana: [ a ] [ ka ] [ sa ] [ ta ] [ na ] [ ha ] [ ma ] [ ya ] [ ra ] [ wa, wo, n ] [ ヰ and ヱ (ancient katakana in disuse) ]\nIn this lesson you are going to learn how to read and write \"ゐ\" and \"ゑ\". These characters are not used in modern Japanese but are found in old Japanese texts. They are included here mostly for completeness. The student can choose whether to memorise these. Most study aids will not practise these."

"Every major econometric method is illustrated by a persuasive, real life example applied to real data. Explores subjects such as sample design, which are critical to practical application econometrics.\nTable of Contents\n1. Introduction. 2. Basic Probability Theory. 3. Random Variables and Probability Distributions. 4. Mathematics and Expectations. 5. Multivariate Distributions. 6. Sampling and Sampling Distributions. 7. Estimation. 8. Interval Estimation and Hypothesis Testing. 9. Simple Linear Regression. 10. Inferences in Simple Linear Regression. 11. Multiple Regression. 12. Extending the Multiple Regression Model. 13. Specification Error, Multicollinearity, and Measurement Error. 14. Heteroskedasticity and Serial Correlation. 15. Simultaneous Equations. 16. Dummy Dependent Variable Models. 17. Analysis of Time Series Data. 18. Panel Data Models.Appendix A: Review of Probability and Statistics.Appendix B: Statistical Tables.Index."

"The World War II Air Raid Shelter Museum\nAn amazing time travel experience giving a glimpse at daily life during the madness of a war.\nDuring World War. two shelters needed to be constructed for protection from air raids. These were dug in the solid rock and thus the work was quite hard and time consuming. The work on the shelter near the Rotunda parvis started in 1940 and was opened for use in 1941 after five months of digging. It was excavated by 15 skilled workers who worked in day and night shifts.\nIt is 75 meters long and runs for 7 meters under the main square. The design consists of simple interconnecting corridors, with multiple entrances/exits and a few cubicles. One of the cubicles was covered in tiles to keep it as clean as possible. This was used in cases when a woman needed to give birth during an air raid.\nThere is also a great number of displays representing many local trades, showcasing the tools and equipment that were used in those days.\nConnect - Comment - Subscribe\nDesigned & Developed By: App-Raiser Digital"

"Biosynthesis is the formation of chemical compounds\nby using the cells\nof living organisms\nare a direct result of biosynthesis. For example, we have penicillium\n, which is one of the six genera of molds\n. Penicillium is used to create well over 1,000 antibiotics through the process of biosynthesis. The molds used in the biosynthesis of antibiotics, are special strains\nof mold developed over many years of careful research\n. In a nutshell, here is the process they follow to come up with the \"supermolds\" they use in the development of antibiotics we use today:\nA mold is exposed to an agent, perhaps a certain chemical or radiation, that in turn causes a mutation in some of the microorganisms. The molds that show promise of producing antibiotics in larger amounts, or would prove to be more effective than existing antibiotics, are chosen for further research. More mutations are induced; then the selection process repeated again and again.\nThis technique has been frequently used in combination with fermentation technology to produce penicillium strains that yield ten-thousand times as much antibiotic than the wild strains from which they came. By altering the chemical structure of these substances, scientists can develop more powerful antibiotics.\nThe technology of antibiotic manufacture has kept pace with the new methods of biosynthesis. Today, pharmaceutical manufacturing plants produce huge amounts of antibiotics. Much of the manufacturing process is directed from computer terminals, which monitor temperature and nutrient composition, as well as adjust growth conditions. Antibiotic fermentation tanks hold up to 200,000 liters(53,000 gallons) of mold and medium mixture."

"In Part 1 of this two-part series (Can We Trust the Future?), we discussed the definition and brief history of trust and how it enabled societal evolution. We then postulated the “Rise of the Machines,” whereby our future societal evolution will heavily rely upon devices that will inevitably need to trust each other, just as we have done as humans. This all leads to the question of what is machine-level trust.\nWhen you think about, it is very similar to human trust. It distills down to clear identity. For humans we have developed our clear identity in our signatures, fingerprints, and visual memory imprints with each other (i.e., the gray matter video recorder we all hold within our craniums). We authenticate each other predominantly through some variation and/or combination of all of these. Now ask yourself what mechanisms do machines posses to do the same thing. You will find, amazingly, that there are very few foundational mechanisms available to machines today to authenticate themselves in a similar fashion.\nToday’s untrusted devices: a hacker’s clone army\nOne of the key reasons such a myriad of cyber miscreants wander cyberspace with abandon is because they can easily propagate their ills from machine to machine without any fear of an identity-based authentication trust mechanism. This makes each machine effectively a clone that can easily replicate its ills to all other clones. The very term \"computer virus\" fits so well because it so similar to a human virus that attaches itself to a common (i.e., cloned) cellular structure within a human. The same can be said of botnets, malware, and so many of today’s cyber-ills. Imagine now if such a virus could no longer find a common structure upon which to attach and replicate itself.\nSo, your smartphone, tablet, and many other devices are considered by most organizations as “untrusted devices” unless of course they have “authenticated” them. But really, what does that mean? In light of a foundational mechanism to unquestionably identify the device, how can an organization truly authenticate it? It would be similar to authenticating a driver at the DMV when later you find out that the applicant was one of, say, 10 million cloned humans who were identical in every way (including DNA and fingerprints). Now, which one of those 10 million clones was the applicant that you authenticated? Makes for a tough authentication problem now, doesn’t it? Well, that’s the world we live in today. I will go so far as to say that all devices, unless under 24/7 surveillance, have the potential to violate their authentication and are, hence, all untrusted.\nCurrent state of machine-level trust\nSo, with that said, there are plenty of solutions offered in the marketplace to authenticate users via these unauthenticated devices. Examples of this are fingerprint readers and even the basic username and password -- all authentication mechanisms that authenticate the human using the device.\nThis leaves us with a false sense of security. All we are really doing is attempting to substitute human-level authentication through a machine proxy. For the most part, this works in many situations, but, as discussed above, it does not really solve a machine-level authentication problem. Now, as more and more machines become critical to our daily lives, and they rely more and more upon communications with each other without a human in the loop, then we do have a potential problem brewing with regard to how they will trust each other.\nUsing the coming electronic revolution in automobiles -- which will include everything from the current fully electric motor-powered to completely networked autonomous vehicle trains -- is a good place to think about machine-level trust. Picture riding in your shining new electric car that will automatically drive itself down the highway in sync with all the other cars in its lane. What happens if the machine-level trust is violated by one of these vehicles? Hope it’s not your car.\nFuture technologies showing promise\nSo, what is needed to help in our continued evolution of trust extended to machines is a mechanism for machines to have clear, unquestionable identity just as humans do. A technology that is showing great promise in this regard is based on physically unclonable functions (PUFs).\nPUFs use the random parametric variations in electrical properties of integrated circuits to differentiate one chip from another, and are designed to be impervious to duplication or prediction, even by the manufacturer. While these random parametric variations are normal and maintained within process control limits and are impossible to effectively manipulate or eliminate, they can be measured. PUFs are effectively an electronic fingerprint of a silicon die that cannot be cloned, spoofed, or easily exploited. PUFs show the promise of providing a machine-level trust foundation upon which true device-level authentication can take place."

"Chatbots with Machine Learning: building smarter bots\nA chatbot is a computer program which can converse with a user using auditory or textual methods. There are many popular chatbots brands today such as Siri, Alexa, Google Assistant and Cortana, which can simulate human conversations.\nA study by Harvard Business Review and InsideSales concludes that a ten-minute delay in response to queries can reduce the chance of effective contact by 400%. Chatbots allow instant contact and flexibility to their customers to chat anywhere, anytime. Users use chatbots to organize their schedules, get directions, and call people, amongst other things. Gartner has predicted that by 2020, people will have more conversations with chatbots than their spouse!\nMachine learning makes smarter chatbots\nEver wondered how Amazon’s Alexa or Apple’s Siri are able to talk fluently with their users? And all this happens while they answer user queries, give reminders and play their favourite music? They are chatbots who have been trained in conversational and basic organizational skills. However, their limitation is obvious when you try to talk to them beyond their basic functionalities. The integration of machine learning using neural networks helps developers come up with neural conversational agents that mimic natural language.\nWhat is machine learning?\nMachine learning is the study of algorithms and statistical models used by computer systems. Its purpose is to perform a specific task without being explicitly asked, by relying on past patterns. It allows bots to interact with users via the natural language that can be easily interpreted by the system. This integration of machine learning with bots is known as a dialogue system or simply, chatbots. The aim of this field is to build a model through which a user can interact with a machine and still get a more nuanced ‘human-like’ answer while upholding the framework of the conversation. Machine learning automates the model building for the chatbot development so that the chatbot can learn from its own experience.\nHow machine learning (ML) integrates with chatbots?\nA successful chatbot of the future should be able to hold a natural conversation with its users. Such a conversation will be completely indistinguishable from a human conversation. In reality, this level of finesse has not been reachable so far. Despite the usefulness of chatbots in carrying out basic business-related transactional conversations, they fail to naturally mimic human interactions. This is especially true when the topic of discussion is more evolved, such as an emotional, fun or philosophical topic. Machine learning improves this efficiency of chatbots by developing neural network based conversational models.\nConversational models for chatbots\nCreating neural conversational models by use of machine learning algorithms is a time-consuming process and has to carefully performed. But after all the hard work, it does enable a chatbot to interact with customers automatically and naturally. The models are categorised as selective and generative models.\nA selective model works by ranking the statements based on their context instead of going sequentially. It does not have to follow a sequential approach and can come up with quicker responses. However, it lacks the accuracy which is offered by the generative models. A generative model is much simpler and is built to function in a sequential manner. It is much slower but also more reliable due to the sequential layer-by-layer approach it follows. Neural conversational models offer a powerful way for machine learning developers to create chatbots which can converse naturally with users.\nToday, chatbots are being created to perform evolved cognitive functions. For example, developing a computer vision, convert speech to text, recognise languages, translate, recognise speakers, analyse text etc. With the help of machine learning, the future of chatbots looks promising. Being right at the centre of AI, internet and automation, chatbots can prove to be a highly effective tool.\nWant to make your startup journey smooth? YS Education brings a comprehensive Funding Course, where you also get a chance to pitch your business plan to top investors. Click here to know more."

"While it is important for men's own health that they become more involved in HIV prevention and care, there are important benefits for women too. Some of these link to women's heightened vulnerability to HIV infection, others tie more closely to equality and equity in care.\nWomen's vulnerability to HIV transmission is partly a matter of biology. Because vaginal tissue is fragile, particularly in younger women, during unprotected vaginal intercourse an HIV-positive man is twice as likely to transmit the virus to an uninfected woman as an HIV-positive woman is to infect her male partner.\nFor the female partner, an even riskier alternative to vaginal intercourse is unprotected anal intercourse. Studies from Africa, Asia and North America have shown up to 19% of women reporting anal intercourse at least once in their lives, in some cases when there is a concern to \"preserve\" virginity or prevent pregnancy.\nWomen are also made vulnerable by men's greater economic and social power, and by unequal gender relations. It is men who generally decide when and with whom to have sex and whether to use condoms. This leaves women with little or no control over their exposure to the virus. It is men too who are most usually the perpetrators of sexual violence, whether in war or civil unrest, or within ongoing relationships.\nIn follow-up to the Beijing Fourth World Conference on Women, the 43rd session of the UN Commission on the Status of Women (1999) drew attention to the need to educate women and men, particularly young people, with a view to promoting equal relationships between women and men, and to encouraging men to accept their responsibilities in matters relating to sexuality, reproduction and child-rearing.\nWhile there have been some initiatives over the past two decades aimed at reducing women's vulnerability to HIV and empowering them to have greater control over their sexual and reproductive lives, both the scale of these efforts and their success have fallen far short of what is needed. That is why many advocates for women's health now argue that improving the status of women and helping them to protect themselves also requires greater co-operation from men. In other words, HIV prevention activities involving men hold the potential to benefit women as well.\nThis does not mean reducing the number or focus of programmes aimed at women. Everyone at risk of infection, whatever their gender, status or sexuality, has the right to protect themselves from HIV. However, programmes for women will be much more effective when they are accompanied by parallel efforts directed at men. It is the potential synergy between these two complementary sets of activities that needs greater emphasis.\nThis article was provided by UNAIDS. It is a part of the publication Men and AIDS -- A Gendered Approach, 2000 World AIDS Campaign. Visit UNAIDS' website to find out more about their activities, publications and services."

"One of the perceived apprehensions about following a vegetarian diet is whether or not one can get sufficient iron from a meatless diet. People may speculate that since meat is a good source of protein as well as iron, cutting this out of the diet could create certain nutritional deficiencies – iron derived from animals is more easily absorbed by the human body than other types of iron.\nHowever, this is really not so. In fact many nutritionists believe that plant derived iron is actually the best type of iron to consume. Surveys have shown that vegetarians are no more common than others to have iron deficiency anemia so long as they eat a balanced, nutritious diet. Here’s what an iron rich vegetarian diet for anemia should be like:\nOne of the best sources of plant based iron is green veggies such as spinach, kale, Swiss Chard, Brussels Sprours and broccoli and so on. Other leafy greens such as turnip greens, beet greens and so on are also good sources of iron for vegans and vegetarians. Nutritionists recommend that these foods are better absorbed when they are cooked.\nSoy, tofu, tempeh\nThese are some of the staples of the vegan diet and are good sources of iron. Consumed in sufficient quantities they are versatile and tasty sources of iron. Soy in particular is very versatile – it can be had in the form of chunks, flakes, milk, yogurt and so much more.\nBeans and legumes\nBlack beans, baked beans, chickpeas kidney beans, black eyed peas and legumes of all sorts contain iron to varying degrees. They are also nutritionally rich in other aspects; particularly important to non-animal based diets.\nDried fruit, seeds and nuts\nDried fruits such as dates, apricots, prunes and raisins are not only delicious; they are an excellent source of iron. Nuts such as almonds and cashews are also packed with nutritional goodness including small amounts of iron. Sunflower seeds, sesame seeds and many other seeds contain beneficial oils as well as some amounts of iron.\nThis is thought to be one of the world’s healthiest foods. It comes in a thick syrup form and can be used to add a bitter sweet flavor to a wide variety of dishes.\nVitamin C rich foods\nThe important thing to remember about getting enough iron is to see that whatever iron you consume is able to be absorbed by the body. Vitamin C can help here. Consuming enough vitamin C can help the body absorb the iron that you consume."

"By Henry Ehrlich\nThe bio-marker study described in detail by three of our contributors, Drs. Xiu-Min Li, Purvi Parikh, and my cousin and collaborator Paul M. Ehrlich is a new chapter in the long, mostly distant relationship between Chinese medicine and Western medicine.\nThe first instance of what we now call “integrative medicine” was a treatment for high fever concocted by a Qing Dynasty physician. He was introduced to a new medicine called aspirin by British invaders during the Opium Wars of the 19th century, and after combining it with an ancient asthma remedy called ma huang* (ephedra), created “white tiger formula.”\nThe next hundred years or so were summed up from the American point of view in the New England Journal of Medicine in a 1934 review of a book called Chinese Medicine by William R. Morse:\n“The author makes a serious attempt to understand Chinese medicine, which, he says, is vitalistic, while ours is materialistic. It began about 3000 B.C. and up to about 1000 A.D., it evolved a high standard of practice relative to that age. Since then, it has remained static. Being a philosophy, it is untouched by modern science. Chinese medical procedures are only of academic interest to the medical historian; they are of no actual value unless as suggestive and psychological therapeutics. The outstanding exception of ephedrine is not mentioned by the author.” (NEJM May 17, 1934)\nI found this passage fascinating for several reasons. One, that it used a word you don’t see every day—vitalistic, from vitalism, defined by Oxford as, “The theory that that the origin and phenomena of life are dependent on a force or principle distinct from purely chemical or physical forces.” Two, the sweeping claim that Chinese medicine is “untouched by modern science.” And finally, the pronouncement that there is no actual value except for the above-mentioned ephedrine.\nNever mind. Cut to the present. We have arrived at sweet spot for collaboration. “Western” diseases have stubbornly resisted treatment using “materialistic” medicine. Meanwhile, progress is on the march around the world, bringing with it epidemics of immune and inflammatory diseases. In my ever-humble opinion, East needs West needs East. I spent two years writing my book about Dr. Li’s work and am convinced that TCM has now been “touched by modern science” and proven very promising. Evidence? For one thing, the anti-asthma herbal intervention called ASHMI™ was created without using ma huang, which has fallen into disrepute because it has been used to deadly effect in diet drugs and is a precursor for crystal meth.\nLast spring Dr. Li told a graduating class at the New York College of Traditional Chinese Medicine:\n“As TCM practitioners we know that our herbs work. But the regulatory system under which the Western medical system functions must show a number of things.\n“1–That our treatments are safe. First do no harm.\n“2–That they work. And\n“3–If we’re good, WHY they work.\n“At that point, doctors will begin to use them, without ever knowing whether a disease is rising from the spleen or descending from the liver.”\nThe bio-marker study is notable for a number of reasons. First of all, it will be funded out of donations, based on the mutual interests of donors and investigators, not government or institutional grants.\nSecond, the proposed study is also not aimed primarily at a cure or even treatment, as is the case with most big grants. Dr. Li calls it “a bridge between the science and TCM practice.” The results will help the researchers understand how TCM therapy may improve immune system-poly-sensitization and optimize methodology of clinical studies. Among other factors, it will help assess the effectiveness of refined versions of the formulas, which is a big factor in patient compliance. Too many pills spoil the treatment. The study will shed light on the trade-offs between dosages and simplified protocols on the one hand and clinical efficacy on the other. Other issues are the timing and dosing of protocol, mono-therapy vs. a comprehensive regimen, and the influence of individual immune status on clinical outcomes. Food allergy has unique clinical features. For example, most individuals who have them are generally healthy; active disease is invisible if they are rigorously avoiding exposure. Skin tests and IgE levels don’t do the trick of assessing reactive status, and food challenge is an unpleasant or even dangerous prospect for severe food allergic individuals.\nThird, it is a “real world” study. The NIH/NCCAM has become increasingly open to this idea because they recognize that studying a new idea or drug among a narrow set of subjects doesn’t reflect patient realities. Almost every new drug enters the market with a very good safety record based on small, homogeneous clinical trials, and then black box warnings start to appear on the label as problems arise with a wider patient population. Instead of being conducted on patients with a narrow illness profile, the bio-marker study will look at patients more typical of what doctors see routinely, with a variety of atopic conditions in addition to food allergies, diseases that are manageable, not curable, by conventional medicine. These variations may point in new directions for study.\nFourth, the study is practice based, with one foot in TCM and the other in mainstream allergy. Both disciplines will contribute what they do best. The doctors will communicate. And, we can hope that out of their collaboration will come a new synthesis, a new vocabulary for treating conditions that have eluded conventional medicine for a hundred years.\n*Ma huang turned up in the New England Journal of Medicine (199:1024-1062) in 1928 as a sidebar to an article about asthma. It was the third year of famine, and residents of hungry regions were encouraged to harvest the plant from roadsides in exchange for food. “This year 200 tons of the herb were brought in, and that amount practically exhausted the supply within a radius of twenty miles, which is about the limit of the distance which it pays men to transport the herb….” American, Canadian, and German drug makers were a big market.\nGraphic by http://www.bio.davidson.edu/"

"Deep-sea observations at hydrocarbon drilling locations: Contributions from the SERPENT Project after 120 field visits\n- Publication Type:\n- Journal Article\n- Deep-Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography, 2017, 137 pp. 463 - 479\n- Issue Date:\n© 2016 The SERPENT Project has been running for over ten years. In this time scientists from universities and research institutions have made more than 120 visits to oil rigs, drill ships and survey vessels operated by 16 oil companies, in order to work with the industry's Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROV). Visits have taken place in Europe, North and South America, Africa and Australasia at water depths from 100 m to nearly 3000 m. The project has directly produced >40 peer reviewed publications and data from the project's >2600 entry online image and video archive have been used in many others. The aim of this paper is to highlight examples of how valuable data can be obtained through collaboration with hydrocarbon exploration and production companies to use existing industry infrastructure to increase scientific discovery in unexplored areas and augment environmental monitoring of industrial activity. The large number of industry ROVs operating globally increases chance encounters with large, enigmatic marine organisms. SERPENT video observations include the deepest known records of species previously considered epipelagic such as scalloped hammerhead (Sphyrna lewini) and southern sunfish (Mola ramsayi) and the first in situ observations of pelagic species such as oarfish (Regalecus glesne). Such observations enable improvements to distribution records and description of behaviour of poorly understood species. Specimen collection has been used for taxonomic descriptions, functional studies and natural products chemistry research. Anthropogenic effects been assessed at the local scale using in situ observations and sample collection at the time of drilling operations and subsequent visits have enabled study of recovery from drilling. Future challenges to be addressed using the SERPENT approach include ensuring unique faunal observations by industry ROV operators are reported, further study of recovery from deep-water drilling activity and to carry out in situ studies to improve the understanding of potential future decommissioning of obsolete hydrocarbon infrastructure.\nPlease use this identifier to cite or link to this item:"

"During a physical exam your doctor will likely press around your joints, checking for tenderness. Your doctor might also move the joints through a variety of positions to see if your range of motion has been reduced.\nMany disorders can cause joint pain. Imaging tests can help pinpoint the source of pain. Options include:\n- X-rays. They can reveal bone changes that occur in the later stages of avascular necrosis. In the condition's early stages, X-rays usually appear normal.\n- MRI and CT scan. These tests produce detailed images that can show early changes in bone that might indicate avascular necrosis.\n- Bone scan. A small amount of radioactive material is injected into your vein. This tracer travels to the parts of your bones that are injured or healing and shows up as bright spots on the imaging plate.\nThe goal is to prevent further bone loss.\nMedications and therapy\nIn the early stages of avascular necrosis, symptoms might be eased with medication and therapy. Your doctor might recommend:\n- Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Medications, such as ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin IB, others) or naproxen sodium (Aleve) might help relieve the pain associated with avascular necrosis.\n- Osteoporosis drugs. Medications, such as alendronate (Fosamax, Binosto), might slow the progression of avascular necrosis, but the evidence is mixed.\n- Cholesterol-lowering drugs. Reducing the amount of cholesterol and fat in your blood might help prevent the vessel blockages that can cause avascular necrosis.\n- Blood thinners. If you have a clotting disorder, blood thinners, such as warfarin (Coumadin, Jantoven), might be recommended to prevent clots in the vessels feeding your bones.\n- Rest. Reducing the weight and stress on your affected bone can slow the damage. You might need to restrict your physical activity or use crutches to keep weight off your joint for several months.\n- Exercises. A physical therapist can teach you exercises to help maintain or improve the range of motion in your joint.\n- Electrical stimulation. Electrical currents might encourage your body to grow new bone to replace the damaged bone. Electrical stimulation can be used during surgery and applied directly to the damaged area. Or it can be administered through electrodes attached to your skin.\nSurgical and other procedures\nBecause most people don't develop symptoms until avascular necrosis is fairly advanced, your doctor might recommend surgery. The options include:\n- Core decompression. The surgeon removes part of the inner layer of your bone. Besides reducing your pain, the extra space within your bone stimulates the production of healthy bone tissue and new blood vessels.\n- Bone transplant (graft). This procedure can help strengthen the area of bone affected by avascular necrosis. The graft is a section of healthy bone taken from another part of your body.\n- Bone reshaping (osteotomy). A wedge of bone is removed above or below a weight-bearing joint, to help shift your weight off the damaged bone. Bone reshaping might enable you to postpone joint replacement.\n- Joint replacement. If your diseased bone has collapsed or other treatments aren't helping, you might need surgery to replace the damaged parts of your joint with plastic or metal parts.\n- Regenerative medicine treatment. Bone marrow aspirate and concentration is a newer procedure that might be appropriate for early stage avascular necrosis of the hip. Stem cells are harvested from your bone marrow. During surgery, a core of dead hipbone is removed and stem cells inserted in its place, potentially allowing for growth of new bone. More study is needed.\nExplore Mayo Clinic studies testing new treatments, interventions and tests as a means to prevent, detect, treat or manage this disease.\nPreparing for your appointment\nYour family doctor might refer you to a doctor who specializes in disorders of the joints (rheumatologist) or to an orthopedic surgeon.\nWhat you can do\nMake a list of:\n- Your symptoms, including any that may seem unrelated to the reason why you scheduled the appointment, and when they began\n- Key medical information, including other conditions you have and history of injury to the painful joint\n- All medications, vitamins or other supplements you take, including doses\n- Questions to ask your doctor\nAsk a relative or friend to accompany you, if possible, to help you remember the information you receive.\nSome questions to ask your doctor about avascular necrosis include:\n- What's the most likely cause of my symptoms?\n- What tests do I need?\n- What treatments are available?\n- I have other health conditions. How can I best manage them together?\nDon't hesitate to ask other questions.\nWhat to expect from your doctor\nYour doctor is likely to ask you questions, including:\n- Where's your pain?\n- Does a particular joint position make the pain better or worse?\n- Have you ever taken steroids such as prednisone?\n- How much alcohol do you drink?\nMay 05, 2018\n- Jones LC, et al. Osteonecrosis (avascular necrosis of bone). https://www.uptodate.com/contents/search. Accessed Feb. 23, 2018.\n- AskMayoExpert. Avascular necrosis of the hip. Rochester, Minn.: Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research; 2017.\n- Patient fact sheet: Osteonecrosis. American College of Rheumatology. https://www.rheumatology.org/I-Am-A/Patient-Caregiver/Diseases-Conditions/Osteonecrosis. Accessed Feb. 23, 2018.\n- Osteonecrosis (ON). Merck Manual Professional Version. http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/musculoskeletal-and-connective-tissue-disorders/osteonecrosis/osteonecrosis-on. Accessed Feb. 23, 2018.\nProducts & Services"

"There are currently 0 users and 10 guests online.\nLinz's Mario Book—Updated!\nWho Should Be the Republican Nominee?\nTotal votes: 21\nWhen We Walked on the Moon\nSubmitted by Ed Hudgins on Sat, 2009-07-18 17:34\nWhen We Walked on the Moon\nby Edward Hudgins\nJuly 17, 2009 -- As a child I was fascinated by astronomy and space, and I hoped to live to see the day when men would travel to the Moon. In 1969 I managed to snag a summer high school internship at Goddard Space Flight Center in Beltsville, Maryland. Thus I was able to be an extremely small part of one of the greatest human achievements when, on July 20, 1969, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became the first human beings to land and walk on the lunar surface.\nI was like a kid in a solar-system-sized candy store! I was able to watch the launch and splashdown from the control room; they let a kid like me just walk right in and sit in the visitors’ gallery! I was able to follow every step of the Apollo 11 mission; I still have my thick copy of the flight plan, labeled AS-506-/CSM-107/LM-5, and a hundred high-resolution lunar mapping photos.\nForty years later I reflect on the two meanings, one political, the other philosophical, of what happened on that “Where were you?” date.\nFrom the Moon to the Mud\nThe Moon landing was spearheaded by NASA, a government agency created for political purposes and national prestige as well as for scientific discoveries. There were several reasons for its success in reaching the Moon ahead of the Soviets. NASA had a very focused mission and definite deadline. It had as much taxpayer money as it needed. And it had personnel from the private sector as well as the military who were committed to the mission and willing to heroically give their all to achieve it. These people deserve our praise and admiration.\nBut in the decades since the landing NASA has become bloated, bureaucratic, and mired in the mud of parochial political concerns of politicians. This is the fate of all government agencies, no matter the quality of the individuals working for them.\nConsider the example of NASA’s current principal project. The space station was originally proposed in the mid-1980s with a price-tag of about $8 billion and a projected completion date in the early 1990s. Instead, with redesigns and even downsizing, it will not be completed until 2010, at a cost of well over $100 billion. Perhaps the goal was as much to keep money flowing to contractors as to build a space station. Most scientists see little value in the station compared to other possible uses for that money. And, incredibly, NASA is now planning to de-orbit the station and let it burn up in the atmosphere in 2016, only five years after completion.\nJust the kind of astronomical waste you’d expect from government!\nEnterprise in Orbit\nNASA has failed, as it had to, to commercialize access to space—that is, to bring down the costs and improve the quality in the way the private sector has done for cars, air travel, televisions, personal computers, and cells phones.\nBut private entrepreneurs have been able to overcome many barriers placed in their way by governments, and in recent years have begun to provide access to space in the same ways that innovators in the past have provided so many other goods and services. In 2004 Burt Rutan won the private $10 million Ansari X-Prize by building a craft that could travel into space with a crew capacity of three, twice in a two-week period. He’s now working with airline and railroad entrepreneur Richard Branson to provide sub-orbital flights to the public at a price that will allow many people to venture outside of our atmosphere.\nElon Musk, through his company SpaceX, has designed and built private rockets from the ground up and recently launched a satellite. Robert Bigelow, through his company Bigelow Aerospace, has launched a one-third-size version of an innovative space station and plans to launch a full-sized model soon for a fraction of the cost of NASA’s orbiting white elephant.\nSuch entrepreneurs are creating the infrastructure that will make us a space-faring civilization and should provide the paths back to the Moon and onto Mars.\nThe Leap for Mankind\nThe Moon landing also highlights two views of humans and our place in the universe. When Apollo 11 touched down in the Sea of Tranquility, the United States was in turmoil not only about then-current political issues like the Vietnam War and civil rights, but also about the means and ends of human life. As Ayn Rand noted at the time, Apollo represented the view that the human mind is our unique tool for survival and for flourishing, and that joy and happiness from our achievements, most dramatically represented by the Moon landing, are our proper goals.\nAnother view, represented by the counter-culture of the time, played down or rejected reason in favor of more shallow emotional indulgence, questioned the value of technology, and even placed the environment on par with or above humans in value.\nToday the battle of these two visions continues, with proponents on both sides and many individuals with minds schizophrenically in both camps. Many young people who were not born when a Saturn V rocket carried Armstrong and Aldrin to the Moon love the products of the human mind—laptops, iPhones, the Internet. But many also feel guilty about the fact that technology, by definition, is altering the environment and material resources in order to serve human needs. They feel guilty about being human. They are obsessed with “going green,” not simply to insure that air is breathable and water drinkable for humans but also to minimize the impact of humans on the world. This is an attitude that will keep us in the mud!\nBut the great human achievements that are yet to come—returning to the Moon, landing on Mars, terraforming that planet’s atmosphere to make it into another habitat for humanity—will require a human life with all its requirements as the standard of value.\nNeil Armstrong’s first words when stepping onto the surface of the Moon, “That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind,” well expressed the spirit of that mission. And those of us who shared that spirit were, in spirit, on the Moon with Armstrong and Aldrin that day forty years ago.\nFor further reading:\n*Ayn Rand, “Apollo 11.” The Objectivist, September 1969. Reprinted in The Voice of Reason, 1990.\n*Ayn Rand, “Apollo and Dionysis.” The Objectivist, December 1969. Reprinted in Return of the Primitive, 1999.\n*Edward Hudgins, editor, Space: The Free-Market Frontier . The Cato Institute, 2002.\n*Edward Hudgins, “Celebrating Apollo 11's Sense of Life.” July 20, 2004.\n*Edward Hudgins, “Apollo 11 on Human Achievement Day.” July 20, 2005.\n*Edward Hudgins, “A Voyage Across the Final Frontier: Cosmos: A Personal Voyage.” The New Individualist, July-August 2007.\n*Edward Hudgins, “Individualism in Orbit: Morality for the High Frontier.” The New Individualist, July-August 2007.\nMore SOLO Store\nThe Fountainhead by Ayn Rand\nAtlas Shrugged by Ayn Rand"

"Before you start your garden you will have, no doubt, visualized how you want it to look when it's in its prime. Be that as it may, a lot of eager gardeners commit ordinary blunders and, as a result, their gardens do not turn out as well as they expected. These can be oversights regarding location, water or even the types of plants that you choose. Our focus in this article is to help you recognize - and avoid - some of the typical errors a gardener can make. A little research can save a lot of heartache too, for instance if you're looking to buy a new mower - check out the question 'are flymo mowers any good' , and then make sure you don't buy one !\nOne error you want to avoid is planting your garden too early in the season. Your plants will not thrive or produce as well. Don't make the common mistake many new gardeners make of putting your plants out - or sowing your seedbeds - too soon.\nYou can't just assume that you won't have some more cold nights just because you are enjoying warmer days. You risk your plants - they could die - if winter weather returns and you get some killing frosts or extremely cold weather. If you just give it a little more time - until all danger of freezing weather is past - your garden will get off to a healthy start.\nWithout water, a garden will die. Unfortunately, this is something that a lot of gardeners don't pay sufficient attention to and their gardens suffer. What most gardeners don't realize is that some plants require more or less water than other plants. So, keep your plants divided accordingly. Seasonal rainfall and the climate in your area will help you determine how much watering you need to do. One handy gadget for gardeners is a soil tester. This simple piece of equipment will analyze the moisture content of your soil. This way, you will know without doubt whether your plants require more water or not. Don't make the mistake of thinking that your plants will do better if the soil is kept wet. Plants are better off with moist soil. Over-watering can be just as harmful to plants as under-watering.\nOne of the easiest mistakes to make is not knowing the condition of your soil. If your soil is poor, your plants will not grow like they should. Healthy soil equals healthy plants. Do a test on the pH of your soil before you even begin planting. This will tell you if your soil is alkaline or acid. You can purchase kits to test your soil at any gardening center or online. After you have determined the condition of your soil, you can make the necessary addition to bring it up to a healthy level. This may be as easy as adding fertilizer. If your soil is really poor, you can also buy properly balanced soil from a nursery. If you want your garden to stay healthy, and flourish, it's a good idea to compost your garden or add fertilizer regularly. You can easily sidestep a lot of gardening mishaps once you have knowledge of what some of them are. Typically, when amateur gardeners make a mistake,\nit is because they started planting without really knowing what they were doing. Often times, you can find the information you need, as it is printed on the packet of seeds you purchased. You will not mess up to much, as long as you seek information when you need it.\nHarry writes on a number of review sites and general gardening blogs. He is interested in all things to do with gardens and even writes a website based purely on trying to decide what's the best lawnmower. Check it out there are some truly hopeless mowers around!"

"Marcy Dam Removal\nThis year the Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) stared the process of removing Marcy Dam. The dam suffered significant damage to the bridge and splashboards during Tropical Storm Irene in August 2011. DEC decided that the cost of repair was too great and that the dam itself did not conform with the wilderness land classification applied to the land upon which it sits. The gut reaction by many is disgust and anger. People feel that the DEC is needlessly removing and altering an iconic location within the High Peaks Wilderness.\nWhat we must not forget is that Marcy Dam was built out of a need to transport timber down Marcy Brook and the West Branch of the Ausable to mills located in Au Sable Forks. The great fire of 1903 wiped out a lot of logging operations in the area, but also set forth a boom in timber salvaging, particularly in the area surrounding Marcy Dam. Once all of the salvageable timber was harvested loggers moved uphill towards Indian Falls to harvest live trees. During this entire time Marcy Dam was used to pond and flush logs downstream to the mills.\nThe Forest Preserve was created precisely because of the over exploitation of timber resources mentioned above. Marcy Dam is literally a physical manifestation of the problems that the park was created to combat. The dam should have been removed long ago, as its original purpose was no longer warranted. Instead, the dam benefited from a general mindset across the nation that every river should be controlled and manipulated to benefit man, with little regard to the ecological impacts of such projects. The CCC \"improved\" Marcy Dam in the 1930s and the Department of Environmental Conservation did more work in the 1970s.\nThe design of Marcy Dam, along with most dams, destined the pond for a relatively short life. The dam and pond were smack in the middle of a rather significant river channel and the pond was relatively shallow. Rivers are meant to transport material, namely sediment, downstream. When you put a dam across a river it stops this natural movement of sediment, causing it to accumulate above the dam and eventually fill in the pond. The pond held back by Marcy Dam was very near the end of its life when the dam was damaged by Tropical Storm Irene. Restoring the pond would have required a massive dredging operation in the middle of the wilderness. Or a taller dam would have to be built. Either option would require further dredging at some later point.\nWhen reflecting on the criticism to remove the dam I am often left wondering what the response would be to the construction of a new dam in the middle of the High Peaks Wilderness. What if the DEC proposed to dam the Johns Brook Valley? Would the same individuals opposed to the removal of Marcy Dam be speaking out in defense of the preservation of this area? What if Marcy Dam had never been built, but there was now a proposal to site a dam in that location? I doubt many people would support any of these proposals and there would be significant opposition to them.\nThe removal of Marcy Dam is a quite beautiful act and one that reflects our relatively new understanding that we benefit most when we work with natural systems, not against them. It is an acknowledgement and further affirmation of the fact that we no longer believe that forests exist solely to be harvested for their timber and all rivers don't need to be impounded for our benefit. Our society is becoming increasingly aware that intact ecosystems are necessary for our survival. In fact, New York State proved to be quite progressive in this understanding when they created the forest preserve over 100 years ago.\nSo lets mourn the loss of the iconic pond retained by Marcy Dam while at the same time rejoicing in the fact that this area will be given the chance to return to its natural state. Let's also be proud to live in a state that is capable of recognizing the value of wilderness and is willing to take steps to restore it."

"SAT Math For Dummies : Scoring well on the mathematics sections of the SAT isn't guaranteed by getting good grades in algebra and geometry. Loaded with test-taking strategies, three practice tests, and hundreds of problems with detailed solutions and explanations, this is your go-to guide for making the best use of the limited time allowed and getting your best possible score! Get an overview of the SAT math topics you'll need to know: arithmetic, algebra, geometry, coordinate geometry, and more. Refresh your knowledge of the basic math skills you'll apply on the exam, and discover the formulas you'll need to know. Pull together everything you've learned and discover how to approach and solve the types of word problems you'll see on the actual exam. Answer practice questions throughout the book, plus take three full-length practice tests with detailed answers and explanations at the end of the book. Discover the best ways to utilize your study time between now and exam day, as well as how to keep yourself on track on the big day.\n|Guías de Ayuda||Prep School Guides|"

"Research investigating the potential indicators of ecological restoration success at the PCRP was undertaken over two years (2011-2012). Comprehensive floral and faunal inventories and monitoring were used to determine characteristics of forest and disturbed environments at the species and community level, with a focus on the transition of these characteristics during restoration. Pedology and soil chemical analysis was completed to describe the site template and to identify variables that may influence the restoration of floral and faunal communities at the site. A comprehensive report was published by Lincoln University in 2012 and is available here.\n5. Ecosystem services of birds – seed dispersal through the PCRP site\nA series of bird perches were set up in the restoration plantings of the PCRP over last summer and have been monitored by Ecology student Ross Carter-Brown. The seed rain produced by berry-eating birds will be collected and analysed for a year and a half. Ross starts his Honours in the second semester of 2014 at Lincoln University and during this time he will analyse the diversity seed species from beneath the roosts. His work will also determine how much of a role artificial roosts can play in manipulating seed-carrying birds to sites to disperse seeds and help regeneration. Ross will also calculate how much of the seed deposited on the ground is eaten by rodents and other species.\n6. Diversity and functional role of endemic earthworms\nNew Zealand has more than 200 endemic earthworm species described and many putative new species yet to be described. It has been reported that endemic earthworm communities disappeared quickly after the introduction of exotic grassland and crops mainly because of environmental changes. However, little is known about the functional role of New Zealand native earthworms and potential competition with exotic (European) earthworms.\nThe PhD project of Young Nam Kim is focusing on native earthworm species from the PCRP site. His research is aiming at investigating the significance, diversity and functional role of endemic earthworms in native ecosystems.\n7. How soil, litter and rhizosphere influence restoration\nTao Zhong is a Lincoln University PhD student interested in the influence of soil, litter and rhizosphere interactions on the restoration trajectory at Punakaiki. As part of this work, pedology and soil chemical analysis are completed at PCRP to identify potential variables that may influence the restoration of floral and faunal communities at the site.\nFour different soil series were described across the site: Karoro, Kamaka, Kamaka (shallow variant) and Waiwero. Interpretation of soil data at the site is complex and somewhat confounded by the overlay of the four soil series with historic usage of the site.\nA soil chemical response is apparent after the first five years of restoration. Multivariate analysis of soil physic-chemical data allowed separation of the three treatments (Mature, Restored and Unplanted sites) with Key chemical variables including C/N ratios, P, Zn, K, S, Mn and Mg.\n8. Penguins conservation\nA significant population of little blue penguins nests in the PCRP area. Up to 50 individuals were spotted in 2012 by a Lincoln University student working on the restoration area. Little blue penguins have declined since 1960 and remain threatened by mammalian predators, coastal development and traffic. The newly proposed Punakaiki Marine Reserve is good news for the penguins, however, mammalian predators (including dogs) are a serious threat.\nAs part of the PCRP, we want to raise the profile of Punakaiki penguins, involve local communities particularly local schools in the conservation of little blue penguins, and collect scientific data about the population of little blue penguins nesting at Punakaiki. This study is funded by the Brian Mason Scientific and Technical Trust.\n(Summer scholarship currently available to work on this project)\n9. Predator control\nThe presence of mammalian predators on the site has been monitored using tracking tunnels. These simple plastic tunnels are lined with a white cardboard coated with ink and allow the detection of animal by identifying the ink tracks left by animals walking through the tunnel. At PCRP, tracking tunnels revealed that mice were widespread throughout mature, restored and unplanted habitats, but the presence of rats was exclusive to mature vegetation. These predators can be damaging to native small birds, penguins, wetas and other invertebrates. They can also attack Petrels who occasionally land on the site.\n10. Future projects\nA number of future exciting research projects are under development. We are currently looking for funding and potential students to undertake these projects. If you are interested or able to help, please contact us (firstname.lastname@example.org).\nBoyer S., Kim Y., Bowie M.H., Dickinson N.M., Hahner J. (2014) Rapid response of earthworm communities to above-ground restoration. Society for Ecological Restoration Australasia Meeting (SERA) in Nouméa, New Caledonia. Accepted oral communication.\nBoyer S., Abbott M., Bowie M.H.,Dickinson N.M., Hahner J. Rohdes S.H., Sharp D., Smith C.M.,(2014) The Punakaiki Living Lab a case study for a consultative and multidisciplinary approach in restoring a mining closure site, West Coast, New Zealand. Society for Ecological Restoration Australasia Meeting (SERA) in Nouméa, New Caledonia. Accepted oral communication\nSmith C.M., ,Dickinson N.M., Boyer S., Bowie M.H., Hahner J. Rohdes S.H., Sharp D. (2014) Punakaiki Coastal Restoration Project: a case study for a consultative and multidisciplinary approach in selecting indicators of restoration success for a sands mining closure site, West Coast, New Zealand. 20th World Congress on Soil Science (WCSS), Jeju, Korea. Oral communication\nHahner J.L., Bowie M.H., Dickinson N.M., Smith C., Boyer S., Chassagneux A., Segrestin J., Carter-Brown R., Zhong H., Mountier C. (2013) Development and testing indicators of restoration success: Punakaiki coastal restoration project. Eds. Jason Hahner and Mike Bowie. Lincoln University Wildlife Management Report No. 52. ISBN: 978-0-86476-323-5\nRhodes, K. Lorenzon, J.L. Hahner, M.H. Bowie, S. Boyer, N. Dickinson, C. Smith, D. Sharp (2013) Punakaiki Coastal Restoration Project: A Partnership for Closure and Restoration of a Mineral Sands Project Site in New Zealand. Mine Closure 2013. Eds. M. Tibbett, A.B. Fourie and C. Digby. Australian Centre for Geomechanics, Perth, ISBN 978-0-9870937-4-5. pp. 447-463.\nBowie M.H., Mountier C., Boyer S., Dickinson N.M. (2012) Baseline Survey for the Punakaiki Coastal Restoration Project. Publisher: Lincoln University. Prepared for RioTinto Services Limited Editor: Jason Hahner and Mike Bowie, ISBN: 978-0-86476-286-3."

"Medications for Your Pet ... Questions for Your Vet\nIt’s a busy Thursday morning when you notice your normally bouncy, happy retriever, Daisy, is laying around and not wanting to move, eat, or drink. Because this is so out-of-the-ordinary for her, you call your veterinarian right away and he tells you to bring her in for a sick pet visit. After a thorough examination and some blood tests, your veterinarian diagnoses Daisy with Lyme disease and prescribes an antibiotic to get rid of the infection. He also gives her a pain reliever for dogs to help her feel better faster.\nAt the end of the visit, you and your veterinarian discuss Daisy’s medicines. While picking up her medicines at the reception desk, you realize you still have questions about them. One medicine is a capsule, the other is a brown pill. How can you be sure that you know how to give Daisy the medicines correctly? Communication is key. By asking your veterinarian a few simple questions, you can give yourself peace of mind by ensuring your pet is getting the treatment she needs. The following questions apply to all veterinary care situations, whether you have a dog, a guinea pig, or a horse.\n1. Why are you prescribing this medicine for my pet and how long do I need to give it?\nWhen giving a medicine to your pet, it’s important to know why you’re giving it, what it does, and how long you need to give it. Antibiotics given to treat infections caused by bacteria, for example, require doses at certain time intervals over the course of the treatment period. This ensures there’s enough medicine in your pet’s bloodstream so it can work properly. Skipping a dose or two could decrease the amount of medicine in your pet’s bloodstream, which could mean the difference between clearing the infection and having to give the medicine longer or having to switch to a new antibiotic because the bacteria have become resistant to the original one. The same is true for not finishing the entire antibiotic prescription. Skipping doses or not finishing the medicine could lead to problems later.\n2. How do I give the medicine to my pet? Should I give it with food?\nKnowing how to give the medicine to your pet is important. Some medicines are given orally (in the mouth) while others are meant to be given on the skin, in the eye, in the ear, or injected. If a pet has an eye problem and an ear problem at the same time, you don’t want to use an ear medicine in the eyes or an eye medicine in the ears because you could cause harm to the eyes and ears. Before you give medicine to your pet, read the label so you know how to give it correctly. Some oral medicines work better when given with food. Others need to be given without food and on an empty stomach for the best effect. Your veterinarian can show or tell you how to correctly give the medicine to your pet.\n3. How often should the medicine be given and how much should I give each time? If it’s a liquid, should I shake it first?\nThe label on your pet’s medicine has important information. It tells you how to give the medicine, when to give it, and how much to give your pet. Giving the medicine at the proper time and in the proper amount helps ensure the medicine will be effective. For example, for an oral medicine, like an antibiotic, to work properly, it must reach a certain level in your pet’s bloodstream. If you skip doses or give the wrong amount, the level in your pet’s bloodstream may be too low for the medicine to work.\nSome liquid medicines need to be shaken before you give it to your pet because the medicine can settle out on the bottom of the bottle. Shaking helps distribute the medicine throughout the liquid so you can give the proper amount each time.\n4. How do I store the medicine?\nMedicines have an optimum temperature range in which they should be stored. Storing medicines in temperatures that are too high or too low can affect the medicine’s effectiveness. Some medicines need to be kept in the refrigerator. Other medicines should be stored at room temperature. Some medicines need to be kept away from sunlight. You can find more information about proper storage of medicines on FDA’s webpage, “Properly Store Medications to Keep Your Pet Safe.”\n5. What should I do if my pet vomits or spits out the medicine?\nIt depends on the medicine. Some medicines break down in the stomach faster than others. So, if your pet immediately vomits a medicine that breaks down quickly, he may have already absorbed medicine into his bloodstream. Giving him another dose could cause too much medicine to be absorbed and lead to side effects. Your veterinarian will guide you on what to do based on the type of medicine prescribed for your pet.\n6. If I forget to give the medicine, should I give it as soon as I remember or wait until the next scheduled dose? What if I accidentally give too much?\nAgain, it depends on the medicine. Some medicines need to be given at an evenly spaced amount of time to make sure the level in the bloodstream is high enough for it to work. If you missed a dose of medicine, your veterinarian will be able to tell you when to give your pet the next one. If you accidentally gave too much medicine, call your veterinarian right away.\n7. Could this medicine interact with other medicines my pet is taking?\nMedicines for pets, just like medicines for people, can sometimes interact with each other. If your pet is taking a medicine for another condition, remind your veterinarian so he or she can check for potential interactions.\n8. What side effects should I watch for, and what should I do if I see any in my pet?\nEvery medicine can have side effects. Your veterinarian should discuss potential side effects with you, so you know what to look out for. In general, if you see side effects in your pet, stop giving the medicine and call your veterinarian right away. Your veterinarian will give you advice and may ask to see your pet to make sure nothing serious is going on.\n9. When should I bring my pet back for a recheck? Are you going to call me to check on how my pet is doing, or should I call you?\nRechecks are an important part of veterinary care, especially if your pet is on a medicine for a long-term disease that needs to be periodically monitored, like diabetes, heart disease, hyperthyroidism, osteoarthritis, or a resistant infection. Rechecks let your veterinarian physically see how your pet is responding to the medicine. Some medicines could potentially hurt your pet’s kidneys or liver, so your veterinarian may recommend periodic blood tests to make sure those organs are working properly. Sometimes, your veterinarian may notice that your pet is not getting better. In that case, your pet may need a new medicine to help her feel better. Talk with your veterinarian about a recheck for your pet.\n10. My pet has underlying health issues—could this medicine hurt her?\nSometimes, underlying health issues can get worse if your pet takes a medicine for another condition. For example, if your pet has underlying kidney or liver disease, your veterinarian has to be careful when prescribing veterinary NSAIDs to treat your pet’s pain or inflammation. Veterinary NSAIDs could make your pet’s kidney or liver disease worse. If your pet has liver disease and needs medicine to treat seizures, some medicines may be safer to use than others to control the seizures. Talk to your veterinarian about the potential for the medicine to worsen your pet’s underlying health issues.\n11. Are there other medicine options we could use to treat her instead of this medicine?\nSometimes several medicine options are available to treat the same health problem, and some of those options may be easier on your pet than others. It’s a balancing act between what will give the best outcome for your pet while not causing side effects. Ask your veterinarian if there are other medicine options that may be better for your pet.\n12. What do I need to be aware of when giving this medicine to my pet?\nSome medicines for pets have a Client Information Sheet that should be given to pet owners with each prescription. These pet owner-friendly handouts summarize information that you need to be aware of when giving the medicine to your pet. For example, FDA-approved veterinary insulins have Client Information Sheets because the medicines require careful dosing and storage. Veterinary NSAIDs also have Client Information Sheets because this class of medicines can cause side effects, some of which can be severe. Client information Sheets give you a summary of what the medicine is used for, how to give it, what side effects to watch for, and information on what to do if your pet develops side effects.\nNot all medicines have Client Information Sheets. For medicines that do not have them, you can refer to the product’s package insert, the folded leaflet found in the medicine’s packaging, sometimes glued to the top of the bottle. You can also refer to the National Library of Medicine’s DailyMed website and FDA’s Animal Drugs@FDA searchable database for safety information.\nCommunication is important to ensuring your pet is safe while taking medicine. Don’t be afraid to ask questions—your veterinarian is there to help you and your pet, to help ensure you and your pet can spend many happy years together."

"When our children are healthy, they are more likely to succeed. Maternal and Child Health (MCH) programs help promote our children’s success by identifying emerging and urgent health needs, while continuing to assure services like prenatal care, universal newborn screening, immunizations and health coverage. In fact, 80 percent of all American children access or connect with one or more maternal and child health program, making MCH a vital resource for families—especially those with special needs.\nThe Maternal and Child Health Services Block Grant, Title V of the Social Security Act, is the only federal program devoted to improving the health of all women, children and families. Title V provides funding to state MCH programs, which serve 33 million women and children in the U.S.\nTouching the Lives of Women and Children from Every Walk of Life\n- MCH clients are as diverse as the country itself. MCH programs serve families in urban, suburban, rural, and frontier settings, providing services and guidance such as safe sleep for infants in American Indian cradleboards to hip-hop classes to fight obesity.\n- Many MCH clients are “special populations,” those that face severe health problems and access issues. They include children with complex health care needs, the under and uninsured, American Indian and Alaska Natives, migrant and seasonal workers, immigrants, and racial and ethnic minorities.\nThis section was developed to provide education and resources about MCH programs and the people they serve. It is organized by topic alphabetically. To access information about a given topic, please refer to the left navigation."

"To increase the capacity of underserved communities by creating new pathways to greater health, education, and quality of life.\nThe needs of underserved populations are challenging to overcome. Too often, local and state support systems are unable to address the systemic causes of poverty, food scarcity, education deficiencies, and healthcare disparities.\nMany families lack basic needs such as clean water, quality education, and preventative healthcare. When hardship goes unaddressed, vulnerable low-income youth are prevented from successfully matriculating through school, further reducing the likelihood of their graduating and garnering gainful employment. This further diminishes a community’s ability to leverage the skills, resources, and support needed to thrive.\nBreaking the cycle of poverty doesn’t happen through any single solution, but through collaborative efforts to cultivate the conditions necessary for vulnerable communities to support their members in capacity-building ways.\nAdopt-A-City Initiative: We work closely with local governments to create pathways of opportunity for every citizen within a given community. We believe that strong, well-organized, and inclusive communities can more effectively help families and youth reach their full potential to take advantage of emerging opportunities. We help generate community-based solutions through the following processes:\nCapacity building that focuses on understanding the obstacles that keep individuals and governments from achieving their development goals, while working to enhance the abilities that will allow them to obtain measurable and sustainable results through empowerment and education initiatives.\nEconomic development that catalyzes community involvement by working with both the government and private sector to create new market opportunities that improve social conditions in a viable way. We aim to foster the economic, social, ecological, and cultural wellbeing of a community in a holistic and participatory manner.\nParticipatory planning involves gaining input from the entire community throughout the process of developing strategies for economic and social empowerment.\nSustainable development involves pursuing both economic and social development in a balanced manner."

"THE ROMAN CHURCH AND THE LAY POWER IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY\nIt is often said that the thirteenth century saw the rise of the nation state. At first sight this may seem a paradox, since national sovereignty was inhibited by the claims to universal jurisdiction made by both empire and papacy. Frederick II asserted that God 'has set us above kings and kingdoms', and the canonist Johannes Teutonicus held that 'the emperor is above all kings . . . and all nations are under him'.1 Such views, however, had little impact outside the territories of the empire, and the teaching of Innocent III's decretal Per venerabilem that the king of France 'acknowledges no superior in temporal affairs' was incorporated into canon law.2 The international authority of the Roman Church posed a more complex question and its significance will be considered further in this chapter. We must not in any event concentrate too much on the nation states. The process of their formation was still in its early stages in 1250 and was in progress only in parts of the west. In Germany, Italy, and Poland the opposite was happening: power was being devolved from the centre to princes, communes, and duchies. These governments, however constituted, were functioning within a political system which had changed with the enormous conquests by the French Crown in the old Angevin lands and the southern provinces, which had made the Capetians the leading national monarchy. The decisive period was a short one, because the battles of Las Navas de Tolosa, Muret, and Bouvines between. 1212 and 1214 marked the overthrow of the old order and the creation of the balance of power characteristic of the new century.\nThe first change which can be observed in European government____________________"

"How to Manage Pests\nUC Pest Management Guidelines\nSelecting a Variety\n(Reviewed 5/13, updated 5/13)\nIn this Guideline:\nConsider planting pest-resistant varieties if Verticillium, Fusarium, or root knot nematode have been a problem in your fields in the past. Other options in varietal selection include transgenic cotton with herbicide tolerance or Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton to control certain caterpillar pests.\nThe tables below describe variety choices related to pest management. New varieties become available regularly. If no data exists on a new variety that you would like to try, then try the following:\n- Talk to your local farm advisor or seed company representative about suitable varieties.\n- As a test, plant 2 acres of the new variety if you have a known history of Verticillium or other target pest in your field.\nTable 1. Verticillium resistance in Acala, Non-Acala, and Pima varieties.\n||A range of resistance exists within this group, but most have a high degree of resistance.\n||A range of resistance exists within this group, but many are highly susceptible.\n||Little is known about resistance. Variety trials in progress.\nTable 2. Varieties tolerant or resistant to Fusarium wilt and caterpillars.\n||Comments on tolerance\n|Fusarium race 1\n|This variety has tolerance to Fusarium race 1.\n|Fusarium race 4\n||Pima varieties: Phy-800, Phy-802RF, Phy-805, DP-360\n||These varieties have a relatively high level of resistance to Fusarium race 4. Other varieties range from highly susceptible to moderately susceptible, depending on soil inoculums levels.\n|Pink bollworm, Western yellowstriped armyworm, beet armyworm, and loopers\n||Bollguard II transgenic and other Bt varieties*\nBt varieties of Non-Acala Upland (CA Uplands)\n|Effective suppression of pink bollworm (Southern deserts), plus additional suppression of armyworm and loopers.\n* Resistance of pink bollworm to Bt cotton varieties may develop over time.\nUC IPM Pest Management Guidelines:\nUC ANR Publication\n- L. D. Godfrey, Entomology, UC Davis\n- P. B. Goodell, UC IPM Program and Kearney Agricultural Research and Extension Center, Parlier\n- E. T. Natwick, UC Cooperative Extension - Desert Research and Extension Center, Imperial County\n- D.R. Haviland, UC Cooperative Extension, Kern County and UC IPM Program\n- V. M. Barlow, UC Cooperative Extension, Riverside County and UC IPM Program\nTop of page"

"Paper ISBN: 9780804741927\nThis volume, one of the books in the \"Making of Modern Freedom\" series, is a collection of essays by eminent historians who explore the relationship between state finance and political development in fifteenth and sixteenth century Europe. They analyze how during this period European states were engaged in nearly continuous warfare and how those warfares produced fiscal crises. As a result, rulers were forced to enter into novel fiscal agreements with their subjects, often providing their subjects more political power, in exchange.\nThe volume begins with two essays on England. David Harris Sacks traces the politics of government finance from the fifteenth century to the eve of the Civil War, and J. R. Jones carries the story forward into the eighteenth century, when representative government was jeopardized by new and powerful financial interests. The third essay, by Augustus J. Veenendaal, Jr., explains why the Netherlands' exceptional ability to raise money by taxes and loans allowed them to wage war without the severe financial difficultes experiencd by other European powers. Two essays on Spain by I. A. A. Thompson follow the changing fortunes of the Cortes of Castile, relating its role to the desperate manipulation of Spanish fiscal policy as it came into conflict with the dearly held liberties of Castilian citizens.\nThe two final essays deal with the consequences of absolutism in France. Philip T. Hoffman details the fiscal effect of noble privileges and explores the political ramifications of the country's repeated financial crises, and Kathryn Norberg explains why the fiscal crisis of 1789 finally brought down the monarchy."

"by Staff Writers\nErlangen, Germany (SPX) Jan 20, 2016\nMaterials scientists at FAU have shown for the first time that the mother-of-pearl in clam shells does not form in a crystallisation process but is a result of the aggregation of nanoparticles within an organic matrix. This could lead to a better understanding of the structure of biomaterials which may be useful in the development of new high-performance ceramics. The findings of the research group led by Prof. Dr. Stephan E. Wolf have been published in the latest issue of the renowned journal Nature Communications (doi: 10.1038/ncomms10097).\nProf. Wolf and his team used a special technique to investigate the structure of mother-of-pearl. Using a diamond wire saw, they cut a 60-centimetre wedge out of the shell of a large Pinna nobilis - a type of clam found in the Mediterranean - which they then polished using a novel method before examining it under a scanning transmission electron microscope.\n'We borrowed the wedge-polishing technique from the semiconductor industry,' Stephan Wolf explains. 'This method makes it possible to look at extremely large areas, something that was very difficult to do before.'\nTraditional model disproved\n'Here we find the first nanoparticles of between 50 and 80 nanometres in size that aggregate more and more as they get closer to the inside of the shell and merge to form mother-of-pearl platelets, finally forming the highly structured mother-of-pearl that we all know.'\nPrefabrication in nature\n'If we compare the growth process of mother-of-pearl to building a house, the clam uses a kind of prefabricated construction method, while crystallisation is like building a wall out of individual bricks,' Stephan Wolf explains.\nAn incredibly strong structure\n'Individual platelets that are around 350 to 500 nanometres thick are embedded in an organic layer that holds them together like cement,' Stephan Wolf says. 'The fact that this layer structure is made up of smaller particles that also include organic material has a significant influence on the mechanical properties of the clam shell. A comparable crystalline material made of individual ions would break much more quickly.'\nA template for new ceramics\nUniversity of Erlangen-Nuremberg\nNano Technology News From SpaceMart.com\nComputer Chip Architecture, Technology and Manufacture\n|The content herein, unless otherwise known to be public domain, are Copyright 1995-2016 - Space Media Network. All websites are published in Australia and are solely subject to Australian law and governed by Fair Use principals for news reporting and research purposes. AFP, UPI and IANS news wire stories are copyright Agence France-Presse, United Press International and Indo-Asia News Service. ESA news reports are copyright European Space Agency. All NASA sourced material is public domain. Additional copyrights may apply in whole or part to other bona fide parties. Advertising does not imply endorsement, agreement or approval of any opinions, statements or information provided by Space Media Network on any Web page published or hosted by Space Media Network. Privacy Statement All images and articles appearing on Space Media Network have been edited or digitally altered in some way. Any requests to remove copyright material will be acted upon in a timely and appropriate manner. Any attempt to extort money from Space Media Network will be ignored and reported to Australian Law Enforcement Agencies as a potential case of financial fraud involving the use of a telephonic carriage device or postal service.|"

"We take extra care when planning meals for our families, but what about our cat’s food? From manufacturing and labeling to what certain ingredients are, it’s important to inform yourself about where your cat food is made and what’s in it before picking up your next bag or can of food.\nThe Federal Trade Commission (FTC) regulates “Made in the USA” claims or labels for all products human and pet related, according to Mindy Bough, the vice president of operations for the ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center and head of the ASPCA’s Pet Nutrition Services. For a product to carry a “Made in the USA” label, it must be made from all or virtually all products from the United States. For pet food, that includes the packaging, ingredients and production of the food, Bough said. If a company uses a “Made in the USA” label but sources products from another country, they must have a disclaimer on the packaging (e.g., “Made in the USA with lamb from New Zealand). For the FTC to investigate a potential concern regarding food labels, a complaint must be filed, Bough, who is also a founding member of the Academy of Veterinary Nutrition Technicians, said.\nCat Food Labels\nBecause manufacturers know consumers look for a specific ingredient when purchasing cat food—like the words “chicken” or “real beef”—they incorporate these names into their labels. Fortunately, the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) has specific rules when it comes to the percentages of named ingredients in a product and pet food labels. Not sure where to get this info? Read more on ‘How to Read a Cat Food Label.’\nFor the complete slideshow on what “Made in the USA” means for pet food, visit petMD."

"Yellow Pear Heirloom Cherry Tomato\nLight requirements: Full sun.\nPlanting: Space 18 to 36 inches apart, depending on type. (Read the stick tag that comes with the plant for specific spacing recommendations.) Plant deeply, burying 2/3 of the stem.\nSoil requirements: Tomatoes need well-drained, nutrient-rich soil. Amend soil with compost or other organic matter prior to planting. Soil pH should be 6.2 to 6.8.\nWater requirements: Keep soil consistently moist throughout the growing season. Moisture is critical to prevent cracked fruits and blossom end rot. Mulch soil to reduce water evaporation.\nFrost-fighting plan: Tomato is a warm-weather crop—even a light frost will damage plants (28º F to 32º F). Protect newly planted seedlings by covering plants with a frost blanket.\nCommon issues: Pest-wise, watch out for tomato hornworms (big green caterpillars), slugs, pill bugs, rodents. In addition, humid weather invites fungal diseases like early blight and late blight. Plants may stop setting fruit when temperatures dip below 55˚ F or climb above 90˚ F. Blossom end rot can be a problem, as can misshapen fruit.\nHarvesting: In general, perfectly ripe tomatoes show deep color but still feel firm when gently squeezed. Look up your specific variety for more details. Tomatoes do continue to ripen after being picked. Gently grab and twist until the tomato pulls free from the stem, or use a pair of clippers. Cut stems close to fruits.\nStorage: Store picked tomatoes at room temperature indoors, or in a shady place outside. Never refrigerate tomatoes, because temperatures below 55° F cause flavor compounds to break down. Tomatoes will store longer if you allow stems and caps to remain in place until you’re ready to eat them. For peak flavor and nutrition, use within a week, although keeping time depends on how ripe fruit is when you pick it.\nFor more information, visit the Tomatoes page in our How to Grow section.\n- Calories: 21\n- Carbohydrates: 4g\n- Dietary fiber: 1g\n- Protein: 1g\n- Vitamin C: 21% DV\n- Folate: 10%\n- Niacin: 8%\n- Potassium: 10%\n- Manganese: 8%\n- Copper: 7%\nYellow tomatoes have valuable amounts of beta-carotene, the pigment that gives orange and yellow tomatoes their color and helps neutralize free radicals that may damage our cells. Besides a good dose of vitamin C, yellow tomatoes have more niacin and folate than other tomatoes and offer a good level of potassium, important for regulating blood pressure, nerve function, and muscle control."

"Thursday 31st October 2013\nRemembering ... in November\nNovember is an in-between sort of month ... the month which links the autumn days of 'mists and mellow fruitfulness' to grey days which grow dark by tea-time ... the month which reminds us to get ready for the crisp frosty mornings to come ... the month between the season of Harvest Festivals and the seasons of Advent and (dare I mention it yet?) Christmas.\nBut it isn't only an in-between month, for it brings its own special 'remembering' days into our church and our community calendar.\n~ All Saints Day, celebrated on 1st November, invites people to remember the saints and martyrs who dedicated or sacrificed their lives to Christianity. According to some sources, the origins of All Saints' Day goes back to the fourth century when the Greek Christians kept a festival on the first Sunday after Pentecost. It was moved to its present position in the calendar in 837AD, although the Eastern Church still keeps to the original date.\n~ All Souls Day, marked on 2nd November, dates back to 993AD when the Abbot of Cluny monastery instituted the day for Christians to remember and pray for family members and friends who have died. Our own Circuit will hold a service on the evening of Sunday 3rd November as a special time of remembering.\n~ 'Remember, remember, the 5th of November' began in 1605 when an act of treachery against the government was foiled and parliament passed the Observance of 5th of November Act in thanksgiving for the life of King James 1.\n~ Remembrance Sunday, the nearest Sunday to the 11th day of the 11th month, when at 11am in 1918 the Armistice ended the hostilities of the First World War, calls us to remember all those who have given their lives in the cause of peace and freedom.\nObviously remembering is important for any community, so that we know who we are and where we came from, and so that we take the lessons of the past into our future.\nRemembering is a recurring Biblical theme too. Many times the Israelites are told to remember an event - not just to call it to mind, but to re-live it, literally to re-member it - 'to make real in the present that which was real in the past'. The Passover was the most important event in the history of the Israelite people, and during the annual celebration the story is carefully retold, with symbols and liturgy, to give thanks for God's liberation from their bondage in Egypt. Time and again the psalmists recall and remember God's faithfulness in the past, in order that they are strengthened in their present trials and struggles. Remembering was the key to their faithfulness. You only need to glance through the book of Judges to notice that when they 'forgot the Lord their God' the result was disobedience and defeat.\nThe most important use of the theme of memory in our worship is related to Holy Communion. When we break bread and pour wine 'in remembrance', we believe that this is both memorial and remembrance. That is, we are not only remembering a past event, but we are also re-membering that past event for the present, so that we experience the presence of Jesus with us, just as his friends at the Last Supper experienced his presence with them.\nPerhaps November is not such an in-between month after all. Let's make the most of the opportunity to observe and to re-member its special days, and be thankful for our shared memory and experience."

"Please sign in to like our content.\nOn the night of December 25th, 1776, General George Washington crossed the icy and treacherous Delaware River, leading his troops towards Trenton, New Jersey. There, Hessian soldiers (Germans contracted to fight for the British) were enjoying the Christmas holiday. They had let their guard down, thinking the Americans weren’t anywhere near them.\nLegend has it, the colonel leading the Hessians, Johann Rall, had been given a note by a British Loyalist, which revealed the whereabouts of General Washington and his army. Rall tucked the note in his coat pocket and continued gallivanting about Trenton.\nColonel Rall was later killed as he led his troops away from the Battle of Trenton. The note was found unopened in his coat pocket.\nOur egos are infamous for convincing us that we know what the truth is, that we are headed in the right direction (literally and metaphorically), or that we don’t need anyone’s help. Wrong, wrong, and wrong.\nOf course, it’s easy to fall for these lies; they create an illusion of safety within our comfort zones, where we can ignore the possibility that someone else may have valuable insight or a helpful solution. Many of us let our egos dictate our lives, giving us a false sense of fulfillment (and in the worst cases, entitlement and self-righteousness). However, ego cannot bring you closer to others nor to the Light of the Creator. It supports a feeling of authority, which creates disconnection from others.\nWe can only achieve true spiritual contentment when we let go of the ego and learn to listen, to seek truth outside of ourselves, and see things from another point of view. Letting go our ego allows us to see the good in others, and the ever-present potential for growth.\n“Letting go of ego means listening to another completely—even when we don’t agree with what they have to say,” says Karen Berg. “It means allowing someone to have a differing opinion—and not turning it into a war of words. It means being in a place where we recognize that we don’t have to take offense—just because someone doesn’t share our viewpoint.”\nYet, our egos keep us wrapped in a kind of cocoon, oblivious to what we can’t see with our own eyes. They create separation by preventing us from seeing the desires, opinions, for feelings of others. When we begin to understand that there is more to this life than our own experiences, that we have a great deal to learn from those around us, we can begin to move beyond the limitations of the ego. Unity is not feeling any division between ourselves and others—it is valuing their experience as much as we value our own. This is the key to breaking down the ego.\nWhen we remove the boundaries of the ego, we become one with the universe, with every human being, and with the Creator. Still, the battle of the ego is a life-long endeavor. “Remember,” says Karen Berg, “in the moment, letting go of our ego is not easy; but is one of the best ways to bring yourself a sense of lasting fulfillment and to breathe life and energy into those areas where you may feel a little stuck.”\nIn the end, it’s our actions and willingness to look beyond the ego, which bring us together. Every day opportunities arise for us to let go of ego. Go beyond simply listening; seek out the thoughts, opinions, and ideas of others. You may learn something new. You may even be inspired.\nOnly ONEHOUSE COMMUNITY members can view and add comments. Please sign and upgrade your account."

"Is the miniaturisation of electronics reaching its limits because smaller structures lead to more errors? TU Wien (Vienna) has shown that the problem can be overcome if the susceptibility to errors is taken into account when planning circuits.\nFor decades, transistors - the heart of our computer chips - have been getting smaller and smaller. As a result, the electronic components in many devices can be made ever more compact, faster and also more powerful. But is this development coming to a natural halt? The smaller the components, the greater the danger that individual defects in the atomic structure will significantly change the behaviour of the component. This applies to the established silicon technology and novel nanotechnologies based on 2D materials.\nAt TU Wien, intensive work has been done on the physical description of this problem at the transistor level. Now the researchers are going a step further and looking at the influence of defects at the level of electronic circuits, which sometimes consist of several, sometimes even billions of transistors. In some cases, individual transistors can operate outside the desired specification, but still perform well as part of a circuit consisting of several transistors. With this new approach at the circuit level, significant advances in miniaturisation are still possible.\nSmaller components - bigger errors\n\"The smallest transistors today are only a few nanometers in size,\" says Michael Waltl from the Institute for Microelectronics at TU Wien. \"So one has advanced to the atomic scale.\" But transistors are never perfect at the atomic level: sometimes an atom may be in the wrong place, and sometimes the connection between two different crystals is not quite exact. \"In larger components, such errors do not play such a dominant. But with tiny transistors in the order of a few nanometres, even a single defect can lead to the transistor’s characteristic curves being far outside the specified tolerance range. Thus, it is considered unusable.\"\nThe effect of material defects in electronic components is usually recorded statistically in the industry: Tens of thousands of transistors are manufactured and measured. Based on the variability determined in this way, one can then calculate whether these transistors are usable or whether one has to adjust the geometry or the production process and reduce the number of defects. In the worst case, one would then have to increase the area of the chip, for example - this can hurt the chip’s performance and increase its price.\n\"Just looking for transistors with properties outside the desired parameter range is an oversimplified view,\" says Michael Waltl. \"After all, the transistors are connected to form an electronic circuit - for example, an inverter that inverts a signal or memory consisting of six transistors. The interesting question is not whether a single transistor meets certain abstract criteria when faults occur at the atomic level, but whether the entire circuit behaves correctly.\"\nThe microelectronics team at TU Wien approached this question with a combination of experiments and computer simulations: numerous electronic components were examined, and elaborate computer models were created based on the results.\nPrecise computer models make it possible to design robust circuits\nIt turned out that even transistors with errors are not necessarily useless. \"The fault tolerance depends on the circuit - which should be considered when designing the circuits,\" says Michael Waltl. \"It may be, for example, that the transistor must be particularly low-fault at a particular point in the electronic circuit but that the tolerances are greater for another transistor in the same circuit.\" In such a case, two different types of transistors could be used to ensure that the circuit performs its task reliably.\n\"Our results apply to silicon transistors and novel 2D semiconductors,\" says Michael Waltl. \"Whatever technology you want to use to create the next generation of chips with even smaller components: In any case, the effect of unavoidable errors should not only be described empirically, as has been the case up to now, but one should resort to advanced physical computational models to simulate partial circuits or entire circuits to get the best out of the new possibilities.\"\nM. Waltl et al., Perspective of 2D Integrated Electronic Circuits: Scientific Pipe Dream or Disruptive Technology’, Advanced Materials 34,48 (2022)."

"ENGLISH 211 SIR PHILIP SIDNEY QUESTIONS\nAssigned: \"The Defense of Poesy\" (Norton Vol. B, 1046-51, 1066-74 only).\n\"The Defense of Poesy\"\n\"Poetry's Historical Importance\"\n1. From 1046-47, how does Sidney explain the historical significance of poetry? How does he pull together his classical learning to suggest that \"poesy\" is one of the first and most important arts?\n\"The Poet as Prophet and Creator\"\n2. From 1048-50, Sidney considers the etymology of the English word \"poet.\" What does he draw from the Greek and Latin words poietes (infinitive verb form poiein, first person poieo) and the early Latin noun vates?\n3. From 1049-50, how does Sidney differentiate poetry from the other arts, all of which have \"the works of nature\" for their main object? What \"subjection\" do poets refuse, and what ideal can they \"deliver\" to us because of this refusal? How do Sidney's remarks touch upon the moral quality and mission of poetry?\n\"Answers to Charges Against Poetry\"\n4. From 1068-71, what four main charges does Sidney identify as long having been leveled against poets? How does he answer the first three of these charges? In particular, how does he answer the charge that poets are liars? Why aren't poets liars even though they \"make things up,\" as we say, and what value does Sidney (here and earlier in his essay) suggest we can find in the imaginative creations of poets?\n5. From 1072-74, Sidney addresses what he considers the chief accusation against poetry: namely, that no less a genius than Plato banished most kinds of poetry from his fictive Republic. What were Plato's reasons for banishing poetry from his ideal Republic (See The Republic, Book 10, at least Socrates' concluding argument around paragraphs 142-50)? How does Sidney respond the accusation and enlist Plato in his cause? To what extent is Sidney perhaps distorting Plato's ideas to turn that philosopher into a friend of poetry?\n6. With respect to the matter discussed from 1072-74, for the moment relegate Sidney's notions to the background, and reflect on the following question: how much credence should we moderns give to Plato's charges against poetry as something false and even morally dangerous? What similar arguments or variations on the old charge have you heard? What is gained, and what is lost, if we dismiss such criticisms of art altogether, and insist that art is either harmless or that it can do only good?\nEdition: Greenblatt, Stephen and Carol T. Christ. The Norton Anthology of English Literature, 9th. edition. Package 1: Vols. A, B, C. Paperback. Norton: 2012. ISBN-13: 978-0393913002."

"First posted April, 2010\nWhen it comes down to personal application of Charlotte Mason's philosophy, we've done better at some things here than at others....and knowing that our homeschooling achievement isn't perfect is probably as it should be. We are human beings, after all, trying to take hold of what's offered but doing so, often, rather imperfectly.\nSome people find it strange that the original PNEU programmes defined so strictly what was to be done at each level during each term, since Charlotte Mason talked so much about the individual. But was it as cookie-cutter a curriculum as that sounds? Let's look at that for a minute. Each student was assigned certain pages in certain books to read or have read to him/her. Each one had a certain number of memory assignments--though those could vary, they were things like \"Two hymns by Keble.\" Each one was expected to keep nature journals and, when old enough, history records (century charts, books of the centuries etc.). Each one was expected to make certain handicrafts (such as \"a child's dress.\") Each one was to be learning arithmetic, French, etc., though it was thought more important that each one be making progress than that a particular level be reached each term.\nSo--yes, it was all laid out, and there was a suggested timetable of subjects, and Charlotte Mason felt that the PNEU was doing parents and teachers a favour by going through the publishers' lists and picking out the best in-print choices at the time--plus having a few books specially written by PNEU members and friends. But what wasn't spelled out in the programmes is more \"suggestive,\" as Miss Mason might say: what the children were supposed to think about such and such a fairy tale, what ideas they were supposed to take from a passage of Plutarch, or what vocabulary and what multiple-choice-type facts they were to have learned from a science chapter. Susan Schaeffer Macaulay tells a story about her childhood visit to the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam and how she \"discovered\" a famous painting by Rembrandt. She points out that nobody told her to stop looking at it, or what to think about it, or even what it was about. She just absorbed what she needed from it. The freedom that was given within a PNEU term was not in the assignments (find three catkins and three tree buds) but in the ideas; in each student's \"digestion\" of all this material, in each one's response, and in each one's growth.\nStill, I think if our own family has erred in our application of CM, it's often been on the too-relaxed end rather than in the too-rigid...the parent's and child's comfort zone pushes our own natures forward, but those laws of learning have a voice of truth that we can't ignore. I think that, for instance, often our Squirrelings go away too fast after listening to something read aloud, when according to Charlotte Mason's plan they should stick around to discuss it a bit more. For one reason and another, we've read school books aloud at an older age than is probably ideal, and we've delayed written narrations for the same reason-and-another. I've never sat under a tree with my knitting and demanded that they go look at some other tree and then give me a full description so that I can identify it--I probably wouldn't know what it was either. I thought the Squirrelings were getting a pretty good overview of what's in the Bible, and they could even sing the Old Testament and New Testament books in order, but then I realized that they still didn't know how to find even the books quickly, much less chapters and verses. (We're working on that.) I'm not sure if they know what a catkin is, or a fjord. And I sometimes think that we could have done better at cultivating habits of perfect attention from the time that they were small...although, being Squirrels, that isn't something that comes naturally.\nI find the years...particularly the school years...slipping away too fast, and with them, the number of chances we have to start fresh, learn new habits, rediscover what learning is about. And, ironically, I seem to understand this education thing better as my Squirrelings get closer to leaving the nest. (Well, they're not THAT close yet, but you know what I mean.)\nIf I could give the Squirrelings one thing during the next homeschooling year--which will probably be Ponytails' last before high school--it would be to increase their love of learning, that sense Charlotte Mason described as \"everything seems to fit into something else\"--and to extend it to some of the areas that stay at the edge or just outside of their personal circle of relationships. History and geography, even with good books, are often too far away from their own world to seem real. Literature sometimes seems to have just too many pages; math is unending (I'd like to try some math journalling with them), and French verbs are just made up to pester people. Isn't the boredom of doing something because somebody's making you do it what we're trying to avoid? So do we then make our curriculum easier, drop books or subjects, expect less, if this way doesn't always cause a sort of earthquake of learning? What do you do when, after all your well-thought-out planning, your kids find more to discuss from an Arthur episode than from a history chapter?\nThe lesson I've had to learn myself is to be patient with both the teacher and the students; and not to take the teacher's striving for \"nice lessons\" too seriously. (Charlotte Mason said much the same thing--that we cannot depend too much on our own wisdom in presenting lessons.) I've come to the conclusion that some students, in some subjects, will be like lettuce, springing up quickly and obviously; others are more like carrots under the ground, that must not be yanked up before they're ready. I've also had to remember that squirrels have a habit of taking acorns but then burying them to be used much later.\nThese are the things I saw the younger Squirrelings doing today: catching a Red Admiral butterfly...and letting it go again after we figured out what it was. Noticing that the centres of forget-me-nots look like embroidery. Finding forget-me-not poems in two Flower Fairies books. Designing a crocheted hair scrunchie. Helping cheerfully with chores and projects. Practicing on a yard-saled recorder. Standing in the driveway singing. Playing an online word game and beating the grownups. Putting together an awesome photography/Powerpoint nature assignment with music. Improvising orange-cream cheese filling for blintzes. Re-reading Magic Elizabeth (this makes several times). And yes...playing on the Stuffed Animal Site after school work was done. We celebrate our childrens' growth in the sometimes unexpected places, and trust for the rest...\nWhich doesn't mean that there still isn't room for teacher improvement as well. Definitely there are things in which I'd like to boost our CM-ness, without violating the uniqueness and particular gifts of these Squirrelings. But that'll keep for another post.\n- About Us\n- Anne Writes\n- Christmas Past, Christmas Present(s)\n- Frugal Finds & Fixes\n- Charlotte Mason Education\n- CM Volume Two Posts\n- CM Volume Three Posts\n- CM Volume Four Posts\n- CM Volume Five Posts\n- CM Volume Six Posts\n- Crocheting Posts\n- Project 333, Fall/Winter 2017: Days Given to Us\n- Project 333: Winter Interlude\n- Three years of Quote for the Day"

"Image courtesy Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Land Rapid Response Team at NASA GSFC\nThe skies over Northern India are filled with a thick soup of aerosol particles all along the southern edge of the Himalayan Mountains, and streaming southward over Bangladesh and the Bay of Bengal. Notice that the air over the Tibetan Plateau to the north of the Himalayas is very clear, whereas the view of the land surface south of the mountains is obstructed by the brownish haze. Most of this air pollution comes from human activities. The aerosol over this region is notoriously rich in sulfates, nitrates, organic and black carbon, and fly ash. These particles not only represent a health hazard to those people living in the region, but scientists have also recently found that they can have a significant impact on the region's hydrological cycle and climate (click to read the relevant NASA press release).\nThis true-color image was acquired on December 4, 2001, by the Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), flying aboard NASAs Terra satellite. It is interesting to compare the image above with this earlier MODIS image over the region, acquired on October 23, 2001. Notice the difference in the clarity of the air over the region in the earlier image.\nUnder the thick plume of aerosol, the Brahmaputra (upper right) and Ganges Rivers are still visible. The many mouths of the Ganges have turned the northern waters of the Bay of Bengal a murky brown as they empty their sediment-laden waters into the bay. Toward the upper lefthand corner of the image, there appears to be a fresh swath of snow on the ground just south of the Himalayas.\nNote: Often times, due to the size, browsers have a difficult time opening and displaying images. If you experiece an error when clicking on an image link, please try directly downloading the image (using a right click, save as method) to view it locally.\nThis image originally appeared on the Earth Observatory. Click here to view the full, original record."

"•Electret or dynamic microphone or line input\n•3.5mm jack socket or screw terminal inputs\n•Mono or stereo signal\n•Hysteresis prevents relay chattering at threshold\n•Power and relay LED indication\nVOX stands for Voice Operated eXchange and it is also the Latin word for ‘Voice’. A VOX circuit switches on a relay whenever a signal reaches a set threshold. The relay switches off once the signal level drops below the threshold and after a short delay.\nThey are used in communications, public address systems, surveillance, security and general purpose electronics.\nFor communications, a VOX switches a transceiver from receive to transmit whenever the person speaks into the microphone. This frees the operator for other tasks as a separate switch is not needed to talk. Many intercoms and public address systems are also automated in a similar way.\nA VOX circuit can be used to mute any sound until it reaches a set level. That way a public address system will ignore background noise and remain quiet, until someone intentionally speaks into a microphone. For security and surveillance, a recorder can be switched on whenever a noise is sensed by a microphone.\nBut it doesn’t have to be a microphone which causes the VOX action. For general-purpose use, any audio signal can used to switch the relay.\nAs you can see from the features box,\nour new VOX is quite a versatile beast! It can be used in practically any application which requires triggering from a sound source - and that sound source can itself be just about anything!\nIn line with the above comments, our VOX design has two inputs, both of which will accept the same types of audio input. First is a stereo 3.5mm jack socket which will handle both mono and stereo signals, while the second input is for mono inputs only and is via screw terminals.\nYou can connect an electret or dynamic microphone. Electret microphones require a bias voltage which can be selected with a jumper link (LK1). For stereo signals connected via the 3.5mm socket, a jumper link provides mixing of the left and right channels into a mono signal.\nSignal sensitivity can be adjusted to cover a wide range from microphone levels up to line levels of 2V RMS. With sufficient signal, the relay switches on and remains on until the signal level drops to below a threshold level. An adjustable delay sets the time taken for the relay to switch off once this threshold is reached.\nThe relay has two sets of changeover contacts which will suit a variety of switching applications. LEDs are included for visual indication of power and of relay switching.\nBecause of the wide variety of possible uses for a VOX, our module is simply presented as a PCB which you can install to suit your application. Or if you wish, it can be fitted into a plastic “UB3” case measuring 130 x 68 x 44mm.\nPower supply:............... 12VDC at 50mA\nTrigger sensitivity: Adjustable from 2mV (microphone) to 2V (line)\nMaximum signal input: ............... 50V rms\nSignal frequency range: ............... 16Hz to >600Hz\nAttack time:............... 10 cycles with signal at threshold voltage (faster attack if signal is above threshold)\nHysteresis:............... 0.44V at the 2.06V threshold\nDelay time:............... Adjustable from 100ms to 10s\nElectret bias current:............... ~320μA\nRelay contacts (DPDT):............... 5A (maximum of 50V recommended)"

"A demonstration of several geometric lathes, which produced anti-counterfeiting patterns for banknotes, plus a reducing lathe to make coin and medal dies. (SLYT)\nNorway, which is not part of the Euro currency cooperation, has new design for its bank notes. Whereas the older note design from the 90s featured prominent Norwegians, the theme for the new currency is the ocean. One side features a pixelated motif from design giants Snøhetta, and the other side features detailed nautical images designed by The Metric System. Visual News has some coverage here, and you can look through all the submissions, including the discarded ones, in a Norwegian language PDF from Bank of Norway here. The winning design will be worked over slightly to incorporate security features, and the new bills will be in circulation from 2017.\nIn China, there are certain \"bad notes\" that frighten people and are refused as legal tender. Why?\nEsquire's Chris Jones looks at the old techniques used to make the new US $100 bill.\nHow The Economic Machine Works by Ray Dalio actually makes a case against austerity and for redistribution, but also for money printing (and, arguably, for bailouts), while stressing the need to keep making productivity-improving public and private investments. However, it could be equally entitled: How The Industrial Age Political-Economy Doesn't Work Anymore, viz. Surviving Progress (2011)... [more inside]\nEconomists and the theory of politics - \"why unions were often well worth any deadweight cost\" [more inside]\nToday is a new day in Canadian specie, being the last day that the Royal Canadian Mint will distribute the penny. Cash transactions will now be rounded to the nearest $0.05. CBC posts an obituary. [more inside]\n\"Defacement of currency is a violation of Title 18, Section 333 of the United States Code. Under this provision, currency defacement is generally defined as follows: Whoever mutilates, cuts, disfigures, perforates, unites or cements together, or does any other thing to any bank bill, draft, note, or other evidence of debt issued by any national banking association, Federal Reserve Bank, or Federal Reserve System, with intent to render such item(s) unfit to be reissued, shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than six months, or both. Defacement of currency in such a way that it is made unfit for circulation comes under the jurisdiction of the United States Secret Service.\" - source\"Defaced Money\" tagged Tumblr posts, 11 more impressive examples of creatively defaced currency, 101 Unusual, Impressive And Illegal Pieces Of Defaced Currency, and some cool guitar picks.\nBanknote.ws attempts to collect and classify images of all the world's paper currency, both historical and modern, whether it's sublimely beautiful or utterly worthless. If you prefer your banknotes with snarky commentary, hasten to James Lileks' Engraveyard.\nIn anticipation of \"The Hobbit\" movie, New Zealand has issued \"Lord of the Rings\" themed coins that are legal tender.\nCigarettes: The Most Stable International Currency. In China, expensive cigarettes (not to be confused with counterfeits of popular brands) are sometimes used as bribes. Cash can be difficult to handle, or outright illegal, in some places. Since a smoking ban (and subsequent black-market trade in cigarettes) in US prisons, canned mackerel (previously on MetaFilter) has become the exchange medium of choice. [more inside]\nStart Your Own Currency - \"In the Catalonia region of Spain, a restaurant and a community garden are part of an experiment in alternative cash--they are accepting a home-grown currency called the Eco as well as the Euro.\" [viz. gated article (Google link), cf. The Wörgl Experiment]\nCanadian Tire Company coupons, thought of by some as an alternative Canadian currency, may be on the way out. [more inside]\nA new initiative recently proposed by the Royal Canadian Mint proposes to create the MintChip, a digital currency that’s similar (to BitCoin), but is backed by the Canadian government. Aiming to become “the digital equivalent of the coins we use every day,” in the Canadian Mint’s own words, the MintChip will target micro- and nano-transactions conducted both online and offline, whether at the physical point of sale, on mobile devices, or among peers. Via\n\"They were new money, without a doubt: so new it shrieked. Their clothes looked as if they’d covered themselves in glue, then rolled around in hundred-dollar bills.” ~ Margaret Atwood\nNote Worthy: [guardian.co.uk] Global economic meltdown, the euro crisis and Occupy protests – this year has been dominated by financial issues. But what is money anyway? We invited writers and artists including Jonathan Franzen, Margaret Atwood and Naomi Klein to invent new currencies and banknotes for a changed world.\nThe United States Secret Service is warning about an old scam that's recently popped up again in New England: black money. [more inside]\nBlind Man vs. Paper Money - the Blind Film Critic demonstrates the problems of using (American) paper money. Unsurprisingly, just getting cash out of an ATM poses its own problem. [more inside]\nPop-Cultured Currency - Technically, defacing US currency is a crime – but artist James Charles doesn’t seem to be in any legal trouble for his awesome series of Pop Culture Cash. His portraits, created on real money using ink, turn dead presidents into colorfully amusing pop culture icons. Alternate site with larger pics.\nIt's all about the Bordens. The Bank of Canada unveils its new series of polymer bank notes. Because no one wants soggy bills when you're makin' it rain.\nMake your Franklin is a site which accepts submissions of recreated 100 USD banknotes.\nBitcoin is a peer-to-peer digital currency. Trading at eight dollars this week—and being used to pay for everything from freelance programming jobs to magic mushrooms—it has been described as “the most dangerous open-source project ever created” and “an unambiguous challenge to the government monopoly on the power to print money.” Estimated at over 20 petaFLOPS the Bitcoin network is currently the fastest virtual supercomputer in the world. [more inside]\nOut of thin air? \"Have you ever said something like 'Let me buy you a beer next week'? I'm sure you have. We all issue promises of this sort. And we frequently use such promises as a form of currency... I have just described a simple credit exchange. Societies rely heavily on promising-making and promise-keeping. It is the foundation of all financial markets. I'd like to point out something about the promises you make. They are made 'out of thin air.' \" [more inside]\nIn February 2006, a group of criminals pulled off the biggest cash heist in the history of the UK, making off with £53 million pounds. To date, only £23 million of the money has been recovered. Police are understandably upset about the dead ends in the case.\nMeet the new form of prison currency: Honey buns.\nBeautiful banknote vignettes which were used in the 19th century by the United States to combat counterfeiters. Brought to you by MeFi's peacay.\nFor almost 20 years, Art Williams, Jr. was one of the country's eminent currency counterfeiters. His greatest achievement: counterfeiting the new (at the time) $100 bill (PDF link). [more inside]\n\"If the Swiss can do it on a regular basis, why can't we North Americans too.\" The Dollar ReDe$ign Project believes its time for the United States to switch from the old to something new in the field of American currency. As a result, a contest was developed and submissions accepted. They range from the cultural to the cynical, and a salute to American space achievements to update designs to the present content.\nThe Goat Who Took on the Fed: WSJ's Andy Jordan spends time in the Berkshires to see how locals make the case for \"slow money\" with their own local currency, \"The Berkshare\". (previously 1 2 3 4) [more inside]\nStemming from a lawsuit that has gone on for several years, a recent Court of Appeals ruled that the U.S. government must make bills with distinguishable tactile features to benefit the blind. While the U.S. government disagrees, the judges say: \"The government might as well argue that, since handicapped people can crawl on all fours or ask for help from strangers, there's no need to make buildings wheelchair accessible.\" Not all blind people agree with the decision. [more inside]\nInflation in Zimbabwe recently reached 160,000%. Get in on the ground floor now by purchasing a $50,000,000 bill (currently selling for 20,000x its value). Dare to become a millionaire!\nOn Tuesday, the Federal Reserve cut interest rates by 0.5%. Wall Street aggressively demanded the cut to stop the sub-prime mortgage contagion from triggering a credit crisis among large US and foreign investment banks and the collapse of their over-leveraged hedge funds, which ultimately threatened to drag the US economy into recession. The market rallied this week in response to the Fed's move. But there is no free lunch. [more inside]\nAustralian art student Nicholas Manion has hit upon a clever idea: delicately cut paper currency forming the skyline of major cities. Via.\nOnline coin generator. Sure, it's in German, but you can figure it out.\nBanknote art by Justine Smith. Alternating currency: by Marshall Weber, portraits in money by Mark Wagner, a Ganesh out of Rupee notes by CK Wilde (a spectacular previously). Beautiful banknotes at the World Paper Money Image Gallery. Unusual coins. Unique banknotes, like the 100 Million Dinara note from Croatia. U.S. currency and the pictures behind the portraits. Mildenberg's Dream Collection of Greek Coins at the Money Museum.\n\"I'm all outta dollars, you got any Berkshares?\" Several Great Barrington, Massachusetts businesses have developed a local currency to promote local business.\nProof that artistic inspiration can come from any walk of life, Anthony White has turned his former life as a stockbroker into inspiration for a series of Stock Code paintings. Also available - paintings depicting different values of British, American, Australian, and Euro currency.[via ArtNews Blog]\nMoneygami is origami made from U.S. currency; the subtle genius lies in the way the artist incorporates the prints on the dollar bills into the facial characteristics of the finished figures. More moneygami here. Via.\nAn online gallery of Colonial American Currency. You can browse by colony. They also have images of early lottery tickets. Plus brief and informative essays on subjects such as The Value of Money in Colonial America. You can also relive the Copper Panic of 1789-1799.\nArt Money is an alternative, worldwide currency in the form of original works of art. The Bank of International Art Money is an independent organization directed by artists and free from any form of government financing.\nEver wondered what old amounts of money would be worth today? Or what you could buy with your current salary if you went back 200, 400, or 600 years? Now you can find out with a tool that converts English currency from 1270 onwards into today's prices. Based on Treasury records, it tells you that Mr Darcy's £10,000 a year would now be worth nearly £350,000, or that your house would only have to be worth the equivalent of £500 now to qualify for the vote after 1832.\nIt's all about the Hamiltons. The new US $10 bill makes it's debut on March 2nd, 2006. How will it 'stack up' against other nations' works of art?\nA cool idea, and a fun allegory: Bird and butterfly collages made with old bank notes (two pages, horizontal scrolling). Click the images to view larger versions and see the notes that were used (scroll down). More here without the note source info.\nBuried Treasure Found In Backyard. (Google cache) \"The men were digging holes to plant trees in a friend's back yard when Crebase hit a wooden crate buried less than a foot below the surface. Inside were seven rusted cylindrical cookie tins, including one where 'National Biscuit Company,' and the word 'Ginger,' were legible through the thick rust. They flipped one of the tops, which was fastened with two hooks, and found it 'jammed' with the money.\"\nPage: 1 2"

"Pimpernelblauwtjes weer terug in Nederland?\nVlinders , Volume 6 - Issue 4 p. 18- 22\nIn August 1990 two butterfly species which have become extinct in The Netherlands, Maculinea teleius en M. nausithous, were reintroduced in a nature reserve in the province of Brabant. The author, who is engaged in this project, describes how the butterflies were collected from a stock population in southern Poland and later released in The Netherlands. Field research was done in 1990 and 1991 to see if the two species are able to establish themselves. Results showed that the population of M. teleius had increased, whereas the number of M. nausithous had decreased. The latter was thought to be due to the limited population of the host ant. Myrmica rubra, present in the nature reserve.\n|CC BY-NC 4.0 NL (\"Naamsvermelding-NietCommercieel\")|\nIrma Wynhoff. (1991). Pimpernelblauwtjes weer terug in Nederland?. Vlinders, 6(4), 18–22.\n|559193.jpg Cover Image , 17kb|"

"How did the Committee of 100 in Finland come about?\nOn 6th August 1963 around sixty young people gathered for a meeting in a snug in a place owned by Primula in the corner of Mannerheimintie and Lönnrotinkatu in Helsinki. A representative of the security police watching over the proceedings summarised the meeting in his report: “A group of pacifistic idealists holding differing political opinions who consider Bertrand Russell as their ideological role model founded an organisation called Sadankomitea (The Committee of 100) and chose Kalevi Suomela as their chair person.” The first thing that the new organisation decided to do was to order ‘magpie leg signs,’ peace symbols, from abroad as they seemed popular.\nWhy Committee of 100? There were plenty of peace organisations in Finland already. There was Rauhanliitto (the Peace Union) that had Christian inclinations and was distinctively bilingual, operating in both Finnish and Swedish. There was also Rauhanpuolustajat (the Peace Defenders) that was founded after the Second World War and leaned towards the extreme left and the World Peace Council that was directed by the Soviet Union.\nThe rising generation of the sixties felt alienated by the old organisations. They wanted their own organisation that would be clearly separated from the archaic Rauhanliitto as well as Rauhanpuolustajat that seemed communist-oriented.\nSadankomitea was born out of the concrete fear of a coming nuclear attack. Nuclear weapons had been part of the reality of international politics since the end of the Second World War and their numbers seemed to increase while the Cold War made it look like using them was not so far away. Role models for Sadankomitea were the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, an organisation founded in England in 1958, and the Committee of 100 that had separated from it for their more radical approach.\nIn the rules of Sadankomitea in Helsinki it was written that the organisation would aim at creating a permanent state of peace by, for example, opposing to rearmament, increasing public awareness of the dangers of nuclear weapons, contributing to the scientific study of peace, and supporting the disarmament of single parties.\nSadankomitea had a good start. It was the first organisation for a single cause and within a couple of years it had a sort of hegemony among the youth: it set the societal questions that others needed to find answers to.\nThe Difficult American war in Vietnam\nSadankomitea started breaking apart towards the end of the decade. The key question was the war in Vietnam. The former French colony was in the middle of a war of independence and the United States of America became involved. Many peace organisations sided with the Communist rule in Vietnam without question and were even prepared to give arms to the heroes fighting against imperialism.\nSadankomitea was divided in the question of Vietnam. The so-called ‘marchers’ wing’ wanted strong support for Vietnam while the ‘researchers’ were calling for a more analytical discussion on questions regarding the Third World. The researchers won the inner battle and thus many of the marchers moved into the ranks of Rauhanpuolustajat. The rival peace organisation looked at the Third world conflicts through the lens of Lenin’s communist theory of imperialism and accepted the armed struggles of emancipation of oppressed peoples without question.\nAlthough Sadankomitea started the Union of Sadankomitea as a national umbrella organisation for all the local cells in Finland and started publishing the ambitious Ydin (Nucleus) magazine in 1966, its popularity among the young radicals started to wane.\nIn the annual meeting of 1968 there were mere 60 people present which was the record low. According to the security police, there were “students and some artist types.” According to the observer of the security police the members of Sadankomitea had “recently become more sophisticated and but also more reserved and in their ideology moved towards some kind of scientific research phase, producing the carefully thought-through professionalism.” According to the observer this has led to the slight decline in the number of members as “advocated of pop culture keen on tumult have found other things to do.”\nSadankomitea came back to the headlines again in the late sixties. Doing the civil service at the time required processing your case in the investigative committee of the Ministry of Defence. Sadankomitea demanded the abolition of this procedure considering it senseless, and the possibility of completing an unarmed service in a task that contributes to peace, for example within the fields of development aid, peace research or social and healthcare.\nIn February 1969 Fredrick Schüller held a speech that started the so-called incitement process in the Old Student House (Vanha ylioppilastalo) in Helsinki. Within the discussion of conscientious objection he urged everyone present to decline arms regardless of the decision of the committee. In addition he made it clear what kind of a crime this instigation for conscientious objection was and even asked the representatives of the police force who were present in the meeting to report their superiors about what he had said. They did as told and Shüller was charged. There was immediately a movement to support him and to commit the same crime as he had done. A petition to decline arms was signed by over a hundred people quickly before his trial. The paper signed by prominent Finnish public figures, including Kaj Chydenius, Jörn Donner, Paavo Lipponen and Ulf Sundquist, was handed both to the media and the security police.\nShüller’s trial proceeded and in the end he was sentenced to prison for his speech at the Old Student House for over a year which was a remarkably harsh conviction. The Incitement Process produced also numerous other convictions that ranged from minor fines to over a year-long prison sentences. Among others Ilkka Taipale, a Finnish politician and pacifist, pleaded guilty openly: “I have distributed a document on the street to two unknown women who are released from military service in front of the headquarters of the Security Police before we took the list of names inside. The distribution will be testified by Erkki Tuomioja who in no way attempted to prevent my atrocious crime.” He was sentenced to prison for one year and three months and Tuomioja got a month less.\nAll in all Sadankomitea considered their cause as having made process during this campaign; the state authorities had had to yield in the face of the ridiculous trials and revise the dusty legislation. The given sentences were reversed in higher court instances and President Kekkonen pardoned the rest. Incitement to conscientious objection was no longer a crime.\nThe silent seventies and the END Movement\nThe internal quarrels of Sadankomitea in the beginning of the seventies led to serious struggles over the direction and leadership of the organisation in the annual meetings. Following some tight votes Sadankomitea remained separate from the Taistoist movement, a pro-Soviet undertaking that had spread within the organisation of Sadankomitea.\nSadankomitea stayed ‘independent’ but the activity of the organisation withered to near extinction in the seventies. The current on the left from Sadankomitea was so forceful that it had to stand aside while the anti-imperialist rhetoric of Rauhanpuolustajat found its audience in the Taistoist youth; and also near all the political parties in Finland tried to establish links with the organisation to improve their relations with the Soviet Union.\nSadankomitea remained as an independent grass-roots actor and Rauhanpuolustajat became a semi-official peace organisation that included also the Centre Party and Social Democratic Youth in its membership.\nSadankomitea managed to rise again only at the end of the seventies when the founding members first set out to save the Ydin magazine and then to revive the activities. Sadankomitea also got some external help: The European Nuclear Disarmament Movement (END) that aimed for a nuclear-free Europe made independent peace movements fashionable once again.\nThe END Movement was against the nuclear weapons of both the East and the West which suited the aims of neither the Taistoist movement nor the official Foreign Policy of Finland. Their campaign against all middle-range missiles raised awareness among the ordinary Finnish people and the demonstrations against the Euro Missiles gathered hundreds of thousands of people. Such peace marches had never been seen before.\nThe new missiles were placed in Europe against the objections. From the end of the eighties and through the whole nineties there was another downturn for the peace movement. Sadankomitea did not have to completely revise their goals like Rauhanpuolustajat did; the end of the Soviet Union marked the revision of their idea of the goal and purpose of their action. Since then Rauhanpuolustajat has been searching for new perspectives for example from within the movement critical to globalisation.\nThe economic slump in Finland in the beginning of the nineties cut the governmental support to peace organisations to a half. The state had supported peace work in the eighties and the work had been grown more professional and international, and for example literature of peace was blooming. The organisations had been highly dependent on public funding and recovering from the cuts took years. The funding has not since reached the same level although some members of Sadankomitea have reached the top positions of the Finnish state, most importantly Tarja Halonen, former President, Erkki Tuomioja, former Minister for Foreign Affairs, and Paavo Lipponen, former Prime Minister and Chair of the Parliament.\nNew Rise of the Peace Movement\nThe new rise for peace movements had already started earlier but gained momentum from the terrorist attacks in New York in September 2001. The organisations firmly condemned the attacks but soon the war in Afghanistan, oppression of human rights under the guise of the War on Terror and the new and more hegemonic direction in the foreign politics of the United States of America started to bother them. The majority of the membership could not accept the bombings in Afghanistan and in Finland there were the biggest peace marches in decades.\nIn the autumn 2002 the attack on Iraq was starting to look likely the marches continued. During the spring 2003 there were the largest peace marches since the eighties not only in Finland but all over the world. These demonstrations against war signalled the renewed need for peace organisations. Although marching is only a small part of the actual work of these organisation one could talk about a new boom. The renewed interest to the peace movement showed in the amount of new members to the organisations, in increased activities, and also amplified political power.\nSadankomitea had a significant role in the No Attack on Iraq (Ei iskua Irakiin) network that coordinated the demonstrations. For example the mass demonstration on 22nd March, 2003 was hosted by the Secretary General and the Vice Chair of Sadankomitea; over 20, 000 Finnish people took part. Within the network Sadankomitea emphasised the importance of disarmament of weapons of mass destruction and a peaceful solution to the crisis. It tried to direct the message that the network gave to the outside world into an analytical direction rather than straightforward preaching and it also tried to prevent the most aggressive outbursts of hatred towards all things American.\nQuestions of war and peace were also prominent in the general election in 2003. The demands of the network against the war in Iraq reached another level when the opposition leader Anneli Jäättenmäki of the Centre Party accused the government for siding with the USA too eagerly. The pressure from the peace movement paid out when the government condemned the attack on Iraq, if only after the start of the war. This was not an insignificant achievement because out of the five Nordic countries only Sweden did the same.\nThe popularity of the peace marches derived from the open politics of war of the USA and the Finnish disapproval of this. The political hierarchy was unclear to no one when the American President George W. Bush wanted to attack Iraq and would not allow the United Nations to solve the crisis peacefully. The claimed weapons of mass destruction were never found, the connection to the Iraqi oil supply started to look obvious and most importantly the UN Security Council did not approve of the acts of war.\nOverriding the Unites Nations gave the peace movement as well as the Finnish government a powerful political tool against the war in Iraq. It was easier for ordinary people to join in when both the UN and the government opposed to the war. The number of participants however quickly decreased as the war proceeded and the Americans achieved a military victory. The peak in the activities against the war lasted for only two months when the threat and acts of war were the main news items."

"The “Wrong Kind of Fire” Is Burning – Unprecedented Levels of High-Severity Fire Burn in Sierra Nevada\nAccording to a study conducted by the Safford Lab at the University of California, Davis and its partners, there has been a significant rise in high-severity wildfires in the Sierra Nevada and Southern Cascade forests. These fires have been burning at rates that surpass any seen prior to Euro-American settlement and have particularly skyrocketed over the past ten years.\nThe study, which was published in the journal Ecosphere, involved scientists who analyzed fire severity data from the U.S. Forest Service and Google Earth Engine. The analysis was conducted across seven major forest types.\nThey found that in low- and middle-elevation forest types, the average annual area that burned at low-to-moderate severity has decreased from more than 90 percent before 1850 to 60-70 percent today.\nAt the same time, the area burned annually at high severity has nearly quintupled, rising from less than 10% to 43% today. (High-severity burns are those where more than 95% of aboveground tree biomass is killed by fire.)\nLead author and UC Davis project scientist John N. Williams said this ratio is severely out of balance.\n“We’re seeing more ‘bad fire’ and less ‘good fire,” said Williams, who is the coordinator of the California Prescribed Fire Monitoring Program. “Any consolation we’d get from the idea that, ‘At least we’re burning more than we used to,’ isn’t really a consolation because it’s often coming in the form of the wrong kind of fire.”\nMany fire ecologists talk about the need to burn more acreage by putting “good fire” on the ground, such as through prescribed burning, while preventing “bad fire.” In forests like oak woodland, yellow pine, and mixed conifer, good fire refers to the low-to-moderate severity burning that the dominant species are adapted to. They are typically ignited by lightning or by people to enrich and restore the land. Many such fires were set by Native Americans before the mid-19th century through the practice of cultural burning.\nBefore 1850, much more land burned each year in California compared to the present day. The study indicates that the gap is beginning to close. Unfortunately, more of what is burning comprises damaging, high-severity fire.\nThat represents the most concerning result, say the authors: The average area of high-severity burning in the region is now above the best estimates of high-severity burning that took place before Euro-American settlement, even though overall burning in the modern day is still much lower.\n“At current or even projected rates of forest management by federal and state agencies, the amount of forest treated or restored is going to be a drop in the bucket compared to the need, and compared to the huge unmanaged areas that are going to burn, often at high severity,” said senior author Hugh Safford, a UC Davis fire ecologist and chief scientist of environmental public benefits corporation Vibrant Planet. “I’m not exaggerating when I say that the very existence of montane conifer forest in California is at risk, especially in the southern part of the state.”\nNine of California’s 10 biggest wildfires occurred within the past decade. The state’s record-breaking 2020 fire year –when nearly 9,900 fires burned 4.3 million acres—was the only year in which the annual area burned exceeded historical levels, but much of that burned at high severity.\nThe authors say this trend is especially concerning because most of the low- to middle-elevation forest types affected are adapted to low-to-moderate severity burning. Excessively severe fires in these forests can harm landscapes and the habitat and ecosystem services they provide.\nOther research carried out by the Safford Lab at UC Davis and its partners has shown that the negative effects of severe burning in these forest types are serious and long-lasting to biodiversity, carbon storage, soil biogeochemistry, air quality, and forest regeneration.\nThe study’s results highlight the need to better balance fire exclusion with management practices that proactively reduce forest fuels and increase resilience to climate change and other ecological disturbances.\n“We need to burn much more each year, but we want the right mix,” Williams said. “The current trend is going in the wrong direction if we want to restore forests and their natural ecological processes.”\nReference: “High-severity burned area and proportion exceed historic conditions in Sierra Nevada, California, and adjacent ranges” by J. N. Williams, H. D. Safford, N. Enstice, Z. L. Steel and A. K. Paulson, 15 January 2023, Ecosphere."

"Summary of \"The Lottery\" by Shirley Jackson\nTessie Hutchinson argues about how the lottery isn't fair and how her husband didn't have enough time to pick a piece of paper. All of the other characters in this story all play a significant role by just saying a few words and by helping throw the stones at Tessie.\nWe join them regardless of the consequences; this is very shameful and should never be done. Stone throwing has been presented as a tradition in the story. “It seems as though we sometimes condemn everyday truths that we know are characteristics of most people, including ourselves, and being afraid to admit them, place the spotlight on someone else. It is sad and definitely hypocritical, but it happens all the time. And I think Shirley Jackson makes this point without having to say a word about it. It is the thousands of readers who replied to “The Lottery”, in disapproval and horror that blindly proved Jackson’s theories valid and unknowingly portrayed themselves as not very unlike the villagers in the short story.”\nThe debates concerning the actual location of these rites prove that the line between the fiction and reality as perceived by the readers appeared to be unclear. Hypocritically concealing their fear of becoming a scapegoat, not feeling empathy with Tessie Hutchinson who becomes a victim and not having moral strength and common sense to abandon the meaningless rite, the characters of the short story have a strong resemblance to modern readers. “The contradictions of myth and ideology, the imaginary solutions to real problems, emerge in the specific rituals that ostensibly endorse the myth and ideology” (Hattenhauer 44). Thus, the plot of the short story can be regarded as the exaggerated reflection of the phenomenon of scapegoating as the imaginary solution to the real problems of the modern community.\nHattenhauer, Darryl. Shirley Jackson’s American Gothic. State University of New York Press, 2003. Print.\nJackson, Shirley. The Lottery. Mankato: Creative Education, 2008. Print.\nMurphy, Bernice. Shirley Jackson: Essays on the Literary Legacy. Jefferson: McFarland & Company Publishers. Print."

"For the background to my writing challenge, please read my first blog by clicking the following link – http://wp.me/p1x6Ui-4. If you would prefer to dive straight into note 56, then please read on…\nWhat do active and passive voices mean?\nBernard C Lamb in his book The Queen’s English, explains that in the active voice the subject is performing the action, whereas in the passive voice the subject has the action done to it.\nActive voice examples\n- The boy hits his brother\n- Tom finds his dog\n- Simon likes his new friend\n- The driver ran someone over\nPassive voice examples\n- The boy was hit by his brother\n- Tom was found by his dog\n- Simon was liked by his new friend\n- The driver was run over by someone\nExplanation and comparison\nIn the above active voice examples, the subjects (that are underlined) are performing the actions i.e. it is the boy who hits his brother, whereas in the passive voice examples, the subjects (that are underlined) are having the actions done to them i.e. it is the boy who is hit by his brother.\nHope you’ve enjoyed today’s blog and got something out of it. Remember, you can always send me requests if you have any particular writing issues that you would like me to blog about.\nThis blog: https://mywritingnotebook.wordpress.com\nMy other blog: http://sandramadeira.wordpress.com\nMy website: www.tipsandluxuries.com (includes the first chapter of my book)\nTwitter: @madeirasandra and @tipsandluxuries\nBernard C. Lamb The Queen’s English (2010), UK"