Determining the causes of impairments in the Little Scioto River, Ohio, USA: part 2.  Characterization of causes. 
Two stream reaches in the Little Scioto River (OH, USA) were characterized for the causes of impairments measured at two locations.  By inductive inference, six candidate causes were winnowed down to three and five candidate causes for each of the two stream reaches.  Using a formal strength-of-evidence process, a single cause was determined.  At the most upstream location, habitat alterations, including fine-textured substrates and low DO, were characterized as the probable causes for an increased percentage of anomalies of fish, a decreased percentage of mayflies, and an increased percentage of tolerant macroinvertebrates.  An increase in the relative weight of fish was attributed to an artificially narrow, deepened channel.  Approximately 2 km downstream, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)-contaminated sediments were identified as the cause for both fish and macroinvertebrate impairments.  Causal characterization using first elimination and then a strength-of-evidence approach narrowed and defined the causes of ecological impairment even in this situation, where many complex and interacting candidate causes existed.  Applying a formal method highlighted types of data and associations that can strengthen and present a more convincing determination of the causes of impairment.